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Imperial 

Reference Library 

Comprising 


With 

Nearly 

Four 

Thousand 

Illustrations 


A Gene ral Encyclopaedia of Literature , History, Art, Science, 
Invention and Discovery; a Pronouncing Dictiona ry of the 
English Language; a Gazett eer o f th e W orld; a Comprehensive 
Dictiona ry of Univ ersal Biography, e t c. & t? ^_^ 

EDITED BY 

PROF. CHARLES SMITH MORRIS, A. M., LL.D. 

i\ 

Of the Philadelphia Academy oi the Natural Sciences 


With the Assistance of the following 

Associate Editors and Special Contributors: 


PROF. FREDERIC A. LUCAS, M. D., Ph. D. 

Curator Department of Comparative Anatomy, U. S. 
National Museum, Washington, D. C. 

PROF. MARCUS BENJAMIN, A. M., Ph. D., F.C.S. 

Of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 

PROF. AMOS EMERSON DOLBEAR, A. M., Ph. D. 

Professor of Physics, Tuft’s College, Mass. 

PROF. LEWIS SWIFT, Ph. D., F. R. A. S. 

Director of Echo Mountain Observatory, California. 

PROF. J. MARK BALDWIN, A. M., Ph. D. 

Professor of Experimental Psychology, Princeton 
University. 

PROF. SIMON NEWCOMB, LL. D., M. N. A. S. 

Director U. S. Naval Observatory, Georgetown, D. C. 


REV. JOHN F. HURST, D. D., LL. D. 

Bishop of the M. E. Church, and Chancellor of the 
American University, Washington, D. C. 

ISIDORE DELSON 

Department of Bridges, New York 

CHARLES S. DOLLEY, A. M., M. D. 

Late Professor of Biology, University of Pennsylvania. 

REV. GEORGE T. PURVES, D. D., LL. Do 

Professor of New Testament Literature and Exegesis, 
Princeton Theological Seminary. 

PROF. DANIEL G. BRINTON, A. M., M. D. 

Of the University of Pennsylvania, and President of the 
American Association for the Advancement of Science. 

WILLIAM C. HUNT 

Chief Statistician for Population, Twelfth Census. 


ARTHUR BLES 

Officer of the French Academy. 

And more than Two Hundred Specialists in the Various Departments 


NEW YORK 

SYNDICATE PUBLISHING COMPANY 


J9I0 
















/ 


V 




K 


V 


COPYRIGHT, MDCCCXCVIII, BY f. e. wright. copyright, mdcccxcix, by F. E. WRIGHT. 

COPYRIGHT, MDCCCCI, BY F. E. WRIGHT. COPYRIGHT, MDCCCCVII, BY F. K. WRIGHT. 

COPYRIGHT, MDCC'CCX, BY F. E. WRIGHT. 





©CU256S40 


It is a trite saying that this is an age of books. To this we may add, that it is coming to be an 
age of encyclopaedias and dictionaries; of compendiums of information; of collections of digested and 
accumulated facts—information weeded and harvested, set free from the old embarrassment of words, and 
brought down to the pure essence of thoughts and things our people wish to know. They are weary 
of their old half knowledge, and are eager to have the leading facts of the world’s history at their fingers’ 
ends. And yet all clearly recognize that, in the present deluge of information, the vast expansion of 
science, history, geography, biography, philology, and the many other fields of research, it is impossible 
to obtain more than the merest shadow of knowledge by the study of original authorities; and that the 
encyclopaedic compendium has become an absolute necessity—the foundation stone of every man’s 
library—and this whether he be a scholar, a scientist, or one of the host who pretend to neither scholar¬ 
ship nor science. 

The last hundred years has been a period of s^ady discovery, invention and progress; one full 
of new situations, crowded with new events; one in which the world has moved forward at a speed never 
before dreamed of, and in which the stores of useful information have redoubled. Everywhere around us 
men stand appalled before this plethora of things desirable to know; of facts important to all and indispen¬ 
sable to those who wish to be well informed. As it is manifestly impossible to grasp all this in bulk, 
there only remains to grasp it in epitome; and the encyclopaedia is the only means by which this can be 
accomplished. The comprehensive dictionary is equally necessary, for words are as numerous as 
facts, and new words are coming into being at a surprising rate to express the new facts to which this 
fertile age is rapidly giving birth. 

Such being one of the chief needs of the American people—as of all enlightened peoples—the 
question arises: How shall it be gratified? Many efforts, more or less satisfactory, have been made with 
this end in view; so many, indeed, that it seems almost like a work of supererogation to add another to 
the list, and as if the last word in this direction had been said. Yet all these works have the serious 
defect that not one of them is up to date, and that many of their statements are so far behind the times as 
to be practically false and misleading. In this age, when the world wears seven-league boots, an interval 
of ten or twenty years has become a vast stretch of time, and information twenty years old is often worse 
than valueless, since wrong ideas are worse than no ideas. The past method of encyclopaedia-making is 
seriously vitiated with this defect. We may speak of it as the deliberate method, one in which a decade 
or more passes between the issue of the first volume and that of the last; so that which is said under A 
becomes ancient history before Z and its story see the light. In addition to this, the system of borrowing 
has ruled supreme, the old encyclopaedia serving as pabulum for the new one, so that what is offered and 
accepted as the fresh fact of to-day is too often the stale and obsolete fact of a remote yesterday. 

All this needed to be reformed ; and it is this need of a reform in method and matter which has 
brought the present publication into existence. This work is an unique one among encyclopaedias, a 
new departure from a fossilized but scarcely a time-honored method. At first thought it might seem as 
if anything new in this well-wrought field would be impossible; but the editors of this invaluable work 
hav^ achieved the supposed impossible, having accomplished the remarkable result of producing an 
encyclopaedia which from A to Z is strictly up to date. 

How has this been done? A few words will tell the story. It has been accomplished by abandon¬ 
ing the straggling old method of dragging a work of reference through a decade, and adopting the new 
and radical one of beginning and ending nearly the whole of the vast labor involved within a twelve- 
month. In short, we may truthfully say that this work is a child of the present, since though 
preparations for it were under way for a number of years, the actual and essential labor was performed 



within the period of a year. As a result, this work is, from first to last page, a product of the 
present—fresh, timely, up-to-date, teeming with new things, alive with the spirit of the age, reaching 
back into the past and looking forward into the future, written alike in the spirit of retrospect and of 
prophecy., and in the fullest sense a daily counsellor which should stand at the elbow of every man 
who wishes to keep pace with his age. 

How has this great feat been accomplished ? The question supplies its own answer. It evidently 
could have been done only by the conjoint labor of many hands and many brains, the simultaneous work 
of a host of editors, each a specialist in his peculiar field, and each amply capable of treating in their 
freshest and most comprehensive form the subjects assigned to his care. We do not propose, however, to 
offer in evidence a long list of names, being content to let the product of the labor of our co-workers speak 
for itself. The names of some editors who have handled special fields of knowledge are adduced, but 
only as examples of the class of men who have aided in our enterprise, and not with any purpose of giving 
a complete list of our editorial fraternity. 

It may be truthfully said that the present work is in the fullest sense a liberal education to all 
who possess it. It has a breadth of handling nowhere else emulated, and is intended to occupy in the 
library the space of many books. While in a full sense an Encyclopaedia, it is also a Compendium of 
History and Biography, a Dictionary of Language, and a most modern and complete Gazetteer of the 
World—a work, in brief, in which one may find all that he seeks to know. 

If information is needed on any subject of general knowledge—scientific, artistic, historical, 
biographical, mechanical, etc.—it may be found here in sufficient detail and with its latest facts. If the 
facts of geography are desired, all the countries, provinces, cities, and other divisions of the world will b© 
found sufficiently treated in this comprehensive work. If one wishes to gain some information about the 
political divisions of the United States, he will find here a complete American gazetteer, with the new r est 
facts, dates and populations. If the story of any man of note is sought for, it can be found in these pages. 
And lastly, to all this is added an unabridged dictionary of the English language—one giving and 
defining every word that the most studious reader is likely to meet with in the world of books. In truth, 
we are convinced that this publication stands alone ; that it is an unique response to a standing demand 
of the age, the demand for a work of ready reference in which the busy man can have, at his beck and 
call, facts of all sorts, kinds and descriptions—an overflowing cornucopia of knowledge. 

The successful performance of this work within the brief period devoted to it has rendered it 
necessary to adopt a special method, one indispensable under the circumstances, and without which it 
would have been impossible to carry out satisfactorily its all-embracing design. This was to divide each 
letter into two sections, one devoted to that large class of subjects which could be handled with some 
degree of deliberation and rounded off without new research, the other kept open for subjects of that kind 
which grow even as we write, and which it was necessary to leave open until the latest moment, to catch 
any new fact or event that had been discovered or taken place during the making of the work. Section 
II. also proved of high utility in keeping open a place for important matter delayed by tardy workers 
until too late for insertion in Section I., as well as for various subjects that came to hand at the last 
moment, and found only this receiver of laggard material open to accept them. 

This feature is peculiar to our present work, rendered necessary by the rapidity of our progress; 
and yet we hold it to be essential to all properly-made encyclopaedias. Such works, as produced in the old 
fashion, leave out a large number of subjects through inadvertence or oversight, and these are in conse¬ 
quence hopelessly lost, however necessary they may be, or are tacked on at the end in the palpable second 
thought of an appendix. This difficulty we have overcome by the adoption of the system above outlined, 
which has enabled us to keep each letter open until the last minute, and to get in a host of new and fresh 
material which otherwise would have been necessarily omitted. In this the convenience of the reader is 
in. no degree sacrificed, since the two Sections are so closely related that it is but a moment’s work to turn 
to the one Section for what may not be found in the other. 

In addition to the original and meritorious features named, this work possesses others of peculiar 
value, to which, though readers cannot fail to discover them for themselves, the publishers feel fully 
justified in calling attention. One of these is the geographical portion of the work, which has been 
prepared with the most studious pains, the details of American local geography having been particularly 
attended to. The result of this careful labor is that the w r ork here presented adds to its numerous 
other excellences that of being a complete Gazetteer of the World, and one brought strictly down to date. 
This is a sui generis feature of the present work, no other encyclopaedic work of reference possessing it 

(iv) 


and in itself alone is worth the full price asked, in view of the fact that it is a gazetteer of the present 
not of some remote date, as may safely be said of all the others on the market. 

In reaching the above gratifying result, time, labor and money have been freely expended, a vast 
amount of correspondence having been entered into, and special reports on population and other 
particulars obtained from all quarters of the globe. The publishers believe that they are within a safe 
limit in saying that not less than thirty thousand such reports have been received, coming from governors 
of States, mayors of cities, postmasters and other leading officials of towns and counties, foreign and 
domestic alike. It was only the earnest desire to be correct in detail and late in information that inspired 
them to this immense and onerous task, for the labor and cost of which they feel themselves amply repaid 
in the result, and in the feeling that they are enabled to offer the public a production that is simply 
unapproachable in correctness, interest and value. 

Among the most valuable characteristics of this w T ork is its Atlas, in which will be found recent 
maps of all the countries of the world, it being as voluminous and complete as any specially-prepared 
atlas on the market. As an instance of the value of these maps, as late and timely expositions of the 
world’s progress, attention may be directed to that of Panama, which shows the exact routes of the pro¬ 
posed canal and railroad, and a horizontal section of the canal. The maps of the Philippine Islands and 
Porto Rico, both of which have been prepared from the latest government surveys, and the map of Japan, 
Korea and Manchuria are also worthy of special mention. Attention is called to these as indicative of 
the value of the Atlas in general as a complete chart of the surface of the earth as it is known to-day. 

We cannot felicitate ourselves too highly on the invaluable features here briefly described, nor 
regret the expense and painstaking care with whicl% they have been prepared, in view of our 
determination to make this work a production carrying out to the fullest extent all that is implied in its 
title. To do this, much more has been performed than is here claimed. In the dictionary portion of the 
work careful heed has been paid to the subjects of pronunciation and derivation, so as to cover with 
sufficient fullness these essential elements of a modern lexicon. 

The subject of illustration is one that appeals with a strong force to modern readers, who have 
grown accustomed to trust as greatly to well-executed pictures as to written description in their effort to 
obtain a clear and satisfactory knowledge of any subject. This requisite has not only not been neglected, 
but has been abundantly provided for. In addition to the thousands of well-executed and instructive 
wood-cuts, that have been scattered with a liberal hand through the body of the work, are numerous full- 
page illustrations, some in colors, others in tinted monotone, covering in their scope hundreds of the most 
important topics treated, and adding enormously to the means here provided of obtaining an immediate 
and comprehensive grasp of the subjects involved. This superb feature of the work—for we cannot 
designate it by any less-embracing adjective—adds the artistic finish which the educated public of 
modern times demands, giving the final artist’s touch to a production replete with all that constitutes 
excellence. 

It is desired to call attention in particular to the magnificent cabinet of portraits included, being 
those of two hundred of the world’s greatest men and women in every branch of literature, science, art 
and invention, each a separate triumph of the wood-engraver’s art, and the whole amply deserving to be 
bound and sold separately as an unrivalled collection of portraits of world-renowned men and women. 

While on this subject of illustration, the publishers desire to acknowledge gratefully their 
indebtedness to Messrs. Munn & Co., of New York, publishers of the Scientific American, to whose generous 
permission they owe many illustrations of late inventions and mechanical processes, of which that journal 
is so apt, timely and intelligent a repository. 

To recapitulate, it may be safely stated that the series of volumes to which preliminary attention is 
here directed stand alone among encyclopaedic productions in point of breadth of treatment and compre¬ 
hensiveness, occupying the position among works of this kind which the university bears to the ordinary 
college. Within this ample scope are embraced an extended Dictionary of the English Language; an 
Encyclopaedia of unusual width of grasp and vigor of handling; a Gazetteer whose subjects extend from 
the post-office to the metropolis, from the township to the State and empire; an Atlas including maps of 
all countries in their latest political and geographical conditions; a Biographical Dictionary in which 
appear life-histories of people of our own day; and a Gallery of Pictorial Art in which the multitude of 
subjects treated in the work are richly and appropriately illustrated. Nothing of the kind on so generous 
a scale has ever been undertaken hitherto, and it is gratifying to feel that this ambitious attempt has been 
crowned w r ith complete success. 


(v) 


it ij not necessary to say more; but we may safely assert that we have not exhausted the subject, 
<Mid must leave it to the reader to discover for himself in the pages features of value not adverted to in 
the preface. Yet we cannot avoid speaking again, with pardonable pride, of the rapidity w r ith which a 
work of the great dimensions and broad scope of this has been completed and put on the market, of the 
timeliness of its contents from beginning to end, and of its general characteristic of immediateness —a 
result which, we may repeat, could only have been attained by the active aid of an organized army of 
learned and industrious editors. 

A preface to an encyclopaedia may seem to be scarcely necessary. Such productions in a large 
measure speak for themselves, and the intelligent reader forms his own opinion from examination and 
use. Yet those who step aside from the beaten path, for reasons of evident advantage to their patrons, are 
justified in giving these reasons, and pointing out what constitutes the newness and freshness of their 
work, and in which respect it may fairly claim superiority to its predecessors. We have stated succinctly 
what we hold to be the peculiar characteristics of this publication, feeling sure that the reader will 
recognize the merit of the new features introduced, and give us credit for catering skillfully and 
abundantly to his intellectual needs. 


INDEX TO FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. 


COLORED PLATES 


Vol. Page 

Badges and Decorations of Honor, Plates I 


and II .IV 1676 

Birds.I 348 

Ceramic and Decorative Art.II 830 

Coats of Arms of the States of the Ameri¬ 
can Union.VI 2978 

Famous Gems and Precious Stones . ... II 926 

Flags of All Nations.Ill 1194 


Vol. Pago 


Fruits and Their Blossoms.Ill 1282 

Leading Breeds of Dogs.II 558 

Marine Life. v 2476 

National Coats of Arms. I 152 

Paris Fashions from 1500 to 1900 .II 978 

Past Officers’ Jewels.V 2614 

Postage Stamps of Foreign Nations, Plates 

1 and II.VI 2858 


Vol. Pa~. 

Precious Gems as They are Found ... Ill Bid 


Races of Mankind.IV 1968 

Society Emblems.V 2276 

Standard Cattle. V 2294 

Various Breeds of Horses.Ill 1537 

Wild and Domestic Food Animals.I ID 


COLORED STATISTICAL CHARTS 


Vol. Page 

Agricultural Products of the United States 


by States.I 54 

Armies of the World by Countries - . . I 154 


Coal Product of the United States by States II 843 

Coal Product of the World by Countries . II 843 

Coffee Product of the World by Countries II 696 

Corn Product of the World bv Countries . II 757 

Cotton Product of the LTnited States by 


States.II 769 

Cotton Product of the World by Countries II 769 
Exports of the World by Countries . . . Ill 1128 


Vol. Page 

Gold Product of the World by Countries . Ill 1357 

Imports of the World by Countries . . . Ill 1128 

Iron Product of the World by Countries . IV 1661 

Money of the World—Gold.IV 2086 

Money of the World—Silver.IV 2086 

Navies of the World by Countries ... V 2181 

Oat Product of the World by Countries . V 2260 

Silver Product of the World by Countries III 1357 

Steel Product of the World by Oowatries IV 1661 

Sugar Product of the World by CoiTnlries VI 2814 

Tea Product of the World by Countries . VI 2814 


Vol. Page 

Tobacco Product of the United States by 

States.VI 2913 

Tobacco Product of the World by Countries VI 2913 

Wealth, Comparative of the United States 

by States.VI 3055 

Wealth,Comparative of theWorld byNations VI 3055 

Wheat Product of the United States by 

States.VI 3069 

Wheat Product of the World by Countries VI 3093 

Wool Product of the United States by States VI 3093 

Wool Product of the World by Countries . VI 3093 


PLATES IN MONOTONE 


Vol. Page 

Aboriginal American Architecture ... I 88 

Aeronautics.I 211 

Archaeology of the United States .... I 136 

Armor Plates, Making and Testing ... I 230 

Automobiles, Locomobiles, etc. .... I 198 

Battleships, Modern.I 496 

Bridges, Cantilever.I 514 

Bridges, Suspension.I 513 

Byzantine Architecture.I 486 

Christian Science Church.I 835 


Vol. Page 

Classical Mythology.V 2138 

Cruisers, Modern.II 858 

Domes, Modern Reuaissance.II 960 

Egyptian Antiquities.Ill 1138 

Egyptian Architecture.II 1046 

Electric Locomotives.Ill 1057 

Fowls, Breeds of American Pure-Bred . . Ill 1276 

Gothic Architecture.Ill 1364 

Grave Mounds and Ancient Tombs ... V 2152 

Grecian Antiquities.Ill 1386 


Vol Page 


Greek Architecture.. . . . Ill 1384 

Indo-Chinese Architecture.IV 1620 

Locomotives,Modern Passenger and Freight IV 1936 

Newspaper Press (Double Octuple) ... V 2446 

Pottery and Household Goods of Ancient 

Rome.V 2430 

Renaissance Architecture.V 2546 

Romanesque Architecture.V 2578 

Saracenic or Muhammadan Architecture . V 2638 

Steamship (Modern Ocean).VI 2860 


FULL PAGE PORTRAITS 


Adam*, John Quincy . . . 

Adams, Samuel. 

Addison, Joseph ..... 
Andersen, Hans Christian . 
Arago, Dominique F. . . . 
Ariosto, Lodovico ..... 
Arkwright, Sir Richard . . 
Arnold, Sir Edwin .... 
Arthur, Chester A. 

Bacon, Francis. 

Baltimore. Lord ...... 

Bancroft, George. 

Beecher, Henry Ward . . . 
Bismarck, Princeton . . . 
Blackmore, Richard D. . . 

Blaine, James G. 

Boccaccio, Giovanni .... 

Boone, Daniel.. 

Bronte, Charlotte. 

Brooks, Phillips. 

Brown, John. 

Browning, Robert. 

Bryant, William Cullen . . 
Bulwer-Lytton, Edward G. E. 

Bunyan, John. 

Burgoytte, Gen. John . . . 

Burke, Edmund. 

Burns, Robert ...... 

Burnside, Ambrose E. . . . 

Burr, Aaron E.. . 

Byron, Lord ....... 

Caesar, Julius. 

Calhoun, John C. 

Camoens, Luis de . . . . . 

Carlyle, Thomas. 

Cellini, Benvenuto .... 
Cervantes-Saavedra .... 

Chase, Salmon P. 

Chaucer, Geoffrey. 

Clay, Henry. 

Clemens. Samuel L. 

Cleveland, Grover. 

Coleridge, Samuel T. ... 


Vol. 

Page 


28 


31 


32 

. I 

104 


133 


145 


150 


231 


232 

.1 

244 


260 

. I 

264 

. I 

313 

. I 

352 

. I 

507 

. I 

508 


374 

. I 

391 


436 

. I 

517 

III 

1461 


443 

. I 

449 

. I 

462 

.1 

466 

. I 

469 

. I 

470 

. I 

474 

. I 

477 

. I 

478 

. I 

484 

. I 

528 

II 

537 

II 

549 

II 

579 

II 

606 

II 

615 

II 

632 

II 

636 

II 

676 

II 

838 

II 

841 

II 

701 


Columbus, Christopher. 

Cooper, James Fenimore. 

Corneille, Pierre. 

Cornwallis, Charles. 

Cowper, William. 

Custer, George A. ............ 

Dante-Alighieri. 

Darwin, Charles R. .. 

Davis, Jefferson... 

Davy, Sir Humphrey. 

Decatur, Stephen.. 

Defoe, Daniel. 

DeQuincy, Thomas. 

Descartes, Rene. 

Dickens, Charles. 

Douglas, Stephen A. 

Drake, Sir Francis. 

Dryden, John. 

Edison, Thomas A. 

Edward VII ... 

Eliot, George. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo ......... 

Ericsson, John. 

Farragut, David G.. 

Fenelon, Fra^ais de. 

Franklin, Benjamin. 

Fulton, Robert. 

Galileo. 

Garfield, James A. 

Garrison, William Lloyd. 

Gates, Horatio. 

Gladstone, William E. 

Goethe, Johann W. von.. . . . 

Goldsmith, Oliver. 

Grant, Ulysses S. 

Gray, Thomas ... 

Greeley, Horace. 

Hale, Nathan. 

Hamilton, Alexander .......... 

Hancock, John.. 


Vol. 

Page 

II 

710 

II 

749 

II 

759 

II 

730 

II 

778 

II 

862 

II 

874 

II 

1002 

II 

1006 

II 

881 

II 

888 

II 

897 

II 

913 

II 

917 

II 

930 

II 

968 

II 

973 

II 

986 

III 

1130 

II 

1043 

11 

855 

III 

1079 

III 

1104 

III 

11C2 

III 

1173 

III 

1234 

III 

1255 

III 

1283 

III 

1299 

III 

1303 

III 

1309 

III 

1341 

III 

1355 

III 

1359 

III 

1374 

III 

1380 

III 

1389 

III 

1440 

III 

1446 

III 

1450 




Page 

Harrison, Benjamin. 


1462 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel .... 


1471 

Hayes, Rutherford B. . . , . 


1581 

Henry, Patrick. 


1492 

Herder, Johann G. von 

.hi 

1498 

Herrick, Robert.. 

.hi 

1502 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell . . . 

.hi 

1525 

Houston, Sam. 

.in 

1545 

Hugo, Victor. 


1550 

Humboldt, Alexander von . . 

. . . . HI 

1554 

Huxley, Thomas H. 


1594 

Irving, Washington. 


1665 

Jackson, Andrew. 

.IV 

1688 

Jay, John. 

.IV 

1701 

Jefferson, Thomas ...... 


1702 

Jeffreys, Lord. 

.IV 

1705 

Johnson, Samuel. 

.IV 

1716 

Johnston, Albert Sydney . . 

.IV 

1719 

Johnston, Joseph E. 

.IV 

1720 

Jones, John Paul. 

.IV 

1723 

Jonson, Ben. 

.IV 

1724 

Kant, Immanuel. 

.IV 

1746 

Keats, John . 

.IV 

1750 

Klopstock, Friedrich .... 

.IV 

1763 

Knox, Henry. 


1767 

Lafayette, Marquis de . . . . 


1789 

Lamb, Charles. 


1795 

Landor, Walter Savage . . . 

.IV 

1803 

Lee, Robert E. 


1831 

Lessing, Gotthold E. 

.IV 

1845 

Lincoln, Abraham. 

.IV 

1865 

Linnaeus, Charles. 

.IV 

1870 

Longfellow, Henry W. . . . 


1892 

Lowell, James Russell .... 


1905 

MacClellan, George B. 


1944 

Macaulay, Thomas B. 


1943 

McKinley, William, Jr. . . . 


2160 

Madison, James. 


1951 

Manning, James E. . . . . . 


2144 














































































































































































FULL-PAGE PORTRAITS—CONTINUED. 


Vol. Pago 

Marshall, John ..IY 1990 

Meade, George G.IV 2010 

Michael-Angelo ........... ..IV 2044 

Mill, John Stuart.V 2157 

Milton, Jolrn ......... ..... IV 2058 

Moliore . IV 2082 

Monroe, James. IV 2092 

Montagu, Mary Wortley.IV 2095 

Montaigne, Michel .. ..IV 2090 

Moore, Thomas ............. IV 2104 

Morgan, John Pierpont. V 2163 

Motley, John L. V 2117 

Newman, John Henry.. . V 2201 

Newton, Sir Isaac ............ V 2206 

Nightingale, Florence.V 2245 

Oglethorpe, James Edward ....... V 2261 

Palissy, Bernard .V 2313 

Parkman, Francis.V 2328 

Pascal, Blaise .............. V 2334 

Perry, Oliver Hazard .......... V 2359 

Pestalozzi, Johann H.V 2484 

Petrarch, Francesco.V 2367 

Philip, King. V 2375 

Pierce, Franklin ............ V 2385 

Pocahontas ............... V 2407 

Poe, Edgar Allan ............ V 2408 



Vol. 

Page 

Polk, James Knox. 

. . V 

2413 

Pope, Alexander .......... 

. . V 

2420 

Putnam, Israel .. 

. . v 

2471 

Rabelais, Francois. 

. . V 

2512 

Raleigh, Sir Walter. 

. . V 

2520 

Roosevelt, Theodore. 

. . V 

2613 

Rousseau, Joan J. . ••••••••« 

. . v 

2589 

Buskin, John ••••••••••* • • 

. . V 

2597 

Sand, George.. 

. . v 

2630 

Santa Anna, Gen. .. 

. . V 

2635 

Schiller, Friedrich von ....... 


2650 

Schopenhauer, Arthur ........ 

. . VI 

2654 

Scott, Sir Walter.. 


2661 

Scott, Winfield .. 


2662 

Seward, William H . 


2089 

Shelley, Percy B. 

. . VI 

2698 

Sheridan, Philip H. ......... 


2701 

Sherman, William T. .. 


2702 

Sidney, Sir Philip .. 


2710 

Southey, Robert .. 


2789 

Spencer, Herbert .......... 


2855 

Spenser, Edmund .......... 


2758 

Spinoza, Benedict .......... 


2767 

Steele, Richard ........... 


2785 

Stephens, Alexander H. ...... . 


2786 

Stephenson, George ......... 


2789 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher ....... 


2798 

Stuyvesant, Peter .....••••• 


2806 


Vol. Page 

Sumner, Charles.VI 2819 

Swift, Jonathan.VI 2830 

Taft, William H.VI 2950 

Tasso, Torquato .......... ... VI 2874 

Taylor, Zachary. VI 287« 

Tennyson, Alfred ..VI 2887 

Thackeray, William ML.......... VI 2893 

Thomas, George H. VI 2902 

Thomson, Sir William (Lord Kelvin) . . . VI 2957 

Thoreau, Henry D. ...........VI 2961 

Tyler, John.. . . VI 2946 

Tyndall, John ..VI 2967 

Uhland, Ludwig.VI 2992 

Voltaire, Francois M. A.VI 3023 

Wagner, Richard. VI 3033 

Washington, George.VI 3041 

Washington, Martha ..VI 3045 

Watt, James ..............VI 3051 

Webster, Daniel ....... VI 3057 

Wesley, John VI 3063 

Whitney, Eli , VI 3073 

Whittier, John G............. VI 3074 

Wieland, Christoph M. ......... VI 3078 

Wilberforce, William .VI 3112 

William II .VI 3114 

Wiuthrop, John , ............ VI 3110 

Wolfe, James .............. VI 3090 

Wordsworth, William •••••.....VI 3095 

Wycliffe,John ••••••••••.•.VI 3101 


COLORED MAPS. 


Abyssinia. 

Afghanistan .... 

Africa. 

Alabama. 

Alaska. 

Algeria. 

Anam. 

Andorra ...... 

Angola. 

Arabia ....... 

Argentina. 

Arizona. 

Arkansas. 

Asia . 

Australia. 

Austria-Hungary . . 
Azores Islands . . . 

Baluchistan .... 

Belgium. 

Belize ....... 

Bhutan.. 

Bokhara. 

Bolivia ....... 

Borneo.. 

Brazil. 

Bulgaria ...... 

Burma. 

California. 

Cambodia ..... 
Canada, Dominion of 
Canary Islands . . . 
Cape of Good Hope . 
Central America . . 

Ceylon. 

Chile .. 

China. 

Columbia ...... 

Colorado ....... 

Connecticut.^. . . . 

Costa Rica. 

Cuba. 

Curacao.. 

Dahomey ...... 

Delaware. 

Denmark. 

East Africa, British . 
East Africa, German . 
East Africa, Portugese 
Eastern Roumelia. 

Ecuador . 

Egypt. 

England ....... 

Erythrea ...... 

Europe.. 

Florida. . 

France.. 

Georgia. . , 

Germany . 

Gold Coast. 

Greece. . , 

Guatemala. 

Guiana, British . . . . 
Guiana, Dutch . . . . 
Guiana, French . . . . 
Guinea, French . . . . 


Vol. 

Page 


46 


166 


46 


60 


62 


46 

. . I 

166 

. Ill 

1118 

. . I 

46 

. . I 

46 


90 

. . I 

148 


150 

. . I 

166 

. . I 

196 

. Ill 

1118 


46 


166 

. Ill 

1118 

, II 

610 


166 


166 


90 

V 

2254 


90 

, III 

1118 


166 

, II 

540 

, I 

166 

II 

554 


46 


46 

, II 

610 

. I 

166 


90 


166 


90 

II 

706 

, II 

732 

, ir 

610 

, ii 

798 


90 


46 

, ii 

900 

in 

1118 


46 


46 


46 

hi 

1118 


90 


46 

nr 

1086 

i 

46 

hi 

1118 

hi 

1204 

hi 

1299 

hi 

1324 

hi 

1328 

i 

46 

in 

1118 

ii 

610 

i 

90 

. i 

90 


90 


46 


Haiti. 

Hawaii. 

Honduras..... 

Idaho . 

Illinois.. 

India. 

Indiana. 

Iowa . 

Ireland.. 

Italy .. 

Ivory Coast.... 

Jamaica. 

Japan . 

Java.. 

Kamerun ..... 

Kansas . 

Kentucky. 

Kongo, French . . 
Kongo State . . . 
Korea.. , 

Liberia.. , 

Louisiana...... 

Madagascar. ... 
Madeira ...... 

Maine. 

Malta. 

Manchuria . . . . . 

Maryland. 

Massachusetts . . . 

Mexico . 

Michigan . ... . 

Minnesota . . . , 

Mississippi . ... . 
Missouri ...... 

Montana . . . . . 

Montenegro . . . . 

Morocco ...••< 

Natal ..•••.. 
Nebraska . ... . 
Nepal ...... 

Netherlands . . . , 
Nevada . . ... . 

Newfoundland . . . 
New Guinea . . . . 
New Hampshire . . 
New Jersey . . . . 
New Mexico . . . . 

New York. 

New Zealand . . . . 
Nicaragua . . . . . 

Nigeria. 

North America . . . 
North Carolina . . , 
North Dakota . . . 

Norway. 

Nubia.. 

Oceania ...... 

Ohio ........ 

Oklahoma. 

Oman . . . 

Orange River Colony 
Oregon. 


Vol. 

Page 


90 

. Ill 

1578 

. II 

610 

. IV 

1600 

IV 

1604 

. . I 

166 

. IV 

1622 

. IV 

1654 

IV 

1658 

. Ill 

1118 


46 

. II 

610 

ITT 

1696 

, V 

2254 


46 

IV 

1744 

IV 

1764 


46 


46 

IV 

1696 


46 

IV 

1902 


46 


46 

IV 

1960 

III 

1118 

IV 

1696 

IV 

1994 

IV 

2000 

IV 

2042 

IV 

2046 

IV 

2064 

IV 

2072 

IV 

2074 

IV 

2098 

III 

1118 


46 

I 

46 

V 

2182 

I 

166 

III 

1118 

V 

2194 

II 

654 

V 

2254 

V 

2196 

V 

2198 

V 

2202 

V 

2208 

V 

2254 

II 

610 


40 


90 

V 

2226 

V 

2243 

III 

1118 

I 

46 

V 

2254 

V 

2262 

V 

2298 

I 

166 

1 

46 

V 

2278 


Pacific Ocean ....... 

Panama.. . . . 

Paraguay ......... 

Pennsylvania. 

Persia.. . 

Peru.. 

Philippine Islands .... 
Polar Regions ...... 

Portland Harbor. 

Porto Rico. 

Portugal. 

Reunion. 

Rhode Island. 

Rhodesia. 

River Systems of the World 

Roumania. 

Russia. 

Russia in Asia. 

Saint Thomas ...... 

Salvador ......... 

Santo Domingo. 

Scotland ......... 

Senegal ......... 

Servia.. 

Siam.. 

Sierra Leone ....... 

South America ...... 

South Carolina ...... 

South Dakota ...... 

Southwest Africa, German 

Spain . 

Straits Settlements .... 

Sumatra ......... 

Sweden ........ 

Switzerland ....... 


Tennessee ........ 

Texas . ........ 

Togoland ......... 

Tonkin.. . . . 

Transvaal Colony. 

Trinidad.. . . . 

Tripoli. 

Tunis .. •••.. 

Turkey.. 

Turkey In Asia...... 


United States 
Uruguay . . 
Utah .... 


Venezuela 
Vermont . 
Virginia . 


Wales.• • . . . 

Washington ........ 

West Indies. 

West Virginia ...... 

Wisconsin. 

World, Mercator’s Projection 
Wyoming. 


Vol 

Page 


2254 


2478 


90 


2352 


166 


90 


2374 


2492 


1960 

. V 

2424 

. Ill 

1118 


3096 

. V 

2562 

. I 

46 

. V 

2572 


1118 


2599 

. I 

166 


90 


610 


90 


2658 


46 


1118 


166 


46 


90 


2746 


2852 


46 

. Ill 

1118 


2254 


2254 


1118 


1118 


2884 


2890 


46 


166 

. .1 

46 


90 


4(i 


46 


1118 


166 



2980 


96 


2988 



90 


3006 

. VI 

3016 



1086 


3044 

. I 

90 


3068 


3086 


3096 

. VI 

3100 





































































































































































































































































SIMPLIFIED SPELLING 

TWENTY CLASSES AND THREE HUNDRED WORDS 


The Simplified Spelling Board, in Circular No. 2, issued March 21, 1906, mentions twenty distinguish¬ 
able classes of words, and includes a list of three hundred common words spelled in two ways, of which the 
Board says : “choose the simpler spelling.’’ 

The twenty distinguishable classes of words, arranged in the alphabetical order of the letters or affixes 
affected, are as follows : 

1. Words spelled with ae, ae or e. Rule: choose e. Ex.: Anesthetic, esthetic, medieval, etc. 

2. Words spelled with-dge-ment or -dg-ment. Rule: Omit e. Ex.: Abridgment, acknowledgment,judgment, lodgment. 

3. Words spelled with -ed or -t, the preceding single consonant being doubled before -ed (- pped , -ssed) and left single 
before -t {-pi, -st). Rule: Choose -t in all cases. Ex.: dipt, dript, dropt, slept, stopt, etc., blest, prest, distrest, mist, etc., blusht, 
husht, washt, etc. 

(Forms like these, being inflections, are commonly omitted in^tlie dictionary lists of words spelled in two or more ways, but 
they are genuine historical spellings and can not be ignored. Some are very ancient (for example, hist is Anglo-Saxon cyste, and 
mist is Anglo Saxon tniste), and all are frequent and normal in English literature from Spenser, Shakespeare, and Milton to Tennyson 
and Lowell. For example, Milton has compast, languisht, vanquisht, admonisht, astonisht, diminish/, polisht, worshipt, sup/, ceast , 
linkt, matcht, scorcht, etc.— Simplified Spelling Board.) 

4. Words spelled with -ence or -ense (Latin -ens-a). Rule : Choose -ense. Ex.: Defense, offense, pretense. 

5. Words spelled with -ette or -et. Rule : Omit -te. Ex.: Coquet, epaulet, etiqnet, omelet, etc. 

6. Words spelled with gh or f. Rule : Choose f. Ex.: Draft. 

7. Words spelled with -gh or without, (i) -ough or -ow. Rule: Choose -ow. Ex.: Plow. (2) -ough. or -o. Rule: 

Choose -o. Ex.: Aliho (Bun} an), tho (Bunvan), thoro, -boro (in place names). 

S. Words with the verb suffix, of Greek origin, spelled-ise or-ize. Rule: Choose -ize. Ex.: Catechize, criticize, exorcize, 
legalize, etc 

9. Words spelled with-ite or-it. Rule: Omit e. Ex.: Deposit, preterit. 

10. Words spelled with -11 or -1 (-ill or -il). Rule : Choose - 1 . Ex : Distil fulfil, instil. 

11. Words spelled with- 11 -ness or-l-ness. Rule : Omit one 1 . Ex.: Dulness, fulness. 

12. Words spelled with -mme or -m. Rule : Omit-me. Ex.: Gram, program. 

13. Words spelled with oe, oe or e. Rule: Choose e. Ex.: Ecumenical, esophagus. 

14. Words spelled with -our or -or. Rule : Choose -or. Ex.: Favor,fervor,flavor, honor, labor, rigor, rumor, tenor , tumor , 
valor, vapor, vigor. 

15. Words spelled with ph or f. Rule: Choose f. Ex.: Fantasm, fantasy, faniom, sulfate, sulfur. 

16. Words spelled with-rr or -r. Rule: Omit one r. Ex.: Bur, pur. 

17. Words spelled with-re or-er. Rule: Choose-er. Ex.: Center, meter, miter, niter, sepulcher, theater. 

18 Words spelled with s or z (in the root). Rule : Choose z. Ex.: Apprize, assize, comprize, raze, surprize, teazel. 

19. Words spelled wil h s- or sc-. Rule : Omit c. Ex.: Simitar, sit he. 

20. 'Words spelled with or without silent -ue. Rule: Omit -ue. Ex.: Catalog, decalog, demagog, pedagog, prolog. 


The three hundred common words spelled in two ways, arranged in alphabetical order, are as follows 
SIMPLER (New) 


abridgment 
accouter 
accurst 

acknowledgment 
a«ltl rest 
adz 
affix t 
al-ttio 
anapest 
anemia 
anesthesia 
anesthetic 
an ti pyrin 
an titoxin 
apotlient 
a |> prize 
arbor 
archeology 
ardor 
armor 
artisan 


OLD 

SIMPLER (New) 

OLD 

SIMPLER (New) 

OLD 

abridgement 

assize 

assise 

chimera 

chimaera, chimsera 

accon ire 

ax 

axe 

civilize 

civilise 

accursed 

bans 

banns 

clamor 

clamour 

acknowledgement 

bark 

barque 

clangor 

clangour 

addressed 

behavior 

behaviour 

clapt 

clapped 

adze 

blest 

blessed 

claspt 

clasped 

affixed 

blusht 

blushed 

dipt 

clipped 

although 

brazen 

brasen 

clue 

cle w 

anapaest, anapjrst 

brazier 

brasier 

coeval 

coaeval, coseval 

anaemia, amentia 

bun 

burnt 

color 

colour 

anaesthesia, ances- 

bur 

burr 

colter 

coal ter 

anaesthetic, antes- 

caliber 

calibre 

commixt 

commixed 

ant ipy rine 

caliper 

calliper 

com prest 

compressed 

antitoxiiie 

candor 

candour 

com prize 

comp rise 

apothegm, npoplith- 

carest 

caressed 

confest 

confessed 

apprise 

catalog 

eatalogne 

controller 

comptroller 

arbour 

catechize 

catechise 

coquet 

coqu ette 

archaeology, archseo- 

center 

centre 

crilicizc 

criti cise 

ardour 

chapt 

chapped 

cropt 

cropped 

armour 

check 

cheque 

erost 

crossed 

artisan 

checker 

chequer 

crustiC 

crushed 






SIMPLER (New) OLD 


•sae 

queue 

curst 

cursed 

CUtlHI 

cutluss 

cyclopedia 

cyclopaedia, cyclopie- 

dactyl 

dactyle 

dasbt 

dashed 

deralog 

decalogue 

defense 

defence 

demaKOK 

demagogue 

demeanor 

demeanour 

deposit 

deposite 

depresi 

depressed 

develop 

develope 

dieresls 

diaeresis diteresls 

dike 

dyke 

dipt 

dipped 

discust 

discussed 

dispatch 

despatch 

distil 

distill 

distrest 

distressed 

uolor 

dolour 

domicil 

domicile 

draft 

draught 

dram 

drachm 

drest 

dressed 

dript 

dripped 

droopt 

drooped 

dropt 

dropped 

dnlness 

dullness 

ecumenical 

oecumenical, ceeu- 

edile 

aedile. tedile 

ejis 

aegis, icgis 

enamor 

enamour 

ency eloped la 

encyclopaedla,-ptedia 

endeavor 

endeavour 

envelop 

envelope 

Eolian 

Aeolian. iEolian 

eon 

aeon, icon 

epaulet 

epaulette 

epouym 

eponyme 

era 

aera, sera 

esophagus 

oesophagus, eesoph- 

esthetic 

aesthetic, aesthetic 

esthetics 

aesthetics, aesthetics 

estivate 

aestivate, aestivate 

ether 

aether, aether 

etiology 

aetiology, aetiology 

exorcize 

exoreise 

exprest 

expressed 

fagot 

faggot 

fantasm 

phantasm 

fantasy 

phantasy 

fan tom 

phantom 

favor 

favour 

favorite 

favourite 

fervor 

fervour 

liber 

fibre 

fixt 

fixed 

flavor 

flavour 

fulfil 

fulfill 

fulness 

fullness 

gage 

gauge 

gazel 

gazelle 

gelatin 

gelatine 

gild 

guild 

gipsy 

gypsy 

gloze 

glose 

glycerin 

glycerine 

good-by 

good-bye 

gram 

gramme 

gript 

gripped 

harbor 

harbour 

harken 

hearken 

heapt 

heaped 

bematin 

haematiUj hsematin 

hiccup 

hiccough 

hock 

hough 

homeopathy 

homoeopathy, bomce- 

homonym 

hoinonyine 


SIMPLER (New) 

OLD 

bonor 

honour 

humor 

humour 

Hiu slit 

hushed 

hypotenuse 

hypotbenuse 

Idolize 

idolise 

imprest 

impressed 

instil 

instill 

jail 

jjudgment 

gaol 

Judgement 

hist 

kisseu 

labor 

labour 

lacrimal 

lachrymal 

lapt 

lapped 

lasht 

lashed 

leapt 

leaped 

legalize 

legalise 

license 

licence 

licorice 

liquorice 

liter 

litre 

lodgment 

lodgement 

lookt 

looked 

lopt 

lopped 

luster 

lustre 

mama 

mamma 

maneuver 

manoeuver, -oeuvre 

materialize 

materialise 

meager 

meagre 

medieval 

mediaeval, mediaeval 

meter 

metre 

mist 

missed 

miter 

mitre 

mixt 

mixed 

mold 

mould 

molder 

moulder 

molding 

moulding 

moldy 

mouldy 

molt 

moult 

mullen 

m ullein 

naturalize 

naturalise 

neighbor 

neighbour 

niter 

nitre 

nipt 

nipped 

ocher 

ochre 

odor 

odour 

offense 

offence 

omelet 

omelette 

opprest 

oppressed 

orthopedic 

orthopaedic, -ptedic 

paleography 

palaeography, paheo- 

paleolithic' 

palaeolithie. palieo- 

paleontology 

palaeontology, palse- 

paleozoic 

palaeozoic, palaeozoic 

paraffin 

paraffine 

parlor 

parlour 

partizan 

partisan 

past 

passed 

patronize 

patronise 

pedngog 

pedagogue, pteda- 

pedobaptist 

paedo baptist, pa-do- 

plienix 

phoenix, phoenix 

phenomenon 

pbaenomenon. phsen- 

pigmy 

pygmy 

plow 

plough 

polyp 

polype 

possest 

possessed 

practise, v. and n 

practice 

prefixt 

prefixed 

prenomen 

praenomen, prseno- 

prest 

pressed 

pretense 

pretence 

preterit 

preterite, praeterite 

pretermit 

praetermit. prseter- 

primeval 

primaeval, primaeval 

protest 

professed 

program 

programme 

prolog 

prologue 

propt 

propped 

pur 

purr 

quartet 

quartette 


SIMPLER (New) OLD 


questor 

quaestor, quaestor 

quintet 

quintette 

rancor 

rancour 

rapt 

rap ped 

raze 

rase 

recognize 

recognise 

reconnoiter 

reconnoitre 

rigor 

rigour 

rime 

rhy me 

ript 

ripped 

rumor 

rumour 

saiber 

saibre 

saltpeter 

saltpetre 

savior 

saviour 

savor 

savour 

scepter 

sceptre 

septet 

septette 

sepulcher 

sepu Icbre 

sextet 

sextette 

silvan 

sylvan 

simitar 

scimitar, cimeter, etc 

sipt 

sipped 

sithe 

scythe 

skilful 

skillful 

skipt 

skip ped 

slip! 

slipped 

smolder 

smo older 

snapt 

snapped 

som her 

som bre 

specter 

spec tre 

splendor 

splendour 

stedfast 

steadfast 

slept 

step ped 

stopt 

stop ped 

strest 

stressed 

stript 

stri p ped 

subpena 

subpoena, subpoena 

succor 

succour 

suflixt 

sufli xed 

sulfate 

snip hate 

sulfur 

sulphur 

sumac 

sum aeh 

snpprest 

suppressed 

surprize 

stir p rise 

synonym 

synony me 

tabor 

labour 

ta pt 

tapped 

teazel 

teasel, teasle, teazle 

tenor 

tenour 

tbeaiter 

picatre 

tho 

though, tho 4 

thoro 

thorough, thoro' 

thorofare 

tlioro ughfare 

thoroly 

thoro itghly- 

thru 

through, thro ,thro 

thruout 

throughout 

ti.pt 

tipped 

topt 

top ped 

tost 

toss cd 

transgrest 

tran sgresseu 

trapt 

trap ped 

tript 

tripped 

tumor 

turn our 

valor 

valo nr 

vapor 

vapour 

vext 

vex ed 

viator 

vigour 

vizor 

visor 

wagon 

waggon 

washt 

washed 

whipt 

whi pped. 

whisky 

whiskey 

wilful 

willful 

win kt 

u in bed. 

wisht 

wished 

wo 

woe 

woful 

woeful 

wooleu 

woollen 

wrap* 

w rapped 




A Modern 

REFERENCE RIBRARY 


> 


Encyclopaedia, Dictionary, Gazetteer 


and Atlas of the World 


AALl 


A. 

AARG 


A The first letter of the alphabet in almost every 
known language. This, doubtless, is owing to the 
• great simplicity of its sound, it being the letter 
which is most easily and naturally uttered by the organs 
of speech. Its pronunciation is more uniform in other 
languages than in English, where it has at least 4 dis¬ 
tinct sounds, known as the long or slender, the broad, 
the short or open, and the middle as in name, call, man, 
father. In Grammar, A is styled the indefinite article, 
and denotes one or any; as, a man. As an abbrevia¬ 
tion, or symbol, it has been largely used from the 
earliest times. In Music, A is the nominal of the 6th 
note in the gamut; it is also the name of one of the 
two natural moods, and is the open note of the 2d 
string of the violin, by which the other strings are 
tuued and regulated. In Logic, A denotes a universal 
affirmative proposition; and in Algebra, a, b, c are used 
to represent known quantities, while the last letters, 
x, y, z, are generally taken to denote unknown quanti¬ 
ties. As a numeral, a', among the Greeks, denoted 1; 
and with a mark under it, 1000. With the Romans, 
A signified 500; and with a short horizontal line over 
it, 5000. In trials of criminal causes among the 
Romans, .4 signified absolvo, I acquit; and was hence 
called litera salutaris, the saving letter. When put to 
bills of exchange in England, A signifies accepted. 
A 1 is a symbol by which first-class vessels—that is to 
say, vessels whose hull and equipments are in an effi¬ 
cient condition—are known and registered at Lloyd’s 
for a certain number of years after being built. AAA, 
in Chemistry, signifies amalgama, to mix ; and in Phar¬ 
macy, a, or da, denotes that the proportions of the 
ingredients to which it refers are to be equal. A . B. 
stand for Artium Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Arts; A. C. 
for Ante Christum, before Christ; A M. for anno mundi, 
in the year of the world, and for ante meridiem, before 
noon ; for Artium Magister, Master of Arts, &c. 

,4.si, [Teut. aa, flowing water.] The name of several 
small rivers in Central and Northern Europe, 
fal' bors?, a city and seaport of Denmark, in Jutland, 
on the Lymfiord, near its mouth in the Cattegat; lat. 
57 ° 2' N., Ion. 90° 55' E. It is the capital of a district 
of the same name. Pop. (1890), 19,503. 

Aa'len, a town of Wiirtemburg, on the Kocher, 40 m. 
E. of Stuttgart. Pop. 7,155. 

Aa'li Pasha (Mahomed Emin), a Turkish diplomat 
and statesman, B. at Constantinople, 1815, became in 


1857 Grand Vizier; signed the treaty of Paris, 1856; and 
was Regent of the Ottoman Empire in 1867. D. 1871. 

Aal'ten, a towu of Holland, province Gelderland, on 
the Aa, 20 m. E. of Arnhem. Pop. 6,084. 

Aam, a measure of liquids among the Dutch, varying 
in different places from 35 to 41 English gallons. 

Aar, the most considerable river in Switzerland, after 
the Rhine and Rhone. It forms at Handeck, in the 
valley of Hasli, a magnificent waterfall of above 150 
feet in height, and empties into the Rhine, opposite 
Waldshut, after a course of about 170 miles. 

Aar'au, the chief city of the canton of Aargau, Switzer¬ 
land, situate on the river Aar, at the south base of the 
Jura. Pop. 5,449, chiefly Protestants. Lat. 47° 23' 35" 
N., Lon. 5° 2'55" E. The famous baths of Schintznach 
are about 10 miles distant. 

Aartl'-vark. [Du. earth-pig.] (Zool.) The Orycteropus 
Capensis, an insectivorous animal which partakes of the 
nature both of the Ant-eater and the Armadillo; agree¬ 
ing with the former in its general habits, but, although 
entirely destitute of scaly armor, more resembling the 
latter as to its anatomical structure. The A.-V. measures 
about 5 feet to the end of the tail; its skin is thick, 
coarse, and covered with stiff hair; the limbs short, 
thick, and very muscular. This animal is very common 



Fig. 1. —AABD-VARK. 

in Cape Colony, and has received its popular name from 
its habit of burrowing (which its taper head and power¬ 
ful claws are admirably adapted for), as well as from its 
fancied resemblance to a small pig. 


Aarel'-wolf. [Du. earth-wolf.] (Zobl.) The Protein £& 
landii, a singular carnivorous animal, first brought fron) 
S. Africa by the traveler Delalande. It forms the coni 
necting link between three genera widely separated 
from each other, having externally the appearance and 
bone-structure of the hyasna united to the head and 
feet of the fox, with the intestines of the civet. Its size 
is about that of a full-grown fox, which it resembles In 
both its habits and manners, being nocturnal, and con* 
structing a subterraneous abode. 



Fig. 2.—AARD-WOLF. 

Aar'gan, or Argovia, one of the cantons of Switzer¬ 
land, bounded on the north by the river Rhine, on the 
east by Zurich and Zug, on the south by Lucerne and 
Berne, and on the west by Soleure and Basle. Area, 603 
square miles of well cultivated soil and extensive vine¬ 
yards. Pop. 201,567, more than half of whom are Protes¬ 
tants. This is oue of the cantons most distinguished 
for industry and generally diffused prosperity; owing 
chiefly to the union of pastoral with mechanical pur¬ 
suits. German is the language almost universally 
spoken. A. is the least mountainous canton of Switzer¬ 
land, the surface of the country is beautifully diversified, 
and the climate is milder than most parts of Switzer¬ 
land. Until 1798, A. formed part of the canton of Bern*. 
Education is compulsory, but the law is not always 
strictly enforced- 













8 


ABAC 


ABAN 


ABAT 


Aai'Iiiiiis. one of the districts (stifts) into which Den¬ 
mark is divided. It embraces the most eastern part of the 
peninsula of Jutland, and is divided into two bailiwicks, 
Aarhuus and Itanders. Area, 1,821 sq. m.; pop. 323,480) 
chiefly occupied in the fisheries, and the females in 
spinning. 

Aarhuu«, a city, the capital of the bailiwick of the 
same name. It is situated on the Cattegat. Lat. 56° 9' 
35" N., loug. 10° 8' E. Pop. (1890) 33,300. The harbor, 
is small, but good and secure. 

AarlanderVeen, a town of the Netherlands, 17 miles 
S. of Haarlem. Pop. 2,688. 

Aar'on, son of Amram (tribe of Levi), elder brother of 
Moses, and divinely appointed to be his spokesman in 
the embassy to the court of Pharaoh. By the same 
authority, avouched in the budding of his rod, he was 
chosen the first high priest. He was recreant to his 
trust in the absence of Moses upon the mount, and made 
the golden calf for the people to worship. He died on 
Mount Hor in the 123d year of his age, and the high- 
priesthood descended to his third son Eleazar. 

( Aaron's rod,) in Arch., is a rod like that of Mercury, 
but with only oue serpent, instead of two, twined around it. 
Aaron, Hill of, [Arab. Jebel Haroun.] A lofty moun¬ 
tain range of Arabia Petrae, in the district of Sherah or 
Seir, 15 miles S.W. of Shobek. On its highest pinnacle — 
called by the Arabs Ne.bi Haroun — is a small building 
supposed by the natives to enclose the tomb of Aaron; 
and there seems no reason to doubt that this is the 
Uir mentioned in Num. xxxiii. 
Aar'on’gReard, (Bob) A popular name for a number 
of plants. 

Aar'sens, Frans von, a Dutch diplomatist, b. 1572, con¬ 
tributed much to the death of Barneveldt. D. 1641. 
Aas'var, a group of small islands, abt. 13 m. from the 
N. Norwegian coast, forming part of prov. Nordland. 
Aat'yl, a town of Syria, 54 miles S.S.E. of Damascus, 
chiefly inhabited by Druses. 

Aav'ora, n. (Bob) The fruit of a species of palm-tree, 
which grows in the West Indies and Africa. It is of the 
size of a hen’s egg, and included with several others in a 
large shell. In the middle of the fruit there is a hard 
nut, about the size of a peach-stone, which contains a 
white almond, very astringent. 

Ab, a prefix to words of Latin origin. It signifies from , 
a separating or departure. 

Ab, the eleventh month of the civil year of the Hebrews, 
and the fifth of their ecclesiastical year, which begins 
with the month Nisan. It answers to the moon of 
July, that is, to part of our month of July and to the 
beginning of August; it consists of thirty days. 

Aba, or rather Abou Haniiah or Hanfa, sur- 
named Alnootna, born in the 80th and died in the 150 year 
of the Hegira. He is the most celebrated doctor of the 
orthodox Mussulmans, and his sect is the most esteemed 
of the four which they severally follow. 

Aba, Albou, or Avon, a king of Hungary, elected in 
1041; was murdered by his own soldiers in 1044. 

Aba, a mountain in Armenia, part of Mount Taurus, 
where the famous rivers Araxes and Euphrates have 
their rise. 

Ab'abile, a tribe of Bedouins who inhabit the country 
south of Kosseir, nearly as far as the latitude of Derr. 
Many of this race have settled in Upper Egypt, but the 
greatest part of them still live like Bedouins. Their 
savage neighbors, the Bisharye, inhabit the mountains 
southwards from Derr. Their women are said to be as 
handsome as those of Abyssinia, but are reported to be 
of very depraved habits. 

Ababcieh, Abalnle, or Ababidek, a people of 
eastern Africa, the descendants of the ancient Nubians, 
scattered throughout Nubia, and between the borders 
of the valley of the Nile and the Bed Sea, but located 
chiefly from lat. 23° to the western border of Lower 
Egypt. They are small-limbed, but well formed. Their 
complexion is very dark; their features, however, are 
more European than negro. 

Ab' aca, or Manilla hemp. See Plantain. 

Abacis cus. ( Arch.) One of the squares of a tessellated 
pavement. 

Aback', adv. [A. S.] (Haut.) The situation of the sails 
when they are pressed against the masts by the force of 
the wind. Thus,the sails are said to be “ taken aback,” 
when, by a change of ■Nind or otherwise, they are placed 
in that position. 

Ab aco, a long and crooked island, the largest of the , 
Bahama groups, near the Florida coast, 80 miles long, 
by an average of 15 wide. Its N. point is in lat. 26° 30' 
N., long. 76° 57' W. Pop. 1,900,(Little Abaco adjoining 
included.) The sailor’s landmark, “ Hole in the Wall,” 
is a perforation in the rock on the S.E. point. 

Ab'acot, n. The cap of state, formerly used by English 
'kings, wrought into the figure of two crowns. 

Abact inal, a. (Zool.) A new name given to the aboral 
part or pole opposed to the actinal, in the species of the 
ord. Radiala, <fr. 

Abac'tor, n. [ Lat. abigo, to drive.] ( Law.) One that felo- 
niously drives away or steals a herd or numbers of cattle 
at once, in distinction from one that steals one or two sheep. 
Abac'ulus, n. [L. dim. of abacus .] (Arch.) A small 
tile of glass, marble, or other substance, of various colors, 
used in making ornamental patterns in mosaic pave¬ 
ments. 

Ab acus. [Lat. counting-table, level,tablet, &c.] (Arch.) 
A constituent part of the capital of a column, w hich sup¬ 
ports the horizontal entablement. In the Tuscan, Doric, 
and Ionic orders, it is flat and square; but, in the Corin¬ 
thian and Composite orders, its four sides are arched in¬ 
ward, with generally a rose in the centre. In Gothic 
architecture the A. was very variously employed, accord¬ 
ing to the fancy of the architect. 


(Arilh.) The name of an instrument employed in Eng¬ 
land to teach the elementary principles of the science of 
numbers. The ancient mathematicians also employed 




Grecian Doric. 


T 


Roman Doric . 




Corinthian. 

Fig. 3. — abacus. 

the term abacus to designate a table covered with 
sand, upon which they traced their diagrams. The 
Chinese Abacus, or Shwan-pan, is also an instru¬ 
ment for facilitating arithmetical calculations. It 
consists of several series of beads or counters strung 
upon brass wires stretched from the top to the bottomj 
of an instrument, and divided in the middle by a cross-! 
piece from side to side. In the upper compartment 
every wire has two beads, each of which counts 5; in'the 
lower space every wire has five beads of different values; 
the first being counted as 1, the second as 10, the third 
as 100, and so on. As in China, the entire system is 
decimal, that is, when every weight and measure is the 
tenth part of the next greater one, the abacus is used 
with wonderful rapidity. 

Abacus is also a Roman table, or high shelf placed 
against the wall, and serving as a cupboard or buffet. 

A bad', a Hindoo word, signifying the city of; thus 
llyder-abad, the city of Hyder. 

A bad, the name of several Moorish kings of Seville. 
Abad I. began to reign in the year 1023, and v. in 
1042; Abad III., celebrated for his love of art and 
letters, d. in 1095, and with Dim ended the dynasty of 
tue Abadites. 

Abad'don, n. In the Bible, and in every Rabbinical 
instance, this word means the angel of death, or the 
angel of the abyss or “bottomless pit,” or the place of 
destruction, the subterranean world. 

Ab'adeh, a Persian town in Fars, 115 miles north of 
Shiraz, formerly a place of importance but now decayed. 
Pop. 5,000. 

Abad'iotes. The name of a Mohammedan settlement of 
pirates, situated on the island of Candia, south of Mount 
Ida, consisting of a population of about 7,000. They are 
a branch of the Saracens whom Nicephosus expelled 
from Candia in the tenth century. They are a smaller and 
weaker race than the other inhabitants, and speak the 
Arabic language. 

Ab'adir. (Myth.) The name of a stone which Saturn 
swallowed by the contrivance of his wife Ops, believing 
it to be his new-born son Jupiter; hence it became the 
object of religious worship. 

Abaft', or Aft, [A. S.] (A r aut.) The hinder part of a 
ship; thus, “ abaft the main-mast,” that is to say, be¬ 
tween the main-mast and the stern. “ Abaft the beam,” 
signifies the relative situation of an object in some part 
of the horizon contained between a line drawn at right 
angles to the keel and the point to which the stern of 
the ship is directed. 

Ab'agun, n. The name of a fowl in Ethiopia, remark¬ 
able by its beauty, and for a sort of horn growing on its 
head. 

Abaka' Khan, the eighth emperor of the Moguls, a 
wise and good prince, ascended the throne in 1264. lie 
reigned 17 years, and is by some authors said to have 
been a Christian. 

Abakansk'. A range of mountains in the government 
of Tomsk, in Siberia, extending from the river Tom to 
the Yenisei, parallel to the Altai mountains.—Also the 
name of a fortified town of Siberia, in the government 
of Tomsk, on the river Abakan. This is considered the 
mildest and most salubrious place in Siberia. Pop. 
(1898) 1,425. Lat. 56 N., Ion. 91° 14 E. 

Abal'ienate. [Lat . abalienare.] (Law.) To transfer to 
another person that which was ours before. 
Abaliena'tion. (Law.) The act of giving up one’s 
right to another person; or a making over an estate, 
goods, or chattels by sale, or due course of law. 
Abancay', a district of Peru in the partido of Cuzco. 
The surface is varied; the plains produce very rich crops 
of sugar-cane, and the principal cereals, as well as much 
hemp, which is manufactured into cloth in the chief 
town. The mountains afford some silver, and pasturage 
for large herds of cattle. The chief town is Abaucay 
65 miles from Cuzco. Pop. about 5,000. 

Aban don, t>. a. [Fr. abandnnner .] To forsake entirely; 
as, to abandon a hopeless enterprise; — to leave with a 
view never to return; to give up or resign without con¬ 
trol ; as, to abandon one’s self to intemperance. 
Abandon, n. [Fr.] A complete giving up; hence, an 
utter disregard of self, arising from absorption in some 
favorite object or emotion, and sometimes a disregard 
of appearances, producing either careless negligence or 
unstudied ease of manner. 

Abandoned, p. a. Given up; — is used in the peculiar 
sense of self-abandoned to wrong or evil. 
Abandonee', n. (Law.) One to whom something is 
abandoned. 

Aban'doner, n. One who abandons. 
Abandonment, n. A total desertion: a state of being 
forsaken.— In marine insurance, it is the surrendering. 


of the ship or goods insured, to the insurers, in cons*, 
quence of damage or loss sustained from any of the 
causes insured against. In every case of loss or damage 
from these causes, the insured is not entitled to abandon, 
but only when serious injury has been sustained; as 
when the voyage is lost or not worth pursuing, or when 
the thing insured is so damaged and spoiled as to be of 
little or no value to the owner. In the case of shipwreck 
or other misfortune, the captain and crew are bound to 
do all in their power to save the property, without pre¬ 
judice to the rights of abandonment; for which they 
arc entitled to wages and remuneration from the in¬ 
surers, at least so far as what is saved will allow. 

Ab'ano, a town in the province of Lombardy, Italy, at 
the foot of the Vicentine Hills. It is visited by invalids 
for the benefit of its baths, which were well known to 
the ancients, and are noticed by Martial and Cluudian 
as Pontes Aponi. 

Ab'antes, n. A people of ancient Greece, who came origi¬ 
nally from Thrace, and settled in l’hocis, where they built 
a town which they called Aba, after the name ot Abas 
their leader. 

Ab'arim, n. High mountains of Moab. From Mt. 
Neba, the highest summit, Moses is said to have viewed 
the land of Canaan, where he died. 

Ab'aris, the Hyperborean, a celebrated sage of antiqaity, 
whose history and travels have been the subject of much 
learned discussion. Everything relating to him is apo¬ 
cryphal, and even his a?ra is doubtful. Some refer his 
appearance in Greece to the third Olympiad, others to 
the 21st, while some transfer him to the 52d Olympiad, 
or 570 years B. C. 

Abas,' a weight used in Persia, for weighing pearls; it is 
equal to 2.25 grains Eng. 

Abasa', an island in the Red Sea, near Abyssinia. 

Abase', v. a. [Fr. abaisser.] To cast down, to depress, 
to bring low; almost always in a figurative and personal 
sense. 

“ Behold every one that is proud, and abase him." — oob xl. 11. 

Abased', or Abaisse, lowered, humbled. 

(Her.) The wings of eagles, &c., when the tip inclines 
downwards to the point of the shield, or when the wings 
are shut. 

Abase'ment, n. The state of being brought low; the 
act of bringing low. 

Abash', v. a. [Heb. bosh, to be ashamed.] To make 
ashamed; to cast down the countenance; to put to con¬ 
fusion ; to confuse or confound. 

•‘They heard and were abashea — Milton. 

Abash'inent, n. State of being abashed; confusion 
from shame. 

Abas'si, or Abas'sis, n. A silver coin of Persia of the 
value of twenty cents. 

Abat'able, a. That may or can be abated; as, an abat¬ 
able writ or nuisance. 

Abate', v. a. [Fr. abattre, to beat down.] To lessen, to 
moderate, to diminish, to mitigate; as, to abate zeal, 
to abate a demand, to abate a pain; — to cause to fail; 
to overthrow; as, to abate a writ; — to deduct; — to 
annul; — to deject; to depress; as, to abate the soul. 

Abate, v. n. To fail; to be defeated; as, a writ abates; — 
to grow less; to decrease; as, pain or storm abates. 

(Law.) To enter into a freehold after the death of the last 
occupant, and before the heir or devisee takes possession. 

( Horsemanship.) To perform well a downward motion. 
A horse is said to abate, or take down his curvets, when, 
working upon curvets, he puts both his bind-legs to the 
ground at once, and observes the same exactness in all 
the times. 

Abate'inent, n. [Old Fr. abater, to beat down.] The 
act of abating, or the state of being abated; diminution, 
decrease.— The sum or quantity taken away by the act 
of abating; the cause of abating. 

(Law.) A suspension of all proceedings in a suit, 
from the want of proper parties capable of proceeding 
therein. — A reduction made by the creditor, for the 
prompt payment of a debt due by the payer or debtor.— 
The deduction sometimes made tit the Custom-House 
from the duties chargeable upon goods when they are 
damaged. — The overthrow of an 
action in consequence of some 
error committed in bringing or 
conducting it, when the plaintiil 
is not forever barred from bringing 
another action. 

(Her.) An accidental figure 
added to a coat-of-arms, to lessen 
its true dignity, and to indicati 
some stain in the character of tin 
bearer. 

Abat'er, n. One who, or that 
which, abates. 



Fig. 4. —ABATEMENT. 
Ab'atis, orAb'attis. [Fr. abattis.] In military affairs, 1 
a kind of defence made of felled trees. In sudden emer¬ 
gencies, the trees are merely laid lengthwise beside each 
other, with the branches pointed outward to prevent 
the approach of the enemy. When the abatis is em¬ 
ployed for the defence of a pass or entrance, the boughs 
of the trees are stripped of their leaves and pointed, the 
trunks are planted in the ground, and the branches in¬ 
terwoven with each other. 

Aba'tor, n. (Law.) One who intrudes intc houses or land, 
vacated by the death of the former possassor, as yet not' 
entered upon or taken up by his heir. 

Aba'tos. an island in the lake of Moeris, in Egypt, famous 
for being the sepulchre of Osiris, and for producing tin 
papyrus, of which the ancients made their paper. 

Abattoir'. [Fr. abattre, to knock down.] A term 
borrowed from the French, with whom it signifUs a 
slaughter-house. The abattoir system was, ia 1818j 























ABBA 


ABBO 


ABDA 


9 


Adopted in France. There are at present near Paris five 
immense establishments of this kind, where butchers 
are provided with a place for slaughtering their cattle 
and keeping their meat in store. There are also places 
for supplying the beasts with water, receptacles for the 
fat, hoofs, blood, brains, &c. In the neighborhood of the 
abattoirs there are mauutactories of blood-manure, gela¬ 
tine, glue. id the other products of the offal. In several 
of the large cities of the United States, slaughter-houses 
are placed vnder similar regulations to those which are 
in operation in Paris. 

Abattllta. [Ital.l (Music.) In strict or measured time. 
Ah'atnre, ». [From abate.] Spires of grass beaten 
down by a stag in passing. 

Aba-iijvar. One of the palatinates into which the 
Austrian kingdom of Hungary is divided. It is moun¬ 
tainous, and nearly one-half covered with wood. Its 
chief productions are wine, tobacco, wood, corn, flax, 
fruit, metals, and precious stones. Area 1118 square 
miles; pop. 204,000. 

Ahaurit. Firmin’, (db'o-ze,) a French writer of merit, was 
born at Uzes in 1679. After the revocation of the edict 
of Nantes, his mother took refuge in Geneva, where 
she expended all her small fortune in the education of 
Abauzit. While travelling in England, he became the 
friend of Newton. He has been highly eulogized both 
by Voltaire and Rousseau;but his literary labors, chiefly 
theological, are not on a par with his high reputation. 
In his religious opinions, this learned man leaned to¬ 
wards Socinianism, or the modern Unitarian doctrine. 
He died at the age of 87 years. 

Aba VO, n. (Bot.) A synonym of the adansonia. 

Abb. n. [Sax. ab or 06 .] Among weavers, yarn for the 
warps. They say also abb-wool in the same sense. 

Abb, a town of Yemen, in Arabia, situated on a moun¬ 
tain in the midst of a very fertile country, 73 miles N.E. 
of Mocha. Pop. about 5,000. 

Abba, in ancient Geography, a town in Africa Propria, 
near Carthage. 

Abba, in the Syriac and Chaldean languages, literally sig¬ 
nifies a father; and figuratively, a superior, reputed as 
a father in respect of age, dignity, or affection. It is 
more particularly used in the Syriac, Coptic, and Ethi- 
opic churches, as a title given to the bishops. 

Abbacy, n. The dignity, rights and privileges of an 
abbot. 

Abbadie, Jacques, a celebrated Protestant divine, born 
at Nay in France, in 1658. Obliged to repair to Holland, 
and subsequently to Berlin, he went at last to England, 
where he died in'l727. His principal works, all French, 
are: “Traite de la Yerite de la Religion Chretienne;” 

“ Defense de la Nation Britannique;” “ Histoire de la Con¬ 
spiration Derntere de l’Angleterre.’’ D. in London, 1727. 
Abbas-.tlirza, a Persian prince, Bon of the Shah Feth- 
Ali, born 1783. Well known by his unsuccessful wars 
against Russia in 1811 -1813, and 1826-1828. He died in 
18:13. His death was a great loss to his country, although 
he could nol have prevented the encroachments of 
Russia. His eldest son, Mohammed Mirza, mounted 
the throne in 1834, on the death of Feth-Ali, under the 
protection of England and Russia. 

Abbas, (Bex-abd-el-Mottalib,) a paternal uncle of Mo¬ 
hammed, and the ancestor of the dynasty of Abbassides, 
B. at Mecca, 566. He fought against his nephew at the 
well of Bedr and was taken prisoner. He was after¬ 
wards converted to the cause of Mohammed, and became 
one of his most devoted partisans. D. 652. 

Abbas the Great. This celebrated Persian sovereign, of 
the dynasty of Sophis, ascended the throne in 1585, on 
the murder of his brother Ismael. His character was 
sanguinary, but politic and determined. He suppressed 
the Koorg'his, a turbulent soldiery, till then the terror 
of Persian sovereigns, and removed the seat of govern¬ 
ment to Ispahan. Of three sons he had, two were deprived 
of sight, and he put the other to death. Notwithstanding 
the public and domestic cruelty of Abbas, he was much 
esteemed by his subjects, whom he benefited by putting 
down the native khans, and by the alliance of their sov¬ 
ereign with European rulers, in furtherance of commer¬ 
cial intercourse. Abbas died in 1628, and was succeeded 
by his grandsou, Shah Sephi. 

Abbas. (Pasha,) viceroy of Egypt, born in 1813. Grand¬ 
son of Mehemet Ali, he succeeded Ibrahim Pasha in 
1848, a friend of administrative reform, but having pow¬ 
erful adversaries at Constantinople; he died in 1854, with 
the grief of having seen his plans thwarted by insuper¬ 
able obstacles, and Egypt reduced to vassalage. 
Abhasxa, sister of the celebrated Caliph Haroun- 
al-Raschid, who was given in marriage to his vizier 
Giafiar, on the strange condition that she should remain 
a virgin; the violation of which, and its terrible conse¬ 
quences, have been the theme of oriental stories. 
Abbas'sides, n. pi. (Hist.) The name of a race who 
possessed the caliphat for 524 years. There were 
37 caliphs of this race who succeeded one another with¬ 
out interruption. They drew their descent from Ab- 
bas-ben-Abd-el-Motallib, Mahomet’s uncle. The princes 
of this family made war on the dynasty of Ommiades. 
A. D. 746; and in 750, defeated the last caliph of the rival 
family in the bloody battle of Zab, near Mosul. The 
most celebrated monarchs of this family were A1 Mansur 
and Haroun-al-Raschid. Their empire terminated in 
Mostazem, who fell in battle against the Tartar prince 
Hulaku, in 1257. 

Abbatncci, Jacques Pierre Charles, a French diplo¬ 
matist, b. 1791 ,administrator in Corsica, and several times 
elected to the Chamber of Deputies; he distinguished 
himself in the National Assembly of 1848 by his oppo¬ 
sition to the social democratic movement. Appointed 
by Louis Napoleon minister of justice and keeper of the 
amis in 1852. He died Nov. 11, 1857. 


Abba'tial, abbatical, a. Belonging to an abbey. 

Ab'be. 1 ,ouise, a poetess of France, who flourished in 
the 16th century, and was surnamed La belle Cordeliere. 

Ab'be, n. (Eccl. Hist.) The French term for an abbot. 
Before the revolution the title was assumed also by a 
class of persons who had not in all cases received the 
tonsure, or undertaken to connect themselves with the 
church. They held a conspicuous place iu society, and 
generally attached themselves to fashionable or literary 
patrons. This anomalous class seems to have taken its 
rise from the great number of abbeys, the revenues of 
which were allowed to be bestowed upon laymen, upon 
condition of their taking orders within a year after their 
preferment, which latter clause was frequently evaded. 

Abbeokut'ta, or Abbeokoo'ta, a city of lYest 
Africa and capital of the Egba nation, is situated on the 
E. bank of the river Ogoon, sixty miles N.E. from Bada- 
gry, on the Bight of Benin. Pop. about 75,000; greatly 
civilized by the labors of missionaries. 

Abbetibbe, one of the districts in the territories of 
Dominion of Canada. Lat. 48° 52'N., Long. 75° 80' W. 

Ab'bess, n. (Eccl. Hid.) A female superior or gov¬ 
erness of a nunnery, or convent of nuns, having the au¬ 
thority over the nuns which the abbots have over the 
monks. See Abbey. 

Abbeville, (db-vei\) a city of France, cap. of arrondisse- 
ment of the same name, (dep. of the Somme,) situ¬ 
ated in a pleasant and fertile valley on both sides of the 
river Somme, 12 miles above its mouth, and 25 miles N. 
IV. of Amiens. This town, which is strongly fortified 
on Vauban’s system, is neat and well built; it is one of 
the most thriving manufacturing towns in France. Be¬ 
sides black cloths of the best quality, there are produced 
velvets, cottons, linens, serges, sackings.Jbosiery, pack¬ 
thread, jewelry, soaps, glass-wares, etc. By help of the 
tides, vessels of 150 tons come up to the town. Pop. in 
1895, 19,851. Lat. 50° 7' 4" N., Long. 1° 69' 58" E. 

Abbeville, in Alabama, a post-village, capital of 
Henry co., 211 miles S. E. of Tuscaloosa, on Gattayabba I 
creek. 

Abbeville, in S. Carolina, a county bordering on I 
Georgia, bounded on the S. W. by the Savannah river, 
and on the N. E. by the Saluda river. Area, about 960 
square miles; soil fertile and extensively cultivated. I 
Pop. (1890) 46,854. Capital, Abbeville (pop. 1.696), on an I 
affluent of Little river, 97 miles IV. by N. of Columbia. 

Abbeville, in Georgia, a post-village, capital of Wil¬ 
cox co., on Ocmulgee river, about 145 m. W. of Savannah. 

Abbeville, in Louisiana, a post-village, capital of 
Vermilionparish. 

Abbeville, in Mississippi, a post-office of Lafayette co. 

Ab'bey, n. [Fr. abbaye .] A monastery or society of 
persons of either sex, secluded from the world and gov¬ 
erned by a superior under the title of abbot or abbess- 
la the middle ages, abbeys or monasteries were the re¬ 
positories, as well as the seminaries, of learning; many 
valuable books and national records, as well as private 
history, having been preserved in their libraries, the 
only place in which they could have been safely lodged 
in those turbulent times. Every abbey had at least one 
person whose office it was to instruct youth; and the 
historians of this time are chiefly beholden to the monks 
for the knowledge they have of former national events. 
In these houses, also the arts of painting, architecture, 
and printing were cultivated. They were hospitals for 
the sick and poor, and afforded entertainment to travel¬ 
lers at a time when there were no inns. They were like¬ 
wise an asylum for aged and indigent persons of good 
family. The abbeys were w’holly abolished in England 
by Henry’ VIII. at the time of the Reformation. 



Fig. 5. — melrose abbet, (Scotland.) 


Abblate-Grasso, a town of northern Italy, prov. of 
Pavia. It is situate on the canal of Bereguardo, 14 
miles from Milan. 

Abbit'ibbee, former name of a district, river, and 
trading station in British America, forming part of the 
Hudson Bay Co.’s possessions; now part of Ontario. 

Ab’bon, or Abbo Ternuus, a French monk of St. Ger- 
main des-Pres, author of a “ Poetical Relation of the Siege 
of Paris by the Normans and Danes, toward the end 
of the Ninth Century; ” a work only curious as a narra¬ 
tive by an ey’e-w’itness of the events which he describes. 

Abbon, or Abbo Floriocencis, a French Benedictine 
monk of the tenth century, abbot of Fleuri, was employed 
by King Robert of France to negotiate with Pope 
Gregory V., who had laid France under an interdict. 
Author of “ Epitome of the Lives of the Popes.” 

Ab'bot, [Heb. abba, father.] The superior of a monastery 
of monks erected into an abbey or priory. The principal 
distinction observed between abbots are those of regu¬ 


lar and commendatory. The former take the vow and 
wear the habit of their order; whereas the latter are 
seculars who have received tonsure, but are obliged by 
their bulls to take orders w hen of proper age. Other 
distinctions also arose among abbots when abbeys were 
flourishing in Europe; as, mitred, those privileged to 
wear the mitre and exercise episcopal authority within 
their respective precincts; crosiered, so named from their 
carrying the crosier, or pastoral staff; oecumenical, such 
as exercised universal dominion; and cardinal, from their 
superiority over all others. — Abbot is also a title given 
to others beside the superiors of monasteries; thus, 
bishops whose sees were formerly abbeys, are called ab¬ 
bots. Among the Genoese, the chief magistrate of the 
republic formerly bore the title of abbot of the people. 

Abbot, Abiel, D.D., a distinguished clergyman in Mas¬ 
sachusetts, born at Andover 1770, died 1828. Author of 
“ Letters from Cuba,” and a number of sermons. 

Abbot, Charles, created Lord Colchester, speaker of th«> 
British House of Commons from 1802 to 1817 ; died in 
1829, in the 72d year of his age. 

Abbott,CHARLEs, created Lord Tenlerden, English law¬ 
yer; born 1762; died 1832. His treatise on maritime 
law is a standard work known to all lawyers. 

Abbot, a post-township of Piscataquis co., Maine, on the 
Piscataquis river, 76 m. N. by E. of Augusta. 

Abbot, a township of Potter co., Pennsylvania. 

Abbot, a former township of Sheboygan co.,Wisconsin, 
now called Sherman. 

Ab'botsford, the seat of Sir Waltei Scott, the cele¬ 
brated author of the Waverley Novels, situate on the 
south bank of the Tweed, a few miles above Melrose. It 
takes its name from a ford formerly used bythe monks of 
Melrose. 



Fig. 2. — ABBOTSFORD. 


Ab'botstown, a post-village of Adams co., Pennsyl¬ 
vania, 14 miles W.S.W. of York. Pop. (1898 ) 545. 

Abbotsvalley, a former P. 0. of Tazewell co., Ya. 

Abbott, a post-village of Craig co., Ya. 

Abbott, a family of American writers. 

Abbott's Creek, a river of North Carolina; it flows 
into the Yadkin. 

Abbreviate, v. a. [Lat. abbreviare.'] To shorten by 
contraction or omission of parts without loss of the maiD 
substance; — to shorten, to abridge, to cut short. 

(Math.) To reduce to lower terms, as a fraction, 

Abbreviate, a. (Bot.) Having one part relatively 
shorter than another. 

Abbreviation and Abbreviature, a contrac¬ 
tion of a word or passage, made by the omission of the 
letters, or by the substitution of some arbitrary sign ; 
as, La., Louisiana; Oz., ounce, etc. Also, the act of ab¬ 
breviating. The principal abbreviations in common 
use are given on the initial page of this work. 0 
(Mus.) One dash, or more, through the stem of a l j 
note, dividing it respectively into quavers, semi- J/i 
quavers, or demisemiquavers. If 

Abbre'viator, one who abbreviates or reduces to a 
smaller compass. 

Abbre'viatori. [It.] A body of notaries (72 in num¬ 
ber) belonging to the papal court, whose business it i» 
to draw up briefs, and do various kinds of writing usually 
devolving on official secretaries. 

Abbre'viatory, a. That abbreviates; shortening. 

Abbs, (St.,) a promontory on the eastern coast of Scot¬ 
land, Lat. 55° 55' N., Lon. 2° 8' 30" W. The tide run* 
by it with a strong current, and a little wind causes a 
great rolling sea. 

Abchas'ia, Abasia, Abkhasia, (db-ka'ze-ah.) » 

prov. of Asiatic Russia, comprehended between Lat. 42° 
30' and 44° 45' N., and between Long. 37° 3' and 40° 36' 
E. The high mountains of the Caucasus divide it from 
Circassia on the N.; on the S.E. it is bounded by Min- 
grelia; and on the S. and W. by the Black Sea. The coun¬ 
try is generally mountainous, the climate mild, and the 
land fertile. In later times this country was subject to 
Colchis, until subdued by the Emperor Justinian, who 
introduced civilization and Christianity. Afterward tha 
Persians, Georgians, Mongolians, and more recently the 
Turks, in turn, ruled over the country. By the treaties 
of Akerman in 1826, and of Adrianople in 1829, it was 
ceded to Russia, but except the possession of a few com¬ 
manding fortresses on the coast, Russia has very little 
authority over the people, and the chiefs have almost un¬ 
limited power. Mahometanism is the religion of the 
higher classes, but the people generally are buried in 
idolatry. 

Abd. an Arabian prefix, signifying slave or servant; it 
enters, with the name of God, into the composition of a 
great number of proper names; as, AM-allah, servant 
of God; Aftd-el-Kader, servant of the mighty God. 

Ab'dal, one of a class of religious devotees in Persia, 
corresponding to a dervise in Turkey. 

Abdal'lah, son of Abd-el-Malek-ben-Omar, A. D. 785, a 
successful leader of the Spanish Moors in their irruption 
into southern France. He laid siege to and captured 
the towns of Gironne and Narbonne 


































10 


ABBE 


ABDO 


ABEA 


Abdallah, the last chieftain of the Wahabee sect in 
Arabia. He was defeated by Ibrahim Bey, son of Me- 
hemet Ali, who treacherously seized him while confer¬ 
ring on terms of peace. Sent to Constantinople, Abdal¬ 
lah was paraded through the streets, and beheaded as a 
rebel, December, 1818. 

Abdallah Ben-Abd-El-Mottalib, father of Moham¬ 
med, born at Mecca A. d. 545; died 570. The paternity 
of the prophet is Abdallah’s sole claim to distinction. 

Abdallah Ben Yassim, founder of the warlike tribe of 
Aimoravides in Barbary, a. d. 1050, which were after¬ 
ward conspicuous for the subjugation of part ofSpain, 
and the founding of a dynasty in the Moorish kingdom. 

Abdallah Ben Zobair, sultan of Mecca, b. about 622. 
He was the son of Zobair, a companion of Mohammed, 
and of Asma the sister of Ayesha, the prophet’s favorite 
wife. On the death of the prophet, the assassination of 
Ali, Mohammed’s successor, and the defeat of Yezid, suc¬ 
cessor of Ali, Abdallah was acknowledged sultan and 
caliph of Mecca, a. d. 685. Vanquished in his turn by 
Abd-el-Malek, caliph of Damascus, he retired to the 
Caaba, where he was killed by a blow on the head from 
a tile, a. d. 692. 

Abdal'latif', or Abdollatiph, a celebrated phy¬ 
sician and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writ¬ 
ers of the East, was born at Bagdad, in 1179, and died in 
1231. Of his numerous works, one only has found its 
way into Europe; nor do any of the others appear to be 
known at this day in the East. The work here alluded 
to is an “Account of Egypt;” it presents us with a de¬ 
tailed and authentic view of the state of Egypt during 
the middle ages. 

Ibdal-malek, or Abdulmelech, the son of Mir- 
van, and the fifth caliph of the race of the Ommiades. In 
his reign the Indies were conquered in the east, and his 
armies penetrated Spain in the west; he likewise ex¬ 
tended his empire toward the south, by making himself 
master of Medina and Mecca. He began his reign in 
the 65th year of the Hegira, a. d. 684; reigned 25 years; 
and four of his sons successively enjoyed the caliphate. 

Abdal-m'alek. See Avenzoar. 

Ahdalonimiis. or AbdolonimiiH. also called 
Bai.lonymus, a gardener, but of royal descent. Was 
made king of Sidon by Alexander the Great. 

Abdelavi, n. {Hot.) An Egyptian plant, as a melon. 

Abdera, n. ( Anc. Geog.) A town of Thrace, near the 
mouth of the Nestus. Though it boasted of being the 
birthplace of Democritus, Protagoras, Anaxarcbus, and 
other distinguished men, yet it was regarded among the 
ancients as notorious for the stupidity of its inhabitants. 

Abd-el-Kader, very renowned by the persevering 
courage with which he opposed the aggressions of the 
French against his country, was the third son of a Mara¬ 
bout of the Arab tribe of Hashem, who had risen to in¬ 
fluence through his rank, coupled with a great sanctity 
of demeanor. The early days of Abd-el-Kader are lost in 
obscurity, but by 1828 he had not only acquired the 
reputation of a scholar, but that of a saint, from his 
having twice made a pilgrimage to Mecca, the birthplace 
of the Prophet. Accompanied by his father, he preached 
a holy war against the French occupation of Algiers, 
and called upon the Faithful to rise and expel the infi¬ 
dels. In 1832, he found himself at the head of 10,000 
warriors, with whom he attacked Oran, but was several 
times repulsed with great slaughter. Notwithstanding 
his discomfiture, however, he might be said to be a 
gainer, for he had not only increased his reputation for 
skill and bravery, but had taught his Arabs to face ar¬ 
tillery. In 1834, he entered into a treaty with the 
French, in which he was recognized as emir of Mascara, 
with the sovereignty of Oran. This treaty added to the 
importance of the emir in the eyes of the natives, who 
naturally looked upon their chief as a personage of high 
consequence, from his having compelled the enemy to 
recognize him as a sovereign. His success, however, ex¬ 
cited the jealousy of some of his brothers in arms, who 
rose against his authority, but whom he was soon enabled 
to subdue. For a period of fifteen years he contrived to 
defend his country, and fight against the encroachments 
of France; but in 1847 he was compelled to surrender 
himself a prisoner to General Lamoriciere, on condition 
of being sent to Alexandria or St. Jean d’Acre. The 
French government, however, refused to ratify the terms 
of the treaty, and it was not till after four years passed 
in France, that, in 1852, Louis Napoleon restored him to 
freedom, on condition that he would not return to Al¬ 
giers, or conspire against the French. The brave, but 
fallen Arab consented, and Brussa, in Asia Minor, was 
assigned him for his future residence. For that place he 
accordingly set out in 1853, but was afterwards permitted 
to remove to Constantinople. In 1855 he visited Paris, 
to see the Exposition, and, finally, with the philosophy 
of oriental calmness resigned himself to his fate. B. at 
Mascara,prov.of Oran,1807; d. at Damascus, May 26,1883. 
Abtl-el-Uoree, or Salinusus Shoal, a dangerous 
rock and coral reef off the S.E. coast of Arabia, in Lat. 
14° 54' 50" N., Long. 50° 45' 20" E., extending 1850 yards 
from N -N.E. to S.S.W., with a breadth of 300 to 600 yards. 
Abtbel-llalek Ben Merwan, fifth caliph of Damascus, 
■>f the family of the Ommiades,snrnamed the Mint-skinner 
on account of his avarice; known by his successful wars 
against the Greek Emperor Justinian II., A. D. 685-705 
^Ixi-rl-HaUdi Ben Omar, one of the viziers of Caliph 
Abderrahman, in the 8th century. He is the king Mar- 
silius of Ariosto, and of the ancient romances of chivalry. 
He was governor of Saragossa at the time of Charle¬ 
magne’s famous invasion of Spain. 

Alxl -er-Rahman I, surnamed the Wise, first caliph 
of the family of the Ommiades in Spain. B. 731, d. 787 
Abd-er-Rahman III, called the Great, ascended the 
throne a. d. 912, at the age of 21. The close of his long 


reign of 49 years was the most brilliant epoch of Moor¬ 
ish domination in Spain. He died a. d. 961. 

Abd-er-Rahman, sultan of Fez and Morocco, b. 1778, 
ascended the throne 1823. Threatened by the refusal of 
Austria to pay the tribute for safety against pirates, he 
wisely adjusted the dispute by relinquishing this sort of 
“black-mail” formerly levied by Morocco on European 
ships in the Mediterranean. The religious war under 
Abd-el-Kader against the French in Algeria involved the 
sultan in its movements, but was concluded by the bat¬ 
tle of Isly, 1844, and the subsequent mediation of Eng¬ 
land. D. 1855, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Sidi- 
Mohammed. 

Ab'dest, a Persian word, properly signifying the water 
placed in a basin for washing the hands; but it is used 
to imply the legal purification practised by the Mahome¬ 
tans before prayer, entering the mosque, or reading the 
Koran. 

Abdi'as (of Babylon), a Christian writer of the first cen¬ 
tury, who pretended that he had been one of the com¬ 
panions of Jesus Christ. 

Ab'dicant, n. One who abdicates. 

Ab'dicate, v. a. [Lat. abdicare .] To give up right; to 
resign; to lay down an office, station, or dignity. To de¬ 
prive of right, as when a father discards or disclaims a 
son. 

Abdication, a voluntary resignation of a dignity, 
principally the supreme. Of royal abdications, the most 
famous are those of the emperors Diocletian and Maxi- 
mian, in 305; of the Emperor Charles Y, in 1556; Philip 
V, in 1724; Charles IV, in 1808. — Involuntary resig¬ 
nations are also called abdications; e. g., Napoleon’s ab¬ 
dication at Fontainebleau. The right of a prince to re¬ 
sign the crown cannot be disputed; but the resignation 
can affect only his personal right to the crown, and can¬ 
not prejudice his descendants; still less force upon the 
state another constitution, or another family. 

Ab'dicative, a. Causing or implying abdication. 

Ab'ditory, n. [Lat. abditorium.] A place for secreting 
or preserving goods. 

Abdo'men. [From Lat. abdo, to hide; because it hides 
the viscera.] Scientific name of the belly. The largest 
cavity in the body, bounded superiorly by the diaphragm, 
by which it is separated from the chest; inferiorly by 
the bones of the pubis and ischium ; on each side by 
various muscles, the short ribs, and ossa ilii; anteriorly 
by the abdominal muscles, and posteriorly by the verte 
brae of the loins, the os sacrum and os coccygis. Inter¬ 
nally it is invested by a smooth membrane called peri¬ 
toneum. It is the forepart of this cavity, covered with 
muscles and common integuments, in the middle of which 
is the navel, which is properly called abdomen. It con¬ 
tains the liver, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, stomach, small 
intestine, and the colon. The lower bowels, the blad¬ 
der, and internal organs of generation, lie in the lower 
part of the cavity, which is called the pelvis. (See Body.) 



Fig. 7.— CAVITY OF THE ABDOMEN. 


1. Diaphragm. 

2. Gall-bladder. 

3. Right lobe of liver. 

4. Duodenum. 

5. Great end of 

stomach. 


6. Pyloric end 

of stomach. 

7. Spleen. 

8. Omentum. 

9. Pancreas. 


10. Great intestine, 

(colon.) 

11. Small intestine, 

(jejunum.) 

12. Small intestine, 

(ileum.) 


( Ent .) The whole lower portion of the body of an in 
sect, united to the corselet, or thorax, by a thread. It 
contains a portion of the intestines and the sexual 
organs. 

Abdom'inal, a. [From abdomen."] Pertaining to the 
belly. 

Abdom'inals, n. pi. [Lat. abdominalis .] ( Zool .) An 
order of malacopterygious fishes, having the ventral 
fins under the abdomen behind the pectorals, as the trout. 
They comprehend the greater part of fresh-water fishes, 
and constitute the fourth order of the fourth class of 
animals in the Linnaian system. 



Fig. 8.—trout. 

Abdominos'copy. (Med.) Examination of the ab¬ 
domen in order to detect disease. 


Abdom'inons, a. Having a large belly; pursy. 

Abduce', v. a. [Lat. abduco.] To draw to a different par-, 
to withdraw one part from another. A word chief!] 
used in anatomy. 

“If we abduce the eye into either corner, the object will not 
duplicate.” — Browne. 

Abdu'cent, a. (Anat.) Drawing away; pulling away; 
as, the abducent muscles, or abductors. 

Abduct', v. a. [Lat. abducere.) To take away by fraud 
or force; to withdraw illegally. 

Abduc'tioil, n. [Lat. abduct io.] The act of abducing 
or abducting; a taking or drawing away, and specifically 
an unlawful taking 

(Law.) The forcible and fraudulent taking away of 
women or girls. This crim inal offence is of three kinds; — 
1. If any person shall maliciously, either by force or 
fraud, lead, or take away, or detain, any child under the 
age of ten years , with intent to deprive the parents, or 
other persons having the lawful charge of such child, or 
with intent to steal any article on its person; or 6hal! 
receive or harbor such child, knowing the same to have 
been so stolen or enticed — every such offender shall be 
guilty of felony, and shall be liable to penal servitude 
for not more than seven, or less than three years, or im¬ 
prisoned, with or without hard labor, for any term not 
more than two years. — 2. If the girl is under the age of 
sixteen years, the offender shall be guilty of misdemean¬ 
or, and, being convicted thereof, shall be liable to suffer 
such punishment, by fine or imprisonment, or both, as 
the court shall award.—3. If any person shall, from 
motives of lucre, take away or detain against her will, 
any woman having any interest, present or future, in 
any real or personal estate, with intent to marry or de¬ 
file her, or to cause her to be married or defiled by any 
other person, every such offender, and every person 
counselling, aiding, or abetting such offender, shall be 
guilty of felony, and liable to penal servitude for life, or 
for any time not less than three years, or to be impris¬ 
oned with or without hard labor, for any term not ex¬ 
ceeding five years. If the woman first consent to be 
taken away, and afterward refuse to continue with the 
offender, ami he forcibly detain her; or if she be forcibly 
taken away, and she afterward consent to her marriage 
or defilement; or if she be taken away with her own 
consent, obtained by fraud or imposition, the offence is the 
same. But if a man without fraud, deceit, or violence, 
marries a woman under age, without the consent of her 
father or guardian, that act is not indictable at common 
law. 

(Logic.) Is a form of reasoning in which the greater 
extreme is contained in the medium; but the medium 
is not so evidently in the lesser extreme. Ex. “ What¬ 
ever God has revealed is certainly true; now God has 
revealed a future retribution ; therefore a future retri¬ 
bution is certainly true.” In the use of this kind of 
reasoning, the minor proposition must be proved to be 
contained in the major, or the reasoning is inconclusive. 

Abduct'or, n. [Lat. abducere, to draw away.] (Anat.\ 
A muscle, the office of which is to pull back or draw 
the member to which it is affixed from some other. 
The antagonist is called adductor. 

(Law.) A person guilty of abduction. 

Abdul Aziz. A Sultan of Turkey, b. Feb., 1830, suc¬ 
ceeded his brother Abdul Medjid, June 25, 1861. He 
endeavored to ameliorate the condition of the people, 
but his good int ntions were soon overborne. Dethroned 
by the council of ministers, May 30,1876, and soon after¬ 
wards assassinated, he tWts succeeded by his brother 
Mourad V. 

Abdul Hamid, Sultan of Turkey, b. 1730, a. his 
brother Mustapha II., Jan. 21,1774. He sustained two 
disastrous wars against Russia, and D. April 7, 1789. 

Abdul Hamid II., Sultan of Turkey, born Sept. 
22, 1842 ; succeeded Murad V. Aug. 31, 1876. He was 
defeated by Russia 1877-78, and by the subsequent 
Treaty of Berlin (q.v.) lost much territory for Turkey. 
He was deposed April 27, 1909, for seeking to over¬ 
throw a constitution he had granted in 1908, and suc¬ 
ceeded by his brother Mehrned (Mohammed) V. 

Abdul Medjid, Sultan of Turkey, born April 23, 
1822, died June 25, 1861 ; succeeded to the throne July 
1, 1839, at the early age of 17, eight days after the battle 
of Nezib, in which the troops of the Sultan Mahmoud II 
were defeated by Ibrahim-Pacha. son of Mehemet Ali, 
Pasha of Egypt, the most pow erful vassal of the Turkish 
empire. The interference of the allied powers alone 
prevented the empire from dismemberment at this 
juncture. This danger passed, the young sultan ap¬ 
plied himself to the development of his father’s plans 
of reform, but from the beginning of his administration 
to its close, there was constantly some disturbing ele¬ 
ment to delay or thwart his meritorious purposes. The 
Servian question ; the insurrection in Albania; the war 
in Koordistan; the Turco-Greek and Wallachian revo¬ 
lution of 1848-’9; his noble refusal to surrender the 
Hungarian and Polish refugees to Austria and Russia in 
1850; the question of the holy places, which led to the 
Crimean war; the attempt to assassinate him in 1859; 
and the Syrian massacres of 1860, were all so many ob¬ 
stacles to his progress. To these might also be added 
his natural indolence, love of sensual indulgence, and 
infirm health. The great event of his reign was the 
Crimean war, in which France and England allied them¬ 
selves with Turkey against the encroachments of Rus¬ 
sia, and which was terminated by the fall of Sebastopol 
after a long siege, in 1856. He was succeeded by hit 
brother, Abdul Aziz Khan. 

Abd'ur Rahman. See Abd-er-Rahman. 

Abeam', adv. (Naut.) On the beam, i. e., at right anglaf 
to the ship’s keel. 

Abear'ance, n. [A. S.] Behavior; demeanor. 














ABEL 


ABER 


ABER 


11 


Abece dary, Abeceda rian, a. Belonging to, or 

containing the letters of the alphabet. 

Abecedarian, n. This name is given by some authors 
to one who teaches or learns the alphabet, or first rudi¬ 
ments of literature. 

Abed', adv. On, or in, bed. “ Lying abed." 

A'beel, David, D.D., born at New Brunswick, N. J., June 
12,1804; died at Albany, Sept. 4, 1846. Missionary of 
the Dutch Reformed Church in China. He has left a 
Description of his Life in China and the adjacent coun¬ 
tries, and some other works. 

A'bel, the second son of Adam and brother of Cain. 
The latter was a tiller of the ground, Abel, a shepherd. 
Both brought their offerings before the Lord; Cain, the 
first-fruits of the ground ; Abel, the firstlings of the flock. 
God accepted the offering of Abel; the offeringof Cain he 
rejected. The latter, instigated by envy, murdered his 
brother in the field. Thus the first murder on earth 
was committed. 

Abel, king of Denmark, the son of Vladimir II. He as¬ 
sassinated his brother Eric, in 1250, and took possession 
of his throne. He was put to death by the Frisons, who 
revolted against him on account of the heavy taxes im¬ 
posed upon them. 

Ab'elard, or Abailard, Pierre, a very celebrated 
French scholar and dialectician, born in 1079, at Palais, 
near Nantes. His father, an individual of noble family, 
designed him for the profession of arms, but his vigorous 
capacity and predilections for learning altered that de¬ 
termination, and he was allowed to dedicate himself to 
letters. Unhappily, at that dark period, when genius 
and strength of mind were wasted in trifles, the art of 
verbal disputation formed the only road to learned 
eminence. After the usual grammatical preparation, 
Abelard visited most of the schools of the neighboring 
provinces, and at the age of twenty settled at the uni¬ 
versity of Paris, where he became the pupil and very 
soon the happy rival of William de Champeaux, the most 
famous professor of his day. At the age of forty, satiated 
with fame and disputation, the philosopher and theo¬ 
logian became deeply enamoured of the beautiful and 
accomplished Heloise, niece of Fulbert, a wealthy canon 
of Paris. Favored by the avidity with which both 
uncle and niece seemed disposed to benefit by his philo¬ 
sophical instructions, he soon inspired her with an 
ardent passion in return, the consequence of which 
being soon discovered by the indignant uncle, the two 
lovers fled. On the birth of a child, named Astrolabius, 
Abelard proposed to Fulbert to marry his niece secretly, 
on account of his ecclesiastical prospeets; Fulbert con¬ 
sented. Fulbert, however, who wished to make the 
affair public, became irritated at their joint refusal to 
gratify him, and treated his niece with an asperity which 
obliged Abelard to remove her to an abbey of Benedic¬ 
tine nuns. It was then that Fulbert meditated a most 
atrocious revenge. He employed several ruffians, who 
broke into the chamber of Abelard, and inflicted a mu¬ 
tilation on his person, which put an effectual end to any 
future hope of conjugal felicity. For this outrage the 
ruffians were punished according to the lex talionis, and 
Fulbert endured the confiscation of his goods. On his 
recovery, Abelard, with somewhat ungenerous anxiety, 
prevailed upon Heloise to take the veil in the abbey of 
Argenteuil, and a few days after he himself took the 
habit in that of St. Denis. He then resumed liis lec¬ 
tures, but his ever increasing popularity so much ex¬ 
cited the jealousy of rival teachers, that they contrived 
to involve him in ecclesiastical censures for heresy. 
After long trouble and persecution, he fled into Cham¬ 
pagne, and erected near Nogent (1122) a small oratory, 
afterward enlarged under the name of Paraclete. Such 
was his fame, that he was quickly followed by many of 
his pupils. Jealousy was in consequence again excited 
to his discomfort, and he was about to seek another 
asylum, when he was elected abbot of St. Gildas. About 
this time, the convent of Argenteuil, of which Heloise 
had become prioress, was united to the abbey of St. 
Denis, a proceeding which left tier and her nuns desti¬ 
tute of an habitation. Abelard offered to them the 
Paraclete, which donation was legally sanctioned in 
1127. It was after this removal, that the celebrated 
correspondence took place. The residence of Abelard 
in St. Gildas was embittered by a continued struggle 
against his love, and by hatred of the monks; till 
at last, accused of heresy by St. Bernard, and con¬ 
demned to perpetual silence by the council of Sens, in 
1140, he resolved to set out for Rome to remonstrate 
against this sentence: but taking Cluny in his way. he 
was prevailed upon to abide there by his friend Peter, 
the abbot, who succeeded in reconciling him to the pope 
and to St. Bernard. He lived for two years in Cluny, and 
then, for the benefit of his health, removed to the priory 
of St. Marcellus, where this extraordinary man died in 
1142. His body was removed to the Paraclete at the 
request of Heloise. She died in 1163, and was deposited 
by the side of Abelard, who, in disinterestedness and de¬ 
votedness of affection, had been much her inferior. The 
remains of the two lovers are now deposited beneath a 
fine mausoleum in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, in 
Paris. Abelard could not have excited so much jealousy 
and admiration during a long life, unless he had been a 
man of extraordinary mental vigor; but his works 
convey no corresponding idea of his genius and his 
taste, and it is to be said, in spite of his two modern ad¬ 
mirers, Guizot (Essai sur la Vie et les Ecrits d’Abelard et 
Helo'ise, Paris, 1839) and Cousin, who has published the 
best edition of his works (Paris. I860), that the letters 
of Helo'ise form the principal attraction of the volume 
containing the productions of her lover. 

Ab'ele-tree, or Abel-tree, n. (Bot.) A name of 
the White Poplar, Populus alba. 


Abelia. n. (Bot.) A genus of ornamental shrubs, order 
Caprifoliacese. A. jloribunda, a native of Mexico, is a 
very handsome freely-branching shrub, producing rich 
purple-red tubular flow T ers. 

A'belites, A'belians, A'belonians, Abelo- 
nites, a sect of Christians who appeared in the 4th 
century and denounced matrimony as a service of Satan, 
maintaining that thereby criminal sin was perpetuated. 
As Abel had not been married, they took their name 
from him. — The name of Abeldes was also taken in the 
10th century by the members of a secret society, whose 
professed object was to cultivate the honesty and candor 
of Abel. 

Abelmesak, n. The niusk-seed, used as a perfume. 
Abel-mosk, n. See Hibiscus. 

A'benau, or Abenow, a mountain of Suabia, in Ger¬ 
many, 23 miles from Freiburg, famous for the source of 
the Danube, and for giving name to a large chain of 
mountains. 

Abencerages, the name given by Spanish chroniclers 
to a noble family in the Moorish kingdom of Granada, 
several of whom distinguished themselves immediately 
before the fall of the Mahometan empire in Spain. 
Their struggles with the family of the Zegris, and 
tragical destruction in the royal palace of the Alham¬ 
bra, in Granada, (1466-84,) seem to be destitute of his¬ 
torical foundation. On these events, Chateaubriand has 
written a charming work of fiction, “Les Aventures du 
dernier Abencerrage.” 

Aben-ezra, Abraham, a celebrated rabbi, bom at 
Toledo in Spain, called by the Jews the Wise, Great, and 
Admirable Doctor, was a very able interpreter of the 
Holy Scriptures, and was well skilled in grammar, 
poetry, philosophy, astronomy, and medicine. His prin¬ 
cipal work, “Commentaries on the Old Testament,” is 
printed in Bombergand Buxtorf’s Hebrew Bible, and is 
much esteemed. B. abt. 1093, D. 1168. 

A'bensberg;, a small city in the circle of Regen, in 
Bavaria. Pop. 1,200. It was formerly the seat of the 
Counts Abensberg. Here Napoleon defeated the Aus¬ 
trians in a gFeat battle on the 20th of April, 1809. 
Ab'er, an old British word, which signifies the fall of a 
smaller into a larger water; also the mouth of a river, 
whence some places derive a characteristic in their 
names: as, A6er-conwav, A&er-gavenny, Ac. 
Abera'von, a borough town of Glamorganshire, in 
Wales, England, at the mouth of the Avon, 192 miles W. 
of London. Long. 3° 35' W., lat. 51° 4' N. Mines of 
coal and iron. Pop. 6,567. 

Aberbro-tliwieli, or Arbroath, a seaport manu¬ 
facturing town in the county of Forfar, Scotland, at the 
mouth of the river Brothock, 58 miles from Edinburgh. 
Population, 20,170. Manufactures of sail-cloth, thread, 
and leather. 

Ab ercrombie, John, M.D., an eminent Scotch phy¬ 
sician, born at Aberdeen, 1781, died, Edinburgh, 1844. 
His principal work: “ Pathological and Practical Re¬ 
searches on Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord.” 
Edinburgh, 1828,1S30. 

Abercrombie, Sir Ralph, a British general, born in 
1738. He was commander-in-chief in the West Indies, 
in 1795; in the attempt against Holland in 1799, and in 
the‘expedition to Egypt. Mortally wounded in the be¬ 
ginning of the battle of Alexandria, (21st March, 1801,) 
the general kept the field during the day, and died some 
days after his victory. 

Aberdare', a town of South Wales, in the county of 
Glamorgan, England. Mines of coal, and a large irou- 
trade. Pop. of parish, 38.518. 

Aberdeen', George Hamilton Gordon, (Earl of,) 
born 1784. Appointed ambassador to the Austrian 
court in 1813, he conducted the negotiation which ter¬ 
minated in the alliance of that power with Britain. 
He took office as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs 
in 1828, in the new ministry formed under the Duke of 
Wellington, and in 1843 in the Peel ministry. Enter¬ 
ing public life as a Tory, the general principle which 
guided his policy was that of non-interference in the 
internal affairs of foreign States, which, joined to his 
well-known sympathy with such statesmen as Metter- 
nich, has exposed him to the suspicion of being inimical 
to the cause of popular liberty. In 1853, Earl A. was 
selected to head a new ministry, which for some time 
was extremely popular. He endeavored to prevent the 
country from entering upon the conflict with Russia, 
but all his efforts were unavailing. Under the remainder 
of his administration, the public believed that the war 
was not conducted with that degree of vigor necessary 
to insure favorable results. Failing to receive sufficient 
support to carry out his measures, he resigned in 1S55; 
d. Dec. 14,1860. As an author, the Earl is known by 
a work entitled “An Inquiry into the Principles of 
Beauty in Grecian Architecture.” 

Aberdeen, the most considerable town in the north of 
Scotland, in the county of the same name, at the mouth 
of the river Dee, which forms its harbor. It is a flour¬ 
ishing seat of trade; and its handsome granite architec¬ 
ture excites the admiration of all visitors. Its college 
and university, annually attended by nearly 600 students, 
are very celebrated. — Exp., finecotton and woollen fabrics, 
granite, cattle, grain, preserved meat.and fish; — Manf., 
combs, iron-works, ship-building. — Steamers and sail¬ 
ing vessels belonging to the port, about 250. Pop. in 
1871. 88.125: 1881, 105,054; in 1891. 121.623. 
Aberdeen, in Arkansas, a post-village of Monroe co., 
on the White river, about 60 miles E. by S. of Little 
Rock. 

Aberdeen, in Indiana, a post-village of Ohio co., about 
27 miles E.N.E. of Madison. 

Aberdeen, in Maryland, a post-village of Harford co., 
5 miles S.W. of Havre-de-Grace. 


Aberdeen, in Mississippi, a city, capital of Monroe 
co., on the Tombigbee river, 165 miles N.E. of Jackson. 
It is connected by water with Mobile, 540 miles distant. 
It is an important educational centre and an extensive 
cotton mart. 

Aberdeen, in Ohio, a post-village of Brown co., on the 
Ohio river, opposite Maysville in Kentucky, 123 miles 
S.W. of Columbus. 

Aberdeen, in Tennessee, a small village of Monroe co 

Aberdeenshire, a county in Scotland. Its greatest 
length is 87,and breadth 36miles; witha circuit of about 
200 miles, of which 60 are on the coast of the German 
ocean. In extent, it is very nearly one-sixteenth part of 
Scotland. Pop. in 1891, 281,331. This county is popu¬ 
larly divided into five districts. 1st. Mar, containing 
almost half the county, — mountainous district, particu¬ 
larly Braemar, the highland part of it, much frequented 
by tourists, on account of its wild and majestic beauties. 
Ben-Macdhui, the second highest mountain in Scotland, 
rises here to the height of 4296 feet. 2d. Formartin, of 
which the land on the sea-coast is low and fertile; but 
hills and mosses are spread over the interior. 3d. Buchan, 
having a bold, precipitous shore of 50 miles, but generally 
a flat surface. 4th. Garioch, a large and beautiful valley, 
naturally very fertile. 5th. Strathbogie, the greater part 
of which consists of hills, mosses, and moors. The chief 
mineral wealth of the county is its granite. The prin¬ 
cipal rivers are the Dee and the Don. Chief town, Aber¬ 
deen. 

Aberdevine, n. (Zool.) A singing-bird, sometimes 
called Siskin. It is the Carduelis spinus of Cuvier, and 
resembles the green variety of the canary-bird, with 
which it is often paired, to produce what are called mule 
birds. In its habits it is migratory, breeding in the 
north of Europe, and visiting Germany, France, and 
Britain only in the autumn and winter. 



Fig. 9.— ABERDEVINE. 


Ab'erfoil, in Alabama, a post-office of Bullock CO., 158 
miles S.E. of Tuscaloosa. 

Abergavenny, a town in Monmouthshire, 14 miles 
W. of Monmouth, at the confluence of the Usk and Ga- 
venny, England. Coal and iron mines. 

Aberii, a Swiss landscape painter of considerable emi¬ 
nence. B. at Winterthur, 1723; d. at Berne, 1786. 

Abernethy, John, an English surgeon, b. at Aber- 
nethy in Scotland, 1764; d. 1831. He was the first t« 
enunciate and establish the great principle “ that local 
diseases are symptoms of a disordered constitution, not 
primary and independent maladies, and that they are to 
be cured by remedies calculated to make a salutary im¬ 
pression on the general frame, not by topical dressing, 
nor any mere manipulation of surgery.” To this he 
added a second, namely, “ that the disordered state of the 
constitution either originates from, or is rigorously 
allied to derangement of the stomach and bowels, and 
that it can only be reached by remedies which first exer« 
cise a curative influence upon these organs.” 

Abernethy, a post-village of Perry co., Missouri, about 
10 miles S.W. of Mississippi river. 

Aber'ranee. Aberrancy. [Lat. aberrare, to wan¬ 
der.] A deviating from the right way; an error. 

Aber rant, a. Deviating, wandering from the right or 
known way. 

(But.) Abnormal. 

Aberra'tion, n. [Lat. aberratio .] The act of devi¬ 
ating from the common track, or from the right way; — 
applied to the mind. 

(Astron.) A remarkable phenomenon, by which all 
the stars and other heavenly bodies, at certain season* 
of the year, appear to deviate in a slight degree from 
their true situations in the heavens, in consequence, as is 
now ascertained, of the motion of the light from every 
star combining itself with the motion of the eye of the 
observer, caused by the earth’s annual revolution round 
the sun. All vision, it is well known, is performed by 
the pajrricle or rays of light from any object striking 
against the eye, and the object invariably appears in that 
direction in which the rays finally impinge. Hence, for 
example, arise the effects of refraction, by which the 
heavenly bodies appear more elevated in the horizon 
than they really are; the rays of light,as they penetrate 
the atmosphere, bending gradually downward toward 
the surface of the earth, so as at last to reach the eye of 
the spectator in a direction more inclined from the hori¬ 
zon than that in which they issue from the object: and 
thus the latter appears more elevated in the sky than it 
really is. In a similar manner the rays of light which fall 
directly from the stars, in certain circumstances, owing to 
the motion of the earth, really impinge on the eye of a 
spectator in a direction somewhat oblique, so that they 
appear on this account in a station different from what 
they really occupy; and this constitutes the aberration- 
(Optics.) A certain deviation in the rays of light, from 
the true and geometrical focus of reflection c? refmctioa 












12 


ABTA 


ABIG 


ABJE 


In curved specula or lenses, arising from two causes, viz.: 
1st. The figure of the speculum or lens, giving rise to 
what is called the spherical aberration: and, 2d. The un¬ 
equal refrangibility of the rays of light giving rise, in 
lenses only however, to a far more material, and in other 
respects inconvenient aberration, termed the chromatic, 
or the aberration of color, or of refrangibility. The ob¬ 
ject of all specula or lenses, is to collect the rays of light 
proceeding from any object into a single point, so as to 
form there a distinct image of the object,either enlarged 
or diminished, according as our purposes may require: 
and on this principle depends the whole operation of the 
telescope, the microscope, and other optical instruments. 
The more completely the rays can be collected into a 
focus, so much the more distinctly, in every case, does 
the image of the object appear at that point, and so 
much the more perfect is the operation of the instru¬ 
ment. But there are certain curves or figures in the 
speculum or lens, which are necessary to produce this 
effect. Parallel rays, for example, can only be collected 
Into one focus by a reflecting speculum of a parabolic 
form, er by a refracting lens of parabolic or hyperbolic, 
combined with spherical curves: all other forms cause 
more or less a dispersion or aberration of the rays from 
the focus. The aberration of refrangibility arises from 
this circumstance, that in a homogeneous lens of glass 
the violet rays are greatly more refracted than the red. 
The latter are therefore thrown to a greater distance, 
and the others in proportion almost all deviating from 
the true focus: hence arises that confusion of images, and 
that fringe of extraneous color with which objects are 
surrounded when seen through glasses of this description: 
which have ever formed the great obstacle to the perfec¬ 
tion of the refracting telescope, before the invention of 
achromatic glasses, by which the refracting telescope has 
been wonderfully improved. 

(Physiol.) The passage of a fluid into parts not ap¬ 
propriate for it. 

(Med.) A partial alienation of mind. 

Abert, a lake, in Oregon, about 20 miles long and 5 miles 
wi'e. Lat. 42° 45' N., Ion. 120° W. 

Aberun'ciitor, n. [Lat. ab, and truncare, to weed 
out.] A weeding-machine; a weeder. 

Aberyst'witli, ( db-vr-ust'wilh ,) a town of Cardigan¬ 
shire, N. Wales, seated on the Rheidol, near its conflu¬ 
ence with the Ystwith, where it falls into the sea. Trades 
in lead, flannels, and oak-bark. A. is a fashionable water¬ 
ing-place, and seat of a Welsh University. 

Abes'ta, or Aves'ta, the name of one of the sacred 
books of the Persian magi, which they ascribe to their 
great founder Zoroaster. The Abesta is a commentary 
on two others of their religious books, called Zend and 
Pazend; the three together including the whole system 
of the Ignicolae, or worshippers of fire. 

Abet', v.a. [Lat. abettum, incitement.] To push forward 
another; to support him in his designs by connivance, 
encouragement, or help ;—generally taken in an ill sense. 


44 And you that do abet him in this kind, 

Cherish rebellion, and are rebels all." — Shaft. 

A bet'men 1, n. The act of abetting. 

Abet'tor. n. (Law.) One who promotes or procures a 
deed or crime to be committed; an instigator. See Ac¬ 
cessary. 

Abevacua'tion, n. [Lat. ab, and evacuare, to empty 
out.] (Med.) A partial evacuation. 

A'bex, a country of Africa, bordering on the Red sea at 
the east. It has Nubia and Sennaar on the north, Abys¬ 
sinia on the west and south. Its principal towns are 
Suakim and Arkeko. It is subject to the sheriff of Mea 
and is about 500 miles in length and 100 in breadth. 
It is a mountainous country, sandy, barren, unhealthy, 
and much infested by wild beasts. 

Abey'ance, n. [Old Fr. abbaiaunce, expectation.] (Law.) 
Expectation or contemplation of law. When there is 
no person in existence in whom an inheritance can vest, 
it is said to be in abeyance, that is, in expectation; the 
law always considering it potentially existing, and ready 
to vest whenever a proper owner appears. 

Abey'ant, a. In a state of abeyance or suspension. 

AS* gillus, surnamed Prester John, a king of the Pri¬ 
sons. He attended Charlemagne to the Holy Land, and 
did not return with 'dm, but made great conquests in 
Abyssinia, which was called from him the empire of 
Prester John. Lived in the 8th century. 

Ab'lial, n. An E ast Indian fruit, obtained from a spe¬ 
cies of cypress; used in medicine as an emmenagogue. 

Ab'hebbad, or the Lake of Ausa, in the country of 
Adel; is the receptacle of the great river Huwash, 
which drains the eastern regions of Abyssinia. During 
the rains the lake acquires a superficial extent of about 
50 leagues in circumference. 

Abhor, i). (t. [Lat. abhorrere.] To hate with acrimony; 

’ to detest with extremity; to loath. 

Abhorred', v. a. Greatly hated; detested. 

Abhor'rcnce, and Ablior'rency, n. The act of 
abhorring; detestation. 

Abhor'rent, a. Hating; detesting, abominating; 
struck with abhorrence; — contrary to; foreign from; 
inconsistent with. 

Abhor'rently, adv. With abhorrence. 

Abhor'rer, n. One who abhors. 

Abhor'rible, a. Abominable; detestable; that is to 
be abhorred. 

Abli or'ring 4 , n. The object or feeling of abhorrence. 

11 They shall be an abhorring to all flesh.”— Isa. lxvi. 24. 

Ab iad Bahrel, a great river in the interior of Africa, 
whichat Haltaia, below Sennaar, joins the Bahr-el-Azrek, 
or river of Abyssinia; and these unite at Khartoum and 
form the true Nile. 


Abia'tbar, (the father of abundance.) a high priest of 
the Jews, son of Ahimelech, who had borne the same 
office, and received David in his house. This so enraged 
Saul that he put Ahimelech and 81 priests to death; 
Abiathar alone escaped the massacre. He afterward 
was high priest, and often gave King David testimonies 
of his fidelity. But after this he conspired with Adoni- 
jah, in order to raise him to the throne of king David, 
his father; which so exasperated Solomon against him, 
that he divested him of the priesthood, and banished 
him a. m. 3021, b. c. 1014. 

A'bib, [Ileb. abib, an ear of corn.] A name given by 
the Jews to the first month of their ecclesiastical year, 
afterward called Nisan. It answered to the latter part 
of March and beginning of April. 

A'bichite. ( Chem.) A native arsenate of copper, found 
chiefly associated with other copper ores in Cornwall, and 
in the Hartz. 

Abida-je'bel, a volcanic mountain of Abyssinia, which 
forms, with the mountain of Aiyalo, or Azalo, the centre 
of a vast volcanic tract, 30 miles in diameter, studded 
with small cones, each showing a distinct crater. It is 
said to be 4000 feet above the plain. Lat 10°9' N., long. 
41° E. 

Abide', v. n. [A. S. bidian .] To stay or continue in a 
place; not remove; to dwell. 

41 The Marquis Dorset, as I hear, is fled 

To Richmond, in the parts where he abides."—Shah. 

— To remain; not cease or fail. 

44 As Mount Zion, which cannot he removed, but abideth for¬ 
ever ."—Psalm cxxv. 1. 

— To continue in the same state. 

44 The fear of the Lord tendeth to life: and he that hath it 
shall abide satisfied." 

Abide, v.a. To wait for; expect; attend; wait upon; 
await. 

44 Poor harmless lambs abide their enmity."— Shak. 

44 Bonds and afflictions abide me."— Acts xx. 23. 

— To bear or support the consequences of a thing. 

44 Ah me ! they little know 
How dearly I abide that boast so vain."— Milton. 

— To bear or support patiently; to tolerate. 

44 She could not abide Master Shallow."— Shak. 

Abid'er, n. One who abides or dwells. 

Abid'ing, n. A waiting; a continuance. 

Abidingly. adv. Permanently. 

A'bies, n. [Lat. a fir-tree.] (Bot.) A genus of the 
tribe abietinea;, ord. Pinacese, composed of evergreen trees 
of various sizes, important for the valuable timber and 
the resinous substance that are produced by many of the 
species. This genus, in the classification of Lindley, in¬ 
cludes all the species known under the name Fib, q. v. 



Fig. 10.— ABIES AMERICANA. 


Abiet'ic Acid. (Chem.) When Strasburg or Cana¬ 
dian turpentine (obtained from abies picea, or silver fir, 
and abies balsamea, or balm fir) is distilled with water; 
the residue exhausted with absolute alcohol; the solu¬ 
tion evaporated to dryness; the residual resin boiled 
with twice its weight of solution of carbonate of potas¬ 
sium; the alkaline liquid poured off; and the residue, 
which is a mixture of abietin and ahietate of potassium, 
treated with 30 times its weight of water, — abietin sepa¬ 
rates in the crystalline form, while abitate of potas¬ 
sium remains in solution. This dissolution may he de¬ 
composed by sulphuric acid, and the precipitated abietic 
acid purified by digestion in hot aqueous ammonia; as 
thus obtained, it is a resinous mass which dissolves easily 
in alcohol, ether, and volatile oils, forming acid solutions, 
from which it separates in the crystalline state. At 55° 
it becomes soft and translucent. 

Abi'etin. (Chem.) It is a tasteless, inodorous resin,solu¬ 
ble in alcohol, especially at the boiling heat. It melts 
when heated, and solidifies in a crystalline mass on cool¬ 
ing. Its formula is not known. (See Abietic Acid.) 

Abietinete, n. pi. [From aWes.] (Bot.) A sub-ord. of the 
Pinacese, composed of evergreen or deciduous trees or 
shrubs. Trunks straight and conical: leaves either sol¬ 
itary, or collected in little fasciles; flowers in calkins, 
consisting of open imbricated carpels in the form of 
scales in the axil of a bract; fruits forming a strobile or 
cone. The principal genera are Pinus and Abies. 

Ab'igail, the beautiful wife of Nabal, a wealthy owner 
of goats and sheep in Carmel. When David’s messengers 
were slighted by Nabal, Abigail took the blame upon 
herself, and succeeded in appeasing the anger of David. 
Ten days after, Nabal died, and David sent for Abigail 
and made her his wife. (1 Sam. xxv. 14, &c.) This 


name is sometimes given, asanickname, toalady’smaid. 
A. called herself handmaid in her address to David. 

Ab'ila, or Aby la, a mountain of Africa, opposite that 
which is called Calpe, on the coast of Spain, only IS 
miles distant. These two mountains are named the Pil¬ 
lars of Hercules, and -were supposed formerly to have 
been united, till the hero separated them, and thereby 
effected a communication between the Mediterranean 
and Atlantic seas. 

Abila. (Anc. Geog.) A city of ancient Syria, the capi¬ 
tal of the tetrarcliy of Abilene. Its site is indicated by 
some ruins and inscriptions, near the village of Souk. 
From the tradition of this being the scene of Abel's 
murder, it is now called Nebi-Abel. It lies be twee* 
Baalbec and Damascus. 

Abildgaard, Philip Christian, a physician of Den¬ 
mark, and one of the most accomplished naturalists of 
the 18th century. — Nicholas Abraham, a brother of 
Philip, author of some useful works on art. and an his¬ 
torical painter ol considerable ability. B. 1744, d. 1809. 

Abildgaardia, n. (Bot.) Worthless dwarf species 
of apetalous grass-like plants; increased by divisions, and 
grown in any common soil in N. Holland. (Linn. cl. 3, 
ord. 1, nat. ord. Cyperacese.) 

Ab'ilene, in Kama*, a thriving city, cap. of Dickinson 
co. Has flour and planing mills, creamery and an exten¬ 
sive trade in cattle and grain. Pop. (1890), 3,547. 

Abil'ity, n. [Fr. habilete .] The power of doing, or 
the being in a position to do, a thing. 

The plural, abilities, frequently signifies the faculties 
or powers of the mind, and sometimes the force of under¬ 
standing given by nature, as distinguished from ac¬ 
quired qualifications. 

“ Natural abilities are like Datura] plants.that need pruning by 
atudy.”— Baron. 

Abiin'elech, [Heb. father of the leiny.] The name of 
the Philistine king of Gerar, in the time of Abraham ; 
but from its recurrence among that people it was per¬ 
haps rather a titular distinction than a proper name, 
like Pharaoh among the Egyptians. 

Ab'ingdon, a town in Berkshire, England, on a branch 
of the Thames, 55 milesN.W.of London. Trade in grain 
and malt. A. is very old, became the seat of a monastery 
in 680, which was destroyed by the Danes in 871 and in 
1645 Lord Essex held it against Charles I and put every 
Irish prisoner to death without trial, hence the phrase, 
“Abingdon law.” Was rebuilt under Edgar and called 
Abbaudune or Abbendon, the town of the Abbey. 

Abingdon, in Iff., a city of Knox co.;—a p. v. of Lake 
co.—In Mil., a p. v. of Hartford co.—In Va., theconnty 
seat of Washington co.;—A twp. of Gloucester co. 

Abingdon Law, (English History). See Abingdon, 
a town in England, five lines above. 

Ab'inger, James Scarlett, Lord, an English lawyer, 
born in Jamaica 1769, died in London 1844; he was the 
most popular advocate of his day. He was made Chief 
Baron of the Exchequer in 1834. 

Aldington, in Connecticut, a post-village of Windham 
co., 37 miles E. by N. of Hartford. 

Abington, in Illinois, a thriving township of Mercer 
county. 

Abington, in Indiana, a post-village and township 
of Wayne"m>unty, 72 miles east of Indianapolis. 

Abington, in Iowa, a village of Jefferson co. 

Abington. in Massachusetts, a post-township of Ply¬ 
mouth co., 20 miles S. by E. of Boston. Manf. boots 
and shoes. 

Abington, in Nebraska, a village of Colfax co. 

Abington, in Pennsylvania, a township of Lacka¬ 
wanna co., about 27 miles N.N.E. of Wilkesbarre. 

—A flourishing village in this townsbip. The name of 
the post-office is Glenburn. 

Abington, in the same State, a village of Montgomery 
co., about 10 m. N. of Philadelphia. 

Ab ini'tio. [Lat.l From the beginning. 

Abintestate, a. [Lat. abintestatus, having made no last 
will.] (Law.) Inheriting from a person who died intes¬ 
tate, or without making a will. 

Ab'inzi, Abinzy, or Abinksk Tartars, the 
name of a Tartar community in Western Siberia, about 
600 miles from Tobolsk. 

Abipo'nians, a tribe of American Indians, who for¬ 
merly inhabited the district of El Gran Chaco, in Para¬ 
guay ; but the hostilities of the Spaniards finally com¬ 
pelled them to remove southward into the territory 
lying between Santa Fe and St. Jago. The whole nation 
does not much exceed 5,000. 

A'bi<iiia. a township of Marion co., Oregon. 

Abirritation, n. (Med.) A pathological condition op¬ 
posite to that of irritation; debility; want of strength. 

Abis'bal, Henry O’Donnell, Count of, a celebrated 
Spanish general. B. in Andalusia, 1770. On Napoleon’s 
invasion of Spain, the part he took in the relief of Ge- 
rona, 1807, led to his promotion to thecommand of Cata¬ 
lonia. Though defeated in the plains of Vich by Gen. 
Souham, he a month afterward forced Augereau to 
abandon Lower Catalonia; and at the village of Abisbal, 
he compelled the surrender of a whole French columa 
under Gen. Schwartz. D. in France, 1834. 

Ahisll'ai, son of David's sister Zeruiah, and brother to 
Joab, was one of the celebrated warriors who flourished 
in the reign of David. He killed w ith his own hand 30(1 
men, with no other weapon but his lance; and slew a 
Philistine giant, the iron of whose spear weighed 300 
shekels. (1 Sam. xxvi., 2 Sam. xxiii.) 

Abject, a. [Lat. abjectus, thrown away as of no value.] 
Mean, or worthless, spoken of persons; contemptible or of 
no value, used of things ; without hope or regard, used of 
condition; destitute, mean, and despicable, used of actios* 
‘‘ To what base ends, and by wbat abject ways 
Are mortals urg'd thro' sacred lust of praise 7" -Jbejtir 








ABLU 


ABOM 


ABOU 


13 


Abject, n. A man without hope; a man whose mise-! 
ries are irretrievable. 

“Servants and abjects flout me."—Herbert. 

Abject'edness, n. The state of being abject. 

Abjec'tion, n. [From abject.] Meanness of mind; 
want of spirit; servility; baseness; — also, the act of 
bringing down or humbling, and the state of being re¬ 
jected or cast away. 

“An abjection from the beatific regions where God, and his angels 
and saints, dwelt forever."— Bishop Taylor. 

Abjectly, adv. In an abject manner. 

Ab jectness, n. The state of being abject. 

Abju'dicate, v. a. [Lat. abjudicure.] To give away 
by judgment. 

Abjudica'tion, «. Rejection. 

Abjura tion, n. [Lat. abjuratio.] The act of abjuring. 
A public and solemn recantation of opinion. The “ab¬ 
juration of heresy ” was an act frequently required by 
the Roman Catholic church. History affords several ex¬ 
amples of this act. Henry IV. abjured the Protestant 
religion on ascending the throne of France, in 1593; the 
queen of Sweden abjured her religious opinions in 
1651; Turenne, in 1688, and Augustus II. of Poland, in 
1706. Galileo was obliged to abjure his philosophical 
opinions by the Inquisition in 1633. 

(Law.) See Naturalization. 

Abj ura'tory, a. Containing abjuration. 

Abjure', v. a. [Fr. abjurer.) To renounce or deny 
upon oath; as, to abjure allegiance to a government; — 
to renounce, reject, or retract solemnly; as, to abjure an 
error; — to give up; to reject, as if by a final resolution. 

“ No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose 
To wage against the enmity o’ the air." — Shale. 

Abjur'er, n. One who abjures. 

Abka'sia, or Abasia, a country inhabited by a war¬ 
like tribe to the N. W. of the Caucasus, on the Kouban. 
They are descended from Greek colonists, and prefer a 
life of rapine and adventure to any other. 

Ablacta'tion, n [Lat. ablactatio.] (Med.) The wean¬ 
ing of a child from the breast, or of young beasts from 
their dam. — (Hnrt.) The process of grafting, now called 
inarching or grafting by approach. 

Abla'queate, v. a. [Lat. ablaqueare , to turn up the 
earth around the foot of a tree.] To lay bare the roots 
of a tree. 

Ablaquea'tion, n. An old term in gardening, signi¬ 
fying the operation of removing the earth and baring 
the roots of trees in winter, to expose them more freely 
to the air, rain, &c. 

Abla tion, n. The act of taking away. (Med.) An 
evacuation. 

Ab'lative. [Lat. ablatus, taken away.] (Grammar.) 
The sixth case of the Latin noun implied in English by 
the preposition from. 

Ab'lay, a country of Great Tartary, governed by a Kal¬ 
muck chief, under the protection of Russia. It lies east 
of the river Irtisch, and extends 400 leagues along the 
southern frontiers of Siberia. 

Ablaze', adv. [See blaze.] On fire; in a blaze. 

A'ble, a. [Fr. habile.] Having strong faculties, or great 
strength or knowledge, riches, or any other power of 
mind, body, or fortune; having sufficient power; enabled; 
as, able to work; able to endure pain. 

“ He was served by the ablest men that were to be found."— Bacon. 

Able, v. a. To uphold or back up. 

“None does attend, none, I say none; I’ll able ’em."— Shale. 

A'ble, or Abel, Thomas, chaplain to Catherine of Ar- 
ragon. His attachment to his royal mistress brought him 
into great trouble. He suffered death for denying the 
king’s supremacy, 1534. 

A'ble-bod'ied, a. Strong of body; robust. 

Ableg'mina, those choice parts of the entrails of vic¬ 
tims which were offered by the Romans in sacrifice to 
the gods. They wero sprinkled with Hour and burnt 
upon the altar, the priests pouring some wine on them. 

Ab'len, and Ablet, n. [Fr. ablette.] The bleak, L.rucis- 
cus alburnus ; a small fresh-water fish. 

A'bleness, n. Ability of body or mind; ability; capa¬ 
bility. 

Ab'lepsy. [Fr ablepsie.] (Med.) Want of sight; blindness. 

Abliga'tion, n. A tying up from. 

Ablig’uri'tion, [L:\t.abliguritio.] A prodigal spend¬ 
ing on meat and drink. 

Ab'locate. [Lat. ablocare.] To let out to hire; to lease. 

Abloca'tion, a letting out to hire. 

Abloom', adv. In a blooming state. 

Ab'lneiit, a. [FrlLat. abluo, to wash away.] That which 
washes away; that which has the power of cleansing. 

Ab luent, n. (Med.) A detergent. 

Ablu tion, n. [Lat .ablutin.] Literally, a washing away. 

(Eccl.) A ceremony consisting in bathing the body, or a 
part of it. in water, which has been practised more or less 
extensively by the disciples of almost every form of faith. 
Ablutions, or lustrations, as they are more commonly 
called, even constituted a part of the Mosaic ceremonial, 
and were practised among the Jews on various occasions, 
both by the priests and by the people. They occupy an 
important place in the Brahminical and other religions 
of India, where the waters of the Ganges are considered 
•as having so purifying a power, that even if a votary, 
who cannot go to that river,'shall call upon it to cleanse 
him, in prayer, while bathing in another stream, he will 
be freed from any sin or pollution he may have con¬ 
tracted. But the religion by which ablutions have been 
enjoined most punctiliously, and in the greatest number, 
is the Mohammedan. According to the precepts of the 
most rigid doctors of that faith, it may almost be said 
that scarcely the most ordinary or trifling action can be 
rightly performed without being either preceded or fol¬ 


lowed by an entire or partial lustration. The simple 
ceremony of the Christian baptism may be regarded as 
an adoption of this natural type by the author of our 
faith. Although, however, that is the only instance in 
which dipping in or sprinkling with water has been 
enjoined under the dispensation of the New Testament, 
the early Christians also appear to have been in the habit 
of undergoing ablution with water, before partaking of 
the communion. The sprinkling with holy water, in 
use in the Catholic church, may be considered as a spe¬ 
cies of ablution; and that term is also applied both to 
the water in which the priest, who consecrates the host, 
washes his hands, and to a drop of wine and water which 
used anciently to be swallowed immediately after the 
holy wafer. 

Ablu'tionary, a. Pertaining to ablution. 

Ablu'vioil. [Lat. abluvio.] That which is washed 
off: act of washing away by water. 

Ably, adv. In an able manner; with great ability. 

Ab negate, v. a. [Lat. abnegare.] To deny. 

Abnega t ion. n. [Lat. abnegutio.] Denial; renuncia¬ 
tion;—applied rather to rights or objects of desire than 
to statements; as, the abnegation of self or evil desires. 

Ab'neg’ative, a. Denying; renouncing; negative. 

Ab'neg’ator, n. One who denies. 

Ab'ner. the cousin of Saul, whom he served with great 
loyalty against David. Murdered by Joab, 1048 b. c. 

Ab'net. [Heb. abnet, from the rad. banal, to bind.] The 
girdle of a Jewish priest. 

Ab'noba, now Ab'enau, a long range of mountains 
in Germany, extending from the Rhine to the Neckar, 
having different names in the different countries through 
which they stretch: the Oden, or Odenwald, about the 
river Maine; the Spessart, between Hesse and Franco¬ 
nia; Baar, in Wirtemberg. 

Ab'notlate, v. a. [Lat. abnodare.] To cut knots from 
trees. 

Abnoda'tion, n. The act of cutting away the knots 
of trees. 

Abnor'mal, a., [Lat. ab, from, and norma, a rule,] is 
employed, in physical science, to denote any state of 
irregularity or deviation from the general form, or law, 
or nature. 

Abnor'mity, n. The state or quality of being abnor- 

,,mal; irregularity; deformity. 

Abo, a city in the Russian province of Finland, and chief 
town of the govt, of the same name. It is situated near 
the extremity of the promontory formed by the gulfs 
of Bothnia and Finland, and is divided .into two parts by 
the river Aurajoki. Previous to 1817, Abo was the capi¬ 
tal of Finland. Vessels drawing 9 or 10 feet of water go 
up to the town: but those drawing more, anchor 3 miles 
S.W. of the river, where there is a good harbor; and 
thence the goods are sent by small craft to Abo. Pop. 

..31,671. 

A'bo, Archipelago op, an extensive group of low, rocky 
islands in the Baltic sea, spreading along the S. and 
W. coasts of Finland, opposite the city of Abo, rendering 
the navigation difficult and dangerous. 

Aboard', adv. [Sax. a, for on, and board.] (Naut.) The 
inside of a ship. Hence, any person who enters a ship 
is said to go aboard; but when an enemy enters in the 
time of battle, he is said to board, a phrase which always 
implies hostility.— To fall aboard of, is to strike or en¬ 
counter another ship when one or both are in motion, or 
to be driven upoH a ship by the force of the wind or cur¬ 
rent.— Aboard-main-tack, the order to draw the main- 
tack, t. e., the lower corner of the mainsail, down to 
the chess-tree. 

Abode', pret. of abide. 

Abode, n. Habitation, dwelling, place of residence. 

“ I know thy abode and thy going out." — 2 Kings xix. 27. 

— Stay, continuance in a place. 

“ Sweet friends, your patience for my long abode." — Shale. 

— To make abode; to dwell, to reside; to inhabit. 

“ Deep in a cave the sibyl makes abode." — Dryden. 

Abode, v. a. To foreshow;— 1 >. n., to be an omen. (0.) 

Abode'ment, n. A secret anticipation of something 
future; an impression upon the mind of some event to 
come; prognostication; omen. (O.) 

Abod'ing’, n Presentiment; prognostication. (0.) 

Ab'oite, in Indiana, a post-village and township of 
Allen co. Pop. (1890) 970. The village is on the canal 
connecting Fort Wayne with Peru. 

Also, in the same county, a river joining Little River. 

Abolish. [Fr. abolir.] To put an end to; to annul; 
to destroy; to annihilate; as,to abolish laws, slavery, Ac. 

Abol'isliable, a. [Fr. abdissable.] Capable of being 
abolished., 

Abol'islier. n. One who abolishes. 

Aboli'tion, and Abol ishment, n. [Fr. abolition.] 
The act of abolishing. Abolition is most frequently used. 

Aboli'tionism, n. The principles of the abolitionists. 

AboH"tionists, n. pi. A term used in the United 
States to designate the party who desired the immediate 
and total abolition of slavery. See M.avf.ry. 

Aboli'tionize, v. a. To imbue with the principle of 
abolitionism. 

Abolla, n. A warm kind of garment, lined or doubled, 
worn by the Greeks and Romans, chiefly out of the city, 
in following the camp. 

Abo'ma, n. (Zobl.) A species of large serpent, inhabiting 
the morasses of South America. See Boa. 

Aboma'siim, or Aboina'sns, ??. [Lat.] (Anat.) 
The fourth stomach of a ruminant animal. 

Abo'iliey, the capital of the kingdom of Dahomey, in 
Africa. ’Lat. 7° 59' N., Long. 1° 20' E. Pop. said to be 
24,0u0. It is said that within the royal palace are bar¬ 
racks, in which the 5000 Amazons of the king's army 
live in celibacy, under the care of eunuchs. 


Abom'inable, a. [Lat. abominabilis.] Very hateful; 
detestable; worthy of abhorrence. 

Aboni'inableness. n. The state of being abomi¬ 
nable; hatefulness; odiousness. 

Abom'inably, adv. In an abominable manner; most 
hatefully; detestably. 

Aboin'inate, v.a. [Lat. abominare.] To abhor, detest, 
hate utterly. 

Aboiilina'tion, n. [Fr. from Lat. abominatio.] Hatred, 
detestation; as, to have in abomination ; — the object of 
hatred. 


“ Every shepherd is an abomination to the Egyptians." 

Gen. xlvi. 34. 

—That which causes pollution or wickedness. 

“ Ashtaroth, the abomination of the Sidonians.”—2 Kings xxiii. 13s 

A l»»o. Abu, Abuje, Abujghacl. a celebrated 

mountain of Rajpootana, in India, rising to an elevation 
of 5000 feet above the level of the sea, N. Lit. 42° 40'; E. 
Lon. 72° 48'. On the very top is a small round platform 
containing a cavern, with a block of granite, bearing the 
impression of the feet of Bata-Briga, (an incarnation of 
Vishnu,) which is the great object of pilgrimage to the 
Jains, Shrawaks, and Banians. 

Aboo-arish, a narrow and barren strip of land, with s 
capital of the same name, on the border of the Red sea. 

Aboon', adv. Above. (Scot.) 

Aboriginal, a. [Lat. ab, and origo, origin.] First; ori¬ 
ginal: primitive; as, the aboriginal tribes of America. 

Aboriginal, n. An original inhabitant; one of the 
aborigines. 

Aborigines, n. j l. Originally' a proper name, given 
to certain people in Italy, who inhabited the ancient 
Latium. — In modern geography this term is applied 
to the primitive inhabitants of a country, in contradis¬ 
tinction to colonies, or new races of people. 

Abort', v. n. [Lat. abortare.] To bring forth before the 
time. ( O.) 

Abor'tient, a. (Bot.) Sterile, barren. 

Abor'tion, n. [Lat. abortio.] The immature product of 
an organ; — any fruit or product that does not come to 
maturity, or anything which fails in its progress, before 
it is matured or perfect; as, his attempt proved an abortion. 

( Midwifery.) Miscarriage, or the expulsion of the 
foetus from the uterus, before the seventh month, after 
which it is called premature labor. It most commonly 
occurs between the eighth and eleventh weeks of preg¬ 
nancy, but may happen at a later period. The principal 
causes of miscarriage are blows or falls; great exertion 
or fatigue; sudden frights and other violent emotions of 
the mind; the abuse of spirituous liquors; excessive 
bleeding, profuse diarrhoea or colic, Ac. Abortion often 
happens without any obvious cause, from some defect in 
the uterus, or in the foetus itself, which we cannot satis¬ 
factorily explain. The notorious frequency of artificial 
abortion forms an odious feature in the manners of an¬ 
cient times. Seneca makes it a ground of distinction for 
Helvia, tnat she had never, like others of her country¬ 
women, destroyed the child in her womb, in order to 
preserve her shape. 

(Law.) When abortion is produced w T ith a malicious 
design, it becomes a misdemeanor, and the party causing 
it may be indicted and punished. When, in consequence 
of the means used to produce abortion, the death of the 
woman ensues, the crime is murder. 

Abor'tive, a. Brought forth in an immature state; 
hence, failing before it is complete; as, an abortive, enter, 
prise; — pertaining to abortion; — procuring or causing 
abortion; as, abortive medicines. 

Abor'ti ve, n. That which is brought forth or born pre¬ 
maturely; that which is though; to produce abortion. 

Abor'ti vely, adv. In an abortive manner; imma¬ 
turely. 

Abor'ti von oss, n . The state of abortion. 

Abort'mont.n. An untimely birth. (Obs.) S eeAbortion. 

Abou Hanifati. See Aba. 

Abou-Hannos, n. (Zobl.) An African bird,considered 
by some naturalists to be identical with the ancient Ibis. 
Although solitary in its habits, it is sometimes seen in 
small bands of from six to ten, and is capable of a lofty 
and powerful flight. 



Abotlkir'. a small town of Egypt, standing at the east¬ 
ern extremity of the long neck of land between the 
sea and the lakes Mareotis and Maadie, upon which Alex¬ 
andria, about twelve miles to the westward, is also situ¬ 
ated. Eastward lies the spacious bay of Abouki 1 ’ reach- 














14 


ABBA 


ABBA 


ABEO 


♦ng to the mouth of the Nile. In this bay. Nelson found j 
the French fleet which had conveyed Bonaparte into 
Bgypt and destroyed or captured the greatest part of it 
(1st of August, 1798). In other respects, Aboukir is not 
of much importance. 

Aboulfeda, or Abulfeda, hereditary prince of Ha¬ 
mah. The most celebrated of the Arabian writers on 
history and geography. Among his contemporaries he 
was also distinguished both as a ruler and a warrior. His 
* descent was in a direct line from Ayoub, father to Sala- 
din, and from whom the house of that conqueror received 
the appellation of Ayoubites. B. at Damascus in 1273, 
his valor and other eminent qualities soon recommended 
him to the favor of the sultan Melik-el-Nassir. He took 
an active part in the victory of Damascus (1303) by which 
Syria was for the time delivered from the incursions of 
the Tartars. The rest of Aboulfeda’s life was spent in 
splendor and tranquillity, devoted to the government of 
his territory, and to the pursuit of science. The two 
works by which Aboulfeda is known in Europe, are his 
Geography and his History. 

Abound', v. n. [Lat. abundare, to overflow.] To be in 
great plenty; to be copiously supplied; — followed by 
vjith or in; as, to abound with provisions; to abound in 
corn. 

Abounding, n. Increase; prevalence. 

About', prep. [A. S. abutan.] Around, surrounding, en¬ 
circling; 

“ About his neck she cast her trembling hands."— Dryd. 

— Not far from; near, in place, time, quantity, &c.; hence, 
much used in approximative statement. 

“ He went out about the third hour."— Matt. xxi. 3. 

— Concerning, with regard to, relating to. 

“The painter is not to take so much pain3 about the drapery as 
about the face."— Dryd. 

— Engaged on, employed upon; hence, before a verbal noun 
or an infinitive, ready to; on the point of; in the act of. 

“ Let us know what it is our brave countrymen are about." — 
Addison. 

— Appendant to the person; as, cloths, Ac. 

“If you have that about you .... "—Milton. 

About, adv. Circularly; in circuit. 

“ A mile about, and a third of a mile across .” 

— Nearly; approximatively; with close correspondence in 
manner, degree, Sic. ; as, about as high. 

— Here and there; every way. 

“ Wandering about from house to house.” 

— To a reversed position; in the opposite direction; around; 
as, to face about; to turn one's self about. 

— To bring about, to bring to the point or state desired; 
as, he has brought about his purposes. 

—To come about, to come to some certain state or point. 

“ The wind they long had wish'd was come about."—Dryd. 

—To go about a thing; to prepare to do it. 

“Why go ye about to kill me ? "—John vii. 19. 

( Naut) To go about signifies the alternation of a ship’s 
course. 

(Mil.) About means acliange in the position of a body of 
troops; “right-about,” and “left-about,” are commands 
given to execute semicircu lar turns to the right or the left. 
About'-sledge, n. The largest hammer used by smiths. 
Above', prep. [A. S. abutan .] Higher in place. 

“ Above the brims they force their fiery way.”— Dryd. 

•— More in quantity or number. 

“They are numbered from twenty yeais old and above.”—Ex. 
xxx. 14. 

— Higher in rank, power, or excellence. 

“ There is not riches above a sound body."—Ace. xxx. 16. 

— Superior to; unattainable by. 

“ Things may be above our reason, without being contrary to 
it.”— Swift. 

— Beyond; more than. 

“ We were pressed out of measure, above strength."—2 Cor. i. 8. 
Above', adv. Overhead. 

“ To men standing above, men standing below, seem... ."—Bacon. 

— In the regions of heaven. 

“ Your praise the birds shall chant in every grove, 

And winds shall waft it to the pow'rs above." — Pope. 

— Before; as, I said above, that, Ac. 

— Higher in rank or power; as, he appealed to the court 
above. 

From, above, from an higher place, from heaven. 

Above all, in the first place; chiefly. 

“ We admire above all, the elegance of his expression."— Dryd. 
Above, adj., is often used elliptically as an adjective, by 
omitting the word mentioned, quoted, Ac.; as, the above 
observations. 

Above'-board, adv. Above the board or table;—in 
open sight; without deception or artifice. 
Above'-deck, a. On deck; without artifice. 
Above'-ground, a. Alive. 

Above'-stairs, adv. On the floor above. 

Aboville, Francis Marie, a French general, who served 
in the American war. B. 1730; d. 1819. 

Albra, n. A Polish silver coin, worth about a shilling 
sterling. 

Abra'banel, Abarbanel, or A vravanel, Isaac. 
A celebrated rabbi, claiming descent from king David; 
was born at Lisbon a. d. 1437. He became counsellor to 
Alphonso V., king of Portugal, and afterward to Ferdi¬ 
nand the Catholic; but in 1492 was obliged to leave 
Spain with the other Jews. He died at Venice, aged 71. 
He has left some works on interpretations and explana¬ 
tions of the Bible. Abrabanel passed for one of the most 
learned of the rabbis; and the Jews gave him the names 
of the Sage, the Prince, and the Great Politician. 
Abraca<lab'ra, n. A magical word among the an¬ 
cients, recommended as an antidote against several dis¬ 


eases. It was to be written upon a piece of paper as 
many times as the word contains letters, omitting the 
last letter of the former every time, and suspended 
from the neck by a linen thread. It was the name of 
a god worshipped by the Syrians, the wearing of whose 
name was a sort of invocation of his aid. 

ABRACADABRA 
ABRACADABR 
ABRACADAB 
ABRACADA 
A B R A C A D 
A B R A C A 
A B R A C 
A B R A 
A B R 
A B 
A 

At present, the word is used chiefly in jest, to denote 
something without meaning. 

Abnwle', v. n. [Lat. abradere, to scrape off.] To rub 
or wear off; to waste by friction. 

Abrad ing, n. [Lat. ab, from, and rado, I scrape or rub 
off.] Applied to the sloping surface of banks of earth, 
which crumble down from the effects of frost, or the 
alternate actiort of drought and moisture. 

A'braliam, [Heb. father of multitude ,] son of Terah, 
and brother of Nahor and Ilaran; the progenitor of the 
Hebrew nation and of several cognate tribes. His his¬ 
tory is recorded with much detail in the Scriptures, as 
the very type of a true patriarchal life. His character 
is free, simple, and manly; full of hospitality and family 
affection; truthful to all who were bound to him by 
their ties, though not untainted with Eastern craft 
toward aliens; ready for war, but not a professed war¬ 
rior or plunderer; free and childlike in religion, and 
gradually educated by God’s hand to a sense of its all- 
absorbing claims. Terah was an idolater. Abraham 
appears as the champion of monotheism, and to him are 
referred the beginnings of the Mosaic polity. In obe¬ 
dience to a call of God, Abraham, with his father Terah, 
his wife Sarah, and his nephew Lot, left his native Ur 
of the Chaldees, and dwelt for a time in Haran, where 
Terah died. After his father’s death, Abraham, now 75 
years old, pursued his course, with Sarah and Lot, to the 
land of Canaan, whither he was directed by the divine 
command (Gen. xii. 5), when he received the general 
promise that he should become the founder of a great 
nation, and that all the families of the earth should be 
blessed in him. As the country was suffering with 
famine, Abraham journeyed southward to the rich corn- 
lands of Egypt. Fearing that the great beauty of Sarah 
might tempt the powerful monarch of Egypt, and expose 
his own life to peril, he represented her as his sister, but 
the deception was discovered, and Pharaoh with some 
indignation dismissed him from the country. Abraham 
left Egypt with great possessions, and, accompanied by 
Lot, returned to one of his former encampments between 
Bethel and Ai. As the soil was not fertile enough to 
support the two kinsmen, Abraham proposed that each 
should follow his own fortune. Lot, eager to quit the 
nomadic life, chose the fertile plain of the Jordan; and 
Abraham pitched his tent among the oak-groves of 
Mamre, close to Hebron, where the promise that his 
descendants should become a mighty nation, and possess 
the land in which he was a stranger, was confirmed with 
all the solemnity of a religious ceremony. At the sug¬ 
gestion of Sarah, who despaired of having children of 
her own, he took as his concubine Hagar, her Egyptian 
maid, who bare him Ishmael, in the 86th year of his age. 
Thirteen years elapsed, during which revelation was 
made, that a son of Sarah, and not Ishmael, should in¬ 
herit both the temporal and spiritual blessings. The 
covenant was renewed, and the rite of circumcision 
established as its sign. At length, Isaac, the long 
looked-for child, was born, and Ishmael was driven out, 
with his mother Hagar, as a satisfaction to Sarah’s 
jealousy. Some 25 years after this event, Abraham 
received the strange command to take Isaac, and offer 
him for a burnt-offering at an appointed place. He 
hesitated not to obey, but the sacrifice was stayed by 
the angel of Jehovah. Sarah died at Hebron, and was 
buried in the cave of Machpelah, which Abraham pur¬ 
chased of Ephron;—the first instance on record of a 
legal conveyance of property. Abraham lived to see 
the gradual accomplishment of the promise in the birth 
of his grandchildren, Jacob and Esau, and at the goodly 
age of 175 he was “gathered to his people,” and laid 
beside Sarah, in the tomb of Machpelah, by his sons 
Isaac and Ishmael. 

Abraham'ic, a. Pertaining to Abraham; as, the Abra- 
hamic covenant. 

Abraham'ites, n. An order of monks exterminated 
for idolatry by Theophilus in the ninth century. Also 
the name of another sect of heretics who had adopted 
the errors of I’aulus. 

Abrahamit'ical, a. Relating to Abraham. 

Abraham-town, a post-office of Marion co., Florida. 

Abralhos, a cluster of islets and sand-banks on the 
coast of Brazil, between 17° and 18° S. Lat. The islets 
are low. covered with grass and a little scattered brush¬ 
wood. Their highest point rises about 100 feet above the 
level of the sea. 

Abram's creeU. a small stream of Columbia co., New 
York, falling into the Hudson river, 4 miles above Hud¬ 
son city. 

Abran'chians. ( Zool.) [Gr. a, without, bronchia, 
gills.] An order of animals, class Anellidts, so called be¬ 
cause they possess no organs of respiration, as the leech. 

Abran'tes, a fortified frontier town of Portugal, in Es- 
tremadura,on the Tagus,79 m. N.E. of Lisbon. P. 6,000. 

Abrantcs, Marshal, Duke of. See J u.not. 


Abrantes, Duchessed’, a French woman of considerably 
literary acquirements. B. at Montpelier, 1784; d. 1838. By 
her mother, Paunonia Comnena, she was a descendant 
from the imperial Byzantine family of the Comneni; 
she married Marshal Junot after his return from Egypt. 
Her principal work, Mimoires de la Duchesse D'A brantes, 
is an authority on the court of Napoleon. 

Abra'sion, n. [Lat. abrado, I rub off.] In Numisma¬ 
tology, implies the waste of coin, or the loss by wear 
and tear in the pocket. This forms a considerable item 
in the expense of a metallic currency, and various means 
have been employed to lessen it, — by alloying the coins 
so as to render them harder; by raising the border, so as 
to lessen the surface exposed to be rubbed, Ac. 

(Med.) A superficial excoriation; an ulceration of th# 
skin. 

Abras'itc. (Min.) A mineral of the zeolite family, 
found on Vesuvius. It occurs, united with Pliillipsite, 
in quadratic octahedrons, aggregated in masses. Trans¬ 
parent, with grayish-white color. Called, also, gismon- 
dine and zeagonite. 

Abraum', n. [Ger. abraumen, to take away.] A kind 
of clay used to darken mahogany. 

Abrax'as. (Zool.) A genus of nocturnal Lepidoptera, 
in which is included the common magpie-moth. Its 
color is a yellowish-white clotted with black, and a 
band of pale orange marks the wings. It deposits its 
eggs on the leaves of the currant and gooseberry in July 
or August, and the caterpillars are hatched in Septem¬ 
ber. Its chrysalis is black. 

Abrax'as. or Abrasas, the supreme god of the Basi- 

lidian heretics. It is a mystic or cabalistic word, said to be 
composed of Greek letters, a, ft, p, a, a, s, which together, 
according to the Grecian mode of numeration, make np 
the number 365. For Basilides taught that there were 
365 heavens between the earth and the empyrean ; each 
of which heavens had its angel or intelligence, which 
created it; each of which angels, likewise, was created 
by the Supreme Being, or first Creator. The Basilidian# 
used the word abraxas by way of charm or amulet. 

Abreast', adv. [Prefix a, and breast.] Side by side, 
with breasts in a line; as, the riders rode abreast. 

(Naut.) Opposite to; off; up with; as, “a ship abreast 
a headland.” 

Abrep'tion. n. [Lat. ab, and rapere. to snatch.] A 
carrying away; the state of being seized and carried 
away. ( O.) 

Abreuvoir', n. [Fr. abreuvoir.] A receptacle for water. 

(Mas/nry.) The joint between stones to be filled up 
with mortar. 

A'bricock, n. See Apricot. 

Abridge', v. a. [F’r. abreger .] To make shorter in words, 
keeping still the same substance; — to contract, to di¬ 
minish, to cut short; — to deprive of; as, to abridge ono 
of his right. 

A bridg'er, n. One who abridges. 

Abridgement, n. That which diminishes; a reduc¬ 
tion or deprivation; as, an abridgment of expenses, or 
pleasure. — In Literature, the reduction of a book into a 
smaller compass; the book so reduced is sometimes called 
an epitome, or compendium. To condense a book, with¬ 
out detriment to symmetry and connection of the whole, 
demands the exercise of both judgment and skill, and 
not unfrequently of taste; to the absence of which requi¬ 
sites must be imputed the frequent imperfection of this 
class of works. The advantage of epitomes or abridg¬ 
ments, when ably executed, can scarcely be too highly 
estimated, for, from the enormous increase of literature, 
they are yearly growing more important, and will even¬ 
tually become a matter of necessity. 

Abroach', adv. In a posture to run out or yield the 
liquor contained: properly spoken of vessels; — hence,in 
a state to be diffused or advanced; in a state of sucb 
beginning as promises a progress. 

“ Alack! what mischiefs might be set abroach , 

In shadow of such greatness ? "— Shak. 

Abroach'ment, n. (Law.) The act of forestalling th# 
market. 

Abroad', adv. Without confinement; widely; at large. 

“ Again, the lonely fox roams far abroad." — Prior. 

— Out of the house, camp, or other enclosure. 

“ Welcome, sir. 

This cell’s my court; here have I few attendants, 

And subjects none abroad." — Shak. 

— In another country; as, to go abroad for an education. 

— In all directions, this way and that. 

“An elm displays her dusky arms abroad ."— Dryd. 

— Before the public at large; extensively; as, 

“ He.. ..began....to blaze abroad the matter.”—Atari i. 45. 

Ab'rogable, a. Capable of being abrogated. 

Ab'rogate,r. a. [Lat . abrogeere.] To annul, to repeal; 
to abolish authoritatively; — applies to the repeal of 
laws, decrees, ordinances, &c. 

Abrogation, n. [From Lat. ab, from; rogo, I ask.] 
The annulment of a law by competent authority. A 
phrase derived from the practice of the Roman popular 
assemblies, in which the several tribes, curiae, Sic., were 
said rogare suffragia, to demand the suffrage; whence 
also the modern word prerogative. See Comitia. 

Abro'ma, n. [From a, neg., and broma, food; i. e. not fit 
to be eaten.] (Bot.) A genus of evergreen shrubs, order 
Byttneriaceie, distinguished by their hairy lobed leaves, 
and terminal or axillary clusters of yellow or purple 
flowers. They are natives of India, Java, and New Hol¬ 
land. The bark of Abroma augusta furnishes a very 
tough fibrous tissue, suited for manufacturing into cord 
age, and which requires no artificial cleaning. 

Abro'nia, n. (Bot.) A genus of handsome dwarf trail¬ 
ing perennial herbs, distinguished by their five-leaved 
involucre, grounding a close head >f many flowers. 










ABSC 


ABSO 


ABSO 


15 


Abrot'annm, n. ( Bot.) A species of Artemisia, com¬ 
monly called Southernwood. 

ibrud-banya, a town of Austria, province of Tran¬ 
sylvania, situated on the river Ainpoy. Mines of gold 
and silver. Pop. 4,100. 

Abrupt', a. [Lat. abrupttis broken off.] Broken, craggy. 

“ Resistless, roaring, dreadful, down it came, 

Tumbling through rocks abrupt." — Thomson . 

— Sudden, without the customary or proper preparations. 

“ To know the cause of your abrupt departure.”— Shak. 

— Unconnected; having sudden transitions from one sub¬ 
ject to another; as an abrupt style. 

(Bot.) Anything which happens suddenly. A leaf which 
is suddenly terminated without tapering to a point; a 
stem which is suddenly bent, are abrupt. 

kbrup'tion, n. [Lat .abruptio.) A sudden breaking off; 
a violent and sudden separation of bodies. 

ibrnptTy, adv. In an abrupt manner. 

Abrupt ness, n. The state of being abrupt; cragged- 
ness; suddenness; unceremonious haste or vehemence; 
as, abruptness of manner; abruptness of sentences. 

A'brits, n. [Or. abros, elegant.] (Bot.) A genus of 
plants, order Fh&acea?,having papilionaceous flowers, and 
pods containing bright red seeds with a broad black scar 
on one side of them. 

ibruz'zo. A territory in South Italy. While Naples 
existed its a separate kingdom, the Abruzzi divided 
Into: Abruzzo Vlterinre Primo, capital Teramo; Abruzzo 
Vlteriore Secondo, capital Aquila; Abruzzo Citeriore, capi¬ 
tal Chieti; but these names were abolished at the forma¬ 
tion of the kingdom of Italy, and the new adminis¬ 
trative divisions of the Abruzzo are called, after the 
names of the chief towns, Aquila, Chieti, and Teramo. 
This territory is bounded on the north and west by the 
States of the Church, east by the Adriatic, and south by 
the provinces of Terra di Lavoro, Molise, and Capitanata. 
It has an area of 5,000 square miles; and though pre¬ 
senting to the Adriatic a coast of about 80 miles in 
length, yet it has not a single good port. It is mostly 
rugged, mountainous, and covered with extensive for¬ 
ests, but contains also many fertile and well-watered 
Valleys. The Apennines traverse its whole extent, run¬ 
ning generally from N.W. to S.E., and there they attain 
their greatest elevation. Near Aquila is Monte Corno, 
called 11 Gran Sasso d’Italia, or the great rock of Italy, 
which rises to the height of 9,021 feet. Monte Majella, 
and Monte Velino, attain the height of 8,500 and 8,317 
feet respectively. The principal rivers are the Tronto, 
Trentino, Pescara, and Sangro. A little to the south of 
the village of Albi, in Abruzzo Vlteriore Secundo, is Lake 
Celano, the Lacus Fucinus of the Romans. (See Fucino, 
(Lake or.) The climate varies greatly with the eleva¬ 
tion of the soil, but, generally speaking, it is temperate 
and healthy. Agriculture is but little attended to or 
understood, although in many of the lower parts of the 
country the land is of considerable fertility. Its princi¬ 
pal productions are corn, hemp, flax, almonds, olives, 
figs, grapes, and chestnuts. The manufactures are very 
inconsiderable, being chiefly woollen, linen, and silk 
stuffs, and earthen and wood wares. Bears, wolves, and 
wild boars inhabit the mountain fastnesses, and in the ex¬ 
tensive oak forests numerous herds of swine are fed, the 
hams of which are in high repute. Pop., census of 
1872, the prov. of Aquila had 832,784; prov. of Chieti, 
339,986; and prov. of Teramo, 246,004; total Abruzzi, 
918,774. Jan., 1897, estimated total pop. 1,360,378. 

Ab'salom, son of David. A handsome, but bold and 
aspiring prince, who, rebelling and usurping the govern¬ 
ment, was at length slain by Joab, David’s general. An 
existing monument in the valley of Jehoshaphat bears 
the name of Tom bo f A bsalom; but it is contested whether 
it be a tomb, and the Ionic pillars round its base show 
that it belongs to a much later period. 



Fig. 12. — TOMB OF ABSALOM. 


Ab'salon, or Axel. Archbishop of Lund, minister and 
general of the Danish king Waldemar I. B. 1128, d. 1201. 
He put down the Vendish pirates and is author of the 
Waldemar’s Code. For defence against pirates he con¬ 
structed a small fort, which was the origin of the capital 
of Denmark. 

Ab'seess, n. [Lat. abscedo , I separate.] (Med.) A col¬ 
lection of pus in the cellular membrane, or in the vis¬ 
cera. or in bones. Abscesses are variously denominated, 


according to their seat, as, empyema, when in the cavity 
of the pleura; vomica, in the lungs; panaris, in any of 
the fingers; hypopyon, in the anterior chamber of the 
eye; lumbar abscess, &c. (See these words.) The for¬ 
mation of an abscess is the result of inflammation termi¬ 
nating in suppuration. This is known by a throbbing 
pain, which lessens by degrees, as well as the heat, ten¬ 
sion, and redness of the inflamed part; and if the pus is 
near the surface, a cream-like whiteness is soon per¬ 
ceived, with a prominence about the middle, then a fluc¬ 
tuation may be felt, which becomes gradually more dis¬ 
tinct, till at length the matter makes its way externally. 
When an abscess is superficially seated, the early treat¬ 
ment consists chiefly in promoting the formation of pus 
by the application of moist and warm bandages or poul¬ 
tices. The next step is the removal of the pus. When 
this is too long delayed, serious disturbance of the organ, 
or blood poisoning may ensue. , 

Ab'sciss, or Abscis sa, n. [Lat. ab scindo, I cut off.] 
(Geom.) A segment cut off from a straight line, by an ordi¬ 
nate to a curve. The position of a point on a plane is per¬ 
fectly determined when its distances, measured in given 
directions, from two straight lines given by position, are 
known; and as curve lines may be regarded as formed by 
the continuous motion of a point, their various properties 
may be investigated by means of the relation common to 
all points of the same curve between the two distances 
so measured. Thus, let A B and A C be two straight 
lines given by position, and P any 
point in a curve X Y. Draw P Q c 
parallel to A C, and meeting A B in 
Q, then P Q is called the ordinate 

of the point P, and A Q is the- 

absciss. A 

Abscis'sion, n. The act of cutting off, or the state of 
being cut off. 

(Rhel.) A figure of speech, when, having begun to say 
a thing, a speaker stops abruptly, as supposing the mat¬ 
ter sufficiently understood. Thus, “ He is a man of so 
much honor and candor, and such generosity.... but I 
need say no more.” 

Abscond', v. a. [Lat. abscondere, to hide.] To hide 
one’s self; to retire from the public view; generally used 
of persons in debt, or criminals eluding the law. 

Abscoiad'ence, n. Concealment, (o.) 

Abscoml'er, n. One who absconds. 

Abscota, a post-office of Calhoun co., Michigan, 120 
miles W. of Detroit. 

Abseeum, Absecom, a post-village of Atlantic co., 
New Jersey, on a creek of the same name, 2 miles from 
Abseeum bay, 75 miles S. of Trenton. 

Ab'sence, n. [Fr. absence.] The state of being absent, op¬ 
posed to presence; — inattention, heedlessness, neglect 
of the present object. 

“ I continued my walk, reflecting on the little absences and dis¬ 
tractions of mankind."— Addison. 

(Law.) Want of appearance. 

Ab'sent, a. Not present; as, my absent friends; — inat¬ 
tentive, regardless of the present object. 

“ What is commonly called an absent man is commonly rather a 
very weak or a very affected man."— Chesterfield. 

Ab'sent, v. a. To withdraw, to forbear to come into 
presence. 

**If any member absents himself, he is to be fined.” 

Abseilta'neous, a. Pertaining to absence; habitually 
absenting one’s self. 

Absenta'tion, n. The act of absenting one’s self. 

Absentee', n. One who absents himself from his office, 
post, duty, country, estate, &c. 

Absenteeism, n. The state or habit of an absentee. 

Absent'd*, n. One who absents himself from his place. 

Absent'ment, n. A state of remaining absent from. 

Absinifir us, a soldier of fortune who raised, against the 
Byzantine emperor Leontius, an army which proclaimed 
him emperor, A. d. 698. He slit the ears and nose of 
Leontius, and threw him into a convent. He was taken 
in 705 by Justinian II., who, after having used him as a 
footstool at the Hippodrome, ordered him to be beheaded. 

Ab'sinthe, n. [Fr.] An extract of the plant Absinthium, 
distilled with brandy. It is used with water as a cordial, 
and is said to give appetite; but it is prejudicial to the 
health if taken too frequently. 

Absin'tlline, n. (Chem.) The bitter principle of worm¬ 
wood, or artemisia absinthium. 

Absin'tliium, or common wormwood, a plant of the 
genus artemisia, ord. asteraceie, It grows about rubbish 
and rocks. The leaves of wormwood have a strong, dis¬ 
agreeable smell, so intensely bitter as to be proverbial. 
The flowers are more aromatic and less bitter than the 
leaves, and the roots discover an aromatic warmth with¬ 
out bitterness. This species of wormwood has powerful 
medicinal qualities as a tonic, stomachic, Ac. It is found 
in the mountainous districts of New England. 

Absis', n. See Apsis. 

Absist', v. a. [Lat. absistere, to withdraw.] To stand or 
leave off. 

Absist.'ence, n. A standing off. 

Ab'solute. a. [Lat. absolutus.] Completed, finished, per¬ 
fect in itself; total; as, an absolute beauty. 

(Metaphys.) A term employed to indicate that which 
exists without limitation of any kind. Another term, 
of the same meaning, is the unconditional. The abso¬ 
lute stands opposed to the relative or conditional. Ab¬ 
solute truths are truths which are necessary and univer¬ 
sal ; such are the axioms of mathematical science, and, in 
the estimation of certain schools of thought, the first 
principles of theology and morals. 

(Politics.) A government is strictly said to be absolute 
when the supreme head is above the control of law, and 
has unrestricted power of legislation. 



Q B 


Absolute number is the known quantity whiob po#- 
sesses one side of an equation; thus, in afl>+12a;=24, the 
absolute number is 24, which is equal to the square of 
x added to 12 x. 

Absolute equation (Aslron.) is th# sum of the optic and 
eccentric equation. 

Absolute space, (Phys.,) space considered without rela¬ 
tion to material objects or limits. 

Absolutely, adv. In an absolute manner; positively, 
completely. 

Absoluteness, n. The quality of being absolute; 
despotism. 

Absolution, n. [Fr. absolution .] (Civil Law.) An ac¬ 
quittal or sentence of a judge declaring the accused in¬ 
nocent of the crime laid to his charge.—In the Roman 
Catholic Church it is a iemission ol sin which the 
priest, by authority received from Christ, makes in the 
Sacrament of Penance. It is not a bare declaration 
that God will pardon the sins of those that repent, but, 
as the Council of Trent defines, it is a judicial act by 
which the priest as judge passes sentence upon the 
penitent. 

Absolutist, n. One who is a partisan of despotism. 

Absolutory, a. That absolves; absolving; absolvatory. 

Absol'vable, a. That may be absolved. 

Absol'vatory, a. Relating to pardon; forgiving; ab¬ 
solutory. 

Absolve', v. a. [Lat. absolvere .] To clear, to acquit of a 
crime, in a judicial sense;—to set free from an engage¬ 
ment or promise; to pronounce a sin remitted, in the 
ecclesiastical sense. 

Absolv'er. a. One who absolves. 

Ab'sonant, a. [Lat. absonans.] Discordant ; contrary; 
opposed to consonant. 

Ab'souous,a. [Lat. absonus.] Unmusical;—absurd; 
contrary; as, absonous to our reason. 

Absorb', v. a. [Fr. absorber.] To swallow up; to suck 
up; to imbibe; as a sponge; — to engage wholly; to en¬ 
gross ; as, absorbed in business. 

Absorbabil'ity, n. A state or quality of being ab¬ 
sorbable. 

Absorb'able, a. That may be absorbed. 

Absorb'ent, a. [Fr. absorbant .] Imbibing; swallowing. 

Absorbent ground, a term given by painters to a w ater- 
color mixture, which is laid upon the canvas or wood, 
and which, upon the oil-color being applied, at once im¬ 
bibes the oil, leaving the colors in which the design is 
made dry and brilliant. 

Absorb'ents, n. ( Anal .) A name given to certain 
small, delicate vessels which imbibe fluids that come in 
contact with them, and carry them into the blood. They 
are denominated lacteals or lymphatics, according to the 
liquids which they convey. 

(Med.) Substances used to absorb or neutralise the 
acids sometimes formed in the stomach: chalk and mag¬ 
nesia are examples. — ( Surg.) Spongy substances used in 
dressing wounds, such as lint and amadou. 

Absoroltas, or Crows, an Indian tribe in Missouri. 
Not familiar with the habits of civilized life; they have 
about 1,000 warriors, but are rapidly decreasing. 

Absorp'tion. n. [Fr. absorption .] The interpene¬ 
tration of certain bodies by other bodies or influences, 
which by this means disappear or become lost. There 
are several important examples of this in Physics. 

(Bot.) The chief function of the root, by which food 
is taken up in a state of s#lution for the use of the plant. 
(See Endosmose.) 

(Chem.) The disappearance of a gaseous fluid on en¬ 
tering into combination with a liquid or solid; thus, 
when the gas ammonia is passed into water, absorp¬ 
tion takes place, and the result is the liquid commonly 
called spirit of hartshorn. 

(Physiol.) A term employed to designate that natural 
function of the body which is exercised by the absorbent 
vessels; as, the absorption of the chyle by the lacteal 
vessels. 

Absorption of heat is the name given to the phenome¬ 
non by which the heat-rays seem to disappear within the 
substance of bodies subjected to their influence, the effects 
differing greatly according to surface and color. As the 
subject is closely connected with the phenomena of ra¬ 
diation and reflection, it will be considered at greater 
length under the art. Heat. 

Absorption of light will be best explained by consider¬ 
ing the causes of transparency, opacity, and color. Trans¬ 
parency in a body is caused by one part of the light 
striking on it being transmitted through its substance, 
another being reflected from its surface, and a third being 
absorbed or lost in its interior. When a body reflects 
the whole of the light, it is said to be opaque, in which 
case, however, a small portion is absorbed. For example, 
a piece of blue glass absorbs the red and yellow rays, 
and transmits the blue; a piece of orange glass, acting 
just in the contrary manner, transmits the red and yel¬ 
low rays and absorbs the blue. The same thing hap¬ 
pens with opaque-colored bodies, with the exception that 
the unabsorbed ray is reflected instead of being trans¬ 
mitted. In a white opaque object, nearly the whole of 
the white light is reflected from its surface, a small por¬ 
tion being absorbed without any separation of the col¬ 
ored rays. In a black opaque object, nearly the whole 
of the white light is absorbed without suffering any 
change. No object is absolutely transparent or opaque, 
even air absorbing a small portion of light and color, and 
gold and silver transmitting green and purple rays re¬ 
spectively, when procured in sufficiently thin films. 
Perfect absorption or reflection is also unknown, for the 
darkest substance reflects a little light, otherwise it 
would be invisible; and the brightest speculum metal 
absorbs an infinitesimal portion of it. Philosophers are as 
yet ignorant of the cauf es of absorption of light; several 


















16 


ABST 


ABUT 


ABYS 


theories hare been propounded, but they seem only to 
make the matter still more difficult of comprehension. 

Alisorp l i vc. a. Having power to absorb or imbibe. 

A bsorp'tivity, n. The power or capacity of absorption. 

Abs'que hoc. [Lat.J Without this.— (Law.) The tech¬ 
nical words of exception made use of in a traverse. 

Abs que tali causa. [Lat.] Without such cause. 

Abstain', v. a. [Fr. abstenir, to keep from.] To forbear; 
to refrain voluntarily. 

Abstain'er, n. One who abstains. 

Abste mious, a. [Lat. abstemius, from «.j6, abs, and te- 
metum, strong drink.] Abstinent; very temperate; re¬ 
fraining. 

Abste'miously, adv. Temperately; abstinently. 

Abste'iniousness, n. The quality of being abstemious. 

Absten'tiou. [Fr. abstention.] The act of holding off. 

(Law.) Act of preventing an heir from taking posses¬ 
sion. 

[Lat. abstergere .] To make clean by 


Absterge', v. a. 
wiping; to wipe. 

Abster gent, a. 
Absterse', v. a. 
Abster'sion, n. 
A list er'si ve, a. 


That cleanses; purgative. 

To cleanse; to absterge; to purify. 
The act of wiping clean. 

Having the quality of cleansiug. 

Ab'stinence, and Abstinency, n. [Fr. abstinence, 
from Lat. abstinen, I abstain.] The act or habit of re¬ 
fraining from something to which we have a propensity, 
or in which we find pleasure; but it is more particularly 
applied to the privation or sparing use of food. Absti¬ 
nence has been enjoined and practised for various ends, 
as sanatory, moral, or religious. Physicians relate won¬ 
derful cures effected by abstinence; moralists, as the 
Pythagoreans, Stoics, and others, recommend it as a 
means of bringing the animal part of our nature into 
greater subservience to the spiritual; and it is likewise 
enjoined by various religious sects. Abstinence of flesh 
on certain days is obligatory in the Koman Catholic 
church. 

Total abstinence. The time during which life can be 
supported under total abstinence from food or drink, is 
□sually stated to vary from eight to ten days; the period 
has, however, in certain cases been much prolonged. 
The phrase total abstinence, as ordinarily employed, is 
restricted to abstinence from intoxicating liquors. This 
is strictly enjoined by many advocates of the temper¬ 
ance reform, and by the leading temperance societies. 

Ab'stinent, a. Using abstinence; abstemious. 

Abstinently, adv. With abstinence. 

Ab'stinents, n. pi. ( Eccl. Hist.) A religioussect which 
appeared in France and Spain in the third century, and 
which opposed marriage, condemned the use of flesh 
meat, and placed the Holy Spirit in the class of created 
beings. 

Abstort'ed, a. [Lat. abstortus, twisted.] Forced away, (o.) 

Abstract', v. a. [Fr. abstraire, from Lat. abstrahere.] To 
draw from; as, one thing from another; — to separate, to 
consider by itself, as ideas;—to epitomize; to reduce;—to 
take fraudulently for one's use from the property of 
another; as, to abstract goods or money from a parcel. 

(Chem.) To drive off by distillation. 

Abstract, v. n. To draw off; as, his mind was ab¬ 
stracted by other objests. 

Abstract, a. Separated from something else; — not 
connected with sensible objects — opposed to concrete ;— 
abstruse; difficult. 

Abstract mathematics, signifies that branch of the 
science which deals with magnitude, figure, and quantity 
in general, and without reference to any particular mag¬ 
nitude, figure, or quantities.— Abstract mathematics is 
opposed to mixed mathematics, which deals with the ap¬ 
plication of mathematics to navigation, astronomy, &c.— 
Abstract numbers, in arithmetic, a terra which signifies 
numbers independent in themselves, and without being 
applied to any individual thing,— as 4,8,12, Ac.,— in dis¬ 
tinction from numbers applied, or in the concrete; as 4 
men, 8 feet, 12 ships, &c. — Abstract terms signify the 
mode or quality of a being, without any regard to the 
subject in which it is; as, whiteness, length, morality, 
death. 

Ab'stract, n. A small quantity containing the virtue 
or power of a greater; the summary or epitome of a 
treatise-book, public or private record, Ac. 

Abstract'ed, p a. Separated; disconnected; refined, 
purified; abstruse, difficult, abstract; inattentive to the 
present objects. 

Abstractedly, ado. In an abstracted manner; sepa¬ 
rately. 

Abstractedness, n. The state of being abstracted. 

Abstract'er, n. One who abstracts. 

Abstraction, n. [Fr.] The act of abstracting;—ab¬ 
sence of mind; inattention to present objects. 

(Psychol.) That operation of the mind by which it 
takes cognizance of qualities separately from the thing 
in which they exist; as, for example, of whiteness, apart 
from snow, from lime, from milk, or from any other sub¬ 
stance or liquid.—An abstraction is the idea which is 
the result of the above process,— an abstract idea, which, 
however fugitive in itself, speedily clings to a word, and 
becomes incorporate with it. The question whether 
abstract ideas, such as beauty, truth, time, space, have 
any real existence, or are only forms of things and 
wholly relative, is, and always has been, the great bone 
of metaphysical contention. It was the point in dis¬ 
pute between the Realists and Nominalists of the middle 
ages, and still divides thinkers into two great schools 
(See Personification.) 

(Law.) The taking surreptitiously for one’s own use 
part of the property of another. 

(Chem.) A separation of volatile parts by the act of 
distillation. 

Abstractive, a. Having the power of abstraction. 


Abstrac'tively, adv. In an abstracted manner. 

Abstractly, adv. In an abstract state or manner. 

Ab'stractness, n. The quality of being abstract. 

Abstring-e', v. a. [Lat. abstringere.] To unbind, (o.) 

Abstruse', a. [Lat. abstrusus.] Difficult to be com¬ 
prehended or understood. 

Abstruse'ly, adv. In an abstruse manner; obscurely. 

Abstruse'ness, n. The quality of being abstruse. 

Absuute', v. a. [ Lat. absumere.] To waste; to consume. 

Absurd', a. [Fr. absurde.] Unreasonable, without 
judgment; applied to men; — inconsistent, contrary to 
reason; applied to sentiment or practice. 

Absurd'ity, n. [Fr. absurdite .] The quality of being 
absurd; want of judgment, applied to men; want of 
propriety, applied to things; — that which is absurd. 

Absurd'ly, adv. In an absurd manner. 

Absurd'ness, n. The same as Absurdity. 

Absurd'um, Reductio ai>. (Geom.) A term used to 
denote a mode of demonstration in which the truth of 
a proposition is established not by a direct proof, but by 
proving that the contrary is absurd, or impossible. There 
are many examples of this mode of demonstration in the 
“ Elements of Euclid.” 

Abu, or Bn, [Arab./a(A*r,] is prefixed to many Arabic 
names, as the equivalent syllable ab is prefixed to He¬ 
brew names; as, Abu-bebr, father of the virgin. 

Abu-aricli, a petty state in the S.W. of Arabia, on the 
borders of the Red Sea, between 16° 50'—17° 40' N. lat., 
and 41° 30'—43° E. Ion., consisting of the narrow slip of low 
land which lies between the coast and the mountainous 
districtof Haschid-u-Bekel. It forms part of the Tehema or 
low lands of Yemen, being almost wholly a sandy plain, 
extremely hot and dry. Its chief product is dhoura. 
or barley, which forms the principal food of the people. 

Abu-BeKr, (father of the virgin,) the father of Ayesha, 
wife of Mohammed, was a nan of great influence in the 
Koreish tribe; and in 632, when Mohammed died, was 
made the first caliph or successor of the Prophet. After 
defeating his enemies in Arabia, and warring success¬ 
fully against Babylonia, Syria, and the Byzantine em¬ 
peror Heraclius, Abu-Bekr n. 634 a.d., aged 63. He was 
surnamed the Just. His charity was unbounded, while 
his manner of living was so strict that he possessed at 
his death only the one robe he wore, a camel, and an 
Ethiooiau slave. His tomb is shown by the ,ide of that 
of the Prophet at Mecca. 

Abu-Sai(l Khan, the last sultan of the race of Zin- 
gis-Khan. D. 1336. 

Abu-Temam, the greatest of all Arabic poets, lived 
in the 9th century. The Arabs say of him, that “no 
one could ever die whose name had been praised in the 
verses of Abu-Temam.” 

Abul Fazi, vizier of the great Mogul Akbar, in Hin- 
dostan. He attempted to establish a liberal system-of 
government, and was murdered in 1608 by the secret 
order of Jehanghir, son of the emperor. He is the 
author (besides other works) of the “ Ayin Akbari,” a 
highly esteemed statistical and political account of the 
Mogul empire in India. 

Abulghazi Bahadoor. khan of Khiva in 1644, 
abdicated in his son’s favor. D. 1663. Author of a 
history of the Turks, translated into German. 

Abu'lia. [Ar. our father. 1 The high priest, or sole 
bishop, of the Abyssinian church. 

Abun'dance, n. [Fr. abundance, from Lat. abun- 
dantia. 1 Overflow; more than enough; copious supply. 

Abun'dant, a. Overflowing; plentiful. 

Abundant numbers, in Arith., are those numbers the 
aliquot parts of which, added together, make more than 
the number itself; thus, the aliquot parts of 20, (1, 2, 4, 
5,10,) on being added together, make 22. — An abundant 
number is opposed to a deficient member, of which the 
sum of the divisors is less than the number itself, as 16, 
whose divisors are 1, 2, 4,8, the sum of which is 15; and 
to a perfect number, of which the sum of the divisor is 
equal to itself, as 6, whose divisors are 1, 2, 3. 

Abun dantly, adv. In plenty; — amply, liberally, 
more than sufficient. 

Abns'able, a. That may be abused. 

Abusambul. See Ipsambool. 

Abuse', v. a. [Fr. abuser.] To use a person or thing in 
any manner deviating from the rule or line of right. 

Abuse', n. The ill use of anything;—a corrupt prac¬ 
tice, bad custom; — unjust censure, rude reproach, con¬ 
tumely;— the violation of a female. 

Abus'er, n. One who abuses, maltreats, deceives, defiles. 

Abu'si ve, a. Practising abuse; as, an abusive author;— 
containing abuse; rude; reproachful; scurrilous. 

Abu'sively, adv. In an abusive manner; rudely; re¬ 
proachfully. 

Abu'siveness, n. The quality of being abusive. 

Abut', v. a. [Lat. abutlare .] (Arch.) To project in a 
solid mass upon another object, or a certain point with¬ 
out actual contact; — used with upon or against. 

Abu'ta, n. (Bot.) An ornamental evergreen climber, 
ord Menispermacetr. From the branches of this plant a 
drink is made by the natives of Cayenne, and used by 
them against obstructions of the liver. 

Abu'tilon, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, belonging to 
the nat. ord. Malvaceae. The most interesting species 
ia the Abutilon esculentum, commonly called Bengan de 
Dens, the flowers of which are boiled and eaten as vege¬ 
tables in Brazil. 

Abut'ment, n. [From abut.] (Arch.) The solid part 
of a pier from which the arch immediately springs. 
Abutmentsare either artificial or natural. The former 
are usually formed of masonry or brickwork, and the 
latter are the rock or other solid materials on the 
banks of a river, in the case of a bridge, which receive 
the foot of tbe arch. It is obvious they must be of suffi¬ 
cient solidity and strength to resist the arch’s thrust. 


Abnttal, or Abbuttals, n. pi. [Fr. abutter, to bound 
or limit.] (Law.) The buttings and boundings of lands, 
east, west, north, and south, with respect totheplai es by 
which they are limited and bounded. The sides < f the 
land are properly said to be adjoining, and the end; abut¬ 
ting, to the thing contiguous. 

Abut'ter, n. One who, or that which, abuts. 

Abydeiuis, a handsome and learned young man, one 
of Aristotle’s scholars, whom he loved too passionately; 
and who wrote divers pieces of history concerning Cy¬ 
prus, Delos, and Arabia. 

Abydos, a town and castle of Natolia, on the straits of 
Gallipoli. In its neighborhood Xerxes, when he invaded 
Greece, crossed with his immense army the Hellespont, 
on a bridge of boats. Memorable also from being the 
scene of the loves of Hero and Leander, and from Byron 
having adopted its name in his “ Bride of Abydos.”— 
Also an ancient city of Upper Egypt, supposed to have 
been the ancient This, and to have been second only to 
Thebes. Lat. 26° 10' N., long. 32° 3' E. 

Abyo, one of the Philippine Islands, between Mindanao 
and Luzon. Lat. 10° N., long. 122° 15' E. 

Abys mal, and Abyss al, a. Pertaining to, or re¬ 
sembling, an abyss; bottomless. 

Abyss', and Abysm', n. [Lat. abyssus.] A term used 
to denote, in general, anything profound or bottomless; 
an immeasurable space. In Scripture, it is employed to 
denote the deepest parts of the sea, from their being un¬ 
fathomable; and in a figurative sense, it implies hell, or 
the bottomless pit. 

Abyssinia, a kingdom in Eastern Africa, bounded on 
the N. by Nubia, E. by the Red Sea and Duncala, W. by 
Sondan, and S. by the Gallas Country. Area, abt. 158,000 
sq. m.— Desc. This country may be described as an ele¬ 
vated table-land, divided by two mountain tracts of 
great extent, into a southern, a western, and a north¬ 
eastern region. — Climate. The rainy season lasts from 
April to September; which is followed by a cloudless 
sky and a vertical sun. Cold nights suddenly succeed 
these scorching days, yet the earth keeps remarkably 
cool, partly owing to the six months’ rain, when no sun 
appears, and partly to the perpetual equality of nights 
and days. — Inhab. The Abyssinians belong mostly to 
the Shemitic race, and resemble the Arabs both in physi- 



IHg. 13. — ABYSSINIAN. 

cal characteristics and structure of language. — Wild 
animals. There is no country in the world productive 
of a greater variety of quadrupeds; but there are no 
tigers. The hyenas, however, are very numerous, and 
dreadful in their ravages. Elephauts and buffaloes are 
very numerous, and the double-horned rhinoceros is 
found. Besides these, giraffes, zebras, quaggas, and wild 
asses are plentiful. Boars, in someofthe woods, are com¬ 
mon, and the smaller animals,such as porcupines, ferrets, 
otters, polecats, rabbits, and squirrels, abound. There 
are several species of eagles and vultures. The bee is so 
plentiful that its honey produce supersedes the neces¬ 
sity of importing sugar. Locusts frequently devastate the 
fields, and hippopotami abound in some of the larger 
rivers. To supply all these animals with food, in a wild 
state, the fertility of Abyssinia must be immense. — Do¬ 
mestic animals. These consist of cattle, sheep, goats, asses, 
mules,and horses. The saugaox is found in Antalo, with 
horns sometimes extending to the length of four feet. 
Prod. Corn of different kinds, dates, tamarinds and coffee, 
which is indigenous. — Commerce. — Imps. Cotton, raw- 
silk, metals,and leather. Exps. Slaves, gold, and ivory. 
Ret. (See Abyssinian Church.)— Pop. 4,500,000. Lat. 
between 8° 30' and 15° 50' N.; Long, between 35° and 
52° E. Adm. It was ruled by emperors who were sup¬ 
posed to be descended from Solomon and the queen oi 
Sheba. The barbarous manner in which two represen 
tatives of the English government were treated by tho 
late emperor Theodore, and the refusal of the latter to 
give satisfaction to just claims, compelled England to 
proclaim war against him. In the autumn of 1867, an 
army of about 10,000 men, under the command of Sir 
Robert Napier, landed at Massonah. The conquest of 
Magdala, April 10, 1868, and the death of Theodore, 
fbllowed. This war cost England $44,895,000. After 
the departure of the English, civil war prevailed, and 
Kassa, prince of Tigre, proclaimed himself ruler, as 
King John. In 1872, difficulties occurred with Egypt, 
and in 1875-76 an Egyptian invasion was successfully 
(Continued in Section II.) 

Abyssin'ian, n. A native or inhabitant of Abyssinia. 

Abyssin'ian, a. Relating to Abyssinia. 

Abyssinian Church. (Eccl. Hist.) The name of a 
sect of the Christian church established in Abyssinia. 
The forms and ritual of the Abyssinian church are a 
strange compound of Paganism, Judaism, and Chris¬ 
tianity. It is governed by a bishop, who is styled Abuna, 












ACAD 


ACAL 


ACAN 


17 


*nd is sent in Abyssinia by the Coptic bishop of Alex¬ 
andria. 

Acacs'lls, n. A shrub bearing a flower and fruit like 
those of a tamarisk. 

<Ac;i cm, n. [Fr. from Gr. akazo , to sharpen — many of the 
species having thorns or prickles, j A very extensive genus 
of trees or shrubby plants, inhabiting the tropical parts of 
both the old and new world, and,in a very few instances 
only.extending into temperate latitudes. This genus bo- 
longs to the nat. ord. Leguminnsce, or Fabacete. Some 
of the species produce catechu and gum-aral>ic. The bark 
of the others yields a large quantity of tannin, which, 
in the form of an extract, is annually imported from Van , 
Piemen's Land in considerable quantity ; the species; 
from which this substance is produced are chiefly Acacial 
decurrens and mollissima. As objects of ornament, they 
are usually of striking beauty, and it may be doubted^ 
whether, in the whole vegetable kingdom, such a bril- 
liaut coloring, and elegant foliage, combined with a most 1 
graceful aspect, and are found united in the same indi- 
viduals. General character of the germs. Flowers polyg¬ 
amous; calyx, with either 4 or 5 teeth; petals, either 
4 or 5, sometimes distinct from each other, sometimes 
adhering in a monopetalous corolla; stamens varying! 
in number from 10 to 200; pod, not separating into many 
joints; juiceless, two-valved. Some species have true 
leaves that are twice or thrice pinnate, with a multitude 
of minute, shining, or, at least, even leaflets; others have, 
in a perfect state, no leaves, properly so called, but, in 
their stead, the leafstalks enlarge, and assume the 
appearance, and no doubt also the functions, of true 
leaves. Nearly 300 species are known, and among the 
most remarkable are: — Acacia catechu (Mimosa catechu, 
Linn.), a tree found in mountainous places, principally 
in Bengal and Coromandel. Its unripe pods and wood 
yield, by decoction, one of the sorts of catechu of the 
shops. (See Catechu.) — Acacia Arabica,XYie gum-arabio; 
tree, an inhabitant of the East Indies, Arabia, and 
Abyssinia, where it forms a tree thirteen to fourteen 
feet high, of inelegant appearance. This is one of the 
plants that yield the useful substance called gum-arabic, 
which is produced by wounding the bark: after which 
the sap runs out, and hardens in transparent lumps. 
(See Gum.) — Acacia pubescens, down}' acacia, a native 
of tIse east coast of New Holland, and one of the most 
beautiful of green-leaf plants. It produces a vast abun¬ 
dance of yellow blossoms, which weigh down the slender 
graceful branches, and perfume the air with a faint but 
pleasant odor. — Acacia jnlibrissin, the silk-tassel acacia, 
a native of Persia, and a small tree, remarkable by its 
light, airy foliage, and for the great beauty of its clus¬ 
ters of lilac flowers, the long and slender stamens of 
which stream in the wind, and glitter in the sun, like a 
number of silken tassels artificially fastened to the 
boughs. This species is commonly cultivated in tem¬ 
perate parts of Europe and America.— Cultivation. — 
Most of the species may be multiplied by cuttings stuck 
in silver sand, placed under a bell-glass, and kept in a 
warm place, to which no direct solar light has access. 
Others, and among them Acacia juJibeissin , have the i 
power of producing shoots from pieces of the root | 
placer! in earth in a hot-bed, and by these the nursery¬ 
men generally propagate them. 



Fig. 14. — ACACIA CATECHU. 


Aca cius, St., Bishop of Amida, in Mesopotamia. He 
sold the church-plate, to redeem 7,000 starving Persian 
slaves. Versanius, the king, was so affected by this noble 
action, that he sought an interview with the bishop, 
which resulted in a peace between that prince and Theo¬ 
dosius I, A. D. 420. 

Acade'mia, a post-office of Juniata co., Pennsylvania. 
Also, a post-village of Knox co , Tennessee. 

Acade'mian, n. A member or scholar of an academy. 

Academic, and Acadenileal, a. Belonging to an 
academy, as “ academic courses; ” or belonging to the 
doctrine of Plato. 

Academically, adv. In an academical manner. 

Academ icals, n. pi. The dress peculiar to officers 
aud students in an academy, college, or university. 

Acad c mi'cian, n. [Fr. academicien.) A member of 
an academy. 

Academics, a name given to a series of philosophers 
who taught in the Athenian Academy, the scene of 
Plato’s discourses. They are commonly divided into 
three sects : —1. The Uld Academy, of which Plato was 
the immediate founder, was represented successively by 
Speu-sippus, Xenocrates, and Polemon. (See Platonism.) 
2 To them succeeded Arcesilaus, the founder of the 
Middle Academy. Under his hands, the Platonic method 
assumed an almost exclusively polemical character. His 
main object was to refute the Stoics, who maintained a 
doctrine of perception identical with that promulgated 
by Dr. Reid in the last century. Socrates is said to have 
professed, that all he knew was, that he knew nothing. 
Arcesilaus denied that he knew even this. Wisdom he 
made to consist in absolute suspension of assent; virtue, 
in the probable estimate of consequences. He was suc¬ 
ceeded by Lacydes, Telecles, Evander, and Hegesinus. 
3. The new academy claims Carneades as its founder. 


His system is a species of mitigated scepticism. He was 
succeeded by his disciple, Clitomaehus. Charmides, the 
third and last of the new academicians, appears to have 
been little more than a teacher of rhetoric: an accusa¬ 
tion, indeed, to which the whole school is in no small 
degree liable. 

Acade'mus, or Ecademus, an Athenian whose 
house was employed as a philosophical school in the time 
ot Theseus. He had the honor of giving his name to a 
sect of philosophers, or rather three sects, called Aca¬ 
demics. 

Acad emy, n. [Gr. academia.] A name derived from 
that of a place near Athens, where there was a famous 
school for gymnastic exercises, and in which the Sophists 
gave their lectures. (See Academics.) Cicero had a 
country seat on the Neapolitan coast, to which he gave, 
in memory of the famous Athenian school, the name of 
Academia. It was here he wrote his Academic, questions. 
After the restoration ot letters, in the loth century, the 
term Academy was revived in Italy, but with a significa¬ 
tion somewhat different front what it had been in ancient 
times. It was, and is till now, used in all Europe (except 
England) to imply, not a school iu which philosophy 
is taught by a master to his pupils, but an association 
of individuals formed for the cultivation of learning or 
science, and usually constituted and endowed by the head 
of the state in which it is established. The members of 
the academies, known under the name of academicians, 
are usually classified as Ordinary, Honorary, and Cor¬ 
responding. The results of their labors in their vari¬ 
ous departments are reported at their periodic meetings, 
and printed in the records of the academy. Prizes are 
generally established as the rewards of distinguished 
merit in original discovery, or excellence in the treat¬ 
ment of subjects proposed for competition. Among 
the numerous academies so constituted, the most cele¬ 
brated are: the A. della Crusca, founded at Florence, in 
1582, which, by the publication of its excellent diction¬ 
ary, established the Tuscan dialect as the standard of 
the national language of Italy; the A. Frangaise, insti¬ 
tuted in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu, and now entitled the 
Institut de France, q. v.; the Berlin A. of Arts and Sci¬ 
ences, founded in 1700 by Frederick I; the Imperial A. 
of Sciences of St. Petersburg, plane ad in 1724 by Peter 
the Great, and established in the following year by 
Catherine I.; the Royal Spanish A., founded at Madrid 
in 1714; and the A. Imperials de Medecine, of Paris, 
founded in 1820. 

In England, and in America, the word Academy is 
loosely applied to any species of school which professes 
to communicate more than the mere elements of instruc¬ 
tion. (See University, College, Gymnasium, School.) The 
associations of the learned, which, in all material re¬ 
spects, resemble the academies of France, Italy, Ger¬ 
many, Ac., are called societies, associations, museums, ly- 
cctums, institutes, &c., and will, therefore, be more con¬ 
veniently considered under those terms. As reference, 
theinquirerwill find under the head Xocietythe names ot 
manyof the earlier scientific and literary American insti¬ 
tutions distributed under different names in this work. 
(See West Point and Military Schools.) 
Acad'emy, in Georgia, a village of Columbia co. 
Acail'emy Flg-nre. (Paint.) A term used to signify 
a design, generally executed with black and white 
chalk, after a living model. 

A<*a'<lia, the original French name of the territory now 
known as Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the greater 
part of Maine ( Parkman). See Nova Scotia. 

Aea'dia, the former name of a county in the province 
of Quebec, Canada. 

Aca'dialite, n. (Min.) A red chabazite mineral found I 
in Nova Scotia. 

Ac'ajou, or Cashew-nat, n. (See Anacardidm.) 

Acajou is also the French name for mahogany. 
Ac'alepb, and Acalepba, n. (Zool.) A member of 
the class Acalepha;. 

Acale'pbse, or Ac'alepbs, n. pi. [Gr. akalephe, a 
nettle.J (Zool.) A class of marine invertebrate animals, 
comprehended in the branch of Radiata, and otherwise 
called Jelly-fishes. It embraces an extensive number 
of animals, of which the genus Medusa of Linnaeus may be 
taken as the type. This genus has a nervous system and 
senses; a muscular system; a reproductive system; the 
power of stinging when touched; and is phosphorescent. 
With their strange bodies and their wonderful facul¬ 
ties, the aealephee which crowd the surface of the ocean, 
are still one of the mysteries of the creation. In them, 

“ we find the most important functions of life performed 
in bodies which are often little more than a mass of 
jelly. They grow frequently to a large size, so as to mea¬ 
sure several feet in diameter, and yet we cannot always 
determine what are their organs of nutrition ; they move 
with rapidity, and continue their motions for a long 
time, and yet we cannot always satisfactorily demon¬ 
strate their muscular system. Their secretions are fre¬ 
quently very abundant, and yet the secreting organs re¬ 
main to be discovered. They seem too weak to seize any 
vigorous animal, and yet fishes are sometimes their prey. 
Their delicate stomachs appear to be wholly incapable 
of acting upon such food, and yet it is digested within a 
very short time. Most of them shine at night with very 
great brilliancy, and yet we know little or nothing of 
the organs by which their phosphorescence is elabo¬ 
rated. Many of them sting the hand which touches 
them, but how, or by what means they do so, still re¬ 
mains a mystery. If we take one of the largest, weigh¬ 
ing, perhaps, five or six pounds, and set it aside to let the 
portion 80 fita fluid substances drain away, we find that all 
the solid matter left is but a film of cellulosity, a cobweb 
weighing not as many grains as did the living creature 


pounds. And, lastly, if we examine the fluid drained 
away, we find that it is sea-water, indistinguishable from 
that wherein the creature swam while yet alive. What 
must we say to this? That the salt water of the sea, 
imprisoned in a web so delicate as scarcely to be visible, is 
moulded into beauteous shapes infinitely diversified; and 
that, being possessed ot life, the mass thus formed become* 
susceptible of being endowed with properties like those 
we have discussed. —Acalephie have been separated into 
three orders: Clenophnra, or tieroid Medusa:, Discnphorm 
or Medusae proper, and Hydroidee, exhibiting a great 
variety of peculiar structure and form. The figure 
hereunto annexed represents the shape and size oi a 
species of the Beroid Medusa:, the Oydippe pilous. 
When taken from its native element and placed in a glass 
jar fur close inspection, the body of this elegant animal 
looks like a little globe of purest ice, and is, indeed, al¬ 
most as deliquescent, for when exposed it melts away 
almost to nothing,— no residue being left except a film, 
so delicate as to be scarcely visible. Still, while alive, 
few objects could excite more pleasurable emotions in 
the observer. 



Fig. 15. — cydippe rrLECS. 

Acale'phoid, a. (Zool.) Resembling the medusa, 
or jelly-fishes. 

Acal'ycine,and Aealycinous, a. ( Bot .) Without 

a calyx or flower-cup. 

Acal'ypba, n. (Bot.) The Greek name of a genus of 
plants of no beauty, and of the easiest culture. Euphor- 
biacce fam. (Linn. cl. 21, ord. 8.) 

Aeama'pixtli. See Accumpixtli. 

Acambon, a kingdom on the coast of Guinea, wher« 
the king is absolute. 

Acamp'tosomes, n. pi. [Gr a, without, kampto, I bend, 
soma, the body.] (Zool.) An order of cirripeds, includ¬ 
ing all those in which the body is entirely enveloped in 
a calcareous compound shell, and so attached that it 
cannot be unfolded and protruded. 

Aean'ny, an inland country and town of Guinea, afford 
ing the best gold in great plenty. 

Acantha. (Myth.) A nymph loved by Apollo, and 
changed into the flower Acanthus. 

Acan'tha, n. [Gr. thorn, spine.] (Bot.) A prickle.— 
(Zool.) A spine or prickly fin.— (Anal.) The vertebral 
column ; the spinous process of a vertebra 

Acantha'cese, n. pi. (Bot.) An order of plants, alliance 
Bignoniales, characterized by having axile placenta 
wingless exalbuminous seeds attached to bard placental 
processes, and large fleshy cotyledons. They are nearly 
related to Scrophulariaceie,and for the most part tropical 
In such regions they are extremely common.constitutiug 
a large part of the herbage. For the most part they art 
mucilaginous and slightly bitter, but generally of little 
use to man. Many of the species are mere weeds; others 
bear handsome flowers wifh gaudy colors, but seldom 
with any odor; a very small number have been occa¬ 
sionally employed medicinally as emollients or diuretics 
The roots of Acanthacese are either annual or perennial. 
The stems are usually four-cornered when young, but 
afterward become nearly round. Their flowers are often 
enclosed within large, leafy, imbricated bracte®. The 
calyx is usually composed of either four or five parts, 
which overlap each other, and occasionally grow toge¬ 
ther at the base. Thd corolla is monopetalous and irre¬ 
gular. The stamens are either two or four, but in the 
latter case are of unequal lengths. The pistillum is su¬ 
perior and turcilled. The seed-vessel contains two cells, 
which burst when ripe, often with elasticity,and expose 
a few roundish seeds hanging to the cells by curiously 
hooked processes. The stems of all the species emit 
roots very readily from their tumid articulations; oa 
which account gardeners universally increase them by 
cuttings of the full-grown branches. They are always 
easy to cultivate, provided they are not kept in too cold 
or too dry a situation. The annual kinds freely produce 
seeds, by which they are readily multiplied. The most 
common genera are Justicia, Acanthus, Ruellia, Thurs 
bergia, Barleria, and Eranthemum ; q v. 

Acan'tbice, n. The sweet juice of ivy-buds. 

Acan'thite, n. (Min.) An orthorhombic sulphide min¬ 
eral of the Galena division. Comp, sulphur 12-9, silver 87'L 

Acan'thion, n. (Pal.) A genus of Rodentia, known 
at present only by their osteology. The genus was es¬ 
tablished by F. Cuvier. 

Aennthoceph'ala, n. [Gr., spiny-headed .] (Zolil.) 
A group of intestinal worms or Entoxoa, which attach 
themselves to the mucous coat of the intestines of ani¬ 
mals, by means of a proboscis surrounded with minute 
recurved spines. 

Acantlioc'inus, n. (Zool.) A genus of Coleopterous 
insects belonging to Latreille's Limgicorn group, and re¬ 
markable for the spiny projections from its antenn® 
The species Acanthocinus speculifer, represented in the 
accompanying figure, derives its specific name (which 


2 

















IS 


ACAN 


ACCA 


ACCE 


means mirror-bearing) from its having a bright, bur¬ 
nished disc on each of the elytra. See CBRAMiirciD.*. 



Fig. 16. — ACANTHOCINUS SPECULIFF.R. 


Acantliodac'tylus, n. [Gr. spine-toed.'] (Zoijl.) The 
generic name of the Cape spine-foot, an African lizard. 
Its toes are very long, especially those of the hind-feet, 
and are edged with a fringe composed of sharply pointed 
scales. 

Aeantho'derma, n. [Gr. acantho , a prickle, and 
derma , a hide.] ( Zool.) A genus of fossil fishes, allied to 
the Balistes. 

Aeantho des, n. (Pal.) A genus of fossil ganoid fisnes 
of diminutive size. 

Aeantbo'limon. n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, order 
Plumbaginacew. They are natives of Asia, and readily 
distinguished by their rigid, sharp-pointed leaves, re¬ 
sembling those of Juniper. 

A can't lion i 11 , n. [Gr., thorn-clawed.] (Zool.) The 
thorn-clawed crab, a genus of decapodous Crustacea; so 
named on account of the large and boldly hooked ex¬ 
tremities of its limbs. 

Acantho'phis, ». |Gr., serpent's spine ] (Zool.) A genus 
of venomous serpents, peculiar to Australia, and charac¬ 
terized by a horny spine, simulating a sting, at the end 
of the tail. 

A c a 11 1 ll o p'oil Jl, n. [Gr., spine-footed.] (Zool.) A tribe ol 
clavicornous beetles (Searabseidst), chiefly distinguished 
by having the outside of their feet armed with spines. 

Aeantliopteryg''ii, and Acanthopteryg'i- 
ans, n.pl. [Gr., spiny-finned] (Zool.) Cuvier’s first order 
of fishes, characterized by the bony spines which form 
the first rays of their dorsal and anal fins; and generally, 
also, the first ray of the two ventral fins. 

Acanf tiopter.vg'ious, a. (Zoijl.) Having fins which 
are bony and prickly. 

Aeant ll urns, n. [Gr.akanthos, spine; oura, tail .](Zobl.) 
The Surgeon-fish, a genus of acanthoptei ygious fishes, 
fam.. Teuthidw, chiefly distinguished by the sharp and 
lancet-like spines with which they are armed on each 
side ot the tail. They abound in the tropical seas, where 
they are generally seen in large shoals of two or three 
hundred each, swimming with great strength, and feed¬ 
ing principally on different kinds of sea-weed. The 
genus contains a large numberof species, many of which 
tie extremely beautiful, both in form and color. 



Fig. 17. — surgeon, (Acanthurus phlebotomut.) 

Acanthus, n. [Lat., from Gr. akuntha, a thorn.] (Arch.) 
The name by which the broad raffled leaf used in the en¬ 
richment of the Corinthian capital is known. It is thus 
called because of its general resemblance to the leaves 
of a species of the acanthus plant; or rather because of 
a pretty traditional story which the Roman author Vi¬ 
truvius tells of the fancied origin of the Corinthian 
capital, in which the leaves are said to be imitated from 
those of the acanthus.^(See Capital, Corinthian.) The 
game leaf, however, is commonly used in architectural 
and sculptural enrichments generally; in the enrich¬ 
ment of modillions, of mouldings, and of vases, as well 
as of foliated capitals; and we gather from Virgil, that 
the acanthus was by the ancients also employed as an 
ornament in embroidery. In the first book of the 
JEneid, verse 649, and again at 711, a veil or vest is said 
to be interwoven or embroidered with the crocus-colored 
or saffron acanthus. This ornament, in the ancient 
Greek and Roman models, is very characteristic of the 
styles of architectural enrichment of those nations; in 
*he Roman, it is full and somewhat luxuriant, and 
\n the Greek more restrained, but simple and graceful. 

(Bot.) A genus of herbaceous plants, order Acanthacece, 
Sound in the south of Europe, Asia Minor, and India. 
The commonest species is Acanthus mollis, or Brank- 
nrsine, a native of many parts of the south of Europe, 
growing in shady, moist places, among bushes. Its stem 
is about two feet high, and is covered from the middle 
to the top with fine large white flowers, slightly tinged 
with yellow. The leaves are large, soft, deeply cut, 
fiatry, and shining; and surround the lower part only 
of the stem. Both the leaves and the roots, which are 
aerennial, abound in mucilage, which has caused them 
jo be substituted in domestic medicine for the marsh¬ 
mallow. It is this species which is usually supposed to 
have given rise to the notion of the Grecian capital. 
But it appears, from the investigation of Dr. Sibthorp, 


that it is nowhere to be found, either in the Greek 
islands, or in any part of -the Peloponnesus; and that 
the plant which Dioscorides must have meant was the 
Acanthus spinosus, still called Acantha, which is found, 
as he describes it, in rocky, moist situations. It differs 
from Acanthus mollis in having a dwarfed stem, flower 
tinged with pink instead of yellow, and spiny leaves. 

Ac'anus, n. [Gr. akanos, a prickle.] (Pal.) A genus 
of fossil fishes allied to the perches. 

Aean zii, n. pi. Turkish light-horse. 

A'eapella. ( Mus.) Italian words applied to composi¬ 
tions sung in the old church style, without instrumen¬ 
tal accompaniment; as, a mass a capella — i.e., amass 
purely vocal. 

Acapill'co, a city of Mexico, situated on a bay of the 
Pacific ocean. The harbor is very commodious, and de¬ 
fended by a strong castle; but the town is mean and 
unhealthy. On December 4, 1862, an earthquake de¬ 
stroyed all its principal buildings, besides a great por¬ 
tion of the houses of the inhabitants.— Exp., silver, 
indigo, cochineal, and skins. Pop. 3.000. 

Acar'idse, and Acaridans, n.pl. (Zool.) A tribe of 
Arachnida, including mites or acari and ticks. 

Aear'nania, a division of ancient Greece, now form¬ 
ing, with iEtolia, a department of the kingdom of 
Greece. Area, 1,571 square miles. Desc., mountainous 
and woody, intersected with fertile valleys, several of 
which contain beautiful lakes. Prod., flocks and herds: 
lias some copper, and abundance of sulphur and coal. 
Pop., with JEtolia, 162,020. 

Acar'oid resin. (Cheni.) The resin of the Xanthnr- 
rhea hastilis, a liliaceous tree growing in New Holland; 
also called resin of Botany Bay. It has a yellow color, 
an agreeable odor, and is soluble in alcohol, ether, and 
caustic potash. 

Acar'pous, a. [Gr. a, priv., and karpos, fruit.] (Bot.) 
Sterile ; not bearing fruit. 

Ac'aras, n.; pi. Acari. [Gr. akari, a mite.] (Zool.) The 
mite: a genus of insects of the tribe Acaridce, order 
Arachnida. They are oviparous, have eight legs, two 
eyes, and two jointed tentacula, and are very prolific. All 
the species are extremely minute, or even microscopic, as 
the cheese-mite (acarus domesticus), and many of them 
parasitic; of the latter, the itch-insect (sarcoptes scabici) 
is a remarkable example. It is a microscopic animal, 
found under the human skin, in the pustules of a well- 
known cutaneous disease. Many others infect the skin 
of different animals, and sometimes in considerable num¬ 
bers. That which is figured below will give a general idea 
of their general appearance. They are found attached to 
the poor creature upon which they live by means of a 
curiously constructed mouth, that is firmly implantei’ 
into the skin, as to make it difficult to remove the acarus 
without tearing off its head, except with the assistance 
of a knife. It consists of four lancette blades (Fig. 18), 
each furnished with sharp teeth, so arranged, that while 
the instrument freely pierces the skin, to draw it back 
again by force is out of the question; and although the 
acarus can probably detach it by its own efforts, it is use¬ 
less to employ foreign violence for that purpose. In the 
centre, between these barbed lancets, is the passage to 
the stomach of the parasite. The mites are active in¬ 
sects, and possess great powers of life, resisting, for a 
time, the application of boiling water, and living long in 
alcohol. 




Fig. 18.— ACARUS RICINUS. 

Acas'ta. (Myth.) One of the Oceanides. 

Acas'to, a post-village of Clarke co., Missouri, about 32 
miles N.W. of Keokuk, Iowa. 

Acas'tus, son of Pelias, king of Thessaly; married A sty - 
damia or Hippolyte, who fell in love with Peleus, son of 
iEacus, when in banishment at her husband’s court. 

" Peleus, rejecting the addresses of Hippolyte, was accused 
before Acastus of attempts upon her virtue, and soon 
after, at a chase, exposed to wild beasts. Vulcan, by 
order of Jupiter, delivered Peleus, who returned to 
Thessaly, and put to death Acastus and his wife. 

Acatalec'tic, n. and a. [Gr.] (Pros.) A term applied 
in ancient poetry to such verses as have all their feet 
and syllables without any defect at the end; those which 
are not so, being called catalectic. 

(Med.) Not discoverable; uncertain. 

Acatalep'sia, and Acatalepsy, n. [Gr.] (Med.) 
Uncertainty in the prognosis or judgment of diseases 

Acathar'sia, and Acatharsy, n. [Gr.] (Med.) Omis¬ 
sion of purgatives. 

(Surg.) Filth from a wound; impurity. 
Acaules'cent, Acau'line, Acanlose', Aeau'- 

lous, a. [Or. a privative, and kaulos, a stem.] (Bot.) A 
term applied to plants having very short or inconspicuous 
stems, as the sweet violet. 

Acca Laurcntia. the wife of Fanstulus the shep¬ 
herd, and the nurse of Remus and Romulus. Borne say 

| she was a courtesan, and have called her Lupa. The 


Romans made her a goddess, and devoted a holiday t4 
her service. 

Ac'eatl. (Anc. Geog.) One of the four cities which rro 
said to have been the beginning of Nimrod’s kingdom. 
(Gen. x. 10.) It is supposed that the ruins called Akker- 
koof, in Sittacene, pertain to the ancient Accad. They 
are situated about 9 miles IV. of the Tigris, ai the point 
where it makes its nearest approach to the Euphrates. 

Accatink/, a post-village of Fairfax co : Virginia. 

Accede', v. n. [ hat. accedere, Fr. accider.] To come over 
to a view or a proposal; as, tc icceoy *o a treaty, to a 
request. 

Acceleran'do. ( Mus .) Italian word, the meaning of 
which is: gradually increasing in quickness. 

Accel'crate, v. a. [Fr. accelerer, from the Lat. accede- 
rare.] To quicken the speed or process of events, objects, 
or transactions. 

Acceleration, n. [Lat. acceleratio, hastening; Fr. 
acceleration.] The act of accelerating; a hastening. 

(Mech.) The motion of a moving body, when its velo¬ 
city is continually increasing. With whatever velocity a 
falling body moves in the first second, it will, at the end of 
two seconds, move with twice that velocity, and so on ; 
the force of gravity increasing as the body approaches the 
earth. This is, how'ever, not mathematically true, as a little 
time is lost through the increased density and conse¬ 
quent resistance of the air at each moment. 

Acceleration of the stars. A term applied in ancient 
astronomy to the time by which the fixed stars antici¬ 
pate the diurnal motion of the earth. 

Acceleration of the moon, is the increase of the moon’s 
mean motion from the sun. compared with the diurnal 
motion of the earth, which is calculated at about ten- 
seconds in a century. 

Acceleration and retardation of the tides, are certain 
irregularities between the times of high water, which 
difference would be constant supposing the tides occurred 
at regular intervals. The tides are caused by the attrac¬ 
tions exercised by the sun and moon on the waters of 
the earth. The earth being nearer to the moon than to 
the sun, it is by her that the greatest influence is pro¬ 
duced. The moon takes 24 li. 50 m. to perform one revo¬ 
lution round the earth: high water ought, therefore, to 
arrive at exact intervals ot 12 h. 25 m. This interval is, 
however, continually changing at different times and 
places, being influenced by three principal causes: — the 
relative distances of the sun and moon, of the earth and 
moon, and the moon's distance from the equator. Local 
circumstances, such as currents, prevailing winds, &c., 
are other causes of these irregularities. 

Accel'erative, and Acceleratory, a. Accele¬ 
rating motion or velocity. 

ccel'erator, n. (Anat.) The name of a muscle of 
the pubis, the use of which is to drive the urine for¬ 
ward, to accelerate its passage. 

Accendibil'ity, n. [Lat. accendere.] Inflammability. 

Accen'dible, a. That may be inflamed. 

Accen'dones, n.pl. [Lat.] Among the Homans, special 
gladiators, whose duty it was to animate and encour¬ 
age the combatants in the amphitheatre. 

Ac'cent, v. [Lat. accenius, from ad, to, and cano, I sing; 
Fr. accent ] (Gram.) The greater or less stress laid in 
pronouncing on each syllable of a word is termed the ac¬ 
cent of that syllable. There are three kinds of accents, 
viz.: the acute, the grave, and the circumjtex. The acute 
accent, marked thus ('), show T s that the voice is to be 
raised in pronouncing the syllable over which it is 
placed. The grave accent is marked thus ('), and points 
out when the voice ought to be lowered. The circum¬ 
flex accent is compounded of the other two, and marked 
thus (') or (~); it denotes a quavering of the voice be¬ 
tween high and low. Some call the long and short 
quantities of syllables accents : but erroneously. The 
three accentual marks are also employed in the French 
language, but in it they mark only a difference in the 
pronunciation, not in the accent: the modification of 
the vowel sounds not being all of them expressed by dis¬ 
tinct letters. 

(Math.) To avoid the confusion arising from the use 
of many letters in an algebraical problem, it is custom¬ 
ary to signify different magnitudes of the same kind, or 
magnitudes similarly connected with the question, by 
the same letter, distinguishing these magnitudes one 
from another by accents. — after a number, the mark (') 
denotes a minute of a degree, and (") a second of a degree. 

( Music.) A raising of the tone, in order to obtain variety 
and expression. 

Accent', and Accentuate, v. a. [Fr. accentuer.] To 
pronounce or to mark words with the proper accents 
grammatically. 

Accent or, n. (Zool.) A group of insessorial birds, be¬ 
longing to the family Sylvicolidx, and including the 
Hedge sparrow or Hedge-chanter of Western Europe, 
which is about the size of the Redbreast. Many speeiet 
are peculiar to North America 

(Mus.) One who sings the highest part in a trio. 

Aecentori'nse, n. pi. (Zool.) A sub family of birds 
formed by Gray, and comprising the Accentors. 

Accent'nal, a. That pertains to accent. 

Accentuate. See Accent. 

Accentna'tion, n. [Fr.] The act of placing o, pro¬ 
nouncing accents. 

Accept', v. a. [Fr. accepter, from Lat. accipe-re.] To take, 
to receive willingly; to agree to;—to estimate; to re¬ 
ceive as worthy. 

(Com.) To promise the payment of a sum named in a 
bill of exchange. 

Acceptable, a. [Fr. acceptable.] That which is likely 
to be accepted; grateful; pleasing. 

Acceptability, and Acceptableness, n. The 

quality of beinc acceptable. 






ACC1 


ACCL 


ACCO 


19 


Acceptably, adv. In an acceptable manner; so as to 
please — followed by to. 

Accept ance, «. The act of accepting; favorable re¬ 
ception. 

“ Such with him 

Finds no acceptance, nor can find."— Hilton. 

(Lawi) An engagement to pay a bill of exchange ac¬ 
cording to the tenor >f such acceptance, which may be 
either absolute or conditional. An absolute acceptance 
is either general or qualified, and is usually written 
across the face of the bill of exchange thus: — “ Accepted , 

payable at Messrs. -, Bankers, N. Y.; ” if it is to be 

qualified, the words, “ and not otherwise or elsewhere,” 
are added, and then follows the signature of the person 
accepting. If the acceptance be qualified, non-presenta¬ 
tion of the bill of exchange at the specified place, and in 
improper time, would exonerate the person who accepted 
it, and all the other parlies; but the person who accepted 
it would not be exonerated if the acceptance were gen¬ 
eral. It may be conditional; as, It will not be accepted 
until the ship with the wheat arrives; or, Cannot accept till 
stares are paid for; these are undertakings to accept 
when the ship with the wheat arrives, or the stores are 
paid for. 

Accept'ant, n. One who accepts; an acceptor. 

Acceptation, and Acception, n. The actof accept¬ 
ing;— the accepted meaning of a word. — Acception is 
obsolete. 

“My words, in common acceptation. 

Could never give this provocation.”— Gray. 

Accept'er, n. One who accepts. 

Acceptila'tion, n. [bat. acceptilatio.) (Law.) The 
verbal extinction of a verbal contract, with a declaration 
that the debt has been paid when it has not, or the ac¬ 
ceptance of something merely imaginary in satisfaction 
of a verbal contract. 

Accept'or, or Accept'er, the person upon whom a 
bill of exchange is drawn; he is called a drawee before, 
and acceptor after acceptance; heis the first and principal 
party liable to pay the amount of the bill, for hardly any¬ 
thing but payment or release will discharge him. 

Access', or Ac'ces'j, n. [Fr. acres, from Lat. accessus.] 
An external passage; — admittance; admission; — in¬ 
crease; addition. 

(Law.) Approach, or the means of approaching. 

Ac'cessarily, adv. In the manner of an accessary. 

Ac'cessariness, n. The state of being accessary. 

Ac'cessary. See Accessory. 

Accessibil ity, n. [Fr. accessi.biliti.'] The quality of 
being accessible. 

Accessible, a. That which may be approached. 

Acces'sibly, adv. In an accessible manner. 

Acces'sion, n. [Fr. from Lat. accessio.] Augmentation 
by something acquired. — The commencement of a sov¬ 
ereign’s reign. — The absolute or conditional acceptance 
by a nation of a treaty already concluded between other 
countries. 

(Law.) The rigr. of property arising from accession is 
grounded on the right of occupancy, and derived from 
the Roman law; thus, if any given corporal substance 
receivean accession, either by natural or artificial means, 
as by the growth of vegetables, the pregnancy of ani¬ 
mals, or the conversion of wood or metal into utensils, 
the original owner of the thing is entitled by his right 
of possession to the property of it under its improved 
state; but if the thing itself was changed into a different 
species, as by making wine, oil, or bread out of another’s 
grapes, olives, or wheat, it would belong to the new 
operator, who has only to make a satisfaction to the 
former proprietor for the materials so converted. 

Access'ive, a. Additional. 

Accessorial, a. Pertaining to an accessory; as, acces¬ 
sorial agency. 

Ac'cessorily, adv. In the manner of an accessory. 

Ac'cessoriiiess, n. The state of being accessory. 

Accessory, and Ac'cessary, a. [Lat. accedo, I 
approach.] Additional. 

Accessory, and Accessary, n. That which advances 
or promotes a design; an accompaniment. 

(Law.) A person guilty of an offence by connivance 
or participation, either before or after the act committed, 
as by command, advice, or concealment, &c. In high 
treason, all who participate are regarded as principals. 

(Paint.) Those things introduced into a picture for 
the purpose of explaining and helping the principal ob¬ 
jects in telling the story. 

Acciacatn'ra, ». [It. acciaccare, to squeeze.] (Music.) 
A grace-note, one semitone below that to which it is 
prefixed. 

Acciaioli, Renatus, a Florentine, who conquered 
Athens, Corinth, and part of Boeotia. Lived in the be¬ 
ginning of the 15th century. He bequeathed Athens to 
the Venetians; Corinth to Theodosius Paleologus, who 
married his eldest daughter; and Boeotia, with Thebes, 
to his natural son Anthony, who also got Athens; but 
this was retaken in 1455 by Mohammed II. 

Ac'ci<l©**ce, n. [Lat. accidentia.] A small book con¬ 
taining the first rudiments of grammar. 

Ac'cident, n. [Lat. accidens, falling.] Denotes, in a 
general sense, any casual event. — Among logicians, it 
signifies: 1. Whatever does not essentially belong to a 
thing: 2. Such properties in any subject as are not es¬ 
sential to it; 3. In opposition to substances, all qualities 
whatever are called accidents; as sweetness, softness, 
hardness, Ac. 

(Gram.) Something belonging to a word, but not es¬ 
sential to it; as gender, number, inflection. 

( Lew.) The happening of an event without the con¬ 
currence of the will of the person by whose agency it 
was caused; or the happening of an event without any 
human agency. 


(Heraldry.) In coat-armor, an additional mark, which 
may be omitted without effecting any change in the 
dignity. 

Ac'cident. a village of Garrett co., Maryland. 

Accidental, n. [Fr. accidentel. J A quality or pro¬ 
perty not essential to the subject. 

Acciden tal, a. That happens by chance, unexpect¬ 
edly; casual; fortuitous. 

Accidental colors are those which depend on the affec¬ 
tions of the eye. The term is applied to the ocular' 
spectrum which is generally perceived after the eye has 
been for some time steadily fixed upon a colored object. 
Thus, if we look for some time upon a yellow piece of 
cloth, and suddenly turn the eye from it, we will see the 
color of indigo; red will give a bluish green, and so on. 
These colors are also called complementary colors, be¬ 
cause, when taken in conjunction with those of thespec- 
truin, they make up all the colors of a white light. 

Accidental point, in perspective, that point in the hori¬ 
zontal line where the projections of parallel lines meet 
the perspective plane. 

Accidentalism. n. (Paint.) The effects produced 
accidentally by rays of light. (See Accidentals.) 

Accidentally, adv. In an accidental manner; non- 
essentially. 

Accidentalness, n. Quality of being accidental. 

Accidentals, n. pi. (Paint.) Thnse fortuitous or 
chance effects occurring from luminous rays falling on 
certain objects, by which they are brought into stronger 
light than they otherwise would be, and their shadows are 
consequently of greater intensity. This sort of effect is 
to he seen in almost every picture by Rembrandt, who 
used them to a very great extent. With these effects 
may be classed such accidental lights as those from a 
forge or a candle, or some sucli object, of which the use 
is extremely important to the painter of still life. In 
the celebrated Node of Correggio is a fine example of 
A., in which the light appears to emanate from the in¬ 
fant Jesus. 

(Music.) Those flats and sharps which are prefixed, in 
a movement, to notes which would not be considered so 
by the fiats and sharps in the signature. 

Acciden'tary. a. Accidental. 

Accip'enser, n. See Acipenser. 

Accip'iter, n. A member of the order Accipitres. 

Accip'itres, n. pi. [Lat. accipiter, a liawk.] (Zoiil.) The 
families Yulturiikr (vultures), Palconidse, (falcons and 
hawks), and Strigidse (owls); q. v. 

(Burg.) A bandage which was put ever the nose; so 
called from its likeness to the claws of a hawk, or from 
the tightness of its grasp. 

Accipitri'nse, n. pi. (Zool.) The Sparrow-hawks, a 
sub-family of birds, ord. Accipitres, fam. Palconidse. The 
sparrow-hawk of America (Falco sparverius) is 11 to 12 
inches long. Its general color is light rufous or cinna¬ 
mon, with white and black spots on the bead and neck. 
It feeds upon small birds, mice, and other small ani¬ 
mals, and never attacks poultry. It greatly differs from ' 
the sparrow-hawk, or Kestrel, of Europe ( Accipiter or 
Falco nisus), which is a bold and spirited bird, making 
great depredations among pigeons, partridges, and the 
young of domestic poultry. 



Fig. 19. — the sparrow-hawk. 


Accip'itrine, a. Pertaining or relating to a bird of 

the order accipitres. 

Accis'mus, n. [Lat.] (Rhet.) A feigned refusal: an 
ironical dissimulation. 

Ac'cius, Lucius, a Latin tragic poet, none of whose 
works are extant. Flourished about 170 b. c. There 
was also, in the same age, an orator of the name of 
Accius, against whom Cicero defended Cluontius. He 
was a native of Pisaurum. 

Acclaim', t>. a. [Fr. acclamer. from Lat. acclamare .] To 
salute wilh applause; to declare by acclamation; as, 

“ in acclaiming thee.” 

Acclaim', n. See Acclamation. | 


Acclama tion, and Acclaim, n. [Fr. acclamation.) 
A calling out in favor; — vivid and unanimous approval 
of persons or things; — acclaim is seldom used. 

(Nunus.) Those Roman medals on which the people 
are represented as expressing their joy. 

Aeclam'atory, adv. Expressing acclamation. 

Ac'climate, r. a To acclimatize 
Acclima tion, Accli niatement, Acclimati¬ 
zation, and Accli'mature, n. The act of accli¬ 
mating; the state of being acclimated.— (The first of 
these synonyms is generally used in relation to man.) 

Accli'matize, v. a. [Fr. acclimater, from Lat. ad, to, cli. 
ma, a climate.] To accustom an animal or plant to a cli. 
mate not natural to it. A change of climate induces a cer¬ 
tain change in the constitution of the individual, greater 
or less, according to the amount of difference between the 
two climates. In cases where the difference is extreme, 
diseases and even death may be the result. The change 
produced by acclimation may be either an improvement 
or a deterioration. Some plants or animals possess the 
power of bearing changes of climate to a much greater 
extent than others; and, frequently, a change which 
cannot be effected in one individual, may be brought 
about more gradually in the course of a few generations. 
The power of bearing changes of climate is remarkable 
in the human species, particularly in the Anglo-Saxon 
race. An attention to diet, clothing, <vc., does much in 
modifying the influences of climate. 

Accliv'ity, n. [Lat. accHvus.] A steep¬ 
ness reckoned upward of a slope. Decliv¬ 
ity is a steepness downward; thus, A B 
is an acclivity, and B A a declivity. 

Accli'vons, a. Rising with a slope. 

Ac'cola, n. [Lat.] (Law.) A husbandman; a borderer. 

Accolade', n. [Fr. accolade, from Lat. ad, to, collum, 
the neck.] An ancient mode of conferring knighthood, 
by the sovereign embracing the new-made knight, and 
giving him a slight blow on the shoulder. Gibbon calls 
this blow “ the emblem of the last affront which it was 
lawful for him to endure.” Some antiquaries derive 
the origin of ibis custom from the blow given to the 
Roman slave by his master when giving him his freedom. 

( Mus.) A brace connecting several staves. 

Ac'colent, n. [Lat. aecolens.] A borderer. 

Accol'ti, Benedict, a celebrated Italian lawyer, b. at 
Arezzo, 1415. He wrote a history of tlie Crusades, from 
which Tasso drew the text of his Jerusalem Delivered. 
D. 1466. 

Fr»ncis, brother to Benedict, was called the prince 
of lawyers. D., vastly rich, about 1470. 

Benedict, a cardinal, related to the above, called the 
Cicero of his age, and distinguished by several Popes. 
D. 1549. 

Benedict, an Italian conspirator who, with five others, 
meditated the murder of Pius IV. but to death 1564. 

Accomac', and Accomack.', a county of Virginia, 
bordering on Maryland, comprising a number of the 
little islands which lie off the coast, between the 
Chesapeake and the Atlantic. So named after a tribe 
of Indians who frequented this region. This county was 
formed in 1672 of a part of Northampton county. Capi¬ 
tal, Accomack Court-House, or Drummond; area, 480 
square miles; surface level and partially fertile. Prod., 
Indian corn, potatoes, wheat, and wool. 

Accomack Court-House, or Drummond Town, a small 
post-village, capital of the above county, 193 miles E. by 
N. of Richmond. 

Accombination, n. The act of combining together. 

Accom'modable, a. That may be fitted or adapted. 

Accom modate, v. a. [Fr. accommoder.) To supply 
with conveniences of any kind; to adapt; to fit; tc ad¬ 
just; to reconcile; to compose. 

— v. n. To be conformable. 

— a. Suitable; fit; — affording or disposed to afford accom¬ 
modation. 

Accom'moclated, p. a. Adapted; supplied. 

Acconi'modating', p. a. Affording or disposed to 
afford accommodation. 

Accom'modation. n. The state of being accommo¬ 
dated ; the act of fitting or adapting. 

“ The organization of the body with accommodation to its functions.’* 
14 The accommodations of a public house.” 

(Law.) A friendly agreement; an amicable composi¬ 
tion between persons at variance. 

Accommodation bill of exchange. A bill that one per¬ 
son accepts for another, there being no consideration be¬ 
tween them, for the purpose of raising money upon it for 
the present necessity of one or both of them. In gen¬ 
eral, the parties who have drawn, indorsed or accepted 
bills or other commercial paper for the accommodation 
of others, are, while in the hands of a holder who re¬ 
ceived them before, other than the person for whom 
the accommodation was given, responsible as if they had 
received full value. 

Accommodation stage-coach; accommodation-train. A 
stage-coach or train of cars designed to accommodate 
passengers, as to time, in distinction from the mail-stag# 
or express-train. 

Accom'modative, a. Giving accommodation. 

Accom'modator, n. One who accommodates. 

Accom'panier, n. One who accompanies. 

Accom'paniinent, n. That which accompanies. 

(Mus.) The instrumental part of a composition which 
moves with the voice, to which it is to he kept subordi¬ 
nate. Also, the parts which in a concerted piece move 
with a particular instrument, whose powers it is tin ob¬ 
ject of the composition to exhibit. 

(Paint.) Any object accessory to the principal subject, 
and serving to its ornament or illustration; an accessory. 

(Her.) Such things as are usually applied about the 
shield, as the belt, &c. 




















20 


ACCO 


A CCU 


ACEP 


Accompanist, n. (Jfus.) The performer who takes 
the accompanying part. 

Accom'pany, v. a. [Fr. accompagner.] To go with 
another as a companion; to keop company with;—to 
attend; to escort. 

— v. ra. To be with another as a companion. 

(Mas.) To perform the accompanying part. 

Accom plice, ra. [Fr. complice, from Lat.acf, to, and com 
plico, to fold together.] One who is involved with another 
in the circumstances and responsibilities of his conduct. 

(Law.) One of many equally concerned, or a copartner 
in a felony; generally applied to those admitted to give 
evidence against their fellow-criminals. (See Abettor.) 

Accom pliceship, n. The state of being an accom¬ 
plice. (a.) 

Accomplic'ity, ra. Complicity, (r.) 

Acroin plisli, s. a. [Fr. accomplir.} To bring to an 
issue of full success: to fill up an act to the measure of 
its intention, to fulfil, to consummate; —as, my design is 
accomplished; the prophecy is accomplished; to accom¬ 
plish a period of time. — To adorn. 

“ The armorers accomplishing the knights, 

With busy hammers closing rivets up, 

Give dreadful note of preparation."— Shah. 

Accom'plisliable, a. That may be accomplished. 

Accomplished, p. a. Complete in some quality; ele¬ 
gant, refined, polite; —refers commonly to acquired quali¬ 
fications, without including moral excellence; as, an ac¬ 
complished gentleman. 

Accom'plisher, n. One who accomplishes. 

Accomplishment, n. [Fr. accomplisseinent .] Comple¬ 
tion, full performance, perfection; the act of accomplish¬ 
ing ; as, the accomplishment of a design; — embellishment, 
elegance, ornament of mind or body. 

‘‘I was silly enough to think that gaming was one of their ac¬ 
complishments."— Chesterfield. 

Accompt', n. See Account. 

Accompt'ant, n. See Accountant. 

Accord', v. a. [Fr. accorder.] To act in harmony or con¬ 
formity with; to act suitably to; as, I accord with you; 
they accorded the lute's music to the voice. 

Accord', v. n. To agree; to consent; to concur; to suit 
one with another. 

44 The heroes pray’d, and Pallas accords their vow.” 

“ My heart accordcth with my tongue.” 

Accord', n. Concurrence of action or opinion; union; — 
a compact; an agreement. 

(Mas.) Harmony of sounds; concord.—See Concord. 

(Paint.) Harmony of light and shade. 

(Law.) A satisfaction agreed upon between the party 
injuring and the party injured, which, when performed, 
is a bar to all actions upon this account. 

Own accord. Voluntary motion; spontaneous feeling 
or action. “Doing that of his own accord.’’ 

Accord', a post-office of Ulster co., New York. 

Accord'able, o. [Fr.] Agreeable, (r.) 

Accordance, and Accord'ancy. [O.Fr. a cordon ce.} 
Agreement, applied to a person; conformity, applied to a 
thing;—followed by with or to. 

(Mus.) Melody. 

Accord'ant,a. [Fr.] Corresponding; consonant; agree¬ 
ing; agreeable. 

Aceord'antly, ad. In an accordant manner. 

Accord'er, n. An assistant; a helper. 

Accord'ing', p. a. Which is in harmony or accordance. 

“ The according music of a well-mixed state.”— Pope. 

According to, a prepositional phrase, having the mean¬ 
ing of: in a manner suitable to, agreeably to; in propor¬ 
tion;— with regard to. 

11 According to the beautiful lines of the poem.” — Addison. 

11 God made all things in number, weight, and measure, andgave 
them to be considered by us according to these properties.” 

According, (followed by as.) This adverbial phrase is 
noted as vicious by some authors, hut the better modern 
lexicographers, especially Webster and Worcester, think 
that it is of good use. 

“ Are all things well 

According as I gave directions ?”— Shak. 

Accordingly, a. Agreeably; suitably; conformably. 

Accor'dion, n. [From accord.] (Mus.) A musical in¬ 
strument invented in Germany. It consists of a small ob¬ 
long box, of from 3 to 20 inches in length, with an inside 
row of small elastic springs, or laminte, fixed in a metallic 
plate at one end, in such a manner as to allow them to vi¬ 
brate freely. A bellows, or folding apparatus, unites the 
upper and lower parts, and supplies the springs with the 
necessary air to put them in motion. To these theair is ad¬ 
mitted by valves,which, in the same manner as in an organ, 
are acted on by the keys. A base note, or drone, is also 
added. The compass of the most perfect instrument is 
from G, the fourth space on the base cleff, to E, the 
seventh additional space above the treble, all the semi¬ 
tones inclusive. Previous to the introduction of this in¬ 
strument in Europe, it was well known to the Chinese. 
The soft tones of the accordion have great effect upon 
savage nations, as asserted by Roman Catholic missiona¬ 
ries, who carry with them accordions to attract the peo¬ 
ple to their discourses. — The flutina is another species 
of accordion, and there is an organ-accordion, invented 
some few years ago. 

Accor'dionist, n. A player on an accordion. 

Aecor'so, Francesco, an Italian lawyer, b. at Florence, 
1182, d. at Bologna 1260: author of “ The Great Gloss.” 
an enormous compilation of all commentaries on the code, 
institutes, and digests. 

Accost', v. a. To come up to a person and speak to 
him; to address. 

'’ I first accosted him.”— Dryden. 

A ecost'able, a. [Fr.] Easy of access; affable; familiar. 

A ccost'er, p. a. (Her.) Placed side by side. 

Accouclie'inent, n. [Kr.] (Med.) Childbirth; par¬ 
turition; delivery; labor; travail. 


Accoucheur', n. [Fr.] (Med.) A physician who assists 
women in childbirth. 

Accoucheuse', «. [Fr.] (Med.) A midwife; — called 
also in French sage-femme. 

Account', or Accompt, ra. [From Eat. ac, ad, and 
computare, to sum up.] A computation of debts or ex¬ 
penses ; a register of facts relating to money; the state or 
result of a computation; as, the account stands thus be¬ 
tween us: — such a state of persons or things as may make 
them more or less worthy of being considered in the 
reckoning, value, or estimation; — distinction, dignity, 
rank; as, “men of account;” —a reckoning verified by 
finding the value of a thing equal to what it was ac¬ 
counted ; —a reckoning referred to, or sum charged upon 
any particular person; and thence, figuratively, regard, 
consideration, sake;—a narrative, relation; as, an account 
of a battle; — the review or examination of an affair 
taken by authority; — the relations and reasons of a 
transaction, given to a person in authority;—explana¬ 
tions; assignment of causes: — an opinion concerning 
things previously established; — the reasons of anything 
collected. 

On no account; on every account; on all accounts. In' 
these and other similar sentences, account is taken for rea¬ 
son, ground, consideration, &c. 

Account current, a running account between two or 
more parties; or a statement of the particulars of such 
an account. 

Acconnt'-book, n. A book in which accounts are 
kept. 

Accountability, n. The state of being accountable; 
accountableness. 

Account'able, a. Liable to he called to account; 
amenable; responsible; answerable. 

Account'ableness, n. The state of being account¬ 
able. 

Account/ably, ad. In an accountable manner. 

Account'ant, n. One who is versed in accounts. One 
whose business it is to compute, adjust, and range ac¬ 
counts in due order. Also used figuratively: 

44 The Spaniard.. . 

A strict accountant of his beads." 

Byron .—Ode to Napoleon. 

Accountantship, n. The office of an accountant. 

Acconiit'ing, n. The act of reckoning up accounts. 

Accoup'le, v . a. [Fr. accoupler. See Couple.] To 
join; unite; yoke; link together. 

Accoup'lement, n. Act of coupling; a junction. 

Accou'tre, and Accou'ter, v . a. [Fr. accoutrer.] 
To provide with dress, trappings, ornaments, equip¬ 
ments ; as, “ he was accoutred as a young man.” 

Accoutrements, and Accouterments. [1|. 
accoutrement .] (Mil.) The dress, equipage, Ac. of a soldi*. 

Aec'ra, a kingdom of about 500 miles area, and also one 
of the English ports, Gold Coast, Western Africa. Lat. 
5° 30' N., Ion. 0° 12' W. 

Accred'it, v. a. [Fr. accrfditer.] To place trust in; as, 
to accredit a statement. — To confer trust upon another; 
as, to accredit an ambassador. — To trust; to intrust; to 
delegate. 

Accredited, p. a. Intrusted; confidential. 

Accres'cent, a. (Bot.) A persistent calyx, that con¬ 
tinues to grow after the flowering, so as to form a sort 
of bladder round the fruit, as in the winter cherry. 

Accrescimento, n. [It.] (Mus.) The increase, by 
one Half, of its original duration, which a note gains by 
having a dot placed at the right of it. 

Accrete', a. (Bot.) Grown together. 

Accre'tion, n. [Lat. accrescere, to increase.] An in¬ 
crease by natural addition of new parts. 

(Med.) The growing together of parts naturally sepa¬ 
rate, as the fingers or toes. 

(Lata.) Land gained from the sea, or a river, by the 
washing up of sand or soil, so as to form firm ground. 
If this accretion be by small and imperceptible degrees, 
it belongs to the owner of the land immediately adja¬ 
cent to it. 

Accre'tive, a. Increasing by grow T th. 

Ac'cri ngton, a manufacturing town of Lancashire, 
England; pop. 38,603. It is considered the center of 
the cotton-printing business. 

Accroach', v. a. [Fr. accrocher.] To draw to one’s 
self, as with a hook ; to assume the exercise of the royal 
power. 

Accrue', v. n. [Fr. accrnitre, pp. accrti .] To grow; to 
add to; to augment, to increase; to arise, to spring 
from; to he produced or derived from, in addition, or 
accession. 

Accru'ment, ra. Addition; increase, (r.) 

Accuba'tiwn, n. [Lat. accubatio, reclining.] A term 
used to express the posture taken by the ancient Greeks 
and Romans at their tables. This posture exhibited 
their bodies extended upon couches, witli their heads 
resting on pillows, or on their elbows, supported by 
pillows. 

Accu'bitus, n. (Arch.) A Latin word applied to a room 
annexed to large churches as a place of repose for the 
clergy. 

Accum'bcncy, n. State of reclining on the elbow, or 
being accumbent. 

Accum'bcut, a. [Lat. accumbere, to lie down.] (Bot.) 
A term applied to cases where one part of an organ is 
applied to another by its edge; it is chiefly used in con¬ 
tradistinction to incumbent, where one part is applied to 
another by its back or face. 

Accnmpixtli, or Acumupixtli, the first king 
of the ancient Mexicans, a legislator, and the founder 
of the capital of his kingdom. D. 1420. 

Accn'mulatc, t>. a. [Fr. accumuler, from Lat. cumulus, 
aheap.] To heap together; to increase; to collect; to 
gather ; as, “ By this means, he atcumulaied a great sum 
of money.” 


Accumulation, n. [Fr.] The act cf accumulating! 

that which is accumulated. 

Accumulation of power is applied to tha.: kind of mo¬ 
tion existing in some kinds of machinej at the end of 
intervals of time, during which the velocity of the mov¬ 
ing body has been constantly accelerated. 

Accn'mu lalive, «. Causing accumulation. 

Accumulatively, ad. In an accumularivs manner. 

Accu'miilator, n. One who accumulate;., z^'.sc. An 
arrangement for storing electrical force. 

Ac curacy, n. [Lat. accurare, to do with care.] Care; 
caution; — exactness; correctness; nicety; as, “ we will 
consider the accuracy of the calculations.” 

Ac'curate, a. Exact, as opposed to negligence or ig¬ 
norance, applied to persons; — exact, without default or 
failure, applied to things. 

“No man has made more accurate trials than Reaumur.”— Colson. 

Accurately, ad. In an accurate manner; exactly; 

correctly. 

Ac'curateness, n. Accuracy. 

Accursc', v. a. [See Curse.] To doom to misery; to 
invoke misery upon any one; as, 

“ Accurst I am, while God rejects my cry." 

Accursed', p. a. Doomed to misery. 

Accu'sable, a. [Fr.l That may be accused or censured; 
blamable; — followed by of. 

Accusa'tion, n. [Fr. from Lat. ad, to, and causare, to 
plead.] The act of accusing; blame; censure. 

(Law.) The formal charging of any person with a 
crime or misdemeanor, so that he may be brought to 
justice and punishment. A neglect to accuse may in 
some cases he considered a misdemeanor, or misprision. 
It is a rule that no man is bound to accuse himself, or 
to testify against himself in a criminal case. 

Accusative, a. Producing accusation; accusatory. 

(Gram.) The fourth case of Greek and Latin nouns. 
That inflexion of the noun which expresses the passing 
over of an action from one substance to another; 't 
consequently follows verbs active in all languages. In 
English it survives only in pronouns ; and is used after 
all prepositions without distinction. 

Accu'satlvcly, adv. In an accusative manner. 

Accusatorial, a. Accusatory. 

AccuSatory, a. Relative to, or containing, an accu¬ 
sation. 

Accuse', v. a. [Fr. accuser, from Lat. accusare, to call to 
account.] To bring to a legal trial. To charge; and, 
thence, to bring an imputation generally against another. 
To incriminate; to impeach; to arraign. 

Accus'er, n. One who makes an accusation. 

Accusing, p. a. Implying accusation; censuring. 

Accus'torii, t>. a. [Fr. accoutumer .] To habituate; to 
inure; to familiarize; to train. 

Accus'tomarily, ad. Usually. 

Aceus'tomary, a. Usual. 

Accus'tomed, a. Usual; customary; frequent; fa¬ 
miliar. 

Ace, ra. [Lat. as, a unit.] In games, signifies that side of 
the dice whereon one is marked. In cards, it denoies 
those which hear only one figure; as, for example, the 
“ ace of hearts,” which displays hut one heart. 

Acel'dama, n. The potters’ field, or field of blood, pur¬ 
chased with the thirty pieces of silver which Judas took 
to betray our Saviour. It is still shown to travellers. 

Acen'tric, a. [Gr. a, priv., and c entron, a point.] Not 
centred. 

Acepli'al. Aceph'alan,n. [Gr. acephalos, without 
head.] (Zool.) An animal of the sub-kingdom Mollusca, 
class Acephaila. 

Acephala. Aceph'alans. [Gr. acephalos, headless.] 
(Zool.) A class of molluscous animals, comprehending 
those which have not a head, but a mouth only, con¬ 
cealed in the bottom, or between the folds, of their 
mantle. The class is subdivided according to the modi¬ 
fications of the respiratory organs, into the Lamelli - 
branchiata, Tunicata, Brachiopoda, and Bryozoa orders; 
(see these words.) The oyster, lamp-cockle, and squirt- 
er, or ascidia, are their several representatives. In the 
system of Cuvier it includes only the lamelli-branchiata 
and hetero-branchiata (Tunicata) orders. 



Fig. 20. — social a serous. 

See Ascidia. 

The preceding figure represents a species of the order 
of Tunicata (gen. ascidia), which includes the lowest of 
the Acephalous Mollusca. 

Aceph'ali.ra pi. (Eccl. Hist.) Several sects of schisma. 
tics in the Christian church, who rebelled against their 
Christian head, or refused to acknowledge any; for ex¬ 
ample, the monnphisite monks and priests in Egypt, who 
did not acknowledge the patriarch Peter Mongus, be¬ 
cause he had no> in 483, expressly condemned the coun¬ 
cil of Chalcedox 

Aceph'alist, ra. One who acknowledges no head or 
superior. 

Acepn'alopliores, Acephalopora. The namm 

given by Blainville to the acephala. (See above.) 














ACET 


ACRJE 


ACHE 




A«-*-|ih alons, a. (Anat .) Those malformed foetuses 
wnich are without a head. 

This term is occasionally employed to designate 
ovaries, the style of which springs from their base, in¬ 
stead of their apex, as in Laniiacece. 

Ace -point, n. The side of a card or die that has only 
one spot. 

A'cer, n. [Lat., the maple.] ( Bol .) A genus of arbo¬ 

rescent or shrubby plants, ord. Acerineoe, many of which 
are extremely valuable for the sake either of their tim¬ 
ber, or of their ornamental appearance. The Acer ru- 
brum, or red maple, isatree 00 ft, in height, very common 
in low woods throughout the Atlantic states. Its trunk 
is covered with smooth bark, marked with large white 
spots, becoming dark with age. In spring its appear¬ 
ance is remarkable for the deep crimson flowers with 
which it is thickly clothed. The wood, particularly 
that of the variety called curled maple, is much used in 
cabinet-work. The Acer saccharinum, or sugar-tree, is a 
tree 70 feet in height, 3 feet in diameter, found through¬ 
out the United States, and constituting the greater part 
of some of the forests of New England. The wood is 
hard and has a satin lustre, but it is readily attacked by 
insects, and is not of much value, except when its grain 
is accidentally waved, and then it is in request for the 
cabinet-makers. The branches become numerous and 
finely ramified in ope', situations, and in summer are 
clothed with a foliage ' f uncommon luxuriance and 
beauty. The flowers ar<_ very abundant, and, suspended 
on long, thread-like pedicels, are most delicately beau¬ 
tiful. The saccharine matter contained in its ascending 
sap, obtained by tapping the trunk in the spring, is per¬ 
haps the most delicious of all sweets; an ordinary tree 
yields from 5 to 10 pounds in a season. —The Acer Penn- 
sylvanicum, or whistle-wood, is a small tree or shrub 1C 
to 15 feet high, very common in the northern woods 
of America, prized in Europe in ornamental gardening. 
The bark is smooth, and beautifully striped lengthwise 
with green and black. Flowers large, yellowish-green, 
succeeded by long clusters of fruit, with pale-green 
wings. 

Acera'ceae, and Aceri'nese, n. pi. (Bnt .) An order 
of plants, alliance Sapindales, comprehending only the 
genus Acer (maples), and Negundo (asb-leaved maples). 
They are known —l.by their flowers being what is called 
unsymmetrical, that is, not having the various parts 
agreeing in number: for instance, while the calyx and 
corolla are divided each into five parts, there are seven, 
eight, or nine stamens, and three divisions of the pistil- 
lum; 2 by their stamens being hypogynous and insert¬ 
ed upon a disk; 3. by their winged fruit, or keys ; and, 
4. by their petals having no appendages upon them. 
The species are all trees or shrubs, with opposite stalked 
exstipulate leaves, and are found exclusively in the north 
of Europe, Asia, America, and India. A sweet, mucila¬ 
ginous sap is common in these plants, from which sugar 
can be manufactured. 

Acer'ans, Acera, n. [Gr. a,without, and keras, a horn.] 
(Zoul.) A family of apterous insects, characterized by the 
absence of antennae: and a family of gastropodous mol- 
lusks, inci -ding those species which have no tenta¬ 
cles. 

Ac'erate, n. (Chem.) A salt formed of aceric acid and a 
base. 

Acerb', a. [Lat. acsr&us.] Acid, with an addition of 
roughness; as many fruits before they are ripe. 

Acer'bate, v. a. To make sour. 

Acer'bi, Giuseppe, an Italian traveller, b. Mantua, 1773, 
d. Mantua, 184H. Ho has published in English and French 
an account of his travels to the North Cape. 
Acer'bitude, n. Sourness; acerbity. 

Acer'bity, n. Sharpness; generally applied to that 
sharpness which we call bitterness; — and hence, harsh¬ 
ness ; bitterness; acrimony; applied to persons or things: 
as, acerbity of temper, acerbity of pain. 

Aceren'za, or Cirenza, a city of South Italy, ca¬ 
pital of B isi 1 icata. The see of an archbishop, and seated 
on the Brandano, at the foot of the Apennines. Pop. 2,000. 
Acer'ic Acid. [Lat. acer, the maple.] An acid obtained 
from the sap of that tree. 

Acer'ineae. See Acep.acea;. 

Acer'llO, an episcopal town of Southltaly, in Principato 
Citeriore, 14 miles N.E. of Salerno. Alan/., iron and 
paper. Pop. about 3,000. 

Acerose', a. [Lat. acerosus.] (Bot.) Needle-pointed; fine 
and slender, with a sharp point. 

Ac'erous,a. Chaffy; like chaff. 

( Bat.) Same as Acerose. 

Acer'ra. n. A term applied by the ancients to a kind of 
altar placed near the bed of a dead person. Incense and 
other perfumes were consumed on it by fire previous to 
the funeral, and acerrce were the pots in which the 
incense was burnt. 

Acer'ra, an episcopal town of South Italy. Terra di La- 
voro, seated on the Agno, 7 miles N.E. of Naples. Pop. 
about 11,000. 

Aces'cency, n. [Lat. acescere, to turn sour.J Act of 
turning sour; moderate sourness. 

Aces'cent, a. Turning sour or acid. Substances which 
readily run into the acid fermentation are so said to be; 
as some vegetable and animal juices and infusions. The 
suddenness with which this change is effected, during a 
thunder-storm, even in corked bottles, has not been 
accounted for . 

Aces'tes. or iigestus. son of Crimsus and .Egesta, 
and king of the country near Drepanum. in Sicily He 
assisted Priam in the trojan war, entertained tineas 
during his voyage, and helped him to bury his father on 
Mount Eryx. In commemoration of this, iEneas built 
a city there, and called it Acesta. 
Acetab'uliforni.u. (Bot.) Shaped like a cup or saucer. 


Aoetab'ulum, n. [Lat., a little cup or dts5.] A term 
applied to the suckers on the arms of the cuttle-fish, and 
other dibrarchiate cephalopods, which have been hence 
recently termed acetabulifera. 

(Anat.) Acetabulum signifies the cavity of the hip- 
joint. 

(Zt'iil.) The socket on the trunk in which the leg is 
planted. 

(A ntiq.) Among the Romans, acetabulum was a meas¬ 
ure equal to one eighth of a pint. 

Aee'tal, n. (Chem.) A thin, colorless fluid, boiling at 
221° Fah., its specific gravity being 821. It is one of the 
products of the slow oxidation of alcohol vapor under 
the influence of finely divided platinum. 

Aceta'mirte, n. (Chem.) A white crystalline solid, pro¬ 
duced by heating acetate of ethyl with strong aqueous 
ammonia to about 248°. It melts at 172° and boils at 
431°. It deliquesces when exposed to the air, and dis¬ 
solves readily in water. Form., NH 2 C a H 3 0. 
Aceta'rious, a. [From Lat. acetum, vinegar.] (Bot.) 

Anything belonging to the salad tribes of vegetables. 
Ac'etary, n. (Bot.) An acrid pulp found in some 
fruits; — a salad. 

Ac'etate, »i. (Chem.) Salt formed by the union of a base 
with acetic acid. Many of the acetates are of great im¬ 
portance in the arts, principally the following. 

Acetate of Alumina, extensively manufactured for the' 1 
.use of the dyer and calico-printer. The common red 
mordant is prepared by precipitating 100 parts alum in 
solution or sulphate of alumina by means of 120 of crys¬ 
tallized acetate of lead: the sulphate of potash of the 
alum remains undecomposed in the solution. When the 
liquor is used as a mordant, it is thickened with gum 
and applied by means of blocks to the cloth. — Many 
other acetates are also used in calico-printing; for ex¬ 
ample, that of Manganese, Zinc, and Iron. 

Acetate of Ammonia, a very soluble salt, frequently 
used medicinally as a diaphoretic. 

Acetate of Barium is more soluble in cold than in hot 
water, and slightly soluble in alcohol. It is occasionally 
used as a precipitant for sulphuric acid; when distilled 
it furnishes acetone. 

Acetate of Copper. SeeVERDiTER, and Verdigris. 
Acetate of Lead. See Sugar op Lead, and Goulard’s 
Extract. 

Acetate of Lime crystallizes in silky, anhydrous needles, 
which are very soluble in water: if heated to 248° it 
becomes strongly phosphorescent by gentle friction. 

Acetate of Potash, employed medicinally as a diuretic, 
is an anhydrous, foliated, very deliquescent, fusible salt, 
abundantly soluble in alcohol. 

Acetate of Silver, occasionally employed as a reagent, 
is readily obtained by mixing a concentrated solution of 
nitrate of silver with a solution of acetate of potash, or 
acetate of soda. It is sparingly soluble in cold water, 
but readily dissolved by hot water, which on cooling de¬ 
posits it in thin, flexible, silky needles. 

Acetate of Sodium crystallizes in oblique monoclinic 
prisms: it fuses readily. This salt is prepared in large 
quantities during the purification of wood-vinegar. 

The acetates are distinguished by the pungent odor of 
acetic acid which they emit when heated with sulphuric 
acid. 

Ac'etated, a. Combined with acetic acid. 

Acet'ic aoitl. (Chem.) This acid is produced by the 
oxidation or destructive distillation of organic bodies 
containing its elements — carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 
When pure, it is a colorless liquid of specific gravity 
1.073, which crystallizes at a temperature below 60° F. It 
has a pungent smell, and is highly corrosive. Vinegar 
and pyroligneous acid (see those wards) are impure va¬ 
rieties of acetic acid. Its chemical composition, when 
pure and free from water, is Cj H, 0 2 . Its uses are numer¬ 
ous and important. In the arts, it is employed for the 
preparation of the various acetates, especially those of 
iron and alumina, which are the chief mordants of the 
calico-printer; for dissolving gums in making varnishes ; 
and for photographic purposes. In medicine, it is used 
externally as a local irritant, and internally as a feb¬ 
rifuge. 

Acetifica'tion, n. [Fr.] The operation by which 
* vinecar is made. 

Acet'ify, v. a. To convert into acetic acid or vinegar. 
Acetom'eter, and Acetimeter. n. (Chem.) An 
instrument for estimating the strength of vinegar and 
other acids. 

Ac'etone, n. (Chem.) A colorless volatile fluid,having 
the composition C a H a 0, obtained by the distillation 
of the acetates of the alkaline earths. It has a peculiar 
odor, and is very inflammable. It is sometimes called 
pyroacetic spirit. As a remedy for asthma, it is occa¬ 
sionally used in medicine. 

Acetose', a. [Fr. aceteus .] Acetous; sour. 
Acetos'ity, n. Sourness; tartuess. 

Ace'tous, a. Something that produces acidity. 
Ac'etyle. n. (Chem.) An hypothetic radical of acetic 
compounds, composed of carbon and hydrogen. 

Ach, a town of Suabia, in the landgravinte of Nellen- 
burg, on the river Ach, 14 miles N.E. ol Sclutffhausen. 
Achaby'tos, a lofty mountain in Rhodes, on the sum¬ 
mit of which stood a temple to Jupiter. 

Acliie'a. (Myth.) A surname of Pallas, whose temple, 
in Danilin, was defended by dogs who fawned upon the 
Greeks, but fiercely attacked all other persons. A name 
applied to Ceres, and derived from achos, a word expres¬ 
sive of her grief for the loss of her daughter Proserpine. 
Aehse'a, a Greek province. (See Achaia.) 
Achae'ans, a generic term employed by Homer to de¬ 
signate the whole Hellenic host before Troy, from their 
mythological ancestor Achseus, grandson of Helen. (See 
Acu*l.) 


Achte'menes, the founder of the royal dynasty ol 

Persia, ihe Achoemenides. 

Achae'ninm, and Acheninm, n. (Bot.) A one 
seeded fruit, having a dry shell, or pericarp, which is 
closely applied to the seed, though separable from it. 
This pericarp is indehiscent, that is to say, it remains 
closed, and the seed can only become free by its decay. 
Several uchceuia are formed by a single flower. The 
little hard bodies scattered over the surface of the 
strawberry, and those we find clustered together in the 
centre of the buttercups, are achamia. 

Achic'i, the descendants of Acinous, the son of Xuthus, 
and grandson of Helen. Achseus having committed 
manslaughter, was compelled to take refuge in Laconia, 
where he died, and where his posterity remained under 
the name of Achcei, until they were expelled by the 
Heraclidae. Upon this, they passed into the northern 
parts of Peloponnesus, and, under the command of 
Tisamenus, the son of Orestes, took possession of the 
country of the Ionians, and called it Achaia. The suc¬ 
cessors of Tisamenus ruled until the time of Gyges’s 
tyranny, when Achaia was parcelled into twelve small 
republics. Three of these — Patras, Dymte, and Phane— 
became famous as a confederacy, 284 years b. c., which 
continued formidable upward of 130 years, under the 
name of the Achcean League, and was most illustrione 
whilst supported by the splendid virtues and abilities of 
Aratus and Pbilopoeinen. They directed their arms fot 
three years against the iEtolians. and rose to be power¬ 
ful by the accession of neighboring states, and freed 
their country from foreign slavery. At last, however, 
they were attacked by the Romans, and, after one year's 
hostilities, the Achaean League was totally destroyed, b. g 
147. From this period the Peloponnesus was reduced 
to the condition of a Roman province, bearing the name 
of Achaia. — The name of Achcei is generally applied tc 
all the Greeks indiscriminately, by the poets. 

Achacor'um statio. (Anc.Geog ) A place on ths 
coast of the Thracian Chersonesus, where Polyxena was 
sacrificed to the shades of Achilles, and where Hecuba 
killed Polymnestor, w ho had murdered her son Poly, 
dorus. 

Achai a. A district in the N. of the Peloponnesus,an¬ 
ciently divided into 12 little states, and now forming, 
along with Elis, a uomarchy of the kingdom of Greece; 
pop. 113,71y. Desc., mountainous, inclosing valleys of 
great fertility. Agr. defective. Sheep and goats are 
numerous — From Achaia conies the name of the cele¬ 
brated Achaean League, which first held its meetings at 
Helice, and then at Egium, 373 B. c. See Ach^i. 

Aclian in. n. (Bot.) A genns of shrubby plants, ordej 
Malvaceie, so called, from the Greek, because the coroll* 
does not open out, but remains always rolled to¬ 
gether. 

A'cliard. Franz Karl, a German chemist, b. in Berlin, 
1754. He devoted himself to the development of the 
beet-sugar manufacture, and, after six years of laborious 
endeavor, he discovered the true method of separating 
the sugar from the plant. He was appointed director of 
the class of physics in the Academy of Science, in Ber 
lin, and d. 1821. 

Aeliarn'ae. (Anc. Geng.) A large town of Attica, 
where the Tyrans encamped when they marched against 
Trasybulus, and where the Lacedaemonians, under tiieir 
king Archidamus, pitched their tents when they made 
an irruption into Attica, at the beginning of the Pelo¬ 
ponnesian war. Aristophanes, in the comedy which tukek 
its title from this town, represents the inhabitants a* 
charcoal-makers; and other comic writers stigmatize 
them as rough and boorish. 

Achates, a friend of iEneas, whose fidelity was so ex¬ 
emplary, that Jidus Achates (the faithful Achates) be¬ 
came a proverb. 

Achates. (Anc. Geog.) A river in the south of Sicilia, 
between Camarina and Gela; now the Dirillo. 

Acha'tina, n. (ZaCl.) A genus of terrestrial gastropods, 
known by the trivial name of agate-snails: character¬ 
ized by an oval, oblong ventricose shell, striated longi¬ 
tudinally ; with the aperture ovate, and never thickened 
or reflected, and a smooth, straight columella, truncated 
at the base. All the species are oviparous, and one, 
the Achatina zebra , produces eggs with a hard, whit*; 
calcareous shell, and as large as those of the sparrow. 




Fig. 21. — ACHATINA VIRGINIA. 

Ache, n. [A. S. ace, acan, pain, to be in pain.] A con¬ 
tinued pain. 

Ache, v. n. To be in pain; to cause pain; as, “ Your eye* 
will ache.” 

Acheen, a kingdom on the N.W. part of Sumatra, power¬ 
ful enough, in former times, to expel the Portuguese 
from the island, and important enough for its sovereigns 
to receive embassies from some of the greatest potentates 
of Europe. Desc., comparatively heal thy, being freer from 
woods and 6wamps than the other parts of the island. 
Prod., chiefly fine fruits, rice, cotton, gold dust, and sul¬ 
phur. Commerce — Imp., salt, soap, wine, opium, arms, 
gunpowder, and manufactured goods; Exp., mace, cloves, 
nutmegs, pepper, sugar, coffee, and rice. Pel., Mahom- 

. etan.— The Acheeneseare taller, stouter, and darker-com* 


















22 


ACH1 


ACHM 


ACID 


plexioned than the other Sumatrans. They are more 
active and industrious than their neighbors, and have 
more sagacity and penetration. — Acheen, the capital of 
the kingdom, is seated near the mouth of a river, on the 
N. W. point of the island. Lat. 5° 22' N.; Lon. 95° 34. E. 
In May, 1873, a war broke out between the Acheeneso and 
the Dutch; the city of A. was bombarded by a Dutch 
fleet, but resisted.bravely, and it was notuntil January, 
1874, that the city was taken. A. is a Dutch prov. 

Acheenesc', n. sir.#. <£ pi. An inhabitant, or the In¬ 
habitants, of Acheen. 

Acheloides. (Myth.) A patronymic name given to 
the Sirens, or daughters of Achelous. 

Achelous. (Myth.) The son of Oceanus and Terra, or 
Tethys, god of the river of the same name in Epirus. As 
one of the numerous suitors of Dejanira, daughter of 
(Eueus, Achelous entered tho lists against Hercules, and 
being inferior, changed himself into a serpent, and after¬ 
wards into an ox. Hercules broke off one of bis horns, 
and Achelous, being defeated, retired into his bed of 
water. The broken horn was given to the goddess of 
Plenty. 

Achenbacli, Andreas, a German painter, b. 1815. His 
best work is “Waterfall of Hardaugerfjeld” in Norway. 

Ache'nium. See Ach^nicm. 

Achen wall, Gottfried. B. at Elbing, Prussia, 1717; 
d. 1772. He was professor of philosophy at Gottingen, 
and the originator of statistical tables. 

Achernar, n. ( Aatron.) A large star in the southern 
extremity of the constellation Eridamus. 

Acll’cron. [Gr. achos, grief.] (Myth.) The river of 
sorrow which flowed round the infernal realms of Hades, 
according to the mythology of the ancients. There was 
a river of Thesprotia, in Epirus, of the same name, and 
also one in Italy, near which Alexander, king of the 
Molossi, was slain; both of which, from the unwhole¬ 
some and foul nature of their waters, were supposed to 
communicate with the infernal stream. 

** Sad Acheron, of sorrow black and deep.” — Milton . 

Acherontia, n. (Znol.) A genus of Lepidopterous 
insects, fam. Sphingidee, which embraces some of the 
largest European Lepidoptera, the most remarkable of 
which is the Acherontia atropos, or death’s-head hawk- 
moth. 



Fig. 22.—ACHERONTIA ATR0P08. 


Ach'erset. n. An ancient measure of corn, supposed 
to hav« been about eight bushels. 

Achernsia. (Anc. Grog.) A lake of Campania, near 
Capua. Diodorus mentions that, in Egypt, the bodies 
of the dead were conveyed over a lake called Acherusia, 
and received sentence according to the actions of their 
lives. The boat which carried them was called Baris, and 
the ferryman Charon. Hence arose the fable of Charon 
and the Styx, &c. 

Achiev'able, a. Capable of being achieved. 

Achiev'ance. n. Achievement, (o.) 

Achieve', v. a. [Fr. achever.] To perform, to finish a 
design prosperously. 

“ Our toils, my friends, are crown’d with sure success : 

The greater part perform'd, achieve the less.” — Dryden. 

—To gain; to obtain. 

“ Experience is by industry achiev'd ."— Shak. 

Achieve'ment, n. [Fr. achevement.] The performance 
of an action. 

(Her.) An escutcheon, or ensign armorial, granted for 
the performance of great actions. 

Achiev'er, n. One who achieves. 

Achill, (dk'il,) a wild, mountainous, and boggy island, 
in the county Mayo, Ireland. Area, 35,283 acres, of 
which there are not 1,000 under cultivation. Fop. (on 
the decrease) about 4,000. 

Achille'a, n. ( Bot.) A genus of plants belonging to the 
order Asteracese. The Achillea millefolium, commonly 
called the Yarrow, or Milfoil, is common in fields in the 
Northern States. Its white or rose-colored flowers 
adorn many of our meadows, particularly those with 
silicious soils, from June to September. From these 
flowers, which are occasionally substituted for hops in 
brewing, an essential oil is obtained, and an infusion of 
the leaves and flowering heads is said to be a valuable 
stomachic. The pretty garden plant known as White 
Bachelor’s Button is a cultivated variety of a species 
of Achillea. The generic name is derived from Achilles, 
who is said to have discovered the medicinal properties 
of the milfoil while studying botany under Chiron, 
the fabulous centaur. 

Achilles, son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidons, in 
Thessaly, and of Thetis, daughter of Nereus. He was 
educated by I’hoenix, a refugee, at his father’s court. 
Fate had decreed that, if he fell before Troy, he should 
gain everlasting renown; if he returned home, he 
should enjoy a long but inglorious life. He chose the 
former alternative, and joined the Grecian army, in 
which he was pre-eminent in valor, strength, swiftness, 
and beauty. During the first nine years of the war, we 
have no minute detail of his actions; in the tenth, a 
quarrel broke out between him and the general-in¬ 


chief, Agamemnon, which led him to withdraw entirely 
from the contest. In consequence, the Trojans, who 
before scarcely ventured without their walls, now 
waged battle in the plain with various issue, till they 
reduced the Greeks to extreme distress. The Greek 
council of war now sent its most influential members to 
soothe the anger of Achilles, and to induce him to 
return to arms, but without effect. Rage and grief, 
caused by the death of his friend Patroclus, slain by 
Hector, induced Achilles to return to battle. Thetis 
procured from Hephaestus a fresh suit of armor for her 
son, who, at the close of a day of slaughter, killed Hec¬ 
tor, and dragged him at his chariot-wheels to the camp. 
Here ends the history of Achilles, so far as it is derived 
from Homer. By later authors, a variety of fable is 
mixed up with this simple narrative. Thetis is said to 
have dipped him, while an infant, in the Styx, which 
rendered him invulnerable except in the heel, by which 
she held him, and he was killed at last by a wound in 
the heel. The centaur Chiron is made his tutor, instead 
of Phoenix, and feeds him upon the marrow of lions and 
other wild beasts, to improve his strength and courage. 
At the age of nine years, Thetis, anxious to prevent his 
going to Troy, removed him, disguised as a girl, to the 
court of Lycomedes, king of the island of Scyros. Here 
he became the father of N eoptolemus, or Pyrrhus, by the 
king’s daughter, Deidamia, rather precociously; for he 
had not been a year on the island, w’hen Ulysses was 
sent by the confederate Greeks to seek him, in conse¬ 
quence of an oracle, which declared that Troy could 
not be taken without the help of Achilles. Ulysses 
arrived at the island, discovered him among the females 
of Lycomedes’ household, and carried him away to join 
the army. He was betrothed to Iphigenia, daughter of 
Agamemnon. The manner of his death is variously 
told. Some make him fall in battle; others say that 
he was treacherously slain in a temple, on the occasion 
of his nuptials with Polyxena, daughter of Priam; but 
it is generally agreed that he was killed by Paris, 
Apollo aiding him, and directing his arrow. He was 
entombed on the promontory of Sigmum, and a mighty 
barrow raised over his remains, which still rivets the 
attention of travellers; though it must always remain 
doubtful to whose memory this mound of earth was 
really raised. When Alexander saw his tomb, it is said 
that he placed a crown upon it, exclaiming, “that 
Achilles was happy in having, during his life-time, a 
friend like Patroclus, and, after his death, a poet like 
Homer.” 

Achillis temlo, n. [Lat.] (Anat.) A tendon, so 
called, because, as fable reports, Thetis, the mother of 
Achilles, held him by that part when she dipped him in 
the river Styx, to make him invulnerable. It is the 
strong and powerful tendon of the heel, which is formed 
by the junction of divers muscles, and Avhich extends 
from the calf to the heel. When this tendon is unfor¬ 
tunately cut or ruptured, as it may be, in consequence 
of a violent exertion or spasm of the muscles, of which 
it is a continuation, the use of the leg is immediately 
lost; and unless the part be afterward successfully 
united, the patient will remain a cripple for life. The 
indications are to bring the ends of the divided parts 
together, and to keep them so, until they have become 
firmly united. 

Achim'enes, n. (Bot.) A genus of handsome tropical 
herbs, order Geeneraceie, chiefly distinguished by their 
funnel-shaped corolla, five-parted sub-equal calyx, and 
scaly underground tubers. 

Ach'ing;, n. Continued pain ; uneasiness. 

Acil'irite. n. (Min.) A silicate of copper, so named 
from Achir Maimed, the merchant by whom it was first 
introduced into Europe ; — also called Dioptase, q. v. 

Ac hi still yd'(‘Oils, a. [Gr. a, without, and chlamys, a 
tunic.] (Bot.) Plants which have neither calyx nor 
corolla, and whose flowers are consequently destitute 
of a covering, or naked. 

Achmet, Geduc, or Occomat, a Turkish general, b. 
1430 in Albania. After the death of Mohammet II., 
1482, he declared for Bajazet, raised him to the throne, 
and was nevertheless afterward assassinated by him. 

Achmet I., emperor of the Turks, who succeeded his 
father, Mahomet III., in 1603. He was then only fif¬ 
teen, and began his reign by endeavoring to suppress 
a rebellion, which lasted two years. He next engaged 
in a war with the Germans, in which he was assisted 
by the famous Bethlem Gabor. Peace was concluded 
in 1606; but he continued to be disturbed by insurrec¬ 
tions, and the security of his throne was threatened by a 
pretender to his rightful inheritance. He indulged in 
sensual pleasures and in field sports; but, though proud 
and ambitious, was less sanguinary than his predeces¬ 
sors. D. 1617. 

Achmet II., successor to his brother Solyman in 
1691, d. 1695. 

Achmet III., son of Mahomet IV.; ascended the 
imperial throne in 1703, on the deposition of his bro¬ 
ther, Mustapha II He sheltered Charles XII. of Swe¬ 
den, after the battle of Pultowa, and declared war 
against the Russians, but. soon after, concluded an 
advantageous peace. He likewise made war on the 
Venetians, and recovered from them the Morea; but in 
an attack on Hungary his army was defeated, by Prince 
Eugene, in 1716, at the battle of Peterwardein. Achmet 
was dethroned in 1730. D. in prison, 1736. 

Achmet Pacha, a Turkish general under Solyman 
the Magnificent. He compelled the Knights Hospital¬ 
lers to evacuate Rhodes after a desperate siege, 1522. 
Sent to Egypt to suppress a rebellion, ho assumed the 
insignia of royalty. His treason was promptly pun¬ 
ished. He was stifled in a bath, and his head was sent 
to the Sultan. 


Achmet, Rermi Effendt, a Turkish statesman, ambai 
sador to Vienna, 1757, and to Berlin, 1763, plenipoten 
tiary to the peace of Kanardji. He was subsequent]) 
disgraced, and died blind, 1788. He wrote the his¬ 
tory of the war of 1768-1774, between the Turks and 
Russians, and the narrative of his embassies. These 
two works have been translated into German. 

Achmetschem. See Simferopol. 

Achmin, or Ackmin, a town on the right bank of 
the Nile, in Middle Egypt. Manuf., coar.se cotton 
cloth. Pop. 3,000. Lat 26° 38' N., Lon. 31° 55' E. 
This is the Panopolis of the ancient Greeks, and the 
Chemnis of the Egyptians. The ruins of the former are 
still visible in some magnificent granite pillars. 

Ach'mite, n. (Min.) A mineral of a brown-black or 
red-brown color on the outside, blackish on the frac¬ 
tured surface. It melts at a black bead before the 
blowpipe. It crystallizes in oblique four-sided prisma 
It occurs, though rarely, imbedded in granite at Eger. 
(See Acmite.) 

Achonry, a town and parish of Ireland, in the county 
of Sligo, on the Shannon, 16 miles W.S.W. of Sligo. 
Area of par. 60,896 acres. Pop. 13,500. 

A'cbor, n. (Med.) The scald-head; so called from the 
branny scales thrown off it. A disease which attacks 
the hairy scalp of the head, for the most part of young 
children, forming soft and scaly eruptions. The achor 
differs from the favus and tinea only in the degree of 
virulence. It is called farms when the perforations are 
large; and tinea when they are like those which are 
made by moths in cloth; but generally by tinea is 
understood a dry scab on the hairy scalp of children, 
with thick scales and an offensive smell. 

A'chor, or Achortown, a post-village of Colum¬ 
biana co., Ohio, about 3 miles W. of the Pennsylvania 
line. 

A'chras, or Sapota, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, 
order Sapotacese. Thev are natives of the tropical 
parts of India, Africa, and America. Several species 
yield luscious fruits; thus, the Achras sapota produces 
the sappodilla plum, and the Achras rnammosa the 
marmalade. The barks of certain Bpecies are used 
medicinally in the treatment of fevers, and the milky 
juices of others yield substances resembling gutta¬ 
percha. 

Acliray,IiOcli. a small but picturesque lake in the 
county of Perth, Scotland, 15 miles N.W. from Stirling. 
Introduced in the “Lady of tho Lake” of Sir W. Scott. 

Achroinat'ic, a. [Gr. akromatos, without color.] 
(Opt.) Free from color, not showing color from the 
decomposition of light. 

Achromatic Lenses. Tho white, or rather colorless 
ray of light, is composed of several colored rays, which 
have various degrees of refrangibiliry. (cee Refrac¬ 
tion, Light, Color.) IV hen the direc ray is refracted, 
it divides itself into colored rays, deviating n various 
degrees from the right line of the primitive /ay. The 
rays thus refracted by the convex object-glass of an old 
telescope do not meet exactly in one point, the focus of 
the glass, but rather at several points, so as to produce 
the various colors, red, blue, and yellow, which sur¬ 
round the object and diminish its distinctness. This 
imperfection has been corrected by the invention of the 
achromatic lenses, usually composed of two separate 
lenses, a convex and a concave, of substances having 
different refractive and dispersive powers, as crown and 
flint glass, through which the light emerges undecom¬ 
posed. The dialitic telescope, lately invented by tlie 
Viennese optician Plossl, has the compound object-glass 
placed at regulated distances apart, which allows a short¬ 
ening of the tube. (See Aberration, Light, Lens, Prism, 
Chromatic, Refraction, ©ptics.) 

Aehromatic'ity, n. The state of being achromatic. 

Achroma t ism. n. The destruction of the primary 
colors which accompany the image of an object seen 
through a prism or lens; — want of color. 

Veil ro'niat i ze, v. a. To deprive of color. 

Achron'ieal. See Acrontcal. 

Achsai, a town of Circassia, near the Terek, 150 miles 
S.E. from Georgievsk. 

Actltyrka, a town of European Russia, on the Khar¬ 
kov, about 60 miles N.W. of the city of Kharkov. Manuf., 
principally woollen. Pop. upward of 14,000. 

Achyr, a strong town and castle of Ukruine, on the 
river Uorsklo, about 127 miles E. of Kiew. 

Achyran'tlies, n. (Bot.) A genus of erect, procum¬ 
bent, and sometimes climbing trees and shrubs, order 
Amaranthacese. 

Aci, or Aci Kea'le,a seaport town in Sicily, prov. of 
Catania, well built with lava, having a castle and many 
fine edifices. Manf., silks, linens, cutlery, and filigree 
work, in which an extensive trade is carried on. Pop. 
37,216. Here was the cave of Polyphemus and the grotto 
of Galattea. It is celebrated for its mineral waters. 

Acia, n. [Gr. ake, a point.] ( Surg .) A needle with 
thread in it for chirurgical operations. 

Aclc'nla, n. [Lat., a needle .] (Bot.) The bristle-like 
rachis, or the single-flewered spikeletsof certain grasses. 

(Znol.) A spine or prickle. 

Acic'ular, and Aciculate, a. Needle-shaped. 

Acic'ularly, ad. In the manner of needles or sharp 
points. 

Acic'nliform, a. Having the form of needles. 

Ae'id. a. [Lat. acid us.] Sour, sharp or biting to the 
taste, like vinegar; — tart; as “ acid fruits.”— See Acids. 

Acidif'erous, a. (Chem.) Containing or producing 
acid. 

Acid'i liable, a. (Chem.) That which is capable of being 
converted into an acid. Such substances are also 
termed radicals, and acidifiable bases. 

Aciditlca'tion, n. The act of giving acid properties. 







ACIN 


ACCEM 


AGON 


23 


Acfdlfler, n. ( Chem .) The principle producing acidity. | 

Acid'ify, v.a. ( C/iem .) To convert into an acid: to make 
sour. 

Acidim'eter, n. [Lat. acidum, acid, and metrum, a 
measure.] (Chen.) An instrument for ascertaining the 
strength of acids. 

Aeidiin'etry, n. (Chem.) An expeditious method of 
ascertaining the quality of free acid contained in any 
given liquid, based upon the law of definite proportions. 
It is employed as a means of determining the actual or 
intrinsic value of the crude acids met with in commerce. 
To facilitate this process, tables have been constructed 
by Dr. Ure and others. See Volumetric Analysis. 

Acid ity, and Acidness, n. [Fr. aciditc.] Sourness; 
sharpness to the taste. 

Ac ids, re. pi. [Lat. acidus, sour.] ( Chen.) A numerous 
and important class of chemical bodies, which are distin¬ 
guished by the property of combining with bases to form 
salts. (See Bases, and Salts.) They are generally sour to 
the taste; in most instances they have a great affinity for 
water, and are soluble in it; they redden nearly all the 
vegetable blues; they unite with metals and their oxides, 
alkalies, and earths. It was long held that oxygen was 
contained in all the acids. This element does indeed enter 
into the composition of the greatest number; but it has 
been ascertained that in very many cases the acidifying 
principle is hydrogen. It has consequently been consid¬ 
ered necessary to divide acids into oxyacids (or oxacids), 
formed bj’ oxygen, and hydracids, formed by hydrogen. 
These, again, are subdivided into anhydrous acids, or 
acids without water, and hydrated acids, or acids contain¬ 
ing water. According, however, to the latest researches 
of chemists, all acids are hydracids. The acids furnished 
by the mineral kingdom are termed mineral acids. Metal¬ 
lic acids are formed by the combination of oxygen and 
a metal; and organic acids are those which contain car¬ 
bon, or are formed with organic substances. In the 
system of chemical nomenclature proposed by the emi¬ 
nent French chemists Guyton de Morveau and Lavoisier, 
the mineral acids are designated by an adjective formed 
out of the name of their elements, and terminating in 
ous or ic; thus, sulphurous acid, phosphoric acid, imply¬ 
ing that they are formed the first of sulphur and oxygen, 
the second of phosphorus and oxygen. If the acid be 
formed by hydrogen, the term is commenced with hydro; 
thus, hydrochloric acid signifies that the compound 
contains hydrogen and chlorine. The two syllables nus 
and ic affixed to the names of acid compounds, indicate 
two different modifications; ic always denoting an acid 
which contains more oxygen than the acid whose name 
terminates in ous: for example, sulphuric acid has for its 
acidifying principle more oxygen than sulphurous acid. 
It was first thought that a substance could not form with 
■oxygen more than the two above-mentioned compounds ; 
but cases were subsequently discovered wherein a sub¬ 
stance was found to make with oxygen as many as five 
different combinations. In order to distinguish these 
combinations from the others, it was found necessary to 
employ three prefixes borrowed from the Greek; for ex¬ 
ample, hypo (under), hyper (above), or briefly per (in the 
highest degree.) Thus, hyposulphurous acid is an acid 
composed of sulphur and a smaller proportion of oxygen 
acid than sulphurous acid; perchloric acid contains 
more oxygen than chloric acid, &c. (For further details 
upon this subject, see Chemical Nomenclature.) The 
organic acids, which are much more numerous than the 
mineral acids, and which all contain carbon and hydro¬ 
gen, a large proportion of oxygen, and some nitrogen, 
have no regular nomenclature. The most important of 
these chemical bodies are : among the mineral acids, sul¬ 
phuric, sulphurous, hydrosulphuric, nitric, phosphoric, 
arsenious, arsenic, chromic, hydrofluoric, hydrochloric, 
chloric, iodic, carbonic, boracic, and silicic; among the 
organic acids, formic, hydrocyanic, oxalic, acetic, malic, 
tartaric, succinic, bonzoic, citric. &c. (See those words.) 
Acids are extensively employed in medicine, pr ncipally 
in cases of inflammation, fever, palpitation of the heart, 
and irritation of the skin. 

Ackl'ulse, re. pi. (Med.) Medicinal springs impregnated 
with carbonic acid. 

Acid'ulate, v. a. [Fr. aciduler.] To imbue slightly with 
acids. 

Acidula'tion, re. (Chem.) Art or process of acidu¬ 
lating. 

Acidulous, a. [Fr. acidule .] Slightly acid. 

Acidulous waters. Mineral waters which contain so 
great a quantity of carbonic acid gas, as to render them 
acidulous, or gently tart to the taste. 

Ac'iform, a. [Lat. acres, needle, and forma, shape.] 
Shaped like a needle. 

Acil ius Crlabrio, a Roman consul, of plebeian origin, 
B. c. 191. Sent against Antiochus, king of Syria, he 
was victorious, and on his return he had a triumph, 
lie was the first to whom a statue of gold was erected 
in Italy. Accused by the Patricians of keeping back the 
public spoils, he succeeded in escaping condemnation. 
His “Annals of Rome,” written in Greek,are full of 
fables. 

Another Acilius Glabrio, consul in the reign of Domi- 
tian, and put to death, on a charge of conspiracy, was 
remarkable only by his strength, having fought and 
killed a lion in the circus, without receiving a wound. 

Acina'ceous, a. [Lat. acinus, a grape-stone.] Full of 
kernels 

Acinae'iform, a. (Bnt.) Cimeter-shaped. 

Acin'iforni, a. Having the form of a cluster of grapes. 

Acinose', Acinous, a. Consisting of minute granu¬ 
lar concretions. 

Ac'inns, re.; pi. Acini- (Anat.) A cluster of the ulti¬ 
mate secerning follicles of certain conglomerate glands; 
as the liver. 


(Bot.) The separate carpels of a succulent fruit con¬ 
sisting of many carpels; as the raspberry. 



Fig. 23. — rubus ibaus. (Raspberry.) 

I. Perigynous stamens. 2 Fruit (aggregated carpels or acini). 

8. Section of the fruit. 

Acipen'sei*, re. [Lat. acipenser, a sturgeon.] (Zool.) A 
genus of fishes in the Linnsean system, the distinguishing 
characteristics of which are, that the mouth is retractile 
and destitute of teeth, and the gills have only one aper¬ 
ture on each side. The genus acipenser is separated by 
Agassiz from the other cartilaginous fishes. It forms a 
link between the osseous and cartilaginous fishes, having 
its gills protected by an operculum, and only a single 
issue, or gill-opening, on each side of the respiilitory cur¬ 
rents : but at the same time having no rays to the bran- 
chiostegal membrane, and having the whole of its true 
internal skeleton in a cartilaginous state. By Cuvier, 
therefore, the genus acipenser is placed in the cartilagi¬ 
nous division of fishes, but separated from the rays, 
sharks, and lampreys, which have five or more gill-open¬ 
ings on each side, to form, along with the genera spatu- 
laria and chimasra, the order eleuthero-branchiata, or 
those which have the branchiae free at their outer cir¬ 
cumference. In the system of Agassiz the sturgeons are 
joined with the sauroid fishes, siluri, polypterus, and 
some other genera, to form the order Ganoides. See 
Sturgeon. 

A'cis, re. (Myth.) A shepherd of Sicily, with whom Gala- 
taea fell in love; upon which his rival, Polyphemus, 
through jealousy, crushed him to death with the frag¬ 
ment of a rock. The gods changed Acis into a stream, 
which rises from Mount -Etna, and which is now called 
Jaci. He was the son of Faunus and the nymph Simse- 
this. This fable forms the subject of a beautiful modern 
opera. 

Acis, re. (Bot.) A genus of plants, order AmaryUidacete. 

Aciur'gy, re. Operative surgery. 

Ac'Iten, a town of Lower Saxony, in the duchy of Mag¬ 
deburg, with a citadel, situate on the Elbe, about 5 miles 
from Dessau. Pop. 4,10U. 

AeU'er, re. A ripple on the surface of the water. 

Acknowledge, v. a. [Lat. agnoscere.] To make mat¬ 
ter of public knowledge in relation to one’s self, or openly 
to identify one’s self with it. To avow; to admit; to re¬ 
cognize ; to own; to accept; to confess; to profess; to 
indorse. 

Acknon l'edger, re. One who acknowledges. 

Acltiiowl'ctlg'ment, re. The act of acknowledging; 
the act of expressing thankfulness for a favor received. 

(Law.) A declaration by a grantor, made before a per¬ 
son having authority to take the same, that the instru¬ 
ment is his act and deed. For the requisites of the laws 
of the different States, see Dunlap's Forms. 

Acli'des, re. (Antiq.) A missile weapon, supposed to 
have been a kind of dart or javelin, made use of by the 
ancient Romans. According to Scaliger, it was a globu¬ 
lar weapon, and poised by a wooden stem. 

Acli'nic, a. [Gr. a, priv., and clinein, to incline.] With¬ 
out inclination; — applied to the magnetic equator, or 
the line near the earth’s equator on which the magnetic 
needle is exactly horizontal and has no dip. 

Ac'me, re. [Gr. akmc, a point.] The top; the highest 
point. 

(Med.) The utmost, violence or crisis of a disease. 

(Rhet.) The highest point of pathos to which the mind 
is conducted by a series of impressions gradually rising 
in intensity. 

Ac'mite, and Adimite, re. [Gr. akme, a point.] 
(Min.) A monoclinic bisilicate crystal, of a dark-brown¬ 
ish color, and a bright and somewhat resinous lustre. 
Comp. Silica, 51.3; sesquioxide of iron, 30.4; protoxide of 
iron, 51; soda, 13.2. 

Acmon'ides, re. (Myth.) One of the Cyclops. 

Ac'ne, and Acna. re. [Gr. achne, anything that comes 
off the surface.] (Med.) A small pimple or hard tubercle 
on the face, which arises usually about the time that the 
body is in full vigor. 

Ar nes!is. re. [Gr. a, privative, and knao, to scratch.] 
(Anat.) That part of the spine of the back which reaches 
from the inetaphrenon, which is the part betwixt the 
shoulder-blade, to the loins This part seems to have 
been originally so called in quadrupeds only, because 
they cannot reach it to scratch. 

A cocU-bill, adv. (Naut.) Hanging at the cat-head, 
ready for letting go, as an anchor. 

Acieme'tse.n. [Gr. akoimetos, sleepless.] (Eccl. Hist.) An 
order of Greek monks who flourished in the 5th cen¬ 
tury. Their principal cloister was at Irenarium, near 
Constantinople. They had to chant the divine service 
day and night, without ceasing, dividing themselves for 
this purpose into three bodies, succeeding one another 


alternately. In the 6 th century they were put unuer the 
ban of the Church, on account of their leaning toward 
Nestorianism. 

Acol'ogy, or Akology, re. [Gr. akos, a remedy, and 
logos, a discourse.] (Med.) The doctrine of remedies, or 
of the materia medica. 

Ac'olyte, Acolyth, and Acolothist, re. [Gr. aki> 
louthos, disciple.] (Eccl. Hist.) In the Catholic church, one 
of the inferior orders of the clergy, whose office it is 
to attend upon the deacons and subueacons in the minis¬ 
try of the altar, to light and hold the candles, to bear the 
incense, to present the priest with wine and water, &c. 
In the primitive church, the acolytes were in holy orders, 
and ranked next to the subdeacons; but at the present 
time, the duties of the acolyte are very often performed 
by laymen and chorister-boys. 

Ac'oina, in Mississippi, a small town of Holmes co. 

Acoma, in Minnesota, a township of McLeod co. 

Acoma, or St. Esteban tie Acoma, New Mexico, 
a town about 60 m. W.S.W. of Albuquerque. 

Acon'cagua. a province of the kingdom of Chili, 
bounded N. and W. by the prov. of Quillota, E. by the 
Andes, and S. by Santiago. Area, 12,000 square miles. 
Desc., mountainous, and fertile in the valleys. The 
mountain Aconcagua is the loftiest of the Andes, being 
23,910 feet above the level of the sea; lat. 32° 38' 30" S., 
long. 70° 0' 30" W. Prod., maize, wheat, beans, pump¬ 
kins, melons, and other garden-produce; vineyards and 
orchards are plentiful, and in summer numerous flocks 
are pastured on the slopes of the Andes; figs, nectarines, 
peaches, &c., are sent to Santiago and Valparaiso. Gold 
is found and copper is worked in mines. Fop. 124,828. 
The chief town is San Felipe.— On the S. side of the 
mountain Aconcagua rises a river of the samo name, 
which flows S.W. and 
joins the Pacific 12 
miles N. of Valparaiso. 

Aconi'tates, ‘re. pi. 

(Chem.) The salts form¬ 
ed by the union of the 
aconitic acid with dif¬ 
ferent bases. 

Ac'onite, re. (Bot.) A 
plant of the gen. Aconi- 
tum, the Aconitum na¬ 
pellus, familiarly known 
as the Monk’s-hood, or 
Wolfs-bane. Its active 
principle, the aconitine, 
is a virulent poison. It 
is a native of Europe, 
and is cultivated as a 
garden-plant for the 
sake of its handsome 
purple flowers. 

Acon'itic Acid. 

(Chem.) Anacidfoundin 
the roots and leaves of 
monk’s-hood and other 
aconites. It is also pro¬ 
duced by the metamor¬ 
phosis of citric acid un¬ 
der the influence of Fig. 24. — aconitum napellus. 
heat. Form. 3 HO.C 12 H 3 O 9 . 

Acon'itine, or Aconitia, re. (Chem.) A powerful 

vegetable alkaloid, prepared from the root of the Aconi- 
tun napellus, (aconite.) It is one of the most virulent 
of poisons, but, at the same time, a very valuable medi¬ 
cine. Externally applied, it produces on the skin a 
prickling sensation, which is followed by a peculiar 
numbness. An ointment containing aconitine is often 
used in cases of neuralgia, acute rheumatism, and dis¬ 
eases of the heart. The homoeopathic physicians make 
a great use of it in fevers. Its narcotic action is bo ac¬ 
tive that a fiftieth of a grain may endanger the life of an 
adult. The most effectual antidote in case of poisoning 
is warm water, administered till it produces vomiting, 
after which stimulant remedies should be applied inter¬ 
nally and externally. The alkaloid consists of the ele¬ 
ments carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, aud oxygen; its for¬ 
mula being C 33 H la N 12 . 

Acon'itum, re. [From Acone, a town in Bithynia, fa¬ 
mous for its poisonous herbs.] (Bot.) A gen. of plants, 
fam. Ranunculacece. Nearly all the species are poison¬ 
ous ; but when the extracts prepared from them are used 
in proper doses, their narcotic and diaphoretic effects 
prove highly beneficial. The flowers of many species 
are remarkable for their beauty, and resemble little hel¬ 
mets. The root of the Aconitum ferox is the princi¬ 
pal source of the celebrated Indian poison, Bikh, or Bish. 
The Monk’s-liood, Aconitum napellus, is the officinal plant 
of our pharmacopoeia. See Aconite. 

Aconteus. (Myth.) A famous hunter, changed by tha 
head of Medusa into a stone at the nuptials of Perseus 
and Andromeda. 

Acon'tia. and Acontias, re. [Gr. akon, a dart.] (Zool) 
A genus of non-venomous ophidian reptiles, allied to the 
snakes proper (anguis), but destitute of the bony rudi. 
ments of the scapularand pelvic arches. They are known 
by the trivial name of Dart-snakes; are numerous in 
species, and distributed over the warmer and more aria 
parts of the old world. Their food consists of small 
worms, insects, and larva 1 . They were the subject of 
fabulous accounts by the ancient naturalists and poets, 
who attributed to them the power of projecting them¬ 
selves with so much force and velocity as to transfix the 
object aimed at. 

(Astron.) A blazing star, shooting like an arrow. 

Acon'tius, a youth of the island of Cea, who went to 
Deios to see the sacred rites which were performed ther# 
by a crowd of virgins in the temple of Diana, and fell 










24 


ACOT 


ACQU 


A CRT 


love with Cydippe, o. beautiful virgin. Not daring, how¬ 
ever, to ask her in marriage, on account of the meanness 
of his liirth, lie presented her with an apple, on which 
were inscribed these words: “ I swear by Diana, Acon- 
tius shall be my husband.” Cydippe read the words, 
and feeling herself compelled by the oath she had inad¬ 
vertently taken, married Acontius. 

Aeoo'no-coono, a town and district of Africa, on the 
E. bank of the Old Calabar or Cross river; lat. 6° 29' N., 
Ion. 8° 27' E. Pop. about 4,009. 
tropic, a. [Gr. a, priv., and kopos, labor.] (Med.) That 
which remedies weariness. 

A'cor, a. [From Lat. ace.o, to be sour.] (Med.) Acidity. It 
is sometimes used to express that sourness in the stom¬ 
ach contracted by indigestion, and from whence flatulen¬ 
cies and acid belchinjs arise. 

A corn, n. [A. S. aac, a.' oak, and cern, grain.] ( Bot.) The 
well-known fruit of the oMc. In the early ages, acorns 
constituted a principal part v. " the food of man. (Ovid, 
Metamorph. i. 106; Virgil, Georg, i. 8,) &c. At present 
they are used for the feeding of pigs. See Qcercus. 

A corn, v. n. To pick up and feed on acorns. “ The pigs 
are gone acorniiiff.” 

icorn-barnacle, n. A species of barnacle, 
i'corned, a. (Her.) Having acorns, as an oak-tree with 
acorns on it. 

A corn-Nhell. (Zool.) The popular name for the Bala- 
nus and other cirripeds, which inhabit a tubular shell 
whose base is usually formed of calcareous laminae. Its 
shell is composed of many pieces, and thus capable of 
enlargement to the wants of the enclosed animal, which 
performs its necessary functions by an aperture at the 
top. The tentacula from this animal being feathered, 
our credulous ancestors believed that it gave origin to a 
bird called the barnacle-goose. These curious but com¬ 
mon shells are found in all seas. They are affixed to 
marine bodies, and their peduncle is sometimes found a 
foot long. Their growth must be exceedingly rapid. A 
ship going out with a perfectly clean bottom will often 
return, after a short voyage, covered with them.—“Go 
at low water to a rock on the beach, choose a few of the 
oldest and largest limpets, left uncovered by the reced¬ 
ing tide, and incrusted with the acorn-shells; throw the 
limpet-shells into a glass of sea¬ 
water, and in a minute or two 
the acorn-shells upon them will 
begin to open. Presently a 
beautiful feathered apparatus 
will be extended, then with¬ 
drawn. It will again be put 
forth, and again refracted; but 
with such grace, regularity, 
and precision, that the eye re¬ 
gards it with ever new delight; 
and when we consider that it 
thus ministers, at the same mo¬ 
ment, both to respiration and 
nutrition, a train of ideas is 
excited, whi h rises from the 
humble shell to Him by whom 
it has thus wondrously been Fig. 25- — acorn-shell. 
fashioned.” 

Ac'orus, n. [Gr. a, without, and kore, pupil of the eye.] 
(B"t.) A genus of plums, ord. Orontiacece. The Acorus 
calamus, or sweet flag, a member of this genus, is the only 
native aromatic plant of northern climates: the root 
powdered might .supply the place of foreign spices. It 
blossoms during the months of May and June. The 
thick creeping stem or rhizome, commonly called the 
root, is the valuable part of the plant; it is somewhat 
spongy and powerfully aromatic, and has a bitterish 
taste. It is used by the rectifiers to improve the flavor 
of gin. Perfumers make use of it in the manufacture 
of hair-powder, an I tanners in the preparation of pecu¬ 
liar sorts of leatli-r. From the fresh rhizome a volatile 
oil is obtained by distillation, used in making aromatic 
vinegar and for scenting snuff. In Med. the sweet flag 
is sometimes used as an aromatic stimulant and mild 
tonic, and many physicians speak highly of its beneficial 
effects in cases of ague. It grows in the United States, 
in Europe and Asia. It is supposed to be the calamus 
of the Song of Solomon; hence its botanical name, 
Acorus ca'amus. 

ri.cos'mia, n. [Gr. a. puiv., and kosmos, order.] (Med.) Ir¬ 
regularity in the critical days. 

Acos'niism, n. A denial of the existence of the 
world. 

Acos'illist, n. One who denies that the world ex¬ 
ists. 

Aeos la. Joseph, a Spanish Jesuit, who, from being a 
missionary in Peru, became provincial of his order. B. at 
Medina del Campo 1547 ; d. at Salamanca 1600. His 
History of the West Indies, first printed in Spanish, is 
universally known and esteemed. 

Acotyle'dmis, n. pi. [Gr. a, priv., and kotyledon, a hol¬ 
low.] (B"t.) Those plants which 
are propagated by spores, and 
not by true seeds. Cotyledons 
are the rudiments of the first 
leafy organs which make their 
appearance in the development 
of plants springing from seeds 
properlyso called. These rudi¬ 
mentary organs do not exist in 
spores, which are accordingly said to beacotyledononB. 
The cryptngamons or flowerless plants of Linnaeus are 
identical with the acotyledons of later botanists. In the 
nat. ord. they are divided in two classes: the Thallogens 
and the Acmgens. 

Acotyled'onous, a. Having no cotyledon. 




Fig. 26. 


Acou'cliy, n. (Zool.) A small species of Agouti, having 
a tail about two inches long and resembling that of a 
cat; olive agouti. 

Acou'nteter, n. [Gr. nkovein, to hear, and metron, 
measure.] An instruuient for measuring the degree or 
extent of hearing. 

Acous tic, and Acous'tical, a. [Gr. akoustikos.] 
Belonging to the ear or to sound. 

Acoustic Duct, in Anat., a term applied to the meatus 
auditorius externus, or external passage of the ear. 
Acous'tics, n.pl. That branch of Physics which treats 
of the laws which regulate the production and propa¬ 
gation of the atmospheric vibrations which are per¬ 
ceived by the organ of hearing. In other words, it is 
the science of sounds, and that of the vibration of 
elastic bodies. See Sound. 

Ac'qua, a village of Italy, province of Pisa, 16 miles S. 

of Leghorn, noted for warm baths. 
Acquac'kanonck, in New Jersey, a post township 
of Passaic co., 13 miles S.W. of New York, and about 80 
miles N.E. of Trenton.—A village of the same name, is 
situate on the Passaic river, at the head of sloop navi¬ 
gation. 

Acquaint', v. a. [0. Fr. accointer .] To make familiar 
with; applied either to persons or things. — To inform, 
to communicate notice to; followed by with: — 

"We that acquaint ourselves with every zone. 

And un acquainted still with our own soul." —Sir J. Davies. 

" I will not acquaint my father with this business."— Shale. 
Acquaintance, n. The state of being acquainted 
with; familiarity, knowledge; it is applied as well to 
persons as things, followed by with: — 

"Our admiration of a famous man lessens upon our nearer 
acquaintance with him.” 

— The person with whom we are acquainted; him of 
whom we have some knowledge, without the intimacy 
of friendship. In this sense, the word admits a plural: 
acquaintance and acquaintances are both in use. 
Acquaintanceship, and Acquaintedness, n. 

A state of being acquainted: acquaintance. 
Acquainted, a Familiar; well known. 
Acquapenden'te, a town of Italy, seated on a moun 
tain, near the river Paglia, 12 miles N.W. of Orvieto. 
It takes its name from a waterfall, which rushes from 
the top of the mountain. Pop. 2,500. — Here Fabricius 
of Acquapendente, the celebrated anatomist, was born, 
1537. 

Acquar'ia, a little town of Italy, noted for its medical 
waters, 12 miles S. of Modena. 

Acqua'viva, a town of South Italy, in Terra di Bari, 
16 miles from Bari. Pop. nearly 7 6,000. 

—Also, another little town in the same part of Italy, 22 
miles N.N.E. of Campobasso. 

Acquaviva, Andrea Matteo, duke of Atri, and 
prince of Teramo, in the kingdom of Naples, b. 1456, 
d. 1528, seems to have been the first who conceived the 
idea of an Encyclopedia, or Universal Dictionary of 
Arts and Sciences. Ho published a work under that 
title in 2 vols. folio, which, though scanty and defective, 
was found sufficient to give some hints tor conducting a 
compilation of that kind. 

Acquet', or Acquest, n. [Fr. acquet, from Lat. ac- 
quisitus .] (Law.) Property obtained by purchase or 
donation. 

Ac'qul, a district of N. Italy, prov. Alessandria, on theN. 
side of the Ligurian Apennines. Area, 445 square miles. 
Prod., corn and iruit. Chestnut-trees furnish the peas 
untry with an article of common food, and silk-worms 
are reared as a branch of industry. Pop. 102,000. 

Acqui, its capital, is seated on the Bormida, 18 miles 
S.S.W’. of Alessandria. Pop. 8,000. It has commodious 
sulphur baths. Celebrated for its great antiquity, and 
for the remains of a Roman aqueduct. Acqui was taken 
by the Spaniards in 1745; retaken by 7 the Piedmontese; 
and afterwards dismantled by the French. 

Ac'quia, a creek that joins the Potomac, 30 miles below 
Alexandria, Virginia. 

Acquiesce', v a. [Fr. acqmescer] To rest in, to re¬ 
main satisfied with, without opposition or discontent. 
Acquiescence, Acquies'cency, n. A silent ap¬ 
pearance of consent, distinguished, on one side, from 
avowed consent: on the other, from opposition: “Cer¬ 
tain indistinct murmurings of acquiescence.” 
Acquiescent, a. Resting satisfied; submitting. 
Aequics'cently, ad. In an acquiescent manner. 
Acquinton, in Virginia, a post-village of King 'Wil¬ 
liam’s county. 

Acquirabil'ity, n. State or quality of being acquir¬ 
able. 

Acquir'able, a. Capable of being acquired. 
Acquire', v a. [Fr. acquerir.] To gain by one’s own 
labor or power; to obtain what is not received from na¬ 
ture, or transmitted by inheritance. 

Acquire'nient, n. That which is acquired; gain; 
attainment;— generally used in opposition to the gifts 
of nature. 

Acquir'er, n. One who acquires. 

Acquir'ing, n. Acquirement. 

Acquisition, n. The act of acquiring; — the thing 
acquired; acquirement. 

Acquis'itive, a. That is acquired. 
Aequis'iiiiely, ad. By acquisition. 
Acquisitiveness, n. (Phren.) The love of acquiring 
property or possession. 

Aequis'itor, n. One who makes acquisitions. 
Acquit', r. a. [Fr. acquitter .] To set free. To clear from 
a charge of guilt; to absolve. — To clear from any obli¬ 
gation: and, hence, to bear or conduct one’s self. 
Acquit'tal, n. [ Fr. acquitter, to free.] (Law.) Deliver¬ 
ance from a criminal charge. Thus, one who has been 


upon ms trial for the commission of a crime, and i» de¬ 
livered from the charge by the verdict “Not guilty,” of 
a jury, is said to be acquitted. Should a person be in¬ 
dicted a second time on the same offence, he may always, 
answer the charge by pleading this verdict, termed the- 
plea of “ autrefois acquit,” by which he will be entitled 
to be set at liberty. 

Acquittance, n. [0. Fr.] (Law.) A written discharge 
for a sum of money that has been paid. An acquittance- 
in full of all demands will discharge all debts, except 
such as are on specialty; viz. secured by bonds and in¬ 
struments under seal. These latter can only be dis¬ 
charged by a deed. 

A'cra, in New York state, a post-village of Greene county, 
47 miles S.S.W’. of Albany. 

Ac'rasy. n. [Gr. a, priv.. and krastJ, temperament.] 
(Med.) Excess; irregularity; intemperance. 

A'ere, n. [Gr. agros, a field.] A measure of land, th«- 
same in England and in the United States. Its dimen¬ 
sions may be readiest ascertained by remembering that 
a square with its side of 22 yards is the tenth part of an 
acre. The chain with which land is measured is 22 yards 
long, and 10 square chains are equal to one acre, or to- 
4.840 square yards. There are 640 acres in a square mile 4 
thus:— 

Acre Roods Perches Sq. yds. 

1 = 4 = 160 = 4,840 
1 = 40 = 1,210 

;i = 3 0 % 

Acre, or St. Jean tl’Acre, a seaport of Syria, for- 

merly called I’tolemais; on a promontory at the foot oF 
MouutCarmel. Lat. 32° 55' N., loug.35°5'E. This town,, 
capital of the pashalic of the same name, is famous for 
the memorable sieges it has sustained. It was taken by 
the first crusaders, in 1104, retaken by the Saracens- 
in 1187, recovered by the Christians under Richard 
Coeur de I,ion in 1191, and given to the knights of St 
John (in French, St. Jean) of Jerusalem, whence it re¬ 
ceived the name of St. Jean d'Acre. In 1291 it again fell 
into the hands of the Saracens. Bonaparte attempted to- 
storm this place in 1799, but, retreated after a siege of 61 
days. It w-as taken by Ibrahim Pacha in 1832, and 
again by the combined English and Austrian squadrons- 
in 1840. Since then, Acre has been restored to the- 
Turks. Acre has been celebrated from remote antiquity. 
Strabo calls it Ace. Pop. 5,000. 

A'creag-e, n. The number of acres in a piece of land; — 
measurement of land by the acre. 

Acre'lius, Israel, a Swedish clergyman, b. 1714, in 
the province of Roslay; d. 1800. He was sent to America, 
and resided for seven years in Philadelphia, 1740—1756, 
where he managed the affairs of the Swedish colonists- 
with zeal and prudence. Ill health compelled him to 
leave America. In 1759 he published in Stockholm a. 
description of the Swedish colonies in America, com¬ 
prising much important topographical information con¬ 
cerning the region on both sides of the Delaware. 

A'cri, a town of South Italy, province of Calabria-Citra, 
15 miles N.E. of Cosenza. Pop. 8,000. 

Ac'rid, a. [Lat. aens.] A term employed to exprese. 
a taste, the characteristic of which is pungency joined 7 
with heat; — figuratively, an acrid temper. 

Acrid'ii, or Acryd'ii, n. pi. [Gr. akris, a locust.] 
(Zool.) The Migratory Locusts, a family of orthopterous 
insects, which have a large head, short and stout anten¬ 
nae, strong hind-legs, three-jointed tarsi, and no project¬ 
ing ovipositor. They are closely allied to the Locusta- 
RIJ5, q. v. 



Fig. 27. — MIGRATORY LOCUST. 

Acrid'ity, and Acridness, n. The quality of being 

acrid; a sharp and biting taste. 

Aerido'phagi, n. [Gr. akris, locust, and phago, I eat.] 
A name given to an ancient Ethiopian tribe, represent 
ed as feeding on locusts. 

Acrimo'nious, a . Abounding with acrimony; corro¬ 
sive. 

Aerinio'niously. ad. In an acrimonious manner. 
Acrimo'niousness, n. Quality of bein' 77 ccrimoni 
ous; severity. 

Ac'rimony, ». [Fr. acrimnnie.) Sharpness; corrosive' 
ness; hence, sharpness of temper, severity, bittern*® 
of thought or language. 










A (J ivO 


ACKO 


ACTA 


:!5 










Acris'ta, and Acrisy, n. [Gr. a, priv., and krisit, 

judgment.] ( Med .) A state of disease of which no de¬ 
cided opinion can be formed. 

Ac'rita, Ac'ritans.n. pi. [Gr. akritos, indiscernible.] 
(Zoiil.) A term proposed by Oven to be applied to the 4th 
division of the animal kingdom, in which there is no 
distiuct discernible nervous system; and in which the 
alimentary canal is not contained in a distinct abdomi¬ 
nal cavity. It is nearly equivalent to the Radiata of 
Cuvier. 

Acrit'ical, a. (Med.) Having no crisis; not foretelling 
a crisis. 

Ac'ritude, n. [Fr. acritude .] An acrid taste. 

Acroamat'ic, Acroamatical, «. [Gr. acroamai. 
I hear.] Of, or pertaining to, deep oral learning; the op 
posite of exoterical. 

Acroamatics, and Acroatics, n. pi. Aristotle's 
lectures on the principal parts of philosophy, to which 
none but tViends and scholars were admitted by him. 

Acroat'ic, a. Relating to acroatics; acroamatic. 

Ac robat, n. [Gr. akron, an extremity, and baino, I go.] 
A name given by the ancients to rope-dancers, vaulters, 
&e. Acrobats perform both upon the tight and slack 
rop'>, or upon ropes placed horizontally, perpendicu¬ 
larly, or obliquely, and the exercise of their craft 
requires great strength, agility, and fearlessness. Acro¬ 
bats are frequently mentioned by the writers of ancient 
Rome and Greece; and many, in the present day, have, 
by the extraordinary nature of their performances, ac¬ 
quired considerable popularity. For instance, Madame 
Saqui, Herr Wengler, and Blondin, who crossed the 
Falls of Niagara, carrying a man upon his back, upon 
a single rope, stretched and fastened to the opposite 
shores. 

Acrobat'ic, a. Belonging to the art of acrobats or 
rope-dancers. 

Acrocar pi, n. (But.) Mosses having their fructifica¬ 
tion terminating the axis. 

Acrocerau'nium. (Anc. Geog.) A promontory of 
Epirus, with mountains called Acroceraunia, which sepa¬ 
rated ti e Ionian and Adriatic seas. They were remark¬ 
able for attracting storms, and thence dreaded by mari¬ 
ners. Its modern name is Chimara, lat. 40° 25' N. 

Acroehor'don, n. [Gr.] (Med.) A kind of hard wart. 
(Zool.) The wart-snake. 

Acrochor'rtus, n. (Zool.) A genus of serpents dis¬ 
covered in Java. They are considered noxious, and 
are distinguished from others by their skin being 
covered with innumerable small warts or tubercles. 
The only species accurately known at present is the 
Acrochordus Javanicus of Lacepede. This animal aver¬ 
ages from 8 to 10 feet in length, the body growing 
gradually thicker from the head to the vent, and there 
suddenly contracting so as to form a very short, slen¬ 
der tail. 

Acrocorin'tlms, a steep and lofty mountain,shaped 
as a truncated cone, overhanging the city of Corinth, 
1,885 feet in height, on which was built a citadel. It was 
one of the horns on which Philip was advised to lay 
hold, in order to secure the Peloponnesus, figured in 
the heifer. It was also considered as one of the fetters 
of Greece, of which the othe rs were Demetrias in Thes¬ 
saly, and Chalcis, in Euboea. Its position was naturally 
so strong that in the time of Aratus a force of four hun¬ 
dred men defended it. It affords one of the most mag¬ 
nificent prospects in the world. Its ascent was not 
permitted to Christians as long as the country was in 
the possession of the Turks. (See Fig. 684.) 

Ac'rotlus, n. [Gr., extreme tooth.] (Pal.) A genus of 
fossil placoid fishes, having pavement-like teeth, with 
transverse ridges. 

Aerogas'ter, n. [Gr.] (Pal.) A genus of fossil fishes 
belonging to the Percoids ( Percidce ). 

Acrog'enous, a. (Bot.) Increasing in growth from 
the extremity. 

Acrog'raphy, n. [Gr. akros , extreme, and grapho, I 
write.] The art, invented by M. Schonberg, of produc¬ 
ing blocks in relief, for the purpose of printing from, 
along with types, and thus to supersede wood-engraving. 

Acro'lein, n. [Gr. acer, sour; Lat. oleum, oil.] (diem.) 
This body constitutes the acrid principle produced by the 
destructive distillation of fatty bodies, resulting in fact 
from the decomposition of glycerin. It is a colorless, 
limpid, strongly refracting liquid, lighter than water, 
and boiling at 52° 4. Vapor-density, 1.897. Its vapor 
is so intensely irritating, that a few drops diffused 
through a room are sufficient to render the atmosphere 
insupportable. It burns readily, with a clear bright 
flame. 

Ac' rogens, n. pi. [Gr. akros , extreme, and gennao , to 
produce.] (Bot.) The second class of the Flnwerless 
plants. The organism in this section is already more 
complicated than in the Thallogens. All the species 
have stomates or breathing-pores on their surface,'and 
in the great majority there is a distinct stem and 
leaves. There is, however, no trace of flowers; and 
sexes are wholly missing; that is to say, nothing can 
be found which resembles the anthers and pistil of 
flowering plants. We want satisfactory evidence that 
any order of Acrogens possesses organs which require to 
be fertilized the one by the other to effect the gener¬ 
ating of seeds. Hence those reproductive bodies of 
Acrogens which are analogous to seeds, are called 
spores. In general, Acrogens are plants of very small 
stature. But in Ferns they occasionally acquire the 
size of trees; always, however, growing with a single 
stem in such cases. If they branch naturally, they do 
so in a forking manner. Their stem, instead of increas¬ 
ing by the deposition of matter originating in the 
leaves, appears to be a mere extension of one common 


vegetating point, which becomes cylindrical and long, 
when it is capable of being acted upon by the influence 
of light. The orders of Acrogens resolve themselves 
into the three alliances— M(.scales, Lycp dales, and 
Fdicales, q. v. 



Mg. 28. — FERN-TREE. 


Acrolepis'idae, n. pi. [Gr. akros, extreme, and tepis, 
a scale.] ( Pal.) A family of fossil ganoid fishes, with 
ridged scales. 

Acroritlian, a. Relating to an acrolith. “An acrol- 
ithan statue.” 

Ac'roliths, n. pi. [Gr. akron, extremity, lithos, stone.] 
In ancient Greek sculpture, signifies those statues the 
hands, arms, and feet of which were of stone, the trunk 
of the figure being of wood. 

Acro'mial, a. Relating to the acromion. 

Acro'mion, n.; pi. Acro'mia. [Gr., extreme shoul¬ 
der.] The upper process of the shoulder-blade, articu¬ 
lating with the collar-bone. 

A'cron, a king of the Ca?einenses, who, after the rape 
■of the Sabines, was slain by Roinuius, in single combat. 

Acron, a territory of Guinea, on the Gold Coast. The 
Butch have a fort here called Patience, and under it is 
the village. Lat. 5° 10' N., Ion. 0° 28' E. 

Acron'ycal, Acrontchal, Acronical, and Acronio, a. 
[Gr. akron, the highest point, and nux, the night.] 
(Astron.) A term applied to a star when it is opposite to 
the sun, or passes the meridian at midnight. A star is 
said to be acronycal or to rise acronycally when it rises 
at sunset, and to set acronycally when it sets at or near 
sunrise. 

Acron'ycally, ad. In an acronycal manner. 

Acrop'olis, n. [Gr. akros, extreme, and polls, a town ] 
The upper town or citadel of a Grecian city. It was 
usually the site of the original settlement, and was chosen 
by the colonists for its natural strength. The most 
celebrated was the Acropolis or citadel of Athens, built 
on a rock, and accessible only on one side. Minerva had 
a temple at the base. 



Fig. 29. — acropolis of Athens. 

Acropolita, G oroe, a Grecian author and statesman, 
b. 1220 at Constantinople, d. 1282. He has left a con¬ 
tinuation of the Greek history, from the taking of Con¬ 
stantinople by the Latins, till its recovery by Michael 
Palaeologus. 

Ac'rospire. n. [Gr. akros, summit, and sveira, a spiral.] 
(Bot.) The sprout at the end of a seed which has com¬ 
menced to germinate,— the plumule of modern bota¬ 
nists. Maltsters use this term to express the growing of 
the barley. 

Ac'rospired, p. a. Having sprouts. 

Across', ad. and prep. [From the French d, as used in 
dfravers, and cross.] Crosswise; athwart: from side to 
side. To go across, is to go in the direction opposed to 
the length. 

Acros'tic. n. [Gr. akros, beginning,and stichos, averse.] 
A poetical composition, disposed in such a manner that 
the initial leiters of each line, taken in order, form a 
person’s name or other complete word or words. This 
kind of poetical triflings was very popular with the 


French poets from the time of Francis I. until Louis 
XIV. Among other English writers, Sir John Bavies, 
who lived in the 16th century, amused himself in this 
way. He produced 26 pieces, called Hymns to A strea, 
each of them forming an acrostic upon the words Elisa- 
betha Regina. The follow ing is an example 

E ternal virgin, goddess true, 

L et me presume to sing to you. 

I ove, e'en great Jove, hath leisure 
8 ometimes to hear the vulgar crew, 

A nd heed them oft with pleasure. 

B leased Astreal I in part 
E njoy the blessings you impart, 

T he peace, the milk and honey, 

H umanity, and civil art, 

A richer dow'r than money. 

R ight glad am I that now Hive, 

E 'en in these days whereto you give 
G reat happiness and glory; 

I f after yuu 1 should be born, 

N o doubt 1 should my birthday scorn, 

A dmiring your 6weetstoryl 

In the Old Testament there are twelve Psalms written 
according to this principle. Of these, the 119th Psalr* 
is the most remarkable: it consists of 22 stanzas, eacl . 
of which commences with a Hebrew letter, and ia 
called by its name. 

Acros'tical, or Acrostic, a. Relating to or resem¬ 
bling an acrostic. 

Acros'tically, ad. In the manner of an acrostic. 

Acros'ticliuin, n. (Bot.) A genus of the ord. Polypo- 
diaceir, or Ferns. The species Acrostichum polypodoides, 
found in W. and S. of the U. S., in the damp forests 
along rivers, is a parasitic fern 3 to 6 inches high, 
growing on the inclined moss-clad trunks of living trees. 

Acro'tarsium. [Gr.] (Anat.) The upper surface of 
the tarsus. 

Acroter, n. (Arch.) The same as Acroterium. 

Ac'rote'ri, a town in the island of Santorini. Lat. 36° 
25' N., Ion. 26° 1' E. 

Acrote'rium, pi. Acroteria. n. [Gr., the extrem¬ 
ity of anything ] (Arch.) The statue or other ornament 
on the summit or upper angle, anil sometimes also the 
similar ornaments over the feet or lower angles, of a 
pediment; in the latter case they are all included under 
the plural acroteria. 

(Anat.) An extreme part of the body, as the hands, 
feet, nose, ears, Ac. 

Acrothym'ion. [Gr. akros, extreme, and thymos, 
thyme.] (Med.) A sort of wart, hard, rough, with a nar¬ 
row basis and broad top. which have the color of thyme; 
it easily splits and bleeds. 

Ac'rotic, a. [Gr. akros, extreme.] (Med.) Pertaining 
to, or afi?cting. tlie surface; as, acrotic diseases. 

Acro'tomous, a. (Min.) Having a cleavage parallel 
with the base. 

Acs, a Hungarian town, 6 miles S. W. of Komorn, where 
a great many sheep are reared. Pop. about 5,000. 

Act, v. n. [From Lat. actus, p. of agere.] To be carrying 
into effect what we have determined • the contrary of 
to rest. 

“ Deliberate with caution, but act with decision.’* — Colton. 

—To conduct one’s self; to behave. — To exert pow er on 
one’s self; as, the mind acts upon the body; or on 
another, as the magnetist on the magnetizer. 

To act up to, to conform to; to fulfil. 

Act, v. a. To perform a part: to assume an artificial 
character; as, to act the hero; — to put in action; as, 
“to act a part on the stage;” — to counterfeit; to de¬ 
ceive by action; as, 

“ With acted fear the villain thue pursu’d.’ 

Act, n. [Fr. acte, from Lat. actus.] An action; some- 
thing done; a deed; a step taken; a measure executed; 
an operation of the mind, as an act of the w’ill; any 
public act, as an act of Congress, Ac. 

(Law.) An instrument or deed in waiting, serving to 
prove the truth of some bargain or transaction. 

(Dram. Lit.) The division or part of a play. With the 
ancient writers, it was held that a play should be di¬ 
vided into five parts or acts, neither more nor less. Fol¬ 
lowing this rule, tragedies, from the Elizabethan period 
downward, have been divided into five acts. Comedies 
also were generally divided into five acts; but at the 
present time this rule is considered, especially in the 
case of the lighter forms of dramatic literature, purely 
arbitrary, and some excellent dramas have had no more 
than three acts. As in the Greek drama the stage was 
never left empty from the beginning to the end of » 
performance, there w*ere no acts. The chorus, during 
the absence of other actors, kept the stage, and contin¬ 
ued the drama by their songs, which mostly formed an 
essential part of it, and carried on the action in the 
same way as the dialogue did. Among the Romans 
there was no chorus, and the play was broken into 
acts, as in our own. 

Ac'ta, or Acte. (Anc. Geog.) A name given to the sea- 
coast about Mount Athos, in which were six cities men¬ 
tioned by Thucydides. It was likewise the ancient 
name of Attica, Peloponnesus, Trozene, and Epitlaurus. 

Acta Dinrna. (Lat.. daily proceeding.) The title of a 
kind of public paper which Julius Caesar ordered to be 
drawn up and published. It contained a record of the 
proceedings of the Senate and the people, and therefore 
formed a species of Roman newspaper. The Acta con¬ 
tinued to be published until the reign of the emperor 
Julian. 

Acta Sanctorum, or Martyrnm. (acts of saints 
and martyrs.) The collective title given to several old 
writings, respecting saints and martyrs in the Greek 
and Roman Catholic churches, but now applied espe¬ 
cially to one extensive collection begun by the Jesuits 
in the 17th c. This great undertaking has considerably 

























































2C 


ACT1 


ACTI 


ACTU 


Importance, not only in a religious point of view, but 
also with regard to history and archaeology. Com¬ 
menced by the Jesuit Rosweyd, continued by J. Bolland, 
the work was carried on (1661) by a society of learned 
Jesuits, who were styled 1Bollandists, until 1794, when 
iU further progress was prevented through the invasion 
of Holland by the French. In recent times, the under¬ 
taking has been resumed: and in 1846 the 54th volume 
was published in Brussels. Three or four additional 
volumes have appeared since. The lives are arranged 
in the order of the calendar. The volumes last pub¬ 
lished are for October. 

Actse'ese, n. pi. [Or. acte. the elder ] (Hot.) A sub-ord. 
of plants, ord. Ranunculacece. distinguished by their col¬ 
ored calyx and succulent fruit. Actaea is the most 
important genus. 

Antae'a, n. (But.) A gen. of plants, in the sub-ord. 
Actceece. The black berries of the baneberry, Actma 
spicata, are poisonous; the roots anti-spasmodic, expec¬ 
torant, astringent. 

Actse'a, n. (Myth.) One of the Nereids. — A surname 
of Ceres. — A daughter of Danaus. 

Actae'on Islands. A group of three low, wooded 
islands in the Pacific Ocean, discovered 1837. The cen¬ 
tral island is in lat. 21° 23’ S.; long. 136° 32' W. 

Actae'us, a powerful person, who made himself master 
of a part of Greece, which he called Attica. His daugh¬ 
ter Agraulos married Cecrops, whom the Athenians 
called their first king, though Actceus reigned before 
him.—This word has the same signification as Atticus, 
an inhabitant of Attica. 

Ac'tia, the mother of Augustus. 

Ac tiaII Games. See Actium. 

Actin'al, a. ( Zool .) Applied to the oral part or pole where 
tlie.actinostome of the Radiata is situated. 

Act-i ii a ria, n. (Zool.) An order of polyps. See Actinls. 

Aet'ing, n. Action. — Performance of a stage-play. 

Act ing, p. a. Performing the service, or duty, of some 
office before or without a regular nomination; as, an 
acting consul. 

Actin'ise, and Aetin'idse, n. pi. [Gr. actin, a ray.] 
(Zool.) A family of polypi, commonly known as sea-ane¬ 
mones, sea-sunflowers, Ac., from their resemblance to 
flowers. They are found on all rocky coasts, and they 
form the chief attraction of the marine aquarium. The 
body is conical or cylindrical, adhering to the rock by a 
broad disk-like base. The mouth, which is a single open¬ 
ing into the internal cavity serving as a stomach, is sur¬ 
rounded by numerous tentacles, which are often beau¬ 
tifully marked. These organs are retractile, and, when 
not covered by water, the actinia appears as a smooth 
hemispherical lump of elastic matter, sometimes of a 
brilliant color. The reproductive power of these plant¬ 
like animals is very great, for when an actinia is cut 
transversely, new tentacles form in a few weeks on the 
lower half, and each piece becomes a perfect creature. 
The A. are the typical family of the order Actinaria. 



Rig. 30. — SEA ANEMONE8. (ACTINIA.) 


Actin'ic, a. Pertaining to actinism. 

Actin'iform, a. [Gr. actis, a ray, and Lat. forma, 
shape.] (Zool.) Having a radiated form. 

Ac'tinism, n. [Gr. actin, a ray.] (Opt.) The chemical 
principle of light. Three distinct principles emanate 
from the sun, — light, heat, and actinism. Numerous 
examples of the effects of their influence occur daily, 
which are erroneously attributed to the light which we 
see. It is actinism which fades colors, bleaches linen, 
rots fabrics, tans the human skin, puts out the fire, and 
performs the operations of photography. It acts prin¬ 
cipally by abstracting oxygen from the bodies which it 
affects. Fire is extinguished by sunlight, through the 
diminution of the amount of oxygen necessary for com¬ 
bustion ; and photographic operations are mostly effected 
by the reduction of oxide of silver to the metallic state, 
by the abstraction of its oxygen. We may have actin¬ 
ism without light, or vice versd. Yellow glass transmits 
Wie latter, but stops the former. Hence, the photograph 
works in yellow light. Dark blue glass, which trans¬ 
mits but little light, is quite pervious to actinism. Blue 
objects reflect great quantities of it, while red or yellow 
ones reflect but little, or none. For this reason, in pho¬ 
tographs, red or yellow materials are always too dark, 
while blue ones are too light. The electric and lime 
lights give out great quantities of actinism from their 
blue tinge: and gas and candles but very little, from their 
yellow color. The amount of actinism received from 
the sun differs considerably, according to the time of 
year, being at its maximum about the end of March, 
and gradually diminishing until the end of December^ 
when it arrives at its minimum. Actinism, in large 
quantities, is necessary to the proper condition of the 
human system. It has been proved that when dark 
rooms have been colored with yellow paint or paper, 
the inhabitants of them have been sickly or delicate; 
as soon, however, as the color was changed to blue, a 
marked difference in their state of health took place. 
The germination of seeds is greatly retarded by actin¬ 
ism; hence the maltster puts his grain into the dark, 
to malt, oi- semi-germinate. For the same reason, seed 
is buried in the ground. As soon, however, as the young 
plant makes its appearance, a supply of actinism is 
accessary; and, by a wonderful provision of nature, this 


influence is at its height when young plants are begin¬ 
ning to show their heads above the earth. White, red, 
brown, and green sea-plants owe their colors to the dif¬ 
ferent amounts of actinism they receive: the green, 
being near the surface, receives most; while the white, 
being at great depths, receives nearly none. 

Actinoca'max, n. [Gr. actin, a ray, camax, a pale.] 
(Pal.) The fossil shells of an extinct genus of Cephal- 
opodous Molluscs, apparently connecting the Belemnites 
with the existing Sepia. 

Actinoear'pus, n. (J Sot.) A genus of pretty float¬ 
ing aquatic plants, ord. Alismacece. 

Act inocri'liites, n. pi. [Gr. aktin, a ray, crinon, a 
lily.J (Pal.) The name of a subgenus of extinct Cri- 
noidean radiated animals, or Encrinites, characterized 
by the numerous rows of angular plates, which, being 
articulated by their margins, constitute the body. It 
is found in carboniferous and Silurian strata. 

Actin'ogrraph, n. [Gr. actin, a ray, and graphein, to 
describe!] (Opt.) An instrument for measuring and 
recording the variations in the actinic or chemical force 
of the solar rays. 

Actin'oid, a. Radiated. 

Actinolite, Actinote, n. (Min.) Names given to 
the Amphibole, q. v. 

Actinolit'ic, a. Relating to actinolite. 

Actinol'ogy, n. [Gr. actin, a ray, and logos, a dis¬ 
course.] (Zool.) The science of radiated animals. 

Actino'meris, n. [Gr. actin, a ray, and meris, a 
part.] (Bot.) A genus of plants, ord. Asteracea. 

Actinom'eter, n. [Gr. actin, a ray, and nietrnn. 
measure.] (As<.) An instrument invented by Sir J. 
Herschel, to measure the solar rays. It consists of a 
thermometer with a large bulb filled with a dark blue 
fluid; this is enclosed in a box, the sides of which are 
blackened, and the whole covered with a thick plate of 
glass. 

Actinom'etric, a. Belonging to the measurement 
of actinic force or influence. 

Actinos'tome, n. (Zool.) A new name given to the 
moulh of the Radiata. 

Ac'tinote, n. (Min.) See Amphibole. 

Ac'tion, n. [Fr. action, from Lat. agere, to act.] The 
state of acting, opposite to rest; an act or thing done; a 
deed. 

(Paint, and Sculp.) The state of the subject as im¬ 
agined in the artist’s mind at the moment chosen for 
representation. It must not be confounded with mo¬ 
tion, which relates to the mobility of a single figure. 

(Mil.) An engagement or battle between opposing 
forces; hence, partial action, general action, Ac. 

(Rhet.) The accommodating or suiting of the counte¬ 
nance, voice, and gesture of the speaker to the mat ter to 
be spoken or delivered. This sermo corporis, as Cicero 
calls it, has always been regarded as a most important 
part of oratory. Demosthenes said that the action was 
the beginning, the middle, and the end of the orator’s 
office; and Cicero admits that “ what an orator says is 
not of so much importance as how he says it. ” 

(Lit.) An event, either real or imaginary, forming the 
subject of an epic poem or play, Ac. Thus the wrath of 
Achilles forms the action or subject of the Iliad, Ac. 

(Mech.) Action denotes, sometimes the effort which a 
body or power exerts against another body, sometimes 
the effector motion resulting from such effort. 

(Physiol.) It is applied to the functions of the human 
body, whether vital, animal, or natural. 

(Com.) In France, action is the name given to a share 
in the capital stock of a joint-stock company. 

(Law.) An action at law is a demand, made through 
the intervention of the law, for that which is legally due; 
and has been defined to be a lawful demand of one’s right. 
Actions are either criminal or civil. Criminal actions 
are those which have judgments of death, as for mur¬ 
der; or judgments for damages to the party, fine to the 
government, imprisonment, Ac. Civil actions are di¬ 
vided into real, personal, and mixed. Real actions are so 
termed because they have reference to real property, or 
lands. Personal actions are those whereby a party 
claims for a debt, for personal duty, or damages in lieu 
thereof; or seeks sal'sfaction for persona! insults or in¬ 
juries ot nearly every description. Mixed actions partake 
of the nature of both the preceding. Personal actions are 
divided into actions of contract and actions of tort, and 
also into local and transitory. In a local action the 
trial must take place in the county where the cause of 
the action arose; a transitory action may be brought in 
any county. -In the state of New York these numerous 
divisions of civil actions are no more used. The crimi¬ 
nal action for the punishment of a public offender per- 
tains to the state, and all actions not criminal are civil. 

4 ,;?on> an< ^ Reaction. See Motion, Laws of. 

Ac lions (for Pianos), are the mechanism attached to 
kej s which act on the hammers to make them strike the 
cords, to prevent their rebound, and bring them with¬ 
out jerking to their place when the keys are released. 
Actions are now fabricated in the United States as cheap 
and perfect as in Europe, especially in New York, Phila¬ 
delphia, Boston, and Baltimore. 

Ac tionablc, a. That which admits an action in law 
to be brought against it; as, to call a man a thief is 
actionable. 

ionably, ad. In an actionable manner. 

* 1 ® l ] ar .' ’ Ac'tionist, n. [Fr. actionnaire.] 

(Com.) Une who has a share in actions or stocks of a ioint- 
stock company. 

(Myth.) A son of Sol, went from Greece into 
Egypt, where he taught astrology, and founded Helio¬ 
polis. 

Ac Ii31 ill . (Anc. Geog.) A town and promontory of 
Epirus, famous for the naval victory which Augustus 


obtained over Antony and Cleopatra, the 2d of Septen> 
ber, b. c. 31, in honor of which the conqueror built there 
the town of Nicopolis, and restored the Actian games in¬ 
stituted in honor of Apollo. 

Ac'tius Navius, an augur, who cut a loadstone in two 
with a razor, before Tarquin and the Roman people, to 
convince them of his skill in his art. 

Ac'tive, a. [Fr. actif.] Possessed of, or exhibiting, 
the power of acting; communicating action to another; 
the opposite of passive. —Busy, engaged in action; op¬ 
posed to idle or sedentary ; —any state of which the du¬ 
ties are performed only by the mental powers. — Nim¬ 
ble, agile,quick; hence, energetic, diligent, busy. 

(Gram.) Active or transitive verbs are those denoting 
an action transmitted from an actor or subject to a noun 
or regimen. 

Active molecules. See Molecules. 

Ac'tively, ad. In an active manner, or signification. 

Ac'tiveness, n. Quality of being active, (a.) 

Activ'ity, n. [Fr. activiU .] The faculty of, and the ten¬ 
dency to, action. 'When purely physical it is termed 
agility. 

Actie'ou, (Myth.) son of Aristeus, was a great lover 
of hunting. One day, as he was pursuing a hart, he 
spied Diana bathing herself with her nymphs; which 
so enraged the goddess, that she threw water upon him 
and changed him into a hart; and afterward he was 
torn in pieces by his own dogs. 

Ac'ton, n. [Fr. Mgucton.] A quilted leather jacket which 
was often worn under a coat-of-mail. —See Hacqueton. 

Acton, eight miles from London, a station on the N. 
and S.Western railway; a few years since a rural village, 
now there are numerous villas inhabited by the mer¬ 
chant-princes of the metropolis. — Acton-Burnell, a vil¬ 
lage of England, 8 miles from Shrewsbury, where a 
parliament was held in the reign of Edward I., when 
the Lords sat in the castle, and the Commons in the barn, 
w hich is still standing. 

Acton, a post-village of Halton co., Canada, 40 miles W. 
by N. of Toronto. 

Acton, in Indiana, a post-village of Marion co., 12 miles 
S.E. of Indianapolis. 

Acton, in Maine, a post-township of York co., on the head 
waters of the Salmon river, yu miles S.W. of the city 
of Augusta. 

Acton, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Middlesex 
co., 22 miles N.W. of Boston; situated on the Assabet 

river. 

Acton, in Minnesota, a post-village of Meeker co., about 
90 miles W. by N. of St. Paul. 

Acton Corner, in Maine, a post-village of York co., 
about 90 miles S.W. of Augusta. 

Ac'topan, a town of Mexico, 80 miles from Mexico. 
Pop. 3,000. 

Act'or, n. [Lat. from agere, to act.] In general, one who 
acts or performs; an agent; a doer; — specially, actor, 
fern, actress, is one who performs a part or character in 
a play. Among the ancient Greeks, actors were so 
highly esteemed, as sometimes to be sent on embassies; 
and authors frequently performed in their own plajs; 
but at Rome, if a person became an actor, he forfeited 
his right of voting as a Roman citizen. Actresses ap¬ 
pear to have been wholly unknown to the ancients, men 
or eunuchs always performing the female part. Charles 
II. is said to have first encouraged their public appear¬ 
ance in England. The prejudice against actors, which 
at one time was strong and prevalent, seems now to be 
giving way before the advance of that more liberal idea 
of distinguishing and rewarding personal merit, with 
little or no regard to the rank or vocation. Among the 
most eminent actresses of modern times, we may mention 
Mrs. Siddons, Rachel, and Ristori. Two great authors 
were also actors; viz., Shakspeare and Moliere. 

Aotor'ides, n. pi. (Myth.) Two brothers, so much at¬ 
tached to each other, that in driving a chariot, one gen¬ 
erally held the reins and the oilier the whip, whenca 
they are represented with two heads, four feet, and one 
body. They were conquered by Hercules. 

Ac'tress. See Actor. 

Acts of the Apos'tlcs. (Eccl. Hist.) The fifth in 

order of the books of the New Testament, and the last 
of these properly of an historical character. It gives a 
narrative of events that happenea to cue early church 
during the thirty years immediately succeeding the 
death of Christ. It does not, however, narrate the acts 
of the apostles generally, being almost exclusively con¬ 
fined to those of Peter and Paul. The author of this 
book was Luke, and its authenticity is undoubted. 

Act'ual, a. [Fr. actuel. ] That is brought into form, 
shape, or reality, as distinguished from being only men- 
tally conceived or falsely imagined; really in act._Ex¬ 

isting at the present time. 

— That which comprises action, (o.) 

“Besides her walking and other actual performances." — Shah. 

Actnal'ity, n. [Fr. actualite.] The state of being 
actual; — opposed to potentiality. 

Actualization, w. A making actual or really exist¬ 
ent; as, “ he seeks the idea only in its actualization.” 

Actualize, v. a. [Fr. actualiser.] To make actual. 

Act'nally, adv. In act; in effect; really. 

Act'ualness, n. The quality of being actual. 

Act'uary, n. [Lat. actuarius, a clerk or notary.] (Com.) 
The manager of a joint-stock company under a board of 
directors, particularly an insurance company; also, in 
England, a person skilled in the doctrine of life annui¬ 
ties and insurances, and who is in the habit of giving 
opinions upon cases of annuities, reversions. Ac. 

Aot'uate, v. a. [Lat. actuare .] To put into action; to 
incite to action; to induce; to influence; as, “ our pas¬ 
sions are the springs which actuate the powers of oul 
nature.” 


























































ADAC 


4 


ADAM 


ADAM 


29 


4«*tna'tion, n. [Lat. actuating The state of being actu-! 

ateii; a being put in action; effectual operation, (r.) 
Act uator, n. One who actuates or puts in action. 

Ai-ty'nolite, or Actinulite, n. (Min.) TheAmpW- 

bole, q. v. 

Ami t ion, n. [Lat. acuere , to sharpen.] (Med.) The 
sharpening of medicines to increase their effect. 

Acu leate, a. [Lat. aculeus, a prickle.] (Bot.) Anything 
covered with prickles; that is, with sharp prominences I 
which originate not from the root, but only from the] 
bark, as in the rose. 

Acu leate, r. a. To form to a point. 

Acu'leatetl, a. Having a sharp point; prickly; acu¬ 
leate. 


Acu'leates, v.pl. (Zool.) A tribe of hymenopterous 
insects, in which the females and neuters are provided 
with a sting, generally concealed within the last seg¬ 
ment of the abdomen, as the bee. 

Aculeous, a. (Bot.) Having points or prickles; 
aculeate. 


Acu'leus, n.; pi. Aculei. [Lat.] (Bot. and Zool.) A 
prickle. 


Acu'meu, n. [Lat., a sharp point.] The faculty of nice 
discrimination; quickness of perception; acuteness; 
sharpness of intellect; discernment. 

Acu'miua. [Lat. acumen, a point.] Omens taken by 
the ancients from the points of spears or swords. 

Acuminate, v. n. To eud in a sharp point; as, “ this 
is not acuminated as the rest, but seemeth cut off.” 

Acu minate, v. a. To sharpen. 

Acu minate, a. (Bot.) A term applied to the apex of 
a leaf when it is long and tapering. The leaf of the 
white willow has an acuminate apex. 

Acti minuter], p. a. Drawn o'*'t into a long point. 

Acumina'tiou, n. The act jf sharpening; a sharp 
point. 

Acu'minous, Acu'minose, Acu'miiioHous, 

a. Terminating in a flat, narrow end; sharp-pointed. 

Acu na, Christopher, a Spanish Jesuit, many years 
a missionary in South America, b. at Burgos 1597. He 
published in 1011 a Description of the Great River of the 
Amazons, which was afterward translated into French, 
in 4 vols. 12mo., 1681. 

Acupunctura'tion, n. See Acupuncture. 

Acupunct'ure, ». [Lat acus, a needle, and punctura, a 
puncture.] (Med.) A surgical operation practised very ex¬ 
tensively in Asia. It is performed by puncturing the part 
affected with a gold or silver needle. It has been prac¬ 
tised both in Paris and London with satisfactory results 
in different kinds of disease, but principally neuralgic 
p tins and chronic rheumatism. In Asia, the needles 
employed are always made of the purest silver or gold; 
and in China, the manufacture of these instruments 
forms a distinct trade, practised only by a few, and those 
few are licensed by the Emperor. 

Ac'ushnet, in Massachusetts, a township of Bristol co., 
incorporated in 1860. 

Aousi la'll* and Damagetus, two brothers, con¬ 
querors at the Olympic games. The Greeks covered their 
father, whose name was Diagoras, with flowers, and pro¬ 
claimed him happy in having such worthy sons. 

Aciltan'gular, a. (Bot.) Having acute angles. 

Acute', a. [Lat. acu/.us, sharp.] Sharp; pointed ; — the op¬ 
posite of obtuse. — Having nice discernment; penetrat- 
-ug; sagacious : — the opposite of dull or stupid. 

(Gram.) An acute accent is that which elevates the 
voice. [' ] 

(Ge-mi.) An acute angle is an angle which i3 less than 
a right angle. (Fig. A.)—An acute-angled triangle is a 
triangle of which all the three angles are acute. (Fig. B.) 



(Mus.) A tone is aetde when it is sharp or high, with 
respect to another tone, and as opposed to grave. 

i Med.) An acute disease is that which is attended by 
violent symptoms:—opposed to chronic. 

(Bot.) Terminating gradually in a sharp point. 

Acute', v. a. To give an acute sound to. 

Acute'ly, ad. In an acute manner. 

Acute'ness, n. The quality of being acute; applied 
to things, and figuratively to the senses or the under¬ 
standing. See Acute. 

Acutifol'iate, a. (B it.) Having sharp-pointed leaves. 

Aeutilob'ute, a. (Bot.) Having acute lobes. 

Ac'worlh. in Georgia, a twp. and vill. of Cobb co., 12 m. 
N.W. of Marietta. 

Acworth, in New Hampshire, a post-township of Sul¬ 
livan co.. New Hampshire, 46 miles W. of Concord, has 
manufactures of bobbins, starch, and leather. 

A<l-, a prefix of Latin origin, signifying to. 

A'llll, the wife of Aidricus, and sister to queen Artemisia, 
who adopted Alexander as a son. 

A'<Ia, in Idaho, a southwestern county, organized in 
1864, and including Bois6 Valley. It is mountainous, 
but the soil is fertile in the valleys drained by the Boise 
River, and the Lewis or Snake River. Mines of gold. 
Cap., Boisfi City, pop. (1890 ) 2,311. 

A'<la, in Michigan, a post-village, in a township of same 
name. Kent county, 10 miles east of Grand Rapids, at 
the confluence of Thornapple with Grand River. 

Afla baga, a village in Abyssinia, district of Harimat, 
about 30 miles S. of Adigerat. 

Ad act'd], a. (Mil.) A term signifying the method 
by which the stakes are driven into the earth by 
large malls shod with iron, to secure ramparts or pon¬ 
toons. 


Adac'tyle, a. [Gr. a, priv., and dactilos, a digit.] (Zool.) \ 
A locomotive extremity without digits. 

Adafoo'dia. a Foolah town in West Africa; pop. 
24,000; lat. 13° 6' N., long. 1° 3' E. The inhabitants | 
are said to be courageous and industrious, and without | 
participation in the slave-trade. 

Ad 'age, n. [Lat. adagium, a proverb.] See Proverb. ! 
The proverbs of antiquity are collected by Erasmus in I 
a work entitled Erasmi adagia. 

Ada'g-io. [It., leisurely .] (Mus.) The slow’est of musical | 
time, grave only excepted. 

Ad'aies, in Louisiana, a post-office of Nachitoches 
parish. 

A dair, a trader, who published in 1775 a work in which 
he points out the resemblance between many customs 
of the Jews and those of the North American Indians, 
among whom he lived for‘40 years. 

Adair, John, an American general, b. 1757, d. 1840. 
lie was a representative from Kentucky in the D. S. 
Congress, and commanded the troops of that state in 
the battle of New Orleans. 

Adair', in Iowa, a southwestern county ; area, 576 sq. 
m. It is drained by the Middle and Grand rivers, and 
by the headwaters of the Nodaway river. Surface, un¬ 
dulating; soil, fertile—a very productive agricultural 
section. Products , corn, wheat, butter, hay, wool, Ac 
Cap. Greenfield. Pop. (1895) 15,504. 

Adai r, in Kentucky, a southern county, organized in 
1801. Area, 450 square miles. Prod.. Indian corn, 
tobacco, grass, and wool. The county possesses abun¬ 
dant water-power, and numerous manufactories. Cap. 
Columbia. 

Adair, in Missouri,a county in the N.N.E. part of the 
State, organized in 1840. Area, 570 square miles; 
county-seat, Kirksville. It is drained by Chariton 
river, and by the north fork of Salt River. Soil produc¬ 
tive.— A twp. of Camden co. 

Adair’sville, in Georgia, a twp. and vill. of Barton 
co., 69 miles N.W. of Atlanta, on the Western and At¬ 
lantic railroad. 

Adair’sville, in Ky., a twp. and vill. of Logan co., 
180 m. S W. of Frankfort. 

A'dal. or Adei,, a country inhabited by the Affar, or 
Arabs Danakil, on the eastern coast of Africa, betweeu 
ll°30'and 15°40 7 N. lat. The length of Adel along the 
Red Sea is about 300 miles, and its width 40 miles. The 
country is varied with hill and dale, but. on the whole, 
barren, It contains plains of salt, which is cut into 
pieces, the size of a whetstone, and used in Abyssinia as 
a currency. The tribes by which this region is tra¬ 
versed live a nomadic life, and their only commence is 
this of the salt, which they collect on the Bahr Assal. 
and transport along the caravan-road to Shoa. Annexed 
to Egypt in 1875, as the province of Harrar. (q. v.) 

Ad am, the first man. and progenitor of the human race, 
whom God formed of the dust of the ground, on the sixth 
and last day of the creation, as related in the first and 
f icond chapters of Genesis. The whole of the authentic 
history of Adam is contained in the first five chapters of 
that book. Ilis loss of the state of innocence and felicity 
which he originally enjoyed, is commonly known by the 
name of the. Fall. It was after this event, and his expul¬ 
sion from the Garden of Eden, or the terrestrial Paradise, 
that his sons Cain, Abel, and Seth, or Shetli, were born. 
He is also stated to have had other sons and daughters, 
whose names are not given. He died at the age of 930, 
and therefore, according to the commonly received com¬ 
putation, in the year 3074 B. c. The word Adam means 
“to he red,” and it is supposed that in allusion to the 
signification of this Hebrew verb, the earth out of which 
Adam was made was called Adamah; while others think 
that the name Adam contains an allusion to the reddish 
color of a healthy person. (See the use of the word adorn 
in the Song of Solomon, v. 10.) According to Ludolf, 
Adamah. in Ethiopic, means “ beautiful,” denoting man 
to be the chief work of God. In the New Testament, 
the second Adam signifies our Saviour. 

Ailani. Adolphe Charles, a French composer, b. 1803, 
excelled as a pianist and in operas, of which Le Postil¬ 
ion de Longjume.au is best known. D. 1856. 

Adam, Billact, a French poet of the 17th cent., origi¬ 
nally a joiner, of Nevers, and patronized by Richelieu. 
His poems are now scarce. 

Adam. Robert, b. in Edinburgh, 1728, d. 1792; was ap¬ 
pointed architect to the king in 1774. The Adelphi and 
Portland Place in London are specimensof his taste. At 
his return from a travel in Italy and Dalmatia he pub¬ 
lished The Ruins o f the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian, 
at Spalatro in Dalmatia, illustrated with 71 plates. 

Adam of Muriniouth, an English historian 
flourished in the 14th century. His history, printed 
at Oxford, in 1722, comprehends only a portion of his 
century. 

Adam and Eve. n. (Bot.) The vulgar, name of the 
Aplectrum Hyemale, ord. Orchidacee e. It is a fine plant, 
found in woods of Canada and Ohio. It gives, in May, 
brownish-purple, erect flowers, in a terminal raceme. 

Ad amant, n. [Lat. adamas, insuperable.] A stone, 
imagined by poets, of impenetrable hardness. 

“ Satan came tow ring, armed in adamant and gold."— Milton. 

— The diamond, and also the loadstone. (06s.) 

Adamantse'a. (Myth.) Jupiter’s nurse in Crete. She 
suspended the infant god to a tree, that he might be 
found neither on the earth, the sea, nor in heaven. To 
drown his cries, she had cymbals sounded and drums 
beaten around the tree. 

Adamante'an, a. Hard as adamant. 

Adaman'tine, a. Resembling, or having the qualities 
of, adamant. 

Adamantine spar. See CohunbCM. 


Adam'ic, a. Relating to Adam. 

Adam'ite, and Adam'ine, n. (Min.) An ortho 

rhombic hydrous arsenate of zinc. Comp., arsenic acid 
40.2; oxide of zinc, 56.7; water, 3.1. Lustre vitreou^ 
strong; color honey-yellow, violet; streakwhite. Trans¬ 
parent. Found in Chili. 

Ad'amites, n. pi. (Eccl. Hist.) A sect, in the early 
age ot the Christian church, said to have professed an 
exact imitation of the primitive state of innocence. 
They reappeared in the 15th century in Bohemia. 

Adamit'ic, a. Relating to an Adamite. 

Ad'ams. Charles B., an American naturalist, b. 1514, 
devoted much of his time to the study of the Molluscs. 
He published many papers on Conchology. D. 1853. 

Ad ams, Charles Francis, an American diplomatist, 
son of John Quincy Adams. B. in Boston, 1807. He spent 
the most of his boyhood in Europe with his father. was 
admitted to the bar in 1828; served 3 years in the lower 
and 2 in the upper house of the Mass, legislature. Presi¬ 
dent of the Buffalo Convention, in 1848, he was the can¬ 
didate for vice-president along with Mr. tan Buren. 
After representing Mass, in the 36thand 37th Congress, 
he was sent minister to England, 1861, recalled i i 1868, 
and in 1871 was appointed U. S.arbitrator on th «“AU 
bama Claims” in the Convention held at Geneva. II* 
is the author of standard biographies of his grandfather, 
John Adams, and of his father, J. Q. Adams. D. 1886. 

Atl'ams. Hannah, b. in Massachusetts, d. at Brookline 
Dec. 25, 1831, aged seventy-six years. She was a learned 
woman of great excellence and purity of charac ter. Het 
principal works, known and appreciated in Europe as 
well as in America, are, the “ View of Religion,” “His¬ 
tory of the Jews,” and a History of New England.” 

Ad 'ants. John, the second president of the United 
States, was born at Braintree, near Boston, on the 19th of 
October, 1735, (0. S.) Before the rupture between Britain 
and America he practised as a lawyer, and, in 1770. he 
was one of the select men deputed by the several towns 
of the province, who met in convention at Boston, where 
the British government had announced their intention 
of stationing a military force, to make the people sub¬ 
mit to the uew imposts on tea, glass, paper, &c. In 
1773, he became a member of the council of state, and 
devoted all his energies to promote the cause he had es¬ 
poused. He advocated and seconded the Declaration of 
Independence, which was passed on the 4th of July, 
1776, and which was drawn up by Mr. Jefferson. In 
1780 he represented the United States in Holland, and 
in 1782 co-operated with Franklin and the other Ameri¬ 
can commissioners in negotiating a treaty of peace with 
Great Britain. In 1785 he became the first minister 
residentiary to the Court of St. James, and stayed in 
England till 1788. In 1789, when Washington wal 
elected president, he was made vice-president, and in 
1793 hud the same office again conferred upon him. 
In 1797, on the retirement of Washington, he wa* 
chosen President, and at the close of his term of four 
years, being defeated in the candidateship for re-elec¬ 
tion by a majority of eight votes, given to his Demo¬ 
cratic adversary Jefferson, he retired from public life, 
and d. at Quincy, 1826. It was on the 50th anniver¬ 
sary of the Declaration of American Independence that 
Mr. Adams died, and Jefferson, his coadjutor in laying 
the foundation of the great commonwealth of the New 
World, expired on the same day. As an author, Mr. 
Adams is known by a work entitled, “ A Defence of the 
Constitution and Government of the United States,” 
which afterwards reappeared with the title of “ History 
of the Principal Republics of the W'orld.” His son, 
John Quincv Adams, was elected president of the Union 
in 1825. 



Fig. 31. — JOHN ADAMS. 

Atl'ams, John, the patriarch of Pitcairn’s Island, and 
one of the mutineers of the English ship Bounty, 1789. 
He settled with several others in Pitcairn’s Island, and 
became, from a rough and desperate character, a hu¬ 
mane and religious man ; he introduced Christianity and 
the laws of marriage amongst those that were with him 
on the island, and regulated the community entirely 
upon Christian principles. D. 1829. 

Adams. John Quincy, 6th Pres, of the U. States, and one 
of the greatest of American orators, diplomatists, and 
statesmen, was the eldest son of John Adams (q.v.), and B. 
at Braintree, Mass., July 11,1767. Taken to Europe by 
his father, while yet a youth, he pursued his studies at 
Paris and Leyden, and at the age of 14 was appointed 
private sec. to Frarcis Dana, then American Minister at 
St. Petersburg. He afterwards witnessed the reaty of 
peace signed at Paris. 1783, and then resided for some 
time in London. On his return home, he graduated at 
Harvard in 1788, studied law, and was admitted to the 
Boston bar in 1791. He soon became known as an able 
publicist by a series of essays that appeared in the Boston 











30 


ADAM 


ADAP 


ADDI 


•Centinel,” in which he insisted upon absolute neutral¬ 
ity being observed by the U. S. in the war then raging 
between France and Gr. Britain. In 1794 he proceeded 
to Holland as minister; and in 1797 to Berlin, where he 
negotiated a treaty with the Prussian govt. In 1803 he 
was elected U. S. senator, and in 1805 appointed professor 
of rhetoric at Harvard. In 1807, discarding his Federalist 
ties, he allied himself to the Democratic party, and by so 
doing forfeited his seat in Congress. In 1809 he was ap¬ 
pointed minister to Russia, and in 1813 was named one 
of the commissioners who negotiated at Ghent a t reaty of 
peace with England. In 1816 he proceeded to Londouas 
U. S. minister, where he remained till 1817, when he was 
appointed sec. of state tinder Mr. Monroe. In this office 
he distinguished himself specially by his arrangement 
of the treaty with Spain, which defined the boundaries 
of the ceded territories of Florida and Louisiana. In 
1825, no one of the candidates to the presidency having 
received an absolute majority of the electors, the elec¬ 
tion came into the House, where, owing to the influence 
of Henry Clay, A. was chosen at the first ballot. His 
administration was marked by the imposition of a high 
tariff on foreign goods, with the view of promoting in¬ 
ternal industry, and by the unsuccessful attempt to 
purchase Cuba from Spain. A. failed to secure his re- 
election in 1829. Defeated by Jackson, who had 178 
votes to his 83, he retired to Quincy, where his father’s 
fortune, increased by his own efforts, afforded him an 
ample competency. In 1831, lie was returned to Con¬ 
gress by the district in which he lived, and which he com 
tinued to represent until his death. Having been chosen 
merely on account of his determined resistance to secret 
societies, his position was independent of party politics, 
and correspondingly strong. The scope of this work 
does not permit us to dwell on the history of his con¬ 
gressional career, which would fill a volume; but we 
must notice that, in every form which the question took, 
he was the bold and determined advocate of abolition 
of slavery, gradually gathering an influential party 
around him, and so preparing for the triumphs which 
have been won since his death. IIis voice was weak, his 
manner unpleasing, and, though perfectly self-possessed 
he had most generally the appearance of speaking in a 
passion or ill humor; but he always commanded the 
attention of his audience by the originality of his views 
and the wonderful variety of his illustrations. A. was 
a ready and fertile writer — both in prose and verse. 
His style is fluent, but has none of the vigor, elegance, 
wit, and even genius which sparkle in his father’s writ¬ 
ings. He kept during his whole lifetime a very volumi¬ 
nous journal, which has been partly published. Seized 
with paralysis while attending the debate of congress, 
February 21, 1848, he d. two days afterwards. See 
Memoirs of J. Q. Adams, by his 6on, Charles Francis A. 
(Phila.,1877.) 

Ad a ms. Samuel, a member of the American Congress, 1 
and one of the strongest advocates of the political sepa¬ 
ration of this country from Great Britain. B. 1722 D 
1803. 

Adams, William Taylor, a very popular author of 


Pop. (1890), 6,889.—Also the uame of 2 twps. in Adams 1 Adapt'edness, n. State of being adapted. 


and Green cos 

Adam's-apple, «. ( Anat.) A prominent part of the 
throat, being the projection formed by the thyroid car¬ 
tilage in the neck. 

{But.) The fruit of the plantain-tree, Musa paradisi- 
aca; so called by Gerarde and other old authors, from 
a notion that it was the forbidden fruit of Eden. 

Adam's Basin, in New York state, a post-village of 
Monroe co., on the Erie canal, about 230 miles W. by N. 
of Albany. 

Adam’s Bridge, a series of sand-banks, which, with 
two small islands, extend from a point in the southern 
peninsula of India (140 miles north-east of Cape Como¬ 
rin) to the opposite island of Ceylon. The width of the 
channel is about 60 geog. miles, and there are only two 
navigable passages in it. One, called the Manaar Pas¬ 
sage, which separates the small island of Manaar frojn 
the adjacent coast of Ceylon, has not more than 4 ft. 
water at flood-tide. The other, called the Paumbeen. 
and separating the main land from the island of Ramis- 
seram, is very narrow, and not more than 6 ft. deep at 
high water. The space between the two nearest points 
of Manaar and Ramisseram, which is about 30 miles 
wide, is a bank of sand, only covered at high water. 
Thus, if a vessel of moderate size has occasion to sail 
from any one point N. of the Bridge into the Gulf of 
Manaar, it must make the whole circuit of the island 
of Ceylon. 

Ad'amsburg. in Missouri, a post-village of Gasconade 
co., about 50 miles E. by S. of Jefferson, on the road 
from St. Louis to Jefferson city 

Adamsburg, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of West¬ 
moreland co., 183 miles W. of Harrisburg, on the road 
from Greensburg to Pittsburg. 

Adam's Centre, in New York state, a post-village of 
Jefferson co., 162 miles N.W. of Albany, on the north 
branch of Sandy Creek. 

Adam's Mills, in Kentucky, a post-office of Pulaski co. 

Adam’s Mills, in Ohio, a post-village of Muskingum 
co., 61 miles E. of Columbus, on the Ohio canal. 

Adam’s Mount, in New Hampshire. See Mount 
Adams. 

Adam’s Mount, in Oregon, a mountain, 30 miles N 
of the Columbia river, and about 25 miles E. of the Cas¬ 
cade mountains ridge. 

Adam’s A iddle. See Yucca. 

Adam’s Beak, a lofty mountain in the centre of the 
island of Ceylon. Height, 7,420 feet. 

Adam’s Point or Cape, in Oregon , on the S. side, 
of the mouth of Columbia river. Lat. 46° 12'IS.; Ion 
123° 56' W. 

Adamson, in Georgia, a village of Clayton co.; pop. 
L235. 

Adam's Store, in Alabama, a small hamlet of Talla¬ 
poosa co. 

Adam’s Store, in South Carolina, a post-office of 
Mecklenburg co. 

Adamstown, in Maryland , a post-village of Fred¬ 
erick co. 

■village of Lan- 


juvenile literature, under the pen-name Oliver Optic, Adamstown, in Pennsylvania, apost- 
was born at Medway, Mass., July 30.1822. Was teacher caster co., 20 miles N. of Lancaster, 
in the public schools of Boston for 14 years, member of AdamsVill e, in Georgia, a village of Cass co., about 
the Dorchester School Committee, and served one year __ 150 miles N.W. of Milledgeville. 


in the Mass. Legislature. His works embrace about a 
score of novels for young readers, and over a thousand 
shorter newspaper stories. Died March 27, 1897. 

Adams, in Illinois, a western co., bordering on the 
Mississippi river. Area, 830 sq. m. It is drained in the 
N.W. part by Bear Creek, an affluent of the Mississippi. 
Pod., corn, wheat, oats. The soil, generally very rich, 
is mostly cultivated ; hogs are raised in large quantities. 
Cap. Quincy. Pop. (1890), 61,888.—Also a township of 
La Salle co. 

—In Indiana, an eastern co., bordering on Ohio. Area, 
324 sq. m. Good soil, drained by the Wabash and the 
St. Mary’s rivers, and covered in part by forests of oak, 
beech, ash, hickory and elm. Cap. Decatur. Pop. (1890), 
20,181.—Also the name of 9 twps. in Allen, Carroll, 
Cass, Decatur, Hamilton, Madison, Morgau, Parke and 
Rio!-" cos. 

-—In irnca, a S.W. co., drained by the Nodaway river- 
area, 432 sq. m. Cap. Corning. Pop. (1895) 12,934.— 
Also 5 townships of that name in Dallas, Delaware 
Keokuk, Mahaska, and Wapello cos. 

—In Massachusetts, a township in Berkshire co., compris¬ 
ing four villages, N. Adams, S. Adams, Maple Grove and 
Brackinton. Manuf. Numerous mills, print-works, &c. 

—In Michigan, a township of Hillsdale co. 

—In Minnesota, a township of Mower co. 

—In Mississippi, a S.W. co., separated from Louisiana by 
the Mississippi river. Cap. Natchez. Pop. (1898) 29,460. 

—In Nebraska, a S. central co. Surface, undulating; soiL 
fertile. Cap. Hastings. Pop. (1898) 30,100. 

•-In Ohio, a co. b. on the Ohio river, which separates it 
from the State of Kentucky. Area, 500 sq. m. Surface 
billy and well timbered; soil, fertile. Prod., corn, wheat’ 
and oats.—Mines of iron in the S. E. part of the co It 
is drained by Brush Creek. Cap., West Union. Pop. 1 
(1890), 26.648.—Also 10 twps. of that name in Cham¬ 
paign, Clinton, Coshocton, Darke, Defiance, Guernsey, 
Monroe, Muskingum, Seneca and Washington cos. 

—In New York, a township and village of Jefferson co 
156 m. W. N. W. of Albany. 

—In Pennsylvania, a co. bordering S. on Maryland. Area, 
630 sq. m. Prod., wheat, corn, oats, hay and butter! 
Min., copper and Potomac marble. Hirers, the Cone- 
wago creek and its branches. Cap , Gettysburg. Pop 
(1898 ) 34,440.—Also a township of Butler co. 

—In Wisconsin, a S. central co., drained by the Wiscon¬ 
sin river. Area, 690 square miles. Cap. Friendship. 


Adams ville, in Massachusetts, a post-village of Frank¬ 
lin co., 104 miles W. of Boston. 

Adamsville, in S. Carolina, a township of Marlboro 
county. 

Adamsville. in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Craw¬ 
ford co., 250 miles N.W. of Harrisburg. 

Adamsville, iu Ohio, a village of Muskingum coun- 
ty. 

if Adamsville, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Iowa co. 

Ad'anson, Michbl, a French naturalist, who is sup¬ 
posed to have imbibed his love of natural history from 
his preceptors, the celebrated Reaumur and Bernard do 
Jussieu. His genius being of that active kind which de¬ 
lights in adventure, in his 21st year he set out lor a voy¬ 
age to Senegal, where he spent five years in making col¬ 
lections illustrative of his favorite pursuits. In 1753 he 
returned to Paris, greatly reduced in circumstances; and 
after the French revolution we find him so poor that, on 
being invited to become a member of -the Institute of 
France, he was compelled to refuse, because he could not 
make his appearance for the “ want of shoes.” About the 
close of his life he enjoyed a small pension lrorn the 
French government. B. at Aix 1727, d. 1806. — Adanson 
wrote a work entitled “ The Natural History of Sene¬ 
gal,” and another under the name of “ The Families of 
Plants,” in which lie advocated a system of classification 
different from that of Linnseus. Adanson was a great 
friend of civil liberty, and an ardent philanthropist, 
being among the first to advocate slave emancipation. 

Adanso'nia, n. {Bnt.) See Baobab. 

Ari'apis, n {Pal.) A name originally applied by Gesner 
to tlie Hyrax or coney of Scripture, and adopted by Cu¬ 
vier to designate another small pachydermatous quadru¬ 
ped, now extinct, but the existence and Mature of which 
that great naturalist detected and deduced from three 
fragments of the head, which were discovered in that 
immense depository of fossil bones, the gypsum quarries 
of Montmartre. Cuvier supposes the animal to have 
been about the size of a rabbit, and to have closely ap¬ 
proximated the Anoplotheria. 

Adapt', v. a. [Fr. adapter.] To fit one thing to another; 
to suit; to proportion. 

Adaptabil'ity, and Adapt'abieness, n. The 

quality of being adaptable. 

Adapt'able, a. Able to lie adapted. 

Adaptation, and Adaption, n. Theactof fitting; 
the fitness of one thing to another. 


Adapt'er, n. One who adapts. 

( Chem) A piece of tube of more or less conical form* 
used to elongate the neck of a retort, and to connect it 
with a receiver. 

Adaptive, a. Tending to adapt. 

Adaptiveness, n. Suitableness. 

Adapto'rial, a. Tending to fit. (r.) 

A'dar. (Ilel >., splendor.] The twelfth month of the eccle* 
sinsticai and the sixth of the civil year of the Jews. If 
comprehends a portion of February and the beginning 
of March. 

Ad arbitrinm. [Lat.] At will or discretion. 

Adar'io, in Ohio, a post-office of Richland co. 

Adario, in Wisconsin, a village of Waukesha co. 

Adar'ine, n. [Sp.J A small Spanish weight, the six¬ 
teenth part of an ounce troy. 

Adar'sa, or Adasa, (Anc. Geog..) a city of Ephraim, 
not far from Gophna, where Nicanor was defeated by 
Judas Maccabeus. 

Ad'atis, or Ad'atais, n. A fine cotton ctcth of India. 

A-days', ad. Now only used in the compound noxv-ar 
days; i.e., at the present time, of late. 

Add, v. a. [Lat. addo.\ To join something to that 
which was said or made before; — to perform the mental 
operation of adding one number or conception to an¬ 
other. 

Add, t>. n. To increase; to augment; — followed by to 
or unto. 

“ My father made your yoke heavy, and I will add to your yoke."— 

1 Kings xii. 14. 

Adda, n. (Zool) The Arabic name for a small species- 
of lizard found in Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia, wherever 
the smallest degree of moisture exists. It is celebrated 
by the eastern physicians on account of its pretended 
efficacy in the cure of elephantiasis, leprosy, and other 
cutaneous diseases. 

Adda, a river in Switzerland, which rises in the Grisons. 
runs through the Yalteline and the Lake of Como, by 
Lecco, and falls into the I’o, near Cremona. 

Ad'dable, a. See Addible, which is more proper. 

Ad'dax, n. [Ar. add as.] (Zool) A species of antelope, 
called by the ancients strepsiceros, from the spiral or 
twisted form of its horns. It is found in the barren- 
sands of Nubia and Kordofan. 

Addec'iniate, v. a. [Lat. addecimare. ] To take the 
tenth part of; to decimate. 

Adden'dum, n.; pi. Addenda. [Lat.] {Med) Some 
thing to be added. 

Ad'der, n. [A. S. aetter, poison.] {Zool) 1. A venom¬ 
ous reptile; a viper. (See Yipek.) — This name is used 
in the Bible, as the representative of four Hebrew names 
of poisonous serpents.—2. The fifteen-spined stickleback, 
a species of marine fish on the English coast, commonly 
called the great sea-adder. 

Ad'der-fly, n. The dragon-fly. 

Ad der-gem, n. A species of charm. 

Ad'der's-grass, n. A plant about which serpent* 
iurk. 

Adder-stone, n. A stone or bead used by the Druid* 
as an amulet. 

Adder's-tongne, n. {Bot) The vulgar name of ths- 

ord. Ophioglossacece, q. v. 

Ad der’s-wort. n. {Bot) The snake-weed, an herb 
of the sub-gen Polygonum bistorta, ord. Polygonacece. 

Addibil'ity, n. The possibility of being added. 

Ad'dible, a. That which may be added. 

Ad'diee, «. See Adze. 

Addict', v. a. [Lat .addieg.) To devote; to dedicate. 
It is commonly taken iu a bad sense; as, “ He addicted 
himself to vice.” 

Addict'ed, p. a. Accustomed; abandoned, devoted to, 

Addict'edness, n. The quality or state of being 

addicted. 

Ad'dicti, n. pi. [Lat.] A term among the Romans, 
applied to persons who, being unable to pay their debts, 
became the slaves of their creditors. 

Addic'tion, n. The act of devoting, or giving up* 
the state of being devoted. 

•‘It is a wonder how his grace should g'ean it, 

Since his addiction was to courses vain." — Shak. 

Ad dington, Henry. See Sidmouth, Lord. 

Addington, a co. in Ontario, bordering on Lake On* 
tario, and drained by the Nepanee river. Trade, lumbef 
and wool; chief town, Bath. Pop. 21,312. 

Ad'riison, Joseph, an English poet and miscellaneous 
writer, b. in 1672, at Milston, where his father was 
rector. At the age of 15, he was entered at Queen’* 
College, Oxford. In 1693, he took his degree of M. A-, 
and became eminent for his Latin poetry. At the age 
of 22, he addressed some verses to Dryden, in English, 
and, not long after, published a translation of part of 
Virgil’s fourth Georgic. About this time, he composed 
the Essay mi the. Georgies. lull 95, he addressea a poem 
to king William, which recommended him to Lord Somers. 
In 16 -9, he obtained a pension of £300 a year, to enable 
him to travel. He made the tour of France and Italy, 
improving his mind to the best advantage, as appear* 
b om his Letter to Lord Halifax, which is considered 
the most elegant of his poetical works, and his Travels 
in Italy, which he dedicated to Lord Somers. He re¬ 
turned in 1703, and found his old friends out of place. 
In 1704, he was introduced to Lord Godolphin as a fit 
person to celebrate the victory of Blenheim, and pro¬ 
duced “ The. Campaign," for which he was rewarded 
with the place of commissioner of appeals. Next year, 
he went to Hanover with Lord Halifax, and soon after 
was appointed Under-Secretary of State. When the 
marquis of Wharton went to Ireland as lord-lieuten¬ 
ant, A. accompanied him as secretary, and was made 
keeper of the records there, with a salary of £300 e 









































































































ADDI 


ADEL 


ADEN 


33 


ytmx. While he was In Ireland, Steele, his friend, 
commenced the Tattler, to which A. liberally contri¬ 
buted. This was followed by the Spectator, which he 
also enriched by his contributions, distinguished by 
■one of the letters of the word CLIO. In 1713, his 
tragedy of Cato was brought upon the stage, amidst 
the plaudits of both Whigs and Tories. In 1716, he 
married the countess-dowager of Warwick, to whose 
son he had been tutor; but the marriage did not prove 
happy. In 1717, he became secretary of state, which 
office he soon resigned, on a pension of £1,500 a year. 
In 1719, he engaged in a political dispute with his old 
friend and coadjutor Steele, whom, in his pamphlet of 
the Old Whig, he contemptuously styled “ Little Dicky.” 
D. at Holland House, 1719. It is said that when he 
found the pressure of death upon him, he sent for Lord 
Warwick, and, affectionately pressing his hand, whis¬ 
pered, “See in what peace a Christian can die!” He 
left only a daughter, who died, unmarried, in 1797. 
The literary greatness of A., in the estimation of his 
contemporaries, probably stood upon somewhat differ¬ 
ent grounds from those upon which it is now usually 
placed. In his own day, he was looked upon as a drama¬ 
tist and a poet of a very high order; but the taste wliich 
then prevailed in poetry was the most artificial which 
had distinguished any age of English literature. The 
quality which chiefly drew admiration was a cold and 
monotonous polish — the warmth of genuine nature 
was accounted rudeness and barbarism. The return 
of the public mind to truer principles has been fatal 
both to the dramatic and to the poetical fame of A. 
His glory is now that of one of our greatest writers in 
prose. Here, with his delicate sense of propriety, his 
lively fancy, and, above all, his most original and ex¬ 
quisite humor, he was in his proper walk. He is the 
founder of a new school of popular writing, in which 
he is still unsurpassed by any who have attempted to 
imitate him. 

Add ison, in Ulincns, a twp. of Du Page co. 

Addison, in Indiana, a flourishing township of Shelby 
county. 

Addison, in Maine, a township of Washington co., 135 
m. E. by N. of Augusta. 

Add ison, in Michigan, a post-village of Lenawee co., 
20 miles W.N.W. of Adrian. 

— A ho, a township of Oakland co. 

Addison, in Nebraska, a village of Knox co. 

Addison, in New York, a village and post-township 
of Steuben co., on the Canisteo river, 303 miles from 
New York. 

Addison, in Ohio, a village of Champaign co., about 
25 miles N'.N.E. of Dayton. 

— Also, a post-village and township of Gallia co., nearGal- 
lipolis. 

Add ison. in Pennsylvania, a post-township of Somer¬ 
set co., 153 miles S.W.of Harrisburg. 

Add ison, in Vermont, a county organized in 1787, bor¬ 
dering on Lake Champlain, and drained by the Otter 
Creek. Area, about 750 sq. miles. The E. part of this 
county is mountainous, biff along the lake-shore the 
surface is level and the soil fertile. Quarries of white 
and variegated marble. Cap. Middlebury. 

—In the above county, a post-township, 43’ miles W.S.W. 
of Montpelier. 

Addison, in Wisconsin, a post-township of Washington 
co., 36 miles N.W. of Milwaukee. 

Addison Point, in Maine, a post-office of Washing¬ 
ton co. 

Addi'tion, n. [Lat. addo, I give to.] The act of adding 
one thing to another; the thing added. — Augmentation. 

(Arith.) The putting two or more quantities together 
so as to form one total. It is the first of the four lun- 
damental rules of arithmetic, the operation of which 
consists in adding together first the units, then the 
tens, then the hundreds, and so on; thus substituting 
for the original operation of adding the entire number, 
several simple and easier operations. When the quan¬ 
tities to be added consist of several denominations 
which divide themselves into each other, as in the case 
of hundredweights, pounds, and ounces, or yards, feet, 
and inches, the smaller denominations are first added 
together, and should their product equal or exceed the 
quantity of a superior denomination, it is carried to the 
next column of figures denoting that superior denomi¬ 
nation. In addition of fractions, the various fractions 
must be first reduced to the same denomination, in or¬ 
der that they may represent quantities of equal value; 
then add together all the numerators of the fractions 
so reduced, and give to their product the common 
denominator. 

(A!g.) In addition of algebraical quantities, they 
should all be written one after another, without chang¬ 
ing any of the signs, and the terms which before had no 
sign, should be connected with the rest by the sign -f-. 
Thus a-\-b and a —25, added, =a+b-)-a — 2b; or the sum 
may be reduced to a simpler form by observing that b 
subtracted twice and added once is equivalent to b sub¬ 
tracted once, and that a is added to a; the expression 
then becomes 2a— b. 

(Music.) The term applied to a dot placed on the right 
side of a note, to signify that it is to be sounded half as 
long again. 

( Law ) Additions are those designations affixed to a 
person's name by way of title. — A. of degrees are the 
same with titles of honor; A. of estate, such as esquire, 
gentleman, &c.; A. of mystery or trade , are, baker, mason, 
Ac.; A. of place or residence, are, of Philadelphia, Bos¬ 
ton, Ac. 

Addi tional, a. That is added. 

Additionally, ad. In addition. 

Additi'tions, a. Added without good authority. 


Ad'ditive, a. Something to be added, in contradistinc¬ 
tion to subtractive, which denotes something to be 
taken away. The terms additive and subtractive are 
sometimes applied to algebraic quantities, to denote 
those relations to other quantities which are more com¬ 
monly, though less correctly, expressed by positive and 
negative. 

Addle, a. [A. S. yd el, idle, barren.] Originally applied 
to eggs, and signifying such as produce nothing, but 
grow rotten under the hen; thence transferred to brains 
that produce nothing. 

“ Thus far the poet j but his brains grow addle; 

And all the rest is purely from this noddle." — Dryden. 

Addle-pated, a. Having addled brains. 

“ Poor slaves in metre, dull and addle-pated. 

Who rhyme below even David's psalms translated." — Dryden. 

Addle, v. a. To make addle; to corrupt; to make bar¬ 
ren : “ This is also evidenced in eggs, whereof the sound 
ones sink, and such as are addled swim.” — Brown. 

Addlings, n. pi. Earnings; wages for labor;—aname 
only used in some parts of England. 

Addorsed’, a. [ Lat. ad, to, and dorsum, the hack.] (Her.) 
A term used when any two animals or other tilings are 
placed back to back. 

Address', r. a. [Fr. adresser.] To apply to another by 
words, with various forms of construction: sometimes 
without a preposition. 

“Are not your orders to address the Senate?” — Addison. 

Sometimes with to; as, ‘Addressing to Pollio, his great 
patron, he no longer could restrain the freedom of his 
spirit.” — Dryden. 

Sometimes with the reciprocal pronoun; as, he ad¬ 
dressed himself to the general. 

Sometimes with the accusative of the matter of the 
address, which may be the nominative to the passive; 
as, “ The young hero had addressed his prayers to him 
for his assistance.” — Dryden. 

—To prepare one's self to enter upon an action; as, he 
addressed himself to the work. 

—To court, as a lover. 

—To get ready; to put in a 6tate for immediate use. 

“ To-night in Harfleur we will be your guest. 

To-morrow for the march wa are addrest. — Shak. 

—To superscribe or direct, as a letter. 

Address, n. [Fr. adresse.] Verbal application to any 
one, by way of persuasion, petition. 

“ Venus had heard the Virgin’s soft address." — Prior. 

—Courtship: 

“ But, tell me, whose address thou favor'st most; 

I long to know, and yet I dread to hear it." — Addison. 

—Manner of addressing another; as, we say, a man of 
happy address, a man of an awkward address. 

—Skill, dexterity; as, “ Those events are imputed to his 
profound skill and address'’ 

—Manner of directing a letter. 

Address'er, n. One who addresses. 

Adduce', r. a. [Lat. adducere .] To bring forward; to 
present, or offer; to advance; to allege; to cite. 

Addu cent, a. [Lat. adducens.] (Anat.) A word applied 
to those muscles that bring forward, close, or draw to¬ 
gether the parts of the body to which they are annexed. 
See Adductor. 

Addu' cer, n. One who adduces. 

Addu'eiiilo, a. Capable of being adduced. 

Adduc'tion, n. [Fr. adduction.] The act of adducing 
or bringing forward. 

(Anat.) '1 he action of the adducent muscles. 

Adduc'tive, a. Adducing, or bringing forward. 

Adduc'tor, n. [Lat. adduco, I draw towards.] (Anat.) 
The muscles opposed to the abductors: they draw to¬ 
gether, or bring forward, the parts to which they are 
attached. 

Add. n. An Egyptian weight, less than the English 
pound. 

A del. a country of E. Africa. See Adal. 

A'del, or Adell, in Iowa, a township of Dallas 
county. In this township, a post-village of the same 
name, the cap. of the county, on the Itacoon River, 
about 24 miles W. of Des Moines. 

Ad'elaide, marchioness of Salisbury'. Edward III., 
king of England, who was much taken with her charms, 
picked up, at a ball, one of her garters, which had fallen 
off in the dance. At seeing the lords and ladies laugh¬ 
ing, Edward buckled tue garter around his knee, and 
said, Hmi suit qui nial y pense (evil be to him who evil 
thinks). This incident is said to have given rise to the 
order of the knights of the Garter, 1344, an origin very 
much questioned by modern writers. 

Ad'elaide, Amelia Louisa Teresa Caroline, wife of 
William IV., and queen of England. She was sister to 
the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, and was married July 11, 
1818. She was a lady possessed of many exalted virtues, 
and was a liberal benefactress of the poor. B. 1792, 
d. 1849. 

Adelaide, Eugenie Louise, princess of Orleans, daugh¬ 
ter of Louis Philippe Joseph, duke of Orleans, nick¬ 
named Egalite, and sister of Louis Philippe, king of 
France. B. at Paris 1777, d. in that city Dec. 31, 1S47. 
two months before the dynasty of Orleans fell. Pro¬ 
scribed as an emigre in 1792, she spent the greatest part 
of her exile in a convent, near Freiburg. Switzerland: 
rejoined her brother in England in 1809, and went with 
him to Sicily, where she lived until the restoration. 
After the revolution of July, 1830, she urged her bro¬ 
ther to accept the throne. Madame Adelaide, as she was 
now always called, was a great politician, and had much 
weight with the late king of the French. The general 
opinion in France is, that, had she lived two months 
more, Louis Philippe would not have departed for a new 
and last exile. 


Ad'elaide, the cap. of South Australia and the seat of 
government, stands on the river Torrens, which divides 
it into two parts. The University of A. is a flourishing 
institution and well endowed. At a distance of eight 
miles, and on the shore of the Gulf of St. Vincent, is 
Port A., where are built wharves, warehouses, and 
every convenience for merchants and shippers. A. was 
founded in 1S36, and in 1845 its pc,;- was made free to 
all nations. Pop. (1895) 136,760. Ii^j. 34° 36'S., Ion. 
128° 30' E. 

Adelaide, a river in the N.W. of Australia, falling into 
Adam bay, and navigable lor 50 miles to all vessels draw* 
ing 12 feet of water. 

Adelanta'do, «. [Sp.] A governor of a province in 
Spain. 

Ad eline, in Illinois, a post-village of Ogle co., about -4 
miles N. of Dixon. 

Ad'eling, n. [A. S. aedel, illustrious.] A word of honor 
among the Anglo-Saxons, propelly appertaining to the 
king's children ; king Edward the Confessor, being with¬ 
out issue, and intending to make Edgar his heir, called 
him Adeling. 

Ad elites, n. pi. A sort of Moorish conjurers, who pre¬ 
dicted the fortunes of individuals by tl “ flight and sing¬ 
ing of birds, and other accidental rircr 'stances. 

Ad ell, in Wisconsin, a post-office of SI •ooygan co. 

Ad'elnau, a district in the prov. oi ^o.-en, Prussia, 
abounding in game and fish, but scantily supplied with 
corn and cattle. Area, 367 square miles. J ip. 52,530. 

Adel'oport, n. [Gr. a. priv., deles, manifest, and jxais, a 
foot.] (Zool.) An animal whose feet are not apN vent. 

Adel phi, in Iowa, a post-villago of Polk ci >n the 
Des Moines river. 

Adelplii, in Ohio, a post-village of Ross co., in v ierain 
township. 

Adel pliia, n. [Gr. adelphos, a brother.] (Bot.) , col¬ 
lection of stamens into a bundle. Linnaeus employed 
this term for those plants in which the stamens, instead 
of growing singly, combine into one or more parcels, or 
brotherhoods; thus, monadelphia signified stamen 
all connected into one parcel, diadtlphiu into two pal 
cels, and so on. 

Adel’pholite, n. (Min.) A columbate of iron am 
manganese, pertaining to the group Ferguscmile. 

Adel'phous, a. (Bot.) That is collected in bundles. 

Adelphus, a disciple of Plato, and the composer of a 
singular theory, then quite popular, compounded of the 
doctrines of Plato, the Gnostics, and others, He was 
opposed to Plotinus. Flourished in the 3d century. 

Ad'elsberg;, a small market-town in the duchy of Car* 
niola, Austria, 22 miles from Lay bach, celebrated for 
some remarkable caverns found in its neighborhood. 

Ad'elun§ 7 , Johann Christoph, a universal linguist and 
grammarian, b. at Spantekon, in Pomerania, 1732; d. at 
Dresden, 1806. lie is best known by his “ Grammatical 
and Critical Dictionary.” 

Art 'emar, a aionk, who wrote chronicles of France, 
which were published by Labbe. He flourished in the 
10th century. 

Ademp tion, n. [Lat. ademptio.] (Law.) The taking 
away of a donation, legacy, ' n. 

Aden-, a Greek word signify: g gland, used in medical 
language as prefix to words relating to the study of 
glands; as, adenology , the doctrine of the glands, aden- 
olomy, incision of a gland, &c. 

Aden, a seaport, the capital of the state of Aden, situ¬ 
ate on a rocky peninsula, in the S.W. extremity of Ara¬ 
bia, projecting into the sea. It was formerly strongly 
fortified, and the most opulent city of Arabia; but had 
altogether declined when it was, in 1840, taken posses¬ 
sion of by the British, who have converted it from ruin 
and misery into a flourishing place of trade, encom¬ 
passed by fruitful orchards and blooming gardens. Be¬ 
tween the mountain-masses which command their en¬ 
trance, there is a space of four miles, and vessels may 
take up any position in a depth of water of from 5 to 10 
fathoms. On account of this, Aden has become one of 
the principal coaling stations of the Anglo-Indian mail- 
steamers, and every year itis becoming a place of greater 
importance. Pop. 40,000. Lat. 12° 46' N., ion.45° 10' E. 

Aden Cape, on the S. coast of Arabia, 1,776 feet in 
height. This rocky peninsula, on which stands the 
town of Aden, stretches into the ocean about 5 miles, 
with an average breadth of 2]/] miles, and is connected 
with the mainland by a sandy isthmus % of a mile broad. 

Aden, Gulf of. is the portion of sea lying between 
the north coast of Adel, terminating E. with Ras Jer* 
daffon (Cape Gai dafui), and the S. coast of Arabia, be¬ 
tween Ras Arrah and Ras Agab; the former in lat. 12° 
40 7 N., Ion. 44° E ; the iatter in lat. 15° 15' N., Ion. 51° 30' 
E. Its length from E. to W. is thus about 480 miles; 
its breadth from N. to S. varying from 160 to 200 miles. 

Adenal gia. n. [Gr. aden, a gland, and algos, pain.] 
Pain in the glands. 

A'denara. or Adanara. a Dutch island in the Ma¬ 
lay Archipelago, about 35 miles long, and 15 broad. Lat 
8° 17' S., l.rn. 123° 14' E. 

A'denbiirg;, a town of Westphalia, in the duchy of 
Berg, 12 miles from Cologne. 

Aden'I form. a. Having the appearance of a gland. 

Aden' Kalessi. a Turkish fortress on an island in the 
Danube, where there are bomb-proof casemates for two 
hundred men. 

Adenography, n. [Gr. aden, gland, and graphein. to 
write.] I Anat.) A treatise or description of the glands. 

Ad'enoid, a. [Gr. aden, gland, and eidos. form.] Re¬ 
sembling a gland. This epithet is ordinarilv applied to 
the two prostatce. 

Adenologr'ieal, a. Relating to adenology 

Adenol'ojry. «. [Gr. aden. gland, and logos, wiirour**^ 
(Med.) The doctrine of the glands. 























34 


ADHE 


ADIG 


AD JO 


Ad'enore, a town of Ilindostan, in the Carnatic, 5 miles 
S. of Volconda. 

Adenose', and Ad'enous, a. Resembling a gland. 

Adenosty'lese. [(Jr. aden, a gland, and stylos, a column 
or style.] (Bot.) A subdivision of composite plants, com¬ 
prehending tussilago, liatris, eupatorium, and some other 
genera, in which the branches of the style are covered 
with long glandular hairs. 

Adenopliyl'lous, a. (Bot.) Having glands on the 
margin of the leaves. 

Adenot'omy, n. (Anat.) The art or mode of incising 
glands. 

Ad 'enous, and Adenose, a. [Gr. aden, a gland.] 
Gland-like. 

A'deodatus, (God’s gift,) a pious and charitable pon¬ 
tiff, who obtained the tiara in 672. B. at Rome; D. 676. 

A'deps, n. [Lat.J The fat of an animal; lard. 

Adept', n. [Fr. adept, from Lat. adipiscor, I obtain.] 
One completely skilled in all the secrets of his art. This 
name, since generalized, was originally applied only to 
alchemists who had penetrated into the mysteries of 
transmuting metals, or making the Grand Elixir, called 
the Philosopher’s Stone. 

“ The preservation of chastity is easy to true adepts." — Pope. 

Adept', u. Skilful; thoroughly versed; as, an adept phi¬ 
losopher. 

Adep'tist, n. An adept, (o.) 

Ad'eqnacy, n. [From adequate .] Thestate orquality of 
being adequate; sufficiency for a particular purpose. 

Ad'equate, a. [Lat. adcequatus.] Equal to; proportion¬ 
ate; correspondent to, so as to bear an exact resem¬ 
blance or proportion. 

“ All our single ideas are adequate: because, being nothing but 
the effects of certain powers in things, fitted by God to produce 
such sensations in us, they cannot but be correspondent and ade¬ 
quate to those powers.”— Locke. 

Ad equately, ad. In an adequate manner; — often 
used with to. 

Adequateness, n. [From adequate.] Thestate of being 
adequate; justness of representation; exactness of pro¬ 
portion. 

Ader'no, (anc. Adranum,) a town of Sicily, at the S.E. 
foot of Mount Etna, near the Simeto, 17 miles N.VV. of 
Catania. Pop. 12,877. 

Ad'ersbacli Rocks, a range of mountains in the dis¬ 
trict of Glatz, valley of the Riesengebirge, Silesia, re¬ 
markable as being divided, for several miles, into de¬ 
tached perpendicular columns by fissures from 600 to 
1,200 feet in depth. Geologists suppose it to have been 
of tabular sandstone, of varying degrees of hardness, 
and that the softer portions, lying in upright seams, 
were gradually washed away by the action of water. 

A'des, or Hades. (Myth.) The god of Hell among the 
Greeks, and the same as the Pluto of the Latins. The 
term is, by the ancients, often used to signify hell itself. 

Adessena'rians, n.pl. [Fr. adessenaires.] (Eccl. Hist.) 
A sect who held the real presence of Christ’s body in 
the eucharist, but not by transubstantiation; 16th cen¬ 
tury. 

Ad eundem. [Lat.] To the same; i. e. to the same 
degree. 

Ad'fected, a. [Fr. affecte.] Compounded. — Adfected or 
affected equations. (Alg.) Equations consisting of dif¬ 
ferent powers of the unknown quantity. 

Adfil'iated, a. Affiliated. 

Adfilia'tion, n. The same as Affiliation. 

Ad Gnem. [LatJ To, or at, the end. 

Ad'fluxioii, n. [Lat. ad, to, and Jluere, to flow.] A 
flow, as a sap, from a drawing, not a propelling force. 

Ad'liat-Ed'doiilat, a Persian emperor who succeeded 
his uncle, Amad-Eildoulat, and by his conquests greatly 
enlarged his territories. In 977 he took Bagdad, and 
increased its beauty by the erection of hospitals, 
mosques, and other public works. D 982.— This emperor 
was a friend of literature, and gave great encourage¬ 
ment to poets and men of learning. 

Adhel me, son of Kenred and nephew of Ina, king of 
the VVest-Saxons. He was the first bishop of Sher¬ 
borne, as he was, also, the first Englishman who wrote 
in Latin, and the first who brought poetry into Eng¬ 
land. D. 709, and was canonized. 

Ad'liemar, William, a celebrated French poet of Pro¬ 
vence. D. about 1190. 

Adhere', v. a. [Fr. adherer .] To stick fast; to cleave to; 
as wax to the finger. 

—To be comsistent; to hold together. 

“Why every thing adheres together, that no drachm of a scruple.”— 

Shade. 

—To be devoted; to hold; to remain firmly fixed to a 
party, person, or opinion. 

“ Two men are not living, 

To whom he more adheres — Shah. 

Adhe' rence, n. [Fr. adherence.] Fixedness of mind; 
attachment; steadiness; fidelity. See adhesion. 

“Their firm adherence to their religion is remarkable."— Addison. 

Adtie'rency, n. Steady attachment; adherence. 

Adlie'rent,a. [Fr. adherent,.] Sticking to; adhering;— 
united with. 

(Bot.) Growing to; adhering. 

Adlie'rent, n. The person that adheres; one that sup¬ 
ports the cause, or follows the fortune of another; a 
partisan; a follower; a believer in a particular faith. 

Adlie'rently, ad. In an adherent manner. 

Adlier'er, n. An adherent. 

Ailhe'sittn, n. [Fr. adhision.] ( Phys.) A term denoting 
the force with which different bodies remain attached 
to each other when brought into contact. It must not 
be confounded with cohesion, which is the force that 
unites the particles of a homogeneous body with each 
other. Thus, the particles which form a drop of water 


or quicksilver are united by cohesion; the particles of 
water which wet the surface of any body are united to 
it by adhesion. Adhesion may exist between two solid 
bodies, between a solid and a fluid, or between two fluid 
bodies. The adhesion of solid bodies is exemplified in 
the force required to separate two pieces of marble, 
whose polished surfaces have been brought into con¬ 
tact. The suspension of water above its level in capil¬ 
lary tubes, or between two plates of glass very nearly 
in contact, shows the adhesion of a fluid to a solid body; 
and an instance of the adhesion of two liquids is ob¬ 
tained by covering a plate of glass with oil, and bring¬ 
ing it into contact with the surface of water; a very 
sensible force is required to raise it perpendicularly 
from the water. 

(Surg.) The process by which parts, naturally sepa¬ 
rate, or separated by artificial means, become united. 
It is caused by the effusion of a lymph, or sticky fluid, 
produced by inflammation; and hence it is sometimes 
necessary to produce inflammation, by scraping or 
paring, in surfaces which it is desirable to unite. This 
tendency of inflamed surfaces to adhere when in con¬ 
tact is sometimes troublesome, as in inflammations of 
serous membranes. 

(Sy.v) Adhesion and adherence cannot be taken, as 
formerly, the one for the other. Adherence is now con¬ 
fined to the metaphorical, and adhesion to the natural 
sense; as, a strict adherence to one’s duty, and the 
adhesion of iron to the magnet. We say, nevertheless, 
“ to give in one’s adhesion to a cause or party.” 

A<1 lie'sive, a. Apt or tending to adhere; sticking; 
tenacious. 

Adlie'sively, ad. In an adhesive manner. 

Adhe'siveness, n. Stickiness; viscosity. 

(Phren.) A propensity to form attachments, or to 
live together in society. 

Adhib'it, v. <*. [Lat. adhibeo .] To apply; to use. 

Adliibi'tion, n. Application, (o.) 

Ad liominem. [Lat to the man.] (Logic.) A phrase 
applied to an appeal or argument addressed to the prin¬ 
ciples, interests, or passions of a man. 

Adhorta'tion, n. [Lat. adhortatio .] Exhortation, (r.) 

Adhor'tatory, a. Containing counsel or warning. 

Adiail'tiini, n. [Gr., dry.] (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. 
Pilices (ferns); the prettiest of all ferns, on account of 
the delicate, slender stalks on which the pinnules are 
balanced in the air. One species, on this account, is 
called Capillus veneris, and in English Maiden’s hair; 
it is often confounded with the A. pedatum, which is a 
native of Canada, and abounds in damp, rocky woods.— 
In vain you plunge the adiantum in water, says Pliny; 
it always remains dry. 

Syrup of capillaire is properly prepared by adding 
sugar and orange-flowers to an infusion of maiden’s hair. 



Pinule with sori covered by indusia. 

Adiaph'orites, and Adiaphoristes, n. pi. [Gr. 

adiaphoros, indifferent.] (Eccl. Hist.) A name given to 
Melancthon, and the party that agreed with him, in 
submitting, in things indifferent, to an edict of the 
emperor Charles V., 1548, styled the Interim, because it 
proposed to accommodate for a time the differences of 
the Catholics and Protestants, relating principally to the 
doctrine of justification by faith, until the whole mat¬ 
ter could be set at rest by the authority of a council. 

Adiaph'orous, a. (Med.) Neutral; incapable of doing 
either harm or good. 

Adiapnen'stia. [Gr] (Med.) A diminution or obstruc¬ 
tion of natural perspiration, and that in which the an¬ 
cients chiefly placed the cause of fevers. 

Adiarrhoe'a, n. [Gr.] (Med..) A suppression of the 
necessary evacuations from the bowels. 

Adiatlier'mic, a. [Gr.] Not pervious to heat. 

Adieu', adv. [Fr. adieu, a word used elliptically for God 
be with you.] Farewell; good-bye; a form of parting ori¬ 
ginally imparting a commendation to the divine care, 
but now often used to things inanimate. It is an ex¬ 
pression of kind wishes at the parting of friends, or 
things of which we part with regret; as, “ Adieu, be¬ 
loved country 1” 

Adieu is also frequently employed as a noun: 

“ While now I take my last adieu. 

Heave thou no sigh, nor shed a tear.”— Prior. 

Ad'ige. [The A thesis of the Romans; — Ger. Etsch.] A 
considerable river of North Italy, which has its source 
in the Alps of Tyrol above Brixen; it enters Italy by 


Bolzano and the valley of Trento, flows in a souther® 
direction by Roveredo, parallel to and for the most pari 
about 6 miles from, the lake of Garda, then turning ab¬ 
ruptly towards the east, passes through Verona and Leg- 
nano; it afterwards enters the great Delta between the 
Brenta and the Po, and forming several branches, emp¬ 
ties its waters into the Adriatic sea. It is a deep and 
rapid stream, dividing by its course the old Venetian 
territories from Lombardy proper. The valley of the A. 
has been rendered forever memorable by the wars of 
Bonaparte. 

Ad'ig'erat, or Attegerat, a village of Abyssinia, 12® 
in. from the sea-coast. 

Adinian'tus, one of the sect of the Manichees, who 
denied the authority of the Old Testament, in a book 
which was answered by St. Augustine.—Flourished at 
the end of the 3d century. 

Ad infin'ituin. [Lat.] Interminable, without end. 

A'dinole, n. (Min.) The name given by Beudant to a 
kind of massive albite mixed with quartz. 

Ad inquiren'dum. [Lat.] (Law.) A judicial writ, 
commanding inquiry to be made. 

Ad interim'. [Lat.] Meanwhile; as, to act ad interim,. 

A'dipic Acid. [Lat. adeps, fat.] (Chem.) An acid pro¬ 
duced in crystalline crusts by the action of nitric acid 
on oleic acid, suet, spermaceti, and other fatty bodies. 
It dissolves very readily in hot alcohol and ether. Form. 

( ednjC,. 

Adipo'cerate, v. a. To convert into adipocere. 

Adipocera'tion, n. (Chem.) The act of changing 
into adipocere. 

Ad'ipocere, n. [From Lat. adeps, fat, and cera, wax.] 
(Chem.) A peculiar white substance, produced by the 
decomposition of animal matter under the influence of 
moisture, and in situations from which the air is ex¬ 
cluded. It consists chiefly of palinitic and other fatty 
acids, called also “ corpse fat.” 

Adipoc'erous, a. Belonging or relating to adipocere. 

Adipocire', n. See Adipocere. 

Adipose', a. [Lat. adeps, fat.] Unctuous, or containing 
fat. Adipose membrane is the cellular membrane in 
which fat is deposited. 

Ad'ipous, a. Fat ; fatty, (r.) 

Ad'ipsy, and Adip'sia, n. [Gr. a, priv., and dipsa, 
thirst.] (Med.) Absence of thirst; a species of disease. 

Adiron'dack, and Adirondac, a spur of the Ap¬ 
palachian chain, forming a series of highlands that oc¬ 
cupy the N.E. part of the state of New York, at the W. 
of lake Champlain. The highest summit of the whole 
system is Mount Marcy, in Essex co., 5,467 feet above 
the level of the sea. These mountains, formed of gra¬ 
nitic rocks, are usually wild, rugged, and rocky. A 
large part of the surface is entirely unfit lor cultiva¬ 
tion, but the region is rich in minerals, and specially; 
in an excellent variety of iron ore. This region, with its 
numerous lakes and extensive natural game preserves, 
has become a favorite resort for tourists, sportsmen, and 
“ hay-fever” sufferers. In 1892 the greater portion of it 
was made a State park, for the preservation of the forests 
at the head-waters of the Hudson. This park now 
(1897), contains 2.807,760 acres, nearly all woodland. 

Adirondack, in New York, a post-village in New¬ 
comb township, on the western border of Essex co., 10® 
m. W.N.W. of Albany. 

Adit, n. [Lat. aditus, entrance.] The approach or en¬ 
trance to a building. Among the ancients, the aditus 
theatri, or adits of a theatre, were doorways opening on 
to the stairs, by which persons entered the theatre from 
the outer portico, and thence descended into the seats. — 
We give also the name of adit or drift to the horizontal 
opening by which a mine is entered, or by which water 
and ore are carried away. 

Adi've, n. (Zool.) A small species of jackal, not larger 
than a pole-cat, with a long tail, inhabiting in troops the 
deserts of Tartary. 

Adja'cence, and Adja'cency, n. [Lat. adjacentia.\ 
The state of lying close to another thing; that which is 
adjacent. 

Adja'cent, a. [Fr. adjacent .] Lying close; bordering 
upon something; as, a field adjacent to the highway. 

Adjacent angle, (Geom.) is an angle immediately con¬ 
tiguous to another, so that one side is common to both 
angles. This expression is more particularly applied to 
denote that the two angles have not only one side in 
common, but likewise that the other two sides form one 
straight line. 

Adja'cent, n. That which lies next to another, (r.) 

Adja'eently, adv. In an adjacent manner. 

Adject', i>. a. [Lat. adjicio .] To add to. (r.) 

Adjec'tion, n. The act of adjecting; “ the adjection of 
eternity.” (r.) 

Adjecti'tious, a. Added, (r.) 

Adjectival, a. Belonging to the adjective. (R.) 

Adjective, n. [Lat. adjeclus, added to.] (Gram.) The 
name of one of the parts of speech or classes into which 
grammarians have divided words. It is so called because 
it adds to, or qualifies, the meaning of the noun with 
which it is joined; as, a good man, a large house, a 
white, horse. In English, a noun frequently takes the 
place of an adjective; as, a gold watch, the paper duty. 

Adjective Colors. Colors which require to be fixed by 
some base or mordant, in order to be applied as perma¬ 
nent dye-stuffs. 

Adjective, t>. a. To change into an adjective. 

Adjectived, p. a. Changed into an adjective. 

Ad'jectively, adv. (Gram.) In the manner of an 
adjective. 

Adjoin', v. a. [Fr. adjoindre, from Lat. adjungere.) To 
join to; to unite to; to put to. 

" Corrections should be as remarks adjoined , by way of oommsfr 
tary to a treaty." — Rails. 














AD JU 


ADMI 


ADMI 


35 


Adjoin', v. n. To t)e contiguous to; to lie next, so as to 
have nothing between; as, a field adjoining to the high¬ 
way. 

Adjoin ing, p. a. Joining to; “the adjoining fane.”— 

Dryden. 

Adjourn', v. a. [Fr. ajourwr, from 0. Fr. adjourner.] To 
put off to another day, naming the time, or indefinitely; 
a term used by public bodies, as Congress, courts of jus¬ 
tice, Ac., when they lay aside a business, or separate 
with a view to meet again; — to put off; to defer; to 
let stay to another time: 

“Enjoy the present hour, adjourn the future thought."— Dryden. 
Adj Olirn'nieilt, n. [Fr. ajournement.] The putting 
to another day, or without day. In parliamentary lan¬ 
guage, adjournment means a postponement of the sit¬ 
tings or proceedings of either house of Congress, from 
one time to another specified for its reassembling. See 
Prorogation. 

Adjudge', v. a. [Fr. adjuger, from Lat. adjudicare.\ To 
give the thing controverted, to one of the parties by a 
judicial sentence. 

“ The great competitors for Rome, 

Caesar and Poin;»ey, on Pharsulian plains. 

Where stem Beliona, with one final strobe, 

Adjudg'd the empire of this globe to one." — Philips. 

—To sentence, or condemn. 

•* But though thou art adjudged to the death. 

Yet I will favor thee in what I can."— Shak. 

—To decree by a judicial sentence; to settle. 

“ The case was adjudged in Hilary term." 
Adjudgement, n. The act of adjudging. 

Adju'dicate, v.a. [See Adjudge | To adjudge; to give 
the matter litigated, to one of the litigants, by a sen¬ 
tence or decision. 

Adju'dieate, v. n. To pass judgment; as, fo adjudicate 
upon a cause. 

A<tjnvlioa't ion, n. [Fr., from I.at. ad, to.and judicn. I 
judge.] The act of granting something to a litigant by 
a judicial sentence. — In Scottish law, the means by 
which real property and its accessaries are transferred 
to a creditor by a debtor, from an heir to a devisee, or 
from a vendor, who may have failed or refused to con¬ 
vey, to the vendee. 

Ad ju'dicator, n. One who adjudicates. 

Adjunct, n. [Lat. ad, to, and junctus, joined.] Some¬ 
thing added to another thing, between which there is 
no natural affinity. 

“ Learning is but an adjunct to ourself." — Shak. 

—In the Academy of Paris, adjuncts were members at¬ 
tached to a particular science. 

Ad'juuct, a. United with; adjoined. 

Adjuuc'tion, n. [Fr .adjunction.] The act of adjoin¬ 
ing, or coupling together: the thing joined. 
Adjunc'tive, n. He that joins; that which is joined. 
Adjunc'tive.a. Joining; having the quality of joining. 
Adjunc'tively, adv. In an adjunctive manner. 

Adjnnct'Iy, adv. In an adjunctive manner; in con¬ 
nection with; consequently. 

Ad junta, an Indian town in Hyderabad, or the terri¬ 
tory of the Nizam. In its neighborhood are some 
remarkable cavern-temples, profusely decorated with 
Buddhistic paintings or sculptures. Lat. 20° N., Ion. 
75° 50' E. 

Adjura tion, v. The act of adjuring; an earnest and 
solemn charging on oath. — The form of oath proposed 
to another. 

•• They only made use of prayer and adjurations In the name of 
the : r Saviour." — Addison. 

Adj ure', v. a. [Fr. adjurer, from Lat. adjurare.} To 
charge, bind, command earnestly, or in God’s name; to 
put one to his oath, under the penalty of a curse. 

“ Ye lamps of heaven I 
Ye fatal fillets 1 that once bound this head, 

Ye sacred altars 1 from whose flames I tied, 

Be all of you adjured." — Dryden. 

—To command an evil spirit to quit its possession by the 
force of enchantments. 

Adj ur'er, n. One who adjures. 

Ad just', v. a. [Lat. adjustare.] To regulate; to put in 
order; to settle in the right form; to make fit or cor¬ 
respondent ; as, “ To adjust the event to the predic¬ 
tion.” “ To adjust a garment to the body. — To settle 
an account or a difficulty to the satisfaction of all par¬ 
ties.— To put in right order the different parts of a 
thing; as, to adjust a telescope. 

Adjust able, a. That may be adjusted. 
Adjust'ag'e, n. Same as Adjustment, (r.) 
Adjust'er, n. One who, or that which, adjusts. 
Adjus'tive, a. Tending to adjust. 

Adjustment, n. The act of adjusting; — the state of 
being adjusted. 

(Mir. Ins.) The settlement of a loss incurred by the 
insured. 

(Paint.) The manner in which draperies are disposed. 
Adjutage, n. See Ajutage. 

Adjutancy, n. The office of an adjutant; — skilful 
arrangement. 

Adjutant, n. [Fr. adjudant, from Lat. adjutans, assist¬ 
ant.] An assistant; an aid. 

(Mil.) In the United States army, an officer selected 
by the colonel, whose duties in respect to his regiment 
are similar to those of an adjutant-general with an 
army. — Adjutant-General, the principal organ of the 
commander of an army in publishing orders. The same 
organ of the commander of a corps, or department, is 
styled assistant adjutant-general. The laws provide, 
however, but for one adjutant-general, with the rank of 
brigadier-general, one assistant adjutant-general with 
the rank of lieutenant-colonel; and 12 other assistants 
with the rank of major or captain. 



Fig. 33. — pouched adjutant. 


(ZoSl.) The popular name of Cinconia argala, a 
gTallatorial bird belonging to the Stork family. Its 
size is very great, its 
ordinary height in the 
erect attitude being 5 
feet. The beak is of 
enormous size and 
strength: the head is 
large, and the neck 
proportionally muscu¬ 
lar. The head and 
neck are nearly baru 
of skin; and from the 
under part of the neck 
there hangs a large 
pouch of skin, like a 
dewlap, which is capa¬ 
ble of being inflated, 
and which gives to the 
bird a very strange ap¬ 
pearance. The adju¬ 
tant is a native of the 
warmer pans of India; 
and is very useful in 
removing noxious ani¬ 
mals and c a r rio u , 
which it devours with 
great voracity. It swal¬ 
lows snakes, lizards, 
frogs, &c., and in the 
craw of ope of these 
birds has been found a rj 
land-tortoise 10 inches 
long, together with the 
entire body of a large 
black cat. In its wild 
state it usually lives in companies, and chiefs frequents 
the mouths of rivers ; it may be readily domesticated, 
but is very apt to display its voracity by purloining 
articles of food, and makes no difficulty in swallowing 
a leg of mutton, a fowl, or a hare at one mouthful. From 
this bird, and from an allied species in Senegal, the 
beautiful marabou feathers are obtained. 

Adjn'tor, n. A helper, (r.) 

Adjuvant, «. [Lat. odjurare, to help.] An assistant. 

(Med.) A substance which assists and promotes the op¬ 
erations of others. 

Ad jyg-urh, a town and district of British India, in the 
province of Allahabad. Area. 310 sq. m. Pop. 40,000 to 
50,000. Lat. 24° 52' N., ion. 80° 20' E. 

Ad'kinsville, a post-office of Wayne co., Virginia. 

Ad Lat us. [Lat, by the side of.] A General ad latus is 
an officer in Austria, who is given as an aid to command¬ 
ants of army corps. 

Adlega'tion, n. [Lat. adlegatio .] A right formerly 
claimed by the states of the German empire of joining 
their own ministers with those of the emperor in public 
treaties. 

Ad'Ier, Philip, a German engraver who flourished in 
the 16th century. 

Ad lib'itiim. [Lat., at pleasure.] (Mus.) A term ap¬ 
plied to an accompaniment which is not essential, and 
may or may not be performed without interfering with 
the composition. It signifies, also, that the performer 
may introduce in the composition any additions of his 
own, according to his fancy. 

Ad'locHtion, n. See Allocution. 

Ad’ntah, one of the five cities of the plain, consumed 
by fire from heaven, and the site of which was alter 
wards submerged by the waters of the Dead sea. See 
Sodom. 

Admar ginate, v. a. To write or note in the mar 

gin (R.) 

Admeas'nre, v.a. [See Measure.] To measure; to ap¬ 
portion ; to assign to each claimant his right in. 
Admeasurement, n. The act or practice of ascer 
tabling the dimensions of anything; measurement; the 
dimensions ascertained. 

(Law.) A writ directed to the sheriff for the adjust¬ 
ment of proportion, when a widow holds from the heir, 
or his guardian, more in the name of her dower than she 
is entitled to. It is termed A. of dower. 
Admeas'urer, n. One who admeasures. 
Admensnra'tion, n. [Lat. ad, to, aud mensura, a 
measure.] Mensuration. 

Adme'tus. (Myth.) The ino3t remarkable of this name 
was a king of Pheias, in Thessaly. Apollo, when banished 
from heaven, is said to have tended his flocks for nine 
years, and to have obtained from the Parcae that A. 
should never die, if another person laid down his life for 
him. This was cheerfully done by his wife, Alceste. 

A. was one of the Argonauts, and was at the hunt of the 
Calydonian boar. Peleus promised tiis daughter in mar¬ 
riage only to him who could bring him a chariot drawn 
by a lion and a wild boar. A. did this by the aid of 
Apollo, and obtained Alceste in marriage. 
Admin'icle, n. [Fr. adminicule, from Lat. ad, and 
manus, hand.] (Law.) Imperfect proof. In Scotch law, 
any writing or deed referred to by a party as evidence. 
Adminic'ular, a. That which gives help, (o.) 
Administer, v. a. [Fr. administrer, from Lat. admin- 
istrare .] To give; to afford; to supply. 

“ Let tephvrs bland 

Administer their tepid genial airs." — Philips. 

—To act as the minister or agent in any employment or 
office; to manage or conduct, as public affairs. 

—To afford; to give; to supply; to furnish; to dispense; 

“ Medicine must be administered." — Shak. 

—To tender, as an oath. 


(Law.) To settle, as the estate of one who dies with¬ 
out a will, or whose will fails of an execute" 

Administer, i>. n. To contribute; to aw. something, 

" A fountain . . . which . . . administers to the pleasure as wel. 
as she plenty of the place." — Spectator. 

(Law.) To perform the office of administrator. 

Administe'rial, a. Pertaining to administration. 

Adniin'istrable, a. That may be administered. 

Administration, n. [Fr, from i at. administration 
The action of superior agents in executing laws, or regu¬ 
lations conformable to law. The aim of * system of A. 
is to secure the performance of public d: ties, either di¬ 
rectly, ministerially, or through the intervention of sub¬ 
alterns. It is exercised over individuals or things, in 
civil matters, in courts of law, or in political bodies. So, 
in America, the executive power, that is to say, the presi¬ 
dent and his secretaries, is called the administration .— 
In other countries, the word adminish atiou. taken in a 
more general sense, means the conduct or management 
of any affair. 

(Law.) The management of the estate of an intestate, 
or of a testator who has no executor. The term is ap¬ 
plied broadly to denote the management of estates of 
minors, lunatics, &c., in those cases where trustees have 
been appointed by authority of law to take charge of 
such estates in place of file legal owners. 

Admin'ist rat ive, a. Concerning the administration. 

Administrator, n. A member of an administration. 

(Law.) One appointed to administrate or d’o.rilmte 
the goods of a person who dies without having made a 
will. 

Administratorship, n. The office of an adminis¬ 
trator. 

Administratrix, n. [Lat ] She who administers in 
consequence of a will. 

Admirabil'ity, Ad'mirabloness, n. The qual¬ 
ity or state of being admirable, (r.) 

Ad'mirable, a. [Fr., from Lat. admirabilis.] To be- 
admired; worthy of admiration; having power to ex¬ 
cite wonder; — always taken in a good sense, and applied 
either to persons or things. 

Ad'mirable, n. A driuk made of peaches, plums, 
sugar, water, and spirit. 

Ad'mirably, adv. In an admirable manner. 

Ad'miral, n. [Ar. emir or amir, lord, chief; Fr .amiralr 
Sp. admirante or almirante; It. ammiraglio .] The title 
of the highest class of naval officers. There are in the 
British navy three ranks of admirals (or flag-officers),. 
the admiral (or full admiral), vice-admiral, and rear- 
admiral. Each of these again has three gradations, 
according to the color of their flag — admirals of the 
red, of the white, and of the blue. Iu a fie, t disposed 
in battle-array, the first of these holds the centre, the 
second the van, and the third the rear. The A carries- 
his flag at the main, the V. A. at the fore, and the 
B. A. at the mizzen mast. Admiral of the fleet is sim¬ 
ply an honorary distinction, with an increase of pay.— 
A full admiral has tlie same power and authority over 
the marine force of the state that a general has over its 
land forces; a vice-admiral ranks with a lieutenant- 
general, ami a rear-admiral with a major-general. The 
lord high-admiral is the nintli great officer of state in 
England. The office has been usually given, at least 
since the reign of Henry IV., to some of the king's 
youngest sons, near kinsmen, or of the higher nobility.— 
By act of the United States Congress, July 25, 1866, the 
active general officers of the navy were organized a.s 
follows: 1 admiral, with rank of general-in-chief; 1 
vice-ad i iral,-with rank of lieuteuant-gcneral; and 10 
rear-admirals, with rank of major-general. The num¬ 
ber of rear-admirals has since beeu increased, while 
after the deaths of Admiral David G. Farragut and 
Admiral Daniel G. l'urter, who succeeded him, the 
titles of Admiral and Vice-Admiral lapsed in tire U. S. 
Navy until 1899, when that of Admiral was conferred 
upon George Dewey for his brilliant services at Manila. 

(Oonch.) A beautiful shell of the gen. Voluta. and 
comprising four species, — the Grand-A., the Yice-A., 
the Orange-A., and the Extra-A. The first is of a fine 
white enamel, witli bands of yellow finely turned about 
the head. It is principally characterized by a denticu¬ 
lated line along the centre of the large yellow band; 
this distinguishes it from the Yice-A. The Orange-A. 
has more yellow, and the bands of the Extra-A. ruD 
into each other. — See Volutid.e. 

Admiralsliip. n. The office or power of an admiral. 
Ad miralty, «. [Fr .amiraute.] The power of officers 
appointed for the administration of naval affairs.— In 
England, the Admiralty court is usually termed the In¬ 
stance court, to distinguisli it from the Prize court, 
which is only constituted in time of war. It has cogni¬ 
zance of all civil maritime affairs, which are determined 
according to the civil law, so far as the same be not in¬ 
consistent witli the common, statute, or international 
law. — In America, the United States District Court exer¬ 
cises jurisdiction over all maritime contracts, torts, inju¬ 
ries, or offences. In certain cases, causes may be re¬ 
moved from this court to the Circuit, and ultimately t* 
the Supreme court. 

Ad'miralty Inlet, a bay on the S. side of Barrow 
strait, North America. Lat. 73° 49' N., Ion. 83° W. 

— Also, a deep indentation in the land discovered in the Ant¬ 
arctic seas by Capt. Ross; lat. 64° 15' S., and long. 50° W, 
Ad'miralty Island, on the North American coast, 
about 80 miles long and 20 wide, belonging formerly to 
Russia ami now to the United States. It is covered with 
pine forests, and was circumnavigated by Vancouver. 
Lat. about 58° 24' N., Ion. 135° 30' \V. 

Ad'miralty Islands, a group of about 40 islands in 
the Pacific ocean, to the NAY. of New-Iceland. Lat. b& 
tween 2° and 3° S., Ion. between 146° 18' and 147° 46' ft 















ADO 


ADON 


ADOK 


3P. 


Admiration, n. The act of admiring or wondering; 
wonder. — See Admike. 

Admire', v. a. [Fr. admirer, from Lat. ad, to, and mi- 
rari, to wonder.] This verb had of old the sense of mere 
wonder; but is now restricted to that of wonder on ac¬ 
count of beauty or excellence. It may be of physical or 
moral beauty, as of a beautiful person, or noble conduct 
or character. 

Admire, v. n. To wonder; — sometimes with at. 

“ He admir'd at his own contrivance. "—Kay. 
Admir'er, n. One who wonders or regards with admi¬ 
ration;— familiarly, a lover. 

Allur ingly, adv. With admiration ; in the manner of 
au admirer. 

Admissibil ity, n. [Fr. admissibility.] The quality 
of being admissible. 

Admissible, a. [Fr., from Lat. admissibilis.] That 
wmch may be admitted or conceded; as, “ thfo supposi¬ 
tion is admissible.” 

Admissibly, ad. In au admissible manner. 
Admis'sion, n. [Fr., from Lat. admusio.] The act or 
practice of admitting; — the state of being admitted; — 
admittance; the power of entering, or being admitted. 

. .. . We come, by his command, 

To crave admission, iu your happy land.’— Dry den. 

■—The allowance of an argument; the grant of a position 
not fully proved. 

Admis'sory, a. Granting admission ; admitting. 
Admit', v. a. [ Lat. ad null ere.] To suffer to enter; to 
grant entrance. — To suffer to enter upon an office, in 
which sense we say, “ to admit a student into a college.” 
— To allow an argument or position; to receive as true. 

" I cannot easily admit the inference ofyour argument.''— Locks. 
—To allow, or grant in general; sometimes with of: 

“if you once admit of a latitude.'— Dryden. 

Admittance, n. The act of admitting; allowance or 
permission to enter. — The power or right of entering. 

• Tie gold which buys admittance.'’ — Shak. 

(Law.) The act of giving possession of a copyhold 
estate. 

Admit ta/tur, n. [Lat., let him be admitted.] A certi¬ 
ficate of admission formerly given to students in the 
American colleges. 

Admit'ter, n. One who admits. 

Admix', v. a. [Lat. admisceo.] To mingle with some¬ 
thing else, (r.) 

Admix'tion, n. [Lat. admixtio .] The mingling of one 
body with another. 

Admixt'ure, n. The compound formed by mixing 
substances together; — also, the act of mingling; mix¬ 
ture. 

Admon'isti, v. a. [Lat. admonere.] To warn of a fault; 
to reprove gently; to counsel against wrong practices; 
to put in mind of a fault or a duty; to remind. 
Admon'islier, n. One who admonishes. 

Admon ishment, n. Admonition, (r.) 

14 Thy grave admonishments prevail with me.”— Shak. 

Admoiii'tio Fustiiim. Among the ancient Ro¬ 
mans, a military punishment, not dissimilar to the mod¬ 
ern whipping, except that it was performed with vine- 
branches. 

Admonition, n. [Fr., from Lat. admonitio .] Gentle 
reproof; friendly warning, to the effect of preventing 
further transgression. 

( Kcd. Hist.) The warning given to an offender before 
excommunication, or to a suitor before proceeding 
against him in pcenam contumacies, or for default. 
Adinoni'tioner, n. A dispenser of admonitions. 
Adinon'itive, a. Which contains admonition. 
Admon'itively, adv. In an admonitive manner. 
Admon'itor, n. An admonisher. 

Admon'itory, a. That which admonishes; monitory. 
Admortiza'tion, n. [Lat. admortizatio .] In feudal 
law, the reduction of property of lands or tenements to 
mortmain. 

Adinove', v. a. [Lat. admovere.] To bring one thing to 
another, (r.) 

Adnas'cent, a. [Lat. adnascens. J Growing to or on 
another. 

Ad'nata tu'nica. [Lat. See Adnate.] (Anal.) A mem¬ 
brane of the eye, tnhstly confounded with the conjunc¬ 
tiva. It is, however, thus formed: Five of the muscles 
which move the eye take their origin from the bottom 
of the orbit, and the sixth arises from the edge of it; 
they are all inserted, by a tendinous expansion, into the 
anterior part of the tunica sclerotica, which expansion 
forms the adnata, and gives the whiteness peculiar to 
the fore part of the eye. 

A<1 'nate, n. [Lat. ad, to, and natus, a growing.] (Bot.) 
A term applied to certain portions of a plant when they 
adhere to other portions; thus, when the stipules are 
united to the petiole, as in the leaf of the rose, they are 
called adnate stipules; when the anther is closely at¬ 
tached to the filament, as in the flower of the butter¬ 
cup, it is said to be an adnate anther. The term adhe¬ 
rent has the same signification. 

Ad natus, a. [See Advitk.] ( Anal .) A term applied 
to some parts which appear to grow to others; as, 
tunica adnata, folium adnatum. 

Adnoin'inal. a. [Lat. ad, to, and nomen, noun.] 
(Gram.) Adjectival, (r.) 

Ad'nODn,n. [Lat. admanen, surname.] Anadjective.(R.) 
Adnu'bilated, a. [Lat. adnubilare, to obscure.] 
Ciouded. (R.) 

Ado', n. [From the v. to do, with the prefix a before it, 
as the French affaire, from a aud/at>e.l Trouble; diffi¬ 
culty. 

“ lb took Clitophon prisoner, whom, with much ado, he keepeth 
alive." — Sidney. 


—Bustle; tumult; business;—sometimes with about. 

“ All this ado about Adam's fatherhood ...” — Locke. 

_This word implies, generally, more tumult and show of 

business than the affair is worth: 

-1 made no more ado, but took all their seven points in my 
target, thus.” — Shak. 

Atlo'lie, n. [From Sp. adobar, to dress.] A kind of un- 
burut brick, made from earth of a loamy character, 
containing about two-thirds hue sand, mixed thoroughly 
with one-third or less of clayey dust or sand; the loamy 
substance, under the action of the sun, becoming a 
hard, compact mass without a crack. It is said that 
the houses built with these bricks are warmer in winter 
aud cooler in summer than those built with ordinary 
bricks, aud that their duration is extraordinary. 
Adoles cence, Adoles'cency. [Fr. adolescence, 
lrom Lat. udolescentia.) 'Ihe age succeeding puberty; 
including that part of life iu which the body has not 
yet reached its full perfection, i.e., the years of 12 or 14 
to 21, in man, and of 10 or 12 to 21 in woman. For the 
two sexes, the period between 18 and 25 is more exactly 
called youth. 

Adoles'cent, a. [Fr., from Lat. adolescens.] Growing; 

advancing from childhood to manhood; youthful. 
Adol'plius, count of Nassau, elected emperor of Ger¬ 
many in 1202. llis rapacity aud tyrannical conduct 
caused a confederation to be formed against him, at the 
head of which was Albert, duke of Austria. He fell in 
battle, July 2, 1208. 

Adol phus. Count of Cleves, b. 1371. He was almost 
constantly engaged in wars, chiefly with jiis brother 
Gerard, Duke of Mark. D. 1448. 

Adolphus, Frederick II., of Holstein Gottorp. 
king of Sweden, succeeded his father in 1751. Here- 
formed the laws, and encouraged learning aud tlie arts 
of peace. B. 1710, d. 1771. — This sovereign instituted, 
at Tornea in Lapland, an academy of inscriptions and 
belles-lettres. 

Adol'phus, John, a distinguished English barrister. 
B. 1770, n. 1845. — As an author, he is principally 
known by a History of England from the Accession of 
George 111. 

Adone'an, a. Belonging to Adonis; Adonic. 

Ado'ni, a town of India, situateiu the Deccan,under the 
presidency of Madras, in Golconda, on one of the 
branches of the Tungebadda, 175 miles S.W. of Hydera¬ 
bad. In 1787 it was reduced to ruins by Tippoo Saib. 
Ado'ni-Be'zek, king of Bezek, in Canaan. He was a 
cruel prince, on account of which his thumbs and great 
toes were cut off by the tribes of Judah and Simeon, after 
they had defeated him in a great battle. D. at Jerusa¬ 
lem, b. c. 1443. 

Adon'ic, a. Relating to Adonis. 

(Pros.) A verse which consisted of a dactyle and a 
spondee or trochee; as, rdi a. juventus. It was so called 
from being first used in the elegies on Adonis, the lover 
of V enus. 

Adonic Festivals, certain festivals held yearly by the 
ancients on the banks of the Adonis, a river of Pliceui- 
cia, where Adonus, or Tbammuz, as he is termed in the 
East, was supposed to have received liis death-wound. 
At certain periods of the year this liver becomes tinged 
with a high red color, caused by the washing up of por¬ 
tions of red earth This discoloration of the waters was 
ascribed by the ancients to a supposed sympathy possessed 
by the river for the death of the lover of Venus. Mil- 
ton, in his “ Paradise Lost,’ thus beautifully alludes to 
the fact:— 

'* Thammuz came next behind, 

Whose annual wound in Lebanon allured 
The Syrian damsels to lament his fate, 

In am’rous ditties, all a summer s day : 

While smooth Adonis from his native rock 
Kan purple to the sea, supposed with blood 
Of Thammuz, yearly wounded.’ 

Adoni'jali, the fourth son of king David, by Haggith. 
He aimed at liis father’s crown, but Solomon was pro¬ 
claimed king of Israel, when Ailonijak fled to the taber¬ 
nacle for protection. After the death of David he was 
slain by order of Solomon, b. c. 1015. 

Vlldinis. (Myth.,) son of Myrrha, daughter of Cinyras, 
king of Cyprus, was born in Arabia, wliitber bis mother 
had fled in consequence of certain transactions which it 
is not necessary to relate. Before the birth of her son 
she was transformed into the tree which produces the 
fragrant gum called by her name; this, however, did not 
hinder his being brought into the world in due season: 
he grew up a model of manly beauty, and was passion¬ 
ately beloved by Aphrodite (Venus), who quitted Olym¬ 
pus to dwell with him. Hunting was his favorite pur¬ 
suit, until, having gone to the chase against the entrea¬ 
ties of his mistress, he was mortally wounded in the 
thigh by a wild boar. Venus, coming too late to his 
rescue, changed his blood into flowers. After death he 
was said to stand as high in the favor of Persephone 
(Proserpine), as before in that of Aphrodite; but the 
latter being inconsolable, her rival generously consented 
that Adonis should spend half the year with his celes¬ 
tial, half with his infernal mistress. The fable has been 
variously interpreted. One explanation makes the alter¬ 
nate abode of Adonis above and under the earth, typical 
of the burial of seed, which in due season rises above 
ground for the propagation of its species; another, of 
the annual passage of the sun from the northern to the 
southern hemisphere. 

Ado'nis, n. (But.) The Pheasant’s Eye, a gen. of annual 
and perennial plants, order Eanuncutacese, comprising 
many species of very great beauty, and so called fanci¬ 
fully from the plant which sprang from the blood of 
Adonis when wounded by a boar. The A. are dis¬ 
tinguished from the Ranunculce by the want of a little 
scale at the base of the petals, and from other genera of 


the order by the numerous hard, dry, skarp-po.u«*d 
grains of which its fruit consists. A. autnmnalis, the 
common plieasant’s-eye of our gardens, a nau«e cf Eu¬ 
rope, but naturalized in some parts of New York, has 
deep crimson flowers, and is annual. The A. vernalis 
has yellow flowers, of a brilliancy which is rendered 
the more dazzling by the deep green tuft of finely dr 
vided leaves among which they expand. It is a pertuf 
nial plant, cultivated in gardens. 



Fig. 34.— ADONIS ACTCMNALIS. 

Ado'ny, a Hungarian town on the banks of the Dan* 
ube, 28 m. S. of Pesth. Pop. 3,000. 

Adoors', ad. [Prefix a, for ad, and door.) At or by th« 
doors. (R.) 

Adopt', r. a. [Fr. adopter, from Lat. adopt are.) To take 
to one’s self by choice or approval: — applied to persona 
principles, or opinions, courses of conduct, and asso¬ 
ciation. 

“ The solicitations of our natural or adopted desires."— Locke. 
Adopt'ed, p. a. Taken as a son by choice. — Selected or 
assumed as one’s own. 

Adopt'edly, ad. After the manner of something 

adopted. 

Adopter, n. One who adopts. 

(Chem.) A vessel, more often written adapter, q. v. 
Adop t iani. See Adoptioni.-m. 

Adop tion, n. [Fr., from Lat. adoptio .] Is the taking 
of another’s child as one’s own. By the Roman and 
Grecian laws, if a person had no children of his own, he 
might appoint any other person to be his child by adop¬ 
tion, and, from that moment, the child became, to all 
intent3 and purposes, a member of the family of his 
adopter. There was also a custom in ancient home of 
adopting by will. Thus it was that Julius Caesar adopted 
his great nephew Octavius, who was thencelorth called 
Caius Julius Caesar Octavinnus; but is more generally 
known under the more pompous appellation of Augus¬ 
tus, which he afterwards assumed. The 11th titleot the 
first book of Justinian’s Institutes is concerning adop¬ 
tion.— The German system of adoption is derived from 
the Roman law. but modified so as to be more in liai- 
mony with the German usages. The age of the adopter 
ought to be fifty at least. As for the adopted son, the 
Prussian law merely requires him to be younger than 
the father; while the Austrian code requires him to be 
eighteen years younger than the adoptive lather. — The 
French law on adoption is to be found in the lbth title 
of the first book of the Code Civil. A. is not recognized 
in English law. In the United States, A. is rct‘- ! ated 
by statute (under various restrictions) in several the 
States, as Massachusetts, Texas, Illinois (1867), and 
Iowa (1868). In general, A. entitles the child to all the 
rights and privileges of a legal heir, except that it shall 
not take property limited to the heirs of the body of the 
new parents, nor coming from their collateral kindred. 
Adop tionism, «. The name given to a strife which 
. arose in the Church, in Spain, towards the end of the 
9th century. The leaders in this controversy were 
Felix of Urgellis and Elipandos of Toledo, who held 
that Christ in his human nature was the son of God 
only by adoption. The controversy ceased on the death 
of the two leaders. 

Adop'tions, a. Adoptive.- 

Adop'tive, a. [Fr. adoptif, from Lat. adoptivus.) 0»e 
who is adopted, as, an adoptive son; or one who adopts, 
as, an adoptive father. 

A'tlor, n. (Bot.) A name for spelt. 

Adorabil'ity , n. The state or quality of being adora¬ 
ble; adorableness, (it.) 

Ador'able, a. [Fr., from Lat. adorabilis.) That which 
is worthy of adoration, or of the utmost love or respect. 
Ador'ableness, n. The quality of being adorable; 

worthiness of divine honor. 

Ador'ably, ad. In a manner worthy of adoration. 
Adore', v. a. [Fr. adorer, from Lut. adorare, to pray.] 
To worship with external homage; to payCivine honors. 
” The mountain nymphs and Themis they adore. 

And from their oracles reliei implore." — Dryden. 

—To love, to reverence, to honor in the highest degree. 

The people appear adoring their prince, and their princ* 
adoring God. ” — Tatter. 

Adore'a, n. A term of various acceptation among th« 
Romans, sometimes signifying grain in general, at 
others a kind of cake offered in sacrifice; and again it 
was used to denote the gratuitous distribution of corn; 
wnence it became applied to all forma of reward. 
Ador'er, »i. One who adores; a worshipper; — -.-ora 
usually a lover, an admirer. 

‘•1 profess myself her adorer not her friend." — Shak. 
Adorn 't ion. n. [Fr.] The act of adoring and worship¬ 
ping God.— Among the Hebrews the act of adoration 
consisted in failing upon the knee, and then gradually 

















ADRA 


ADRI 


ADSI 


37 


inclining the body until the body touched the ground; 
but sometimes they only rose up and suddenly pros¬ 
trated the body. The same custom prevailed among the 
first Christians, and is still an essential part of the 
Mahometan religion. We need not speak of the pos¬ 
tures by which every church expresses adoration, think¬ 
ing that any act actuated by a religious sentiment is 
worthy of respect, but that the better act of adoration 
is the internal one, coming from the heart and soul. 



Fig. 35. — ADORATION. 
(Modern Egypt.) 


Ador'ingly, ad. With adoration. 

Atlorn', v. a. [Lat. adornare.] To dress or deck some 
one with ornaments. 

“ He hath clothed me with the garments of salvation, as a bride 
adornet!t herself with her jewels." — Isaiah lxi. 10. 

—To set out any place or thing with decorations; as, a 
gallery is adorned with pictures or statues. — To embel¬ 
lish with oratory or elegance of language. 

“ Their names some noble poem shall adorn.'' — Dryden. 

Ador'ner, n. One who adorns. 

Adorn'ing 1 . n. Ornament. 

Adorn'ingly, ad. By adorning. 

Adorn ment, n. Ornament; embellishment, (o.) 

Ador'no. The name of three doges of Genoa: 1. A. 
Gabriele, 1354; — 2. A. Antonio, 1384; — 3. A. Prospero, 
elected 1461. He drove out the Sforzas and their Milan¬ 
ese troops from Genoa and became the idol of the peo¬ 
ple, but his popularity was ephemeral, and he died in 
exile, 1486. 

Adoseula'tion, n. [Lat. adosculari, to kiss.] ( Bot .) 
The inserting of one part of a plant into another. 

( Physiol.) An impregnation by mere external contact, 
without intermission, as in fishes. 

Ad 'our, a river of France, which rises 6 miles to the 
east of Bareges, in the department of the Upper Pyre¬ 
nees, and running by Tarbes and Dax, falls into the bay 
of Biscay, 3 miles beyond Bayonne, where it joins the 
Nive. Its course, through many fertile valleys, is about 
Iso miles. 

Ad 'owa, one of the principal towns in the kingdom of 
Tigre, Abyssinia, with houses built in a conical form, 
and arranged into streets. It is the great mart between 
the interior and the coast, and reaps the advantage of a 
transit trade between the Red Sea-ports and Gondar. 
Pop. 10,000. Lat. 14° 12' 30" N., Ion. 39° 5' E. 

Ad own', ad. [From A. S. dun, hill.] Down; on the 
gruund; 

"Thrice did she sink adown in deadly sound ."—Faerie Queene. 

Adown', prep. Down; towards the ground; from a 
higher situation toward a lower. 

“ Adown her shoulders fell her length of hair."— Dryden. 

Ad pondus omnium. [Lat., the weight of the 
whole.] (Med.) Words inserted in pharmaceutical prepa¬ 
rations, or prescriptions, when the last ingredient ought 
to weigh as much as all the others put together. 

Ad quod damnum? [hat., to what damage I] (Law.) 
A writ to inquire whether a grant will be attended with 
injury to any one. 

A'dra, a seaport of Spain, in Grenada, 60 miles S E. of 
Grenada. Its lead mines are the chief support of the 
inhabitants. Pop 7,500. 

Ad'ragant, or Tragaranth. See Gum. 

Adram'patam, an Indian town in the British dis¬ 
trict of Tanjore, presidency of Madias, 34 miles W. of 
Point Calimere. 

Adramy'ti, a town of Natolia, on the E. coast of a gulf 
of the same name, S3 miles N. of Smyrna. Gall-nuts, 
olives, and rvool form its principal exports. 

Adra'ra, a village of Lombardy, in Italy, celebrated for 
the wars of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, 74 miles 
from Bergamo. 

Ad ras'ta. (Myth.) One of the Oceanides, who nursed 
Jupiter. 

Ad ras tia. (Myth.) A daughter of Jupiter and Neces¬ 
sity. She is called by some Nemesis, and is the avenger 
of wrong. The Egyptians placed her above the moon, 
whence she looked down upon the actions of men. 

Ad ras'tus. There are many of this name in ancient his¬ 
tory, the most remarkable of whom is the son of Talaus 
an! Lysimache, who was king of Argos. Polynices, being 
banished from Thebes by his brother Eteocles, fled to 
Argos, where he married Argia, daughter of A. The 
king assisted his son-in-law, and marched against 
Thebes with an army led by seven of his most famous 
generals. All perished in the war except A., who, with 
a few men who were sa7ed from slaughter, fled to 
Athens, and implored the aid of Theseus against the 
Thebans, who opposed the burying of the Argives fallen 
in battle. Theseus went to his assistance and was vic¬ 


torious.— A., after a long reign, died from grief oc¬ 
casioned by the death of his son Algialeus. A temple 
was raised to his memory at Sicyon. 

Ad'rets, Francis de Beaumont, Baron des, a violent 
French Huguenot, who signalized himself by many dar¬ 
ing exploits, as well as cruelties. He subsequently be¬ 
came a Catholic, but died as he had lived, in general de¬ 
testation. D. 1587. At some places he obliged his 
prisoners to throw themselves from the battlements 
upon the pikes of his soldiers. Reproaching one for re¬ 
treating twice from the fatal leap, “Sir,” replied the 
man, “ 1 defy you, with all your bravery, to take it in 
three.” This keen rejoinder saved his life. 

Ad ria. [Anc. Hadria. Hatria, or Atria.] A town ofN 
Italy, province Kovigo. It was formerly of such great 
importance as to give its name to the Adriatic Sea.l 
but is now only interesting as one of the oldest towns in 
Europe. It is crossed by the Castaguaro, a branch of the 
Adige, and stands 30 miles S.S.NV. of Venice. It was an¬ 
ciently a seaport in Cisalpine Gaul, but the alluvia of 
the Po and Adige have caused the sea to recede, until 
the town is now 14 miles inland. Pup. 10.000. Lat. 45° 
3' N., Ion. 11° E. 

A'drian, or Hadrian. Publius TElius, a Roman em¬ 
peror, B. at Rome, 76 a. n. Entering the army quite 
young, he became tribune of a legion, and married Sa¬ 
bina. the heiress of Trajan, whom he accompanied on his 
expeditions, and became successively praetor, governor 
of Pannonia. and consul. On Trajan's death, in 117, he 
assumed the government, made peace with the Persians, 
and remitted the debts of the Roman people. No mon¬ 
arch informed himself more by travelling than Adrian. 
In 120 he visited Gaul, whence he passed over to Britain. 
He afterwards visited Africa and Asia, and in 125 was ini¬ 
tiated into the Eleusinian mysteries at Athens. In his 
reign the Christians underwent a dreadful persecution. 
He built a temple to Jupiter, on Mount Calvary, and 
placed a statue of Adonis in the manger of Bethlehem; 
he also had images of swine engraved on the gates of 
Jerusalem, all of which acts indicate a contempt for 
Christianity. Adrian D. at Baiae, 139. On his deathbed he 
composed some Latin verses, addressed to his soul, which 
betray his uncertainty with regard to a future state. 
He had great virtues, which were, however, blended 
with as great vices. He adopted as his son Titus Anto¬ 
nins, on condition that he should adopt Marcus Annius 
Verus and the son of Lucius Verus. 

A'drian I., Pope, born at Rome, succeeded Stephen III. 
in 772. Like his predecessor, he had to struggle against 
the power of the Longobards, who had invaded the Ex¬ 
archate and other provinces bestowed by Pepin, king of 
the Franks, on the Roman see. Adrian applied to Charle¬ 
magne for assistance against Desiderius, king of the 
Longobards. The king of the Franks crossed the Alps, 
defeated Desiderius, and overthrew the kingdom of the 
Longobards in Italy, in 774. Charlemagne then went 
to Rome, where Adrian acknowledged him as king of 
Italy, and the latter renewed the grant of the provinces 
bestowed on the Roman see by Pepin. Charlemagne 
paid another visit to Adrian at Rome in 7G7, when his 
son Pepin was christened by the pope. In 787, the sev¬ 
enth general council of the church was held at Nicaea, in 
which the worship of images was confirmed, and the 
iconoclasts were excommunicated. D. after a long pon¬ 
tificate of nearly 24 years, 795. Adrian was a man of 
talent and dexterity; he succeeded in gaining and pre¬ 
serving the friendship of the greatest sovereign of his 
time, and under him Rome began to breathe again after 
the continual alarms caused by the Longobards, the last 
of the barbarian invaders of the Western Empire. 

Adrian II., born at Rome, succeeded Nicholas I. in the 
papal chair, 867. He had been married, and had a daugh¬ 
ter by his wife Stephania, from whom he afterwards sepa¬ 
rated in order to live in celibacy. During the pontificate 
of Adrian, Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, with¬ 
drew from the Church of Rome, from which time the 
schism between the Greek and Latin churches dates, 
which continues to this day. Adrian D. 872, and was 
succeeded by John VIII. 

Adrian III., ii. at Rome, succeeded Marinus in 884, 
and died the following year. 

Adrian IV., the only Englishman who was ever raised 
to the dignity of the papal chair, succeeded Anastasius 
IV. 1154. llis name was Nicholas Breakespere; and for 
some time he filled a mean situation in the monastery 
of St. Albans. Being refused the habit in that house, he 
went to France, and became a clerk in the monastery of 
St. Rufus, of which he was afterwards chosen abbot. 
Eugenius III. created him cardinal in 1146, and in 1148 
sent him legate to Denmark and Norway, w'hich nations 
he converted to the Christian faith. When nominated 
pope, he granted to Henry II. a bull for the conquest of 
Ireland. In 1155 he excommunicated the king ot Sicily; 
and about the same time, the emperor Frederic, meet¬ 
ing him near Surinam, held hisstiiTup while he mounted 
his horse. A. took the emperor with him, and conse¬ 
crated him king of the Romans in St. Peter’s church. 
The next year the king of Sicily submitted, and was ab¬ 
solved. D., supposed of poison, 1159. — A., by his active 
conduct, left the papal territory in a better state than 
he found it. He was succeeded by Alexander III. 

Adrian V., a Genoese, succeeded Innocent in 1276, 
and died five weeks after his election. He was succeeded j 
by John XX. j 

Adrian VI.. b. at Utrecht, of an obscure family, ad- j 
vanced himself by his talents to the post of vice-chancellor 
of the University of Louvain. Ferdinand of Spain gave 
him the bishopric of Tortosa. After Ferdinand’s death 
he was co-regent of Spain with Cardinal Ximenes. He 
was elected pope in 1522, after the death of Leo X., 
chiefly through the influence of Charles V., whose au-j 


thority was then spreading over Italy. D 1523, and was 
succeeded by Clement A ll. Adrian appears to have been 
an honest, conscientious man, who fell upon evil times, 
and was unequal to the difficulties which he had to en¬ 
counter. He was desirous of maintaining peace, and of 
stopping, if possible, the schism of the Lutherans by 
reforming the church, but he did not live long enough 
to effect anything essential. 

A'drian. in Michigan , a flourishing city, capital of 
Lenawee co., on a tributary of the Raisin river, 64 
miles S. W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 9.511. 

Adrian, in New York, a, post-village of Steuben co., 32 
miles AV.N.AV. of Corning. 

Adrian, in Ohio, a post-village of Seneca co., 45 miles 
S.W. of Sandusky. 

Adrian, in Wisconsin, a township of Monroe co., 12 
miles E. of Sparta. 

Adrian'ce, in New York, a post-village of Duchess co. 

Adria'no, a mountain of Spain, in Bi-cay, over which 
is a very difficult road to Alba arid Old Castile. It is one 
of the highest of the Pyrenees, and is only inhabited by 
a few shepherds. 

Adriano'ple, the third city of European Turkey, on 
the Maritza, 135 miles from Constantinople. It is now 
about 5 m. in circumference, surrounded by old w r alls, 
and defended by a citadel. Its streets are narrow and 
irregular, but adorned with fountains and mosques, of 
which there are about 140. Manuf., silk, woolen, and 
cotton stuffs. Rose-water and other perfumes are made, 
and there are both dyeing and tanning establishments. 
Exp., wool, opium, leather, wax, &c. Pop. 70,886, of 
whom 30.000 are Greeks. Lat. 41° 44' N., Ion. 26° 35' E. 
The bazaar and the mosque of Selim are here the objects 
of great attraction. The former is a brick building of 
about 300 paces in length, and offers for sale all the rich 
commodities of the East; the latter is built as a theatre, 
from the ruins of Famagusta, in Cyprus. Its principal 
balcony has an ascent of 377 steps.-—In the adjacent 
plain. Constantine the Great defeated Licinius in 323, and 
in 378 theGoths overpowered Valeris. — In 1360 the Sul¬ 
tan Moorad I. took the city from the Greeks, when it 
became the capital of the empire, and the favorite resi¬ 
dence of the sultans till the 18th century. — On the 20th 
August, 1829, it was taken by the Russian general Die- 
bitsch, which led to the treaty of peace concluded at 
Adrianople on the following 14th September. The stip¬ 
ulations of this treaty restored to the Porte those parts 
of Bulgaria and Roumelia which the Russians had con¬ 
quered, besides Moldavia and AVallachia; it also fixed 
the Pruth and the right bank of the Danube, from the 
mouth of the former river, to be the boundary-line be¬ 
tween Turkey in Europe and Russia. The limits of the 
Asiatic territories of the two states were also exactly 
defined, and the liberty of trading to all parts of Turk¬ 
ish dominions conceded to Russians, besides the trading 
navigation of the Danube, the Mediterranean, and the 
Black sea. The free passage of the Dardanelles was like¬ 
wise guaranteed. After the capture of the Turkish army 
defending the Shupka Pass, in Jan., 1S78, the Russians 
occupied A., and an armistice was concluded there. 

Adriat'ic Sea, or Gulf of Venice, that portion of the 
Mediterranean sea which lies between the coasts of 
Italy, Illyria, and Albania. Its length from Cape Leuea 
to Trieste is 450 m., and its mean breadth is 90 m. Tbs 
Po and the Adige are the only rivers of importance it 
receives, and its greatest depth is not more than 22 
fathoms, whilst a great part of it is not 12 fathoms. Its 
navigation is generally safe in summer, but in winter 
the violence of the winds from the south-east causes 
much destruction to shipping. On the Venetian side 
the shores are low, but on the Dalmatian the waves, in 
stormy weather, lash the rocks which girdle the coast 
to a great height. It runs from the south-east, at lat. 
40° 8', to north-w'est, at lat. 45° 45'. — The A. takes its 
name from the city of Adria; its waters are more salt 
than those of the ocean. 

Adrift', adv. [A. S. adrifan, to drive away.] Floating 
at random. 

With all his verdure spoil’d, aDd trees adrift 
Down the great river to the opening gulf. 

And there take root. Milton. 

(Mar ) A term signifying that a vessel has broken 
loose from her moorings, and is driven to and fro by the 
winds and waves. 

Adroga tion, n. [Lat. admgatio, from rogare, to ask.] 
The name given in ancient Rome to the adoption (see 
this word) of a person who was his own master. The 
mode of proceeding was by a bill proposed to the people 
in the Comilia curiata, whence the name adrogation. 

Adroit', a. [Fr.] Dexterous, skilful, ingenious; ready 
in invention or execution. 

Adroit'ly, adv. [Fr . adroitement.] In an adroit manner 

Adroit'neSS, n. Dexterity; skilfulness; readiness in 
the use of limbs or mental faculties. 

Adry', a. [From a and dry.] Thirsty; in want of drink:— 
it follows ever the noun; as, “I cannot drink when i 
am not adn/F 

Adseiti'tions, a. [Lat. adscititius.] That which is 
taken in to complete something else; supplemental; 
additional. Adventitious; superfluous; redundant. 

Adsciti'tiously, adv. In an adscititious manner. 

Ad script, n. [Lat. adscribcre, to ascribe.] One who 
is held to service, as attached to some object or place. 

Adscrip'tus Oleb'ae. [Lat.] Attached to the soil; 

Ad'sidella, n. Among the Romans, the table at which 
the flamens sat during the sacrifices. 

Adsigniflca'tioii, n, A modification of meaning in 
a word by adjunction of a prefix or affix. 

Adsig'nify, v. a. [From ad, and signify.] To modify 
the meaning of a word by adjunction of a prefix or affix. 












S3 


ADUM 


ADVA 


ADYE 


Adstric'tion, n. [Lat. adslrictia, from adstringere, to 
draw close.] The act of binding fast or together for 
causing contraction — (Me/l.) Constipation. 
Adstric'tory, a. See Astrictouy. 

AdMtrln'gent, a. See Astringent. 

A duo. [It.] (Music.) For two voices or instruments. 
Ad'ii laria, n. (Min.) A transparent or translucent 
variety of felspar found in granitic rocks. 

Ad ulate, v. a. To flatter in excess. (R.) 

Adula'tioil, n. [Fr., from Lat. adidare, to flatter.] 
Praise, excessive in quantity, and interested in expres¬ 
sion. 

Ad'ulator, n. [Fr. adulateur .] One who flatters in 
excess, or servilely. 

Ad'ulatory, a. [0. Fr. adulatoire.] Containing flat¬ 
teries or praises beyond what is merited. 
Ad'lllatress, n. [Fr. adulatrice.] A woman who flat¬ 
ters in excess, or servilely, (r.) 

Itl'nle. (Anc. Geog.) The modern Zulla, situate in An- 
nesley bay, on the west coast of the Red Sea. Lat. 15° 

4ty n. 

Adiil'laiii. ( Anc. Geng.) One of the cities of the plain, 
in the tribe of Judah, fortified by king Rehoboam. The 
“Cave of Adullam,” where David hid when pursued by 
the Philistines, was probably near the Dead Sea. 
Adult', a. [Fr. adiilte, from Lat. adultus, grown up.] 
In a general sense, a term signifying anything grown 
up to, or arrived at maturity. It is also applied to that 
period of human life which extends from manhood to 
old age. 

Adult', n. A person grown lip to manhood. 

(Law.) A man of 14 and a woman of 12 years and up¬ 
wards. 

Adult'ed, p. a. Completely grown. 

Adul'terant, n. The person or thing that adulterates. 
Adlll'terate, v. a. [Lat. adulterare, to commit adul¬ 
tery.] To contaminate, corrupt, make impure, by mix¬ 
ing with inferior substances; as, to adulterate drugs, 
liquors, articles of food, the coin of a country, &c. 
Adlll'terate, a. Tainted with adultery. — Corrupted 
with some interior mixtifre. 

Adul'terately, adv. In an adulterate manner. 
Adul'terateness, n. The quality or state of being 
adulterated, or counterfeit. 

Adultera'tion, n. [Fr.] The act of adulterating or 
corrupting by foreign mixture the articles of food, 
drugs, and products of the arts and manufactures; — 
the state of being adulterated.—There are enactments 
against A. in most ot the European countries, and also 
from long in Pennsylvania and some other States,but il 
is only of late that this criminal fraud, from which most 
cases of poisoning originate, has seriously attracted the 
public attention. Various acts have been passed in rela¬ 
tion to the articles which were most seriously adulter¬ 
ated, such as milk, butter, &c., their infraction being 
punishable by confiscation and fine, while earnest 
efforts have been made to trace the various injurious 
substances used in food adulteration. 

Adul'terer, n. The man guilty of adultery. 

(Script.) A man who violates his religious covenant. 
Ailiil'teress, n. [Lat . adulteratrix.] A woman guilty 
of adultery. 

(Script) A woman who violates her religious covenant. 
Adul terine, n. [Lat . adulterinus.] (Law.) A child 
born of an adulterous intercourse. 

Allul'terine, a Spurious; adulterous. 
Atliil'teroiis, a. Guilty of adultery; relating to adul¬ 
tery. 

AUiil'teronsly, ad. In an adulterous manner. 
Adiil'tery, n. [Fr. adultere, from Lat. adulterium .] 
(Law.) The offence of incontinence between two mar¬ 
ried persons, or between two’ persons, one of whom is 
married. In the latter case it is called single, in the 
former, double adultery. — This crime was punished by 
the Jewish law with death; but it must be remembered 
that the kind of A. which by the Mosaic law constituted 
a capital crime, was only the sexual connection of a wife 
with any other man than her husband. This distinction 
Wits analogous to the whole system of the Jewish mar¬ 
riage-law; by which the husband and wife had not an 
equal right to restrain each other from infidelity; Ra¬ 
the former might marry another wife, or take concu¬ 
bines to his bed, without giving his first wife a legal 
right to complain of any infringement of her matrimo¬ 
nial rights. The first Homan laws were very severe for 
this crime, but the Julian lex revised (b. c. 17) the old 
legislation on the subject, and made A. in the wife 
only punishable by her banishment and partial forfeit¬ 
ure of her dowry, her paramour losing also the half 
part of his goods.—Doubleand singleadultery are punish¬ 
able by various degrees of severity in most of the coun¬ 
tries of modern Europe. By the French Code Civil the 
A. of the wife in all cases, and the A. of the husband 
when committed in his abode, is a ground of separation 
de corps; the husband may also have his wife and her 
paramour punished by 2 years’ imprisonment. In 
America and England A., considered as a civil injury, 
forms the ground of an action of damages against the 
paramour, and also of absolute divorce. In England it 
is not punishable at common lav/. In America it is 
made criminal by special statutes in many of the States, 
but in as many more it is not criminal, unless it be 
open and notorious. 

Adult'ness, n. The state of being adult, (r.) 
Adum'brant, a. [See Adumbrate.] That which gives 
a faint shadow or slight resemblance. 

Adum'brate, v. a. [Lat. adumbrare, from ad. and um- 
brare, to shade.] To shadow out, to give slight likeness; 
to exhibit a faint resemblance like that which shadows 
afford to the bodies which they represent 


Ailunibra'tion, n. The act of adumbrating, or giving 
a slight and imperfect representation —The slight and 
imperfect representation of a thing; a taint sketch. 

(Her.) The shadow of a figure painted of a color 
darker than the field. 

Ad'unilioor, an Indian town in the British district of 
Azimgurh. Lat. 16° N., Ion. 80° 20' E. 

Aduil'city, n. [Lat. aduncitas.] Crookedness; flexure 
inwards; hookedness. 

Adun'coiis, a. [Lat. aduncus, from ad, and uncus, 
hooked.] Crooked; having the form of a hook. 

Adust', a. [Lat. adustus.] Burnt up; scorched; hot 
and fiery. 

*■ The same adust complexion has impeli'd 
Charles to the convent, Philip to the field. ‘ — Pope. 

Adust'ed, a. Burnt; scorched; dried witli fire; look¬ 
ing as if scorched. 

Adust'ible, a. That which may be adusted or burnt 
up (r.) 

Adus'tion, n. The act of burning up, or drying; the 
state of being burned up or dried as by fire. 

(Surg.) The application, rarely used by modern sur¬ 
geons, of any substance to the animal body, which acts 
like fire. Cauterization. 

Ad valo'rein, [Lat., according to the value.] (Gnn.) 
A term used for those duties or customs which are paid 
according to the value of the goods, and at a certain 
rate per cent. 

Advance', t. a. [Fr. avancer.] To bring forward; to 
move onward. 

“Now morn, her rosy steps in the eastern clime 
Advancing , sow'd the earth with orient pearl.” — Milton. 

— To raise in dignity or office; to aggrandize. 

“ The declaration of the greatness of Mordecai, whereunto the 
king advanced him.” — Esther x. 2. 

— To improve, as, 

•• To advance the nature of man to its highest perfection.”— 

Tillotson. 

— To heighten; to grace; to give lustre to. 

* As the calling dignifies the man, so the man much more ad¬ 
vances his calling.” — South 

— To forward; to accelerate the growth or progress of; 
as, 

This culture did rather retard than advance." — Bacon. 

— To propose; to make known; to bring to view; as, 

“I dare not advance my opinion.” — Drydcn. 

— To pay in part, or wholly, before the delivery of goods 
purchased, the execution of work or the performance of 
any busiuess; to supply or pay for others, in expectation 
of reimbursement. 

— To increase; as, “ to advance the price of goods.” (o.) 
Advance', v. n. To come forward. 

“ At this the youth, whose vent’rous soul 
No fears or magic art control, 

Advanced in open sight.” - Parnell. 

— To make improvement in knowledge, or in dignity, 
office, &c. 

-* They who would advance in knowledge, should not take 
words for real entities in nature.” — Locke. 

Advance', n. The act of coming forward; progress 
approach; — an act of invitation. 

** Not all the advances, all the smiles, 

Can move one unrelenting heart."— Walsh. 

—Improvement, moral or physical; progression. 

(Com.) Money paid in part, or wholly, before it is 
due, or the delivery of goods purchased, the execution 
of work, or the performance of any business. — The 
money or goods furnished; as, “ The banker will not 
make advances .” — In advance, a person is said to be in 
advance to another when he has given more money or 
goods than it was agreed. — To go in advance, to go before. 
(Mech.) Annular advance. See Annular. 

Linear advance. See Linear. 

Advance', a. Sometimes used for advanced; as, an 
adixmce-paymeht, an advance-guard, &c. 

Advanced', p. a. Which is in front or has made pro¬ 
gress; come forward; promoted. 

(Mil.) Any portion of an army which is in front of 
the rest; and figuratively, the promotion of officers and 
soldiers. 

Advanced Way. (Fort.) A terre plein on the exterior 
of the advanced ditch, similar to the first covered way. 

Advanced Ditch, or Moat. (Fort.) The trench sur¬ 
rounding the glacis or esplanade of a place. 

Advanced Guard, or Vanguard. (Mil.) The first line or 
division of an army, placed in order of battle. It also de¬ 
notes a party of cavalry stationed before the main guard. 

Advanced Lunette*. (Fort.) Works resembling bas¬ 
tions or ravelines, having faces and flanks. They are 
formed upon or beyond the glacis. 

Advanced Works. (Fort.) Works constructed beyond 
the covered way and glacis, but within the range of the 
musketry of the main works. 

Advance'ment. n. [Fr. avancement.] The act of 
advancing; the state of being advanced; improvement; 
progression; promotion. — Money paid in advance 
(Law.) A gift by anticipation from a parent to a child, 
of tin* whole, or a part, of what it is supposed such child 
would inherit on the death of the parent. The effect of 
an A. is to deduct from the distributive share of the child 
the amount so received, estimating its value at the time 
of receipt. 

Aclvaii'cer, n. He who advances anything; a promoter. 
Allvan'cing, p. a. Going forward; as, “ the advancing 
armies.” 

Advau'cive, a. Tending to advance, (r.) 

All van t age, n. [Fr. a vantage.} Superiority; —with 

of or over; 

“His practical prudence gives him an advantage over you."— Sprat. 


—Opportunity; convenience; gain; profit. — Any circunv 
stance, means, or state, favorable to success. 

“ What advantage will it be unto thee, if I be cleansed from mf 
sin ?" — Joh xxxv. 3. 

A<lvan'tag;e, v. a. To benefit; to profit, (o.) 

Advan'taged, a. Possessed of advantages. 

‘‘In the most advantaged tempers, this disposition is but com - 
parative." — Glanv. 

Advan'tage-ground, n. Ground that gives supe¬ 
riority and opportunities of annoyance or resistance. 

Advantageous, a. [Fr . avanlageux.] Producing ad¬ 
vantage; profitable; useful; convenient. 

Advanta'g-eously, adv. Conveniently; opportunely; 
profitably. 

Advanta'geoiisness, n. Quality of being advan¬ 
tageous ; profitableness. 

Advene', v. n. [Lat. advenio, to come.] To accede; to 
become part of something else without being essential; 
to be superadded. 

Ad'vent, n. [Lat. adrentus, coming.] (Fed. Hist.) A 
term applied by the Christian Church to certain weeks, 
before Christmas. Anciently the season of Advent con¬ 
sisted of six weeks, and this is still the duration of it in 
the Greek Church. In the Catholic Church, however, 
and in the Protestant churches that observe Advent, it 
only lasts four weeks, commencing with the Sunday 
nearest St. Andrew’s day (Nov. SO), either before or 
after. It is appointed to he observed as a season of de¬ 
votion, being intended to commemorate the coming of 
Christ in the flesh, and to direct the thoughts to hi* 
second coming. This season was observed with great, 
austerity by the primitive Christians. 

Ad v«‘ii tit ions, a. [Lat. adventitius .] Any thing that 
accidentally, and not in the common course of natural 
causes, happens to make a part of another. Something 
accruing or befalling a person or tiling from without. 

(Med.) Acquired, — opposed to hereditary; so, gout 
and scrofula are sometimes hereditary, and very often 
adventitious. 

AclTen'titious Roots. (Dot.) Boots which are not 

produced by the direct elongation of the radicle of the. 
embryo. They generally spring from the true roots, 
from suckers, runners, bulbs, or other subterranean 
modifications of the stem. Adventitious roots are some¬ 
times given off by the stems and branches, and are then 
termed aerial roots. 

Adventi'tiously, adv. In an adventitious manner; 
accidentally. 

Adventi'tiousness, n. The state of being adventi¬ 
tious. 

Ailvent'ual, a. Relating to the season of advent. 

Ailvent'ure, n. [Fr. avsnture.] An accident; the oc¬ 
currence of an incident of an unusually stirring charac¬ 
ter. The adventure is sometimes unforeseen, sometimes, 
sought purposely. — Incident; crisis; casualty; experi¬ 
ment; romance. 

Ailvent'ure, t>. n. To try the chance; to dare; to. 
venture. 

•' She would not adventure to set the sole of her foot upon th*. 
ground." — Deut. xxviii. 26. 

Ailvent'ure, v. a. To put at risk, or into the power 

of chance. 

“ My father adventured his life for you." — Judge* ix. 17. 

Adventure, in Michigan, a village of Ontonagon co. 

Advent'ure Bay. situated on the S.E. coast of New 
Holland, lat. 43° 21' S., Ion. 147° 29' E. This bay was 
first discovered by Capt. Furneaux, in 1773, and was 
named by him after the ship which he commanded, and- 
which formed part of the expedition under the orders 
of Capt. Cook. The anchoring ground is good and well 
sheltered, and the neighboring shore furnishes abun¬ 
dance of wood and water. Capt. Cook found the abo¬ 
rigines to be mild and cheerful, but totally devoid of 
activity and genius, and nearly on* a level with the. 
wretched natives of Terra del Fuego. 

Adven'ture. Bill or. [Fr. aventure, hazard.] (Cbm.) 
A writing whicli is signed liy a merchant, and which, 
states that the goods on hoard a vessel are the property- 
of another, who is to run all risk, the merchant only 
binding himself to account for the produce. 

Advent'lireful, a. Adventurous. 

Advent'urer, n. [Fr. aventurier.] One who advent¬ 
ures; one who engages in hazardous enterprises; one 
who seeks occasion for adventures, or is loud of taking, 
risks. 

Advent'uresome, a. Venturesome, (r.) 

Advent'ili’OUS, a. One inclined to adventures or en¬ 
terprises ; bold, daring, courageous; venturesome. 

“ At land and sea, in many a doubtful fight, 

Was never known a more advent'rous knight.”— Dry den. 

—That which is full of hazard; dangerous. 

“ But I’ve already troubled you too long, 

Nor dare attempt a more advent'rous song ."—Addison. 

All veil t'urously, adv. In an adventurous manner 
boldly; daringly. 

Advent'uronsness, n. The quality of being advent 
urous; boldness. 

Ad'verb, n. [Fr. adverbe, from Lat. adverbum.] (Gram.), 
The name given to a class of words employed with 
verbs, adjectives, Arc., for the purpose of qualifying their 
meaning, just as the adjective itself is attached to sub¬ 
stantives. In the English language a very large ma¬ 
jority of adverbs are distinguished by the termination 
ly, which in the Anglo-Saxon has the fuller form lice, 
and in German lich. Our own language possesses the 
same suffix in the form like, as godlike, gentlemanlike. 
These, however, and many other Words in ly, are adjec¬ 
tives, as manly, ugly ; and it is difficult to draw the lin«. 
between these two classes, many words, especially in. 
the oldest writers, being used indifferently for both 









ADYI 


ADZE 


iEGAG 


3D 


Ad ver'foia 1, a. Having the quality or structure of an 
adverb. 

Adverbially, ad. In the manner of an adverb. 
Adver'sa. [Lat. ad, to, and versus, turned towards.] 

( Numis.) A term applied to those coins wherein the 
heads are seen facing each other. 

Adversa ria, n. pi. [bat., from adversarius, turned to¬ 
wards.] A term employed by the ancients to denote a kind i 
of commonplace book, or journal, in which were inserted 
remarkable occurrences At the present day the term 
is sometimes used among men of letters, to designate a 
kind of commonplace book, wherein is entered what¬ 
ever may occur worthy of notice, whether in reading or 
conversation. 

Adversa'rious, a. Adverse, (r.) 

Ad versary, n. [Fr. adversaire, from Lat. ad, to or 
against, and versus, turned.] An opponent; antagonist; 
enemy; foe. — It sometimes implies an open profession 
of enmity, but is more generally applied to those that 
have verbal or judicial quarrels, as coutrovertists or 
litigants. 

Ad versary, a. Opposite to; adverse; hostile. 
Adversa'tion, n. [ bat. adversatio.] Opposition, (r ) 
Adversative, a. [Lat. adversativ ns.J (Gram.) A term 
applied to a word, as but, however, yet, denoting a differ¬ 
ence between what precedes and that which follows, as 
in this sentence: “This diamond is orient, but it is 
rough ”— But is here an adversative conjunction. 
Advcr'sative, n. An adversative word. 

Ad verse, a. [Lat. advertere, to turn against.] Acting 
with contrary direction; contrary. 

14 And twice, by adverse winds, from England’s bank 
Drove back again unto my native clime.”— Shak. 

— Contrary to the wish or desire ; calamitous, afflictive; 
pernicious; — opposed to prosperous; as, an adverse 
fate. — Personally opponent; hostile; inimical; as, an 
adverse party. 

(But.) Applied to parts which stand opposite to each 
other. 

Ad'versely, ad. In an adverse manner; unfortunately. 
Ad' verseness, n. Opposition, (r.) 
Adversifo'Iiate, and Adversifo'lious, a. [Lat. 
adversus, opposite, and folium, a leaf.] (But.) Having 
leaves Opposite each other. 

Adver'sity, n. [Fr. adversite, from Lat. adversitas .] 
The state of unhappiness; misery; calamity; opposed to 
prosperdy. 

44 Sweet are the uses of adversity , 

Which like the toad, ugly and venomous. 

Wears yet a precious jewel in his head.”— Shak . 

—The cause of our sorrow; affliction; misfortune. — In 
this aense it may have a plural. 

44 Let me embrace these sour adversities, 

For wise men say. it is the wiser course.”— Shak. 
A<lvert', v. n. [Lat. adverto , to turn to.] To attend to; 
to regard; to observe; —used with to before the object 
of regard. 

41 The mind of man being not capable at once to advert to more 
than one thing. . . Ray . 

Ad ver'tence, and Adver'tency, n. [From advert.) I 
Attention to; regard to; consideration; heedfulness. 
Ad ver'tent, a. Attentive; heedful. 

Advertise', t>. a. [Fr. avertir, from Lat. adverto, to 
turn up.] To give notice; to give public information; to 
announce; to proclaim; tc *noiish in newspapers or 
otherwise; as, to advertise the loss of a pocket-hook, a 
house to rent, a pomade to sell, &c. 
Advertisement, n. Information communicated to 
individuals or the public in a manner designed to attract 
general attention; a notice published either in handbills 
or in a newspaper. 

Advertis'er, n. One who advertises. 

Advertising-, p. a. Giving intelligence. 

Advice', n. [Fr. avis.] Counsel; instruction; except 
that instruction implies superiority, and advice may be 
given by equals or inferiors. — Information as to the 
state of affairs ; notice; intelligence (then commonly in 
the plural); as, We have late advices from France.” 

(Com.) An information respecting trade communi¬ 
cated by letter; thus, an advice is generally sent by 
one banker or merchant to another, to inform him of 
the drafts or bills drawn on him, with full particulars 
of their sum, date, to whom made payable, &c. This 
document, termed a “letter of advice,” prevents mis¬ 
takes, and at times detects forgeries; for wiien bills are 
presented for payment or acceptance, they can be re¬ 
fused to be honored for want of advice. 

Ad vice'-boal, n. A vessel employed to carry de¬ 
spatches. 

Advisabil'ity, n. Quality of being advisable. 
Advis'able, n. Prudent; expedient; fit to be advised. 
Advis'ableness, n. The quality of being advisable or 
fit; fitness. 

Advis'ably, ad. With advice. 

advise, v. a. [Fr. aviser.] To counsel: to give an ad¬ 
vice;— with to before the thing advised. 

“ If you stir abroad, go arm’d. — Arm’d, brother I — Brother, I 
adtuWyou to the best."— Shak. 

— To give information; to inform; to make acquainted 
with anything; — followed by o/before the thing told. 

“ As may advise him o/hia happy .state.”— Milton. 

Advise', v. n. To consider; to deliberate; to weigh. 

“ Advise if this be worth attempting."— Milton. 
Advised', p. a. Acting with deliberation, as after tak¬ 
ing advice; prudent; cautious. — Performed with de¬ 
liberation; well-considered; done with design.— Wor¬ 
cester. 

Advis'edly, ad. Heliberately; purposely: by design; 
prudently. 

Advis'ediiess, n. Deliberation; prudent procedure. 


Advise ment, n. [Lat. advisamentum.] Counsel; in¬ 
formation;— consultation; deliberation. 

Advis'er, n. One who advises or gives counsel; a coun¬ 
sellor. 

Advis'ing;, n. Counsel, advice, (o.) 

Advi sory, a. Able to give advice; which gives advice. 

Ad'voeacy, a. [Lat. advocatia.] The act of pleading; 
vindication; defence; apology. 

Ad' vocate, v. u. [Lat. advucare, to call in aid.] To 
plead in favor of; to support; to vindicate; to defeud. 

Ad'vocate, n. Among the ancient Homans, an advo¬ 
cate was a person skilled in the laws. The origin of 
advocates in Rome was derived from an early institu¬ 
tion, by which every head of a patrician house had a 
number of dependants, who looked up to him as a pro¬ 
tector, and in return owed him certain obligations. 
This law established the relation of advocate, or patron, 
and client. As it was one of the principal and most 
ordinary duties of the patron to explain the law to his 
client, and to assist him in his lawsuits, tlie relatiou 
was gradually contracted to this extent. — In early pe¬ 
riods of the Roman republic, the profession of an advo¬ 
cate was Held in high estimation. It was then the 
practice of advocates to plead gratuitously; those who 
aspired to honors and offices in the state taking this 
course to lender themselves distinguished among the 
people. As the simplicity of ancient manners gradually 
disappeared, the services of Roman advocates became 
venal. At first it appears that presents of various kinds 
were given, as voluntary acknowledgments of the grati¬ 
tude of clients for services rendered. These payments, 
however, gradually assumed the character of debts; and 
at length became a kind of stipend periodically payable 
by clients to those of the patrician order who devoted 
themselves to pleading. In this form, it became a 
heavy oppression, anil was always considered to be an 
abuse, successively prohibited by several laws, which 
were ever eluded. In later periods, as the Roman law 
' diffused itself over a great part of Europe, the restric¬ 
tions upon the pecuniary remuneration of advocates 
entirely disappeared in practice; and the payment of 
pleaders for conducting causes in courts of justice 
resembled in substance the payment of any other ser¬ 
vices by those who derived benefit from them. — In 
countries where the Roman law prevails, especially in 
France, (see Barreau.) the pleaders in courts of justice 
are still called advocates; llieir character, duties, and 
liabilities being extremely various under different gov¬ 
ernments. In Scotland, the faculty of advocates consists 
of pleaders or counsels, admitted, upon an examination, 
to practise before the courts of session, justiciary, and 
exchequer; they are also entitled to speak in the House of 
Lords in England upon appeals from the Scotch courts.— 
The Lord Advocate, or A infs Advocate, is the principal 
crown lawyer in Scotland. Previously to the union, he 
was one of the great state officers, and sat in parliament 
by virtue of his office, without election. His duty is to 
act as a public prosecutor, and to conduct all causes in 
which the crown is interested, and particularly in crim¬ 
inal cases.— In the United States and in England an 
advocate is usually termed a counsel, counsellor, or attor¬ 
ney-at-law. —A judge advocate is a lawyer or officer who 
manages a prosecution in a court-martial. 
A(l'vocat«slli|», n. Tiie office of an advocate. 
Ad'vocatess, n. A female advocate. ( Obs.) 

A<1 vocation, n. [Lat. advocatio.] The act of plead¬ 
ing; plea; apology. 

Bill of advocation. (Scotch Law.) A written applica¬ 
tion to a superior court to call au action before them 
from an inferior court. 

Advocatus diaboli. [Lat.] The speaker or writer 
who, in the Catholic church, shows cause against the 
canonization of a person proposed for sainthood. The 
advocate who defends the proposed saint is called advo- 
catus dei. As the office of tlie A.diaboli. is to insist upon 
the weak points of the life of the proposed saint, this 
name is sometimes popularly applied to t hose who de¬ 
light in detracting from the characters of good men.— 
Amer. Ency. 

Advowee', n. [Fr. avoui, from Lat. advocatus.] He 
that has the right of advowson. 

Advow'son, n. [Lat. advocatio, a summoning.] (Eng. 
Law.) The right of presenting a fit person to the bishop, 
to be by him instituted to a certain benefice within tlie 
diocese which has become vacant. The person enjoying 
this right is called the patron of the church, and tlie 
right is termed an advowson, because he is bound to 
advocate or protect the rights of the church, and of the 
incumbent whom tie has presented. An A. of a religious 
house is that which is vested in the person who founded it. 
A'dy, «. The Malabar foot, equal to 10]/[ inches. 
Adyna'mia, n. [Gr. a, privative, and dynamis, power.] 
(Med.) A defect of vital power; debility. 
Adynam'ic, Adynam'ical, a. (Med.) Relating 
to adynamia. 

Ad'ytum, n. [Gr., a recess.] (Arch.) The secret dark 
chamber in a temple, to which none hut the priests had 
access. It was from this part that the oracles were de¬ 
livered. The only well-preserved A. of the ancients is 
in the little temple at Pompeii. It is raised some steps 
above the level of the temple, and is without light. 
Adze, or Addice, n. [A. S. adese.] An edged carpenter’s 
tool, used to chip surfaces in a horizontal direction, the 
axe being employed to chop materials in a vertical posi¬ 
tion. The A. is chiefly employed for taking off thin 
chips from timber or boards, and for paring away irre¬ 
gularities at which the axe cannot come. 

AG, a diphthong of very frequent use in the Latin lan¬ 
guage, which seeiiis not properly to have any place in 
the English, its sound being no other than that of the 
simple E. It has been, nevertheless, retained in some 


words of Latin formation. — [The inquirer will search 
under the letter E for all words not found with the initial 
diphthong M.] 

A3a. (Myth.) A huntress, changed by the gods into a> 
island of the same name, to rescue her from the pursui: 
of her lover, the river Plia-sis. On tlie island was a tow* 
called .f.'u, which was the capital of Colchis. 

iE'acus. (Myth.) Sou of Jupiter, by zEgina,and king oi 
the island of (Euopia. A pestilence having destroyed 
all his subjects, be entreated Jupiter to repeople hi» 
kingdom ; and, according to his desire, ail the ants which 
were in an old oak were changed into men, and called 
by JE. myrmidons, from murmex, an ant. Ai. married 
Endeis, by whom he had Telemou and Peleus. He was 
a man of such integrity that the ancients have made hits 
one of the judges of hell, with Minos and Rhadamanthus. 

JEcid'ium, «.; (Bot.) A numerous genus of minuts 
parasitic plants belonging to tlie ord. Fungi, found 
in great abundance in northern countries. Tlie species 
are universally parasitic upon tlie leaves, or flowers, or 
bark of living plants, where they are generated beneath 
the cuticle. Their structure is of tlie most simple kind ; 
consisting of nothing more than a little mass of exces¬ 
sively minute sporules, or reproductive particles, much 
smaller than the finest sand, inclosed in a thin bag, of 
either a fibrous or reticulated structure, which in tims 
pierces the cuticle under which it lies, gradually assumes 
a tubular appearance, and finally bursts at the apex for 
the purpose of enabling tlie sporules to escape. A great 
many species are found upon the weeds and trees of 
Europe and America. Among the most common is AC. 
cancellatum, the Pear JEcidium. to be found on the hack 
of the leaves of the cultivated pear-tree, to which it 
gives a singular warted aspect. It makes its appear¬ 
ance crowded in little patches of a pale brown color, 
which, when examined with a microscope, are seen to 
consist of numerous oval bodies about a line long. It 
probably does not produce any injurious effect upon the 
plants it attacks, for it generally makes its appearance 
late in the season, when the leaves have nearly com¬ 
pleted their office for the year. 



JEdes'sa, or Edessa. (Anc. Geog.) A town of Macedonia, 
near Pella. Caranus, king of Macedonia, took it by fol¬ 
lowing goats that sought shelter from the rain, and 
called it from that circumstance (aigras, capras) zEgeas. 
It was the burial-place of tlie Macedonian kings; and an 
oracle hud said, that as long as the kings were buried 
there, so long would that kingdom exist. Alexander 
was buried in a different place; and on that account 
some authors have said that the kingdom became extinct. 

[Lat.] A sanctuary or temple, a dwelling.— 
The title of certain Roman magistrates, so called from 
their care of buildings (iEdes). They were divided 
into two classes, plebeian and curule. The two plebe¬ 
ian aediles were elected from the commonalty (plebs), 
and were subordinate to the tribunes of the Flebes, 
having jurisdiction over lesser causes, submitted to them 
by those magistrates. Tlfe two curule sediles, so called 
from their privilege of giving judgment on ivory seats 
(settee curuies), were originally elected from the patri¬ 
cians. but afterwards from both plebeians and patricians 
promiscuously. The magistracy was one of the most 
dignified in the state, and was allowed tlie use of the 
robe of honor (toga prretexta), and a certain precedence 
in the senate. The peculiar office of the adiles was the 
superintendence of public works, markets, &c., in the 
city. They had also, particularly the curule adiles, to 
exhibit public games, which they often did at a vast ex¬ 
pense. in order to court popularity. Julius Casar added 
two other plebeian adiles, called cereales, to inspect the 
public stores of provisions. 

AG'etti, cr zE'etes, (Myth.,) king of Colchis, son of Sol 
and Perseis, daughter of Oceanus, was father of Medea, 
Absystus, and Chalciope, by Idea, one of the Oceanides. 
He killed Phryxus, son of Atkamas, who had fled to his 
court on a golden ram. The Argonauts went against 
Colchis, and recovered the Golden Fleece by means of 
Medea, though it was guarded by bulls that breathed 
fire, and by a venomous dragon. This expedition has 
been celebrated by all the ancient poets. 

^g 'ades, a group of islands off tlie \V. coast of Sicily, 
from 15 to .’15 miles W. of Trapani. The most impor¬ 
tant are Favignana, Levanso, and Maritimo. 

(Anc. Geog.) A town near Euboea, from which 
the iEgean sea is said to take its name. 

iEg'spoii. (Myth.) The son of Coeius or of Pontus and 
Terra, the same as Briareus. It, issupposed that ho was 
a notorious pirate, chiefly residing at iEgas, whence his 
name; and that the fable about his hundred hands 
arises from his having one hundred men to manage fiis 
oars in his piratical excursions. 

-*Esa'gre, n. (Znol.) The Capra tegagra, a wild species 
of goat, called Faseng by the Persians, and believed 














40 


iEGIN 




iENEA 


with groat probability, to bo the original source of at 
least one variety of the domestic goat. In the stomach 
and intestines of this animal are found those peculiar 
concretions or calculi called Bezoar stones, to which Eu¬ 
ropean physicians of the middle ages, the disciples of the 
Arabic school of medicine,imputed such wonderful prop¬ 
erties ; and which still enjoy a high reputation through¬ 
out the east, on account of their supposed medicinal vir¬ 
tues.— See Goat. 

rEjt'ii'leos, or 2Egaleu.m. (Anc. Geog.) A mountain of 
Attica, from which Xerxes beheld the battle of Sala- 
mis. It was situated to the left of the road from Athens 
to Eleusis. Its present name is Saramango. 
jEsrc'an Sea. (Anc. Geog.) That part of the Mediterra¬ 
nean now called the Grecian Archipelago. The JEgean 
Sea was bounded on the north by Macedonia and Thrace, 
on the west by Greece, on the east by Asia Minor, and 
situate between the 41st and 36th degrees of latitude. 
The true origin of the name is unknown, and we should 
rather refer it to old king Egeus, father of Theseus, 
than to any one else. It contains numerous islands, 
many of which are undoubtedly of volcanic origin. Of 
those the more southern are divided into two groups; 
one called the Sporades, or scattered islands, lying along 
the coast of Caria and Ionia; the other called the Cy¬ 
clades, or circling islands, lying off the coasts of Attica 
aud Peloponnesus, from which they were separated by 
the Myrtoan Sea, and occupying a large part of the 
southern Egean. Another portion of the JEgean, lying 
about Icaria, one of the Sporades, was also called the 
Xcarian Sea. The northern part of the JEgean contains 
fewer, but larger islands; the principal were called 
Chios, Lesbos,Lemnos, Thasos, and Euboea. At the N.E. 
corner it communicates with the Propontis (Sea of Mar¬ 
mora) by the narrow strait called the Hellespont, now 
the Dardanelles; the Turks called it the White Sea, to 
distinguish it from the Black Sea; it must not, however, 
he confounded with the White Sea iu the north of Russia. 
See Archipelago. 

iEge'an, a. Belonging, or relating, to the JEgean sea. 
.Aljr'jeilS. (Myth.) A surname of Neptune, from HCgce, 
iu Euboea. — A river of Corcyra. — A plain in Phocis. 
Jv£;e'tis, king of Athens, son of Pandion, being desirous 
of having children, went to consult the oracle, and on 
his return stopped at the court of Pittlieus, king of 
Troezene, who gave him his daughter JEthra in mar¬ 
riage. lie left her pregnant, and told her if she had a 
child to send him to Athens, as soon as he could lift a 
stone under which he had concealed his sword. By this 
sword he was to be known to JEgeus, who did not wish 
to make any public discovery of a son, for fear of his 
nephews, the Pallantides, who expected his crown. 
JEthra became mother of Theseus, whom she accord¬ 
ingly sent to Athens with his father’s sword. At that 
time JEgeus lived with Medea, the divorced wife of Jason. 
When Theseus came to Athens, Medea attempted to poi¬ 
son him; but he escaped, and upon showing JEgeus the 
sword he wore, discovered himself to be his son. — The¬ 
seus had agreed with JEgeus, when he should return 
from Crete, that he should hoist white sails, as a signal 
of his having subdued the Minotaur; forgetting to do 
so, his disconsolate father, at the sight of the black 
sails, threw himself into the sea. iEgeus reigned forty- 
eight years, and died B. C. 1236. 

^Eg'iale. (Myth.) One of Phaeton's sisters, who were 
themselves changed into poplars, and their tears into 
amber. They were called Heliades. 
d2gi'ditis tie folumna, a general of the Augus- 
tines, who taught divinity at Paris with great reputa¬ 
tion, but whose works have long since sunk into obliv¬ 
ion. One of his books, however, as an early specimen 
of typography, is still sought for. D. 1316. 
iEg'i'lia. (,4nc. Geog.) A small island in Euboea, where 
the Persian fleet, under Datis and Artaphernes, w;is 
moored before the battle of Marathon. It is now called 
Stouri. — Another in the channel which separates Cy- 
thera from Crete. 

iEg'ilops, or JEgtlops, n. [Gr., from aigns, a goat, and 
ops, the eye.] (Med.) A disease so named from the sup¬ 
position that goats_were subject to it. It is a stage of 
the fistula lachrymalis. When the skin covering the 
lachrymal sac has been fo r some time inflamed, it most 
commonly happens that tLe puncta lachrymalia are af¬ 
fected by it; and the fluid, not having an opportunity 
of passing off by them, distends the inflamed skin, so 
that at last it becomes sloughy, and bursts externally. 
This is that state of the disease which is called perfect 
tBgilops. 

(But.) A genus of the ord. Graminace_.ce,. The species 
JEqilops avai l was formerly supposed to he the origin of 
all the varieties of cultivated wheat; and it is undoubt¬ 
edly true that a kind of wheat may be produced by the 
union of this plant with a species of Triticum. The 
hybrid, after about twelve years’ cultivation, becomes 
a wheat-bearing grass. 

Agi'na, (Myth.) a daughter of Asopus, bad -Earns by 
Jupiter changed into a flame of fire. She afterwards 
married Actor, son of Myrmidon, by whom she had 
some children, who conspired against their father. 
Some say that she was changed by Jupiter into the 
island which bears her name. 

JER-i'na, an island in that part of the JEgean Sea which 
formed the Saronic gulf. It was also called (Enone. 
CEnopia, and Myrmidonia. This island furnished 18 
ships to the battle of Artemisium, 30 to that of Salamis, 
and 500 men to the battle of I’latsea. The modern name 
of the island is Egina. On the conical hill called mount 
Oras are still to be seen some remains of the temple of 
Jupiter l’anhellenius, a fine specimen of the Greek 
Doric order. The island lias about 40 square miles area, 
and 7,000 inhabitants. It is mountainous, and the coast 


affords only one haven on the N.W. The soil produces 
the best almonds iu Greece, with wine, oil, corn, aud 
various fruits. — The modern town of Egina stands on 
the site of the ancient town; pop. about 4,000. 



Fig. 37. — ruins of the temple of j;gina. 

iF.gina, Gulf of, the ancient Saronicus Sinus, contain¬ 
ing the islands of -Egina, Salamis, and several islets. 
It is about 50 miles in length and 30 in breadth, on th» 
E. side of Greece, between Attica and the Peloponnesus. 

-T.gitie'ta, Paulus, a native of the island JEgina, who 
first noticed the cathartic quality of rhubarb. Lived in 
the 7 th century. His works were published at Paris in 
1532, folio. 

-Lgine'tan Style of Art. Several ancient writ¬ 
ers, particularly Pliny and Pausanias, make frequent 
mention of JEginetan works of art; aud in such a man¬ 
ner, as to show that the productions of the school of 
iEgina were highly esteemed. Many names of JEgine- 
tan sculptors had thus come down to us as almost 
synonymous with excellence in their art, but the works 
of none of these could be recognized among thosewhich 
had escaped the ravages of time, when the discovery 
of the sculptures which adorned the tympana of the 
Panliellenium (see --Egina) furnished us with undoubt¬ 
ed specimens of -Eginetan art. The sculptures of the 
Panhellenium are of great beauty and merit, and are, 
for many reasons, highly interesting; but they are 
probably not of the class and date from which the 
school of -Egina derived its celebrity. The energy of 
action, the grace of attitude, and the truth of propor¬ 
tion displayed in these works are admirable. Never¬ 
theless, there is a degree of dryness and rigidity observ¬ 
able in the bodies and limbs, which give the works an 
archaic character, whilst the countenances, the hail, 
and the draperies, clearly betoken their near approach 
to the archaic period. The sculptures are exhibited in 
the museum of Munich. 

-Eg'inliartl, a German, educated by Charlemagne, of 
whom he became the faithful secretary. He retired 
from the active scenes of life after the loss of Imma, 
his beloved wife, whom some have falsely called daugh¬ 
ter of the emperor, asserting that she conveyed her 
husband on her shoulders from her house, through the 
snow, that his escape might not be traced by the jeal¬ 
ousy of her father. -Eginhard is the author of a valua¬ 
ble life of Charlemagne, besides annals from 741 to 837, 
and letters. 1). 840. Ilis works were first printed at 
Paris, 2 v. fol., 1076. 

JEg , 'i«<*us. (Myth.) A surname of Jupiter, from his 
using the skin of the goat Amalthaea instead of a shield, 
in the war of the Titans. 

n. [Gr. aigis, a goat¬ 
skin coat.] The shield of 
Jupiter, who is called by Ho¬ 
mer the JEgis-bearer. Accord¬ 
ing to the Greek poet, the 
shield was covered with the 
skin of the goat Amalthaea. 

Minerva afterwards fixed up¬ 
on it the Gorgon's head, and 
thus endowed it witli the 
power of turning into Btone 
all those who looked at it. 

The term was also employed 
to denote the breastplate of 
a god, aud finally it came to 
he applied to the cuirass of 
distinguished persons. — In 
a figurative sense, eegis [Fr. 
cgide\ denotes protection. 

Adjr'ist liu«, king of Argos, 
was son of Thyestes, by his 
daughter Polopea. Being left 
guardian of Agamemnon’s 
kingdoms and of his wife 
Clytemnest-ra, he fell in love 
and lived with her. They 
were both put to death after- Fig. 38. 

wards, by Orestes, after a Minerva, with .uois. 
reign of seven years from the murder of his father, 
Agamemnon. 


-21g''ipan. (Myth.) A name of Pan, because he had the 

leet of a goat. 

JFg'ii'in, or JEgtrin. (Min.) A mineral of the angite 
family, occurring at Brevig, in Norway, sometimes in 
very large crystals belonging to the monoclinic system. 
Color greenish-black; lustre vitreous. 

JE'gle. (Myth.) A nymph, daughter of Sol and Neaera.— 
One of the Hesperides. — One of the Graces. 

JE'gles, a Samian wrestler, born dumb. Seeing some 
unfair measure practised in a contest, he broke the 
string which held his tongue, through the desire of 
speaking, aud always afterwards spoke with ease. 

JEg'letes. (Myth.) A surname of Apollo. 

iEgo'ceros,or Capricohnus. (Myth.) An animal into 
which Pan transformed himself when flying before Ty- 
phon, in the war with the giants. Jupiter made him a 
constellation. 

JEgopli'ony, n. [Gr. aigos, a goat, and phone, sound.] 
(Mea.) A peculiar sound observed in using the stetho¬ 
scope, resembling the sound made by a goat. 

JEgospot'auios. [Gr., goat's rice?-.] (Anc. Geog) A 
town, in the Thracian CliersoneBUs, on a river of the 
eame name, where the Athenian fleet, consisting of 180 
ships, was defeated by Lysander, on the 13th I ecember, 
b. c. 4i>5, in the last year of the Peloponnesian war. 

-Lgypti acuni. n. (Med.) A name formerly given to 
different unguents of the detergent or corrosive kind. 
The simple JE. is a composition of verdigris, vinegar, and 
honey, boiled to a consistence. 

-Aigyp'tus, son of Belus, and brother to Dannus, gave 
his titty sons in marriage to the fifty daughters ot his 
brother. Danaus, who had established himself at Argos, 
and was jealous of his brother, obliged all his daughters 
to murder their husbands the first night of their nup¬ 
tials. This was executed, with the exception that Hy- 
permnestra alone spared her husband, Lynceus. Even 
-Egyptua was killed by his niece Polyxet.u. Egypt us 
was king, after his father, of a part of Africa, which lrom 
him has been called -Egyptus. 

JE1, Ael, or Al. [A. S.J A prefix syllable, signifying 
all, or altogether. Thus, aElvin signifies a complete con¬ 
queror. 

JFAf. [A. S.] A prefix implying help, aid, assistance. 
Tims, JE’fwald signifies an auxiliary governor. 

JEl'fric. or Alfric, a Saxon Benedictine monk, was 
made archbishop of Canterbury in 994; d. 1005. He dis¬ 
played a commendable zeal for the spread of learning. 
Among tlie works ascribed to his pen is a Saxon gram¬ 
mar in Latin. 

JE'lia Capitolina. (Anc. Geog.) A name given to Je¬ 
rusalem in ihe time of the emperor Adrian, from JElius, 
one of the names of the emperor. 

Elia'niis, Claudius, a Roman, who lived about the 
middle of the third century of the Christian sera. Be¬ 
sides others, we have ot him a work, in 14 hooks, 
entitled, Various or Miscellaneous History, which may 
he considered as one of the earliest collections of Ana. 
The value of it does not consist in that the compiler lias 
written, hut in tlie passages of lost writers that he has 
been the means of preserving. Printed in Paris, 1805. 

JE'lius. There were several Romans of this name, the 
most remarkable of whom is Q. -El. Psetus, 6on of Sex¬ 
tus, or Publius. As lie sat in the senate-house, a wood¬ 
pecker perched on his head: upon which a soothsayer 
exclaimed, that if he preserved the bird, his house would 
flourish and Rome decay ; and if he killed it, the con¬ 
trary must happen. Hearing this,-Elius, in tlie presence 
of the senate, bit off the head of the bird. A11 the youths 
of his family were killed at Canute, and the Roman arms 
were soon attended with success. 

JE'lius, Sextus Catus, censor with M. Cethegus. He 
separated the senators from the people in the public 
spectacles. During his consulship, the ambassadors of 
the JE to liana found him feasting off earthen dishes, and 
offered him silver vessels, which he refused, satisfied 
with the others, which for his virtues he had received 
from his father-in-law, L. Paulus, after tlie conquest of 
Macedonia. 

A'ollo. (Myth.) One of the Harpies. 

-lyist, Everhard Van, a Dutch painter, famous for hi* 
dead-game and fruit-pieces. B. at Delft, 1602; d. 1058.— 
He had a nephew, William, also distinguished as an ar¬ 
tist. D. 1679. 

A'clterre, a town in Belgium, 12 miles from Ghent. 

Pup. 6,000. 

JEmi'lia, a division of N. Italy, hounded on the N. by 
the river Po, formed in 1859, ami including the nine 
provinces of Bologna, Ferrara. Forli, Massa, and Camera, 
Modena, Parma. Piacenza, Ravenna, and Reggio, which 
are described in their several places. 

JEnii'lianus, C. Julios, a Moor, who, from the lowest 
stations, rose to be emperor of Rome. He reigned only 
four months, when he was killed, in his 46th year, by 
his own soldiers, who then offered the crown to Valerian. 

ACnii'lius, Paulus, a Roman general, who was of noble 
family, and passed through several civil offices with re¬ 
putation, until he obtained a military command, in 
which he acquired great glory. At the age of 46 he held 
the office ot consul; and at 60 accepted tlie command of 
the armies against Perseus, king of Macedon, whom he 
made prisoner, leading him and the king of Illyria, his 
ally, in triumph through Italy. On his arrival at Rome, 
lie obtained a magnificent triumph, in which Perseus and 
his family, as captives, led tlie procession. He afterwards 
served tlie office of censor. B. 228, b. c. ; D., universally 
regretted, b. c. 160. 

-lliio tts. a Trojan prince, son of Anchises and the god¬ 
dess Venus. The care of his infancy was intrusted to a 
nymph; hut at the age of five he was recalled to Troy, 
anil placed under tlie inspection of Alcathous, the friend 
and companion of his father. He afterwards improved 
















































^EOLI 


A EE A 


AEE1 


41 


himself in Thessaly, under Chiron, whose house was 
frequented by all the young priuces and heroes of the 
age. Soou after his return home, he married Creusa. 
Priam’s daughter, by wtiom he had a son, called Asca- 
nius. During the Trojan war he behaved with great 
valor in defence of his country, and encountered Dio- 
medes and Achilles. Yet he is accused, with Auteuor, 
of betraying his country to the Greeks, and of preserv¬ 
ing his life and fortune by this treacherous measure. He 
lived at variance with Priam, on account of not receiv¬ 
ing sufficient marks of distinction from the king and his 
family, a circumstance which might have provoked him 
to seek revenge by perfidy. When Troy was in flames, 
he carried away upon his shoulders his father Auchises 
and the statues of his household gods, leading in his hand 
his sou Ascanius, and leaving his wife to follow behind. 
Some say that he retired to Mount Ida, where he built a 
fleet of twenty ships, and set sail in quest of a settle¬ 
ment. Strabo, on the contrary, says that Eneas never 
left his country, but rebuilt Troy, where he reigned, and 
his posterity alter him. Even Homer, who lived four 
hundred years after the Trojan war, says that the gods 
destined Eneas and his posterity to reign over the Tro¬ 
jans. According to Virgil and other Latin authors, he 
was sailing from Sicily to Italy, when he landed in Epi¬ 
rus, and was driven on the coas'ts of Africa, and received 
by Dido, queen of Carthage, to whom, on his first inter¬ 
view, he gave one of the garments of the beautiful 
Helen. Dido being enamoured of him, wished to marry 
him ; but he left Carthage by order of the gods. In his 
voyage ho passed to Cumae, where the Sibyl conducted 
him to hell, that he might bear from his father the fate 
which awaited him and all his posterity. After a voy¬ 
age of seven years, and the loss of thirteen ships, he ar¬ 
rived in the Tiber. Latinus, the king of the country, 
received nim with hospitality, and promised him his 
daughter Lavinia, who had been before betrothed to king 
Turuus by her mother Amata. To prevent this marriage, 
Turnus made war against .Eneas ; and after many bat¬ 
tles, the contest was terminated by a combat between 
the two rivals, in which Turnus was killed. Eneas mar¬ 
ried Lavinia, in whose honor ho built the town of Lavi- 
nium, and succeeded his father-in-law. Ilis reign was 
but of short duration, various accounts being given of 
the cause of his death. — .Eneas has been praised for his 
piety and submission to the will of the gods. The story 
of the loves of Dido and .Eneas is allowed to be a mere 
poetical ornament, introduced by a violent anachron¬ 
ism. 

£'neid, n. [Lat. tenets.] The celebrated poem written 
by Virgil in the time of Augustus Caesar, which relates 
the wanderings of .Eneas alter the capture of Troy, his 
arrival in Italy, and his adventures previous to his mar¬ 
riage with Lavinia and settlement in Latium. The poem 
consists of twelve books. The first six contain a de¬ 
scription of the wanderings of the hero ; the others, of 
his arrival in Italy, and the war between the Trojans 
and the natives. It was commenced about c. c. 30, the 
author continuing to labor on it till his death, b. c. 20. 
It called forth the enthusiastic admiration of his con¬ 
temporaries. Propertius wrote: 

“ Yield, Roman poets ; lords of Greece, give way ; 

The Iliad soon shall own a greater lay ; " 
and some writers, even in modern times, have expressed 
the same opinion. It is nevertheless generally admitted 
that, compared with the Iliad, the .Eneid is wanting in 
originality and power: it is evidently the labored per¬ 
formance of a learned man, possessed of an elegant mind, 
who has availed himself freely of the labors of those who 
have preceded him. The strength of Virgil lay in the 
pathetic rather than in the sublime ; and many passages 
of the .Eneid, which admitted of the former quality, are 
exquisitely beautiful. The E’. has been frequently 
translated in English, but the energetic version of Dry- 
den has nearly superseded all others. 

A'entf, a village of British India, province of Bengal. 
Near it is the best pass into the Burmese dominions. 
P,p. 800. Lat. 19° Ob' N., Ion. 94° 9' E. 

zEo'liau. a. [Lat. ceolas, god of the wind.] Belonging 
to Eolus; acted upon by the wind. 

JEolian attachment. See Attachment. 

JSo'lian barp, or .Eolus’ harp. A well-known in¬ 
strument, which produces a pleasant combination ol 
sounds, by the action of the wind. Its construction is 
very simple, consisting of merely a number ol catgut 
or wire strings, stretched in parallel lines over a box of 
thin deal, with sounding-holes cut in the top. The 
strings being tuned in unison, the effect is produced b.v 
placing the instrument in a current of air. The inven¬ 
tion of the Eolian harp is generally given to Kircher, 
by whom it was first described. 

lEoliaiis, the name of one of those various peoples, 
whom we are accustomed to class undfer the general ap¬ 
pellation of Greeks. We trace the name of Eolians to 
Thessaly, their primitive abode, as far as we know, 
where they appear to have been closely related to the 
Phthiotic Achmans of the same country. The Achasi of 
the Peloponnesus were kinsmen, and, in fact, part of the 
Eolians; and the great emigration, commonly called the 
.Eolian, was an emigration of Achjean people. It seems 
probable that the emigration from the Peloponnesus 
commenced before the Dorian invasion, or return of the 
Ileraclidae, as it is often called, which caused so great a 
revolution in the Peninsula. Strabo says that the Li¬ 
lian settlements in Asia were four generations prior to 
those called the Ionian. The Eolian colonies on the 
Asiatic main land were widely spread, extending at least 
li iwi Cyzicus along the shores of the Hellespont and the 
Egean to the river Caicus, and even the Hermus. Many 
positions in the interior were also occupied by them, as 
well as the fine island of Lesbos, with Tenedos, and 


others of smaller importance. Homer mentions all these 
parts as possessed by a different people; which would 
be a proof, if any were wanting, that the race of new 
settlers came after his time. There were twelve cities 
or states included in the older settlements in that tract 
of Asia Minor on the Egean, which was known in Greek 
geography by the name of Eolis, and formed a part of 
the subsequent larger division of Mysia. Smyrna, one 
of them, which early fell into the hands of the Iotlians, 
the neighbors of the Eolians, still exists nearly on the 
old spot, with exactly the same name, thus adding one 
to the many instances of the durable impression made 
by Greek colonists wherever they settled. 

But besides these twelve states, to which we have 
alluded, (most of which were near the coast,) there were 
many Eolian towns founded by the new-comers along 
the Hellespont, the range of the Ida mountains, and on 
the coiist of Thrace. 

iEol'ic, a. Belonging to the Eolians. 

Eolic Dialect. (Ling.) One of the five dialects of the 
Greek language, agreeing in most things with the Doric 
dialect. 

Eouc V erse. (Pros.) A kind of verso, consisting of an 
iambus or spondee, then of two auapests, separated by a 
long salable, and lastly of one long or short syllable. 

ESol'ipile, n. [Lat. Minlus, the god of the wind, andptiu, 
a ball.] An hydraulic instrument, contrived for the pur¬ 
pose of exhibiting the convertibility of water into steam. 
It consists of a hollow ball of metal, having a slender 
nock or pipe, with a very small orifice inserted into it. 
The ball, having been filled with water, is placed over 
the fire: and the heat gradually converts the water into 
vapor, which rushes out of the pipe w ith great violence 
till the whole is discharged. The experiment is not 
unattended by danger; for should the small orifice by 
any accident be stopped, the steam would burst tin- 
ball. The sE. was known to the ancients, being men¬ 
tioned by Vitruvius. Descartes and others have used it 
to account for the natural cause and production of the 
wind. It is sometimes filled with alcohol, and the jet 
of its vapor being inflamed, it serves the purpose of a 
blowpipe. 

Eo'lus. (Myth.) The god of the winds, who was fabled by 
the early poets to have his seat in the floating island of 
Eolia; but the Latin and later Greek poets placed him 
in the Lipari isles. Here the winds were pent up in vast 
caves, it being the duty of Eolus to let them loose, and 
to restrain their violence at the pleasure of Jupiter. 

.E'oii. See Eon, and Gnostics. 

.Lela'mi. n. [Gr. cer, air, and teino, to stretch.] (Mus.) A 
very small musical instrument, consisting of several 
short, elastic, metallic springs, fixed in a frame and acted 
on by the breath of the performer. 

JE'pinus, Francis Maria Ulric Theodore, a distin¬ 
guished electrician, who was the first to see the affinity 
between magnetism and electricity in its full extent, and 
to perceive how these may illustrate each other. He is 
also the inventor of the condenser of electricity and of 
the electropus. He published several memoirs relating 
to philosophical subjects, and seems to have devoted a 
considerable portion of his time to mechanical pursuits 
B. at Ilostock, Germany, 1724; D. at Dorpat, in Livonia, 
1802. 

A'er, n. [Gr. air ] Aer is used as a prefix in various com¬ 
pounds relating to the air. 

Era, or Era, [a word of doubtful derivation.] In Chro¬ 
nology, it is the period that lias elapsed from some fixed 
point of time, or epoch, called the commencement of 
the rcra; and the period of the occurrence of any event 
is ascertained by reckoning from one or other of those 
epochs. The period of time selected for an sera, or point 
whence to begin the computations of time, is necessarily 
arbitrary; and different nations have adopted different 
periods coincident with some important event in their 
civil or religious history. Some, as the Jews, have 
adopted the year of the creation of the world. The 
Greeks used to reckon by the tera of the Olympiad, 
(see this word,) which began at the summer solstice, 
770 B.c. The Romans reckoned from the building of 
the city, generally held to be the 24th of April, b. c. 763. 
The Julian a-ra dates frefm the reformation of the calen¬ 
dar by Julius Caesar, b. c. 45. All Christian nations now 
adopt for their aera the birth of Christ, w hich took place 
on the 1st of January, in the middle of the 4tli year of 
the 194th Olympiad, and the 753d of the building of Rome. 
The sera of most Mohammedan nations is that of the 
Hegira, or flight of Mohammed to Medina, correspond¬ 
ing with the 16th of July, a. d. 622. The sera of Sulwa- 
nah, in common use in a great part of India, corresponds 
to a. d. 78. The a;ra of Yesdegird, used in Persia, began 
16tli June, a. d. 632. 

A erate, v. a. To supply or fill with air —To renovate 
by exposure to the air. 

A'erateri, a. Changed by the agency of air; arterialized. 

Aerated bread. — See Bread. 

Aera'tion, n. The act of aerating. 

Aeration of Blood. (Physio.) The renovation of the 
blood by its exposure to the air in respiration. It is 
requisite that the blood should be continually exposed 
to the influence of the air, by which it may get rid of 
the carbonic acid with which it has become charged 
during its circulation in the system, and may take in a 
fresh supply of oxygen, which has been withdrawn from 
it at the same time. In order to effect this exposure, 
the blood is conveyed to a particular organ, in which it 
is made to pass through a set of capillary vessels, and 
is then brought into almost immediate contact wdth air. 
See Arterialization, Cikculation, Respiration. 

Aeration of Soils, (Ayr.) is the impregnating them 
with air, by ploughing, harrowing, &c., so that the air 
may enter the pores of the earth. 


Era rian. The term applied to a Roman citizen who 
had been degraded to the lowest rank compatible with 
personal freedom. He, however, still paid taxes, but 
enjoyed no privileges, and could not serve in the army, 
or, consequently, participate in the distribution of land 
granted to such classes as did. 

Eli’H'ritim. The public treasury of the Roman peo¬ 
ple, the care of which was vested in the quaestors. 
After the fall of the republic, the ararinm was kept 
distinct from the treasury of the emperor, which was 
called fiscus. The ararium sanclus , or more sacred 
treasury, was appointed to provide for cases of extreme 
emergency, and might not be opened on other occasions. 

Ae'rial, a. [Lat .a'erius.] Belonging to. produced by, 
placed in, or inhabiting the air;—high, elevated in 
situation, and therefore in the air. 

“ Aerial spires, and citadels, the seat 
Of kings and heroes resolute iu war."— Philips. 

Aerial Bulbs. (But.) Small conical or rounded bodies 
of the nature of bulbs, which grow on the axils of the 
leaves of certain plants. They may be seen in the 
bulbiferous lily and the pilewort. 

Aerial Images. — See Mirage, and Fata Morgana. 

Aerial Leaves. (But.) Leaves which grow in the air, as 
distinguished from submerged leaves, or those which 
flourish under water. 

Aerial Perspective. (Paint.) A term used to signify the 
receding of objects into distance, as seen through the 
medium of air. Iu its general application, however, it 
is to be understood in a more enlarged sense. Linear 
perspective may be considered the material guide of 
the artist, originating in and governed by mathematical 
science; but aerial perspective is, in whatever relates 
to effect, amenable to no positive law or established rule, 
and depends for its application on the perceptions and 
capacity of the artist. Although entering into every 
variety of subject, in graphic representation, it is in 
open scenery that aerial perspective is exhibited in its 
proper sphere. To feel this, it will only be necessary 
to recollect in how different an aspect the same scenery 
may present itself under different modifications of the 
atmosphere. A prospect, which at noonday, or in a 
clear and bleak morning, appears tame and uninterest¬ 
ing, shall assume an ideal character, and start into 
combinations of beauty, if seen at sunrise or at sunset, 
or under any temperature of the sky favorable to the 
development of picturesque effect. It is, of course, in 
those schools of painting, wherein the study of external 
nature, especially of landscape, has been most culti¬ 
vated, that we are to look tor the finest examples of 
aerial perspective, ’t he Roman and Florentine masters, 
whose object, almost exclusively, was human form and 
character, seem to have felt or understood but little of 
it. The Dutch and Flemish painters exhibit high ex¬ 
cellence in this particular, as is shown in the works of 
Rubens, Rembrandt, Teniers, Ostade, Cu.vp, Kuysdae), 
Wouvermans, Vandervelde, &c. France, however, has 
the glory of having produced the artist Claude Lor¬ 
raine, who, in this great quality of art, has borne off 
the palm from all competitors, lie rarely painted any 
other effects than those of the rising or the setting sun, 
well knowing their picturesque superiority; but what¬ 
ever be his subject, an ancient port, or ruins, or tem¬ 
ples, the great and presiding charm of Claude is his 
consummate skill in aerial perspective. 

Aerial Roots. (But.) Those adventitious roots, which 
arise from the stem and branches of plants, and which, 
during the whole or part of their growth, are suspended 
in the air. The little threads which spring front the 
stem of the ivy, the roots of the screw pine, the descend¬ 
ing columns of the banyan-tree, and the green fibre* 
thrown out by the curious air-plants, are examples. 



It emits aerial roots at a , b, e, d. and e, which ultimately reach t*» 
ground, and give increased stability to the stem. 

A'erians, n. pi. Bee Ae'rius. 















42 


AEIiO 


AERO 


^ESCH 


Ae'ridcs, n. pi. (Bnt.) See Air-plants. 

Ae'ric, n. [Fr. aire.) The nest of the eagle and other 
birds of prey; a brood of such birds. 

Aerif'erons, a. [Lat. aer, ah', and ferre, to carry.] 
Conveying or containing air. 

Acrifica'tion, n. [Fr.] Tlie conversion of a substance 
into an aeriform state; the state of being aeriform. 
The act of uniting air with some thing; the process of 
being tilled with air. 

A'erif'orm, a. [Fr.] Having the form or nature of air; 
gaseous. 

(Verily, v. a. [Lat. aer, air, and facere, to make ] To 
infuse into air; to fill or combine with air. 

Ae'rius, an Asiatic presbyter, who from being a follower 
of Arius (the founder of Arianism), advocated the notion 
that there was no distinction between bishops and pres¬ 
byters, and procured many followers, who were named 
Adrians. Flourished in Sebastia, Pontus, in the 4th 
century. 

Aero'fciii, n. pi. {Biol.) Bacteria whose existence re¬ 
quires the presence of free oxygen. 

Aerotlynitm'ics, it. pi. [Gr. aer, air, and dt/namis, 
power.] The science which treats of properties of aeri¬ 
form fluids in a state of motion. — The causes which dis¬ 
turb the quiescence of the air are very numerous. Cur¬ 
rents are created in innumerable ways; among others, 
by the local change of temperature induced by the 
presence or absence of the sun; by the permanent dif¬ 
ference of temperature between the polar and equatorial 
regions; and by the rotation of the earth on its axis. 
It is also effected by the evaporation of the sea and 
rivers. Aqueous vapor being much lighter than the 
air, causes motion in its passage to the cloud-region. — 
The science of aero-dynamics is most important in the 
way of affecting the wellbeing of mankind. It is now 
proved that it is quite possible to predict the blowing 
of wind from any particular quarter; and by aero-dy- 
namic calculations, wo are able to forward telegrams to 
different parts of the coast, warning sailors of coming 
storms. — The laws which govern projectiles are an im¬ 
portant part of this science. We will try to give of 
them a clear idea.— Conceive a body to be moved for¬ 
ward in a straight line, displacing successively the par¬ 
ticles of air opposed to it; the effect which it produces 
is proportional to the number of particles against which 
it strikes, and to the quantity of motion communicated 
to each. Suppose now the velocity of the body to be 
doubled, the motion communicated to each particle of 
air displaced will be twice as great as before, and twice 
as many particlos will receive the impulsion in the same 
time. Hence we infer that the effect will be four times 
as great, or that the effect is proportional to the square 
of the velocity. This result of theory agrees tolerably 
well with experiments made to determine the resistance 
of the air when the velocity is not very great, or not 
exceeding eight or nine hundred feet in a second. When 
the velocity is much greater than this, the effect is modi¬ 
fied by circumstances which require further explana¬ 
tion. — When a body is moved out of its position, the 
space which it occupied is not filled with air instanta¬ 
neously, but only after a sensible, though very short 
time. Theory, confirmed to a certain degree by expe¬ 
rience, shows that air, under the ordinary atmospheric 
pressure, rushes into a vacuum with a velocity of 1300 
and 1100 feet in a second of time. But this velocity is 
speedily checked; for the instant that any portion of 
air is admitted, or the vacuum ceases to bo perfect, that 
portion resists the entrance of more with a force pro¬ 
portional to its density. Suppose, for example, the air 
in a receiver to be reduced to one-fourth of its natu¬ 
ral densi y; it is clear that the velocity of the air to 
enter the Receiver, which is proportional to the square 
loot of the effort or the resistance, will be reduced in 
the proportion of about 100 to 87. In this manner, as 
the air continues to enter, the velocity will rapidly 
diminish. — Now, conceive a body, for example a cannon¬ 
ball, to be moving rapidly through the air, but with a 
less velocity than 1300 feet per second. The air in 
front of the ball will remain in its natural state, because 
the condensation produced every instant by the contact 
of the ball is propagated more quickly than the ball 
moves, the velocity of the propagator being equal to 
that with which air enters a vacuum. But there is a 
certain space behind the ball in which the air lias not 
entirely recovered its equilibrium, but remains mure or 
less rarefied, the ball having passed through it in less 
time than is required for the surrounding air entirely 
to fill it. In addition, therefore, to the resistance which 
arises from the communication of motion to the parti¬ 
cles of the air, there is a pressure on the front part of 
the ball not counterbalanced from behind; in conse¬ 
quence of which, we may infer that the resistance will 
increase in a quicker ratio than the square of the velo¬ 
city. This deduction is also confirmed by experience; 
for it is found that the resistance continues to increase 
with the square of the velocity only while the velocity 
is less than 900 or 1000 feet per second. Above this 
velocity the ratio begins to fail; and when the velocity 
exceeds that with which air enters a vacuum, the ratio 
is entirely altered. At a velocity of 1600 feet per second, 
the resistance is found to be more than twice that given 
by theory. The reason is obvious: the density of the 
air before the body is increased by the rapid motion, 
and, consequently, presses more on the fore part of the 
body than air in its natural state. — See Acoustics, Ane¬ 
mometer, Gunnery, Projectil s. Rifle, Winb. 

lie' roe. or Arroe, an island belonging to Denmark, in 
the Baltic, about 14 miles long and 5 broad. It lies 10 
miles S. of Fiinen. The cap., Aeroeskjobing, has con¬ 
siderable shipping. Pop. in 1897, about 12,000. 


Aororv'rajiliy, n. [Greek aer, air, and grapho, 1 
write.] The description of the nature, properties, 
and phenomena of the atmosphere. 

A'eirolite, and A'erolith, n. [Gr. aer, air,and lithns, 
a stone.] A meteoric stone, or mineral mass, falling 
from the atmosphere. The origin of this remarkable 
class of natural phenomena is involved in great obscu¬ 
rity, and many different theories have been proposed to 
account for them, but the opinion the more consistent 
with all known facts and laws of nature, is, that the 
meteors are bodies moving in space, either accumula¬ 
tions of matter as originally created, or fragments sepas 
rated from a larger mass of a similar nature. The earth 
in describing its orbit may meet with such masses di¬ 
rectly, or pass so near to them as to carry them along 
with it by virtue of its attraction. On plunging into 
the atmosphere with the velocity due to the height 
from which they have fallen, which is that of their dis¬ 
tance from the earth, when they begin to obey its at¬ 
tractive force, an enormous heat is evolved by the rapid 
and powerful condensation of the air; the matter be¬ 
comes inflamed, and the aerolite is the product of the 
combustion. In the same manner, shooting stars, and 
other igneous meteors of frequent occurrence, are 
explained. The chaotic matter may lie entirely con¬ 
sumed long before it reaches the earth, in which case 
the appearance of the bolide will not he accompanied 
with the fall of an aerolite. — When taken up soon after 
their fall, they are extremely hot. They are generally 
angular, of prismatic and pyramidal forms, the angles 
being rounded. There is a considerable degree of simi¬ 
larity in the compositions of aerolites, though there 
are marked diversities between stones oi different falls. 
Iron, which occurs in the metallic state, and is the 
most abundant constituent, is occasionally lacking. In 
addition to iron, magnesium, silicon, oxygen, nickel, 
and other substances occur, 24 terrestrial elements 
in all having been found. No element has been found 
which does not exist on the earth. In a few instances 
crystallized carbon has been discovered in aerolites, the 
diamonds being microscopic in size. Various gases 
occur, hydrogen being sometimes present in large col¬ 
umn and necessarily in a state of unusual density. 
The external surface of aerolites is black, as if they 
had been exposed to great heat; internally the color is 
a grayish white. Their specific gravity does not greatly 
vary, it ranging between 3 - 352 and 4 281. Whatever 
their origin, their composition indicates that it must be 
sought for elsewhere than in the earth, and there is 
reason to believe that the A. are closely related to comets. 
Iron is scarcely ever found in the metallic state in ter¬ 
restrial substances; volcanic matter contains it only 
in the state of an oxide. Nickel is also very rare, and 
never found on the surface of the earth; and chrome is 
still more rare.—Some philosophers supposed that aero¬ 
lites were bodies thrown out by the volcanoes which 
are known to exist in the moon; and Laplace, the illus¬ 
trious author of the Mecanique Celeste, calculated that 
a body projected from the moon, with a velocity of 
7,771 feet in the first second, would reach our earth in 
about two days and a half; but Gibers and other 
astronomers have proved that the velocity of the me¬ 
teors, which has been estimated in some cases to be at 
first equal to some miles in a second, is too great to 
admit of the possibility of their having come from the 
moon. They are occasionally of great size, some hav¬ 
ing been found weighing many hundreds of pounds. 
See Metf.ors. 

Aerolit/holog'y, n. [Gr. aer, air, lithos, stone, and 
logos, discourse.] The science of aerolites. 

Aeroli t ic, a. Relating to aerolites. 

Aei’olog-'ic, and Aerolog'ical, a. Pertaining to 

aerology. 

Aerol'oglst, n. One who is versed in aerology. 

Aerol ogy, n. [Gr. aer, air, and logos, a discourse.] The 
doctrine of air; —generally applied to medical discus¬ 
sions respecting its salubrity. 

A'eromancy, n. [Gr. aer, air, and manteia, prophecy ] 
A term applied to a mode practised by the ancients of 
predicting future events from certaiu appearances in 
the air. 

Aorosn'eter, n. [Gr. aer, air, and metron, a measure.] 
An instrument for making the necessary corrections in 
pneumatic experiments, to ascertain the mean hulk of 
gases. 

Aeronaet'ric, a. Belonging or relating to aerometry. 

AeroiiTetry, n. [Gr. aer, air, and metreo, I measure.] 
The art of measuring the air, so as to obtain knowledge 
of its bulk, density, &c. 

A'eronaut, n. [Fr. aeronaute, from Gr. aer, air, and 
nautes, sailor.] One who sails in a balloon. 

Aeronautic, and Aeronautical, a. Belonging or 
relating to aeronautics. 

Aeronaut'ism, n. The practice of ascending and 
floating in the atmosphere in balloons. 

A('ri>|>ho'hia, n. [Gr. aer, air, and phobos, fear.] {Med.) 
A fear of fresh air or wind. 

A'eroplty te, n. [Gr. aer, air. and phytem, a plant.] ( Bot .) 
A plant having only aerial roots. — See Aiu-plants. 

Aeros'copy,"and Aeros'cepsy, w. [Gr.aer, air, and 
s/copeo, or skeptnmai, to examine.] The study of the vari¬ 
ations of the atmosphere, (r.) 

AS'rosite, n. (Min.) A name of the Pyrargyrite; q. v. 

A'erostat, n. [Fr., from Greek aer, air. and statos, 
standing.] An air-balloon. — See Aeroniutics. 

Aerostat'ic, and Aerostatical, a. Belonging or 
relating to aerostatics. 

Aerostatic 1’ress. This is a machine used in 
extracting the coloring matier Irom dye-woods and 
other color producers. It consists of a v .ssel divided 


by a horizontal partition which is pierced with small 
holes. The substance containing the color is laid upon 
this and over it is placed a cover, also perforated. The 
extracting liquid is then poured upon the perforated 
cover white the air is drawn from the vessel by an air- 
puuip connected below. 

Aerostatics, n. pi. [Gr. aer, air, and statice, statics.j 
The science of weighing elastic fluids, as air, either by 
themselves or with other bodies sustained in them. 

Aerosta'tion, n. [Fr.] The same as Aerostatics, q. v. 
'This word is sometimes employed, though incorrectly, 
as a synonym of Aeronautics, q. v. » 

Aers'cltof, Duke of, a noble of the Netherlands, cele¬ 
brated in the struggle of the Dutch republic against 
Philip of Spain, lie was governor of Antwerp, and sub¬ 
sequently of Flanders; but the treachery of liis disposi¬ 
tion made him no favorite with the people, who took 
him prisoner and confined him at Ghent for a long 
period. Lived in the middle of the 16th century. 

Aers'eliot, a town of Belgium, 23 miles from Brussels. 
Pop. 4,000. 

Aer'sens, Piter, a Dutch painter, surnamed Longo. 
B. at Amsterdam, 1519; i>. 1573. 

Aert'rylte, a village and commune of West Flanders, 
8 miles from Bruges. lip. 3,1.00. 

Aeru ginoiis, and Acritgiii'eous, a. [From Lat. 
arugo, verdigris.] Resembling or partaking of the na¬ 
ture of the rust of copper. 

iEru'g'o, n. [Lat.] The ancient name for a bright 
green rust or verdigris, produced by the action of the 
air upon copper, brass, and bronze. The Romans con¬ 
sidered that the arugo added to the beauty of their 
statues. 

JLruliis, n. A cat worshipped by the Egyptians, and 
after death embalmed,and buried in the city ot Bubastis. 

Aeruscat'eres, a name given by theancients to those 
strolling beggars who obtained money by fortune-tell- 

,* ing. The term was also applied to the priests of Cybele 
and the collectors of taxes. 

A'erzeele, a village and commune in West Flanders, 
15 miles from Courtrai. Pup. 3,300. 

ASs'cliynHe, n. (Min.) An orthorhombic mineral, of 
the Tantalite group. Crystals long, prismatic and stri¬ 
ated. Color nearly black. Comp. Titanic acid and per¬ 
haps zirconia. 

A'schines, a disciple of Socrates and the son of a 
sausage-maker. He went to the court of Dionysius, the 
tyrant of Sicily, and afterwards maintained himself by 
keeping a school at Athens. His dialogues so closely 
resemble those of Socrates, that Menedemus charges 
him with havjng stolen them from that philosopher. 
Flourished b. c. 350. Only three of his dialogues are 
extant, of which Le Clerc published a Latin translation, 
with notes, in 1711. 

Jl'seliines. usually distinguished as"The Orator," and 
one of the most famous of Greek orators al ter Demos¬ 
thenes, whose contemporary and rival he was. Born at 
Athens about 389 B. C., he gained his firsi distinction 
as a soldier, fighting bravely in the battle of Mautinea 
(362 B. C.) and winning the approbation of hisgeneral, 
Phociun, in that of Tamynie (350 B. C.). As a 
political leader he first won notoriety from his violent 
opposition to Philip of Macedou; but after an em¬ 
bassy to the Macedonian court his views changed, 
perhaps through means employed by the wily 
Philip, and on his return he opposed a war with King 
Philip as zealously as he had urged it previously. 
This brought about a quarrel between him and his 
fellow orator Demosthenes, the most earnestand influ¬ 
ential of Philip’s opponents in Athens. Tins ardent 
patriot charged iEsclnnes with preferring the gold ol 
Macedon to the interests of his country, while iEschines 
charged Demosthenes with venality in receiving a 
golden crown from his admiring fellow citizens. This 
led to one of the most remarkable contest- Oi oratory 
in history, which gave birth to what are perhaps the 
finest specimens of rhetorical genius and skill to be 
found in the literature of any nation. iEschiue* 
opened the attack with a striking feat of oratory, but 
Demosthenes vanquished him and drove him into exile 
by what is looked upon as the greatest of his orations. 
TEschines afterwards opened a school of oratory at 
Rhodes where he taught with great applause, lie is 
said to have read his great oration to his studeuts, 
and when some of liis hearers expressed surprise at 
his want of success, he replied, “ You would cease to 
be astonished if you had heard Demosthenes.” 

iE'sclirion, a poet of Mytilene, intimate with Aristo- 
tie. He accompanied Alexander in his Asiatic expedi¬ 
tion. 

—Also, an iambic poet of Samos. 

A'sehyliis, the father of the Athenian drama. He was 
in the sea-fight at Salamis, and received a wound in th* 
battle of Marathon. His most solid fame, however, rests 
on his power as a tragic poet. Of ninety tragedies pro¬ 
duced by him. forty were rewarded with the public prize, 
but only seven have come down to us. He was the first 
to introduce two actors on the stage, and to clothe them 
with dresses suitable to their character. He likewise re¬ 
moved murder from the sight of the audience. He deco¬ 
rated the theatre with the best paintings of his time, and 
the ancient, like the modern stage, exhibited temples, 
sepulchres, armies, fleets, flying cars, and apparitions, 
lie mounted the actors on stilts, and gave them masks 
to augment the natural sounds of their voices. The 
priests accused him before the Aeropagus of bringing 
upon the stage the mysteries of religion; but the wounds 
he had received at Marathon pleaded his cause and ob¬ 
tained his acquittal. B. at Athens, 456 b. c.: d. in Sicily, 
in his 69th year.— It is fabled that an eagle, mistaking 










iESOP 


AETI 


• AFFE 


43 


bib bald head for a stone, ns he slept in a field, dropped | 
upon it a tortoise, which instantly killed him. His im¬ 
agination was strong but wild, vast in its conception, but 
greany dealing in improbabilities. The obscurity of his 
style is admitted, and an excellent modern critic has pro¬ 
nounced him the most difficult of all the Greek classics. 

4.hcu lupins. (Myth.) The god of medicine, supposed 
son of A|iollo and of .he nymph Corouis. Apollo brought 
his son to Chiron, who instructed him in medicine aud 
hunting. In the former he acquired a high degree of skill, 
60 as to surpass even the fame of his teacher. Hu not only 
prevented the death of the living, but even recalled the 
dead to life. Jupiter, however, induced by thecomplaints 
of bis brother Plato, slew JEsculapius with a thunderbolt. 
After his death, he received divine honors. JEsculapius 
had two sons, Machaon and Podalirius, who were called 
Asclepiades, and during the Trojan war made themselves 
famous as heroes and physicians. His daughters were 
Hygeia, Iaso, Panacea, aud iEgle, the first of whom was 
Worshipped as the goddess of health. JEsculapius is re¬ 
presented with a large beard, holding a knotty staff, round 
which was entwined a serpent, the symbol of convales¬ 
cence. Near him stands the cock, the symbol of watch¬ 
fulness. He is sometimes crowned with the laurel of 
Apollo. Sometimes his little son Telesphorus is repre¬ 
sented beside him, with a cap upon his head, wrapped 
up in a cloak. Sometimes also iEsculapius is represented 
under the image of a serpent only. 

Ss'culin, or Esculix, n. [From oscnZus.] (Chem.) A 
crystal line fluorescent substance obtained from the bark 
of the horse-chestnut and other trees of the genera cescu- 
lus and Pavia. It forms colorless, needle-shaped crys¬ 
tals. It is inodorous, has a bitter taste, is soluble in 
water and alcohol at the boiling heat and nearly in¬ 
soluble in ether. Form. C 2 ,H 21 0 13 . 

Us'cil 1 us, n. (Bot.) [From Lat. esca, food.] The Horse- 
chestnut, a genus of plants, ord. Sapindaccse. It consistg 
of trees found in the temperate parts of America and 
Asia, remarkable for the beauty of their flowers and 
leaves. It must not be confounded with the jEsculus 
of the Romans, which was a kind of oak. The popular 
name of horse-chestnut, which appertains to the J.. Hip- 
pocastanum, (a native of Asia, but now known through¬ 
out Europe andin this country,) has arisen from the cus¬ 
tom among the Turks of grinding the nuts and mixing 
them with the provender given to horses that are broken- 
winded. In France, large quantities of starch are ob¬ 
tained from tlse seeds, but not favorably received in the 
trade. A peculiar oil, which is said to be a wonderful 
remedy for rheumatism, is also obtained from these 
seeds. It is of rapid growth, and attains the height of 
40 to 50 feet. In June it puts forth numerous pyram¬ 
idal racemes or thyrses of flowers of pink and white, 
finely contrasting with the dark-green of its massy foli¬ 
age. The leaves are digitate, with 7 obovate, acute, ser¬ 
rate leaflets. The fruit is large, mahogany-colored, and 
eaten only by deer. —Another species, the JE. glabra, or 
Ohio buckeye,, a small, ill-scented tree, producing small 
bunches of yellowish-white flowers, is found wild on the 
banks of Ohio river, between Pittsburg and Marietta. Its 
roots and leaves are said to be poisonous. 



Fig. 40. — HORSE-CHESTNUT. 

£'so|>. the fable-writer, is usually held as the inventor 
of those short pieces of moral wisdom with which the 
readers of all ages, since his time, have been delighted. 
He is said to have been first bought as a slave by an 
Athenian, from whom he learned the Greek language, 
and then passed successively into the service of Zanthus 
and Idmon. both of Samos. The latter gave him his free¬ 
dom, on which ho was retained by Croesus. The places 
and times of his birth and death are both uncertain. He 
was contemporary, however, with Solon and Pisistratus; 
therefore flourished in the 6th century B. c. Ilis fables 
were first published at Milan, in 1476, folio, which edi¬ 
tion now bears an exorbitant price. But the first Greek 
edition is reckoned that of 1480, 4to. They have been 
translated into all modern languages. Those of Croxall 
and Dodsley are deemed the best English versions. 

X'sopiis, Clodius, a famous actor, who had the honor 
of instructing Cicero in oratory. He was a great epi¬ 
cure, and at an entertainment is said to have had a dish 
of singing-birds which cost over $20,000. D., worth 

$4 ,000,000, sixty years n. c. — His son was also noted for 
his luxuriousness; and Horace says that he swallowed a 
pearl of great value dissolved in vinegar. 


1 iEsthet'ic, iEsthet'ieal, a. Of, or relating to aes¬ 
thetics. 

JEsthet'ically, ad. In an aesthetical manner. 

.Esthet ics, n. pi. [Gr. oesthelikos. perceptible to the 
senses.] The science of the Beautiful in Art. The word 
was first employed about the middle of the 18th century 
by Alexander Baumgarteu, professor of philosophy in 
the University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder; and having 
been found both comprehensive and definite, it was gen¬ 
erally adopted by the French and English writers. Ac¬ 
cording to the theories of the soundest psychologists, 
human nature may be divided into the capacities of 
knowing, acting, aud feeling; in other words, into intel¬ 
lect, will, and sensibility. To tuese capacities correspond 
respectively the ideas of the True, the Good, and the 
Beautiful. That which logic is to intellect, ethics to 
will, is aesthetics to sensibility. The laws of thinking 
are determined by logic, the laws of acting by etbics, and 
the laws of feeling by aesthetics. As the ultimate aim 
of thought is truth, as the ultimate aim of action is good, 
so is beauty the ultimate aim of sensibility. Philoso¬ 
phers, from the time of Aristotle aud Plato downward, 
have endeavored to place the laws of taste upon a defi¬ 
nite basis, like those of ethics and logic. To fully ex¬ 
plain and discuss the respective system of aesthetics 
would require a volume; it will be sufficient here to in¬ 
dicate the two principal modes of treating aesthetics as 
a science. Those philosophers who have employed the 
d priori method have thought to analyze the {esthetic 
notions proper to the mind, and to erect upon their basis 
an abstract system, to which the artist, whether he be 
painter, architect, musician, sculptor, or poet, shall con¬ 
form his creations. According to the second, or d pos¬ 
teriori method, all the great acknowledged works of art 
are selected to exhibit whatever in them constitutes a 
pleasant effect, from which are to be deduced practical 
rules. Pythagoras, Plato, Baumgarten, Kant, Schelling, 
Schiller, and Hegel, have been the great speculators in 
the d priori method; and in the d posteriori, Aristotle. 
Heinse, Lessing, Winckelmann, Bayle, Rousseau: and the 
greater portion of the French, English, and Italian writ¬ 
ers upon the laws of taste. — Ref. Jouffroy's CourseTEs- 
thetique; Cousin’s Le Vrai, le Beau, et le Bon ; Schiller’s 
Treatise on a Esthetics ; Alison’s Essays on the Nature and 
Principle of Taste. 

vEst'ival, and Estival, a. [From Lat. cestas, summer.] 
Belonging to the summer. 

jEstiva'tion, n. [From Lat. sestivus. belonging to the 
summer.] (Bot.) The general arrangement of the dif¬ 
ferent parts of the flower. When these parts are placed 
in a circle, and in nearly the same plane, the AE. is said 
to be circular, and when they are placed at slightly dif¬ 
ferent levels, so as to overlap each other, it is said to be 
spiral. The term prtefloration is used by some botanists 
instead of {estivation. 

vEst'uary, and Estuary, n. [Lat. sestuarium .] ( Geog ) 
Was anciently understood to be any creek, frith, or arm 
of the sea, in which the tide ebbs and flows; but is now 
applied to designate those parts of the channels of cer¬ 
tain rivers contiguous to the sea in which the water is 
either salt or brackish, and in which the ebb and flow 
of the sea is distinctly perceptible, and there is little or 
no current. 



Fig. 41. — AN iESTUARY. 


^thog , 'amoiis, a. [Gr. aethes, unusual, and gamos, 
marriage.] (Bot.) Propagated in an unusual way; as 
the cryptogamic plants. 

jE'ther. See Ether. 

Al'tliiops, n. (Med.) An old pharmaceutical term ap¬ 
plied to various mineral preparations of blackish color. 

JEtliojfen, n. [Gr. athou, and giuomai.) (Chem.) A com¬ 
pound of boron and nitrogen, which yields a brilliant 
phosphorescent light when heated before the blowpipe. 

ASttiok'irriii, n. (Chem.) The yellow coloring matter 
of the flowers of antirrhinum Linaria. 

.L’lli rioseope. n. [Gr. aithrios, clear, and scopein, to 
observe.] An instrument used for measuring the rela¬ 
tive degrees of cold produced by pulsation from a clear 
sky. It resembles the differential thermometer. In¬ 
vented by Sir John Leslie. 

JEttiu'sa. n. (Bot.) See Fool’s-Parslft. 

iEtiol'ofry, and Etiology. [Gr. aitia, a cause, and 
logos, discourse.] (Rhet.) A figure of speech, by which 
the causes of an event are developed in the narrative. 

.1.t ion. a Greek painter, whose picture of the nuptials 
of Alexander and Roxana, shown at the Olympic games, 
obtained for him, although he was quite unknown, the 
daughter of the president in marriage. 

Aeti tes, n. [Gr. aetos, an eagle.] (Min.) See Eagle- 
stone. 

Ae'tius, a famous general in the reign of Valentinian III., 
emperor of the West. He was brought up in the emper¬ 
or's guards, and after the battle of Pollentia, in 403, 
was delivered as a hostage to Alaric, and next to the 


Huns. On the death of Honorius, he took the side ot 
the usurper John, for whose service he engaged an army 
of Huns. He was afterward taken into favor by Valen- 
tinian. Being jealous of the power of Boniface, goveruot 
of Africa, he secretly advised his recall, and at the same 
time counselled the governor not to obey the mandate. 
This produced a revolt, which caused an irruption of 
the Vandals into that province. The treachery of Aetius 
being discovered, a war ensued between him and Boni¬ 
face. in which the latter Wits slain. Aetius now appealed 
to the Huns, of whom he raised a large army, and 
returning, so greatly alarmed Placidia, the mother of 
Valentinian, that she put herself into his power. He 
defended the declining empire with great bravery, and 
compelled Attila to retire beyond the Rhine. Stabbed, 
454, by Valentinian, who had become jealous of his 
fame and influence. 

iBl iia, in Illinois, a twp. of Logan co. See also Etna. 

Al'tobates, n. (Pal.) A genus of fossil fishes, allied to 
the Rays, the species of which are found at Sbeppey, in 
the London clay. 

uXto'lia, a province of Greece, bounded on the west by 
Acarnania, on the north by Thessaly, on the east by the 
country of the Locri and Ozolae, and on the south by the 
Corinthian gulf. It received its name from JEtolus. 
The inhabitants were covetous and illiberal, and were 
little known in Greece till after the ruin of Athens and 
Sparta, when they assumed a consequence in the coun¬ 
try, and afterward made themselves formidable as the 
allies of Rome, and then as its enemies, till they were 
conquered by Fulvius. It is very mountainous; but 
rye, barley, and olives are cultivated along the side of 
the Corinthian gulf. With Acarnania, it now forms a 
nomarchy in the kingdom of Greece. Its principal river 
is the Phidaris. In this province is also mount Oxea, 
which reaches an elevation of 4,636 feet in its highest 
point. Missolonghi is its capital. Lat. between 3s° 7' 
and 38° 50' N.; Ion. between 21° 10' and 22° 5' E. 

Afar', adv. At a great distance; abroad; away; aloof;— 
hence, foreign, strange. 

Afeard', a. [A. 8. afered.J Frighted; afraid. — It is the 
reg. participle of the old word to affear, as afraid is of 
to affray, (o.) 

A'fer, n. [Lat.] The southwest wind. 

“Notes and afer black with thunderous clouds." — Milton. 

Affa. n. A weight in common use on the Gold Coast of 
Guinea, the half of which is called eggeba. They equal 
the English ounce and half-ounce. The negroes of the 
Gold Coast invariably give these names to these weights. 

Affabil'i ty. n. [Fr. affabilite, from Lat. affabilitas .] 
A quality which renders a person easy to be spoken to; 
including modesty, good-nature, and condescension; 
courtesy: condescension. 

Af'fable, a. [Fr., from Lat. affabilis .] Easy to be 
spoken to, on account of complaisance, good-nature, and 
condescension; courteous, condescending, accessible; 
easy; approachable. 

Af'fableness, n. Courteousness; civil and complais¬ 
ant behavior. — See Affability. 

Affably, adv. In an affable manner; courteously; 
civilly. 

Af'fabrous, a. [Lat. affaber, skilful.] Skilfully made. 

Affair', n. [Fr. affaire, from Lat. facere, to do.] A 
thing taken with its surroundings, and viewed, as it 
were, in the gross; something to be managed or trans¬ 
acted; matter; business; concern: — used for both pri¬ 
vate and public matters; as, "a difficult affair to man¬ 
age;” “the state affairs;” “a love affair; ” “a trivial 
affair.” 

(Mil.) Any action or engagement not of sufficient 
magnitude to be termed a battle. 

Affain'isliment, n. Starving, (o.) 

Affect', v. a. [Fr. affecter, from Lat. afficio, to act upon.] 
To make or produce an effect upon. 

“As far as these qualities relate to, or affect the actions ol 
men."— South. 

—To excite, stir up, or work upon the passions. 

“ A thinking man cannot but be very much affected with the 
idea of his appearing in the presence of that Being .. . ’—Addison. 

—To exhibit a tendency toward an object; hence, to seek 
naturally or desire; to be pleased with; to be fond of; 
to long for. The impulse may be physical or moral; as, 
water is affected by cold; fluids affect a round figure: I 
do not affect that man. — To assume a character not real 
or natural, and to support it in an awkward manner; 
to make show of. 

“ The conscious husband 

Affecting fury, acts a madman's part."— Granville. 

—To dispose or incline; as, “ a man affected to liis religion." 

Affecta'tion, n. [Fr., from Lat. affectatio.] An artful 
or hypocritical assuming of a character, or appearance, 
which is not our own, and to which we have not claim. 
Pretence; assumption; mannerism; airs; — opposed to 
genuineness; naturalness; simplicity; artlessness. 

Affect'ed. p. a. FuP of affectation; not natural.— 
Having the feelings or passions excited. 

Affected, or Adfected Equations. (Alg.) Those in which 
the unknown quantity is found in two or more different 
powers; for example, a 3 — px^-^-Dxa-^-b; in which ar* 
three different powers of x. 

Affect'edly, adv. In a manner which has more appeal' 
ance than reality. 

Affect'ed ness, n. The quality of assuming an unnat 
ural or false appearance. Distinguished from hypoerisj 
by its object; that being religion, and this politeness, 
grandeur, &c. 

Alfeet'er. n. One who affects or assumes. 

A dec t i bil l ty, n. The state or quality of being affeol 
ible. 










AFFI 


U 


AFFI • 


AFFI 


iffMt'ililp, a. That may be affected. 

Art’eci'in;;, p. a. Haviug power or tending to move 
the passions or affections; pathetic; exciting; as, an 
affecting drama. — Assuming: feigning. {(Jbs.) 
\ffect'ill} 4 'ly, adv. In an affecting manner. 

Affec tion, n. [Fr., from Lat. affectio.] A sentiment 
of fondness, regard, good-will, or love, without desire; 
followed by to or toward, but more generally by for. — 
Passions, in a general sense, as impH ing a state of the 
mind. — A moral impulse toward some definite object, 
differing from disposition, which is natural. 

{Logic.) An attribute, quality, or property peculiar 
to some object, moral or physical, arising from its very 
idea or essence, and inseparable from it; as joy, anger, 
fear, figure, weight, &e. 

{Med.) A morbid or preternatural state of the body, 
or some of its parts; as, a cutaneous affection. 
Affec'tional, a. Belonging or relating to the affections. 
Affec tionate, a. [Fr. aff'ectionnii] Full of affection; 
strongly inclined or disposed to; warm; fond; zealous. 

“ In their love of God, men can never be too affectionate." — Sprat. 
—Fond, tender, benevolent. 

“ The affectionate care of Providence for our happiness. ’— Rogers. 

Affectionately, adv. In an affectionate manner; 

fondly; tenderly; benevolently. 
Affec'tioi.ateness, n. The quality or state of being 
affectionate; fondness; tenderness; good-will. 
Affec'tioned, a. Inclined; mentally disposed. 

“Be kindly affectioned to one another.”— Rom. xii. 10. 

Affective, a. [Lat . affectivus.] That acts upon, or ex¬ 
cites a disagreeable or painful sensation. 
Affectively, adv. In an impressive manner; impres¬ 
sively. 

Affect'or, n. See Affecter. 

Affectuos'ity, n. Passionateness. (0.) 

Affeet'uous, a. Earnest. “Made such affectuous la¬ 
bor.”— Fabian. 

A fleer', v. a. [O. Fr. affeurer, to tax.] {Eng. Law.) To 
assess or reduce. — See Affeerers. 

Affeer'ers, or Affeerors, n. Persons who, in the Eng¬ 
lish court-leets and court-barons, settle and moderate 
the fines imposed on those who have committed offences 
arbitrarily punishable, or that have no express penalty 
appointed by statute. 

Affeerineiit, n. The act of affeering. 

Afferent, a. [Lat. afferens.] {Anal.) Applied to the 
vessels conveying the lymph to the lymphatic vessels. 
Affettuo'wo. [It.] ( Mus.) A direction noting something 
to be sung or played in a smooth and tender manner. 
Afli anee, n. [0. Fr.] A marriage-contract; betrothing. 
Figuratively, a firm trust, an unshaken reliance. 

“ Ah 1 what’s more dangerous than this fond affiance ? ”— Shak. 
A III 'ance, v. a. To betroth; to bind one’s self to marry. 
“ To me, sad maid, or rather widow sad, 

He was affianced long time before."— Faerie Queens. 

—To give confidence to. 

“ Stranger 1 whoe'er thou art, securely rest, 

Affianc'd in my faith, a friendly guest."— Pope. 

Am 'ancer. n. lie that affiances. 

Aili'che. The French name of a printed paper or bill 
affixed to a wall, or posted up. 

Affidavit, n. [From Lat. affido.] {Laiv.) A statement 
of facts, on oath. Affidavits are necessary in a variety 
of cases, in order to bring facts under the cognizance of 
courts of justice: all evidence of facts must be given on 
oath, either by oral testimony or by affidavit. Where 
evidence is to be acted upon by juries, it is given as oral 
testimony; where it is to inform a court or judge, it is 
usually reduced into the form of an affidavit. — In point 
of form, an affidavit is usually made as follows: if made 
In a cause, the name of the court in which the cause is 
pending, and the names of the plaintiff and defendant, 
are written at the head of the paper. The name, de¬ 
scription, and residence of the deponent, or person 
making the affidavit, are written at length, and the 
Individual making the affidavit signs his name at the 
foot of it. The paper is then shown to him, and he is 
requested to swear to his name and handwriting, and 
that the contents of the paper are true. And, lastly, 
the jurat (see this word) expressing the officer before 
whom, and where and when, the affidavit is made, is 
signed by such officer. If the affidavit he sworn in open 
court, that circumstance is mentioned in the jurat, and 
no officer is named. 

Affidavit to hold to bail. In many -ases a person 
cannot be arrested without an affidavit containing a 
clear statement of the fact, and showing a distinct cause 
of action. It may he done by the plaintiff, or by some 
one acquainted with the fact. 

Aflil'intc, v. a. [Lat. affiliare.] To adopt as a son. 
Also, to connect, as with a parent stock or society'.— 
To establish the paternity of. 

Affiliated societies. Local societies connected with a 
central soi iety, and with one another. 

Affilia'tion, n. [Fr. affiliation .] The adoption of the 
child of another; the act of connection with a society. 

{Law.) An order of affiliation is that which a magis¬ 
trate issues on the oath of a woman, to compel thefatlier 
of an illegitimate child to provide for his maintenance. 
If the mother be of sufficient ability to maintain the 
bastard while it is dependent upon her, and neglect 
that duty, so that it becomes chargeable to a parish, 
she is liable to be punished under the provisions of the 
vagrant act. If she be not of sufficient ability, the law 
will compel the father to supply a fund for its mainte¬ 
nance. Any single woman with child, or delivered of a 
bastard child, may, either before the birth, or at anytime 
within the 12 months from the birth, make application 
to a magistrate, charging a person by name as thefatlier 
of her child; and when the alleged father has within 


twelve months paid money for its maintenance, such 
application may be made at any subsequent period. 
The magistrate, on the evidence of the mother, corrobo¬ 
rated in some material particular by other testimony to 
his satisfaction, may make an order on the putative 
father for payment of a weekly sum for the maintenance 
of the child. The order will remain in force until the 
child attain the age of thirteen, or die, or the mother 
be married. If the mother allow the payments to re¬ 
main in aiTear lor more than 13 weeks, she cannot 
recover them for a longer period. In default of pay¬ 
ment of the money provided for by the order, the puta¬ 
tive father may have his goods distrained upon; or, if 
he have none, be committed to prison, and so from time 
to time. — See Bastard. 

Af'linage, n. [Fr.] The act of refining metals by the 
cupel. 

Affinita'tlvely, adv. With affinity. 

Atlin'ity, n. [Fr. uffinite, from Lat. af for ad, to, and 
Jinis, a limit.] It means literally contiguity, closeness 
of location; lienee, closeness of social location, that is, 
relationship between persons not of the same blood; so 
differing iron) consanguinity. Hence, again, analogy 
of nature or character, as in color, sound, sentiment, or 
mental character; hence, again, likeness in anything 
which should ibrm ground of classification, as groups 
of language or natural history, or physical community, 
as chemical affinities. — Helatiouship; similarity; har¬ 
mony ; correlativeness; sympathy. 

{Law.) Relationship, in consequence of marriage, be¬ 
tween the husband and the blood relations of the wife, 
and between the wife and the blood relations of the hus¬ 
band. This is a relationship in law, and no real kin¬ 
dred. A relation by affinity docs not give right to legal 
succession. By the English law, persons related by 
affinity are forbidden to marry within the same degrees 
as persons related by blood. — See Marriage. — So a man 
is not permitted, alter his wife’s death, to marry her 
sister, aunt, or niece. This rule is founded upon the 
Levitical law; but very learned writers think that its 
introduction into the municipal laws of modern coun¬ 
tries is unnecessary and useless. The affinity does not 
extend to the nearest relations of husband and wife. 
The connection which has neither consanguinity nor 
affinity, as, the connection between a husband’s brother 
and his wife’s sister, is termed in Eng. law affmilas 
affinitatis. 

{Client.) Affinity, or chemical attraction, is the force 
which causes the particles of dissimilar kinds of matter 
to combine together, so as to form new matter. This 
definition indicates the differences between affinity and 
cohesion, which is another modification of molecular 
attraction. Cohesion merely binds similar particles 
inloa mass; affinity brings about the combination of 
heterogeneous particles, and causes them to lose their 
individual properties. The change of characters which 
follows the action of affinity is very wonderful; — for 
example, the inflammable metal sodium unites with the 
suffocating gas chlorine, and the compound thus pro¬ 
duced is chloride of sodium, or common salt, a substance 
which does not bear the slightest resemblance to its 
components. Chemical combinations do not take place 
indifferently, hut in accordance with certain strict rules 
or laws. One substance will unite with another in pre¬ 
ference to a third, or in some cases to any other. 'Airis 
preference is denoted by the term elective affinity. By 
means of this discriminating action of affinity, some 
combinations may be decomposed. If, tor instance, 
there he a substance, x, composed of two elementary 
bodies, a and b, which have a slighter affinity fur each 
other than one of them, a, lias for a third element, c; 
then, if we bring this third body into connection with 
them under the requisite condition, the one, a, which 
has tlie greatest atlinity for it will leave the other, b, 
and unite with it to form another combination, y. The 
decomposition of water by red-hot iron illustrates such 
a case; for if water, which is composed of the elements 
oxygen and hydrogen, be passed through a tube con¬ 
taining iron filings heated to redness, its oxygen will 
unite with the iron to form a kind of rust, and its hy¬ 
drogen will be set free. In every case where one con¬ 
stituent is expelled by a new body, and thus liberated, 
tlio decomposition is said to be the result of single elec¬ 
tive affinity; but when two substances, each consisting 
of two constituents, act reciprocally upon each other, 
so as to produce two new compounds, the decomposition 
is referred to double elective affinity. This double 
reaction takes place when a chloride of phosphorus is 
thrown into water; the chlorine leaves the phosphorus, 
and unites with the hydrogen of the water to form 
hydrochloric acid, while the remaining elements, phos¬ 
phorus and oxygen, enter into combination and pro¬ 
duce phosphoric acid. The attraction of one body for 
another is greatly modified by the circumstances under 
which the two bodies are brought together. Altera¬ 
tion of temperature is one of the causes which influence 
the force of chemical attraction. IV hen metallic mer¬ 
cury is heated nearly to its boiling-point, aud exposed 
in this condition to the air for a lengthened period, it 
absorbs oxygen, and becomes converted into a dark red 
crystalline powder. But this same oxide of mercury, 
when raised to a still higher temperature, parts witli 
its oxygen, which leaves the mercury in its original 
metallic state. Insolubility and the power of evapori- 
zation are potent disturbing influences; they interfere 
in almost every reaction, and frequently turn the scale 
when the opposing affinities are nicely balanced. Thus, 
when a solution of lime in hydrochloric acid is mixed 
with a solution of carbonate of ammonia, a double reac¬ 
tion ensues; carbonate of lime and chloride of ammonium 
being generated. This result is brought about mainly 


by the insolubility of the carbonate of lime. What is 

called the nascent state is one very favorable to chemical 
combination. Thus, carbon and nitrogen reluse to 
combine frith hydrogen under ordinary circumstances; 
but when these gases are nascent or newly evolved, as 
when they are simultaneously liberated from some pre¬ 
vious combination, they unite readily. Some remark¬ 
able decompositions are referred to a peculiar modifier 
tion of chemical force, to which the term disposing 
affinity has been applied. The preparation of hydrogen 
from zinc affords a lamiliar example of such decomposi¬ 
tions. A piece of polished zinc put into pure water 
remains perfectly bright for any length of time, and 
manifests no power of decomposing the liquid. On tha 
addition, however, of a little sulphuric acid, the metal 
becomes oxydized, and hydrogen is freely disengaged. 
The acid dissolves the oxide us last as it is produced, 
and thus keeps the surface of the metal exposed to the 
uction of ihe water. This function of the acid is per¬ 
fectly intelligible; but its disposing influence, under 
which the oxide is first formed, is not well understood. 
Affinity is generally much stronger between bodies 
which are very unlike each other, than between bodies 
which are closely allied. Thus, potassium and sodium 
tend strongly to unite with chlorine and iodine, hut the 
bodies of each pair do not attract one another with suf¬ 
ficient force to enterinto combination. The discoveries 
of Faraday and others have established the fact that 
whenever two substances unite to form a compound, 
they are in opposite electrical conditions; one being 
electro negative, and the other electro-positive. This 
and other facts go to prove that chemical affinity is a 
particular modification of electrical attraction. — See 
Electrolysis. The word affinity appears to have been 
employed for the first time by Uarkliausen, a Herman 
chemist, in his Elements of Chemistry, published a. 
Leyden in 1703. 

Affirm', v. a. [Fr. affirmer, from Lat. offirmare.'] To 
state in a firm manner or in firm grounds; to declare; 
to say positively; to assert confidently. 

“Yet their own authors affirm 
That the land Sulike lies in Germany.”— Shak. 

—To ratify or confirm; — as a former law or judgment. 

Affirm', v. n To declare ■ r assert positively. 

{Law.) To promise solemnly aud under the penalties 
of perjury to tell the truth—See Affirmation. 

Afllrm'able, a. That which may he affirmed. 

“Those attributes that were applicable and affirmahle of him 
when present, are now affirmahle and applicable to him though 
past.”— Bale. 

Alliriii'ably, adv. In a way capable of affirmation, (r.) 

Affirm'ance, n. Confirmation; declaration; — op¬ 
posed to repeal. 

(Law.) The confirmation by the party acting of a 
voidable act. 

Alfirni'ant, n. One who affirms. 

{Law.) A person who makes affirmation under the 
penalties of perjury. — See Affirmation. 

Afiirma'tion, n. [Fr., from Lat. affirmatin.) The act 
of affirming; the thing affirmed; — confirmation; op¬ 
posed to repeal. 

{Law.) The solemn asseveration made by persons be¬ 
longing to the religious sect of Friends or Quakers, in 
cases where an oath is required from others. This indul¬ 
gence was first introduced by the statute 7 and 8 M ill. 

III. , chap. 34, explained and confirmed by 8 Geo. I., 
chap. 6, and -2 Geo. II., chap. 46, sec. 38. The absurd 
exceptions contained in these statutes, and restraining 
Quakers from giving evidence on their affirmation in 
criminal cases, was entirely removed by statute 9 Geo. 

IV. , chap. 32. — In America, all persons, under the pen¬ 
alties of perjury, are usually permitted to affirm, upon 
expressing their preference for this substitute of oath. 

Aflirin'ative, n. That side of a question which affirms; 
as, “ Ou this important question 3U senators voted in the 
affirmative, and 10 in the ?iegative.” 

Affirmative. a. That which affirms: as, an affirmw 
tive answer. — That which may he affirmed; as, an 
affirmative quantity. 

Affirmative Quantity. {Alg.) A quantity to be added, 
in contradistinction to one that is to he taken away. 

Affirmative, or Positive Sign. {Alg.) The sign of addi¬ 
tion marked +, meaning plus, or more. The early 
writers on algebra used the Latin word plus, or the 
Italian piA, to signify addition, and alterward the letter 
p, as an initial or abbreviation. 

Altirm'atively, adv. In an affirmative or positive 
manner. 

Aflirm'er. n. One who affirms. 

Affix, n. [Lat. af for ad, to, aud fign, I fix.] {Gram.) A 
term applied to a syllable added to the end of a word, by 
which the form and signification of the word are altered. 
Thus in the words wealt/i-y, weight-y, buV.-y. and in god¬ 
ly, odd-ly, &c., the syllables y and ly are the affixes, which 
qualify the meanings of the words to which they are at¬ 
tached, and fit them for a new aud different use; as, 
“ This man loves wealth; ” “ That is a wealthy merchant.” 
Verbs are in this way made from adjectives, as from the 
adjectives sharp, quick, thick, we have sharpen, quieten, 
thicken respectively; and adjectives and adverbs from 
nouns, as in the examples just given. — In the Latin and 
Greek, and many other languages, there is the same sys¬ 
tem of affixes of which we have given examples in the 
words weighty, bulky; and in these languages the dif¬ 
ferent cases of nouns, and adjectives, and the differenl 
tenses and persons of the verbs, are also formed by at 
fixes. The affix is also sometimes termed suffix, and potP 
fix. 

Aflix', v. a. To fix or unite; to attach; to fasten.—Te 
connect with; to subjoin; 

“ The teal of the elate U affixed to thie aou” 










AFFR 


AFGH 


A'FRA 


45 


AUi x'lo?% n The act of affixing, or the state of being 
affixed, (r.) 

AfHxt'ure, n. That which is affixed, (it.) 

Afila'tion, n. 'file act of breathing upon anything. 

AfHa'tiis, n. [Lat. afflatus, a blast, a breath, and in a 
figurative sense, inspiration, enthusiasm.] A term which, 
among the ancients, denoted the supposed inspiration 
of particular persons, such as poets. It Inis been some¬ 
times used in the same sense by English writers: “The 
prophetic afflatus ” 

(Med.) A vapor or blast, a species of erysipeiac, which 
attacks people suddenly. So named from the erroneous 
supposition that it was produced by some unwholesome 
wind blowing on the part. 

Afll iet', v. a. [Fr. affliger.] To trouble; to grieve; to 
cause pain or sorrow. — Usage has restricted this verb to 
things of the mind, or prolonged pains of the body. 
When the casual and intentional wounding of the body 
is spoken of, inflict is used; as, to inflict a wound. — 
Man inflicts, but God only afflicts. 

Afilict'cd, p. a. Visited with pain or sorrow: grieved. 

Affiiet'eduess, n. The state of being afflicted; grief; 
sorrow. 

AfHict'er, n. One who afflicts. 

AHliet'ing;, p. a. Causing affliction; grievous. 

A 111 irt ingly, adv. In an afflicting manner. 

Alilic'tion, n. The state of being afflicted, or the cause 
of pain or sorrow ; calamity. — See Afflict. 

Afilic'tive, a. That which causes affliction. 

Attlic'tively, adv. Painfully. 

Affluence, n. [Fr. from Lat. affluentia.] In older Eng¬ 
lish this word applied to the physical inflow of water, 
as of the tide, and the arrival of anything in large num¬ 
bers, as, an affluence of strangers. It is now commonly 
used for a great abundance of resources; plenty; 
wealth. — It expresses the aggregate rather than the 
process of an inflowing abundance. 

Af'fluency, n. The same as Affluence, (o.) 

Affluent, n. (Geog.) A stream or river that flows into 
another river; so, the Ohio is an affluent to the Missis¬ 
sippi. 

Affluent, a. Abundant in wealth; plentiful; exuber¬ 
ant; wealthy. — Sometimes with its primary sense: flow¬ 
ing to any part; as, affluent blood. 

Af fluently, adv. In an affluent manner. 

Afflux, n. [Lat. afflun, to flow to.] The act of flowing, 
or the thing which flows to; accession; augmentation; 
increase; addition. 

“ The afflux of colder or warmer water."— Locke. 

A fill! x'ieu.n. The act of flowing to a particular place; 
that which flows from one place to another; as, an af¬ 
flux nm of blood from the heart to the head. — Some¬ 
times also employed as afllux. 

Affog'a'dos, a village of Brazil, prov. of Pernambuco, 
Z l /± miles S. of the town of this name, with a harbor suit- 
al >Te for large vessels. Trade, cotton and sugar. Pup. 1000. 

Afford', v. a. [Lat. ad, to, and forum,, market.] To bring 
to market, or to bring forward in court. Hence, gen¬ 
erally, to produce according both to moral and natural 
productions; as, the sun affords light, the sea affords fish, 
the fields corn; a well-spent life affords peace at the 
last. — To produce, confer, expand in proportion to one’s 
means and resources; as, to afford relief or consolation ; 
to afford opportunity, &c. — To be able to bear, to part 
with, or to dispose of; as. I cannot afford to buy it. 

Affbr'esf, v.a. [From L. hAt.afforesio.] (Law.) To turn 
ground into a forest. 

Aflr an'cllise, v. a. [Fr. affrancldr.} To make free; 
to enfranchise. Applied to individuals and boroughs. 

Affran'cliisemeiit, n. [Fr. affranchissement .] The 
act of making free; enfranchisement. — See Emancipa¬ 
tion, and Slavery. 

Affray', n. [From Fr. effrayer, to affright,] (Law.) A 
skirmish or fighting between two or more persons. It 
is a pul die offence to the terror of the community, and 
so called because it affrights or makes persons afraid; 
but there must be a stroke given or offered, or a weapon 
drawn, otherwise it is not an affray. — It differs from as¬ 
sault in that it is a wrong to the public, while an assault 
is of a private nature; and from a riot in not being pre¬ 
meditated. 

Affre', Denis Auguste, a French student at the semi¬ 
nary of St. Sulpice, who rose to be archbishop of Paris. 
B. at St. Remy, 171)3; d. 1848. — Afire fell while endeav¬ 
oring to prevent bloodshed between the soldiery and Pa¬ 
risian insurgents. Although previously warned by Gen¬ 
eral Cavaignac of the danger to be apprehended from 
appearing among an excited mob, he replied, that 
“ his life was of small consequence,” and, preceded by a 
man in a workman’s dress, with a green branch, as an 
emblem of peace, in his hand, he went forth to stay the 
fury of the combatants. Some of the crowd who beheld 
him thought they were betrayed, and he was soon shot 
down. When he fell, he was surrounded by many of the 
insurgents, who blamed the Garde Mobile for the act, 
and on whom they vowed to avenge him. He, however, 
exclaimed, “No, no, my friends, blood enough has been 
shed; let mine be the last on this occasion.” He was 
buried on the 7th of July, 1848, universally regretted by 
the people. 

Affreet', n. See Afrit. 

Affreight', v.a. [Fr. friter.] To hire a ship for freight. 

Affright', v. a. [A. S. aforhtian, to tremble with fear.] 
To put in a sudden fear by some external and sudden 
exhibition; to terrify; to startle. 

Affright', n. Terror; fear, denoting a sudden impres¬ 
sion, in opposition to fear, which implies a long contin¬ 
uance. 

A ffriirtit'edl v. adv. With terror or sudden fear. 

* Affright'er. n. One who frightens. 

Alfriglit'inent, n. The same as affright. (R.) 


Affront', v. a. [Fr. affronter.] To insult ooenly; to 
offend; to treat with insolence. 

Attront', n. An open insult, as distinguished from a 
secret or insidious attack by word or deed; an abuse; a 
provocation; outrage. 

Affrontee', a. [Lat. af for 
a</, to, and from, iiice; Fr. \ 
affmnte.] (Her.) A term ap¬ 
plied to animals facing each 
other on an escutcheon.—The 
French word affrmte is also 
often used in Eng. Heraldry. 

Aflront'er, n. One who af¬ 
fronts. 

Affront'ing', and Affront- 
ive, a. That occasions or 
causes an affront. 

Affuse', v. a. [Lat. affundo.\ 

To pour one thing upon an¬ 
other. 



Fig. 42. — affrontee. 


Affu'siom, n. The act of pouring a liquor upon some¬ 
thing. 

(Med.) The affusion of cold water on the head or body 
of patients is sometimes practised with success by phy¬ 
sicians, especially in the treatment of typhus fever, when 
the fever is ot a low contagious character and in its early 
stage. 


Affy', v. a. [0. Fr. offer, to pledge one’s word.] To join 
by contract; to affiance; to bind: to join. 

Afghanistan, in 1887, the actual boundary of A. 
was fixed by treaty bet. Gt.Britain and Russia, but.tmay 
be described as a country of Asia, stretching from the 
mountains of Tartary to the Arabian sea. and from the 
Indus to the confines of Persia. On the E. it is bounded 
by the Punjab; on the S. by Scinde, Beloochistan, and 
Bwhalpoor; on the N. by'Independent Turkestan; and 
on the W. by Persia. — Area, estimated 225,000 square 
miles.— -Dcsc. By far the greatest part of this region is 
mountainous. To the W. of the Soliman mountains, 
which maybe regarded as its eastern barrier,it assumes 
the character of an extensive table-land, considerably' 
elevated above the neighboring countries. The Hindoo 
Coosh mountains, which form its northern bulwark, are 
a continuation of the great Himalaya chain, of which 
they are the rivals in height, massiveness, and grandeur. 
Some of their peaks attain to an elevation of 20,4u3 feet. 
The interior mountain-ranges diminish in proportion to 
their distance from the principal chain, and, bosomed 
among them, are to be found some of the most fertile 
and beautiful valleys in the world In these, vegetation 
is of the same kind as that of India generally; consist¬ 
ing of cotton, rice, millet, maize, turmeric, and sugar¬ 
cane. In the higher lands, the various species of the 
fruits, herbs, and woods of Europe grow wild, and wheat, 
barley, beans, turnips, and several artificial grasses, are 
cultivated with success. — Hirers. The principal are the 
Cabul, Koorum, Helmund, Krshrood, Gonial, and Lora, 
all partaking, more or less, of the character of mountain 
torrents, — now swelling and rushing rapidly, or be¬ 
coming all but stagnant in some parts, in accordance 
with the changes of the seasons. — Climate. According 
to its latitude, it should be decidedly hot, but, on account 
of the irregularity and height of its surface, the climate 
varies. — Inhabitants. A robust, hardy race, of Caucas- 
sian origin, generally addicted to predatory warfare, 
and evincing a decided contempt for the occupations 
of civil life. Their language is called Pachtoo, half 



Fig. 43. — Afghan soldier, in winter costume. 


of the words of which are Persian. — Gov. A limited 
monarchy, before the death of Shah Soojali, but since 
then the country has been divided into three indepen¬ 
dent states. Cabul. Candahar, and Herat, each governed 
by its own chief.— Towns. The principal are Candahar, 
Herat, Peshawar, Jellalabad. Glmznee, and Cabul.— 
Manf. Woollen stuffs, carpet, silk, felt, sword-blades, 
fire-arms, and jewelry. — Commerce. By caravans: cam¬ 
els in the plains: asses and mules in the mountains.— 
Fxp. Iron, assafopfida, madder, tobacco, furs, horses, raw 
silk, an intoxicating drug called churns, gum, dried 
fruits, spices; saffron, antimony, cochineal, and other 


dyeing materials; shawls and turbans, Mooltanee 
chintzes, and indigo.— Pel. Mahometanism.— Pop. about 
5,000.000.—Lat. between 28° and 30° N.; Lon. between 
62° and 73° E.—The Afghans seem to have, at all times, 
manifested a strong predilection for war, and all the 
foreign invasions which sw'ept the plains of Hindos- 
tan previous to the advent of the British on the shores 
of India proceeded from A. The greatest rulers of A, 
in modem times were Ahmed Khan (1730-1772), wdio 
liberated his country from Persia, and Dost Mohammed 
(1829-1863), who, not without glory, long resisted a 
British invasion ; defeated the Persians, and ultimately 
took possession of Herat. The ambition of England 
has alwa.vs been to establish a distinct and paramount 
influence in A., and so to shut to Russia the three great 
highways which connect A. with India. With that aim, 
British armies have several times invaded A., but these 
expeditions, though attended with easy victories, have 
always proved a failure. In 1878 again, the English 
government having sent to Shere Ali, one of the sons 
of Dost Mohammed, and then the ruler of Cabul, a 
mission so numerous as to look rather like an army than 
an embassy, the Ameer refused to receive it, and before 
long the mission turned into an invasion. Cabul and 
Candahar were occupied, and on May 5, 1879, Yakoob 
Khan, who had just succeeded his father Shere Ali, 
signed the treaty of Gaudamak. by which he agreed to 
admit a British representative to reside in Cabul. Soon 
after a popular rising took place in Cabul. and on Sept. 3, 
1879, Sir Louis Cavagnari and his staff of 86 men were 
murdered. Cabul was then entered again, and Yakcob 
Khan, accused of complicity in the massacre, was sent 
as a prisoner to India. Abdurrahman Khan, who suc¬ 
ceeded as ruler, was maintained by British influence. 
A dispute arising as to the boundary of A., in the Pamir 
mountain region, Russia seized this legion in 1.S95. 
Abdurrahman Kahu died Oct. 3, 1901, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by Habibulla Khan. 



Fig. 44. — Candahar. 


Afield', adv. [From a and field.} To. or in the field. 

“What keeps Gurth so long afield f" —IF. Scoth 

A'fionii afioom, or afium), or Ua'ra 18 is'sar. [Ar. 
from afium, the opium poppy, and Kara Inssar. the 
black castle.] A town of Asia Minor, 50 m. S.S.E. of 
Kutaieh, built on the southern sideofa fertile plain,about 
200 miles E. of Smyrna.— Manuf Fire-arms, sabres, and 
tapestry: but the principal articles of trade are opium 
and madder, which are raised in the neighborhood. Pop, 
about 20,000. Lat. 50° N., ion. 38° E. 

Afire', adv. [From a and fire.] On fire. 

Afloat', adv. [ From a sad float.] Borne up by the water; 
floating. Figuratively, adrift; abroad; at sea. — Loose; 
distracted. 

Afoot', adv. On the feet; walking, in opposition to rid¬ 
ing; — hence, in action; in motion. 

Afore', prep. [A. S. iitforan.] Precedent in time or 
space: sooner; before. 

(Mar.) The French avant. All that part of the vessel 
which lies forward, or near the stem. — Afore the mast, 
a phrase applied to a common sailor who holds no office 
on board a ship. 

Afore'goins;, n. Going before. 

Afore'hand, adv. Beforehand. 

Afore'mentioned, a. Mentioned before. 

Afore'named, a. Named before. 

Afore'said, a. Above, or before said. 

Afore'thought, a. (Law.) Prepense; premeditated. 

Afore'time, adv. In the time before; in the old time. 

A fortio'ri. [Lat., with stronger reason.] (Log.) A term 
employed in a chain of reasoning, to denote that what 
follows is a more powerful argument than that which 
has already been adduced. 

41 Any private person, and a fortiori a peace officer, is bound tqi 
arre9t a felon.” 

Afoul', a. and adv. (Naut.) Not free; entangled. 

Afra'. St. Dedicated by her mother to the service of the 
Cyprian Venus, she was converted to Christianity by the 
bishop Narcissus, sentenced to death during the perse¬ 
cution of Christians by Diocletian, and burned on the 
stake. B at Augsburg: D. Aug. 7, 304. 

Afra'gola. a town of South Italy, 6 miles N.N.E. of 
Naples. Large manuf. of straw bonnets. Pop. 13,000. 

Afraid', a. [A. S. offered, to frighten.] Expresses all 
degrees of fear between the most trifling apprehension 
and the highest consternation; fearful; apprehensive; 
timid; cautious; careful; frightened; alarmed; terrified. - 
suspicious; distrustful; anxious. 

“There loathing life, and yet of death afirxii. 

In anguish of her spirit thus she prayed — Drydcn, 






























40 


AFRI 


AFRI 


AFRI 


AA*ancesa'<los, n. [Sp.] The name given to the Span¬ 
iards who took the oath of fidelity and allegiance to Jo¬ 
seph Bonaparte and the constitution of Bayonne. They 
were treated with great severity by Ferdinand VII. after 
his restoration in 1814. In 1820, however, a general 
pardon was granted. 

Afra'nia, the inventor of the bassoon. lie flourished 
at Ferrara in the 16th century. 

Afra'nins, acornic poet, who wrote some Latin comedies, 
of which only a few fragments remain. — Flourished 
about 100 years B. c. 

Afranios, a senator of Rome, who was put to death by 
Nero for having written a satire against him. 

A t ree'll is. a clan of Afghans, who inhabit the Kyber 
hills, on the frontiers of the Punjab and Cabul. They 
command the passes of their hills, and their maliks or 
chiefs hold themselves entitled to levy a toll on those 
who would pass with safety through their country. 
They are a warlike, determined race of clansmen. 

Afresh', adv. [0. Fr., fresh.] Anew; again; a second time. 

Africa. One of the great divisions of the globe, and 
the third in superficial extent. Our limits are too 
narrow to permit anything more than a sketch of the 
geography of this continent, exhibiting merely an out¬ 
line of the existing state of knowledge on the subject, 
and by turning to the separate articles relating to this 
continent, the readers will find under each head of 
country, city, river, &c., the latest and best information 
that we have been able to collect. 

1. History. — The name Africa , probably of native 
origin, was given by the Romans to ono of their African 
provinces, which comprehended the city of Carthage; 
but the real name of this continent, both in the Greek 
and Roman writers, is Libya. Herodotus, the earliest 
Greek author extant who has transmitted to us any in¬ 
formation about A., calls the native tribes in the north¬ 
ern part by the general name of Libyaus, and those in 
the south Ethiopians. Egypt, according to this system, 
hardly belongs to A., but lies, like an isolated slip, be¬ 
tween the two adjacent countries. He asserts, never¬ 
theless, that A. is surrounded with water, except at the 
narrow neck now called the Isthmus of Suez. When 
the Greeks were settled in Bgypt under Ptolemy, one 
of Alexander’s captains, B. c 323. they necessarily be¬ 
came better acquainted with the Red Sea and the course 
of the Nile. We have in Pliny a distinct account of 
Suetonius Paulinus, A. D. 41, crossing the great moun¬ 
tains of Atlas, and going some distance south; and, in 
Ptolemy, we have an account of a Roman officer, Mater- 
nus, who set out from the neighborhood of Tripoli, and 
went a four months’ march in the southern direction. 
This route must have brought him into the latitude of 
Timbuctoo, and if the story is true, the Niger might 
have been thus known to the Romans. On the occupa¬ 
tion of Egypt by the Arabs, in the seventh century of 
our sera, and the spreading of this conquering people 
through A., the regions south of the Sahara soon be¬ 
came known to them, and felt the influence of their 
religion and their armies. At the beginning of the 15th 
eentury, nevertheless, the only portion of the westcoast 
of A. with which European navigators were acquainted 
was that between the Straits of Gibraltar and Cape 
Nun or Non, in lat. 28° 40', an extent of not more than 
600 miles. From this point commenced that career of 
discovery, by the Portuguese, by which the entire coast 
of A. has been made known to the modern world. In 
1432 or 1433 the formidable promontory, since known 
by the name of Cape Bojador, lat. 26° 20', was doubled 
by Gilianez. In 1447, the Cape Verde islands were dis¬ 
covered by Antonio di Noli, a Genoese in the Portuguese 
service. In 1471, John de Santarem and Pedro de Esca- 
lona advanced as far as Cape St. Catharine, lat. 2° 30' S. 
In 1486 Bartholomew Diaz discovered the Cape of Good 
Hope, which was doubled by Vasco de Gama in 1497. 



Fig. 45.— vasco de oama. 


This great navigator, continuing his voyage to the 
north east, reached the straits of Bab el Mandeb at the 


entrance of the Red Sea, so completing the circumnavi¬ 
gation of the whole extent of the A. coast. — In addition 
to this acquaintance with the coast, the Portuguese, in 
course of time, formed various establishments in the 
space lying between the Senegal and the Gambia, along 
the banks of the Zaire, and in other parts of Congo. 
Finally, this nation very soon, also, established them¬ 
selves along the east coast of A. by the conquest of 
Quiloa, Melinda, &c., from the Arabs, 1505.— It is said 
that in 1364, long before Cape Nun was passed by the 
Portuguese, the French had already formed settlements 
very far to the south of that cape, but all these estab¬ 
lishments were successively abandoned, except those of 
the Senegal. Several journeys into the interior were 
undertaken by the French residents at the mouth of 
the Senegal about the close of the 17th and the com¬ 
mencement of the 18th century. The most important 
of these were the voyages of M. Brue, who ascended 
the river Senegal as far as to the cataract of Felu. In 
1714, M. Compaguon succeeded in the perilous under¬ 
taking of visiting the kingdom of Bambouk; and the 
kingdom of Gallam, which occupies the space between 
the Senegal and the Sahara, was early explored by the 
French settlers. — Settlements upon the west coast of 
A. were also early made, in imitation of the Portuguese 
and French, first by the English and afterwards by Ihe 
Butch. But no considerable progress was made t ill the 
first journey of Park, 1795-1796, who, passing through 
the kingdoms of Bondou, Kasson, and Kaarta, reached 
Sego. the capital of Bambarra, and there beheld the 
Niger ‘flowing slowly to the eastward.’’ Park ad¬ 
vanced beyond this point to another town named Silla, 
on the same river, and returned to the Gambia by a 
more southerly tract, following the course of the Niger 
as far as Bammakoo, and then proceeding through the 
mountainous districts of Manding, Konkodoo, and Din- 
dikoo. On a second expedition, which was undertaken 
at Ihe expense of the English government, 1805, this ’ 
adventurous traveller was killed on the Niger. — In 
these dangerous enterprises there appear, in succes¬ 
sion, the names of Capt. Turkey, who ascended the 
Niger for about 280 miles; Bowditch, who in 1817 
explored parts of the territories of the Fan tees and the 
Ashantees; Clapperton, who in 1822 reached .'ackatoo, 
where he died; and Richard Lander, who in 1830 suc¬ 
ceeded in discovering the mouth of the Niger. At an 
earlier date (1768-73) James Bruce penetrated Abys¬ 
sinia, travelling from Massowah to the head waters of 
the Blue Nile, then believed to be the source of that 
great river. This was the first scientific journey into the 
interior.—The zeal for discovery in Africa, so strongly 
felt in the last century, sent also out a succession of 
travelers to explore the southern regions of that vast 
continent. The principal settlement in this quarter, 
that of the Cape of Good Hope, was founded by the 
Dutch about 1650, and taken from them by the British 
in 1806. For more than a hundred years this colony 
occupied only the extreme angle of the A. continent. 
The first traveller who penetrated any considerable way 
into the interior was Capt. Henri Hop, who was followed 
by the Swede Sparrman, and by the French naturalist 
Vaillant, whose journeys were made between 1775 and 
1785, and extended to the territory of Bosjesmaus, three 
or four hundred miles north from Cape Town. In 1836, 
Andrew Smith sealed the Caffrarian mountains, and in 
1837, Capt. Alexander traversed the countries of the 
Natnaqnas, Bosjesmans, and the Hill-Damaras. In 1849, 
Dr. Livingstone departed on his first journey, and to 
him credit is due for most valuable contributions to 
our geographical knowledge of southern Africa. He 
disclosed to us the true country of the negro race, traced 
the vast Kalahari desert, tracked the course of the great 
river Zambezi, discovered lakes N’gami, Nyassa, and 
Shirwa, and indicated new fields for commmercial enter¬ 
prise. After him Stanley, whose career of exploration 
began in a search for Dr. Livingstone, added immensely 
to our knowledge of Central Africa, his greatest achieve¬ 
ment being the identification of the Lualaba, discovered 
by Livingstone, with the Congo, and the exploration of 
this great river throughout its course. In 1851, Dr. Barth 
made a notable journey across the Sahara to Lake Tchad. 
The discovery of the great lakes of Central Africa was due 
to a succession of explorers, Tangauika being reached 
by Bartou and Speke in 1858; Victoria N’yauza by Speke 
in 1858; Albert N’yanza by Baker in 1864, and Albert 
Edward N’yanza by Stanley in 1889. The lakes of the 
Zambezi and Congo systems were discovered by Living¬ 
stone between 1858 and 1868. Little now remains to be 
discovered of the interior of this once “ Dark Continent.” 

II. Topography. —This enormous peninsula is attached 
to the Asiatic continent by the Isthmus of Suez; but at 
two other points, the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and that 
of Gibraltar, it approaches close to the respective conti¬ 
nents of Asia and Europe. Its area is 11,290,030 sq. m. 
The equator cuts it into two parts of unequal magni¬ 
tude, though the extreme southern and northern coasts 
are, on an average, pretty nearly removed the same dis¬ 
tance from the equinoctial line. It lies between S. lat. 
35° at Cape Agulhas, and N. lat. 38° at Cape Bon, and 
between YV. Ion. 17° 40' at Cape Verde, and E. Ion. 50° 
20' at Cape Guardafui. Its greatest length, from the 
Cape of Good Hope to Cape Bon, is about 4,475 m.; its 
greatest breadth, from Cape Verde to Cape Guardafui, 
is about 4,225 m. — The geographical position and coast¬ 
line of A. are characterized by lying, for the most part, 
within the tropics, and by the comparatively few deep 
indentations of the coast. Its northern shores are 
washed by the Mediterranean, and are the most irregu¬ 
lar part of the African coast, presenting the indentations 
of the Arabian Gulf, the large gulf of Sidra, and that of 
Cabes. Only one river of any considerable magnitude, 


the Nile, flows from the African continent into the 
Mediterranean, but this is one of the most singular 
streams in the world, whose course the traveller may 
follow from the coast into the interior for over >200 
miles, without meeting with one single current that 
adds its waters to it. The Atlantic washes the western 
coast of A., which, within the dominions of Morocco, 
is generally low, and succeeded in the interior by 
fertile plains of immense extent. South of this region, 
the arid character of the Sahara is found extending 
even to the shores of the ocean, and hardly disap¬ 
pearing before we arrive at the Senegal From the 
Senegal to the Cape of Good Hope the coast is now 
pretty well known, but the same minuteness of survey 
lias not been applied to all parts of it. The great char¬ 
acteristic in its outline is the gulf of Guinea, the north¬ 
ern shores of which have a general direction east and 
west through 20° Ion. The Senegal, Gambia, and Rio 
Grande are the three largest rivers north of Sierra 
Leone. The great African river, south of the equator, 
is the Zaire, or Congo. Between the Congo and Cape 
Negro there are numerous streams, such as the great 
Coanza, and others which are of minor importance. 
From Cape Negro to the Orange river, which is a large 
stream, we have a coast of 800 to 900 miles, almost 
without fresh water. — The Cape Colony is so far 
known, that its geographical features need not bo no¬ 
ticed in this general sketch. From False Bay to the 
extremity of Algoa Bay is a line of coast over 400 
miles long, running nearly due east and west, and pre¬ 
senting to the Southern ocean as broad a front as the 
Spanish peninsula offers to the Atlantic.—South of the 
Zambesi, the great river of the Eastern coast, extensive 
ruins of great cities have been found, proving a once flour¬ 
ishing State, possibly ancient Phoenician settlements. 
Farther north on the coast other streams, of less import¬ 
ance, reach the sea. In its interior aspect Africa presents 
two well-marked divisions, the northern table-lands and 
the central and southern plateau. The former comprises 
the great Sahara region, largely, though by no means 
completely, a desert expanse. The plateau region, which 
begins to the north of Abyssinia, occupies neat ly all of 
Central and Southern Africa. The average elevation of 
this vast plateau is about 4000 feet. It descends on all 
sides by a series of terraces to the lowlands of the coast 
region. The great rivers generally rise within it, and 
descend from the highland region in a series of rapids 
and cataracts which preclude navigation.— Lakes. The 
great lakes of Africa lie principally along the eastern 
rim of the plateau, the N’yanzas forming part of the 
Nile system, Tanganyika and others being connected 
with the Congo, and Nyassa with the Zambezi. Lake 
Tchad drains a basin in the Central Soudan, its over¬ 
flow passing into the desert. Salt lakes are of frequent 
occurrence in the area of the Continental drainage. 
Perhaps the most remarkable is the Assal lake, which lies 
in a depression east of Abyssinia, 600 feet below the level 
of the Red Sea. Soudan, the Saraha, of the countries 
under the general name of Atlas regions, of the high 
lands of the ancient Oyrenaica, and the desert of Barca, 
will be found under their respective names.— Minerals. 
Salt is widely distributed, but in the Soudan is wholly 
wauting. Gold is found chiefly in South Africa, and 
since about 1885 has been profitably worked, especially 
so in the Transvaal; the formation consists chiefly of 
agrillaceous elates, and schists, sandstones and con¬ 
glomerates. Copper exists in large quantities. The 
diamond fields in the districts of the Vaal and Orange 
rivers, north of Cape Colony, have the most abundant 
yield, beyond all other diamond fields put together, 
quite eclipsing those of India and Brazil; they were 
discovered in 1869 and up to 1897 the total out-put of 
precious stones of all kinds was estimated at over 5 
tons in weight, valued at more than $300,000,000. 

III. Meteorolouy. — Africa lies almost entirely in the 
torrid zone, arid is the hottest of all continents. The great¬ 
est heat, however, is not found under the equator, but 
to the north of it, in consequence of the northern por¬ 
tion being of greater extent than the southern, and of 
less elevation. The greatest temperature is found 
throughout the Sahara. In Upper Egypt and Nubia 
eggs may be baked in the hot sands, and the saying of 
the Arabs is, “In Nubia the soil is like fire and the 
wind like flame.” The regions along the Mediterra¬ 
nean and Atlantic coasts are rendered more temperate 
by the influence of the sea. To the south of the Great 
Desert, where the country becomes more elevated, the 
temperature decreases, and some spots, quite near the 
equator, reach the altitude of permanent snow. Regu¬ 
lar snowfall, however, does not occur even in the most 
southern or northern regions. — Winds. —A. is not much 
under the influence of the regular winds, except the 
monsoons of the Indian ocean. The north is much 
exposed to the hot winds and storms from the Sahara, 
which are called in Egypt khamsin, in the Mediter¬ 
ranean sirocco, and in the western regions harmotton. 
Extreme heat and dryness are the characteristics of 
these winds, which, raising the sand, filling the air 
with dust, and favoring the powers of evaporation, are 
often fatal to the vegetable and animal creation.— 
Rain. The Sahara and the Kalihari of southern Africa 
are almost rainless regions. The lateral regions of 
this continent, from the Kawara to the Senegal, receive 
copious falls of rain with the S.E. trade-winds; but 
the largest supply of rain appears to be brought by 
the summer-monsoon on the east coast. This mon¬ 
soon, lasting from April to October, extends over the 
Indian ocean in a half-circle from S.E. to N.E. by W. 
From the latitude of Mozambique to the Equator it 
has a general direction from S.E., and there the chief 
rainy season is found during April, June, and July. 








AFRICA 


«. 


Area sq. m. 

11,250,001 

Pop..... 175,000,000 


COUNTRIES. 

Abyssinia.G 5 

Area sq. in. 

150,000 

Pop.3,600,000 

Algeria.D 2 

Area sq. in. 

184,474 

Pop.4,739,556 

Angolo.E 7 

Area sq. m. 

484,800 
Pop ... 4,119,000 

Azores Is.A 2 

Area sq. m.. .922 

Pop.256,291 

Basutoland....F 8 
Areasq. m.10,293 

Pop.218,902 

Bechuanalaud.F 8 
Area sq. m. 

380.000 

Pop.130,000 

British East 

Africa.G 5 

Area sq. ni. 

1,000,000 
Pop.... 10,000,000 
Br. Somalicoast 
H 5 

Area sq.m .60,000 

Pop.153,000 

Canary Is. ...B 3 
Area sq. m.2.807 

Pop.358,564 

Cape of Good 

Hope.F 9 

Area sq. m. 

221,311 

Pop.1,758,224 

Cape Verde Is A 9 
Area sq. m. 1,480 

Pop.147,424 

Dahomey.D 5 

Area sq.m.60,000 

Pop.1,000,000 

Egypt.G 3 

Area sq. m. 

400,000 

Pop.9,821,100 

Erythrea..H 4 

Area sq.m.88,500 

Pop.450,000 

French Guinea B 4 
Area sq.m.95,000 

Pop.2,200,000 

French Kongo E 6 
Area sq. m. 

450,000 

Pop.15,000,000 

German East 

Africa.G 6 

Area sq. m. 

384,000 

Pop.6,863,275 

German South¬ 
west Africa..E 8 
Area sq. m. 

322,450 

Top.205,462 

Gold Coast....C 6 
Area sq. m. 

119,260 

Pop.1,486,433 

Italian 

Somaliland.H 5 
Area sq. m. 

100.000 

Pop.400,000 

Ivory Coast...C 5 
Area sq. m. 

116,000 

Pop.2,000,000 

Kamerun.E 5 

Area sq. m. 

191,130 

Pop.3,500,000 

Kongo State..F 6 
Area sq. m. 

900,000 
Pop.... 30,000,000 

Lagos.D 5 

Area sq. m. 

28,910 

Pop.1,500,000 

Liberia.,C 5 

Area sq.m.35,000 
Pop.2.060,000 


Madagascar.. H T 
Area sq. m. 

227,950 

Pop.2,505,240 

Madeira.B 2 

Area sq. m.. .314 

Pop . 160,574 

Morocco.C 2 

Area sq. in. 

219,000 

Pop.9,400,000 

Natal.G 8 

Area sq.m.29,200 

Pop.969,384 

Nigeria. D 5 

Area sq. m. 

400,000 
Pop.... 25,000,000 
Orange River 

Colony.F 8 

Area sq.in.48,826 

Pop.207,503 

Portuguese East 

Africa.G 7 

Areasq. m. 

293,400 

Pop.3,120,000 

Rhodesia.F 7 

Area sq. m. 

312,000 

Pop.850,000 

Rio de Oro....B 3 
Area sq. m. 

243,000 

Pop.100,000 

Senegal.B 4 

Area sq. m. 

806,000 

Pop.4,523,000 

Sierra Leone.. B 5 
Area sq. m 4,000 

Pop.76,655 

Swaziland.G 8 

Area sq. m 8,500 

Pop..70,000 

Togoland.D 5 

Area sq.m.33,700 

Pop.3,500,000 

Transvaal Colony 
F 8 

Area sq. m. 

119,139 

Pop.1,094,156 

Tripoli.E 3 

Area sq. m. 

398.900 

Pop.1,000,000 

Tunis.D 2 

Area sq.m.51,000 

Pop.1,900,000 

Uganda.G 6 

Area sq.m.86.000 
Pop.4,000,000 


































































50K0TR* 
CBr. ^ 

_ nC. 

VO'uQrUafui 
















































































































































































AFRI 


AFRI 


AFRI 


41 


Vnder the equator the direction of the monsoon changes, 
and becomes S.YV. To these winds are to be ascribed 
the heavy falls of rain that drench the extensive plains 
and ascending grounds of the east horn of A. Farther 
inland they are broken uy the great Abyssinian table¬ 
lands, so that they do not extend beyond the strait of 
Bab-el-Mandeb, S.E. of which a great fall of rain conse¬ 
quently occurs; to the N.\V.,on the other hand, scarcely 
any rain falls. The S.E. monsoon does not stop in the 
coast regions, but continues northward as far as lake 
Tchad and Iiordofan; in both regions its influences 
begin to be felt in May, or one month later than on the 
coast. 

IV. Human Species. — The southern regions of Africa 
are occupied by two nations, the Hottentots and Coffees. 
The Hottentots occupy the northern part of Cape Colony 
and the basin of Orange river. Their profile is hideous, 
and their foot is so singularly formed that they can be 
tracked by their marks. They are certainly the most indo¬ 
lent, helpless, and dirty of the human family. The 
Caffres differ both from the Hottentots and those whom 
we call Negroes. They are generally well’made and of 
rounded limb. In the useful arts of life, the Caffres are 
far above their Hottentot neighbors. They extend from 
Natal, on the southern coast, into the interior, probably 
as far as the tropics. — The most widely extended race in 
A. is the Negro or Ethiopian, observing that under this 
name we understand only the true negro race, which, 
whatever resemblance they may bear to the other dark 
races of Africa, still differ from them considerably in 
physical character and geographical distribution. Va¬ 
rieties of language, shades of complexion, &c., exist 
among them, yet we must recognize the whole Ethiopian 
race as forming a distinct and widely spread family. Be¬ 
ginning on the west coast with the Senegal river, which 
is the southern limit of the arid deserts, we find a race 
essentially different from those of Northern Africa. In 
the woolly hair, black skin, the profile of the face and 
forehead, the oblique insertion of the incisive teeth, the 
form of the pelvis, and the legs, we see the undoubted 
characteristics of a race peculiar to the A. continent. 
As war and the slave-trade have often transplanted the 
Negro from his localities in A., it is difficult to say what 
parts of the continent must be considered as his proper 
country, but it may be safely assumed that the Negro 
is on his native soil in all the regions that extend from 
Senegal southward, along the gulf of Guinea, and south 
of the equator as far as the sixteenth degree of latitude. 
— The desert of the Sahara, and the southern limits that 
border on Soudan, swarm with innumerable tribes of 
mixed races, and living a wandering life. They are not 
Arabs, but they havo adopted the religion of Mohammed. 
The most numerous and widely spread race of the desert 
are the Berbers.—The mountain regions of the Atlas, 
as well as the whole shores of the Mediterranean from 
the straits of Gibraltar to the Cyrenaic regions, have 
been subject to the invasion of conquerors ever since the 
earliest periods of history. The Phoenician, Greek, and 
Roman, Vaudals and Goths, and Arabs from Asia, have 
at different periods possessed portions of these regions, 
and mixed their blood with that of previous races. The 
Arab invasion has produced the most permanent effects, 
and that nation now occupies the most fertile parts of the 
Atlas region and the towns on the coast, and are gen¬ 
erally known to us by the incorrect appellation of Moors 
and Berbers. — The ruling race of Amhara and Tigre, 
who are included under the name of Abyssinians, must 
either belong to Arabic stock, or if they be considered 
as a separate, they are still a nearly related family. It is 
probable that the various peoples who occupy the widely 
spread Abyssinian provinces contain many varieties of 
the human species, the remnants of nations become ex¬ 
tinct, or the result of the intermixture of different races. 
The Arab race, which sometimes has mingled with negro 
and other races, now occupies a large part of the coun¬ 
tries north of Abyssinia as far as the Mediterranean; but 
the population of the Nile basin is of a very motley 



Fig. 46. — mubians. 


character. The Copts, or descendants of the Egyptians, 
are reduced to a small number; and of all the conquerors 
or settlers in Egypt, none have stamped their physical 
and moral character so strongly on the country as the 
followers of the Prophet. The Mohammedan religion 
has spread over at least one third of the continent: and j 
I0in< of its precepts und practices seem well adapted toj 


win the favor of the indolent and pleasure-loving ne¬ 
groes, among whom prevails the most disgusting Feti- 
chism.—The only African countries where Christianity is 
now established, excepting the few European settle¬ 
ments, are Egypt and Abyssinia. In Egypt it is confined 
to the Copts, and in Abyssinia both its doctrines and 
precepts are as ill understood as they are obeyed.— The 
Jews are found in the Samen of Abyssinia, in Egypt, and 
indeed scattered as far west as the kingdom of Morocco. 
They do not seem to have established themselves south 
of the Sahara.—The Arabic is the only character that 
is now used in Africa by those who wish to read and 
write, except those employed by the people of Tigre and 
Amhara. Its use is, however, limited to very few in Sou¬ 
dan, where it is only great doctors who can read and 
write. — The Berber and Shelluh tongues are spoken in 
the Barbary states, and along the Atlas mountains. The 
Mandingo language is used from the Senegal to the Jo- 
liba. On the western coast, a corrupt Portuguese is 
heard: in the regions of Abyssinia, the TigrS and Am¬ 
hara tongues prevail. The languages of the blacks are 
as multifarious as the nations. In Sahara alone, 43 dia¬ 
lects are said tc be spoken. But of all the 150 languages 
said to be spoken in A., we are hardly acquainted with 70. 

V. Zoology. — In the animal kingdom, A. seems 
richer than any other quarter of the globe. It can enu¬ 
merate five times as many species of quadrupeds as Asia, 
and three times as many as all America. It excels Asia 
in the size of its colossal river-horse (hippopotamus), 
gigantic giraffe, and large antelopes and apes. That giant 
of birds, the ostrich, is exclusively indigenous to Africa. 
But the most beneficial gift of nature to the African is 
the camel, the constitution of which is in every respect 
adapted to the country and climate. Of the quadrumana, 
there are 55 species, among which the most interesting is 
the Chimpanzee, and the most wonderful is the ferocious 
Gorilla discovered by the dramatic traveller M.duChaillu. 
Among the other animais are the elephant and rhi noceros, 
the lion, panther, leopard, ounce, jackal, hyena, wolf, fox, 
dog,cat, mongus, bat, rat, marmot (carta capensis), hare, 
rabbit, jerboa, porcupine, hedgehog, mole, civet-cat, ich¬ 
neumon, bear, horse, ass, zebra, zebu, sheep, goat, innu¬ 
merable varieties of the gazelle, the buffalo, fallow-deer, 
the roe, swine, emgalos, babyroussa, and other quadru¬ 
peds, whose natural history has been as yet by no means 



Fig. 47. — zebu. 


sufficiently investigated; even theproblematical unicorn 
is still said to exist in the interior. The varieties of birds 
are equally numerous; among which is the crown-bird, 
the most beautiful of the feathered tribes; the flamingo, 
kingfisher, pelican, and many kinds of parrots; the pea¬ 
cock, partridge, pheasant, widow and cardinal-bird; the 
cuckoo, the cuculus indicator, turtle-doves, pigeons,ducks, 
geese, &c. The class of reptiles comprises the crocodile and 
boa-constrictor, with many other serpents, some iunox- 
ious.otliers highly poisonous. The bays and ri vers abound 
in fish, but the variety of the species is not so great as 
in the northern seas, and many of the most useful are 
entirely wanting. The shrubs and earth swarm with 
termites, ants, scolopendras, spiders and caterpillars, 
while passing armies of locusts obscure the sun like 
clouds. The most beautiful insects abound. 

VI. Botany. — To the traveller who passes from the 
south of Europe to Tangier, the appearance of the Afri¬ 
can coast presents nothing remarkably different from 
what he has left in Europe; and along the whole of the 
most northern shores so great a similarity continues to 
be preserved, that he may fancy himself still in South 
Spain or Italy. But as soon as the chain of Atlas is 
passed, the scene begins to change; the excessive dry¬ 
ness of the climate on the northern Ixirders of the Great 
Desert is such, that few trees,except the date, can main¬ 
tain an existence. It is, however, in this arid region, 
where rain seldom falls, that the groves of date palms 
form a screen impervious to the rays of the sun, and 
cherish beneath their shade, the orange, the lemon, the 
pomegranate, and the vine, the latter of which climbs to 
the summit of their trunks by means of its twisted ten¬ 
drils. Although reared in constant shade, all these fruits 
acquire a more delicious flavor than in what would seem 
a more favorable climate. — In Egypt, the European 
plants begin to disappear; in the districts still watered 
by the Nile, we find all the richness of vegetation of the 
spring months of Barbary: abundance of rice, barley, 
and wheat: rich fields of sugar-cane: olives.figs, vines, 
and plantains that have been introduced: while in the 
hotter or drier, or more southern, the date is the chief 


object of the scenery. In 
the richer parts of the 
country we find the 
acacias which produce 
gum-arabic, large tama¬ 
risk-trees, called atle, 
great quantities of the 
senna plant ( Cassia ob- 
tusifolia and other spe¬ 
cies), intermixed with 
various herbs belonging 
to tropical genera. Cot¬ 
ton, coffee, indigo, and 
tobacco are cultivated 
with the greatest suc¬ 
cess. In Abyssinia are 
first found species of 
the ginger tribe ( Scita - 
minecc), in the form of 
cardamoms.which after¬ 
ward become a feature 
of African vegetation F '3- 48.—PHtENix dactylieera, 
within the tropics. — In (The Date-tree.) 

the equinoctial parts of 

Africa all trees if European vegetation, and even the date- 
tree itself, disappear; where moisture exists in sufficient 
abundance to favor vegetation, the flora partakes in a 
certain degree, particularly on the east side, of the plants 
of India, but is to a much greater extent composed of 
species peculiar to itself. The landscape is characterized 
by masses of the unwieldy Baobab ( Adansnnia), huge 
cotton-trees (Bornbax pentandrum), large gramineous 
plants with branching stems, sago palms (Bogus ruphia), 
and others of the same majestic tribe. In some places 
the woods abound in pine-apples, which, although not 
natives of the continent, have established themselves as 
completely as in their native stations in tropical Amer¬ 
ica. With the general nature of the vegetation change 
also the species that are cultivated for the food of man. 
In the tropical regions of Africa, no waving fields of 
corn reward the labors of the husbandman; the vine is 
unknown, the figs are of other and of useless species, 
and of all the northern fruits the orange and the lima 
alone remain. In their stead the cassava (latropha 
manihot ), the yam ( Dioscorea ), the pigeon-pea ( CytisuX 
cajan ), and the ground-nut ( AracHs hypogaa), are the 
farinaceous plants; the papaw (Carica papaya), the 
tamarind, and the nitta or doura-tree (Parkia Afro 
conn), are the fruits in some places; the Senegal cus¬ 
tard apple ( Anona Senegalensis), the gray plum (Pari* 
narium), and the Safu, in others; and the bread-fruit 
of Polynesia is represented by a large tree called mu- 
sanga, the seeds of which are as agreeable as hazelnuts. 
As we approach the southern point of this continent, a 
new change passes over the lace of nature; tropical 
plants disappear as they have formerly appeared, not 
however to find their places occupied by the plants of 
the north, but to contemplate an order of vegetable 
life so different, that its very genera had been pre¬ 
viously unseen. The Karroos of the Cape Colon)’ are 
the residence of fleshy, leafless, distorted, shapeless 
tribes of Stapelias, of Mesembryunthemums, Euphor¬ 
bias. Crassulas, Aloes, and other succulent plants, each 
holding to the soil by the weak support of a single, 
w’iry root, and feeding rather upon the dews of heaven 
than the moisture of the soil, — a situation to which 
they are admirably adapted by the want or imperfect 
6tate of their evaporating pores, so that whatever humid¬ 
ity they are able to collect is parted with as slowly as 
the limited supply is furnished to them. Among these 
grow stunted bushes of endless species of heath ( trica), 
and succulent geraniums (Pelargonium), strong-scented 
Buchu plants (Dinsma), and a great variety of shrubby 
Composites. The hills and rocks are scattered over with 
a remarkable tribe of plants called Cycadea:. interme¬ 
diate, as it were, between ferns and palms; the plains 
are permanently clothed with patches of a rush-like 
plant called Bestio. — At Cape Town has been intro¬ 
duced the American aloe, and the oaks and stone- 
pines of Europe have found a congenial climate. — Such 
are the more prominent features of the vegetation of 
Africa. Its islands partake more or less of the nature 
of the flora of the adjacent continent. 

VII. Political Divisions. —The earlier divisions of 
Africa in use by writers were merely geographical, the 
native political divisions being but little known. These 
divisions have been in great measure replaced by those 
adopted by colonizing nations. On the east Egypt extends 
far up the course of the Nile, its former districts of Nubia 
having been recently re-conquered. Abyssinia occupies 
the northeastern section of the plateau region. West¬ 
ward from it lie the Nubian districts of Seminar and 
Kordofan and the native states of Bar pur, Wadai, and 
Bagirmi. On the coast of Abyssinia is the Italian colony 
of Erythria, while south of the Gulf of Aden lies Somali 
Land, whose coast is in part claimed by France and 
Great Britain. British East Africa, a recent extensive 
division, extends on the coast from the river Juba to 
about 5° N. lat. and inland to Kordofan and Darfur. 
Adjoining it on the south and extending to the Rovuma 
River, lies German East Africa, a great area extending 
inland to Lake Tanganyika, and the Congo Free State. 
Further south extends the Portuguese district of Mozam¬ 
bique for about 1000 miles along the coast. South of this 
lie Zululand and some other native states under British 
protectorate, and the British colony of Natal. Inland 
from these provinces are situated the Transvaal and 
Orange River colonies, formerly the Orange River Free 
State and the South African Republic. South of these 
extending to the extremity of the continent, is the large 


















48 


AFRX 


AFTO 


A GAL 


British possession of Cape Colony. In the interior, north 
of the Orange river, which forms the northern bound¬ 
ary of Cape Colony, stretches a vast area claimed by 
Great Britain, occupying all the territory between the 
Portuguese and Southwest German possessions, and 
reaching to the southern extremity of Lake Tan¬ 
ganyika. This great territory is bounded on the west 
by Damaraland, an extensive area north of the Orange 
river, claimed by Germany, and Angola, which lias long 
been held by Portugal. The vast interior, north of the 
British and Portuguese possessions, is occupied by a 
great recently-formed state, known as the Congo Free 
Stale, which is under the protection of Belgium. It 
embraces most of the basin ol the Congo. North and 
west of it, extending to the Atlantic, lies French Congo, 
extending indefinitely inward, aud north of this again 
is the Cameroon country, claimed by Germany. The 
country north of the Gulf of Guinea is largely held by 
European nations. The British Niger Territory extends 
inland nearly to the Sahara and to the native kingdom 
of Boinu. Adjoining it on the west lies Dahomey, under 
French protectorate. Germany claims Togoland, still 
further west; Great Britain the Gold Coast, inland from 
which she has recently conquered the large native 
kingdom of Ashantee; then comes the black republic of 
Liberia, established by the United States; while on the 
northward coast Great Britain possesses the two colo¬ 
nies of Sierra Leone and Gambia. With the exception 
of the last named colonies, France claims the whole 
country from Liberia to Cape Blanco, her claim extend¬ 
ing over the basins of the Senegal, the Senegambia 
ami the upper Niger, and indefinitely inward. Spain 
claims the coast of Sahara from Cape Blanco to Cape 
Bajador. The northwestern angle of Africa is occupied 
by the independent kingdom of Morocco, east of which 
lies the French colony of Algeria and the French pro¬ 
tectorate of Tunis. Tripoli and Barca, provinces of 
Turkey, bring us again to the borders ot Egypt. South 
of Barca lies the Liberian desert, nominally under 
Turkish rule, but actually independent. South of 2W- 
poli lies the Turkish province of Fezzan. 

VIII. The African Islands. —The chief islands of 
Africa are, in the north Atlantic, the groups of the 
Madeiras and the Canaries, the Cape Verde Islands, 
Fernando Po, St. Thomas, and a number of less import- 
and islands; in south Atlantic, St.Matthew, Ascension, 
St. Helena and Tristan d’Acunha; in the south Indian 
ocean, Madagascar, Mauritius, Bourbon, Zanzibar, Ac.; 
and in the north Indian, the islands ol Socotra. The 
maritime nations of Europe have been no less active in 
taking possession of these islands than of the mainland; 
Zanzibar, Mauritius, Socrata and Pemba being held by 
Great Britain ; Madagascar, Reunion and the Comorin 
islands by France; the Madeiras, Cape Verdes, St.Thoinas 
and Prince’s Island by Portugal, and the Canaries, Fer¬ 
nando Po and Annolion by Spain. 

IX. Area and Population. — The population of 
Africa, according to the most recent estimate, is about 
130,<X)0,000. Its area is estimated at 11,514,500 square 
miles, of which less than 2,000,000 square miles remain 
unclaimed by European nations, this principally con¬ 
sisting ot desert regions which ofier no temptation to 
European greed. 

X. The Partition of Africa. —The era of discovery, 
which by 1890 had led to acquaintance with the more 
important features and characteristics of the continent 
and its inhabitants, was followed by one of occupation 
and partition, which has led to the result above men¬ 
tioned. Previous to 1876, England, France and Portu¬ 
gal alone possessed domains in Africa, and none of these 
showed any vigorous inclination to extend them. A 
change began with the formation of the International 
African Association, under the presidency of Leopold 
II.. of Belgium, in 1876, and of the International Asso¬ 
ciation of the Congo, in 1878. Stations wete subse¬ 
quently formed on the Congo, and in 1885 the Congo 
Free State was formed, under the patronage of Leopold, 
but otherwise independent. This state is 865,000 square, 
miles in extent, and includes most of the region drained 
by the Congo. Since that date it has considerably devel¬ 
oped, and a railroad has since been built past the rapids 
of the Congo which must give the newjjtate an immensi 
impetus. The establishment of this slate was followed 
by an energetic movement in Europe for ihe possession 
of Africa, particularly on the part of Great Britain, 
Germany and France, each of which laid claim to great 
areas of the continent, whose location and extent have 
been above given. Italy failed in her effort to take 
possession of Abyssinia, and Portugal found her unde¬ 
fined claims limited by the activity of Great Britain. 
British Africa now embraces more than 2,500,000 and 
French Africa nearly 3,000,000 square miles—the latter 
Including much of the Saharan region. Germany claims 
#20,000 and Portugal 735,000 square miles. Of recent 
events of interest may be named the Mahdist rebellion 
of 1894, the loss of the Soudan provinces of Egypt. 
Stanley’s remarkable journey to the relief of Emin 
Pasha in 1887-90, and the subsequent British operations 
in the Soudan, ending in its reconquest ny the Khartum 
expedition under Lord Kitchener, 1898-99. In 1899 
war began in South Africa between the Boer republics 
and Great Britain, and continued for nearly three 
years, leading to the conquest of these republics in 
1902 and their incorporation in the British colonial 
possessions. 

Af 'ricnn, n. ( Geog.) A native of Africa. 

*-a. Belonging or relating to Africa. 

African Association. A society formed in London, in 
1788, for the purpose of offering encouragement to travel¬ 
lers and scientific men to explore the interior of Africa. 
Four travellers were successively engaged, and among 


them the celebrated Mungo Park. In ’PO"., the associa¬ 
tion was incorporated with the Royal Geographical So¬ 
ciety. 

African Company. A society of merchants, estab¬ 
lished in the reign of Charles II., for trading to Africa, 
aud incorporated in 1754. When the expenses of the com¬ 
pany had to be defrayed out of the public purse, its char¬ 
ter was recalled by parliament, and its possessions were 
annexed to Sierra Leone. 

A frican Hemp. Fibres remarkable for their strength, 
produced by several species of Sansex'iera, a genus of 
plants included in the order Liliacece. These fibres are 
also known as bowstring hemp. 

African islands. A cluster of low islands in the In¬ 
dian Ocean, on one of which the Spitfire, a ship of the 
English navy, was wrecked, 21st Aug., 1801. Lat. 4° 
63' S.; Lon. o3° 33' E. 

A I frican Methodist Fpiscopal and Zion Churches. See 
Methodist. 

African leak. The timber of the Oldfieldta Africana, 
a tree belonging to the natural order Euphorbiacse. It 
is exceedingly strong and durable. 

Af'ricanus. See Scipio,(P ublius Cornelius.) 

Af'rikeali, Afrikiah, or Mahadiah. A seaport of 
the kingdom of Tunis, on the Mediterranean. It was 
taken by Charles V., who demolished its fortifications. 
Pop. 3,000. 115 miles S.S.B. of Tunis. 

Af'siiars, or Afschars, n. pi. A Persian tribe, of foreign 
origin, who claim to be descendants of the Turkomans. 
They are comprised under two divisions, Sliamloo and 
Kirkloo, and reside for the most part in towns, of which 
Abivert and Helat are the principal. The tribe is said 
to occupy altogether 20,000 houses. 

Aft, adv. [A. S. (eft, behind.] See Abaft. 

Af'ter, a. [A. S. after, from aft, eft, after, againv] 
Subsequent, succeeding; as, an after period of life. 

After, prep. Posterior in time. 

“ Good after ill, and after pain delight; 

Alternate, like the scenes of day aud night.”— Dryden. 

•—Following in place;—commonly applied to words of mo¬ 
tion ; as, he came after, and stood behind him. 

“ Sometimes I placed a third prism after a second, and sometimes 
a fourth after the third."— Newton. 

—In piursuitof; in search of; following. — Concerning; in 
relation to. 

a After whom dost thou pursue?”—1 Sam. xxix. If. 

" I will Inquire after him.” 

— In imitation of. 

“ This allusion is after the oriental manner ."—Pope. 

— According, or in proportion to. ( 0 .) 

After, adv. In succeeding time or place; afterward. It 
is used of time mentioned as succeeding some other. So 
we cannot say, “ I shall he happy after, but hereafter; ” 
but we say, “ I was first made miserable by the loss, but 
was after happier.” 

(Aaut.) More aft, or toward the stern; as, the after 
sails. 

After all. At last; iu fine; in conclusion; upon the 
whole. 

Af'ter-ag'es, n. pi. Successive times; posterity. 

“ What an opinion will after ages entertain of this religion?"— 
Addisoiu 

Af'ter-day, n. A future day. 

After-game, n. A new expedient after the original 
plan has miscarried. “ To play an after-game.” 

Af'ter-math, n. (Agric.) The grass which grows after 
the hay has been mowed and made. It is also called 
rowen, rowett, latter-math, and, when left long upon the 
land, fogy. When made into hay, it is not good for horses, 
especially those which are driven fast and work hard. 
Cows and sheep are fond of it, and it is not injurious to 
them Whether it be more profitable to cut a second crop 
of hay, or to feed off the after-math, must depend on 
circumstances and situations. Unless the meadows can 
be irrigated, or well manured, taking off two crops of hay 
in one year exhausts them, aud is apt to produce moss, 
which the tread of sheep and cattle prevents. 

Af'ter-most. a. (Aaut.) Hindermost; nearest the 
stern;—opposed to foremost. 

Af'ternoon, n. That space, or interval, which is from 
twelve at noon till the evening. Eiguralively, the de¬ 
cline. “ The. afternoon of life.” 

Af'ter-|*ains, n. pi. (Med.) The pains after birth, 
caused by the delivery of the placenta. 

After-proof, n. Evidence posterior to the thing in 
question. 

Af'ter-sails, n. pi. (Aaut.) The sails of the mizzen¬ 
mast, and the stays between the main and the mizzen¬ 
masts. 

After-taste, n. A taste remaining upon the tongue 
after eating or drinking. 

Af'ter-tliougKt, n. Reflection or thought arising 
after the finishing of a thing; — repentance. 

Af'ter-times, v. pi. In time to come; future ages. 

Afterward, adv. [A. S. after, after, and weard, to¬ 
wards.] In succeeding or future lime, referring to some¬ 
thing which preceded, and which it is supposed to follow. 
— This word is also written afterwards, hut less pro¬ 
perly. 

Afton, in Illinois, a flourishing township ofDe Kalb 
county. 

Afton. in Town, a town, former capital of Union oo. 
about 50 miles S.W. of lies Moines, on C., B. & Q. R. It 

. Pop. (1895) 1.144. 

Afton, in Minnesota, a post-township of Washington co., 
about 3 miles below Hud-on, Wisconsin. 

—A post-village in this township, on the W. shore of Lake 
St. Croix, 20 miles S.S.E. of St Paul. 

Afton, in New York, a post-township of Chenango co. 


Afton, in Wisconsin, a post-village in Rock fowtshij. 
Rock co., about 7 miles from Janesville. 

Af'zul-Ghur', a town of the province of Delhi, presi 
deney of Bengal, Hindostan, near the Kurnaon moun¬ 
tains. Lat. 29° 25'N.; Lon. 78° 40'E. 

A'ga, or Aoha, n. The name of a dignity, also an 
epithet of respect, among the Turks. It signifies literally 
a great man, a lord, or a commander. Iu Turkey, the 
Aga of the Janissaries, while that corps existed, was 
their commanding officer or colonel, whose place was 
one of high authority and dignity in the state. There is 
also the Spahilar-aga, that is, the colonel of flic spahi& 
or cavalry. The Capi-Aga, or Capi-Agassi, the chief tf 
the eunuchs, is one of the principal officers of the corn# 
of Constantinople. 

A'gH, a lofty round mountain in Brazil, on the route from 
Minas de Castello to the frontiers of Minas-Geraes. 

Ag'ably, a town built of stone, on the Tuat oasis, be¬ 
tween Tripoli aud Timbuctoo, Africa. It is a station 
where merchants meet for business transactions. Lat- 
26° N.; Lon. 0° 56' E. 

Ag'ades, or Aoadez, a town of Central Africa, and the 
capital of the kingdom of Asbeu, tributary to the king 
of Timbuctoo. It is situated on a “green spot” in the 
desert, where the Soudan merchants assemble at fixed 
periods to transact business with those of Northern Af¬ 
rica. Lat. 18° N.; Lon. 13° E. 

A gadir, or Santa Cruz, a seaport town of Morocco, on 
the Atlantic Ocean, and the most S.iu the empire; Lat. 
30° 26' 35" N., Lon. 9° 35' 56" W. The vast sandy desert# 
of N. Africa commence immediately to the S. of Agadir, 
end hence its bay is aptly termed by the Arabs Bab-Soue 
dan, that is, Gate, of the Blacks. 

A'.‘;ajg, a king of the Amalekites, who, on the Israelite# 
coining out of Egypt, attacked them in the wilderness 
and slew all stragglers. A. was a general name of tin* 
kings of the Amalekites. 

Again', aJu. rA. S. dge.n.] A second time; once more} 
marking the repetition of the same thing.—Ou the other 
hand. — On another part. 

“ Behold yon mountain’s hoary height, 

Made higher with new mounts of snow: 

Again, behold the winter's weight 
Oppress thelab'ring woods below.”— Dryden. 

— In return. — Back. 

—In order of rank aud distinction; marking distribution. 

“ Question was asked of Demosthenes, what was the chief part 
of an orator? He answered. Action. What next? Action. What 
next , again t Action."— Bacon. 

— Besides; in any other time or place. 

" There is not in the world apatasuch a spring of brave military 
people as iu Englaud."— Bacon. 

Again and again. With frequent repetition; often. 

“ This is not to be obtained by one or two hasty readings; it mull 
be repeated again and again, with a close attention." — Locke. 

Against', prep. [A. S. cengeon.] Contrary; opposite, in 
general; iu opposition to any person. 

“His hand will be against every man."— Gen. xvi. 12. 

—In contradiction to any opinion; as, a collection of tracts 
against slavery. 

—With contrary motion or tendency; used of material 

■ action. 

“ The kite flieth against the wind.” — Bacon. 

— Contrary to rule or law; as, a thing against the law of 
nature. 

— Opposite to, in place. 

“ Against the Tiber's mouth, but far away." — Dryden. 

— Id provision for; in expectation of. 

“The like charge was given them against the time they should 
come to settle themselves iu the land promised." — Hooker. 

Agalmat'olite, n. [Gr. agalma, image, lithns, stone.] 
(Min.) A name originally given to a variety of Fhnitt 
used by the Chinese for carving grotesque figures and 
idols. These minerals vary in color from grayish-green 
to yellow and red; they are all more or less soft and 



A CHINESE BASSO-RELIEVO CARVED IN AGALMATOUM. 


unctuous to the touch, and capable of being cut ant 
polished. They consist solely of silica and alumina 
with a little carbonate of lime and potash. Before Um 
blowpipe they whiten, but are infusible. 


























AG A a 


AGAR 


AGAT 


49 


Ajral'le-rn. or Gallega, an island of Afrlca,near Mada¬ 
gascar; L it. 10° 12' N.: Lon. 54° 8' E. 

AigalloclHim. n. [Or. agallochon, the alne.] (Med.) 
A Iocs-wood, supposed to be the wood of the Excaaria 
agaUncha. Aloes-wood is imported from China in small, 
compact, ponderous pieces, of a yellow, rusty brown 
color, with black or purplish veins, and sometimes of a 
black color. It has a bitterish, resinous taste, and a 
slight aromatic smell. 

As'al'inn, n. [Ur.] (Law.) An impression or image of 
anp’thing on a seal. 

Ag'al-wootl, n. See Eagls-wood. 

A" ama. the appellation given to a body of troops, in 
Macedonia, nearly equal to the Roman legion. 

Ag'anire. [Or. a, priv., and gamos, marriage.] ( Hot.) A 
name given by some authors to the large division of the 
vegetable kingdom, called Flowerless or Cryptogamic 
plants. — See Cryptoua.mia. 

Ag amem'iioii, king of Mycenae and Argos, son of Atre- 
us and Eriphyle, brother of Mcuelaus and commander- 
in-chief of t he Grecian army at the siege of Troy. In the 
earliest and most credible authors, Homer and Hesiod, 
we find no trace of the long train of horrors which, ac¬ 
cording to later writers, laid waste the house of Pelops. 
(See Atrf.us, Pelop<, Tantalus, Thyestes.) A. and his 
brother were called Atridai, from their father’s name, 
according to the Grecian custom of giving to the son a 
patronymic name. He married Clytemnestra, sister of 
Helen. The Trojan war arose out of the abduction of 
Helen by P.iris, son of Priam, king of Troy. It is com¬ 
monly said, that a number of the princes of Greece 
having been drawn together as suitors by the extraordi¬ 
nary beauty of Helen, T.vndarus, exacted an oath from 
them, that on whomsoever the choice should fall, if the 
maid should be carried off, all the rest should unite to 
recover her; and that in virtue of this oath, the confed¬ 
erate princes assembled under the command of A. They 
were long detained in the bay of Auiis, in Boeotia, by a 
calm, occasioned by the anger of Diana (see Iphigenia), 
but filially arrived before Troy. During the siege of this 
town, protracted for ten years, A. appears superior to the 
other chiefs in battle and in council, and maintains, 
under all circumstances, the dignity of a commander. 
The most memorable event of the siege of Troy is the 
quarrel of A. and Achilles (see Achilles), the subject of 
the Iliad , in which the former placed himself very com¬ 
pletely in the wrong. Returning from Troy, A. was 
treacherously murdered by his wife; who, during his ab¬ 
sence, had formed an adulterous attachment with .Egis- 
thus, son of his uncle Thyestes. This catastrophe is the 
subject of the Agamemnon of .Eschylus, one of the most 
sublime compositions in the range of the Grecian drama. 
Orestes, son of A., then a child, was saved by the Care 
of his tutor, and timely flight. After passing seven years 
in exile, he returned in secret, avenged his father's death 
by the slaughter of his mother and of JEgisthns, and re¬ 
covered his paternal kingdom, which he ruled with honor. 

Ag'anie'tles and Tro]»lio'nius, two architects 
who designed the entrance of i he temple of Delphi, for 
which they demanded of the god whatever gift was most 
advantageous for a man to receive. Three days after, 
they were found dead in their beds. 

Agamen’ticns, in Maine, a mountain of York co., 4 
miles from York Harbor. It affords pasture up to its 
summit, 673 feet above the sea-level, and is a seamark for 
the entrance of Piacataqua river. Lat. 43° 16'N.; Lon. 
70° 3y W. 

Aa a ill a. [Gr. agamai, to wonder at.] (Zoiil.) A gen. of | 
lizards, distinguished by their short and thick body, 
covered with a lax skin, wnich is capable of being 
inflated with air at the will of the animal. They are 
frequently beset with spines, which are raised up when 
the skin is inflated, pres-ntinga formidable array. Many 
of them are capable of changing the color of the skin. 
Different species of this genus are found in Asia, Africa, 
Australia, and America. The frdled Agama, a native 
of Australia, is a very extraordinary-looking animal. 
Around its neck, and covering its shoulders, it carries a 
frill, which, on the approach of danger, is elevated. 

A'gami, n. (Zoiil.) The Trophia crepitans , an interest¬ 
ing bird, sometimes also termed the G •Ul-breastctl Trum¬ 
peter, classed by Dallas among cranes, by Brisson among 
pheasants, and making the first genus in Temminck’s 
Atectorules. It is the size of a pheasant or large fowl, 
but appears larger from having a long neck, and from 
standing high on its legs. It inhabits the forests of 
tropical America, and never visits the cleared grounds 
or the settlements. It is not easily tamed, but becomes 
attached to its benefactor with all the fondness and 
fidelity of the dog. It is fond of caresses, and offers its 
head and neck to be stroked. The peculiar noiso made 
by the Agami, without opening the bill, is one of its 
most remarkable characteristics. The sound is some¬ 
times preceded by a wild cry, interrupted by a call 
somewhat like “scherck,” “scherck,” and then follows 
the characteristic noise resembling the syllables, “Too, 
too, too.” During this the breast is seen to heave, as in 
birds while singing, though the bill remains shut. This 
extraordinary sound is attributed to a sort of ventrilo¬ 
quism. 

Ag'amons, a. (Brit.) That which has no visible flowers 
or sensual organs, like the Agamas. 

Aga'na, one of the Ladrone islands, where Magellan 
was killed, on a voyage in search of the Moluccas. 
Ptyp. 3,030. — A Spanish governor resides here. 

Aganippe. or Aqa.nipp.e. ( Anc. Geng.) A celebrated 
fountain of Boeotia, at the foot of Mount Helicon. It 
flows into the Permessus, and is sacred to the Muses, 
who, from it, were called Aganippedes. 

A g 'apap. n. [The pi. of the Gr. agape, love, or charity.] 
(EccL IMst.) The name given to those meetings of the 


early Christians where they sat and ate, at a common 
table, ot food which had been provided bv the voluntary 
contributions of the members of the society, the enter¬ 
tainment being concluded with the holy kiss. These 
meetings, which were usually held in the same house 
or apartment in which they assembled lor divine wor¬ 
ship, are at least mentioned once in the TV ew Testament. 
namely, in tiie 12th verse of the epistle of June, where 
it is said of certain unworthy brethren, “ These are 
spots in your feasts of charity.’’ These love-feasts seem 
to have continued to be generally celebrated tor several 
centuries. Ecclesiastical writers mention three kinds 
ot them, — first, those which took place at marriages, 
called the nuptial or connubial ugapte, to which the 
bishop or pastor was usually invited; second, the anni¬ 
versary, or, us they were called, natal agapa;, which 
were held in the churches on the festivals of the mar¬ 
tyrs: and third, the funeral agapse, at the interments 
of members of the congregation. The celebration of 
the love-leasts in the churches was at length expressly 
forbidden by the 20th canon of the Council of Laodicea, 
in a. i>. 364; although the enactment would seem for a 
• considerable time not to have been quite effectual, since 
we find it repeatedly renewed by subsequent councils. 

Agaptemo nians, n. pi. [From Gr. agape, love, and 
moun, abode, the family of love.] A small community 
of proselytes of a Mr. Prince, founded at Charlynch, 
near Bridgewater, England, in ls45. Doctrines: — a 
community of goods, and, it is believed, of persons. 

Agapan'ilms, n. [Gr. agape., love, and audios, flower.] 
(Bot.) A small genus of ornamental plants, order 
Liliaccse. The typical species is A umbellutus. the 
African blue lily, a native of the Cape of Good Hope, 
whence it was brought to Holland. It is now a favor¬ 
ite garden-plant. It grows nearly a yard high, and in 
July bears a handsome bunch of blue flowers, which 
have no scent. 

Agape', adv. [A. S. geyppan, to open.] Staring with 
open mouth; astare; agog; astonished. — See Gape. 

Agap'etiP, n. pi. (Eccl. Hist.) A name given to virgins 
and widows, who, in the early days of the Church, were 
made deaconesses, and resided with the ministers, shar¬ 
ing their duties. For some time the relation was main¬ 
tained blameless; but it resulted in immorality, and 
councils were summoned to put an end to it. 

Ag'apliiie, n. (Min.) A name of the Turquois, q. v. 

Agape'tlis I., a Roman pope, raised to the pontificate 
in 535, and died the year after. He opposed the at¬ 
tempts of Justinian to invade the rights of the Church. 

Aoapetus II., pope in 946, d. 956, was a man of great repu¬ 
tation for sanctity of character. 

Ag'ar, Abraham's concubine. See Hagar. 

Ag'ar-agar, n. (Bot.) A name sometimes given to 
the alga, commonly known as Ceylon moss, used for 
making jellies. — See Gracilarja. 

Ag'aric, n. [Lat. agaricum .] (Bot ) The common name 
of the genus Agaricus, q. v.; a mushroom. 

(Med.) The Touchwood; a drug extracted from the 
Boletus igniarius, used in medicine and dyeing. 

Agaric Mineral. (Min.) Called also Rock-milk, a 
variety of Calcite, q. v. It is very soft, white, breaking 
easily in the fingers, and deposited from waters con¬ 
taining carbonate of lime iu solution. It covers the 
sides of a cave at Watertown, N. Y. 

Agar icus, n. [Gr. agariam, a fungus.] (Bot.) One of 
the largest and most important genera of Fungi, in¬ 
cluding all the species of mushrooms. They have a cap 
(or pileus) of a fleshy nature, supported upon a distinct 
stalk, and a number of parallel unequal vertical plates 
or gills arising out of the cap, and inclosing the parti¬ 
cles by which the species are reproduced, — particles 
which the vulgar call seeds, and the learned sporules. 
This genus consists of not fewer than a thousand spe¬ 
cies, inhabiting meadows, and heaths, and rocks, and 
masses of decaying vegetable matter, in all temperate 
regions of the earth. Among them, a large proportion 
are poisonous, a few are wholesome, but by far the 
greater are altogether unknown iu regard to their 
action upon the human constitution. The species are 
often extremely similar; there is no means of distin¬ 
guishing botanically the tribes that are poisonous from 
such as are wholesome; but there are some general 
characters which help us to separate the two groups. 
They have been tabulated as follows: —Edible mush¬ 
rooms. I. Grow solitary, in dry, airy places. 2. Gener¬ 
ally white or brownish. 3. Have a compact, brittle 
flesh. 4. Do not change color, when cut, by the action 
of the air. 5. Juice watery. 6. Odor agreeable. 7. 
Taste not bitter, acrid, salt, or astringent. — Poisonous 
mushrooms. 1. Grow in clusters, in woods and dark 
damp places. 2. Usually with bright colors. 3. Flesh 
tough, soft, and watery. 4. Acquire a brown, green, or 
blue tint, when cut and exposed to the air. 5. Juice 
often milky. 6. Odor commonly powerful and dis¬ 
agreeable. 7. Have an acrid, astringent, acid, salt, or 
bitter taste. We should avoid all fungi which insects 
will not touch, and those which have scales or spots on 
their surface; and whatever maybe the apparent quali¬ 
ties of the fungi, we should use with caution all which 
have arrived at their full development, or when they 
exhibit any signs of change. By soaking doubtful 
fungi, cut into slices, for about one hour in vinegar, 
ami afterward washing them in boiling water, we get 
rid of any poisonous principles they may possess, and 
the process will not spoil them for the table. — The A. 
campestris, the common mushroom, and several varie¬ 
ties of the same, is the species commonly raised artifi¬ 
cially for food. It is readily known in any state by its 
fragrant odor, the absence of which is extremely suspi¬ 
cious. When in a very young state, it resembles little 
snow-white balls, which are called buttons; alter ward itj 


acquires a stalk, separates its cap, and becomes shortly 
conical, with liver-colored gills, and a white, thick, 
fleshy cap, marked with a few particles of gray. Ai a 
more advanced age, the cap is concave, the color gray, 
and the gills black; in this state it is called a flop. 
F'or the method of cultivating it, and for its physiologi¬ 
cal characters, see Mushroom. 

AgaSias, or Ag assias, a sculptor of Ephesus, celebrated 
lor his admirable statue of the Gladiator. 

Agasicles, a king of Sparta, who used to say, “ A king 
ought to govern his subjects as a father his family.” 

Agassiz (dtf-a-see), Alexander, an Ameiican natur¬ 
alist, sou of Prof. Louis J. R. Agassiz. See Sect 1 - v II, 

Agassiz. Louis Jean Rodolphe, a very distinguished 
naturalist, of French origin; b. on the 28th of May, 
1807, at Motiers. canton of Freyburg, Switzerland, 
where his father was a pastor. In 1818 he entered the 
Gymnasium of Bienne, and in 1822 was removed to the 
Academy of Lausanne, as a reward for his proficiency in 
science. He subsequently studied medicine and the 
experimental sciences at Zurich, Heidelberg, and Mu¬ 
nich, at which last university lie took the degree of 
M. D. He went soon after to I’arirf, where lie gained 
the friendship of Cuvier and Humboldt. On returning 
to Switzerland, he was appointed professor of natural 
history at the college of Neufcliatel. F'rom his earliest 
youth he evinced a peculiar inclination and aptitude 
for the cultivation of the natural sciences. In Heidel¬ 
berg and Munich he occupied himself more especially 
with comparative anatomy. Being intrusted by Martins 
with the publication of an account of the 116 species 
of fishes collected by Von Spix in Brazil.he gave to the 
world that new classification of fishes to which he has 
subsequently remained steadfast. In 1839 he published 
his Natural History of the Freshwater Fishes of Eunpt , 
a subject which he treated with monographic complete¬ 
ness. While preparing this work he had published bis 
Researches on Fossil Fishes, and his Descriptions of 
Echinoderms. The work, however, which contributed 
most liberally to his European reputation was bis 
Studies of Glaciers, in which he advanced a theory 
tending to remodel the prevalent views of geologists 
as regards the incoherent and post-tertiary formation of 
the globe, and the dynamical causes by which those 
deposits have been affected, in 1846. on invitation, 
Mr. Agassiz embarked for America, and was appointed 



Fig. 50. — PROF. AGASSIZ. 


professor of zoology and geology in tiie Lawrence Sci¬ 
entific School. One of his gi eat merits was the profitable 
enthusiasm that lie called into existence in tiie pursuit 
of the natural sciences iu his adopted country. His 
mode of teaching was extremely clear, and bis disciples, 
the scientific youth of the United States, caught readily 
the practical spirit of their master. Agassiz was an 
upholder of the doctrine which teaches the successive 
creation of higher orders of organized beings on the 
surface of the earth, and believed that the human race 
has had, in its several distinct species, separate stockc 
of originality both as to time and space. His name is 
equally popular iu the two worlds. The chair of natu¬ 
ral history iu Edinburgh, and a scientific chair in Faris, 
were offered to him, but he declined both. He was a 
member of all scientific academies of Europe. Iu 1865- 
1866 Prof. Agassiz made an exploration in Brazil, 
in company with his wife and a slat! of Well-trained 
scientific assistants. An American steamship company 
furnished tiie party with a free pass; and,as a graceful 
acknowledgement of their kindness, the steamer Colo¬ 
rado was made ever memorable by tiie couise of lectures 
which the most popular scientific lecturers gave on 
board. This great mission may be tanked as one of 
the most important and most successful scientific expedi¬ 
tions of bis life, and the published account is lull of 
interest. Those results were shadowed forth in the 
book entitled A Journey in Brazil, that Prof, and 
Mrs. Agassiz published in 1868, a work abounding in 
charming sketches of Brazilian life and scenery, and 
which has been widely circulated. In 1871, he was 
appointed chief of the scientific corps attached to the 
United States Coast Survey expedition. D. Dec. 14. 1873. 

Agas'tric, a. (Anal.) Having no alimentary canal. 

Aga'ta, the name of several towns of Italy, the most 
remarkable of which is the ancient Mintumo, in the 
district of Gaeta, prov. of Naples. Pp. 7,000. 

As; ate, n. (Min.) A semi-pellucid, variegated, and un, 
crystallized variety of chalcedony, gen. quartz (Hyalus 
rhombohedras, order Hyalinea, Dana), named aftsc 








50 


AGAV 


AGE 


AGE 


Achates, a river in Sicily, whence the Greeks are said 
to have first procured it. Chemically, it consists almost 
entirely of silica, colored by metallic oxides. The colors 
of agate are generally arranged in parallel or concentric 
bauds, but sometimes form spots, clouds, and moss-like 
stains. These colors can be artificially heightened by 
boiling the stoue in oil, and afterward in sulphuric 
acid, and by other ingenious but fraudulent processes 
which iiave been devised by the lapidary. Agates occur 
in nature as rounded pebbles, in Saxony, Arabia, and 
India. Some fine varieties, however, are found in sev¬ 
eral parts of the United States, but we do not believe 
that, till now, they have been worked for the trade. 
Agates take a high polish, and their beautiful colors 
adapt them for many ornamental purposes. They are 
cut into broches, seals, bracelets, and similar objects, 
and are largely employed for mosaic work. In the use¬ 
ful arts, agates are employed as burnishers, and, when 
sufficiently large, they are made into mortars, for chem¬ 
ical purposes. — The Moss-agate, or Mocha-stone, is curi¬ 
ously marked with figures resembling growing tufts or 
moss, of an opaque brownish-yellow color, which are 
due to oxide of iron. — The stones distinguished by 
mineralogists and lapidaries by the names of Cornelian, 
Onyx, Sardonyx, Blood-stone, Chalcedony, Plasma, have 
exactly the chemical composition of the agate. 

{Printing.) Agate is also the name of a printing type, 
under the size of Nonpareil, as in the following line: 

“ Hes est sacra miser.” 

Agnate-shells, n. (Zodl.) A land African species of 
mollusks, 8 inches in length, belonging to the family of 
the snails, ord. Helicidce. 

A'gatlia, St., a lady of Palermo, martyrized by Quintil¬ 
ian, the pro-consul of Sicily,in the persecution of Decius, 
because she would not perform idolatrous worship, nor 
submit to his impure desires. 

AgatUar'cllMles, or Agatharcides, a Greek writer 
on geography. B. at Cnidos, in Asia Minor, lived b. c. 
250, and wrote numerous works, and among them, one 
on the Erythraean sea, of which some extracts have 
been preserved. He is the earliest extant writer who 
attributes the annual rise of the Nile to the periodical 
rains in the upjer regions of that river. 

Agatliar'clius, an Athenian artist, said to have in¬ 
vented scene-painting, and to have painted a scene for 
a tragedy of .-Eschylus. 

A'gatliis, n. [Gr. agathis, a clew.] (Bot.) A genus of 
trees, including the dammar and kawrie pines, ord. 
Pinacese. 

A'gatho, or Agathon, a pope, born at Palermo, elected 
in 679; d. 682. He despatched legates to the council 
called at Constantinople to condemn the Eutvchiaus. 

A'gattion, a tragic poet of Athens, contemporary and 
friend of Euripides. The dinner which he gave to cele¬ 
brate his first dramatic triumph, b. c. 416, was made by 
Plato the ground-work of his Symposium. Pew frag¬ 
ments only of his writings are extant. 

Agatliyr'sus, n. (But.) A name of the genus Flori- 
aanum, q. v. 

Agath'ocles, a Syracusean of low extraction, who be- 
oame ruler of a great part of Sicily. He was remarkable 
for beauty, strength, and capacity tot enduring labor. In 
the outset of life, he belonged to a band of robbers; after¬ 
ward he served as a private soldier, roso to the greatest 
honors, and made himself master of Syracuse. He con¬ 
quered the greatest part of Sicily, B. o. 317. Being de¬ 
feated at Hiinera by the Carthaginians, he carried the 
war into Africa, where, for four years, he extended his 
conquest* over his enemy. He afterwards passed into 
Italy, and made himself master of Crotona. In his 72d 
year he was poisoned by his grandson Archagathus, B. c. 
289, after a reign of 28 years of great prosperity mingled 
with the deepest adversity. His son-in-law, Pyrrhus, 
king of Epirus, inherited his influence in Sicily and 
southern Italy. 

Ag'atliopliyllum, n. {But.) A genus of plants in 
the nat. ord. Lauracce. The species A. aromaticum yields 
the Ravensara nut, or clove nutmeg of Madagascar; used 
as a spice. 

Ag'atize, v. a. To petrify into agate. 

Agatized wood. A variety of petrified hornstoue. 

Agat'ton, a town on the coast of Guinea, near the 
mouth of the Formosa, 80 miles of Benin. Lat. 7° 20' 
N.; Lon. 7° 6' E. 

Atj'aty, a. Having the nature of Agate; as, an agaty 
flint. 

Ag'uwam, in Massachusetts, a town in Hampden co., 
on the river Connecticut, 3 miles S. W. of Springfield; 
pop. (1890) 2,352. 

Ag'awan, in Massachusetts, a small stream of Plymouth 
co., the waters of which unite Buttermilk bay. 

Aga've, daughter of Cadmus and Ilermione, married 
Echion, by whom she had Pentheus, who was torn to 
ieces by the Bacchanals. She is said to have killed her 
usband while celebrating the orgies of Bacchus. She 
received divine honors after death. 

Aga've, ». [Gr. agayos, admirable.] (Bot.) A genus of 
plants of the tribe Agavece. The typical species is Agave 
americana, the American aloe or maguey. This plant is 
cultivated by the Mexicans, who obtain from it a favorite 
drink, called pulque, octli, or agave wine. From pulque 
an ardent spirit is distilled, which is known by the name 
of Mezcal, or, less commonly, aguardiente de Maguey .— 
The plant is of slow growth; but when fully developed, 
Its leaves, which spring directly from the ground, attain 
a height of from five to eight feet. From the midst of 
the great cluster of leaves a flower-stem arises, and from 
this numerous flower-bearing branches spring, so that 
the whole plant has somewhat the appearance of a can¬ 
delabrum. It was formerly erroneously supposed that 


the agave lived a hundred years before flowering; 
hence it was frequently called the Century Plant. It 
really flowers only once in about ten years, and the 
planter has to wait patiently for the flowering season to 
obtain a supply of pulque, as this liquor is formed from 
the juice contained in the young flower-stalk. From the 
leaves of this and other species of the agave genus, the 
useful fibre called uloe-fibre, Maguey pM or pild hemp, 
is obtained. — See Amakyllidacla;. 

Aga/vese, n.pi. (But.) A tribe of plants, ord. Amaryl- 
liducece. The agave is its most important genus. 

Agtle', a maritime town of France, dep of the llerault, 
on the river Herault, 11 m. E. of Beziers. It is situated 
in a fertile district, and is a place of much commercial 
activity, forming one of the entrepots between Italy and 
Spain; population 10.314. Ind. Ship-building and distil¬ 
leries. Was in 506 the seat of a council summoned by 
Alaric. 

Ag'deh, a town of Persia, 70 m. W. from Yezd, which 
receives goats’ hair from it for the manufacture of 
shawls. 

Age, n. [Fr. dge.] Any period of time attributed to some¬ 
thing as the whole, or part, of its duration; as, the age 
of man, the several ages of the world, the golden age. 

“And Jacob lived in Egypt 17 years; so the whole age of Jacob 
was 147 years.” — Gen. xlvii. 28. 

“Jesus began to be about thirty years of age." — Luke, iii. 23. 

— A succession or generation of men. 

“ Hence is it, that old men do plant young trees, 

The fruit whereof another age shall take.” — Sir J. Davies. 

—The time in which any particular man, or race of men, 
lived, or shall live; as, the age of heroes. 

— The space of a hundred years; a secular period; a cen¬ 
tury. 

— The latter part of life; old age; oldness. ■» 

“ Boys must not have th’ ambitious care of men. 

Nor men the weak anxieties of age." — Roscommon. 

(Physiol.) During the progress of life from infancy 
to manhood, and from manhood to old age, the body 
undergoes certain marked changes (see Growth), which 
distinguish the different periods or stages of life. These 
are usually denominated ages, and are properly seven in 
number, though some make them fewer. They are — 1. 
Infancy; 2. childhood; 3. boyhood or girlhood; 4. adoles¬ 
cence; 5. manhood or womanhood; 6. age; 7. old age. 
The first age commences at birth, and extends to the end 
of the second year, by which time the first dentition is 
generally completed; the second extends to the end of 
the seventh or eighth year, when the second dentition is 
commonly over; the tnird extends to the age of puberty, 
which, in temperate countries, is from twelve to fourteen 
in the female, and from fourteen to sixteen in the male; 
the fourth extends to about the twentieth year in the 
female, and the twenty-fourth in the male; the fifth 
period extends in the female to about the forty-fifth or 
fiftieth year, when the power of procreation usually 
ceases, and in the male to about the forty-ninth or fiftieth 
year; the sixth period extends to the sixty-fifth; the 
seventh period finishes with life. — It ought to be ob¬ 
served that the point of time at which mature age lapses 
into uge and old age, differs in every individual. It differs 
in many cases by a considerable number of years; and 
it differs according to primitive constitution, to the 
management of childhood; and the several circum¬ 
stances included under the general term, mode of life. 

(History and Lit.) A ge is sometimes used as synony¬ 
mous with century, and more frequently with a genera¬ 
tion. A definite period in history distinguished by some 
special characteristic, such as great literary activity, 
is styled, with some appropriate epithet, an age. As, 
to speak of the age of Pericles, the Augustan age, the 
dark ages, the middle ages, the age of steam. 

(Geology.) The second great division of time, as the 
Devonian Age, the time in which the Devonian system 
of rocks was deposited — or intervals in the life-history 
of the globe, marked by the prevalence of certain forms 
of animal or vegetable life, as the Age of Reptiles. 

(Law.) The time when the law allows persons to do 
acts, which, for want of years, they were prohibited from 
doing before. Thus in crim. law, a person of the age of 
fourteen may be capitally puuished for any capital of¬ 
fence, but under the age of seven he cannot." The period 
between seven and fourteen is subject to much uncer¬ 
tainty, it depends upon the infant’s capacity to discern 
good from evil. The nubile age was fixed by the Roman 
law to 14 for males, and 12 for females, and at these re¬ 
spective ages either sex may, in England, consent to 
marriage, with the approval of guardians. Full age in 
male or female is 21 years, which age is completed on the 
day preceding the 21st anniversary of a person’s birth. 
In the church of England, a man may become a deacon 
at 23, be ordained priest at 26, and is eligible fora bish¬ 
opric at 30. In almost all universities of Europe and 
America, 21 is the age prescribed for admission at the 
bar or receiving the degree of doctor of medicine. The 
usual term of service in the American militia is from 18 
to 45. A representative must have attained the age of 
25, a senator in congress must be 30, and the president 
of U. S. 35 years old. 

Ages of the world. We find the ages of the world men¬ 
tioned by the earliest of the Greek poets. They com¬ 
pared the existence of mankind to the life of an individ¬ 
ual, and the earliest period of the world to the tranquil¬ 
lity and happiness of youth. Hesiod speaks of five 
distinct ages: 1. The Golden, or Saturnian Age, when 
Saturn ruled the earth, is represented as having been 
that of perfect innocence and happiness. 2. The Silver 
Age which he describes as licentious and wicked. 3. 
The Brazen Age; violent, savage, and warlike. 4. The 
Heroic Age, which seemed an approximation to a better 


state of things. 5. The Iron Age, when justice and 
honor had left the earth. 

Aye of animals. The duration of life in animals is 
generally between 7 and 8 times the period which 
elapses from birth till they become adult; but this 
rule, besides being vague and indefinite, is quite useless 
in practice, because it affords no scale of gradation 
which would enable us to ascertain the precise age of 
individuals, the only inquiry of real importance or of 
practical application to the interests of society. More 
certain and scientific principles are derived from observ¬ 
ing the growth and decay of the teeth. Unhappily, the 
observations have not been till now extended further 
than to the most important domestic animals. — Horse. 
Its age is known principally by the appearance of the 
incisive teeth, or, as they are technically called, the 
nippers. Of these there are six in eacli jaw, broad, thin, 
and trenchant in the foal, but with flat crowns marked 
in the centre with a hollow disk in the adult animal. 
The foal or milk teeth appear fitteen days alter birth; 
at the age of two years and a half the middle pair drop, 
and are replaced by the corresponding permanent teeth; 
at three years and a half the two next, one on each side, 
fall, and are likewise replaced; and at the age of four 
years and a half the two external incisors of the first 
set drop, and give room to the corresponding pair of 
permanent teeth. All these permanent nippers, as wo 
have already observed, are flattened on the crown or 
upper surface, and marked in the centre with a circular 
pit or hollow, which is gradually defaced in proportion 
as the tooth wears down to a level with its bottom. 
By the degree of this detrition, or weal ing oi the teeth, 
the age of the animal is determined, till the eighth 
year, at which period the marks are generally eflaced; 
but it is to he observed that the external incisors, as 
appearing a year or two after the intermediate, pre¬ 
serve their original form proportionally for a longer 
period. After the eighth jear, the age of the horse may 
be still determined tor a few years longer by the ap¬ 
pearance and comparative length of the canine teeth 
or tushes. These, it is true, are sometimes wanting, 
particularly in the lower jaw, and in marcs are rarely 
developed at all. Those of the under jaw appear at the 
age of three years and a half, and the upper at four; 
till six they are sharp-pointed, and at ten they appear 
blunt and long: but alter this period there are no fur¬ 
ther means of judging of tlie horse age, excepting trom 
the comparative size, bluntness, and discolored appear¬ 
ance of the tushes. — Oxen, sheep, goats. Tlie age ol tlie 
horned cattle is indicated more readily by the growth 
of horns than by the detrition and succession of the 
teeth. Their horns consist of a hollow sheath of horn, 
which covers a bony core of tlie skull, and grows from 
the root, when it receives each year an additional knob 
of ring, the number of which is a sure indication of the 
animal’s age. In the cow kind, the 'horns appear to 
grow uniformly during tlie first three years of the ani¬ 
mal’s life; consequently, up to that age they are per¬ 
fectly smooth and without wrinkles, but afterward each 
succeeding year adds a ring to tlie root of tlie horn, so 
that the age is determined by allowing three years for 
the point or smooth part of the liorn, and one for each 
of the rings. In sheep and goats the smooth, or top 
part, counts but for one year, as the horns of these ani¬ 
mals show their first knob, or ring, in tlie second year of 
their age. — 'I lie age of other classes of animals cannot 
be determined by any general rule.— In Birds it may 
be sometimes done by observing tlm form and wear of 
tlie bill: and some pretend to distinguish the age of 
fishes by tlie appearance of their scales, but their meth¬ 
ods are founded upon mere hypothesis, and entitled to 
no confidence. 

Age of Plants. Plants, like animals, are subject to 
the laws of mortality, and, in many cases, have the 
period of their existence determined by nature with as 
much exactness as that of an insect. It is principally 
to annual and biennial plants that a precise period of 
duration is fixed. The remainder of tlie more perfect 
part of the vegetable kingdom, whether herbaceous, or 



Pig. 51. — DOWN-PALM. 
(ffyphcem Ttiebaica.) 


shrubby, or arborescent, consist of plants which may Ins 
classed under two principal modes of growth. One of 










AGE 


AGEN 


AGGR 


51 


these modes is to increase, when young, in diameter, 
rather than in length, until a certain magnitude is 
obtained, and then to shoot up a stem, the diameter of 
which is never materially altered. The addition of new 
matter to a trunk f this kind takes place by the insin¬ 
uation of longitudinal fibres into the inside of the wood 
near the centre; on which account, such trees are 
called Endogenous, or Monocotyledons. The other mode 
is, from the beginning, to increase simultaneously in 
length and diameter, but principally in length. The 
addition of new matter to a trunk of this kind takes 
place by the insinuation of longitudinal fibres into a 
space beneath the bark, and on the outside of the wood, 
near the circumference; on which account such trees 
are called Exogenous, or Dicotyledons. —There is scarcely 
any well-attested evidence of an endogenous plant hav¬ 
ing acquired any considerable age, and, in fact, the 
mode of growth of such trees as palms seems to preclude 
the possibility of their existing beyond a definite period 
of no great extent. The diameter to which their trunk 
finally attains is very nearly gained before they begin 
to lengthen, and afterward all the new woody matter, 
which every successive leaf necessarily produces during 
its development, is insinuated into the centre. The 
consequence of this is, that the woody matter previously 
existing in the centre is displaced and forced outward 
toward the circumference: as this action is constantly 
In progress, the circumference, which in the beginning 
was soft, becomes gradually harder and harder by the 
pressure from within outward, till at last it is not sus¬ 
ceptible of any further compression. Alter this has 
occurred, the central parts will gradually solidify by 
the incessant introduction by the leaves of new wood 
which thrusts outward the older wood, till at last the 
whole stem must become equally hard, and no longer 
capable of giving way for the reception of new matter. 
As soon as this occurs, the 
tree will perish; because 
its vitality is dependent 
upon the full action of 
all the functions of the 
leaves, and the cessation 
of one is the cessation of 
all. — But in exogenous 
trees, as in the oak, it 
is quite the reverse; to 
their existence no limited 
duration can be assigned; 
on the contrary, there is 
nothing physically impos¬ 
sible in the notion that 
some individuals now ex¬ 
isting may even have been 
silent witnesses of the No- 
aeliain deluge. In conse¬ 
quence, first, of the new 
woody matter which is 
constantly formed by the 
leaves of such trees being 
insinuated beneath the 
bark near the circumference of their trunk; and, 
second, of the bark itself being capable of indefinite 
distention, no compression is exercised by the new 
parts upon those previously formed; on the contrary, 
the bark is incessantly giving way to make room for 
the wood beneath it, while the latter is, in consequence, 
only glued, as it were, to what succeeds it, without its 
own vital powers being in any degree impaired by 
compression. It is in the newly-formed wood that the 
greatest degree of vitality resides; in the old wood, 
near the centre, life, in time, becomes extinct; but as 
each successive layer possesses an existence in r- great 
degree independent of that which preceded it, the death 
of the central part of an exogenous tree is by no means 
connected with a diminution of vitality in the circum¬ 
ference. The last cylinder having its own indep indent 
vitality, it will be apparent that, under circumstances 
constantly favorable to growth, individuals of this kind 
may continue to exist to the end of time. — The way by 
which the age of exogenous trees may be computed is by 



§Hg. 53. showing the component parts of a stem in the fourth year 
of growth. 

A, a part of a transverse section. B. a perpendicular section, 
the parts of each arranged accurately over the other. 

a, the pith : h, the surrounding medullary sheath; c and d, 
layers of wood and bothrenchym intermingled. The open work 
Id A shows the position and the extent of bothrenchym more I 
vieariy e, the bark. I 


cutting out a portion of their circumference, and count¬ 
ing the number of concentric rings that are visible; the 
woody cylinder of one year being divided from the suc¬ 
ceeding one by a denser substance, which marks dis-i 
tinctly the line of Separation of the two years. In con¬ 
sequence of the extreme inequality in thickness of the 
annual layers of wood on opposite sides of a stem, a 
person judging of the whole age of a tree by the exami¬ 
nation of the layers of the stunted side only, would 
commit errors to the amount of sixty per cent., and 
more. It is by no means impossible that the great age 
of 5000 years and more, assigned by Adanson to the 
baobab tree of Africa, and by the younger de Candolle 
to the deciduous cypress of Mexico, may be connected 
with errors of this nature. 

A'geil, a. Old. stricken in years: applied to animals 
and plants. Having lived a certain time; as, a man 
aged twenty years. 

Age'da, the name of a plain, 90 m. from Buda, where 
the Jewish rabbis held a meeting, in 1650, to debate 
whether the Messiah had come; the question was de¬ 
cided in the negative. 

A'gedly, adv. In the manner of an aged person. 

A'g edness, n. The state of being aged. 

Agelai'nse, n. pi. [Gr. agele, a herd.] (Zool.) The 
Troop-birds, a sub-family of birds, fam. Sturnidce, ord. 
Passeres; the typical 6pecies of this sub-family is the 
Agelaius pliaeniceus, or blackbird. 

Agelas'tus, a surname of Crassus, the grandfather of 
the rich Crassus. He only laughed once in his life, 
and this, it is said, was upon seeing an ass eat thistles. 

Ageless, a. Having no age, or without ascertained age. 

Ag'elnottl, an archbishop of Canterbury and a favor¬ 
ite of King Canute. On the death of that monarch, he 
refused to crown his son Harold, pretending that the 
deceased King had commanded him to crown none hut 
the issue of Queen Emma. D. 1038. 

A'gen, a town of France, cap. of the dep. of Lot-et- 
Garonne, on the right bank of the Garonne, on the rail¬ 
way from Bordeaux to Toulouse. It is the seat of a 
Court of Appeal. Its situation, though rather unhealthy, 
makes it the entrepot of the commerce between Bor¬ 
deaux and Toulouse. Environs beautiful. Agen was a 
praetorian city under the Roman emperors ; pop. 21,316. 

Agena'bat, a town of Transylvania, 10 m. N.E. of 
Hermanstadt. Lat. 46° 32' N.; Lon. 24° 10' E.- 

A'gency, n. [Fr. agence, from Lat. agenda.] The 
quality of acting; the state of being in action: action. 

“ The superintendence and agency of Providence in the world." 

Woodward. 

—The office of an agent or factor for another; business 
performed by an agent. 

“ I am content to live cheap in a worse country, rather than be 
at the charge of exchange and agencies.'' — Swift. 

A'gency, in Towa, a town and township of Wapello co., 
not far from Des Moines River ; pop. of township 1223. 

—A village of Winneshiek co., on Turkey River. 

Agen'da, n. [PL of the Lat. agendum, to be done.] 
A memorandum-book. — ( Theol .) Things which a man 
is bound to perform, in opposition to Credenda, or 
things which he is bound to believe. It also de¬ 
notes tlie service or offices of the church, and some¬ 
times, in Catholic countries, the church books com¬ 
piled by public authority, prescribing the order to be 
observed by the ministers and people in the ceremonies 
and devotion of the church. 

A'genols, in France, that part of the Province of 
Guienne, which now forms the department of Lot-et- 
Garonne. 

A'genor. king of Phoenicia, was son of Neptune and 
Libya, and brother to Belus. He married Telephassa, 
called by some Agriope, by whom he had Cadmus, Phoe¬ 
nix, Cilix, and Europa. As Carthage was built by bis 
descendants, it is called Agenoris urbs. 

Agent* ria. or Agexora, n. (Myth.) The goddess of 
industry and courage. Her temple was upon Mount 
Aventine.—Also, a name given to the goddess of Silence, 
represented with one of her fingers pressing her lips. 

A'gent, n. [Fr. from Lat. agens, doing.] One who 
conducts the affairs, or is intrusted with the commis¬ 
sions of another. 

(Law.) An agent may be constituted either by 
express appointment or by implication of law, arising 
from the circumstances in which the parties are placed. 
In the following cases his appointment must be in 
writing:—To grant a lease of land for ovet three 
years; to create or assign any uncertain interest in 
land, or (except in copyholds) to surrender the same. 
An agent for a corporating aggregate must, in gen¬ 
eral, be constituted, not only by writing, but by deed; 
and in every case where a deed is to be executed by one 
man as agent or attorney for another, the agent or 
attorney must himself be authorized by deed for that 
purpose. An agency Is determined by the death of the 
principal, or it may be revoked in his lifetime, except 
in cases where an authority is given in pursuance of a 
contract with another party. An agent may be gen¬ 
eral or special. The acts of a general agent bind his 
principal, although the agent may violate his private 
instructions. The power of a special agent is limited 
by the authority he has actually received. An agent, 
without special authority, cannot appoint another per¬ 
son to act in his stead. 

(Diplom.) A general term applied to several ranks, as 
envoys extraordinary, and ministers plenipotentiary, 
ambassadors, ministers resident, secretaries of legation, 
&c. In ordinary language, the principal representative 
of one power at the court of another is termed the 
agent of that power at that particular court. 

A'gent-slli|>, n. The office of an agent. 


A'ger, n. [Lat., a field.] Among the ancient Romans, 
a portion of land allotted to each citizen. The writers 
of the middle ages employed the word ager to denote an 
acre of land. 

A'gcr, Nicholas, a professor of medicine at Strasbnrg; 
distinguished as a botanist and physician. Lived in the 
seventeenth .entury. 

Agesan'der, a famous sculptor of Rhodes, who, in the 
time of Vespasian, made a representation of the Laocoon’s 
history, which now passes for the finest relic of all au- 
cient sculpture. The Laocoou was discovered at Rome 
in 1506, and afterward deposited in the Farnese Palace 
where it still remains. 

Agesila'us king of Lacedaemon, son of Doryssns of 
the family ot the Agidae, and father of Archelaus. Dur¬ 
ing his reign, Lycurgus instituted his famous laws. 
Reigned B. c. 850. 

Agesilads, king of Lacedaemon, son of Arcliidamus, 
of the family of the Proclida:, was elevated to the throne 
alter the death of his brother Agis, bv Lysander, who 
afterward attempted to depose him. Called by the Ion- 
ians to their assistance against Artaxerxes, lie com¬ 
menced, after Lysander’s death, his glorious career; de¬ 
feated the Persians, but was compelled to stop in bit 
victorious course, and turn his arms against Thebes, 
Corinth, Ac., which had united against Sparta, and, in a 
subsequent war with Thebes, to contend against Pelopi- 
das and Epaminondas, the greatest generals of those 
times. His irudeuce, however, saved the city, without 
the hazard of a battle. On liis return from his last cam¬ 
paign in Egypt, loaded with honors and presents, he was 
overtaken by a storm on the coast of Libya, and perished, 
being then in his 84th year, after reigning 40 years, 361- 
321 b. c. He was a noble prince, and almost adored by 
liis soldiers, though he sometimes violated the virtue of 
justice, in cares in which he could be useful to his country 
or friends. 

Agesip'olis I., king of Lacedaemon, and sox of Pausa- 
nias, who obtained a great victory over the Mantineans. 
He reigned 24 years, and was succeeded by bis brother, 
Cleombrotus, 380 b. c. 

Age'-worn, a. M orn or wasted by age. 

Ag'ga, or Ac-'gona, a town and district on the coast of 
Guinea, in which is a very high hill called the Devil's 
Mount. The English have a fort here. Lat. 6° N.; Lon. 
0° 5' E. 

Ag'ger, n. A natural communication, formed during a 
storm, in 1825, between the North Sea in Denmark. North 
Jutland, and the Limfiord. 

I Aggrega tion, n. [Lat. aggeralio.] A heaping up; ac¬ 
cumulation. 

Aggerhuys', or Aggeriiuus, a Norwegian fr-rtress and 
province, which is full of mountains, the largest and in 
many respects the most important in the kingdom. Its 
mines, agriculture, and commerce, are considerable and 
valuable. Pop. of prov. 116,365. Lat. between 58° and 
62° N.; Lon. between 8° and 12° E. 

Ag'g'eroe, an island in the Gulf of Christiania, not far 
H orn the mainland. 

Aggerose', a. Which is formed In heaps. 

Ag'g'ersoe, a small Danish island in the Great Belt, 
near the E. eoast of the island of Zealand; Lat. 65° 12' 
N ; Lon. 11° 12' E. 

Ag'gersnnd, a small island in the Cattegat, Norway. 

Ag'gerzeen, n. (Zool.) A large Abyssinian antelope. 

Aggi'ra, a town of Sicily, prov. of Catania, on the 
Giarretta river: pop. 11,204. 

Agglom erate, t>. a. and n. [Fr. agglomerer.] To col¬ 
lect into a mass of such a kind as shall convey the idea 
of a multitude of parts, or intricacy. Without organi¬ 
zation or structural arrangement. 

Agglom'er ate, and Agglomerated, a. (Bot.) Collected 
into a heap cr head. 

Agglomeration, n. [Fr.] The act of agglomerating, 
or the state of being agglomerated. “An excessive uy- 
glomeration of turrets.” 

Agglom'erative, a. Having a tendency to collect 

together. 

Agglu'tinailt, a. [Fr.] Causing union or adhesion 
of parts, as glue. 

— n. A viscous r adhesive substance causing union of parts. 

Agglu tinate, v. a. [Fr . ugglutiner.] To cause parti 
to adhere or stick together. 

Agglutination, n. [Fr.] The act of agglutinating; 
the state of being agglutinated; the adhesive union ol 
sticking together of parts. 

Agglutinative, a. [Fr. agglutinatif] That which 
lias the power of procuring agglutination, as, an agglu¬ 
tinative roller. 

Aggrandiz'able, a. That may be aggrandized, (o.) 

Aggrandiza'tion, n. The act of aggrandizing, (o.) 

Ag'grandize, v. a. [Fr. ugrandir .] To make great, or 
greater. Applied to individuals and families, or their 
condition. To promote. To dignify. To exalt. To en¬ 
noble. To enrich. 

— v. n. To become greater; applied in the same sense. 

Ag'graiulizement, n. [Fr. agrandissement.] The 
state of being aggrandized; the act of aggrandizing. 

Ag'grantlizer, n. One who aggrandizes or make* 
great another. 

Ag'gravate, v. a. [Fr. aggraver, from Lat. aggravare, 
to make heavier.] To make heavy or heavier. It is not 
said of the augmentation of that which is physically 
weighty, but metaphorically, as, of the burden of trou¬ 
ble, or anything naturally oppressive. So the idea is by 
usage restricted to matters of feeling and moral respon- 
sibility. We aggravate a mental, not a material burden. 
Circumstances also aggravate offences. It is less usually 
employed directly of persons, than of their feelings ot 
sictiments.--To wound; to increase; to embitter; to 
magnify. 





























































52 


AGIO 


AGNE 


AGON 


Aggrava tion, n. [Fr. from Lat. aggravation The act 
of aggravating, or making heavy. — The extrinsic cir¬ 
cumstances, or accidents, which increase the guilt of a 
crime, or the misery of a calamity.—See Aggravate. 

Ag’'gregnte, v. a. [Fr. agregr.r, from Lat. aggregare. j 
To collect together; to heap many particulars into one 
mass. 

“ The aggregated soil 

Death,with his mace pctrilick, cold, aud dry, 

As with a trident, smote.” — Milton . 

Ag'gregiltc, n - The complex or collective result of the 
conjunction or acervation of many particulars. 

“ The reason of the far greatest part of mankind, is but an ag¬ 
gregate of mistake.! fantasms.” — Glanville. 

(Chem .) When bodies of the same kind are united, the 
only consequence is, that one larger body is produced. 
In this case, the united mass is called an aggregate, and 
does not differ in its chemical properties from the bodies 
from which it was originally made. 

Ag'greg’ate, a,. Formed by the collection of any simi¬ 
lar parts into a mass, body, or system. 

( Bot .) A term applied to flowers, germs, peduncles, 
Ac., assembled closely together. An A. flower is one 
which consists of a number of smaller flowers or fructi¬ 
fications, collected into a head by means of some part 
common to them all.— A. fruits are formed by the com¬ 
bination of several flowers, as the pine-apple and the 
mulberry. The term anthocarpous is more generally 
used. Some botanists apply the term aggregate to a 
compound fruit, consisting of numerous achsenia (see 
this word), borne by a single flower; as the fruit of the 
ranunculus or the raspberry. 

Ag'gregately, adv. Collectively. 

Aggregation, n. [Fr. agrtgation.] The act of aggre¬ 
gating, or the state of being aggregated; sum; mass; 
whole; collection. 

Aggregative, a. [Fr. agregatif. ] Taken together; 
collective. 

Aggregator, n. [Lat.] One who aggregates or col¬ 
lects into a whole or mass; a collector. 

Aggress', v. n. [Lat. aggredi, to approach.] To commit 
the first act of violence; to begin the quarrel. 

Aggress', n. Aggression, (o.) 

Aggres'sion, n. [Fr. agression, from Lat. aggressin .] 
The first act of injury; commencement of a quarrel by 
some act leading to war or controversy. 

Aggress'ive, a. [Fr. agresdf.] Which tends to aggress, 
or commences hostilities; offensive. 

Aggress'iveness, n. The quality or state of being 
aggressive. 

Aggress'or, n. [Fr. agresseur .] The person that first 
commences hostility; the assaulter or invader. 

Aggriev'ance, n. [0. Fr. ogrevance.] Injury; hard¬ 
ship inflicted; wrong endured; grievance, (n.) 

Aggrieve', v. a. [0. Fr. ugrever .] To give sorrow; to 
cause grief; to vex. 

44 Which yet aggrieves my heart even to this hour.'*— Spencer. 

•—To impose some hardships upon; to harass; to hurt in 
one’s right. gr 

44 The landed man finds himself aggrieved by the falling of his 
rents.’*— Locke. 

Aggroup', v. a. To bring together; to group. 

Ag'haboe, a village aud parish of Ireland, in Queen’s 
co. Pop. 6,000. 

Ag'hatloe, a town of Ireland, in the co. of Kerry. It 
is situated near the lake of Ivillarney, 15 mites S.S.E. 
of Ardfert. 

Aghast', adv. [From gaze.] Standing in a state of gaping 
or staring wonder ; horror-struck; astare. 

“The aged earth aghast. 

With terror of that blast, 

Shall from the surface to the centre shake."— Mil. Chr. Nat. 

A'gtarim, or Aughrim, a village of Ireland, co. Galway, 
82 miles W. of Dublin; pop. 383. Near it the troops of 
William III. gained a decisive victory over those of 
James II. in 1691. 

A'gile, a. [Fr. from Lat. agere, to act.] Ready or apt to 
move; nimble; active. 

44 With that he gave his able horse the head, 

And bending forward struck his agile heels....”— Shak. 

Agile Gibbon, n. (Zoo'l.j A monkey of the fam. Simia- 
dse. It has very long arms, is 3 feet in height, and so 
called from the agility with which he leaps from branch 
to branch. It is a native of Sumatra. 

Ag'ilely, adv. In an agile manner. 

Ag'ileness, n. The quality of being agile; nimhleness, 
readiness for motion of the limbs; quickness; agility. 

Agii'ity, n. [Fr. agilitt.] Nimbleness; bodily activity. 

Agil'loeiinm, n .— See Agai.lochum. 

Ag ill'll, duke of Turin, succeeded Antharic as king of 
Lombardy, and married his widow Theudelinda. lie 
abandoned Ariunism for the Catholic faith, and d. 616, 
after a reign of 25 years. 

Ag'ineourt, or Az'incourt, a village of France, de¬ 
partment of Pas de Calais, 23 in N.W. of St. Pol. The 
place is famous in history for the great victory gained 
near it in 1415 by the English monarch, Henry V., over 
a vastly superior French force. 

A'gio, n. [It.] (Com.) A term used sometimes to express 
the variations from fixed pars or rates of exchange, but 
more generally to indicate by percentages the difference 
in the valuation of moneys. The Ital. word agio is ex¬ 
plained to mean “ an exchange of money for some con¬ 
sideration.” Thus, if a coin is reduced in weight, and 
the real value is not equal to the nominal value, the dif¬ 
ference is the agio. —As the current coins of ever}’ coun¬ 
try have a kind of medium value at which they are 
generally taken, the term agio is also applied to express 
W hat must be paid over and above this medium value. 


The kinds of money on which, in the case of exchange, 
an agio is paid, are not always the more valuable intrin¬ 
sically, but those which are most in request. — The term 
agio is also used to signify the rate of premium which 
is given, when a person having a claim which he can le¬ 
gally demand in only one kind of metal, chooses to be 
paid in another. 

A'giotage, n. [Fr. from It. agio.] A speculation on the 
rise and fall of the public debt of states, or the public 
funds ; stock-jobbing. The speculator is called agioteur 
in France. 

A'gis. Four kings of Sparta have borne this name. I. 
Son of Eurysthenes, and grandson of Aristodemus, of 
the race of the Proclidaa. No certain dates can he as¬ 
signed to these early times. — II. Son of Archidamus. 
reigned from b. c. 427 to 397, and was actively engaged 
in the Peloponnesian war.— III. Son of another Archi¬ 
damus, reigned from b. c. 338 to 331 or 330. He fell in a 
battle won against the Lacedemonians by Antipater, 
whom Alexander had left governor of Macedonia.—TV. 
Son of Eudamidas II.. and a lineal descendant of Agesi- 
laus. For endeavoring to reform the constitution of his 
country, and improve the manners of his people, they 
rose against him and put him to death, b. c. 241. 

Agist/, v. a. [Lat. agistare.] (Law.) To take i-n and feed 
strangers’ cattle, and to collect the money due for it. 

Agist or. Agista'tor, n. Officer appointed in England 
to look after cattle in the forests. Also called Gist- 
talcer. 

Agist'ment, n. (Larv.) The act of taking other men’s 
cattle into any ground at a certain rate per week; so 
called because the cattle are suffered agiser, i. e. to be 
levant and couchant there. 

Ag'itable, a. [Fr. from Lat. agitahilis.) That which 
may be agitated, put in motion, or disputed. 

Ag'itate, v. a. [Fr. o.giter, from Lat. agitare .] Ta»put 
in motion; to shake; to move nimbly; as, the surface 
of the water is agitated by the wind; the vessel was 
broken by agitating the liquor.— To affect with pertur¬ 
bation ; to disturb or excite; as, the mind of man is agi¬ 
tated by various passions.—To stir; to discuss earnestly; 
to controvert; as, to agitate a question. — To consider or 
view mentally a thing or thought in all its aspects. 

Agita'tion, n. [Fr. from Lat. agitatio.] The act of 
moving, or shaking something; the state of being moved 
or agitated; as, the waters, after a storm, are sometimes 
in a violent agitation. — Discussion; controversial ex¬ 
amination; deliberation; as, a project nowin agitation. — 
Violent motions of the mind; perturbation; disturbance 
of the thoughts. 

44 She could no longer bear the agitation of so many passions.” 

Tatter. 

Ag'itative, a. Tending to agitate. 

Agita'to. [It.] (Mas.) A rapid and violent, but broken 
and interrupted, style of performance, calculated to 
shake and surprise the hearer.— Agitato allegro , a style 
both perturbated and rapid. —Agitato unpoco, a style a 
little agitated. 

Ag'itator. n. [Fr. agitatenr.] He that agitates anything. 

(Hist.) The name given to men appointed by Crom¬ 
well’s army, to look after their interests. They were also 
called adjutators. 

Agla'ia, n. (Myth.) The youngest of the three Graces, 
called also Pasiplias. She was the wife of Vulcan. 

( Ast.) One of the groups of small planets revolving be¬ 
tween Jupiter and Mars. — See Asteroids. 

(Bot.) A genus of dicotyledonous plants, ord. Melia- 
ce.tr. The flowers of Aglaia odorata are used for perfum¬ 
ing certain varieties of tea. 

Agla'ope. (Myth.) One of the Sirens. 

A'g’lasoun, a town of Turkey in Asia, Anatolia, 55 
miles from Sataliah. It stands on a mountain, and is 
the ancient Lysinas. 

Ag'let, or Aig'let, n. [Fr. aiguillette.] A tag of a lace, 
or of the points formerly used in dress. They were 
sometimes formed into small figures. 

A'glie, a town of Italy, Piedmont, 10 m. S. of Ivrea. It 
has a splendid palace and gardens. Pop. 4,500. 

Ag’low', a. Hot; glowing. 

Ag'tnet, or Agmat, a town of Morocco, on a river of the 
same name, 16 m. S. of Morocco. 

Ag’iiatlel'lo, a village of North Italy, 10 m. E. of Lodi, 
near which Louis XII. of France completely defeated 
the Venetians, on May 14, 1509, and the Duke of Ven- 
dome gained a victory over prince Eugene in 1705. 

Ag'nail, n. [A. S.] A disease of the nails; a whitlow. 

Agna'no, a celebrated lake near Naples, supposed to 
have been the fish-pond of Lucullus’ villa. Near its banks 
are the natural vapor-baths of San-Germano, and on the 
opposite side the famous Grotta del Cane, a small cave in 
the rock, from the ground of which a mephitic vapor 
issues, which has the power of depriving a dog or other 
animal of all sensation in a few moments. 

Ag'mate, n. [Lat. agnatus.] A relation in tho male 
line. My son, brother, paternal uncle, and their chil¬ 
dren, as also my daughter and sister, are my agnates. 

Agna tic, a. Relating to male generations. 

Agna'iion, n. Descent from the father, in a direct 
male line. 

Ag nes, St. A holy woman who suffered martyrdom 
at the time of the persecution of the Christians in the 
reign of the emperor Diocletian. 

Ag'nes, St., one of the Scilly, islands, not worthy of 
notice but for its lighthouse, with a revolving light, 138 
feet above high-water mark. Lat. 49° 53' 37" N.; Ion. 
6 ° 19' 23" W. 

Ag'nes, St., a parish and town in Cornwall, England. 
Area, 8,660 acres; pop., chiefly mining, 8,000. St. Agnes 
Beacon, in the neighborhood, rises to a height of 664 
feet. 

Ag'nes of Austria. See Albert L 


Ag'nes Sorel, the mistress of Charles VII., king of 
France, born in 1409, of a noble family, was one of the 
most beautiful and accomplished women of her time. 
Lady of honor to the Duchess of Anjou, she attracted 
the favor of the youug king, and yielded to his passion 
after some resistance. The English then had possession 
of half of France; and Charles VII., though naturally 
bold, became depressed and inactive under the weight 
of his. misfortunes. A. alone was able to rouse him 
from his apathy, and make him feel what he owed to 
himself and his people. The eventual success of his 
arms increased his passion for his mistress, who did not, 
however, abuse her power over him. She retired, iL 
1445. to Loches, where Charles had built her a castle. 
He afterward conferred on her the county ol Peuthievre, 
in Bretagne, and the chateau de Bemitd, on the hank of 
tho Marne; whence she received the name of dame de 
heaute. She had lived here about 5 years, frequently 
visited by the king, when the queen invited h> r again 
to court, in 1449. A consented, and, to he nearer the 
king, went to the castleof Masnal-la-Belle, wliereshed., 
in 1450, so suddenly as to afford suspicion of poison. 

Ag'liew. J \mes, a British general in the Am. revolu¬ 
tion. Distinguisned at the battle of Brandywine, and 
killed at the battle of Germantown, Oct. 4, 1777. 

Ag'no. (Myth.) One of the nymphs who nursed Jupiter. 
She gave her name to a fountain on mount Lycseus. 

Agno'lo. Bacoio d’, a Florentine sculptor and architect 
of great reputation. B. 1460; D. 1543. 

Agno'mcn. n. [Lat., a surname.] Was, in ancient 
Rome, the fourth or honorary name bestowed on ac¬ 
count of some extraordinary action, virtue, or accom¬ 
plishment. Tims the A. Africanns was given to Pubiicus 
Cornelius Scipio, on account of his exploits in Africa. 

Agnoinina'tioii. n. Allusion of one word to another, 
by resemblance of sound. 

Agno'ni. a town of S. Italy, 18 m. N.N.E. of Isernia. 

Agnostic, ( ag-nds'tilc, or a-nus'tlk.) [Gr. a priv., and 
gnostilens, good at knowing, from gipnosko, to know.] 
One of a school of thinkers who disclaim any knowledge 
of God, or of the origin of the universe. They hold that 
the mind is limited to an a posteriori knowledge of phe¬ 
nomena. nud that the infinite is beyond its range. 

Agnotlie'riuni, n. (Pal.) A fossil animal the size 
of a lion, allied to the dog. 

Ag'nus castus, n. [Lat.] The name of the Chaste - 
tree, a species of vitex, so called from an imaginary vir¬ 
tue attributed to it of preserving chastity. 

Ag'nus I>ci. [Lat., Lamb of God.] (Peel. Hist.) A 
prayer of the Catholic liturgy, beginning with the words 
Agnus Dei, sung before the communion and at the close 
of tho mass.— Also, a round piece of wax, on which is 
impressed the figure of the sacred Lamb, with the ban¬ 
ner of the cross, or of St. John, with the year and the 
name of the Pope. The Pope consecrates and distributes 
a great number of them. 

Ago', adv. [A. S. agan, past or gone.] Past; gone; 
since; as, long ago —that is, long time past since.— 
Generally, reckoning time toward the present, we use 
since; as, it is a year since it happened: reckoning from 
the present, we use ago; as, it happened a year ago. 

A'gO, or Agoa, de Pa'o, the mountain-peak near the mid¬ 
dle of the island of St. Michael, in the Azores, upwards 
of 3,000 feet high. 

Ag'obartl, archbishop of Lyons, one of the most cele¬ 
brated prelates of the 9th century. D. 840. 

Agog', adv. [A. S. gangan, to go.] Abroad; abroach; 
astir; adrift; agoing. — The idea seems to be that of 
excited interest, with a tendency to distraction; the 
faculties not only actively astir, hut going, as it were, 
different ways at once, under the influence of curiosity, 
delight, surprise, or desire. 

44 They put the heads of our servant-maids agog for husbands.” 

Addison. 

44 The gaudy gossip, when she’s set agog, 

In jewels drest, aud at each ear a bob, 

Goes flaunting out, and, in her trim of pride, 

Thinks all she says or does is justify' d."—L>ryden. 

Agog'ebic, in Michigan, a lake 2 ni. wide and 25 m. 
long, situated in the N.W. of the state, about 12 m. S. 
of Lake Superior. The W. branch of the Ontonagon 
river is its outlet. 

A'go !ii, an island of Sweden, in the gulf of Bothnia, with 
a good harbor. Lat. 61° 20' N.; Ion. 18° 10' E. 

Agon'es Capitolini, games celebrated at Rome 
every fifty years upon the Capitoline hill, established 
by Diocletian. Prizes were proposed for agility and 
strength, us well as lor poetical and other literary com¬ 
positions. 

Agon ic L.iiie, n [Gr. a, priv..and gonia, angle.] (Phys.) 
An ii’regularly curved imaginary line, called also a line 
of no variation , connecting points oi the earth where 
the magnetic coincides with the geographical meridian. 
Such a line cuts the E. of S. America, and passing east 
of the W. Indies, enters N. America, near Philadelphia, 
and traverses Hudson's Bay; thence it passes through 
the N. Pole, entering the old world E of the White Sea, 
traverses the Caspian, cuts the E. of Arabia, turns then 
toward Australia, and passes through the S. Pole, to 
join itself again. — Jsogtmic lines are lines connecting 
those places on the earth's surface in which the declina¬ 
tion of the magnetic needle is the same. — See Declina¬ 
tion and Meridian. 

Ag'onisin, n. [Gr.] Contention for a prize. ( 0 .) 

Ag'onist, n. A contender for prizes, (o.) 

Agonis'tes, n. A prize-fighter; one that contends at 
any public solemnity for a prize. Milton has styled a 
tragedy Samson Agonistes, because Samson was called 
out to divert the Philistines with feats of strength. 

Agonis tic, Agonis t icnl, a. Relating to prize¬ 
fighting. 

Agonist icnlly, adv. In an agonistic manner. 








AGRA 


AGUE 


AGR1 


53 


Syonlslics. n. pi. The art of prize-fighting. 

nius. (Myth.) A Human deity who presided orer 
the actions of men 

Agotioth'et^s, re. pi. The officers wiio sat as umpires 
at the Grecian game3. They settled all disputes which 
arose, and decided to whom the prizes should be 
awarded. 

Assails, n. (Ziul.) A genus of acanthopterygious 
fishes, mostly found in the northern Pacific ocean. They 
never exceed nine or ten inches in length, and are no 
where used as an article of human food. 

Ag onize, v. a. [Fr. ago)riser.] To feel agony; to be 
in excessive pain. 

' 1 Or touch, if. tremblingly alive all o’er, 

Co smart and agonize at ev’ry pore.”— Pope . 

Ag'omize, t*. n. To afflict with agony. 

Agonizingly, at tv. With agony. 

Ag'ony, n. [Fr. agonie, from Gr. agnnia , a struggle.] Lit¬ 
erally, the struggle of the wrestler in the public contests 
of Greece. Agony is therefore, primarily, pain so severe 
as to produce contortions of the muscles; thence, gen¬ 
erally great pain of mind or body. The pangs of death; 
properly the last contest between life and death. 

Agra, the public square of ancient Greek cities, corre¬ 
sponding to the Forum of the Romans. 

Agorae'rites, a Grecian statuary of the 5th century 
b. o. He was a pupil of Phidias, and one of the most 
skilful artists of his time. 

Ag'orsea. (Myth.) A name of Minerva at Sparta. 

Ag'Ok’eus, n. (Myth.) One of the names of Mercury, 
from his presiding over markets. 

Agos'ta, or Augusta, a town of Sicily, in Val di Noto, 
with an excellent harbor. In 1761 it was mostly swal¬ 
lowed up by an earthquake, but has been rebuilt. Lat. 37° 
13' N.; Lon. 15° 13'E.; about 18 miles N. of Syracuse. 
Pop. 9,735. It was off this port that De Ruyter, the fa¬ 
mous Dutch admiral, in command of the united Dutch 
and Spanish fleet, 22d April, 1676, was defeated by the 
French under Duquesne, and received his death-wound. 

A'got, a small island in the English channel. Lat. 4S° 
38' N.; Lon. 2° 4' W. 

Agona'ra. n. (Zool.) The Crab-eater, a carnivorous ani¬ 
mal, allied to the Raccoons, fam. Ureidie, a native of South 
America. It equals in size an ordinary iox. to which it 
bears a slight external resemblance. It has derived its 
name of Crab-eater from its habit of feeding on all kinds 
of crustaceas and mollusks, whether marine or terres- 



Pig. 54.— agouara. (From Tenney’s Manual of Zoology.) 

Agoult', (Comtesse i)’.) See Stern, Daniel. 

Agout'i, re. (Zool.) A South American animal, of the 
family Bystricidse, ord. Rodentia. The agoutis live for 
the most part upon the surface of the ground, not 
climbing nor digging to any depth; and they commonly 
sit upon their haunches, when at rest, holding their food 
between their forepaws, in the manner of squirrels. By 
eating the roots of the sugar-cane, they are often the 
cause of great injury to the planters. 



Fg. 55. — agouti. 

Ag'ows, a remarkable people of Abyssinia, inhabiting a 
territory to the east of the sources of the Bahr-el-Azrek 
(Blue river) or Abyssinian Nile.— Ext. 60 miles long and 
30 broad. This district is fertile in the highest degree. 
It produces large quantities of honey, and raises re¬ 
markably fin« cattle, with which it almost exclusively 
supplies Gondar, the capital — Pop. considerable, but not 
ascertained.—There is another tribe of the same people, 
called fcheretz Agows, who inhabit a district on the 
northern bank of the Tacasse. 

A'gra, a vast N.W. prov. of Hindostan, belonging for the 
most part to England, bounded N. by the prov. of Delhi. 
S. by Malwa, E. by Oude and Allahabad, and W. by Raj- 
pootana. Its length is about 250 and its breadth 180 
m ile 3 .— Area, 9,298 miles.— Desc. To the N. of the river 
Chumbul the country is flat and thinly wooded; hut in 
the N.W direction, trees become more abundant and the 
surface more undulated. The district between the Jumna 
and the Ganges, called the Doab. is the most fertile part 
of the province.— Rivers. The Ganges, the Jumna, and 
the Chumbul.- Towns. Alwur, Bhurtpoor, Deeg. Mathura. 
Mintra. Erawah, Gwalior, Calpee. Gohud.and Nharwar. 
Inhab. A mixed race of Mahometans and Hindoos.—Prod. 
Sugar, cotton and indigo.— Minerals. Salt, marble and cop- 
4 


per.— Manuf. Coarse cotton cloths, finemuslins, and some 
silks.— Pop. ab. 6,000,090. Lat. between 2a° and 23° N. 
Climate approximates to temperate during a part of the 
year, and in the winter months may even be pronounced 
cold; but during the prevalence of hot winds, to which 
the whole of Central Asia is occasionally liable, the beat 
is insupportably great, and the climate, in consequence, 
unfavorable to European constitutions, 'lhe province 
of Agra has been the theatre of some of the most daring 
scenes in the great revolt of 1857. 

A'gra, the capital city of the above prov. and the seat 
of the Britisli civil authority. Lat. 27° 12' N.; Lon. 78° 
6' E. It stands on the c.W. bank of the river Jumna, 
the houses being built of stone, and very lofty, but the 
streets so narrow as hardly to admit the passage of a 
carriage.—The Hindoo inhabitants hold this city in great 
veneration, from its being the place of the avatdra, or 
incarnation of Vishnu, under the name of Parasu Rama. 
In 1504, A., then called Badul-ghur, became the seat of 
the Mohammedan empire, but it began to decline in 1617, 
when Shah Jehan transferred his court to Delhi. Whilst 
it was the residence of Shah Jehan, however, he built a 
superb mausoleum, probably the most magnificent in the 
world, for his wife, the Begum Noor-Jehan. Tills struc¬ 
ture was called the Taj Mahal, or crown of edifices, and 
cost $18,000,000. Here Shah Jehan himself rests beside 
the Begum, at the distance of three miles from the city. 
In 1803, Agra was captured by the British. In the great 
Indian revolt of 1857, the 4th of July, took place the 
battle of Agra, in which 10,000 Sepoys were defeated by 
500 British. Pop. 168,622. 



A'gram. Zagrab, a fortified and well-built city of Aus¬ 
tria, and the cap. of Croatia, 160 m. S.S.W. of Vienna. 
Man/, principally silks and porcelain. It was partly 
destroyed by an earthquake on Nov. 9th, 1S80. Pop. 
37,529. 

Agra'rian, a. [Lat.] Relating to fields or grounds. 

Agrarian law. The A. law was enacted to distribute 
among the Roman people all the lands which they had 
gained by conquest, and for limiting the quantity of 
ground possessed by each person to a certain number of 
acres. For full examination of this important element 
in the history of the Roman republic, see Niebuhr’s 
History, translation by Hare and Thirlwall, vol. ii., pp. 
129-173; Plutarch s Lives of the Gracchi, and Cicero’s 
speech against Rullus. 

Agra'rian, n. A partisan of agrarian principles. 

Agra'rian ism. re. The doctrine of agrarians. 

Agra'rianize, v. a. To distribute lands among the 
people. 

Ag'reda, Marie d’, superior of the convent of the Im¬ 
maculate Conception at Agreda, in Spain, who pretended 
to have received directions in a vision to write the life of 
the Virgin Mary, which she accordingly did. B. 1602; D. 
1665. Her ‘’Life of the Virgin Mary” was prohibited 
at Rome, and censured by the sorbonne of Paris, though 
highly esteemed in Spain. 

Ag'reda, a town of Spain, prov. Soria, at the foot of 
Mont Cayo. Pop. 3,120. 

Agree', v. n. [Fr. agreer .J To be in concord; not to differ; 
to harmonize. 

" The more you agree together, the less hurt can they do to 
you.”— Pope. 

— To grant; to assent; to admit. 

” They will agree to all reasonable conditions."—2 Mac cab. xi. 14. 

— To settle terms by stipulation; tq accord. 

“Agree with thine adversary quickly.” — Matt. v. 25. 

— To be of the same mind or opinion. 

“ Milton is a noble genius, and the world agrees to confess it.” 

Watts. 

— To be consistent; not to contradict. 

“ Their witness agreed not together.” — Mark xiv. 50. 

— To suit with; to he accommodated to ; to tally. 

” His principles could not be made to agree with that constitu¬ 
tion. ”— Locke. 

— To be good for health. 

“The asses’ milk agrees with me.” 

Agree', and Agre', adv. In good part, (o.) 

Agreeabiii'ty, n. Willingness to be pleased. 

Agree'able, a. [Fr. agreable.] Suitable to; consistent 
with. 

“ That which is agreeable to the nature of one thing, is many 
times contrary to the nature of another." — L'Estrange. 

— Pleasing; pleasant: grateful: welcome; charming; as, 
agreeable, travel; agreeable news; an agreeable lady. 

Agree'ableness, re. The quality of pleasing. 

Agree'ably, adv. Consistently with; in a manner suit¬ 
able to; pleasingly. 


Agreeb, a high and conical mcantain in central Egypt 
about 16 miles inland from the gulf of Suez. Lat. 28^ 
12' N.; long. 32° 42' E. 

Agreed', p. a. Settled by consent. 

” ^ h eu they had got known aud agreed names.”— Locke. 

Agree'ingly, adv. In conformity to. 

AgreeTiient. re. [Fr. agrement.) Concord; harmony; 
resemblance; similarity. 

(Law.) A mutual bargain, contract, orcovenant. Taken 
in its most extended sense, it com prebends a large pro¬ 
portion ol the transactions of civilized man in the mu¬ 
tual intercourse of society. In a more limited sense, it 
is the mutual assent to do a thing; llie effect of this as¬ 
sent, or the instrument itself, showing what has been 
agreed. Every State has particular laws on this im¬ 
portant matter. It may, however, be noticed as general 
rule: 1st, that the assent is the essence of an agreement, 
and that the parties must be in situations to testify their 
free assent to it. Thus lunatics, infants, aud married 
women are, for obvious reasons, deemed incapable of 
binding themselves by any engagement. 2. That the 
subject of agreement must not be tainted with illegality; 
for it would be evidently repugnant to common sense 
that the law should be called to enforce performance of 
any act which it has expressly forbidden, or which 
would be contrary to its general policy. 3. In order 
to secure the aid of the law in carrying it into 
effect, an agreement must have certain qualities mu¬ 
tually beneficial to the parties, or must be entered 
into with certain prescribed solemnities. Courts of 
justice cannot be called upon to take cognizance of 
idle or inconsiderate promise. An agreement must 
either be contracted by a formal instrument in writ¬ 
ing, sealed and openly acknowledged by the party 
who has bound itself to it; or if contracted in a less 
formal manner, by word or otherwise, it must appear 
that the parties derive from it reciprocal benefit. Upon 
this principle, a promise to make a voluntary gift can 
never be enforced; but there is a continuing right in the 
party promising, to retract his promise or donation, un¬ 
til the gift is actually completed. An agreement takes 
the name of deed or specialty contract when put in writing 
under seal, but not when put iu writing for a memoran¬ 
dum. 

Ag-res'tie, Agres'tical, a. [Fr. agreste, from Lat. 
agreslis. J Having relation to the country; rude: rustic. 

A'grev’e, St., a town of France, dep. Ardeche; pop. 
3,133. 

Agric'ola, Cneius Julius, an eminent Roman com¬ 
mander, b. a. d. 40, in the reign of Caligula. Tribune of 
the people and prater under Nero, he was made a pa¬ 
trician and governor of Aquitania by Vespasian. Con¬ 
sul in 77, he married the same year his daughter to Ta¬ 
citus, the historian, who has so admirably written his 
life. The next year he was appointed governor of Brit¬ 
ain; extended his conquests into Scotland; and built a 
chain of forts from the Clide to the frith of Forth, to 
prevent the incursions of the inhabitants of tlie North. 
He defeated Gaigacus on the Grampian Hills, and then 
made peace with th#Caledonians. On the accession o* 
Domitian, A. was recalled, and quietly retired into pri¬ 
vate life. D. a. n. 93. 

Agric[ola, John, a polemical writer of celebrity, b. at 
Eislebzb, Saxony, 1492; i». at Berlin, 1566. From being 
the friend and scholar, he became the antagonist of Mar¬ 
tin Luther. He entered into a dispute witli Mc-laucthon, 
advocating the doctrine of faith in opposition to the 
works of the law’, whence the sect, of which he became 
leader, received the name of Antinomians. 

Ag’ric'olist. re. An agriculturist. 

Ag’ric'olous, a. Agricultural. 

Ag'ricultor, re. A farmer. 

Agricultural, a. Which relates to agriculture. 

Agricultural Implements are the instruments used is 
tillage and the various operations necessary for the pro 
per cultivation of the soil: comprising implements foi 
harvesting, stock-feeding, land-draining, preparation* 
for market, the application of steam-power to agricul¬ 
ture, &c. — See Clod-Crusher, Cutteii, Chaff-Cutter 
Draining, Dibble, Dkill, Dkesser, Dressing-Machine 
IIoe Reaping-Machine, Horse-Rake. Harrow, Manure 
Distributor, Plough, Roller, Sowing, Top-Drf.sser 
Thrashing-Machine, Turnip-Cutter, Winnowing, &c. 

Agriculturist, re. One A’ersed in agriculture. 

Agriculture, re. [Fr. from Lat. ager. a field, and cut 
turn, cultivation.] The science which explains the 
mode of cultivating the ground, as to cause it to produce, 
in plenty and perfection, those vegetable products which 
are useful to man and to such animals as are reared by 
him for food or labor. It is the most ancient, the most 



Pig 57. — THE ROMAN PLOUGH. 
(Used in the days of Cincinnatus ) 


universal, and the most important of the arts. Since Cain, 
*’ the tiller of the ground,” and Noe, “ the husbandman, ’ 
agriculture, the basis of all other arts, has ever been, ii 
all countries, coeval with the first dawn of civilization 





































AGR1 


AGRI 


AGRO 


A complete history of Agriculture would he the true 
history of mankind. To give a connected and even 
imperfect account of the practice, statistics, and his¬ 
tory of agriculture in all countries, would be incon¬ 
sistent with the general plan of this \vc k, and of little 
use to the reader. We shall, therefore, limit ourselves 
here to some general remarks on the state of agriculture 
in our country, which would not find place under other 
heads; pointing out the principal divisions, in which 
will be found all useful information on this subject. 

Agriculture of the United States. —The vast territory of 
the United States presents every variety of soil and cli¬ 
mate. Its agriculture embraces all the products of Eu¬ 
ropean cultivation, together with some of the warmer 
countries, as cotton, sugar, and indigo. The agricultural 
implements are, in many respects, similar to those of 
Great Britain and France. But as a general rule, those 
of the U. S. exceed all others in their wonderful adap¬ 
tation of machinery for all purposes of cultivation and 
harvesting of crops. So successful have been our farm¬ 
ing implements in repeated contests on European soil, 
that their rapid introduction into foreign markets is 
only impeded by the greatly increasing demand at 
home. The disposition of the American to experiment, 
to test alleged improvements, and adopt labor-saving 
expedients, gives a great impulse to the genius of 
inventors, as may be seen by the number of agricul¬ 
tural patents granted, which was but 43 in 1847; 
while in 1866 they increased to 1778, and during the 
years ending with the last decade, have still more won¬ 
derfully increased. This mental activity of the Amer¬ 
ican farmer, so much in contrast with the blind opposi¬ 
tion of the European countrymen to any improvement, 
is owing, in great part, to the super.or intelligence 
of the former. In Europe, land is dear and labor 
cheap; but in the United States the reverse is the case, 
hence the European cultivator is led, by a regard for 
his own interest, to endeavor to make the best of his 
land; while the American has the same inducement to 
reduce to the lowest possible minimum the proportion 
of manual labor employed in its operations. Unhappily, 
this principle is too often carried to a disastrous extreme. 
A man, possessor of a large estate, with reduced means, 
believes it necessary to scratch over the whole, when 
his assurance of success would be to concentrate his 
labor upon a small area. Another cause of deteriora¬ 
tion of soil, quoted as a warning in the reports to Con¬ 
gress, is the cheapness of Western lat is, the original 
price of which bears such insignificant proportions to 
their intrinsic value, that the owner, after having over¬ 
taxed the soil for immediate results, deems it cheaper 
to remove to new lands, than to sustain and increase 
the productive capacity of his present farm. One result 
of this error is the removal westward, year by year, of 
the centre of wheat production, thus riding transpor¬ 
tation and oilier charges to its ultimate cost, threaten¬ 
ing to render export next to impossible. But the im¬ 
mediate consequence of this indifference for conserva¬ 
tion or fertilization of soil is, that, with land generally 
richer than that of European countries, the aver¬ 
age production in America remains far below that of 
any country in Europe. The average yield of wheat 
per acre in America was 1375 for the year 1895; a 
lower average than that shown for the more carefully 
cultivated fields of the wheat-raising European coun¬ 
tries, such as Germany, France, Belgium and Ireland. 


Table of Grain production in the United States in the census 
years 1850 to 1900. 


Years 

Indian Corn. 

Wheat. | Oats. 

Barley. 

Rye. 

1850 . 

592.071,104 

100 485 940 1 146.584.179 

5,167.015 

14.188,813 

1860 . 

838.792 742 

173.104.924 172 643 185 

15.825.898 21 101.380 

1870 . 

760 944.549 

287,745 626 2*2 107,157 

29.761.305 

16 918.790 

1880 . 

1.754.861,535 

459,479.003 407.S58.900 

44.1 13.495 

19.831,595 

1890 . 

1,489,970,100 

399.262.000 523 621.000 68.000,000 

28 000.000 

1900 . 

2,105,102.516 

522,229,505 809 125,989 58,925,833.23,995,927 


The total wlieatTcrop of the world in 1902 was esti¬ 
mated at 3,124,420.000 bushels. The hay crop of the 
United States in 1900 was valued at 1342,023,111 ; the 
total grain crop at SI,400,000,000; (he sugar crop in 
1900 was valued at: cane sugar $39,052,152; beet sugar, 
$3,329,189; maple sugar, $2,636,774. Of this the great 
bulk of the cane sugar was produced in Louisiana and 
of beet sugar in California. The production of the 
latter is rapidly increasing. The cotton crop has in¬ 
creased in the following proportions, the estimate being 
inhales: 1830. 970,845; 1840,2,177,835; 1850,2,096,705: 
1870, 3.154,946; 1880,5,757.397; 1890,7,313,226; 1900, 
9,439,559; 1903, 10,758,326. 

If we now consider the product of American fields as 
•ompared with those of Europe, we will find a general 
decrease in quantity per acre cultivated; which seems 
plainly to indicate a wastefulness and want of system 
in the practice of a majority of American farmers. 
Another suggestive fact concerning the wheat-growing 
States is, that the yield per acre in each is very 
nearly in inverse ratio to the time that has elapsed 
since the settlement of the State. Thus, in the statis¬ 
tical report for the year 1867, the states of California, 
Nebraska, and Kansas present the highest results. (See 
Products, under the name of every State.) —It is in¬ 
contestable that the unfavorable average yield of farm 
crops in America is mostly caused by the facility of new 
settlements in the Western States and Territories, and 
this cause may probably weigh for many years on 
their statistics, if we consider the relative unim¬ 
portance of improved land in the United States, as 


shown by the following table; but the increasing in¬ 
terest of the American people in the advancement of 
agricultural science, and their growing inclination to 
employ in agriculture capital, business energy and active 
enterprise will soon counterbalance the causes of appar¬ 
ent inferiority. “Already there are evidences that 
among American husbandmen more stable views and 
more systematic practices are beginning to prevail. In 
the central settlements of the West, farm animals, the 
basis of systematic practices, are held in higher esteem 
than formerly, and a preparation at least is made for 
some simple rotation of crops. There is a disposition in 
the South to produce their own bread and meat, and hold 
their cotton as a surplus. These and other signs of 
thoughtfulness and growing wisdom are apparent.” 

Table showing the principal cereal production of the United 
States in 1900, arranged by States: 


States and 
Territories. 

Indian Corn. 

Wheat. 

Oats. 


Bushels. 

Bushels 

Bushels. 

Alabama, . . . 

35.053.C47 

628,755 

1,182.060 

Arizoua .... 

204,748 

440.252 

43 246 

Arkausas, . . . 

44,144,008 

2,449,970 

3,909.000 

California, . . 

1,477,093 

36,535 407 

4 972 356 

Colorado, . . . 

1.275,680 

5,587,770 

3,080.130 

Connecticut, . . 

1,931,510 

8,660 

316.380 

Delaware, . . . 

4,736.580 

1.87U.57U 

131,960 

Florida, .... 

5,311.050 

800 

297.430 

Georgia, .... 

34.032.230 

1 765 947 

3,115 610 

Idaho. 

111.528 

5,340 180 

1.956.498 

Illinois, .... 

398.149 140 

19 795.500 

180,305.630 

Iudiaua, . . . 

178.967.070 

34,9.39.280 

34 56 .070 

Iowa. 

383.453 190 

22,769,440 

168 364.170 

Kansas. 

229,937.430 

38,778,450 

24.469 98') 

Kentucky. . . . 

73,974.220 

14,264 500 

4 009 830 

Louisiana, . . . 

22,062,580 

' 2,345 

3161*70 

Maine,. 

645.040 

116.720 

3.799.435 

Maryland, . . . 

19,766,510 

9,671 8110 

1,109,560 

Massachusetts, . 

1,539,980 

1,750 

240 990 

Michigan, . . . 

44 584.130 

20.535:140 

36.338,145 

Minnesota, . . . 

47.256,920 

95,278 660 

74,054.150 

Mississippi, . . 

38.789,920 

450 812 

862.805 

Missouri, .... 

208,844,870 

37.257 

20,545 350 

Mohtana, . . . 

75,838 

23,072,768 

4,746 321 

Nebrsska, . . . 

210,974,740 

1,899,683 

58,007.140 

Nevada, .... 

14,614 

450.812 

151.176 

New Hampshire, 

1,080,720 

4.035 

497,110 

New Jersey, . . 

10,978.000 

1,902.590 

1,601.610 

New Mexico, . . 

677,305 

603 303 

342 777 

New York, . . 

20.024,865 

10 412,675 

40,785 900 

North Carolina, 

34,818.860 

4,342,351 

2.454 768 

North Dakota, . 

1,284.870 

59,888 817 

22,125 331 

Ohio, . 

152,055.390 

50 376 800 

42.050 910 

Ok'ahoma, . . 

38,239,880 

18 124.520 

5 087,930 

Oregon, .... 

359,523 

14,508 636 

6 725.828 

Fenusylvani%, . 

51 869,720 

20 632 680 

37,242 810 

Rhode Island, . 

288.220 

310 

47.120 

South Carolina, 

17 429,610 

1,017.319 

2,661 670 

South Dakota, , 

32.402,540 

41 889 380 

19.412.490 

Tennessee, . . 

67,307.390 

11.924.010 

2 725,330 

Texas. 

100,970.350 

12 206,320 

24.190.668 

Utah, . 

250.020 

3,413.470 

1.436.225 

Vermont, . . . 

2.322,450 

34 650 

2.742 140 

Virginia, . . . 

36.748,410 

8 907.510 

3 269 430 

Washington. . . 

218,706 

21.187.527 

5 336.486 

West Virginia, . 

16 610.730 

4.326 150 

1.833,840 

Wisconsin, . . . 

53 309.810 

9,005 170 

84.040 800 

Wyoming, . . . 

38 000 

348,890 

763,370 

Total, .... 

2,569,850,316 

751,431,567 

1,167,354,945 


The grain consumption of the United States, per capita, 
is a fraction over 40 bushels; in Europe it is less than 
18 bushels. The number of acres under cultivation in 
1900. was as follows: Indian corn, 83,075,830; wheat, 
34,047,332; and oats, 27,878,406; total value of product, 
$3,123,316,308. For information on agricultural matters, 
see the various States, also (’attlk, Climate, Cotton, 
United States (§ Agriculture', Draining, Farm, Fruits, 
Grass Land, Manure, Husbandry, Markets, Or¬ 
chards, Poultry, Soil, Sugar, Tobacco, Training 
Animals, Vine, Woods, &c. 

Agrigen'tuiu. (Anc. Geog.) A Sicilian city, now 
Girgenti , distinguished by the magnificence and gigan¬ 
tic size of its ruins, which bear certain testimony that 
the stories related of its extraordinary wealth in old 
times are not entirely without foundation. It is situ¬ 
ated on the S. coast of Sicilv, about 3 m. from the sea. 
Lat. 37° 19' 25" N., Lon. 13° 27' E.; population, 22,027- 
Its situation was peculiarly strong and imposing, stand¬ 
ing as it did on a bare and precipitous rock, 1,100 feet 
above the level of the sea. It was considered the second 
city in Sicily. Among the most magnificent of its build¬ 
ings were the temples of Minerva, of Jupiter Atabyris, 
of Hercules, and of Jupiter Olympus; the latter, which 
vied in size and grandeur of design with the finest 
buildings of Greece, is said to have been 340 feet long, 
60 broad, and 120 high, the foundation not being in¬ 
cluded, which was itself remarkable for the immense 
arches upon which it stood. The people of A. were noted 
for their luxurious and extravagant habits. After the 
expulsion of the Carthaginians from Sicily, it fell, with 
little resistance, under the power of the Romans. 

Asrrimo'nia, n. (Bat.) A genus of plants with yellow 
flowers, ord. Rosacea. The Common Agrimony .A.eupa- 
tnria, is a perennial herb common in Canada and in the 
U. S., to be found in fields, about hedges and shady 
places, and flowering in June. 

(Med.) The decoction of A. is a mild tonic, alterative 
and astringent; good for bowel complaints, chronic 
mucous diseases, gravel, asthma, coughs, and scrofula.— 
A volatile oil may also be obtained of its root and leaves. 

Ag^riopes, n. pi. (Znijl.) A genus of acanthopterygiou 
fishes, 8 to 9 inches in length, belonging to the family 
which Cuvier denominates joues cuirussees. The A. are 


characterized by having only nine rays in the pectoral 
fins. They inhabit the Pacific. 

Agrip'pa, Camillo, a celebrated architect of Milan tc 
the 16th century, who, under the pontificate of Gregory 
XIII. accomplished the removal of a vast obelisk to St. 
Peter’s Square. 

Agrip'pa. Henry Cornelius, B.at Cologne, 1486, author 
of two treatises on the Vanity of the Sciences, and on 
Occult Philos'phy; printed at Lyons, 1550. 

Agrsp'pa IlorotJ. See Herod. 

Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius. The celebrated frien 1 
and general of Augustus Caesar, b. about 63 b. c. lie 
commanded the fleet of Augustus, in the victory o. 
Mylse; and afterward in that more decisive contest 
which annihilated the power of Sextus Pontpeius, and 
gave to Augustus the full possession of Sicily. In the 
naval victory of Actium, A was again the admiral of the 
successful fleet. In reward for these services he shared 
with Maecenas the full confidence of Augustus, who gave 
him in marriage his own niece, the sister of the young 
Marcellus. A. was previously married with the daughter 
of Atticus, by whom he had a daughter, Yipsania, after¬ 
ward the wife of Tiberius: but he probably divorced 
her. Ilis rivalry with Marcellus caused him to be sent 
in an honorable exile, but he was recalled after the 
death of his rival. In 18 B.r., he shared with Augustus 
the tribunitian power for five years, and was looked 
upon as the undoubted successor of the Emperor, when 
he died, b. c. 12. 

Agrip'pa. Menenius, consul of Rome, 503 b. c. He is 
celebraied for having appeased a commotion among the 
Romans, by the political fable of the belly and the mem¬ 
bers. D. at an advanced age. very poor, but universally 
esteemed for his wisdom and integrity. 

Agrippi'na. the Elder, daughter of Vipsanius Agrippa 
and of Julia, the daughter of Augustus, b about 12 
b. c. She married Ctesar Germanicus, whom she ac¬ 
companied in his military expeditions. On the death of 
the latter at Antioch, a. d. 19, she returned to Rome. 
Tiberius, jealous of the affection of the people for A., ban¬ 
ished her to a small island, where she n. of hunger, in 35. 

Agrippina, the younger, daughter of the foregoing, 
and mother of Nero, was at once cruel and licentious. 
After losing two husbands, she married her uncle, the 
emperor Claudius, whom she poisoned in 54, to make 
way for her son Nero, who caused her to be assassinated, 
and exhibited to the senate a list of all the crimes of 
which she had been guilty. 

Agronoin'ic, Agronomical, a. Relating to agronomy. 

Agron omy, n. [Fr. agronomie, from Gr. agros, a 
field, and nomos, a rule ] The science or theory of agri¬ 
culture. 

Agros'teae, n. pi. [Gr. agros, a field.] ( Bol.) A tribe 
of plants, ord Graminacea. 

Agrostent nia. n. [Gr. agros, a field, and stemma, a 
garland.] ( hot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Coryophyllacese, 
now limited to the species A. githago, the well-known 
Corn-cockle, distinguished by its large, entire, purple 
petals. ; 

Ajrros'tis, n. (Bat.) A genus of plants, tribe agrosteae, 
consisting of a considerable number of species with loose 
branches, capillary panicles of flowers, and a creeping 
habit. They are at once known among other grasses by 
the glumes (a.) or outer scales of each flower, being two 
in number, unequal in size, of a membranous centre, and 
containing but a single flower; while the inner scales 
are short, very thin, and two in number. The A. alba, or 
white-top, is found in all Northern States of America, in 
meadows, or on dry soils. 



Affrostog'rapliy, and AGROSTOL'OGT.n. That part of 

botany relating to grasses. 

Aground', adv. On ground; stranded; hindered by the 
ground from passing farther; ashore- 




























































































































































































































AGUS * 


i'gna, a volcanic mountain of Central America, 25 1 
miles 8.W. of Guatemala. Its crater is 15,000 feet above] 
the sea. 

A'guaealien'te, in California, a settlement in San 
Diego co., near a warm spring, about 00 miles N.E. of 
San Diego. 

Aguadil'la, a seaport town of the Antilles, in the 
island of Porto Rico, 65 miles W. of San Juan. Pup. 
about 3,000. 

A'$rtias Falien'tes, a town of Mexico, cap. of prov. 
of same name. It is celebrated for its fine climate, and 
the hot springs in its vicinity. Lat. 22° N.; Lon 101° 
45' IV. I ‘no 22,534. 

A'gria Fria, in California, a post-town of Mariposa co., 
on a creek ol the same name which flows into Mariposa 
river. 

A'^na Fria, in Xew Mexico, a village of Santa Fe co. 

A'^ lie, a. [Fr . aigue.] {Mel.) An intermittent fever 
This dise;tse consists of cold, hot, and sweating stages, in 
succession, attending each paroxysm, and followed by 
an intermission. They are of three genera: 1. Quotidi- 
ana, in which the paroxysms return at the morning, at 
an interval of about 24 hours; 2. Ttrlianx, in which the 
paroxysms come on at midday, with an interval of 
about 48 hours; 3. Quartana, in which the paroxysms 
come on in the afternoon, with an interval of about 72 
hours. Each paroxysm of an intermittent feveris divided I 
into three different stages, which are called the cold, the 
hot, and the sweating stages, or fits. The c < Id stage com¬ 
mences with languor, a sense of debility, audsluggishness 
in motion, frequent yawning and stretching, and an 
aversion to food. The face and extremities become pale, 
the features shrink. At length the patient feels very cold, 
and universal rigors come on, with pains in the head, 
back, loins, and joints, — nausea and vomiting of bilious 
matter; the respiration is small, frequent and anxious; 
sensibility is greatly impaired; the pulse is small, fre¬ 
quent, and often irregular, and the shiverings termi¬ 
nate in a universal and convulsive shaking. Tiiese 
symptoms abating after a short time, the second stage 
commences with an increase of heat over the whole 
body, redness of the face, dryness of the skin, thirst, 
pain in the head, throbbing in the temples, anxiety, and 
restlessness; the respiration is fuller and more free, but 
still frequent; the tongue is furred, and the pulse has 
become regular,hard, and full. If the attack has been 
very severe, then perhaps delirium will arise. When 
these symptoms have continued for some time, a mois¬ 
ture breaks out on the forehead, and by degrees becomes 
a sweat, and this, at length, extends over the whole 
body. As this sweat continues to flow, the heat of the 
body abates, the thirst ceases, and most of the functions 
are restored to their ordinary state. This constitutes 
the third stage. When the paroxysms are of short du¬ 
ration, and leave the intervals quite free, we may expect 
a speedy recovery; but when they are long, violent, and 
attended with much anxiety and delirium, the event 
may be doubtful. Marsh miasma, or the effluvia arising 
from stagnant water, or marshy ground, when acted 
upon by heat, are the most frequent causes of this fever. 
Persons exposed to a climate in which ague prevails en- 
demieally, may most effectually preserve themselves by 
carefully avoiding sudden changes of temperature, and 
the night and morning air, and by the constant use of flan¬ 
nel clothing. The first object in the treatment of this dis¬ 
ease is a change of residence, without which the best 
remedies will often prove ineffectual. Oue peculiarity 
of this fever is its great susceptibility of a renewal from 
very slight causes, as from the prevalence of an easterly 
wind, even without the repetition of the original exciting 
cause. But the most curious and inexplicable in this 
disease is its property of periodicity. During the inter¬ 
mission, what becomes of the malady? Why, after a 
specific interval, does it uniformly recur? Though 
thought to have a bacterial origin, the cause of A. is 
not yet definitely determined. 

A gue, v. a. To strike as if with an ague. 

A'sjflie-cake, n. (Med.) The enlargement of the liver 
or spleen, caused by the ague. 

A'jfued, a. Struck with the ague. 

Aifue'ila, a river of Spain, in the prov. of Salamanca, 
falling into the Douro, and forming part of the frontier 
of Portugal on the N.E. of Beira. 

A'gue-Spell. a. A charm tor the ague. 

Aguesseaa, Henri Francois d’, a chancellor of France, 
B. at Limoges, 1668. In the office of advocate-general of 
Paris, in 1691, and nine years alter, of procurer-general, 
he displayed all the energies of his nature; he gave vigor 
and support to the laws, banished corruption from the 
tribunals, and distributed justice with an impartial hand, 
llis attention was particularly directed to the manage¬ 
ment of the hospitals; and in the enlarged views of a 
benevolent heart, he often resisted with boldness and 
success the intrignes of royal favorites, and even the pre¬ 
judices of Louis XIV. After this monarch’s death, he 
was appointed by the Duke of Orleans, the regent, to 
succeed Voisin as chancellor, but was exiled the follow¬ 
ing year, on account of his opposition to Law’s financial 
system. His recall, two years after, at the moment of 
the great financial crisis, was for him a signal triumph, 
and by insisting on making good the government obliga¬ 
tions, he prevented bankruptcy and contributed to re¬ 
storing general confidence. A. retired from office in 
1722, rather than yield to Cardinal Dubois, the unworthy 
favorite of the regent. He retired quietly to Fresne, 
until 1727, when he was reappointed chancellor, and 
continued to administer justice uninterruptedly till 
1750. Being then 82 years of age, and feeling himself 
uuable to discharge the high duties of his station, he 
lent in his resignation to the king, who accepted it, hot 
granted him an annuity of $20,000. This he did not 


AHIJ 


A1 55 


enjoy long, as he died the following year, Feb. 9th, 1751.i 
—The principal features of Aguesseau’s character, says [ 
the Due de St. Simon, were much natural talent, appli¬ 
cation, penetration, and general knowledge; gravity, jus¬ 
tice, piety, and purity of manners. According to Vol¬ 
taire, he was the most learned magistrate that France 
ever possessed. Independently of his thorough acquaint- j 
ance with the laws of his country, he understood Greek, 
Latin, Hebrew, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, &c. His; 
knowledge of general literature, assisted by his intimacy 
with Boileau and Racine, gave an elegance to his lbren- 
sic speeches which was previously unknown at the 
French bar. llis works, now extant, form 13 vols. 4to.; 
they consist principally of his pleadings and appeals, 
(regaisitoires,) when advocate and solicitor-general, and 
of his speeches at tne opening of the sessions of parlia¬ 
ment. 

A'gue-tree, n. The sassafras is sometimes so called. 

A giiila, in Texas, Victoria co., a small creek flowing 
into Lavacca bay.—-Another creek of the same name (or 
Anguilla) in McLennan co., flows into the Brazos. 

A guilar tie la Frontera, a town of Spain, 22 m. 
S.S.E. of Cordova; pop. 11,836. 

A'guilas, a Spanish town, in the prov. of Murcia, on 
the Mediterranean, 38 m. from Carthagena; pop. 5,060. 

A'guish, a. Pertaining to ague. 

A'guishness. n. Quality of resembling an ague. 

Agu.j a ri. Lucrezia, an Italian vocalist of great celeb¬ 
rity, who, for two songs a night, was engaged at a salary 
of $2,500 per night. D. at Parma, 1783. 

A'gul, a. [Ar.] (Bo’.) The Sedysarum alhagi.n little 
pretty shrub, ord. Fabacece. 

A'gullias Cape, Africa. See Cape Colony. 

Ag'yieus, and Ag'yieus. (Myth.) A surname of 
Apollo. 

Agyll 'a. (Anc. Ceng.) A town of Etruria, founded by a 
colony of Pelagians, afterwards called Caere, and now 
Cerveteri. 

Agyii'nians, n. pi. (Eccl. Hist.) A sect which flour- ] 
ished about A. D. 694, and alleged that God forbade the 
eating of flesh, assuming the first chapter of Genesis to 
be the authority upon which the doctrine was founded. 
A revival of this ancient sect was attempted in 1814 
without great success in England. 

Agyr'iuni, a town of Sicily, where Diodorus, the histo¬ 
rian, was born. It is now St. Filippo d'Argyro. 

Ah, interj. [Fr. and Lat. ah, Ger. ach.] An exclamation 
noting any sentiment of the soul, as rapture, triumph, 
joy, regret, contempt, &c., the sense being marked by its 
modulation. 

Aha', interj. The sense of this exclamation is marked 
by the modulation of the sound. It expresses generally 
surprise, contentment, triumph, or contempt. 

A'hab, son of Omri, seventh king of the separate king¬ 
dom of Israel. He was married to Jezebel, whose wicked-1 
ness instigated him to the commission of such acts of 
cruelty and idolatry that he surpassed all his predeces¬ 
sors in impiety. He was slain by an arrow in a war 
with the Syrians, and his blood was licked by the dogs 
on the spot where he had caused Naboth to be murdered, 
about b. c. 876. 

Atlan ta, a kingdom on the Gold Coast of Africa, late 
subject to the kingdom of Ashantee ; bounded on the 
west by Apolionia, and on the east by the Fantee terri¬ 
tories. It is the richest, and in every respect the most 
improved district upon this coast. The principal towns 
are Axim and Succoudee. Ceded to Englaud in 1872. 

A'iiar, a town of Persia, 60 miles from Tabriz. It num¬ 
bers about 800 houses. 

Alias cragli. a village and parish of Ireland, in Gal¬ 
way, 78 miles N.W. of Dublin. Pop. of parish, 5,500. 

Alisisue'rus, or Aiiasuverosh, the name of the Per¬ 
sian monarch whose story' is recorded in the book of 
Esther. (See Esther.) He is probably the same king as 
the Artaxerxes Longimanus of the Greek historians, 
whose reign commenced b. c. 465.—The name A. occurs 
also in Dan. ix. 1, where some interpreters take it for 
Astyages, king of the Modes; and in Ezra iv. 6, where 
Cambyses seems to be meant by it. 

A'iiaus, a circle of the gov. of Munster, prov. of West¬ 
phalia, Prussia. Prod., cattle and sheep. Area, 264 sq. 
m. Pop. 40.009.— Cap. of the same name. 

Alia' va. (Anc. Ge/nj.) A river of Assyria or Babylon, 
where Ezra assembled the captives who were returning 
tojudsea. (Ezra viii. 21.) 

A'liaz, or A'chaz, the 11th king of Judah, who reigned 
743-728 B. C., and was contemporary with the prophets 
Isaiah, Hosea, and Micah. (See Is. i. 1; vii. 1; Hos. i. 1; 
Mich. i. 1.) He made the dial mentioned Is. xxxviii. 8. 

— Another Achaz, grandson of Jonathan, is mentioned 
1 Chron. viii. 35; ix. 42. 

Ahazi'ah, the son of.Ahab, and the 8th king of Israel, 
who reigned 897-896 B. c. (1 Kings xxii. 40; 2 Chron. 
xx. 35.)—Another Ahaziali. the son of Jelioram, was 
the 5th king of Judah, 884-883 B. C. (2 Kings viii. 24; ix. 
16.) H3 is called Azariah (2 Chron. xxii. 6; and Jehoa- 
haz (2 hron. xxi. 17; 2 Kings viii. 26.) 

Aliead', adv. [From head.] Toward the head; forward; 
alore; afront; onward. 

“ And now the mighty centaur seems to lead, 

And now the speedy dolphin gets ahead." — Dryden. 

— Headlong; precipitantly. 

“ They suffer them (the children) to rnn ahead."—VEstrange. 

Ahi'ah. the son and successor of the high-priest Ahitub. 

Ahie'zer, son of Ammishaddai, and hereditary chief of 
the tribe of Dan. who came out of Egypt at the head of 
his tribe, consisting of 72,000 men. 

Allij'ah. the prophet who dwelt at Shiloh, and spoke 
twice to Solomon from the inspiration of God. He wrote 
the history of Solomon's life. 


Ahim'aaz, the son of Zadok, and high-priest of Solo¬ 
mon. IK rendered great service to David in his war with 
Absalom. 

Ahim'eleeh, high-priest at Nob, in the days of SauL 
He gave David the shew-bread to eat, and the sword of 
Goliath; and for so doing was put to death with his whole 
house by Saul's order. (1 Sam. xxii. 11, 12.) 

Aliiu'oam, wife of Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 50); also, a wife 
of David, mother of his eldest son Amnon. (1 Sam. xxv. 
43; xxvii. 3; xxx. 5; 2 Sam. ii. 2.) 

Ahiolo, or Akhiolo. a seaport town of European Ttir- 
key, about 50 miles from Varna. It stands on the Black 
sea, and is in the prov. of Koumelia. It trades in salt, 
which is obtained from some springs in its vicinity. 

A lii'ra, chief of Naphtali, who came out of Egypt, at the 
head of 53,400 men. 

Alii'ram, son of Benjamin, and ancestor of the Ahi- 
ramites. (Num. xxvi. 38.) 

Ahitli'ophei one of King David's counsellors, and 
highly esteemed for his political sagacity. He was cer¬ 
tainly one of the first men of his age, both for wisdom 
and wickedness. His advice to Absalom, who followed 
the wicked part of it, but left the wise part unaccom¬ 
plished, together with the tragical end of the politician, 
the first suicide recorded in history, are well known. 
(2 Sam. xvii. 1-23.) 

All'Ion. a town of Suabia, 40 miles N.W. of Augsburg. 
Pep. 2,500. 

Alii uardt. Peter, a learned German, b. at Greifs- 
walde, 1710; D. 1791. He was the founder of the Abelite 
society, which had for its object the promotion of sin¬ 
cerity. 

Ah'inedabml, a district of British India, in the Bom¬ 
bay presidency, at the head of the Gulf of Cambay. Area, 
4,356 square miles; pop. 650,000. Its capital, Ahmeda- 
bad, is situated in the prov. of Guierat, and stands on the 
Sabermatty, 120 m. N. of Surat, /bp. 130,000. Lat.23°N.; 
Lon. 72° E. An earthquake nearly destroyed it in 1822. 

Ahmed. See Achmed. 

Ah’med Elian, successor of Abuka Khan, and the first 
of the Moguls who professed Mohammedanism. He was 
conspired against by his courtiers, who set up in his 
stead Argoun, his nephew. Put to death a. d. 1234. 

Ali'mednug-'sur, a district of British India, in the 
presidency ol Bombay It is bounded on the north by 
Candeish, and on the south by Poonah. Area, 9,931 
square miles. Pip. 990,0011.—Its capital, Ahmednuggnr 
stands on the Seena, 64 miles N. of Poonah. Pop. about 
20.000. It was taken by the British in 1803. 

Ah'medpoor, a town of Hindostan, 30 m. S.W. of 
Bahawulpoor. Pop. about 20,000. 

Ah'med Shall el Abdaly, the founder of the king¬ 
dom of Caiiul and Candahar. D. 1773. 

Ah'mood, a town of British India, prov. of Gujerat. 
Lat. 22° 3' N.; Ion. 73° 6' E. 

All'napee, in Wisconsin, a city and township of Ke¬ 
waunee co., situated on Lake Michigan at the mouth <>f 
the Ahnapee river, 12 m. N. of Kewaunee, on the Aim. 
& Western R.R. Pop. (1895) 1,003. 

Aho'ghill. a village and parish of Ireland, in the 
county of Antrim, 94 miles from Dublin. Area, 32,987 
acres. Pop. 25,000. 

Ahold', adv. (Xuat.) To lag a ship ahold, formerly 
meant to bring her to the wind, in order to get out to sea. 

Aholiba'anah, daughter of Anah, one of the three 
wives of Esau, and mother of Jeusli, Jaalam, and 
Korah. In Gen. xxvi. 34, she is called Judith, and 
Aholibamah in the genealogical table. 

Ahou'ai. n. (BoO The local name of the Brazilian 
tree Cerbera ahouai, ord. Apoajnacese. The kernels of 
its nuts are very poisonous. 

Ahoy', interj. (Naut.) A call; halloa. 

Ahr'berg, a market-town of Germany, 3 miles from 
Ohrenbau. Pop. 4,000. 

Ahr'iaii, n. (Gent.) The middle group of the senes of 
Devonian rocks belonging to Belgium and the l.hitto. 
This group includes bluish-gray grits, sandstones, and 
shales. 

Ali'riinan, n. [Per.] A Persian deity, the demon or 
principle of evil; — the principle of good being Oromas- 
des, or Ormuzd. 

Ahrweil'er, a town of Prussia, prov. Lower Rhine, on 
the Ahr, 23 m. W.N.W. of Coblentz. Pip. 3,709. 

Ah'uitzol, emperor of the Aztecs, toward the end of 
the 15th century. He is said to have inaugurated a 
temple by the slaughter of 72,344 prisoners. 

Ahull', adv. [From hull.] (Naut.) The situation of a 
ship when all her sails are furled on account ol the vio¬ 
lence of a storm, when, having lashed her helm on the 
lee-side, she lies nearly with her side to tin wind and 
sea, her head being somewhat inclined to the direction 
of the wind. 

A'him, a town of France, dep. of the Creuse, 11 m. S. 
of Gu6ret. Formerly this was a place of importance, 
and it still possesses a few interesting remains of the 
ancient Agedunum. Pop. 2,500. 

A'hus, or Ahuis, a Swedish maritime town. 9 miles from 
Christianstadt, on the Baltic sea. It stands on the 
mouth of the Ilelgeo, has a good harbor, and is the port 
of Christianstadt. 

Ai, n. (Zobl.) The three-toed sloth (Bradypus tnrquatus), 
an animal of the Bradypoda or Sloth fam., ord. Edentata. 
The Ai is an herbivorous quadruped, of most uncouth 
appearance, treated by Button as one whose existence 
must be a burden to it, from its imperfect formation; 
hut though uncouth and apparently disproportioned, it 
is found, on examination, that its organization and 
habits are as completely adapted to each other as are 
those of any other animal. It is true that the arms or 
fore-legs are nearly twice as long as the hinder pair; and 
that when it attempts to walk on the ground, the action ifl 















56 


AID1 


AIL 


AIR 


moat awkward and laborious: but when we consider that 
the Ai is formed to live not on the ground, but in trees, and 
noton the branches of trees, like the squirrel, but under 
them, the complete adaptation of its whole structure 
to its mode of life becomes apparent. “ lie moves sus¬ 
pended from the branch, and he sleeps suspended from 



Fig. 59. — AI, OR THREE-TOED SLOTH. 

the branch. Hence his seemingly bungled composition 
is at once accounted for; and in lieu of the Ai leading a 
painful life, and entailing a miserable existence upon 
its progeny, it is but fair to conclude that it enjoys life 
just as much as any other animal, and that its extraor¬ 
dinary formation and singular habits aro but further 
proofs to engage us to admire the wonderful works of 
Omnipotence.” They bring forth and suckle their 
young like ordinary quadrupeds; and the young Ai, 
from the moment of its birth, adheres to the body of its 
parent till it acquires sullicicnt size and strength to 
shift for itself. The head of the Ai is short, the face 
small and round, the hair coarse and shaggy, differing 
considerably in color in different individuals, but resem¬ 
bling, in general, dry. withered grass or moss. Its pow¬ 
erful claws, and the peculiarly enduring strength of its 
long arms, make very efficient weapons of defence 
against the large snakes by whom it is often attacked.— 
“The manner in which it moves is this: — Lying on its 
belly with all its four extremities stretched out from 
its body, it first presses one of its hind feet with all its 
might against the ground, whereby the corresponding 
side of the body is a little raised The fore-leg on the 
same side thus becomes sufficiently free for the animal 
to advance it a trifle forward. It then hooks its power¬ 
ful claws fast in the earth, and so drags its body a little 
onward. The same manoeuvre is next repeated on the 
opposite side, and thus the poor creature progresses in 
the slowest and most laborious manner possible. But 
in proportion as the Ai’s organization unfits it for ter¬ 
restrial progression, it is wonderfully adapted to climb¬ 
ing trees. With its long arms it reaches up, and clings 
fast to the branches with its strong crooked claws. 
The inverted position of the soles of its hindfeet gives 
it a power of grasping the trunk of the tree which no 
other mammal possesses. Compared with the slowness 
of its motion, it is the best climber among mammals, 
while it is the worst walker; or, rather, it is the only 
mammal that can neither walk nor stand.” 

Ai. ( Anc. Geog.) A city of Canaan, lying E. of Bethel, 
beside Bethaven, and already existing in the time of 
Abraham. (Gen. xii. 9.) The Israelites took Ai by am¬ 
buscade, and “ utterly destroyed it.” (Josh. vii. viii. ix. 
3; x. 1,2; xii. 9.) 

Ai", a town of Franco. See At. 

Ai 'as, or Ajasso, a ruined sea-port of Asiatic Turkey, 
on the N. shore of the gulf of Iskanderoon. 

Aich'malotarcfa, n. [Gr., chief of the captives.'] A 
title given by the Jews to the prince by whom they 
were governed whilst in captivity at Babylon. 

Aitl, v. a. [Fr. aider.] To help; to support; to succor. 

“ By the loud trumpet, which our courage aid."—Roscommon. 

Aid, n. [Fr. aide.] Help; support. 

“ The memory of useful tilings may receive considerable aid.”— 

Watts . 

person or thing that helps or supports; a helper. 

14 Thou hast said, it is not good that man should be alone; let 
us make uuto him au aid, like uuto himself."— Tobit viii. 6. 

(Feudal Law.) See Aids. 

AUh in Ohio, a post-township of Lawrence eo., about 100 
miles S.S.E. of Columbus. 

Aid'ance, n. [0. Fr.] Aid. (r.) 

A id and comfort. The Constitution of the United 
States, art. 3. sec. 3, declares, that adhering to the ene¬ 
mies of the United States, giving them aid and comfort, 
shall be treason. These words, as they are to be under¬ 
stood in the Constitution, iiave not received a full judi¬ 
cial construction. They import, however, help, support, 
assistance, countenance, encouragement. 

A«de'-de-Camj>, n. [Fr.l (Mil.) An officer selected to 
receive and convey the orders of a general. Attached 
to the person of a general, he receives orders only from 
him. A lieutenant-general may appoint four aides-de- 
camp, in time of war, and two in time of peace, with 
the rank of lieutenant-colonel; a major-general two, and 
a brigadier-general one. 

Aid 'er, n. He that brings help or assistance; a helper. 

Aid'fiil, a. Giving aid; helpful. 

Aid'ing, p a. Which gives aid or assistance. 


Aid ing and abetting 1 . (Law.) The offence com¬ 
mitted by oue who aius by some act in the perpetration 
of a crime committee! in his presence, or Hear enough 
to it as to come readily to the assistance ot his fellows. 

Aitl'lm, n. Helpless; unsupported ; undefended. 

Aids', ii. pi. [Fr. aides.] In the Feudal law, a kind of 
pecuniary tribute paid by a feudal vassal to bis superior 
or lord, on occasions of peculiar emergency. The kinds 
of aids of most usual occurrence were: 1. When the lord 
made his son a knight; this ceremony occasioned con¬ 
siderable expense, and entitled the lord to call upon his 
tenant for extraordinary assistance; 2. When the lord 
gave his eldest daughter, he had her dower to provide, 
and was entitled by law to claim a contribution from his 
tenants for this purpose; 3. To ransom the lord’s person, 
if taken prisoner. The aids have been abolished, by stat. 

12 Car. II. c. 21. 

Ai'gle, a town of Switzerland, can. Valid, on the torrent 
Grande-eau, near the Rhone. Pop. 2,5S2. 

Ai'gle(Ii-), a town of France, dep. Orne, on the Tlille, 

13 miles N.N.E. of Mortagne. Manuf. needles and pins; 
pop. 5,404. 

Ai'gnnn, St., a town in France, dep. Loire et Cher, 24 
miles S. of Blois. In its vicinity is found tho only quarry 
of gun-fliuts in France. Pop. 3,b00. 

Ai'gle, n. See Eai.le. 

Aigrette'. Aiorkt, and Egret, n. [Fr. aigrette.] An 
ornament for the head, in the form of a heron’s crest. 

(Zobl.) Tne common name of the Grallatorial birds 
composing the gen. Demigretta, fan). Ardeidie. They 
have a full occipital cross of elongated feathers, and the 
back has free plumes longer than the tail. Beale’s 
Aigrette (D. pealii) of S. Florida is 30 inches long, and 
the wing 33 inches. The color is pure white, the ter¬ 
minal half of the bill black. Reddish Aigrette (I), rnfa) 
of the Gulf States, is about the same size as the preceding. 

Ai'gtie-marine, n. (Min.) A name of the Emerald, 
q. v. 

Aigues' Mortes, a town of France, dep Gard, 20 
miles S.W. of Nimes, 4 miles from the Mediterranean, 
with which it is connected by a canal. It owes its name 
( Agwz Mortuce) to marshes caused by the retrogression 
of the sea. Aigues Mortes was formerly a seaport, and 
was the place where St. Louis embarked on his two ex¬ 
peditions to the Holy Land. 

Aiguille', n. [Fr., needle.] (Engin.) A tool used to pierce 
holes in locks for lodging gunpowder. 

(Geog.) The name given to certain narrow and sharp- 
pointed peaks of the Alps. A mountain of this descrip¬ 
tion in the S.W. part of France, on the road from Gren¬ 
oble to Gap, ealled L'Aiguille, rises to the height of 0,562 
feet above the sea. 

Aiguillettes', Aigdlets, and Aiglets, n.pl. [Fr.] The 
French name of the metal sheaths or tags at the end of 
laces or points. These points aro now out of date; they 
were ties or hows, adorned at the end with aiglets, and 
were used instead of buttons for fastening dresses. They 
were, in the 10th and 17th centuries, not used merely 
for service, as the modern tag, but were profusely 
employed as oruameuts. The aiguillettes were some¬ 
times gold and silver, and elaborately chased. The 
pictures of Holbein give many examples of their form, 
and Shakspeare often alludes to them. 

Aiguill'ou, a town of France, dep. Lot et Garonne, 17 
miles N.W. of Agen; pop. 3,781. 

Ai'guisee. [Fr.] (Her) A term employed to denote a 
cross which lias tho two angles at the ends cut off, so as 
to terminate in two points, in opposition to the cross 
fitche , which tapers at a point. 

Ai'gulet, Aiglet, n. See Aiguillette. 

(Naut.) A laskfng rope for securing the breeching of a 
gun on board a ship. 

Aijalou. See Ajalon. 

A i'kem. in South Carolina, a town, cap. of Aiken eo., 17 
miles E.N.E. of Augusta, Ga. W'ell known as a winter 
health resort. Several fine hotels are liberally patronized 
especially by invalids from the North. Pop. (ts9(J ) 2,362. 

Ai'ken. or Aitkin, in Minnesota, a county intersected 
in the N. by the river Mississippi, and bounded S.W. by 
the lake Mille Lacs. Surface, undulating. Area, 1,900 
sq. m. Cap. Aitkin. Pop. (1895) 5,224. 

Ai kin, Arthur, an English author, n. 1773, d. 1854. 
He has left a Dictionary of Chemistry and Minerulogy, 
and a Manual of Mineralogy. 

Ai kin, John, an English physician, b. 1747, d. 1822. 
llis two principal works are, General Biography, 10 
vols. 4to., and Lewis's Materia Medico,. 

Ai k in. Miss Lucy, an English author and poetess, b. 
1781, D. 1864. Daughter of Dr John Aikin, Miss Lucy 
devoted herself successfully to literary pursuits. Among 
other works of hers we quote History of the Court 
of Queen Elizabeth ; Memoirs of the Court of James I.; Me¬ 
moirs of Addison. 

Ai'kinite, n. (Min.) An orthorhombic mineral, found 
in a massive form, or in long, imbedded acicular crys¬ 
tals, of a blackish lead-gray color, as in the gold region 
of Georgia. Comp, sulphur, 167; bismuth, 36-2; lead, 36-1; 
copper, 11-0=100. 

Ail. v a. [A. S. eglan, to feel pain.] To pain, to trouble, 
to give pain. 

“What aileth thee, Hagar? fear not."— Gen. xxl. 27. 

—To affect, in an indeterminate sense; ns, 

‘ ‘ What ails the man, that he laughs without reason 7 ” 

This word is never used without some indefinite 
term, or the word nothing; as, Wtiat oils him ? He ails 
something; Nothing ails him;—but we never say: a fever 
ails him, or, he ails a fever. 

— v. n. To feel pain; to be incommoded or in trouble. 

— n. A disease. (R.j 


Ailan'tiis.or Ailan'thus, n. (Bot.) The Treeof Heaven, 
a genus of the ord. Aanlhoxylucetz. The species A.plan, 
dutosa, native of China and now very common in om 
streets and shrubberies, resembles a gigantic blag s hoi n 
sumach, witli very large leaves, unequally pinnate, and 
foot-stalks from 1 to 2 feet in length. It lias many flow 
ers on a terminal pedicle, whose anthers smell dis 
agreeably. It grows very last. Tlie wood is liurd, heavy, 
glossy, and susceptible of a fine polish. 

Ailettes', or Aii.erones', n. pi. [I- r., little wings.] A 
small square shield, the object of which was to luruish 
a protection for the neck and shoulders. For actual 
service, they were made of leather, and ornamented 
with a personal badge or device, or tlie heraldic bearings 
of tlie wearers. They came in fashion in the earlier 
part of the reign of Edward I., and c eased to be worn 
during the reign of Edward III- Dress ailettes went 
made of leather covered with silk or clof h, with fringes, 
and were laced to the shoulders at the hauberk, with 
cords of silk. 

All V- a. Sickly. 

Ail'ment, n. Complaint; slight disease; illness. 

“ I am Dever ill, but I think of your ailment ."— Swift. 

Aim, v. a. and n. [Probably derived from 0. Fr.] To point 
with a missile weapon; to direct it: — more particularly 
taken from the art of pointing the weapon by the eye, 
before its dismission from the hand. 

“ The proud Ideus aims his airy spear.”— Dryden. 

— To tend toward; to endeavor to reacli or obtain;—fol¬ 
lowed by at; as, 

“ The end to which all men do aim." 

Aim, n. The direction of a missile weapon. 

“ Ee bent his how, uncertain of Ills aim." — Prs/den. 

— Hence, figuratively, a purpose ; a scheme; an intention ; 
a design. 

“His ambitions aim against the throne.” — Milton. 

— The point to which the tiling thrown is directed; hence, 
the object of a design; the thing alter which any one en¬ 
deavors. 

“ I suppose that the epistle has but one aim." — Locke. 

Aimard, Gustave, a French novelist. 1818-1883. 

Aimarques, a towu in dept. Gard, Fiance; pop. 2,830. 

Aim'less, a. Without aim or object. 

Aim'lessly, adv. In an aimless manner. 

Ai'moin, a French Benedictine monk, b. in the province 
of 1’erigord; p. 1008. lie wrote a history of the French 
which brings us down only to the 16th year of Clovis II. 
(■50). This history is not esteemed. His best work is 
the Life of Abbot, abbot of Fleuri-sur-Loire; it con¬ 
tains a great number of anecdotes, and frequently al¬ 
ludes to the political and public circumstances ot the time. 

Aiii, a department in the K. ot France, bordering the 
dep. of Saone et Loire, Jura, and part of Switzerland, 
on the N. and N.W., the Rhone on the E. and S., aDd 
the Sauneon the W. Area, 592,674 hectares. Pop 356.907 
iu 1891. Chief towns, Buurg, Nantua, Trevoux, Belley, 
Gex. Ferney, the residence of Voltaire, is situated in 
this dep. Numerous lakes or ponds in tlie S.W. render the 
climate unhealthy. Jxp. oxen, wine, lithographic stones. 

Ain-fal>. a town in tlie N. of Syria, on the S. slope of 
the Taurus: iat. 36° 58'N., long. 37° 18' 15" E., at 30 
miles W . of Lir, on the Euphrates. Manuf.. goat-skin 
leather, cotton and woollen cloths. Pup. about 20,000. 

Aius ivortil, Robi rt, an English author, B. near Man¬ 
chester, U60: d. 1743. The only work for whic h he is 
now rememlered, is his Latin Dictionary. 'J lie first 
edition is of 1736,1 vol. 4to. Notwithstanding the cor¬ 
rections which it lias received from the labors of its 
successive editors, it still remains disfigured by many 
errors and deficiencies which leave the 1 ook a great way 
behind the present improved state of philological learn¬ 
ing. Tlie edition of 1752, in 2 lolio vols., superiniended 
by tlie Rev. William Young, is in great request as a band- 
some specimen of typography. 

Ainsworth, W lliam Harrison, an English novelist, 
B. at Manchester, 1805. His works are written in a lively 
style, and ho is inexhaustible of invention llis most 
popular works are : liookwood ; Tower of Londtm ; Old 
St. Paul's; W in I sor Castle ; Crichton, Ac. D 1*8? 

Ains'wortll.Jn Jowio, a post-village of Washington co„ 
30 miles W’.S.W. ot Muscatine. 

Aioil, a cluster of 16 islands in the Malay Archipelago, 
about 100 miles N. by W. from New Guinea. 

Air, v. a. To cool; to refresh or purify ; to dry or expel 
moisture, by exposure to tho air. 

“It were good wisdom, that, lu such cases, the jail were aired/ 

bacon. 

“ As the ants were airing tbeir provisions one winter. 

L'Estrange. 

— To take or enjoy the open air,—with the reciprocal pro¬ 
noun. 

“ As I was airing myself on the tops of the mountains.’’— Addison. 

Air. v. [Fr. from Lat. aer .] The fluid which suiround? 
the earth ; tlie atmosphere. 

“ Air is that!:ne matter which we breathe.”—Waft. 

— Tho state of tlie air, considered in itself or witli regard 
to our sens\(ions; as, a healthful air, a damp air. 

— Air in moti. >n; a gentle wind. 

. “ Fresh gales, an.' gentle airs, 

wl .snor'd it to the woods.”— Milton. 

Publicity . exposure to the public knowledge. 

I am sorry to find it has taken air, that I have some hand tB 
these papers."— Pope. 

— The external appearance or manner of a person; as, a 
graceful air. the air of youth, <tc. —An affected or la- 
bored manner or gesture. 

“They give themselves airs of kings and princes." Addison. 

(Chem.) The »tr or atmosphere was once supposed to 
be an elementary body, but, piece the last century, La- 











AIK 


AIK 


AIR 


57 


foisier, and other philosophers after him, have proved I 
that the air is a mixture of two gases, oxygeD ami nitro¬ 
gen. with a small proportion of carbonic acid, and aque¬ 
ous vapor. Several gaseous substances form minute in¬ 
gredients in the air; of these the most important isozone. 
Another interesting substance, discovered in 1894, and 
probably closely related to nitrogen, has been named 
argon. (See Ozone and Argon). Estimated by measure, 
air is found to consist of 20'81 oxygen to 79 19 nitrogen ; 
or, estimated by weight. 23 01 oxygen to 76 99 nitrogen. 
The air, in common with all other bodies, has weight. 
This is proved by weighing a bottle w hich contains air in 
a very delicate balance, and then by repeating the process 
after the air has been exhausted from the bottle by the 
air-pump. According to Biot, 100 cubic inches weigh 31 
grains, that is 800 times less than water. Heat causes air 
to expand, cold to contract. The cupping-glass is a famil¬ 
iar instance of the former fact. If a bladder is hall filled 
with air, and hold near a tire, it will expand until the 
bladder is quite full; on being taken away, it contracts 
gradually to its former bulk. Air being elastic and com¬ 
pressible, it follows, that the higher we go, the lighter 
the air becomes. (Fora fuller explanation of this, see 
Bvromxier.) Air dissolves a definite amount of aqueous 
vapor at different temperatures, hence the sudden forma¬ 
tion and disappearance of clouds. In large masses, air has 
a nlue tinge. The distant hills appear of this color, from 
Doing seen through several miles of air, and the sky ap¬ 
pears blue from the same cause. As stated above, air 
consists of oxygen and nitrogen. Were it composed of 
oxygen only, we should breathe away our bodies too fast, 
while nitrogen alone would kill us. By this mixture, a 
proper streugta of air necessary to life is kept up. The 
perfect mechanical mixture of the two gases which form 
air, is an excellent example of the diffusion of gases. 
When two gases are united, they gradually mix with 
each other until perfect diffusion takes place. The air, 
therefore, that is analyzed at the foot of Chimborazo has 
the same composition as that analyzed at its summit, 
though it differ materially in density. Combustion 
takes place in proportion to the density of the air. A 
candle, weighing an ounce, takes a longer time to burn 
at the top of a high mountain than one of the same size 
and weight at its bottom. From this it follows, that 
human beings must breathe slower in valleys and quicker 
at greater altitudes The air is being continually ren¬ 
dered impure by the breathing of animals, the oxygen 
it contains being transformed into carbonic acid. This, 
however, lasts but a short time, being quickly separated 
into carbon and oxygen by plants, which retain the for¬ 
mer body' for their own nourishment, releasing the latter 
to serve again as support for animal life. This art. refers 
only to the chemical and mechanical properties of air. 
The constitution of tne whole mass is to be found under 
the name Atmisphkre.— Sea also, Acoustics, Balloon, 
Combustion, Oxygen, Respiration, &c. 

TJanid Air. See Oasf.s. T. tout faction or 

(Mtu.) A piece of music, composed ot a certain num¬ 
ber of melodious phrases, united in a regular symmetri¬ 
cal form, and terminating in the key in which it began. 
A melody.—As employed in music, the origin of the 
word air is unknown. Air is the most important oi 
the constituents of music. A compositioa may be re¬ 
plete with learned and ingenious harmony, may abound 
in fugue, in imitation, and all the contrivances of 
science, but without good melody, will never appeal 
to the heart, and seldom afford any gratification to 
the ear. — In music composed for the theatre, and 
which is constantly introduced into the concert-room, 
are the following varieties of air, designated by Italian 
denominations, viz.: Aria di bravura (literally, air of 
courage, or a dashing air), in which the performer dis¬ 
plays his powers of execution, and seeks rather to as¬ 
tonish than please. Aria di cantabile ( singing air), a 
tender, pathetic air, calling forth the expression and taste 
of the singer. Aria di carattere (characteristic air), 
which is distinguished by force and energy of expression, 
and by dramatic effect. Aria parlante (speaking air), 
which is rather declaimed than sung and is best suited 
to the butf >, or comic performer. -An air varii [Fr.] is 
literally an air with variations, but this name is often 
given by a composer, arranger, or performer to a melo¬ 
dy fancifully variegited and embellished. 

(Paint.) I’he medium, as transferred to a picture, 
through which natural objects are viewed. 

Aia*. in Alabama, a post-village of Clark co., 118 miles S. 
of Tuscaloosa. 

Air, in Pennsylvania, a village of Bedford co., on Big 
Cove creek. — Also, a township of Fuiton county, more 
usually written Ayr, q. v. 

Air'-balBoon, n. See Balloon. 

Air -bat ll. n. A contrivance for drying anything by- 
means of air, at a fixed temperature. 

Air'-betl, n. A sack, in the shape of a mattress, divided 
into a number of air-tight compartments, a projection 
at one end forming the bolster. Each compartment is 
provided with a valve, and can be inflated witli air by 
means of a bellows. They are generally made of vulcan¬ 
ized India-rubber. Their advantages are coolness, elas¬ 
ticity, and portability; and they are especially valuable 
to invalids. Air-cushions are conveniences of similar con¬ 
struction as air-beds, but less complicated, and cheaper. 

n. (Physiol.) A peculiar organ with 
which the great majority of fishes are provided, and by 
which they are enabled to adapt the specific gravity of 
their bodies to the various pressures of the superincum¬ 
bent water at different depths. It serves as a receptacle 
for a certain quantity of air, by the increase or decrease 
of which the alteration in the animal’s weight, compared 
With that of the surrounding fluid, is accomplished. The 
tessel itself is composed of a lengthened sack, sometimes 


simple, as in the common perch, sometimes divided into 
two or more compartments, 
by a lateral or transverse 
ligature, as in the trout and 
salmon. In all cases it is com¬ 
posed of a thick internal coat 
of a fibrous texture, and of 
a very thin external coat; 
the whole being enveloped in 
the general covering of the 
intestines. The modifications 
of this organ are infinitely 
varied in different genera 
and species of fishes. In the 
greater number of instances, 
it has no external opening, and 
the air with which it is found 
distended, is believed to be 
produced by the secretion of a 
certain glandulous organ, with 
which it is in all these cases 
provided. In general, all 
fishes which enjoy great pow¬ 
ers of locomotion, and have 
occasion to pass through vari¬ 
ous degrees of superincumbent 
pressure in their rapid transi¬ 
tions from the surface to the 
bottom of the ocean, are pro¬ 
vided with this important or¬ 
gan ; while fishes whose habits 
and organization confine them 
either to the surface of the wa¬ 
ter or to the bottom ot' the sea, 
as skates, soles, turbots, brills etc., have no air-bladder. 
It is probable, but not sufficiently proved, that the air- 
bladder is connected with the respiration of fishes.— 
See Isinglass. 



Fig. 60. — air-bladder. 

(Corvina trispinosa.) 


Air'-blown, a. Blown by the wind. 

Air'-born, a. Born of the air. 

Air'-borne, a. Borne by the air. 

Air'-bre<l, a. Caused by or produced from the air. 

Air'-built, a. Built in the air, without any solid foun¬ 
dation; chimerical, as, an air-built castle. 

Air'-cas'iiig-, n. An air-tight casing around apipe,etc., 
at a little distance from it, intended to secure the interpo¬ 
sition of air as a non-conductor of heat or cold. 

Air'-cav'ities, n. pi. (But.) See Air-cells. 

Air'-eells, Air-chambers, Air-cavities, Air-sacs, Air- 
passages, n. pi. (Physiol.) Cavities connected with the 
respiratory system of animals. In the Mammalia, and 
specially in Man, the bronchi, after entering the lungs, 
diverge into innumerable ramifications, which become 
more and more minute, pervading every part of the pul¬ 
monary structure. They lead to minute cavities called 
intercellular passages, and these last, after numerous 
bifurcations, terminate each by a cul-de-sac, or air-cell. 
It will be understood from this that the air which enters 
the lungs has not, properly speaking, any circulation 
there. After entering through the trachea, and passing 
through the bronchial tubes and the intercellular pas¬ 
sages, it inflates the terminal air-cells, which, being 
closed at their extremities, arrest Its further progress. 
After a full inspiration, these air-cells are inflated and 
distended, liuring the succeeding expirations a part of 
the air in them, but about one tenth of it only, is ex¬ 
pelled. The alternate process of inspiration and expi¬ 
ration is not therefore the alternate inflation and evacua¬ 
tion of the lungs, but merely one in which they are 
alternately more or less distended by air. In an adult, 
the dimensions of the air-cells vary from theTOth to the 
200th of an inch. — In Birds, the air-cells, air-chambers, 
or air-sacs, are formed by a number of membranes sub¬ 
dividing and intersecting the thoracic-abdominal cavity; 
and in birds of strong wing and rapid flight, they extend 
often themselves into the bones. These remarkable cavi¬ 
ties are connected with the respiratory system, but their 
principal use is that of rendering the body specifically 
lighter.— For the air-tubes of Insects and Annelida, see 
Spiral Vessels. 

(But.) The cavities in the leaves or stems, or other 
parts, containing air. In water-plants they have a very 
definite form, and are built up of little vesicles of cellular 
tissue, with as much regularity as the wails of a house; 
they, no doubt, enable the plant to float. In plants 
which do not float, as in the pith of the walnut-tree, 
their form is less definite: they often appear to be mere 
lacerations of a mass of cellular substance, and their ob¬ 
ject is unknown. 

A ■ r'-chamhers. n. pi. See Air-cells. 

Air-cushion. See Air-bed. 

Air'-tlrawn, a. Drawn or painted in air. (o.) 

“ This is the air-dravm dagger which led you to Duncan.”— Shak. 


Af'rd rie, one of the most flourishing inland towns in 
Scotland, parish of New Monkland, Lanarkshire, 11 
miles E.ofOlusgow.— lnd. Weaving of cotton goods and 
distillation of spirits. Pop. 15,133 

Aire, a small river of England, which rises in the West 
Riding of Yorkshire. Its source is a sheet of water 
about a mite in circumference, called Malham Tarn. 
After flowing 42 miles, it forms a junction with the 
river Calder. 

Aire', a city of France, dep. Landes, on the Adonr, 80 
miles S. S E of Bordeaux. It is the ancient Ticks Jit Hi, 
and has been since the 15th century the seat of a 
bishopric. Pop 4,351. 

Aire', a city of France, dep. Pas de Calais, at the con¬ 
fluence of the Lis aDd Laquette. Its fortifications are 
of great importance for the defence of the country 
between the Lys and the Aa. Pop. (1895) 8,303. 

Air-embraced, a. Encompassed by air. 


Air'er, n. One who exposes to the air. 

Air'-escape', :i. A contrivance for riveting off ail 
from water-pipes. 

Ai'rey, n. See Aerie and Eyp.y. 

Air'-luuntiiiii, n. A jet of water produced by means 

of compressed air 

Air'-gun, n. An instrument for projecting bullets, in 
which the moving power is the rush of condensed air 
allowed to escape, instead of the formation of gases 
arising from the ignition of gunpowder. In the stook 
of the air-gun is a condensing syringe, the piston of 
which condenses air into a cavity having a valve opening 
inward, just "behind the bullet. The barrel is open, and 
the bullet (which should just fit the barrel) is inserted 
in the usual way. The trigger opens the valve behind 
the bullet, and permits the rush of the condensed air, 
which propels the bullet forward. The moment the 
finger is withdrawn from the trigger, the air closes the 
valve, and remains, somewhat less condensed than be¬ 
fore, for the next discharge. No power, but only a con¬ 
venient adaptation of power, is gained in an air-gun, 
since the condensation of the air itself reqnires an ex¬ 
penditure of power. The instrument has hitherto been 
little more than a toy.— Invented by Marin, a French¬ 
man, who presented one to Henry IV. 

Air'-holtl'er, n. An instrument for holding air; a 
gasometer. 

Air -bole, n. A hole to admit or discharge air. 

(Founding.) A hole or cavity in a casting, produced 
by air which has not found passage through the liquid 
metal. It is also called blow-hole. 

Air ily, adv. In an airy manner; gayly. 

Air'll!ess, n. The quality or state of being airy.— 
Lightness; gayety; levity. 

“ The talkativeness and airiness of the French language."— Felton. 

Air'ing;, n. A walk, or ride, or short journey to enjoy 
the free air. 

" The little fleet serves to give to their ladies an airing." — Addison. 

—Ventilation by admitting air; as, tin- airing of a room.— 
The act of exposing to the air for refreshing, purilying, 
or drying—as garments. 

Air'-Jacket, a garment, having several bagseommuni- 
caticg with each other, which are filled with air by a 
leather tube, furnished with a brass stop-cock, by w hich 
means a person may float without learning to swim. 

Air'less, a. Having no communication with the free air. 

Air'-pstssag'es, n. See Air-cells. 

Air'-pipe, n. A pipe used to cleanse the holds of ships 
of foul air. It is used also for mines, &c. Air-pipe, call¬ 
ed commonly Sutton’s air-pipe, from the name of th« 
inventor, is formed on the principle that air is necessary 
for the support ot fire; hence, by closing the two holes 
under the copper or boiler, and in their room laying a 
copper or leaden pipe from the hold into tlie asli-place, 
by which means the foul air be discharged from the hold, 
it is clear that a supply of fresh air will come iroin the 
hatches to take its place. 

Air'-plants, n. pi. (Bot.) A common name applied 
to Epiphytes, or plants which grow on trees or other 
elevated objects, not in the earth, and derive their 
nutriment from atmospheric moisture. They are t» 
be distinguished from terrestrial plants, or thos® 
growing in earth, and from parasites, which deriv# 
nourishment directly from other plants on which they 
grow. The Lichens and Mosses that abound on the 
trunks or boughs of trees, or on old walls, fences, or 
rocks, from which they obtain nourishment, are air-. 



Fig. 61. — AIR-PLANTS. 


plants. But the name is generally restricted to flow 
ering plants of the Ori hidacece (Orchis fam.) and Bromtr 
liacet e (Pine-apple fam.) living in the tropical parts of 
America, where a constantly moist state of the attnoai 














58 


AIRY 


AIX 


AKBE 


phero is maintained by the exhalation of the trees upon 
which they cluster. They exhibit, in their handsome 
flowers, as well as iu their general aspect, fantastic and 
infinitely varied forms. In hot-houses, they are very 
ornamental, but they require that the at mosphere should 
be rendered artificially moist, as well as warm. To the 
class of air-plants belongs also the Tillanasia. or Long 
Moss, hanging in long and gray tangled clusters or 
festoons from the branches of the Live-oak or Long¬ 
leaved Pine, in the Southern States of the United States. 
The accompanying figure represents two air-plants of the 
Orchis fam.: 1. Calypso papilio; 2. Comparettia rosea. 

AIr'-poise, n. An instrument for weighing air. 

Air'-pump, n. (Phys .) A philosophical instrument for 
removing the air out of a closed vessel, so as to form as 
near an approach to a vacuum as possible. It is com¬ 
posed (Jig. 02) of a cylinder, in which works a piston, 
furnished with a valve opening upward. At the bottom 
of the cylinder is another valve, 
also opening upward, and clos¬ 
ing or opening a tube connect¬ 
ed with the plate upon which is 
placed the vessel to be exhaust¬ 
ed. If the piston is raised when 
it is at the bottom of the cylin¬ 
der, the air pressing on the 
valve belonging to it keeps it 
closed, and a partial rarefaction 
of the air takes place. On lower¬ 
ing it, the air presses on the 
valve at the bottom of the cylin¬ 
der, cutting off the communica¬ 
tion between it and the re¬ 
ceiver, and opening the valve 
in the piston. The piston, on 
being raised once more, again 
rarefies the air in the receiver, 
and continues to do so at each 
successive stroke of the pump. 

—Anabsolutely perfect vacuum 
can never be made in this way, 
as, at a certain point, the rare¬ 
fied air becomes too attenuated 
4o lift the piston-valve. Inmost 
air-pumps two cylinders are 
used, to savo time; the piston 
of one descending, while that of 
the other is ascending. Connected with the tube lead¬ 
ing to the receiver is a shortened barometer, the height 
of the mercury in which shows the exact degree of rare¬ 
faction. The first vacuum was made by Torricelli, but 
the first air-pump was constructed by Otto Yon Gue¬ 
ricke, in 1654. 



Fig. 63. 


Air'-sac, n. See Air-cells. 

Air'-sliaft, n. A hole made from the surface to the 
adits of a mine, to furnish fresh air to the miners. 

Air-slacked, a. Slacked by exposure to the air; as 
air-slacked lime. 

Air'-threads. n. pi. (Niit. Hist.) The long filaments 
which float in the air in autumn. They are made by 
the long-legged field-spiders.— See Gossamer. 

Air'-tigtit, a. Impermeable to air. 

Air'-ti"aj», n. A contrivance for expelling foul air 
from drains, &c. 

Air'-tnb, n. See Spir\l Vessels. 

Air'-vessel. n. A vessel, ceil, or duct, containing or 
conducting air. 

(Physiol.) See Spiral Vessels. 

Alr'y, a. Composed of air; as, the airy parts of bodies. 
Belonging or relating to the air; high in air; open or 
exposed to the air. 

“There are fishes not strangers to the airy region.”— Boyle. 

—light as air, thin, unsubstantial; without solidity. 

11 1 hold ambition c* so airy a quality, that it is but a shadow’s 
shadow.”— Shak. 

—Without reality; -without any steady foundation in truth 
or natrre; vain; trifling. 

“ With <s_ipty sound, and airy notions, fly.”— Roscommon. 

—Gay; sprightly; full of mirth; vivacious; spirited; light 
of heart. 

( Paint.) Living; an effect produced by the proper dis¬ 
tribution of light in a frame. 

Airy, George Biddell, an English astronomer, born at 
Alnwick, 1801. The management of the Cambridge 
Observatory was intrusted to him in 1828. Fellow of 
the Royal Society, correspondent member of the French 
Institute, and other foreign scientific bodies, and 
Astronomer Royal. He was considered one of the 


most able and indefatigable savants of our age. His 
principal work is Astronomical Observations, Cambridge, 
1828-1838, 9 vols. Died Jan. 4,1892. 

Aisle, n. [Fr. aile, from Lat. ala, a wing.] (Arch.) 
The wing of a building. — In churches, that lateral divi¬ 
sion which forms the .side of the edifice. When a churcli 
is divided into three compartments, the middle or prin¬ 
cipal compartment, separated from the others by two 
rows of piers, is called the nave, and the two outlying 
compartments form the aisles. Modern churches have 
seldom more than.two aisles; but in Gothic cathedrals 
there are often as many as four aisles, two on each side 
of the nave. Sometimes the term aisle is given to all 
the compartments of a church, which is then spoken of 
as three-aisled, the nave or body of the building forming 
the middle aisle, and the side compartments the side- 
aisles. —See Nave, Transept. 

Aisled, a. That has aisles. 

Aisne, a river of France, which gives its name to a de¬ 
partment. It rises to the west of a chain of hills which 
forms the western boundary of the basin of the Meuse, 
and, after a course of 150 miles, joins the river Oise, just 
above Compiegne. It becomes navigable at Rethel. 

Aisne', a department in the north of France, includ¬ 
ing portions of the ancient Picardy, Isle of France, and 
Champagne. It is divided into 5 arrondisseinents and 
37 cantons. It is drained by the rivers Oise, Aisne, and 
Marne, and gives rise to the Sambre, the Somme, and 
the Escant. Area 2,830 sq. m. Lat. betw 48° 50' and 
50° N.; Long. betw. 2° 50' and 4° 12' E. The surface 
generally consists of undulating plains. The quantity 
of forest land is considerable, and the soil so fertile in grain 
and hay that the inhabitants export two thirds of their 
harvest. — Ind. Considerable nianuf. of cotton; the 
famous manuf. of mirrors at St. Gobain; manat', of 
linens, shawls in imitation of Cashmere, soaps, &c. Its 
chief towns are: Laon (prefecture), St. Quentin, Sois- 
sons, Chateau-Thierry, Vervins (sub-prefectures); La 
Fere, a fortress on the Oise, and La Ferte-Milou, the 
birthplace of Racine. Pop. 564,597. 

Aiss£, Mlle. Demois, was born in Circassia, 1689, and pur¬ 
chased by the Count de Ferriol, the French ambassador 
at Constantinople, when a child of 4 years, for 1500 
livres. The seller declared her to be a Circassian prin¬ 
cess. She was of great beauty. The Count took her 
with him to France, and gave her an education, in which 
nothing was neglected but the inculcation of virtuous 
principles. Her disposition was good, but her life im¬ 
moral. She sacrificed her innocence to the solicitations 
of her benefactor. On the other hand, she resisted the 
splendid offers of the Duke of Orleans; and, of her nu¬ 
merous suitors, she favored only the Chevalier Ayde 
A prey to the bitterest remorse, she lived in a continual 
struggle with herself, and died 1727, thirty-eight years 
old. tier letters, written in a pleasant and fluent strain 
were published with notes by Voltaire, iu 1787. They 
contain many anecdotes of the prominent persouages 
of her times. 

Ait', and Eyot, n. [From tslri.] A small island in a river 
or lake. — It is called a willow ait when planted with 
osiers. 

Ait'kin. in Minnesota, a N. central co.; formerly 
spelled Aiken (</.v.) 

Aix', a town of France, formerly capital of Provence, 
now chief town of arrond. in the dep. of Bouches-du- 
RhOne. It is situated iu a plain, 16 miles N. of Mar¬ 
seilles. It is the seat of a Court of Assizes and a uni¬ 
versity, with faculties of theology and law. It has a 
magnificent cathedral, a museum of pictures, a col¬ 
lection of antiquities, and a library coutaiufug over 
150,000 vols. — Manuf., silk, wool, and cotton; Trade, 
oil. The town was founded by C. Sextus Calviuus, a 
Roman general, 120 years u. c., and received the name 
of Aquce Sext.ce, from its famous hot springs. Pop. 27,659. 

Aix*la-Otl»i»elle'. [Ger. Aachen.} The chief city of a 
district of the same name, prov. of the Lower Rhine, 
Prussia, on the river Wurm, 40 m. S.W. of Cologne. Lat. 
50° 47' N.; Lon. 6° 3' E. Pop. 10O t 000. The situation of the 
city is agreeable; it stands on uneven ground, sur¬ 
rounded by hills of moderate elevation, generally cov¬ 
ered with wood. There are many public buildings in 
the city deserving of notice, principally the Minster, 
which is said to have been commenced by Charlemagne, 
contains the tomb of this monarch, a great number of 
relics, and doors of bronze. Aix-la-Chapelle once pos¬ 
sessed a much more extensive trade than it has at 
present. This decline has been caused by the spring¬ 
ing up of other rival seats of industry all around it. 
Man/. Woollen cloth, kerseymeres, pins, needles, hats, 
and Prussian biue. Founded A. D. 125 by Severus Gra- 
nius, a Roman general, under the name of Aipds-Granum. 
Aix was the favorite residence of Charlemagne. The 
emperors of Germany were once crowned here; and, as 
long as the Germanic empire lasted, this city claimed 
the privilege of being the place of coronation, as it was 
also the proper residence of the emperor. The name of 
Aix, or Aachen, is evidently derived from the springs, 
for w’hich the place has been always famous. The hot 
springs have a temperature of about 143° Fahrenheit, 
and contain a large portion of sulphur These waters 
are used both for bathing and drinking. In 1668, a 
treaty of peace was concluded at Aix between France 
and Spain. In 1748 a congress was held in it, between 
France, England, Holland, Austria, Spain, Sardinia and 
Modena, in order to adjust the political interests of these 
powers, which had suffered from a war arising out of 
the failure of the male branch of the house of Austria, 
by the death of Charles VI. in 1740. A treaty was con¬ 
cluded between all the powers, stipulating the indepen¬ 
dence of Switzerland, the free navigation of the Rldno, 
the security of the Protestant succession in England, 


and the disunion of the French and SpanisK crowns. 
All the conquests made by the contracting powers were 
restored, and the state of affairs in tbe Indies was to re¬ 
main as it was before the war. The terms of this treaty 
produced much dissatisfaction both in France and Eng¬ 
land, and the vagueness of the last stipulation gave rise 
to the Seven Years’ War, which began in 1755. Another 
congress was held at Aix-la-Cliapelle in 1818, between 
Russia, Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, and France, and 
a treaty was signed the 9th of October, which put au 
end to the occupation of France by t lie foreign troops. 

Aix'-les-Bains, a town cf France,dep. of H.Savoy, on 
tne E. side of Lake Bourget, 8 miles N. by E. of Cham- 
bery, celebrated for its sulphuretted hot springs, of the 
temperature of 112° to 117°. at an alt. of 823 feet above 
sea-level. They were in vogue among the Itomans, and 
are still extensively resorted to. Pp. 4,253. 

Aizo'on, n. [A. S aiznn , ever-living.] (But.) A genus 
of plants, ord. Tetragmiiacnr, having entire, fleshy leaves. 
The ashes of A. canariense abound in soda. 

Aja'ccio, the chief town of the island of Corsica, which 
forms a depart, of France. Its harbor, to tbe north of 
the gulf of the same name, on the western coast of the 
island and at the confluence of the rivers Terignano and 
Restonico, is rendered unsafe by projecting rocks. — Com. 
Coral and anchovy fisheries. It is the handsomest city 
of Corsica, and the birthplace of Napoleon I., whose 
house is still to he seen. Pop. 17,327, 

vr alon. (Anc. Grog.) Said to be the modern Ydln. a 
village a little to the N. of the Jaffa road, about 14 miles 
W.N.W. of Jerusalem; was the town rendered memo¬ 
rable by Joshua’s victory over the five Canaanitish kings, 
and still more so by the extraordinary circumstance of 
the miraculously lengthened day. See Joshua, X. 

A Jail, the name of a long tract of the coast of east Africa, 
extending from near Magadozo, which is included within 
the limits of Zanguebur, northward to Cape Guardafui, 
a distance estimated at about ten degrees of the equator. 
Totcns. Melinda, Brava, and Magadoxa. 

Ajar', adv. [Eng. pref. a and jar. | Partly open, as a door. 

Ajax, the name of two heroes of the Trojan war. 1. A., 
son of Telamon, king of Salamis, was next in warlike 
prowess to Achilles, llis chief exploits, recorded in the 
Ihad, are his duel with Hector (7th book), and his obsti¬ 
nate defence of theships.in the protracted battle described 
in the 13th, 14th, loth, 16th, and 17th books. Blunt in 
manners, rugged in temper, and somewhat obtuse in in¬ 
tellect, his strength and stubborn courage made him a 
most valuable soldier, but no favorite; and his confidence 
in these qualities induced him to despise divine aid, by 
which he roused the anger of Pallas, the author of his 
subsequent misfortunes. After Achilles’s death, the ar¬ 
mor of that hero was to be given as a prize to him who 
had deserved best of the Greeks. Ajax and Ulj-sses alone 
advanced their claims, and the assembled princes awarded 
the splendid prize to Ulysses. Ajax was so much morti¬ 
fied at this, that ho went mad, and in his fury attacked 
the herds and flocks of the camp, mistaking them for the 
Grecian leaders, by whom he thought himself so deeply 
injured. On recovering his senses, and seeing to what 
excesses he had been transported, he slew himself.—2. A., 
son of Oileus, remarkable for s wilt ness of foot and skill in 
using the bow and javelin. His notoriety is chiefly de¬ 
rived front events subsequent to the close of the Iliad. 
When the Greeks had entered Troy, Ulysses accused Ajax 
of having violated Cassandra in the temple of Pallas. 
He exculpated himself with an oath; but the anger of 
the goddess at last overtook him, and he perished in 
the waves of the sea. 

Ajr'Iio. a large town in China, territory of Mantchooria, 
also called A-Shee-Ho, and Alchuku. 

Aj'mere, or Aj'meer, a town of Hindostan, in the centre 
of the Raj poo tana territory, 225 miles S.W. of Delhi. Lat 
26° 31' N.; Lon. 74° 28 E. It is the cap. of a district ot 
the same name, belonging to the Britisii. (See Rajpoo- 
taxa.) Pup. abt. 23,000. — Near the town is the cele¬ 
brated Hindoo temple of Pooshkur, on the banks of a 
sacred pool nearly a mile in circuit, visited annually in 
October by crowds of pilgrims from all parts of India. 
Ajmere also possesses the tomb of a saint whose miracles 
are renowned all over India. 

Aju'ga, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, tribe Ajugece. Th» 
A. c/ia/nuy(ty.s(ground-pine), known also under the name 
o»' yellow bugle, is a species rare in the U.S., but common 
in Europe. Its leaves are somewhat excitant, and exert 
an influence on the urinary organs. 

Aju'g’Ote. n. pi. (Bot.) A tribe of plants, ord. Lamiacece. 

Ajuru'oca, a town in the prov. of Minas Geraes, Brazil, 
117 in. N. of Rio Janeiro, on the Ajuruoca river. Pop. 
of town and district, abt. 12,000. 

Ajutage, n. [Fr.] A kind of tube fitted to the mouth 
or aperture, of a vessel, through which water is to be 
discharged;—a part of the apparatus oi an artificial foun¬ 
tain. or jet d’eau. 

AK aliali, (Gulf OF,)the Sinus Elaniticus of antiquity, 
so called from the port of Eiana or Elath, is a deep nar¬ 
row inlet, uniting with the N.E. extremity of the Red 
sea. It extends in N.N.E. direction from 28° to 29- 
32' N. lat.; being, where broadest. 16 or 17 miles across 
Being exposed to sudden and heavy squalls, and encum 
bered in parts with coral reefs, its navigation is not 
little dangerous. It takes its modern name from the 
castle of Akabah, where is deposited, under the guai^ 
of some Egyptian soldiers, the corn for the supply of tne 
caravans, in their journey f rom Cairo to Mecca. 

Ak an, a township ot litsco/mu, situated in Richland 
county 

Ak'bar, or Akber, (i. e., the Great,) properly Jelal- 
eh-din-Mohammed, emperor of Hindostan, was born in 
1542, at Amerkota, in the great sandy desert east of the 
Indus. At the death of his father, the Mogul emperot 




















A KIS 


ALAB 


ALAB 


59 


Bnmayan he succeeded him in the government of Delhi, 
U the 14th year of his age, 1556. Feeling diffident on 
account of his youth ar.d inexperience, he conferred the 
temporary dignity of Khan Caba (t. e., regent or pro¬ 
tector) on his minister Beiram Khan. His great talents 
were early developed. He fought with distinguished 
?alor against his foreign foes, and wtis very successful in 
.lis wars. Nevertheless, in an attempt to subjugate the 
Afghan mouatain districts which encircle the plain of 
Peshawnr, his army, commanded by Zein Khan Koka, 
was completely defeated by the Yoosoofzyesor Eusofzies, 
the most powerful of the Afghan tribes in this direction, 
a. D. 1591. Though compelled, by continued commo¬ 
tions, to visit the different provinces of his empire at 
the head of his army, he loved the sciences, especially 
history, and was indefatigable in his attention to the 
internal administration of his empire. He instituted 
inquiries into the population, the nature and produc¬ 
tions of each province. The results of his statistical 
labors were collected by his minister, Abul Fazl, in a 
work entitled Ay ten Akberi, printed in English, at 
Calcutta, 1783-86,3 vols., and reprinted in Loudon. A. 
died, after a reign of 49 years, in 1017 (1604, a. d.) His 
■plemiid sepulchral monument still exists near Agra, 
with the simple inscription, . ikbar the Admirable. 



Pig. 64. — TOOSOOFZYK.— KINGDOM OF CAB00L. 

Ake', n. and v. See Ache. 

Akee' Fruit, n. The fruit of the Btighia or Cupania 
sapuia. Its succulent arillus is used as food. 

A'Uensitle, Mark, au English poet and physician, the 
Son of a butcher, born at New Castle-on-Tyne, 1721. In 
1744 he published his Pleasures of Imagination, a poem 
which at onoe attained celebrity, and proved him a true 


poet. D. in London, 1770. 

/LTierman, (ancient Tyrus,) a fortified town of Russia 
in Europe, province of Bessarabia, near the junction of 
the Dniester with the Black Sea ; Lat. 46° 12' N.; Lon. 
30° 22' E. As the basin of the Dniester has only from 
5 to 7 feet of water, the larger class of vessels anchor in 
the Black Sea, about 16 m. from the town. In 1826 was 
concluded in A., between Russia and Turkey, a treaty 
by w hich Wallaehia, Moldavia, and Servia were eman¬ 
cipated from all but a nominal dependence on the 
Ottoman Porte. Pop. (1895 ) 45,598. 

A lili issar , (the auc Thyatira,) a town of Turkey in 
Asia, Anatolia, 58 miles N.E of Smyrna, on the direct 
road between Constantinople and Smyrna. Exp., cotton 
goods. Pop. 6,000. 

Aklilat', a town of Turkey in Asia, Kurdistan, on the 
shore of lake Van, formerly a place of great importance, 
known under the name Argish ; but now greatly de¬ 
cayed. Lat. 38° 35'N.; Lon. 41° 22'E. 7bp. 6,000. 

A'ki. or Aka, n. (Bot.) The native name of the tree Me- 
trosideios scandens, ord. Myrtaee.se. It is also called Lig¬ 
num. Vi re on account of the hardness of its timber, and 
is used by the New Zealanders for making their war- 
clubs, paddles, Ac. 

Akim bo, a. [From a and kimbo.] Crooked: arched.— 
An arm is said to lie akimbo when the hand is on the 
kip, and the elbow turned outward. 

Akin', a. [From a and kin.] Related to; allied to by 
blood; — used of persons. 


" I could wish that being thy sister In nature, I were not so far 
off akin in fortune " — Sidney 


—Allied to by nature; partaking of the same properties ;— 
used of thiDgs. 

Akin’s, in Georgia, a thriving township of Spalding 
county. . 

&kinkit , or Akhal'zikh, a town of Russia in Asia, 
Georgia, on an affluent of the Kur; 115 miles IV. of Tiflis. 
Lat. 31° 45' N.; Lon. 43° 1' E. It was formerly the cap. 
of s Turkish pachalic, and the seat of the slave-trade. 
Ptp about 15,000, two-thirds Armenians. 


Akk a, a town in the Sahara, on the borders of Morocco, 
and a caravan station between Tinibuctoo and Morocco. 
Lat. 28° 30' N.; Lon. 0° 10' W. 

Akmetehei, or Akmedshid. See Simferopol. 

A-knee'. adv. On the knee. 

Akinolinsk, a province of Siberia, organized in 1867 
from part of the Kirghiz territory. Capital, Akmolinsk, 
200 miles southwest of Omsk. Pop. (1897) estimated 
at 5,2 j0. 

Akrab'bim. ( Anc. Gee>g.) A pass near the country of 
the Ammonites, where Judas Maccabeus gained a great 
victory over the Edomites (1 Me. v. 3.) It is said to be 
the line of chalk cliffs, seven or eight miles long, which 
cross the Arabah from N.W. to S.E.. six or eight miles 
from the Dead Sea. 

Akrey'ri, a Danish town, on the Eyianfiord, Iceland, 
has a good harbor, and is, after Reykiavik, the most im¬ 
portant place for trade in Iceland. Lat. 65° 40' N. 

Akron', in New York, a village of Erie co., 268 m. IV. 
of Albany. 

Ak'ron, in Ohio, the principal city of Summit co., at 
the junction of the Ohio and Erie, and Ohio and Penn¬ 
sylvania canals, 38 m. S. of Cleveland. By a succession 
of locks, the 0. and E. canal rises suddenly at Akron to 
the Portage Summit. A. is a flourishing place; there are 
several banks, and important manf. of agricultural im¬ 
plements, flour, books, <fcc. Pop. (1890), 27,601. 

Ak'serai, a town of Turkey in Asia, Karamauia, 90 
miles N.E. of Koneieh: pnji. about 10,000. 

Ak'-shehr. (the White City,) a town of Turkey in 
Asia, Karamania. Lat. 38° 13' N.; Lon. 31° 30' E. It 
is situated near the S. extremity of a considerable lake, 
at the foot of a mountain chain, in a rich and well 
watered country. It is mentioned in Turkish annals as 
the place where Bajazet was confined by Timour, and 
where he expired. Pup. about 5,000. 

Aksoo, Aksou, or Ak>ij, a little town in Chinese Tur- 
kistan. Lat. 41° 7' N.: Lon. 79° E. 

Ak'sn, a district of Little Bukhuriat bounded on the N. 
by the mountains of Allak, with a cap. of the same 
Dame. Lat. 41° 9' N. Pop. about 150,000. 

Ak'sn, ( White River,) the name of several rivers in 
Asia, the chief of which runs through Chinese Tur¬ 
kestan. 

Ak tag-11. a mountain range of Asiatic Turkey, between 
the parallels of 39° and 40° N. — Also a mountain of 
Anatolia, near the sources of the Rhyndacus and the 
Hermns. Alt. 8,000 ft. 

Ali'teboli, or Agothapolis, a small port of European 
Turkey, on the Black sea, 69 m. from the entrance of 
the Bosphorus. Lat. 42° 4' N.; Lon. 27° 59' E. 

Ak’nambit, or Aguambo, a state of Guinea, on the 
Rio Volta, to the N. of Aquapim. 

Ak'zib, or Aciizib, a town of Syria, on the coast, 9 m. 
N. of Acre; supposed to be the Acdippa or Ecdippon of 
Pliny and Josephus. 

Ak'yab, a maritime town of India, cap. of the prov. 
Aracan, to the E. of the island of Akyab, beyond the 
Ganges. Lat. 20° 8' N\; Lon. 92° 54' E. Its harbor is 
safe. 

A1-, a form of the Latin prefix ad, to, used before l, for 
avoiding the hard sound of the two consonants dl; as, 
alludere for adludere. 

—The Arabian definite article answering to the. It is 
often applied to a word by way of emiueuce, as in 
Greek the letter o. The Arabs express the superlative 
by adding God thereto, as the mountain of God for the 
highest mountain; and it is probable that al relates to 
the wol d Allah, God: so, Alchemy may be the Chemistry 
of God, or the more exalted perfection of chemical 
science. 

—A Saxon prefix used as a contraction of the word cethel, 
noble, or of the word all or aid, old. 

A'la, n.; pi. Alx. [Lat., a 
wing.] (But.) A wing, ap¬ 
plied to the lateral petals of 
a papilionaceous flower; — 
to membranous appendages 
of the fruit, as in the elm. 
or of the seed, as in pines. 

(Anal.) The armpit; so 
called because it answers to 
the pit under the wing of a 
bird. 

A'la, a small town of the 
Tyrol, on the Adige, abt. 8 
miles S. of Roveredo: pop. 

4,820. 

Ala’ba. or A lava, a district 
of Spain, cap. Vittoria, in 
the province of Biscay, and 
once an indep. kingdom. 

Alaba'iiiii, one of the Southern States of the United 
States ol America, bounded N. by Tennessee, E. by Geor¬ 
gia, S. by Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, IV. by Missis¬ 
sippi. It lies between 30° 10' and 35° N. lat.. and between 
85° and 88° 30' IV. Ion. Its extreme length from N. to 
S. is 336 m., and its breadth ranges from 148 to 200 m. 
Area, 50,722 si), m.. or 32,462,080 acres — History. The 
name A. is derived from the aboriginal language, and sig¬ 
nifies, “ Here we rest.” The first white men that set 
Toot u' on the soil of this State were the adventurers 
under De Soto in their famous march to the Mississippi. 
They found the aborigines a formidable obstacle, evinc¬ 
ing a more intelligent manhood and higher social organ¬ 
ization than the other Indian tribes lurther north. The 
first settlement was made by the French, under Bien¬ 
ville, v ho built a fort on Mobile bay in 1702. Nine 
years afterward the present site of Mobile wits occupied. 
The peace of 1763 transferred to the British crown all 
the territory N. of the Gulf aDd E. of the Mississippi. 


e 



FLOWER OF SWEET-PEA. 


(a, al®, the wings; e, vexillum, 
the banner ; b, carina, the 
keel; c. the calyx.) 


Its agricultural value soon attracted an Aagto-Ameri 
can emigration, in the mass of which the origina' 
French element was absorbed. A. was incorporated 
first with Georgia, and afterward with the Mississippi 
territory in 1802. During the years 1813, 1814, it wai 
harassed by the attacks of the Indians, who were re 
duced to submission by General Jackson, and have 
since emigrated West of the Mississippi. In 181$ 
it was admitted into the Union as a separate State 
and since that time its population has rapidly in 
creased. A. seceded on the 11th of January, 1861 
In 1867 a convention, nominated in pursuance ol 
the Acts of Congress on reconstruction, met at Mont> 
gotnery, and framed a constitution, which was 
adopted without opposition of importance. This con¬ 
stitution was revised in 1875.— Description. A. would 
form a rectangle, if Florida did not occupy the largest 
part of its coast-line, leaving only to it about 60 m. of 
sea-coast on the Gulf of Mexico. The Alleghany moun¬ 
tains terminate in the N.E. part of the State, subsiding 
into low hills. From the N. the surface gradually de¬ 
clines toward the coast, which is depressed and level, 
with hilly country in the centre. The limited sea-coast 
is broken by Mobile bay, a beautiful sheet of water, 3t 
m. long, and from 3 to 18 broad, with depth of 25 feel 
on the extreme bar at low tide. The southward deflec¬ 
tion of the general level causes the rivers to run in tb« 
same direction. These are numerous, and of very 
considerable b-ngth and volume, the principal being 
Alabama, Tomhighee, Mobile, Black IVarrior. Coosa. 
Tallapoosa, Tennessee. Chatahoochee, Perdido, Cahawha 
and Conecuh, q. v. —The soil varies with the gebgraph 
ical locality and elevation. The mountain region of tin 
N. is well suited to grazing and stock-raising, and it 
interspersed with valleys >f excellent soil. The undu¬ 
lating surface iu the river bottoms is highly charged 
with fertilizing elements, resting generally on a soft 
limestone ruck, abounding in shells. The valley of the 
A. river is one of the richest on the continent. The 
removal of the canebrakes of Marengo and Greene cosi 
has disclosed soil of unsurpassed quality. Toward the 



Fig. 66. — pricklt pear, (Opuntia vulg.) 
Very common in parts of the South. 


coast the vegetation becomes decidedly tropical. Oak. 
in great variety, poplars, hickories, chestnuts, and mul¬ 
berries cover tlie northern and central parts of tin 
State, while in the S. the pine, cypress, and loblolly are 
the prevailing species.— Climate. Though A. reache* 
not far from 7° of tho torrid zone, the thermometer ex 
ceeds seldom 90°. The mean temperature, as the result 
of the observations of ten years taken at Mobile, is 
in the spring, 66.87 ; in the summer, 79.00; iu tilt 
autumn 66 - 27 : and iu the winter 52 43: — which gives 
for the year an average of 66-14. The fruit-trees blos¬ 
som between the middle of January and 1st of March, 
according to the elevation of the place. Snow nei;her 
falls deep nor lies long: the rivers are never frozen over. 
The lowlands are unhealthy near the rivers, but in the 
elevated country the climate is salubrious and delightful, 
the heat of the summer being tempered by the breeze* 
from the Gulf. — Minerals. The central region is under¬ 
laid by vast beds of iron ore, alternating with rich coal 
measures of great extent. The juxtaposition of these 
minerals favors mining operations, and the processes of 
preparing iron for market. Lead, manganese, ochtes, 
and marbles are found in different localities, and even 
gold is reported. — Mineral waters. Salt, sulphur, aud 
chalybeate springs are of frequent occurrence The 
sulphur waters of A. enjoy a high reputation.— Agri- 
culture. In agricultural production cotton stands first, 
the State ranking fourth in the output of this staple. In 
1905 its yield was about 1,470,000 bales, iu wbi,li li os 
very largely exceeded only by Texas. Of Cereal crops 
corn stands much the highest, tiie other grains being 
little cultivated. I n 1007 the yield of corn was 45,896,00-', 
of wheat 890,000, and of oats 3,850,000 bushels. The 
yield of the lice crop was 45,000 bushels. Some cane- 
sugar and molasses are produced and more sorghum 
syrup. Ramie is grown to some extent. Most of the 
farms are under 100 acres in size. Of farm animals 
tiiere were more than 450,000 oxen and other cattle, 
350,000 milch cows, 350,000 sheep, 1,500,000 syvine. 
















60 


ALAi> 


ALAC 


ALAM 


Conecuh, 

Jackson, 

Morgan, 

Coosa, 

Jefferson, 

Perry, 

Pickens, 

Covington, 

Lamar, 

Crenshaw, 

Lauderdale, 

Pike, 

Randolph, 

Dale, 

Lawrc-ce, 

Dallas, 

Lee, 

Russell, 

Shelby, 

De Kalb, 

Limestone, 

Elmore, 

Lowndes, 

St. Clair, 

Escambia, 

15 aeon, 

Sumter, 

Etowah, 

Madison, 

Talladega, 

Fayette, 

Marengo, 

Tallapoosa, 

Franklin, 

Marion, 

Tuscaloosa, 

Geneva, 

Marshall, 

Walker, 

Greene, 

Mobile, 

Washington, 

Hale, 

Monroe, 

Wilcox, 

Henry, 

Cullman, 

Montgomery, 

Winston, 


150,000 horses and 200,000 mules, the total value 
exceeding $35,000,000. A. is now the third state in the 
Union in the production of iron ore. In 1870 her total 
iron production was 7,000 tons; in 1900 it had reached 
the largo total of 2,801,037 tons, being about ten per 
cent, of the whole United States production. Of this 
output nearly 80 per cent, was red hematite ore. The 
coal production had shown the same great increase, 
there being about 14,000,000 tons mined in 1907. This 
large iron and coal product lias greatly stimulated iron 
manufacture. In 1900 the value of iron and steel pro¬ 
ducts was $17,392,483, and this product has steadily 
increased. The other manufactures include lumber, 
machinery, cotton goods, <&c. In 1900 the state had 
5002 manufacturing establishments, with a capital of 
$70,370,0s 1. In 1895 A. possessed 20 cotton and woolen 
mills, with a total of 104,890 spindles; many others 
have since been built. The railroads of this state in 
1908 had a mileage of 5,000, with a capital investment 
of over $117,750,000. The bonded debt in October 1. 
1908, was $lli,194,OoO, with a iloating debt of §3,214,356, 
The total assessed valuation of property subject to 
taxation was $450,529,553. There were 27 national 
and 11 state banks. The state appropriation for educa¬ 
tion was abou t $500,0U0, divided between various normal 
and other colleges. 

Counties and Towns. —The State is divided into the 68 
following counties: 

Autauga, 

Baldwin, 

Barbour, 

Bibb, 

Blount, 

Bullock, 

Butter, 

Calhoun, 

Chambers, 

Cherokee, 

Chilton, 

Choctaw, 

Clarke, 

Clay, 

Cleburne, 

Coffee, 

Colbert, 

The principal towns are Mobile, the chief seat of 
commerce; Montgomery, the seat of government; 
Birmingham, Anniston, Huntsville, Selma, Florence, 
Bessemer, Eufaula, Tuscaloosa, Opelika, Phoenix, New 
Decatur, &c. In 1890 A. had 270,204 pupils enrolled 
in her public schools, and of a total school population 
of 522,691 had an average daily attendance of 185,000.— 
Religion. A. has, according to the most recent reliable 
statistics, more than three thousand church edifices, 
representing almost every denomination of Christians; 
the most numerous, however, belong to the Baptists, 
Methodists and Presbyterians. A. has various public 
institutions, for example, the State Lunatic Asylum, at 
Tuscaloosa, Blind Asylum at Mobile, Deaf and Dumb 
Asylum and Penitentiary at Wetumpka. &c. Few, if 
any of the Southern States, have made more progress 
in the development of the iron interests than A. The 
growth of the city of Birmingham, in Jefferson co., is 
remarkable. Over 20 large coke furnaces were in opera¬ 
tion there in 1890, with a yearly capacity of nearly 
1,0; 10,000 tons of iron; this product has greatly increased. 
Iron, coal an I lime exist in close pr cxnuity. I ndeed, it 
may be assumed that only the recent utilization of 
natural gas in and around Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania, 
and most rigid economy in the manufacture of iron 
and steel, there and elsewhere, have enabled the older 
iron producing centres of the North to compete with 
this new Southern rival. These superior advantages 
are not likely to continue, since natural gas is rapidly 
giving out, while the lesson of economy in manufactur¬ 
ing processes is being learned in the South, the result 
being that Alabama is steadily becoming a more formid¬ 
able rival of the North in iron manufacture. In the 
recent development of A. the progress of its coal-mining 
industry has been one of the most important features. 
The coal deposits form the southern extremity of the 
great Appalachian coal-fields, and embraces an area of 
8,660 square miles, underlying all or part of 19 counties, 
though actual mining operations are conducted in but 
ten of these. The coals embrace all the bituminous 
varieties, such as gas, coking, block, splint and cannel, 
and offer an inexhaustible supply of fuel for domestic 
and industrial purposes. Coal mining was begun here 
about 1853, but the production did not reach a total of 
100,000 tons till the year 1876. Sometimes the growth 
has been very rapid. At present the principal output is 
in Jefferson County, which yields three-fourths of the 
total product, and in whose mines several thousand 
people are employed. This industry, in connection with 
the rapid growth in iron mining and manufacture, is 
most promising for the industrial future of the State. 
— Population. In 1890, the total population was 1,513,017. 
ot whom 833,718 were white and 679,299 colored. The 
total population, white and colored, was 1,828,697 in 
the census of 1900. 

Uaba'ma, a riverin the above State. It is formed by 
the junction at Montgomery of the two rivers Coosa and 
Tallapoosa. It receives the waters of the Cahawba, and, 
flowing S.S.W., unites wiiii the Tombigbee.45 m. above 
Mobile bay, to form the river Mobibe. The A. is navi 
gable from above its junction with the Tombigbee, by 
vessels drawing 6 feet, 60 m. to Claiborne; from Clai¬ 
borne to the mouth of the Cahawba, 150 m., it has from 
4 to 5 feet water; and from Cahawba to its head-branches 
It has about 3 feet, but it is subject to great alternations 
of depth according to the season and the rains. 


Alaba'nta Claims, (The.) (Am. Hist.) The name 
given to certain claims of American citizens against 
Great Britain. The claims in question have derived their 
name from having arisen, chiefly, though not exclusive¬ 
ly. from the depredations of the Confederate privateer 
‘‘Alabama,” built and equipped in England, and suf¬ 
fered, through the laxity of the British govt., to leave 
her shores for the express object of preying upon Ameri¬ 
can commerce during the Civil War— the sum-total of 
such claims involving several millions of dollars. For the 
peaceable adjustment of this question between the two 
governments, a Joint High Commission of an equal 
number of American and British Representatives met 
in Washington, 1871, which, after protracted delibera¬ 
tions extending over several months, concluded a treaty 
by which the question of the right of the United States 
to an indemnity, and the amount thereof, was to be de 
cided by the arbitration of commissioners in a conven¬ 
tion to he holden at Geneva, of representatives of all 
parties concerned. 

Alabama. in New Tori-, a township of Genesee coun¬ 
ty, on the Touuwanda creek, 263 miles west of the city 
of Albany. 

Al'abaster, tt. [Gr. alabastron.] (Min.) A delicate 
white soft kind of marble, used for ornamental purposes. 
There are two kinds of alabaster: 1. A Stalagmite, or 
carbonate of lime, so much valued on account of its 
translucency, and for its variety of colored streakings, 
red, yellow, gray, Ac. 2. A Gypsum, or hydrous sul¬ 
phate of lime. It is easy to ascertain of which of the 
two kinds a vessel is composed; for carbonate of lime is 
hard, and effervesces If it be touched by a strong acid; 
but sulphate of lime does not effervesce, and is so soft 
that it may he scratched with the nail. The term 
alabaster is now generally applied to the softer stone. 
This last, when pure, is a beautiful semi-transparent 
snow-white substance, easily worked into vases, lamps, 
and various other ornaments. Alabaster may be bronzed 
by coating it once or twice with size, and touching 
it witli a bronze powder, of which many different varie¬ 
ties are manufactured. By a judicious use of bronzing, 
very pleasing effects may bo produced in an alabaster 
statuette. Alabaster may be cleaned, by washing witli 
soap and warm water, and rinsing. It may be polished, 
by rubbing it with dried shave-grass, then with a paste 
of lime and water, and lastly with powdered talc. It 
may be hardened, by coating the surface with a mixture 
of plaster of Paris and gum-arabic; or by beating, cool¬ 
ing, steeping in water, drying, and polishing. It may 
be stained by the same materials and in the same way 
as marble. It may be cemented, when broken, by a 
mixture of quicklime and white of egg. And lastly, it 
may be etched, by covering it with an etching-ground 
composed of white wax, white lead, and oil of turpen¬ 
tine, and proceeding in the customary method of the 
etching process. The finest sort of A. is obtained from 
Valterra, in Tuscany. — See Alabastrum. 

Alabas'trian, a. Pertaining to, or like, alabaster. 

Alabas'triun, pi. Alabastra. [bat.] An alabaster 
vase for perfu mes; so called from an anc. Egyptian town 
of that name, where there appears to have been a manu¬ 
factory of small vessels or [lots, made of a stone found 
hi the mountains near the town. These vessels, ordinarily 
of a tapering shape, and often without handles, were eui- 



Pig. 67. — alabastra. 

(From the British Museum.) 

ployed for containing certain kinds of perfumes used by 
the ancients in their toilets, and with which it was the 
custom to anoint the heads of their guests, as a mark of 
distinction, at their feasts. There are in Horace many 
allusions to this custom. In like manner. Mary, the 
sister of Lazarus, poured upon the head of our Saviour, 
as he sat at supper, “very precious ointment” from an 
alabaster box. 

Al'abat, one of the lesser Philippines. E. of Luzon; lat. 
14 N.; Lon. 122° 13' E. 

Al'abes, n. (Zoot.) A gen. of fishes, ord. Malacop- 
terygii, fam. Apodes. It consists of a single species of 
small size, a native of the Indian ocean, resembling the 
common Conger-eel (Murmia). 

Al achua, in Florida, a N.VV. county, so named from 
a grassy and sandy plain in it. It is bounded on the N. 
by the Santa F6 river, and on the S. by Suwanee river, 
and contains some ponds and a part of the lake Orange. 
The surface is generally level and the soil fertile. Area 
about 1000 so. in.; cap. Gainesville. There is a marshy 


plain In this co., nearly 25 m. in breadth and 60 la otB 
cumference, known as A. Savannah, which is supposed 
to discharge its waters by an uuderg OBitd passage Into 
lake Orange. 

Alack', iiderj. [A corruption of alas ] Alas; an ex 
clamatidir expressing sorrow. 

Alack'aday, intetj. [For alas the dayI] Anexclama. 
tion noting sorrow and melancholy. 

Al'acoque, Marguerite Makie, a French nun, b. at 
Lauthecotir, diocese of Autun, 1617, D. 1690. It is said 
that she had the gift of miracles, prophecy, revelation, 
and direct intercourse with God and the angels. The 
festival of the Sacred Heart of Jesus owes to her its 
origin. 

Alacra'ne Islands, a cluster in the Gulf of Mexico, 
the proximity of which is generally avoided by naviga¬ 
tors. Lat. 22°23'1"N.; Lon. 89° 42'W. 

Alac'rify, v. a. [Lat. alacer, lively, and facere, to mate.] 
To rouse to action ; to excite; to inspirit. 

Alac'rious, a. [I.at. alacris.] Lively, (o.) 

Aiac'riotisly, adv. Cheerfully, (o.) 

Alac'rity, n. [Lat . alacritas.] Cheerfulness; quickness; 
readiness; compliance; willingness. Tlio idea of alacrity 
is compound, implying both physical and mental or 
moral activity, and is by usage almost entirely restricted 
to the ready performance of the wishes or commands of 
another. 

Alao'ta, a river of Guatemala, running S., and nearly 
on the 86th meridian, into the N. side of the lake of 
Nicaragua. 

AliMlatt'h, lofty mountain chain in Asiatic Turkey, 
between lat. 30° and 40° N. and Ion 30° and 44° K. On 
its N. side Eastern Euphrates takes its rise. 

Aladagh, a mountain range in Anatolia, N.W. of Angora 
It extends between the lschik Dagh on the N.E. and 
the Sangarius Valley, on the S and W. 

Alatlaii. a cluster of islands, in the Mergin' Archipelago, 
Bay ol Bengal. It is known also as the Aidin' Islands. 

AlaGiiiist. n. A free-thinker among the M-'hammed- 
ans. The name comes from Aladin, a learned divine un¬ 
der Mahomet II. 

Alie'a. (Myth ) A surname of Minerva in Peloponnesus 
Her festivals are also called Alsea. 

Alse'i, a number of islands in the Persian gulf, abound¬ 
ing ill tortoises. 

A la Francaise. [Fr.] After the French manner or 
fashion. ’ 

Al'ayliey, a mountain range and volcano of Armenia, 
iu the plain of Araxes. Loftiest summits, 13,628 feet 
above the level of the sea. 

Ala'« ;oa, a district and town on the south shore of th« 
island St. .Michael, one of the Azores. Pop. of district, 
about 8.000. 

Alago'as, a province of Brazil, between 9°-10° S. Ion. 
and 36°-38° 30' W. lat. Area, 9,000 sq. m. Up tc 
1840, it formed a part of Pernambuco. It is a moun¬ 
tainous country, and weM-wooded over two-tliirds of its 
surface. Prod., tobacco, cotton, sugar, rice, maize, plan¬ 
tains, beans pine-apples, oranges, anil cocoannts. The 
Mamona-tree is cultivated for its oil, and llie timber-trees 
of A. are the best in Brazil. Other trees produce mas¬ 
tic, caoutchouc, copaiba, dragon’s-blood, and ipecacuanha. 
Pop. 360,000. 

Alagoas, former c. of the above province, of tlie western 
margin of the lake of Mamruaba. It. is situated in a fer¬ 
tile district, producing large quantities of sugar and 
tobacco. Lat. 9° 40' S.; Lon. 35° 50' W. 

A'lagon. a river in Spain, prov. Estremadnra. It de¬ 
scends from the Sierra d’Estrella, flows through the 
plains of Placeucia, ami joins the Tagus, above Alcantara 
after a course of 70 m. 

A la Greqne. [Fr.] (Arch.) A term applied to one 
of the varieties of the ornament called the fret, used in 
cornices, floors, and other works. 

A'lain, John, a Danish author, who wrote On the Origin 
of the Cimbri, and other subjects. B. 1569; ». 1630. 

Alain Clliarti'er, a French writer, who produced sev¬ 
eral pieces, the most esteemed of which is his Chronicle 
of Charles VII., to whom he was secretary. Flourished 
at the beginning of the 14tli century. 

A'lsiin <le 1‘Isle'. suruamed the universal doctor; a 
divine of great reputation in the university of Paris. D. 
abt. 1202. His works were printed in 1658, folio. 

Alain, the anc. Alesia, a town of France, cap', of arrond., 
department of the Gard, on the Garden, at the foot of 
the Cevennes, 25 m. N.W. of Nltnea. Lat. 47° 7' 22" N.; 
Lon. 3° 4' 25" E. — Manuf. Ribbons, silk stockings, and 
gloves. There are mines of iron and coal in the vicinity. 
During the religious wars of France, the inhabitants 
were distinguished by their attachment to the Protestant 
party. Pop. 19,676. 

Alajiic'la, a town of Costa Rica, Central America, situ¬ 
ate to the S. of Castago. Pop. with environs, 8,000. 

Alakaiian'tla, a river ol Hindostan, considered sacred 
by the Hindoos. It rises iu the Himalaya mountains, 
flows through the province of Gurwal, and at Devupra- 
yuga unites with the Bhagirathi, when it receives thr 
name of the Gauges. 

Ala'la. (Myth.) The goddess of war. s : ster to Mars. 

Alti 1 ia. (Anc. Geog.) A town of Corsica, built by s 
colony of Phoceans L. C. Scipio destroyed it in the first 
Punic war, B. c. 562. 

Al'alite, n. (Min.) A variety of Pyroxene, q. v. It 
occurs in broad, right-angled prisms, of a clear green. 

A1 alliance, in N. Carolina, a northern county, so 
named lrom the creek Alamance, which unites there with 
the river Haw. It was formed in 1848 with a part of 
Orange co. Area, abt. 500 sq. m. Surface undulating- 
soil fertile. Cap. Graham. Pop. (18901.14,613. It is 
crossed by the Central railroad. 

Alama'nia, n. (Rot.) A genus of plants, ord. Orchulacea 



















ALABAMA. 

Land suiface. 

Sq in 61.540 
Water surface. 

Sq. in. 710 
Pod. 10(10. 1,828.097 
White. .1.001.152 
African.. 827,307 

Indian.177 

Chines^.58 

Japanese.. 3 
Native-born. 

1,814.105 

Foreign-born. 

14.592 

Males.916,704 

Females h 11,903 


COUNTIES. 


Autauga. 

F, 6 

Baldwin . 

C 9 

Barbour. 

11 7 

Bibb. 

1) 5 

Blount. 

E 2 

Bullock. 

• G 6 

Butler. 

■ E 7 

Calhoun. .. 

G 3 

Chambers ... 

H 5 

Cherokee ... 

G 2 

Chilton. 

. K 5 

Choctaw. 

B 7 

Clarke. 

C 7 

Clay. 

Ai 4 

Cleburne. 

H 3 

Coffee. . 

G 8 

Colbert. 

C 1 

Conecuh . 

E 8 

Coosa . 

F 5 

Covington. .. 

F 8 

Crenshaw.... 

1' 7 

Cullman. 

• E 2 

Dale. 

.G 8 

Dallas . 

.1) 6 

Dekalb . 

G 2 

Elmore. 

1' 5 

Escambia. 

D 8 

Etowah. 

F 2 

Fayette. 

C 3 

Franklin. 

(' 2 

Geneva--- 

G 8 

Greene. 

C 5 

Hale. 

.115 

Ilenrv. 

H 8 

Houston. 

H 8 

Jackson. 

F 1 

Jefferson.. .. 

.K 3 

Lamar. 

B 3 

Lauderdale.. 

..C 1 

Lawrence ... 

.D 1 

Lee. 

H 5 

Limestone.... 

E 1 

Lowndes. 

.E 6 

Macon. 

G 6 

Madison. 

E 1 

Marengo. 

C 6 

Marion. 


Marshall. 

F 2 

Mobile. 

B 9 

Monroe. 

D 7 

Montgomery 

..F 6 

Morgan. 


Perrv. 


Pickens. 

..B 4 

Pike. 


Randolph.... 


Russell.. 


St. Clair. 


Shelby. 

..E 4 

Sumter . 

..B 5 

Talladega... 

..E 4 

Tallapoosa... 

• G 5 

Tuscaloosa . 

..C 4 

Walker. 

D 3 

Washington 

. B 8 

Wilcox. 

..D 7 

Winston .... 

..D 2 


ilTIES-TOWNS 


Pop. Thonsandt. 

38 Mobile. 


38 Birmingham^ 

30 Montgomery 

9 Anniston.. • 

G : 

8 Selma. 

1> 1 

8 Huntsville. 

.E 

6 Florence ... 

.0 : 

6 Bessemer . 

E < 

5 Tuscaloosa 

• D 

6 Talladega... 

.F 

4 Eufaula.... 

H 

4 New DecaturE : 

4 Seale. 

H 1 

4 Gadsden.. . 

G 

4 Opelika.... 


4 Tallassee... 

. G 1 

4 Phcenix- . 

.H 1 

4 Troy . 

G 

3 Girard 

. H 

3 Blocton .... 


3 Pratt City. 

• E 

3 Whistler .. 

B 

3 Sheffield... 

..C 


a M mtevallo. E 4 

3 Dothan.H 8 

3 Greenville . E 1 
3 Decatur ...El 
3 Avondale E 3 
2 Wedowee . H 4 

2 Lanelt _H 5 

2 Grove Hill . C 7 
2 Woodlawn . E 3 
2 Union Springs 
G 6 

2 Linden.C 6 

2 Demopolis . C 6 
2 Biookwood D 4 
2 Albertville . F 2 
2 Greensboro C 5 
2 Tuscurnbia. C 1 
2 Haynerville E 6 
2 A.aoama City 

F 2 

2 Autaugaville 

E 6 

2 Tuskegee... G 6 

2 Ensley.E 3 

2 Cordova.D 3 

1 Prattville ...E 6 
1 Piedmont.. G 3 

1 Attalla.F 2 

1 Marion.D 5 

1 Jasper .. D 3 
1 Lafayette ..Ha 
1 RusselviUe. C 2 
1 Ozark ... G 8 
1 Rockford ..F 5 
1 St. Stephens B 7 
1 Auburn .... H 5 

1 Brewton_D 8 

1 Oxford .. G 3 
1 Evergreen. E 8 
1 Bridgeport. G 1 
1 Cullman ....E 2 

1 Oxanna-G 3 

1 JaeksonvilleG 3 
1 Roanoke... H 4 
1 Double 

SpringsD 2 
1 Dadeville. - G 5 
1 Columbia . H 8 
1 Wilsonville E 4 

1 Shelby.E -1 

1 Fort DepositE 7 
1 Columbiana E 4 
1 Alexandria G 5 
1 Uniuntown .D 6 
1 Jackson ... C 7 
1 Fort Payne .(3 1 
1 Geneva .... G 8 

1 Warrior.E 3 

1 Scottsboro. .F 2 

1 Athens.E 1 

Pop, Hundreds. 

9 Clayton ... H 7 

9 Milton.E 6 

8 Abbeville. • • H 8 

8 Eutaw. C 5 

8 Sylacauga . F 4 
8 Livingston B 5 

8 Gurley.F 1 

8 Carbon.D 3 

8 McFall.F 3 

8 Gainesville . B 5 

7 Calera .E 4 

7 Atkins .C 3 

7 Trussville... E 3 
7 Ironaton... .G 4 

7 Luverne.F 7 

7 Goodwater.F 4 
6 Citronelle .B 8 
6 Thomasville.C 7 
6 Camp Hill. .G 5 

6 Hartsell.E 2 

6 Brookside...E 3 

6 Elba.F 7 

6 Pineapple..-D 7 
6 Guntersville F 2 
6 Clanton. ... E 5 
6 Enterprise. .G 7 
6 Headland . H 8 

5 Oneonta.E 3 

5 Georgiana .. E 7 
5 Newbern....C 5 
5 Cardiff.... E3 

5 Wetumka...F 5 

6 Stevenson.. .G 1 
5 Andalusia. - ■ E 8 
5 Brundidge. G 7 

5 York.B 6 

5 Irondale —E 3 
5 Collinsville..G 2 
5 Coal City.. ..F 3 
5 Leighton....C 1 

5 Oakman_D 3 

4 Springville..F 3 
. Courtland. ..D 1 

4 Camden.D 7 

4 VVhiteoak 

Springs H 7 

4 Heflin.G 3 

4 Newton.G 8 

4 Fayette.C 3 

4 Ed'wardsville 

G 3 

4 Fitzpatrick..G 6 

4 Midway.G 6 

4 Dayton.C 6 

4 Northport...C 4 
4 Ashland .. -A * 


4 Centerville ..D 5 
4 Monroeville.D 7 
4 Rock Mills. .H 4 
4 Louisville.. .G 7 
4 Madison. ...El 
3 Seale.... H 6 
3 Horseereek.D 3 

3 Cuba.B 6 

3 Hartford—G 8 
3 Fruithurst.. H 3 
3 ChildersburgF4 

3 Ashville.F 3 

3 Millport.B 3 

3 Gordon.H 8 

3 Rutledge... F 7 
3 Falkville.. ..E 2 
3 Paintrock...F 1 
3 Brantley.F 7 

1 Nlr-s-y.hi 

3 Faunsdale.. C 6 

3 Epes.B 5 

3 Jenifer.G 3 

3 Clio.H 7 

3 Winfield ....C 3 
3 Ragland ... F 3 
3 Midland CityH 8 
3 Sulligent ...B 3 
3 Riverside....F 3 

2 Wyeth City..F 2 

2 Vernon.B 3 

2 Moulton _D 2 

2 Ashford.H 8 

2 Center.G 2 

2 Towncreek. D 1 
2 Carrollton . B 4 
2 Langston... F 1 

2 Pollard.D 8 

2 Gaylesville .G 2 
2 Cherokee ...Cl 
2 Hillsboro .. D 1 

2 Boaz ..F 2 

2 Walnutgrove 

2 Guin.C 3 

2 Berry.C 3 

2 Jemison.E 5 

2 Pickensville.B 3 

2 Hollins.F 4 

2 Hamilton. ..C 2 

2 Flint.E 2 

2 Seddon.F 3 

2 Lineville.... G 4 
2 Newhope. ...FI 
2 Hardaway..G 6 

1 Reform.B 4 

1 Banks.G 7 

1 Trinity .... E 2 

1 Morris.. E 3 

1 Furman. ...E 7 

1 Renfroe.F 4 

1 Eden.F 3 

1 Bolling.E 7 

1 Elkmont....E 1 

I Repton.D 8 

1 Hollywood..G 1 
1 Castleberry. D 8 
1 Kennedy....B 3 
1 Haleysville .C 2 
1 Mooresville . E 1 
1 Thompson .G 6 
1 Hollypond. E 2 

1 Fulton.C 7 

1 Batesville ..H 6 
1 Muscadine..H 3 

1 Eunola.G 8 

1 Joppa.E 2 

1 Townly.D 3 

1 Pell City....F 3 
1 Vienna.B 4 























































































































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ALAN 


ALAR 


ALAS 


61 


4lnt*ia'n«*M, a statuary of Athene, and a disciple of 

Phidias. 

Alnmnn'ii i. See Alemanni. 

A lamas Real ds Los. a Mexican town in the depart¬ 
ment iif Sonora, 135 in. N. of Sinaloa. Pop. abt. 8.000. 

ilitilie’tla, in California, a county forming the E. 
ole-re ot San Francisco hay. Area, about 800 sq. m., 
in-irly equally divided between mountains, valleys, ami 
plains. The Contra Costa ami Monte Diablo ranges 
cross this county from N. to S. The valleys and plains 
are covered aith a rich loamy soil; 125,000 acres are 
under cultivation. County seat, Oakland; pop. in 
189s. 112,100. About 2 miles from the old mission of 
San Jose, near the banks of the A gun Caliente (hot 
water) creek, are the Alameda warm springs. The fine 
climate and pleasant surroundings of the place render 
it one of the most popular resorts in the neighborhood 
of San Francisco.— Alameda creek, which gives its name 
to the county, rises in the Monte Diablo range, and 
■empties, near Unionville, into San Francisco bay. 

Alameda, a city in the above county, near the San 
Leandro creek, 7 m. S of Oakland,on the edge of a fer¬ 
tile and well cultivated plain. Pop. (1897) est. 15,100. 

Alame'Ua, in New Mexico territory, a town of Berna¬ 
lillo couutv, on the Kio Grande, 6 miles north of Albu¬ 
querque. 

Alami re. n. [Formed of the names of notes a la mi re.j 
(Mas.) An Italian method to determine the key of A, 
by its dominant and subdominant, A E D. In the Gui- 
donian scale of music, a-la-mi-re is the octave above a-re, 
or A in the first space in the base. 

At amt), in California , a post-village of Contra Costa co., 
13 miles S E. of Martinez. 

Alamo. in Indiana, a post-village of Montgomery co., 
55 m. W. by N. of Indianapolis. 

At ilino, in Michigan , a post-township of Kalamazoo co., 
70 m. W.3.\V. of bansing. 

Alamo. in Texas See San Antonio. 

Alaniaile', aiiv. and a. [Fr. <i la mode.] After the 
fashion. 

(Cooking.) Alamode beef, a piece of beef, larded and 
cooked on a slow fire with carrots, onions, and white wine. 

— n. A thin, black silk, for hoods, &c. 

Alamort', a. See Amort. 

Al amos. (Xos.) a town of Mexico, prov. of Sonora, 
140 m. N W. of Sinaloa. The district is famous for its 
silver mines. Pop. about 6,000. 

Alaiuutcli'a, in Mississippi, a post-village of Lauder¬ 
dale co., '0 in. E. of Jackson 

At 'an, or Camel, a river of Cornwall, England, which 
rises a few miles north of Camel ford, and joining the 
Bristol channel near Bodmin, forms the estuary of the 
harbor of Padsto^ 

Aland', adv. [F<v-n -j and land.] At land; landed; on 
the dry ground. 

"He only, with the prince his cousin, were cast aland "— Sidney. 

A'laud, a group of islands lying between the coasts of 
Finland and Upland, in Sweden. Lat. 60° 15' N.; Lon. 
20° E. Of the group there are about 80 inhabited, 
although the pop. on the whole is not more than 15,000. 
They were ceded, in 1809, by Sweden to Russia, and have 
become the usual station of the Russian fleet in the 
Baltic.— The chief island, which gives its name to the 
group, is a place of considerable importance, its length 
being about 18 ill. from N. to S., and 14 from E. to W. 
Area, 28 square miles. It is mountainous, with a deeply 
indented coast-line with several excellent harbors, that 
of Yytternais being large enough to give shelter to the 
whole of the Russian fleet. The island has a vast citadel, 
with fortifications capable of protecti ng 60,000 men. Pop. 
15,000. In the neighborhood of Aland was fought, in 1714, 
between the Swedes and Peter I., who obtained a com¬ 
plete victory, the first great naval action reported in 
the annals of the Russian marine. — On Aug. 16, 1854, 
Bomarsund, on the W. side of the principal island, was 
captured and its fortifications destroyed by the British 
fleet. — Steamers plying between Abo, in Finland, and 
Stockholm, take in wood at these islands. 

A l’Anglaise. [Fr.] After the English manner or fash¬ 
ion. 

Ala«'sr***-<te{e, Alasqik*, Alanoiads, n.pl. (Bot.) An 
order of epigynous exogeti plants of the Myrtales alli¬ 
ance. including but 3 genera.— Diagnosis: 1-celled 
ovary, pendulous ovules, dotless leaves, albuminous 
seeds, and flat cotyledons. They are large trees or 
shrubs common in S. India. The species of the gen. 
Ngssa, q. v., are natives of the U. States. 

AlHii'minm- n. (Dot) A genus of plants, ord. Alangia- 
ceie, common in South India. The A. are said to have a 
purgative hydragogic property, and to afford good wood 
ami edible fruit. 

Ala’ni, or Alans. The name of several distinct tribes, 
which migrated from Asia at the time of the decline of 
the Roman empire, and settled in the countries north of 
tho Euxine and the Caspian seas. A part of the tribe 
(about 375 A. D.) was conquered by the Huns; another 
part turned their stops toward the west, probably,drove 
the Vandals and Suevi from their abodes, and passed with 
them over the Rhine into France and Spain (about 407) 
The Visigoths drove them from hence or reduced them 
to subjection; and, since 412, they are lost among the 
Vandals, q. v. 

Ala nia, n. (Bat.) A genus of plants, ord. LiHacece. 

Vla'niuo. n. (Chem.) A base, isomeric with Lactamide 
and Urethane. It crystallizes in groups of colorless 
prisms, soluble in 4 or 6 parts of cold water. Its aqueous 
solution has a very sweet taste, and is without action 
upon test-papers. Form. C 6 H 7 N0 4 . 

Alan'tllil* Grove, in Missouri, a post-office of Gentry 
co., about 200 miles N.W. of Jefferson City. 

A iau'tine, n. See Inuun. 


Alapalia', in Georgia, a river flowing into the Suwanee. 

— Also, a post-village of Lowndes co., 262 miles S. of Mil- 
ledgeville. 

A la I'olac'ea. (Mus.) See Polacca. 

Al'aqua, in Florida, a post-village of Walton co., about 
125 m. \V. by N. of Tallahassee, on a small river of the 
same name, which flows into Chootawatchee bay. 

A'lar, a. [Lat. alaris, from ala, wing.J Looking like,or 
having, wings. 

Ala'ra, a town in the Island of Majorca, 12 m from 
Palma. Near it there are quarries of excellent marble. 
Pop. 4,000. 

A'laraf. [Ar.] The name given by Mahometans to the 
wall which they say divides heaven and hell. 

Alarcon. Juan Ruiz de, a Spauisli dramatic writer, 
born in Mexico about 1590: died in Spain, 1639. 
Though an author of great merit ami well-deserved repu¬ 
tation, very little is known of his life. It is by the Ver- 
dad Sospechosa (suspicious truth) that he is best known 
to us. Corneille, who translated it into French under 
the title of Le Menteur, speaks of it in the highest terms. 
Moliere in one of his letters to Boileau, says thut he is 
greatly indebted to La Vtrdad Sbspechnsa. A. is un¬ 
doubtedly one of the best dramatic writers of the genu¬ 
ine Spanish school. 

Alar^o'uin. n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, ord. Aster- 

aceie or Composites. 

Al'ares, the name given by the Romans to a kind of 
militia; or, according to some, to the cavalry stationed 
at the two wings, or uUe, of the army. 

Alaric I., king of the Visigoths; the least barbarous 
of all the conquerors who ravaged the Roman empire, 
and the first of them who gained possession of imperial 
Rome. Under his guidance, the Visigoths, the division 
of the Gothic nation to which ho belonged, issued from 
Thrace, where they had been settled, and overran Greece, 
a. d. 396. Alaric took Athens, but he was soon com¬ 
pelled by Stilicho to evacuate that country, and to re¬ 
turn into Epirus. About the year 398, Alaric, on the 
ground of his high military character, was proclaimed 
king of the Visigoths; and just about the same time 
Arcadius, the successor of Theodosius in the Eastern 
empire, alarmed at his repeated successes, attempted to 
identify his interests with those of the Empire by de¬ 
claring him master-general of the eastern Illyrian pre¬ 
fecture. Thus lie commanded a large part of the vast 
country situated between the Danube, the Adriatic, and 
the Black sea. The Visigoths who obeyed his orders 
had few claims to the civil character and stability of a 
nation. They threatened both empires equally at the 
same time, and sold their alliance to each alternately. 
Alaric at last determined to make his way into the em¬ 
pire of the West, for the purpose of establishing a king¬ 
dom by conquest. — In 493 be appeared before Milan, 
which was immediately evacuated by the Emperor 
Honorius. Completely defeated at last by Stilicho, A. 
was compelled to retire from Italy with the remains of 
his once powerful army. He now submitted to the 
Emp. Ilonorius, entered into his service, and for three 
years seems to have served this prince in Epirus. For 
this he demanded an extravagant reward, plainly inti¬ 
mating that war would be the consequence of a refusal. 
The demand was made in the year 498. The majority 
in the senate were for war, but by Stiliclio's advice, it 
was determined to buy off the enemy by a contribution 
of $190,000 weight of gold. While the Visigoths were at 
the foot of the Alps, the cowardly and weak Ilonorius 
procured the assassination of Stilicho, the only man 
who could still have defended the empire. Those Visi¬ 
goths who were serving in the pay of the empire had 
left their wives and children in the Roman cities: they 
were all massacred at the same time. A. advanced 
with his army and invested Rome. An application for 
terms was made on the part of the Romans, with an in¬ 
timation that if once they took up arms they would fight 
desperately. A. returned this pithy answer: “The 
closer hay is pressed, the more easily it is cut.” He de¬ 
manded all the wealth of Rome. The ambassadors 
asked what he would leave to the inhabitants. “ Their 
lives.” He at length, however, consented to retire, on 
condition of receiving a heavy ransom. Negotiations 
took place between Ilonorius and A., in Ravenna, with 
a view of putting ail end to the war; but the parties 
could not agree, and A. besieged Rome a second time, in 
409. The imposing name of tho Eternal City seemed to 
inspire the barbarian with involuntary respect. He 
endeavored to save it from the consequences to which he 
was otherwise pledged, by erecting a new emperor in 
the person of Attains, prefect of the city; but the weak¬ 
ness of Attalus rendered it necessary for the Visigoth 
conqueror to undo the work of his own hands; and 
Honorius was reinstated on a powerless throne. A 
treacherous attack on the Goths at Ravenna, while the 
conferences were still open, exhausted the patience of A. 
The city was a third time besieged, and A. entered Rome 
at midnight on the 24th August, 410, when lie gave the 
town up to be pillaged for six days, but with orders to 
his soldiers to be sparing of blood, to respect the honor 
of the women, and not to burn buildings dedicated to 
religion. After the limited period of plunder and ven¬ 
geance, lie hastened to withdraw Us troops, and to lead 
them into the southern provinces of Italy. But he died 
in the course of a few months, after a very short illness, 
while besieging Cosenza in Calabria, a. d. 410. His 
death produced a temporary reconciliation between the 
Visigoths and the emperor. 

Alaric II., king of tho Visigoths, slain in the famous battle 
which he fought with Clovis, king of France, near 
Poitiers, in 507. He left behiud him a regularly drawn 
up system of legislation, which is known as the Bre- 
viarium Alaricianutn. 


At ar'ka, in IV. Carolina, a post-office of Macon co. 

Alarm', n. [Fr. alarme. from It. all’arme, a cry “ u 
aruis.”J A sodden surprise occasioning fear or terror ;- 
an outcry intimating the approach of danger; — a me 
chauical contrivance for rousing persons from sleep; • 
reveille. 

(Mil.) The apprehension of being attacked, or tb- 
notice given of a sudden attack, as by firing a ,'ifie, Ac. 
a war-cry, 

Alarm’, v. a. [Fr. alarmer .] To call to arms at the ap 
proach of a sudden danger. — To frighten with the ap 
prehension of any danger. 

Alarm'-I>ell, n. A bell which is rung for giving notice 
of auy danger, fire, Ac. 

Alarm -dock. n. A clock which has a particnLo 
ringing at a given hour. 

Alarm' Fork, in Missouri, a village of Oregon co., 15 
m. S. of Thomasville. 

Alarm'-guu, n. A gun fired to give notice of a suddei 
attack. 

Alarming;. p. a. [From alarm.] Terrifying; awaken 
ing; as, an alarming message. 

Alarmingly, adv. In an alarming manner. 

Alarm’!*!, n [Fr. alarmiste.) One who is easily 
alarmed at the first whisper of bad news, who industri¬ 
ously circulates it, and exaggerates its probable conse¬ 
quences. 

(Pdit.) One who fears any change of policy, or alter¬ 
ation of received forms. 

Alarm'-post, n. (Mil.) A place where a body of men 
are ordered to appear at the first alarm. 

Alarm'-watch, n. A watch made so as to call atten¬ 
tion at any given time by rapid strokes. 

Ala rum, v. a. and n. [Corrupted from alarm.] The 
same as alarm, but only in the sense of awakening at¬ 
tention in case of danger, (o.) 

Al ary, n. [From Lat. ala, a wing.] Of the nature of a 
wing. 

Alas', interj. [A. S. eala; Fr. helas.] An exclamation ex¬ 
pressing lamentation, pity, sorrow, or concern. 

“ Alas I how little from the grave we claim.” — Pope. 

Alas the day l Ah, unhappy day 1— Alas the while! Ah, 
unhappy time 1 (Obs.) 

At' Asliari, Abul Hassan Ali-Ebn-Ismael, b. a\ Basso- 
rah, a. d. 860, d. abt. 935. He was the founder of the 
sect of Asliarites, whose distinguishing doctrines were: 

I, that the attributes of God do not admit of a compari¬ 
son between the Creator and his creatures; 2, that a 
believer, who has committed a sin, and dies without re¬ 
pentance, does not necessarily go to hell, but may stil. 
be the object of divine clemency. 

A'la-Sliehr,(theanc. Philadelphia,)a town of Turkey 
in Asia, prov. Anatolia; the seat of one of the Apoca¬ 
lyptic churches. It is held so sacred, even by the Turks, 
that they occasionally convey their dead thither for in¬ 
terment, from Constantinople, and apply to it theepithet 
of Ala, or the exalted. (Ala-Shehr, the. exalted city.) Phila¬ 
delphia derived its name from Attalus Philadelphus. by 
whom it was founded in the 2d century B. c. It was the 
last city that submitted to the Turks in 1390.—It is situ¬ 
ated 83 m. E. of Smyrna, partly in tho plain, and partly 
on one of the roots of Tmolus. Above the town and at a 
considerable elevation, stand the ruins of the old Acrop¬ 
olis. Ala-Shehr is the seat of a Greek archbishop, and 
divine service is regularly performed in 5 Christiai* 
churches. — Pop. 15,000. 

Alas'ka. a territory of the United States, is the most 
northern part of the American continent. Itis bounded 
on the north by the Arctic Ocean, east by British 
Columbia and the Northwest Territories, south by the 
Pacific Ocean, and west by Behring’s Strait and the 
North Pacific. Its extreme east and west points are in 
Lon. 141° W. and Lon. 187° 34' \V.; extreme north and 
south points, Lat. 71° 27' N. and Lat. 51° 19' N. Its 
area is estimated at 577,000 sq. m. This vast region is 
naturally divided into Southeastern A. and Western 
A., the dividing line being the 141st meridian from Mt. 
St. Elias to the Arctic Ocean. Southwestern A. con¬ 
sists largely of islands lying near a narrow strip of 
mainland, both being deeply indented by numerous 
fiords. The most important islands are Prince of Wales, 
Baranof, Admiralty, Douglas, Chichagof. Kupreanof, 
and Kuin. From the southern part of Western A. pro¬ 
jects the Alaska peninsula, east of which lie the im¬ 
pel taut islands of Kadiak and Afonak. The Aleutian 
Islands stretch far out into the Pacific like a continu¬ 
ation of this peninsula. To the north ot the Aleutian 
islands lie the noted Pribyloff or Seal Islands. All of 
these islands are mountainous and show sig ns of volcanic 
action. The principal Aleutian islands are Unimak, 
Unalaska and Attu (most western point of United 
States). St. Lawrence, west of the entrance to Norton 
Sound, and St. Matthews, north of Pribyioff Islands, 
are also large Islands. The coast line of A., over 

II, 000 miles in extent, is broken by numerous inlets 
and the large bays of Prince William’s Sound, Cook’s 
Inlet, Bristol Bay, Kuskokwim Bay, Norton Sound and 
Bay, and Kotzebue Sound. The surface of the A. main¬ 
land consists of a narrow coast plain, bordered by 
mountains beyond which are great river valleys and 
vast plains. The northern half is low, with morasses 
along streams, running back into low roiling hills. Mt. 
Wrangel, the highest Alaskian peak, is estimated from 
19,000 to 20,500 ft.; Mt. Fairweather, 15,500 ft.; Mt. 
Crillon, 15,000 ft.; Mt. Peroitse, 14,300 ft. There are 
thirty or more volcanoes, six or eight now active, the 
chief among them being Mt. Shislialdin and Mt. 
Pogrumnoi on Unimak Island, Mt. Makushin on 
Unalaska Island, and Mt. Pavlof. Many great glaciers 
also diversify the iandscape. Muir glacier, (lowing into 
Glacier Bay, has a front three miles wide. The Yukon, 










62 


ALAS 


ALB 


ALBA 


the longest river of A., and one of the largest in the 
world, is 1,050 miles from the confluence of its two 
branches, the Lewis and the Pelly, to its mouth in 
Norton Sound; its mouth is sixty miles wide. Its chief 
tributary from the south is the Tatiaua, from the north 
the Koyukuk. (For description of this liver system 
see Yukon.) Other large rivers are the Stickeen, the 
Alsek, the Copper, the Sushitna, the Nttshagak and the 
Kuskokwin. The settlements are principally in two 
groups; one on the southwestern islands, the other on 
Kodiak Island and around Cook’s Inlet. Juneau, on 
the coast, 100 m. N. E. of Sitka, is the metropolis arid 
the outfitting station for miners, and has (1898) a popu¬ 
lation of some 2,500. Karluk, situated on Kodiak 
Island, has a population of nearly 2,000. Silka, the 
territorial capital, on Baranof Island, pop. (1898) 1,650; 
Kodiak, on Kodiak Island, was the capital of Russian 
America, pop. (1898 ) 500. Douglas, on Douglas Island, 
in a valuable mining district, pop. (1898) 500.— Climate. 
The coast of A. is washed by the warm Japanese cur¬ 
rent and has, in consequence,a milder climate than the 
same latitude on America’s east coast. The average 
temperature at Sitka is 46°, and its harbor is never 
closed by ice. The rainfall, however, is excessive, beiug 
90 inches or more yearly, and heavy fogs prevail along 
the coast. In the interior the air is drier and colder, 
with great extremes of temperature, the heat in the 
slioit summer being intense.— Pioducts. Any of the 
agricultural products of northern Scotland may be 
raised in A. There are vast forests of valuable timber, 
spruce, hemlock, red and yellow cedar being most 
abundant. The Aleutian Islands are destitute of trees, 
but are covered with a luxuriant growth of grass. Of 
vegetables, potatoes are most cultivated, but radishes, 
lettuce, carrots, onions, cauliflower, peas, turnips, beets 
and celery give good crops. Cranberries, strawberries, 
raspberries and blueberries grow wild. Oats, barley and 
wheat have been raised on Stikeen river, but cereals do 
not mature on the coast. Hay will probably be the 
most valuable crop, and stock raising may yet prove 
profitable, the grassy plains being utilized for sheep 
and cattle, and the tundra region for grazing reindeer. 
The fisheries are very important. Nowhere else is 
salmon as abundant. In 1895 there were 36 canneries, 
some of them with an output of from 40,000 to 60,000 
cases of four dozen 1-lb. cans a year. Cod, halibut, 
herring, oolikon, or candle fish, clams, mussels, and 
crabs are plentiful.— Fauna. Both land and sea animals 
are numerous. The hair seal is found in great numbers 
and constitutes the chief food supply of the natives. 
There are also whales, walrus, sea-otters, beavers, bears, 
deer, mink, foxes, wolv< ines, &c. The fur seal in¬ 
dustry, which, until the recent gold finds, was the most 
important in A. has been greatly injured by the indis¬ 
criminate slaughter carried on by poachers. At the 
present rate of destruction the seal will soon be exter¬ 
minated. Various but ineffectual measures have been 
adopted to prevent this result. At the Baris Tribunal, 
1893, it was made illegal to use firearms or explosives 
in Bering Sea or to kill the seal within sixty miles of 
Pribyloff Islands, their breeding place. A close season 
for May, June, and July was also decreed. The recent 
legislation (January, 1898) against the importation of 
sealskius has received much unfavorable criticism. 
Minerals. Gold was discovered at an early date, and 
was mined near Sitka in 1873. There are rich quartz 
vein- on Douglas Island, and here the Alaskan Mill 
and Mining Company's works have been running night 
and day for years, with a rich and steady yield. The 
discovery of the Klondike placer fields led to a large 
immigration of miners (see Klondike and Yukon 
River), while the more recent find at Cape Nome yields 
largely, the total annual output of A. being About 
$20,000,000. A. has other valuable minerals; large 
coal beds, rich deposits of copper, also silver, iron, 
galena, petroleum, pure white statuary marble, and 
a quicksilver mine.— History. Vitus Bering, a Dane, 
in ihe employ of ih’e Russian government, discovered 
the strait between thetwo continents, 1728. It remained 
in Russian possession—a vast preserve for fur-bear¬ 
ing animals—until 1867, wnen it passed into the 
hands of the United States. The name A., (in the ab¬ 
original al-ak-skak, a great country) was suggested by 
Charles Sumner and adopted by Secretary Seward who 
was the active agent in the purchase ot the country for 
$7,200,000. From 1867 to 1884 A. had little regular 
government. The only officials stationed in the coun¬ 
try were custom officers who had authority to call on 
the military and naval forces for assistance when neces¬ 
sary In 1881 an effort was made to secure civil gov¬ 
ernment. A delegate was selected to represent A. in 
Congress, but he was not allowed to take his seat. In 
1884, the act called “The Organic Act of Alaska” be¬ 
came a law. This provided for the appointment of a 
governor, a district judge, clerk of the court, marshal, 
collector, and four United States commissioners, one of 
whom is to reside in each of the principal towns of the 
territory, the other officers to reside at Sitka, which was 
made the capital. All officers to be appointed by the 
President. The districts into which A. is divided with 
their populations, from the census of 1890, are as follows; 


District 1, or Southeastern,. 8,038 

District 2, or Kadiak. 6,112 

District 3, or Unalaska. 2,361 

District 4, or Nushagak. 2,726 

District 5, or Kuskokwim. 5,424 

District C, or Yukon. 3,912 

District 7, or Arctic. 3,222 


Total, 31.795 


of these 23,274 were Indians. In 1900 the population 
had just doubled, being 03 692. 

The natives are divided into many subtribes, as Hoo- 
mahs. Tongas, Sitkas, Chinooks, Chilcats, Ac., and the 
subtribes again have been classified as belonging to 
three groups; 

I. —Innuit, or Eskimo race, along the margin of all 
A. from the British boundary on the Arctic to Norton 
Sound, the Lower Yukon, and Kuskoquin, Bristol Bay, 
the Alaska Peninsula, and Kodiak Island. 

II. The Indians proper, spread over the vast interior 
in the north, reaching down to the seaboard at Cook’s 
Inlet and the mouth of the Copper river, and lining the 
coast from Mount St. Elias southward to the boundary, 
and peopling the Alexander Archipelago. 

III. —The Aleutian race, extending from the Shuma- 
g'n islands westward to Attu. 

Amsnmdon, n. {ZoSi.) A name of some bivalve mol- 
1 usca. as the fresh-water Pea rl Mussel, My a margarilifera. 

AS iis'sio, a seaport of N. Italy, prnv. Genoa, 5 in. S. of 
Albenga. Fine coral is fished on the coast. Pop. 4,644, 

A'latse, n. pi. (Zool.) A family of mollnsca, belonging 
to the second section of the ord. Trachelipoda, contain¬ 
ing the genera Rnstellaria , Pterocera, Strombus , Ac. 
The shells of this family are distinguished by the 
spreading of the outer lip. 

Altl'-Tajgli, a mountain-chain of Asiatic Turkey, divid¬ 
ing the two heads of the Euphrates as it runs westward 
from Mount Ararat Lat. between 39° and 40° N.; Ion. 
between 39° and 44° E. 

Alalamaha', or Altamaha, in Georgia , a river formed 
by the junction of the Oomnlgee and Ocmiee. both of 
which rise in the spurs of the Alleghany mountains. 
After the junction, the A. becomes a large river, flow¬ 
ing with a gentle current through forests and plains, 
120 miles, and runs into the Ft. Finion Sound by several 
mouths, 60 miles S.YV. of Savannah. Large steamboats 
ascend the Oconee branch to Milledgeville, and the 0c- 
mnlgee to Macon, about 300 miles from the oceau by 
the windings of the rivers. 

A'lstte, Alated, a. [Lat. alatus , from a/a, a wing.] 
(Hot.) Winged. Applied to stems and leaf-stalks, when 
the edges or angles are longitudinally expanded iuto 
leal-like borders; as in sEnopurdium acanthutm ; Lalhy- 
rus lati/ulius , Ac., and the leaf-stalk of the orange tribe, 
citrus, Ac. 

(Anat.) Having prominent shoulder-blades, like the 
wings of birds. 

A lat'ere. [ Lat., from the side.] Applied to the highest 
class of envoys from the Pope, who are sent, as it were, 
directly from his side. 

Alater'nus, n. [Lat. ala, a wing, term, three.] (Hot.) 
A name ol the gen. Rhamnus, ord. Rhamnucea ; q. v. 

Ala'tri, a town of Central Italy, prov. Frosinone, 6 m. 
N.E. of the town of Frosinone The country abounds 
in vines and olives. Pop. 11,370. 

Ala'lyr, a town of Russia in Europe, gov. of Simbirsk, 
at the confluence of the Alatyr with the Sura, 9u ui. 
N.N.W. of Simbirsk. Pop. about 15,000. 

Alau'da. n., or Alaudi'n.®, n.pl. [Lat., a lark.J (Zoo/.) 
The larks, a genus of granivorous singing-birds, ord. 
Jncessores, fam. Icteridse, of which there are many spe¬ 
cies, found in all parts of the globe. They are charac¬ 
terized by a long aud straight hind claw, a strong 



Fig. 69. — sky-lark (Alauda arvensis.) 


straight bill, and by being able to raise the feathers on 
the back part of the head into the form of a crest. The 
greater part of them are migratory; they always build 
their nests on the ground, and may be considered as 
peculiarly birds of the fields and meadows. 

Altiu sii, n. (Fool.) A genus of malacopterygious fishes, 
of t he Otupeidic or Herring family. The A merican Shad, 
which ascends the rivers of S. Carolina in winter and 
those of the Middle States in March, and the Saury of 
the Atlantic, are members of this genus. 

Ala'va, n. One of the three Basque provinces of Spain, 
included in the new province of Yascongadas, moun¬ 
tainous and rich in iron-mines. Lat. between 42° 20' 
and 43° N. 

Alb, Al'ba, or Al'iie. n. [From Lat. albus, white.] A 
vestment of white lineD, hanging down to the feet, worn 
by the Roman Catholic ecclesiastics, aud answering to 
the surplice of the Episcopal clergy. In the ancient 
church, it was worn for eight days’ by the newly bap¬ 
tized, who for this reason were called albati; aud the 
Sunday after Easter being taat on which the Catechu¬ 


mens usually received baptism, was called domuiioa (H 
albis, or Whitsunday. 

Alba, in Illinois , a township of Henry co. 

Al'ba, in Minnesota, a post-village of Fillmore co.. about 
20 m. W.S.W. of Preston. 

Al'ba. in Missouri , a post-village of Jasper co., about 11 
m. N.W. of Carthage. 

Al'ba, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Bradford oo, 
143 m. N. by E. of Harrisburg. 

Al'ba. Duke of. See Alva. 

Al'ba I,oug'a.( A nc.Geog.) A considerable city of Latium, 
founded by Ascanius, son of iEneus, B. c. 1152. It was 
the birthplace of Romulus, under whose dominion it 
tell, in consequence of the victory of the Romans ip tne 
contest between the Horatii and the Curiatii. It was 
situated on the opposite side of the lake Aibano where 
the new town of Aibano stands. — I here was also a city 
of Alba near the Lacus Fucinus; an A. Pnmpeia in 
Liguria; and an A. Julia, now Weissenburg, in Tran¬ 
sylvania. 

Al'ba, Sylvius, son of Latinus Sylvius succeeded his 
father in the kingdom of Latium, and reigned 36 years. 

Al ba «le Toriiies, a town of Spain, on the Torino*, 14 
*n. from Salamanca. Pop. 2,300. 

AlT>sie«*l«*. a town of Spain, cap. of prov. of A. area 
of prov. 5,972 Sq. M. Pop. 222,028. 

Al'baooro, or Ai.bioore, n. (Zool.) See Bonito. 

Al ban, (St..) the first Christian martyr in Great Brit« 
ain, lived in the 3d century. After having served seven 
years as a soldier under the Emperor Diocletian, he re¬ 
turned to Britaiu, embraced Christianity, and suffered 
martyrdom in the great persecution of Diocletian. Nu¬ 
merous miracles are attributed to this saint. 

Alban's. (St.,) a small and ancient borough ol England, 
Hertford co., 20 miles N.N.W. of Londoii. by the London 
and North Western railway. It Is the ancient Roman 
Verulamium. Fop. of parish, 3,679. The abbey church 
is the most imposing object in the place. It was built 
in 796, in honor of St. Alban, by the king Offa. OT this 
first abbey there remains but a gateway. The present 
abbey is an object worthy the attention of the antiqua¬ 
rian ami the student of architecture. It is built in the 
form of a cross, running 547 feet from east to west, and 
having a breadth of 206 feet, at the intersection of the 
transept, its tower has an elevation of 146 feet, crowned 
with battlements, and is one of the most perfect parts 
of the building. Every style of architecture, from the 
time of llie Romans to that of Henry VII., may be traced 
in it. Tin* abbot of St Alban’s wasmitred, and as a peer 
of the realm had a scat in Parliament He took prece¬ 
dence of ,1(11 other English abbots front the time of 
Pope Adrian IV., q. v. —Near the town of St Albau’s.two 
battles were fought between the bouses of York and 
Lancaster. In the first, May 22, 1456, Richard, Duke ot 
York.obtained a victory over Henry VI. In the second, 
Feb. 2, 1461, Margaret, of Anjou, defeated the army of 
the Yorkists, commanded by Warwick. 

Al'hsui'tt Hoad.(St..)acape of England, on the coast 
of the county ol Dorset, 441 feet above the level of the 
sea. Lat. 60° 4' N .: Lon. 2° 10' W. 

Allianex*. an Italian musician of high reputation. D 
at Paris, 18UO. 

A Ilia ui. a powerful family of Rome, which has supplied 
the Cal Indie church with several cardinals. Two of them 
are well-known as patrons of the fine arts. — 1. A., Al¬ 
essandro. b. 1692; d. 1779; lie was a great virtuoso, and 
possessed a collection of drawings ami engravings w hich, 
at his death, was purchased by George HI. for 14,000 
crowns.—2. A., Giovanni Francesco, nephew of the’for- 
mer, B. 1720, a great friend to the Jesuits, but in other 
respects liberal aud enlightened. His palace was plun¬ 
dered by tlie French in 1798, when be made his escape 
to Naples, stripped of all his possessions. D. 1803. 

Alba'ni, Francesco, a famous Italian painter, b. at 
Bologna, 1578, was a scholar of Guido. He was fond ol 
representing the lair sex. and bis compositions, in love 
subjects, are held in high esteem. 'Ilie most celebrated 
of his productions are: The Sleeping Venus; Diana in 
the Hath ; Vano'e reclining; Galalheu on the Sea ; Eurtpa 
on the Hull, lie lias been called the Anacreon of paint¬ 
ers. It is said that iiis second wile, who was verv beau 
titnl, and bis children, served as models for his Venuses 
am)Cupids. D. 1660.— iiis hrotherand disciple,Giovanni 
Battista, was a distinguished historical and landscape- 
painter. D. 1668. 

Allm'nia, a country of European Turkey, stretching 
along the coast ol the Adriatic ami Mediterranean seas, 
between 38° and 43° N. Lat. ami 10° 49' to 21° 50' e' 
Lon. Its urea is estimated at about 13,800 sq. tu. 
It is a country extremely mountainous, cut up into 
deep ravines, and presenting all the characteristics ol 
sublimity, in a scenic point of view. The mountains 
of the Kliimttra—the former Acroceruunian—running in 
a N.W. direction parallel to the coast, and the S. chain 
of the Tznmerka, attain an elevation of 4,000 feet above 
tlie level of the sea.—Atrers. Although there are many 
streams in A., they are neither so large nor important 
us to require particulai notice.— Lakes. The Okhridig 
the Scutari, the Butrinto, and the Joannia, which Iasi 
is estimated at 3 miles wide and 12 long . — Climate. 
Variable, but on the whole healthy. Spring cannot be 
said to commence before the middle of March; but the 
beat of the mouths of July and August is excessive 
September is the vintage season, and tlie December raiu* 
are succeeded by sharp frosts in January.— Wild Ani¬ 
mats. The wolf, the bear, and the jackal. Dom. Animate 
Horses, asses, sleep, oxen, and goats. The horses ate 
small, but active *ndspirited.— Prod. Barley, maize, oat-, 
cotton, and tobacco. In fruits, the grape, orange, lemon, 
fig, pomegranate, and mulberry are grown.— Man"/ 
Carpets.embroidered velvets, cloths, and stuffs. The v»*,’d 




















ALASKA 


Land and water 
surface, 

Sq. m. .590,884 
Pop. 1900... .03,592 

White.30,493 

African. 168 

Indian.29,536 

Chinese.. ..3,116 

Japanese.279 

Native-born, 

60,931 

Foreign-born, 

12,661 

Males.45,872 

Females...17,720 


CITIES-T0WN8 


Pop. Thousands. 

12 Nome.F 2 

3 Skagvvay... .0 4 

,1 Juneau .O 4 

1 Sitka.O 4 


Pop. Hundreds, 

8 Wrangell....Q 4 
8 St. Michael..G 3 
6 Point Hope..F I 
6 Koggiung.. H 4. 

4 Karluk.J 4 

4 Metlakatla. .P 5 
4 Ketchikan.. P 5 
4 Unalaska....F 5 
3 Ugashik ....H 4 

8 Kadiak.K 4 

3 Afognak.J 4 

2 Kenai.K 3 

2 Nulato.H 2 

,2 Dyea.P 1 

2 Yakutat.N 4 

2 Unalakleet..G 3 

2 Circle.L 2 

2 Rampart....K 2 

2 Igagik.H 4 

1 Tanana.J 2 

,1 Golovin.H 1 

1 Orca.L 3 

1 Loring.PS 

'1 Anvik.G 3 

1 Ft. \ukon...L 2 
jl Seldovia....K 4 


'1 Nuchek... 

1,3 

1 Klawock.. 

..0 5 

1 Sunrise ... 

K 3 

1 Tyonek... 


1 Snakan.... 

..04 

1 Peavy. 










































't,Bar row 152 


Longitude East Yi(p., 


<fy Q longitude West 


SOUTH EASTERN PART OF 

ALASKA 

(Enlarged) 

SCALE or MILES 


m Pt. O 
vpj Halhett C. 


^ Rom<* n y°2 


>Jarvls 


■ 


£r**a(^K«i: 


i'Ooldfoo't9^>-. ( ’M v P 

■ q££jJ?y w-UA/v' 

£ , 9 *d/ar J? 

mJtaj?™// NTT* to 

'T '^K P al1 City •£. 
p^^Ind ian^V i Lggj^ 

3& iA-ofc^F’ort ®’®“ ) 

y 

, R«pMs,Lp't Rampart ... y I 
■«J ( Manoolr ci(.j. )Jgh'a n a i 

JUXNO.OK REGION u-7/V 
5tpVoien •Bat'cr_ r C->y-“"' S -• 

SoUi£E^a^$3a®*&*. U,/ \ 

• ^ Atwop‘iy^«r’| i 'y 4 


* YUKOI 
yFLATS 




Po-r^ 

ftarence^* ) W* 

ti?h§k°i 


“Cabin 


,tl« ie A. 


%Hgstoi 

ss gPorn gA 


>t.ES*> 6rt 


■PraKF 

i: 

ISMKafc 


VTolagatux 

V<>t^ 


r ,rf v r ^ . a>“^> 

laa.qualtcin 


\Qs°^, aetet 


MinchuminaTij 


i**2E3tib 


"*o7 

-'.f SOT 


ilLXV* 
jx2 &%, u 

S tari tvihp^u 31 *^ -, 

^Cfalkeh.tom^ 




s erefslc ■ 


rf§Sg 


^ af ^Pmur'<T\ a 


NIkhkak, 


i.yL&gssgA'iCsS.Sr fe- 

A— „,, «h»»» 




CT7u^umen^~^- >A ( ^ ' 

bsesTS 


ffishg , | 

Mumtrahaai 

Togi a ? a ™i »*1 


igi varik 


iO^ QT IIom( 

.A'acftewJ 


<>A lictdleton I. 


o ^=cr) *•2/,., ;‘o 0 . 

£°ggj UD g. ;V A<f56. J&£«r 

Ik JASP™ 1 .-.rC 

rr r ~'hl\ah„r.-.' ^^fo- 


Tank! C. 

' c ° s *oity3‘h Man !?\ ’■ 

£§gr~>/fognak I (£ 
„ : oS^vS» od ! 3 ' !! t. r 
Qf^i -“-i 2 • 5 hi « 1 °* "■ 

' Ss4rSw/ 'C. Greuille 

ahI-S^i^ b. 

400 ? C. 8 ° rnabas 
y-)CSithhJ : dak /. 

'itkinak /, 


GULF 

Fishery tj\ Forest Res.) 


C.Con sta * 


r;ssyf.»t* 
yroll's 

• .^,I ■■ v 1 . ^ n 


S'" 1 KaTuV 


ALASKA 


VKr C -f r ot"'*noeV 

f/4'f^ptc 

k 0 S£M/D/ Tri 

—^-Chwviet r, _ 

1 d Chirikof I % 


SCALE OF MILES 


■ /} 'Qu//) i 


Railroads... 

Overland & Submarine 

Telegraph Lines ... . 1 

Sise of type indicates relative ^ 
importance of place3. 


ania /. 


0 

Entrcince 


L&npdpoint ano f f 

•« j 

, V^bKoninsK 
d f^O r Y lnie ^°f I. 
SHUMAGi7';y 


Longitude Last 


Longitude West 


■ c>yL- 


; -^ / - 
HEAR IS , 

Agaltlfj^ 


li art lot 1 . Q 


I WESTERN PORTION OF 
I ALEUTIAN ISLANDS | 
72 SAME SCALF AS MA IN MAP 176 


Amchilka I. 


Hammond’8 8x11 Map of Alaska. 
Copyright 1905, by C. 8. Hammond & Co., N. T. 


ANDRE 1 


ufi(7nat 7j 


Longitude West from Greenwich 





















































































































AJ^BA 


ALBA 


ALBE 


G3 


haracrwr of their country, ami the imperfect state of 
JD«ir civilization, however, render tlie Albanians foes to 
the arts of peace generally. Their trade principally con¬ 
sists of exchanging the natural productions of their own 
for the manufactured goods of other countries.— Inhabi¬ 
tants. The Albanians,or Arnauts, are supposed to have 
sprung from the Illyrians. They are an active, muscu¬ 
lar race, seldom exceeding fiveteet six inches in height, 
and capable of undergoing great fatigue. Their faces 
are long and ova!, their noses sharp, thin, and straight; 
their mouths small, their eyes a lively blue or hazel,but 
rarely a black. Their attachment to their mountains 
is great, and, as they all carry arms, it is difficult to 
distinguish the peasant from the soldier. They are 
mostly robbers, a profession among themselves not con¬ 
sidered disgraceful. Their women are tall aud strong; 
but as they are kept in great subjection, and viewed in 
the light of cattle, thoy are made to labor as much, and 
ate often unmercifully used.— Hist. A. was formerly an 
independent kingdom, governed by its own princes, the 
last of whom wtis the celebrated Georges Kastriote or 
Caatriot, better known by the name of Scanderbeg, who 
died in 1466 or 1467. A. was conquered by the Turks 
in 1467. By the treaty of Berlin (1878) several districts 
of A., measuring 661 sq. m., have been annexed to Mon¬ 
tenegro.— Itcl. The inhabitants are, generally, Chris¬ 
tians, of the Greek church, but many are Mohamme¬ 
dans. Pop. 1,300,000. 

Alba nian, n. A native of Albauia. 

— a. Belonging or relating to Albania. 

Alba'llO, a town of Italy, in the Campagna di Roma, 
14 m. S.S.E. of Rome. Pop. 6,0u0. It was built ou the 
site of the villa of Pompey. It stands at a short distance 
from the lake. 

Lake, of Albano, situated to the N.E. of the above 
town; it has the form of an irregular ellipse, and occu¬ 
pies probably the crater of an extinct volcano. Eels of 
immense size, and highly esteemed, are found in it. 
Ou the banks of the lake is Castel Gandolfo, the country 
residence of the Popes. The A. Lake is 7 m. in circum¬ 
ference; its surface is 918 feet above the level of the sea, 
and its depth about 1,006 feet. An emissary, designed 
to prevent the sudden overflowings of the lake which 
threatened the plain below, was constructed by the 
Romans B. c 397 ; and it remains unimpaired to this 
day,—a striking monument of the genius aud persever¬ 
ance of that extraordinary people. They bored the 
mountain for the space of more than a mile, mostly 
through the solid rock; the tunnel is six feet high and 
about four feet in breadth. It was completed in less 
than one year. The water of this emissary flows into 
the Tiber below Rome. 

Albano Mountain, or Alban Mount, to the E. of the 
above lake. It is about 3,176 feet in height. The 
view from its summit, extending over Latium, is one of 
the most magnificent that can be imagined. It is the 
Mons Albanus, now Monte Cavo. It was crowned by a 
temple in honor of Jupiter Latialis, where sacrifices 
annually were offered up by deputies from the various 
Latin States, to their common father and protector. 
Al'bany, Locisa, Countess op, daughter of Prince Stol- 
berg, of Gedern, in Germany, b. 1753,married in 1772, the 
adventurous Charles Edward Stuart, q. v. The countess 
being much younger, the match was ill assorted, aud she 
retired to a convent. Subsequently she went to Prance, 
but on the death of her husband, in 1788, she settled in 
Florence. Here slie secretly allied herself by marriage 
to Count Alfieri, the poet, taking the title of Countess of 
Albany, as the relict of the last of the Stuarts. Alfieri 
died in her house, and in 1810 sheorected to his memory, 
in the church of Santa Croce, a monument executed by 
Canova. She was possessed of a refined mind, loved lit¬ 
erature and the arts, aud while in Florence, her house 
was the resort of the most cultivated and distinguished 
persons. D. 1824. 

Al'bany, Albainn, or Albinn, a name anciently given 
to the Highlands of Scotland. See Albion. - The title 
of Duke of Albany was conferred, in 139% on the brother 
of King Robert III.; and subsequently on Alexander, 
second son of King James II.; on Henry, Lord Daruley; 
on Charles I. and James II., when infants; and on 
Frederick, second son of George III. Prince Charles 
Edward Stuart assumed the appellation of Count Albany 
as an incognito title. 

Al'bany, in Mho York, a N.E. county, bounded on the 
E. by the Hudson, and ou the N. by the Mohawk, but 
principally drained by the Normauskill and Catskill 
creeks. Area, about 483 square miles. The surface is 
level or slightly undulating along the rivers, but rough 
and mountainous in the W. and N. The soil, fertile 
along the Hudson, is generally sandy in the interior. 
Organized in 1683; Cap., Albany; Pop.(1890), 164,155. 
Albany, the cap. of the above county, on the W. bank 
of the Hudson river, at the head of sloop navigation, 
and near the head of tide-water. Lat. 42° 39' 49" N.; 
Ion. 73° 44' 33" W ; 141 miles N. of New York, 164 W. 
of Boston, 370 N.E. of Washington, and 230 S. of Mon¬ 
treal. A. is the legislative capital of New York, and 
in population, wealth, and commerce, the fourth city in 
that Slate The old parts of the town were not laid out 
with much regularity, but the recent streets are spa¬ 
cious and regular. Among the public buildings are 
the new State capitol (see Pig. 1946), which, if not the 
finest, is certainly among the most costly structures 
of its kind in the world; the old State hall, a fine 
structure of white marble, the new post-office, the 
city buildings, &c. Albany is celebrated among the 
American cities for its educational and literary in-, 
stitutions. The principal are: the University, an in¬ 
stitution of a high character, embracing all depart¬ 
ments of science, and connected with the splendid Dud¬ 


ley Observatory; the Institute for the Collection and 
Diffusing of Scientific Information; the State Normal 
School ; the Young Men s Association, etc. Besides 
the valuable libraries pertaining to these institutions. 



Fig. 70. — DUDLEY OBSERVATORY, 
there is the State Library, connected with the Capitol, 
and numbering 100,000 volumes.—About twenty daily 
or weekly papers are published in A. —There are 80 
churches, the most imposing and prominent being the 
Catholic aud Protestant Episcopal Cathedrals, each situ¬ 
ated on a commanding eminence.— Commerce. A. is fa¬ 
vorably situated as a commercial town. It is connected 
by railroad with the principal places iu the Union, and 
an immense amount of freight arriving by the Erie and 
Champlain canals, her* enters the Hudson river. The 
principal articles of commerce are grain, cattle, and 
lumber, enormous quantities of which pass through the 
city annually. Besides its transit trade, A. has numer¬ 
ous and extensive iron-foundries, 2 large blast-furnaces, 
several large boot-and-shoe factories, 15 breweries and 
as many malt-houses, and large manufactories of pianos, 
card-board, metallic wares, glazed and colored papers, Ac. 
— Hotels. There are a number of popular hotels, several 
of which are classed with the best of the country.—The 
Indian name of A. was Scho-negh-to-da, signifying “over 
the plains.” In 1613, the first European vessel—the 
Half Moon, Capt. Hendrick Hudson—ascended the Hud¬ 
son as far as A. In 1614 the first settlement was made 
by the Dutch, who established on Boyd’s Island a trad¬ 
ing-post and fort, which was successively named Fort 
Orange, Beaverwyck, Williamstadt, and the Fuyck. In 
1664 it came into the possession of the English, who 
gave it its present name, after James II., at that time 
Duke of York and Albany. In 1686, A. was organized 
under a charter as a city. In 1797, A. became the capi¬ 
tal of the State; but the introduction of steamboats on 
the Hudson, and the completion of the Erie Canal, have 
been the true sources of its prosperity. Albany is 
the seat of a Catholic and of a Protestant Episcopal 
bishop, it is governed by a mayor and nineteen aider- 
men, and is divided into 17 wards. Population in 
18110. 5,289; in 1850„ 50,703; in 1870, 69,422; in 1890, 
94,923; and in 1900, 94,151. 

Al bany, in Georgia, a town or Dougherty county, on 
Flint River, and at the mouth of Kinchafoonee Creek, 
120 miles S.W. of Milledgeville. Steamboats ascend the 
river from the Gulf of Mexico to this place. There are 
shipped annually from this place about 12,000 bales of 
cotton. 

Al'bany, in Illinois, a township of Whitesides co., on 
the Mississippi river, 178 miles north by west of Spring- 
field. 

Al'oaiyy, in Indiana, a post-village of Delaware co., 
about 10 miles N.E. of Muncie. 

Al'bany, in Iowa, a post-village of Davis co., about 
16 miles S.W. of Ottumwa. — Also, a village of Fayette 
co., on the Volga river, about 9 miles S. by E. of West 
Union. 

Al'bany, in Kansas, a post-village of Nemaha co., 76 m. 
N.W. of Leavenworth. 

Al'bany, in Kentucky, a. township, cap. of Clinton co., 
126 m. S. of Frankfort. 

Al'bany, in Louisiana, a village of Caddo parish. 
Al'bany, in Maine, a post-township of Oxford co., 25 
miles W. by N. of Paris. 

Al'bany, in Missouri, a town, capital of Gentry co., on 
the W. fork of Grand river, 45 miles N. E. of St. Joseph. 
Al'bany, in Mew Hampshire, a post-township of Carroll 
co., 60 mdes N. by E. of Concord. 

Al'bany, in Ohio, a village of Athens co., about 44 
miles E. by S. of Chillicothe.—A post-village of Tus¬ 
carawas co. 

Al'bany, in Oregon, a city, and the capital of Linn co., 
at the junction of the rivers Willamette and Callapooya, 
about 25 miles S. of Salem. 

Al'bauy, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of Berks co. 

—Also, a township of Bradford co. 

Al'bany, in Tennessee, a post-village of Greene co., 106 
miles W. of Nashville. 

Al'bany, in Vermont, a post-township ot Orleans co., 6 
m. S. ot Irasburg. 

Al'bany, in Wisconsin, a post-village and township of 
Greene county, on Sugar river, 16 miles from Monroe. 
—A township of Marquette couuty.—A township of 
Pepin co. 

Al'bany, a district situated at the eastern extremity of 
the English colony of the Cape of Good Hope, in South 
Africa; bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Great F'isb 


river; on the S. by Alexandria and Bathurst; on the E. 
by Bathurst aud Peddie; on the W. by Alexandria. 
Area, 1,792 sq. m. Lat. between 33°-35° N., Lon. 27° E. 

Al'bany, iu the Northwest Territory, a river connected 
through other lakes witli Lake Winnipeg. It flows 
E.N.E., and enters James’s Bay, near F’ort Albany. Its 
length embraces about 8° of Long.—Also, the former 
name of a district, with a fort of the same name. 

Al'bany, a seaport and town of W Australia, on King 
George Sound. Lat. 35° 3' S.; Lon. 117° 62' 40" E. It 
is the cap. of Plantagenet co. 

Al'bany, the name of six islands on the N.E. coast of 
Australia. Only one is of considerable size, and has <t 
good harbor for large vessels. 

Al'barinin, n. [Lat.] According to Pliny and Vitru¬ 
vius, a white stucco, or plaster, madeof apure kind of 
lime, burned from marble, and used to spread over the 
roofs of bouses. 

Alba'ta, n. [From l,at. albare, to make white.] The name 
given in England to German silver. 

Allot ' 0 ” iii, an Arabian astronomer, who flourished in 
the 10th century iu Mesopotamia, lie was the first who 
substituted sines for chords, aud who may be said to have 
determined the length of the tropical year. He wrotea 
book on the knowledge of stars and the obliquity of the 
zodiac, printed at Nuremberg, 1537. 

Al'liatross, n.; pi. Albatrosses. (Pool.) A gen.of birds, 
fam. Procellaridas. The species are the largest of all 
aquatic birds, the wings, when extended, measuring 
sometimes 15 feet, and the weight often exceeding 20 
pounds. Its plumage is white, with some black bands on 
t*he wings and back. It lias a strong, hard, long beak, of a 
pale-yellow color; the feet, flesh-colored, are short aod 
webbed, and the wings are long, 6trong, and narrow. It 
preys on the wing, and is very voracious. They are con¬ 
tinually met with in the Southern ocean, and are also seen 



Fig. 71. — WANDERING ALBATROSS. 

(Diomedea exulans.) 

in immense flocks about Behring’s Straits in the early 
part of summer, attracted thither by the vast shoals of 
fish, whose migrations they follow. Its powers of flight 
are prodigious. One of its eggs weighs about one pound. 
When sailors accidentally tall overboard in lat. where tire 
A. abounds, they find it a most formidable enemy, even 
should only a few minutes elapse before they can ba 
rescued by their comrades. 

Al'baville, in Mebraska, a village of Hall co. 

Albe'lt, adv. [A coalition of ihe words all be it to.) 
Although; notwithstanding; though it should be 
•* of oue. whose eyes. 

Albeit unused to the melting mood, 

Drop tears, as fast as the Arabian trees 
Their mediclDa) gum.” — Shak. 

Albemarle', Duke op. See Monk. 

Albemarle . in North Carolina, a township, cap. ol 
Stanley co., 120 in. IV S.W. of Raleigh, 

Al'beiiiarle, in Mississippi, a village of Carroll co. 

Albemarle', in Virginia, a very picturesque and 
fertile county, situated iu the E. central part of th* 
State. Area, about 700 square miles. — Mount. The 
Southwest Mountain ridge, called also Carter’s Moun¬ 
tains. crosses the county in the N.E. and S.W. direction. 
The Blue Ridge forms its N.W. boundary.— liivers. The 
Rivanna, Hardware, and James.— Prod., principally to¬ 
bacco and corn. Cap. Charlottesville. Pop. (18901.32,373, 
This county is Intersected by the Central Railroad of 
Virginia. It gave birth to Thomas Jefferson, 3d Presi¬ 
dent of the United States. 

Albemarle Sound, on the coast of North Carolina, 
in the N.E. part of the State, being 60 m. long from E. 
to W., and from 4 to 25 wide. It communicatee with 
Pamlico Sound and the ocean by several narrow inlets, 
and with Chesapeake Bay by a canal cut through the 
Dismal Swamp. 

Albeu'^a, a seaport town of Northern Italy, prov. Ge¬ 
noa, 44 m. S.W. of Genoa, on the Ceuta; pop. 4,189. II 
is the anc. A Ibium Ingaunum. 

A lberga'ti I’aimeel'li, Marquis Francesco, an 
Italian senator who was not only a powerful dramatist, 
but such au excellent performer, as to merit the title ol 
the Garrick of the Italian nobility. His works have 
been pronounced unrivalled for wit, humor, facetious 
sallies, and knowledge of the world. B. at Bologna, 
1730; D. 1802. 

Al'beric, a French historian, who lived in the 13tb 
century. He wrote the story of the first crusades, from 
the year 1095 to 1120. 

Albero'ui, Gulio, cardinal, and miuister of the king of 
Spain, was the son of a gardener. B. in 1664, at Firett 
zuola, a village of Pa’rma. and educated for the Church, 
his first office was that of bell-ringer in the cathedral of 
Piacenza. Possessed of uncommon talents, he soon 
became canon, chaplain, and f-ivorite of the Count Rod- 
covieri, and bishop of St. Donnin. The Duke of Paxma 
sent him as his minister f.o Madrid. wLere he gained 






































64 


ALBE 


ALBI 


ALB1 


tne fa vot of the Princess of Ursins, the favoriteof Philip 
T. By cunning and intrigue, lie rose to the station of 
privy councillor, then was created prime minister, and 
Anally had a cardinalship conferred ou him. Having 
thus obtained the highest honors, he engaged himself 
with schemes for the benefit of the Spanish nation : hut 
being undermined by foreign influence, lie was deprived 
of his posts and banished to Rome. D. at Placentia, 
175-2. 

AH'berl I., Duke of Austria, and afterward Emperor of 
Germany, was son of Rudolph of Ilapsburg, who founded 
the Austrian imperial dynasty. lie was crowned in 1298, 
after defeating and slaying his competitor, Adolphus of 
Nassau, and was assassinated in 1308 by his nephew 
John, son of the Duke of Suabia, whose paternal estates 
he had seized. Agnes, Albert’s daughter and Queen of 
Hungary, carried her vengeance for her father’s death 
to a most dreadful extent. Nearly one hundred noble 
families, and one thousand persons not noble, of every 
age and sex, were involved in this inhuman proscrip¬ 
tion. After this butchery, Agnes built a monastery on 
the spot where Albert had been murdered, which was 
called KbnigsfeUien, and here she shut herself up for the 
rest of her days. 

Al'bert II., King of Hungary and Bohemia, and Duke 
of Austria, succeeded Sigismund as Emperor of Ger¬ 
many in 1438. He held a great diet at Nuremberg, in 
which the Vehmic or secret courts were suppressed. 
He died the following year, as he was preparing to take 
the field against the Turks, who were ravaging Hungary. 

A I'bert. Archduke of Austria, son of the Emperor 
Maximilian II.. was made a Cardinal and Archbishop 
of Toledo. He was appointed by Philip II., in 
1596, governor of the bow Countries, and succeeded 
the Duke of Parma in the difficult task of carry¬ 
ing on the war against the Dutch, who had revolted 
from Spain. He resigned the cardinalship and married 
Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of Philip II., who brought 
him Flanders and Krancho Comt6 as her dowry. In 
July, 1600. he fought the battle of Nieuport against the 
Dutch under Maurice of Nassau. This engagement, in 
which Albert was defeated, decided the independence of 
Holland. Albert next besieged Ostend, which he took 
after a long and murderous siege, in which 100,000 men 
are said to have lost their lives on both sides. In 1609 
Albert concluded a truce with the Dutch for twelve 
years, before the expiration of which he died, in 1621. 
He left no children, and the dominion of Flanders re¬ 
verted to Spain. 

Albert, Prince of Mecklenburu, was called to the 
throne of Sweden 1364, by the nobility, who had deposed 
king Magnus. The Swedes being dissatisfied with A., 
who favored his German countrymen at their expense, 
offered the crown to Margaret, queen of Denmark and 
Norway. After several years of war, A. lost the deci¬ 
sive battle of Falkioping, 1388, and was made a prisoner. 
Peace, however, was not re-established in Sweden till 
1395, when A. consented to give up his claims to the 
crown. He then rotired to Mecklenburg, where he died. 
Margaret of Waldemar thus uuited the three northern 
kingdoms under one sceptre. 

Al bert, Margrave op Brandenburg, and first duke of 
Prussia, b. 1490. He was elected, in 1511, Grand Master 
of the Teutonic order, which held dominion over Prussia 
proper, that part of the present kingdom of Prussia 
which borders on the Baltic sea. He fought against 
Sigismund, king of Poland, for the defence of his order, 
which had been for ages at war with the Poles. Peace 
was made iu 1525. at Cracow, in which Albert managed 
to have the duchy of Prussia secured to himself and his 
descendants as a fief of the crown of Poland, thus laying 
aside the rights of the order. Albert, some time after, 
embraced the Protestant faith, and married a princess 
of Denmark. One of his descendants, Frederick William, 
elector of Brandenburg, threw off the allegiance of Po¬ 
land, and his son, Frederio I., changed the title of duke 
into that of King of Prussia in 1701. 

Al'bert, Margrave of Brandenburg, son of Casiinir, 
Margrave of Culenbach, B. 1522. He entered into the 
confederacy formed by Maurice, elector of Saxony, and 
other princes, against Charles V., and committed many 
excesses in that war, burning towns, and levying heavy 
contributions wherever he marched. Subsequently a 
league beaded by Maurice himself was formed against 
him, and, iu 1553, a great battle was fought at Siverhus, 
in which Maurice was slain and A. wounded, lie was 
afterwards put under the ban of the empire, and de¬ 
prived of his possessions. D. 1558. 

Al’bert, Chari.es d’, Duke de Luynes. See Luynes. 

Al bert Dii'rer. See Durer. 

Al'bert Edward, Prince of Wales, the eldest son of Vic¬ 
toria, queen of England, and of her consort Albert, prince 
of Saxe-Coburg Gotha, B. Nov. 9,1841. The principality 
ol Wales gives the hereditary title to the eldest sou of 
British sovereigns. 

Al'bert, Erasmus, a German divine, who wrote against 
the Franciscans a book entitled “ Koran of the Corde¬ 
liers,” printed in 1531, with a preface by Euther. D. 1551. 

Al'bert, K rantz, a German professor of Divinity, b. at 
Hamburg; D. 1517; author of a “ History of Saxony, and 
of the Vandals.” 

Al'bert, Prince of Saxe-Coburg Gotha, and consort of 
V’ictoria, queen of Great Britain; 2d son of Duke Ernest 
I., born at Rosenau, 1819. He married Queen Victoria, 
F)b 10, 1840, and by act of Parliament it was provided 
that he should assume the responsibility of regent 
should the queen die bofore the next lineal heir to the 
throne should have attained the age of eighteen. Besides 
assisting in many other noble undertakings, he took an 
active part in the great exhibition of 1861, and contri¬ 
buted not a little to its success. A men of refined taste 


his tendencies were entirely of a pacific character, and 
all his pursuits aimed at exalting and refining the senti¬ 
ments, whilst ameliorating the condition, of the people. 
D iu London, Dec. 14, 1861. 

Al'bert V’Yan za. a large lake of S. Central Africa, 
with its N. extremity in lat. 2° 45' N. Length, 150 m.or 
upwards; breadth,50 m.; height above sea-level, 272J ft. 
Tins laRo is one of the sources of the White Nile, and 
was discovered by Sir S. W. Baker, in 1864. 

Al'berti. Aristotile, an Italian mechanic, lived in the 
16th century. lie is said to have removed the entire 
tower of Maria del Tempio, at Bologna, to a distance of 
35 paces. 

Al'berti, Cherubino, an eminent historical painter and 
engraver of Italy. B 1552; d. 1625. 

Al'berti, John, a German lawyer, author of a Syriac 
grammar and other works. D. 1559. 

Al'berti, Leoni Battista, a distinguished mathemati¬ 
cian, but more celebrated as an architect, and hardly 
less as a philosopher, poet, painter, and sculptor. B. at 
Florence, about 1400. lie was employed by Pope 
Nicholas V., and was the architect of several excellent 
works in Florence. 

Albertiiierii, Mariot'to, one of the finest of the 
early Florentine painters. B. at Florence, 1475; n. at 
the early ago of 45, a victim of his dissipated habits. 
Ilis best work is in the Imperial Gallery of Florence, 
and is known as The Visitation of Elizabeth to tlie Virgin. 

Al'bertite, n. (Min.) A variety-of Asphaltum. It 
occurs in rocks of the sub-carboniferous age in Nova 
Scotia, and is regarded as an inspissated and oxygenated 
petroleum. It has a jet-black color. 

Al'bert I,ea, in Minnesota, a city and R R. center, capi¬ 
tal of Freeborn co., near a small lake of the same name, 
100 miles S. by W. of St. Paul. Pop. (1890), 3,305. 

Al'berton, in Marylaml, a post-office of Howard co. 

Al'bert'*. or Pennsylvania, a post-office of Luzerne co. 

Al'berisen . in Mississippi, a village of Tippah co., 16 
m. S. of Ripley. 

Al'bert soil’s, in North Carolina, a post-office of 
Duplin co„ about 80 miles S.E of Raleigh. 

Alber'tns IllagiiiiN, a learned Dominican. B. in 
Suabia, 1205. Pope Alexander III. invited him to 
Rome, and bestowed on him several dignities, which he 
afterwards abdicated, and returned to live at his con¬ 
vent at Cologne as a plain monk, lie there gave public 
lectures which were much frequented. Thomas Aquinas 
was among his disciples. A. died at Cologn >, in 1282, 
aged 77. His knowledge of nature aud science was so 
great that he was accounted a magician. He was the 
first to write an Encyclopedia of Knowledge, for which, 
with his other performances, he has been styled ‘‘the 
Great.” Others say that he was so called because his 
family-name was Grant, which, iti Dutch, means great; 
the admiration of an ignorant age having transformed 
into a laudatory epithet the surname, which had been 
Latinized in conformity to the then prevailing fashion. 
There are collections of supposed Secrets, w hich have 
erroneously been published under his name. His 
Works, iu 21 vols. folio, were printed at Lyons, iu 1615. 

Albescent, a. [Lat. albescens, from albus, white.] 
Becoming white or whitish; moderately white. 

Al'bi. SeeAusY. 

Al bia, in Ioiva, a town of Monroe co., situated in a 
fertile farming district, 60 miles S.E. of lies Moines. It 
is the cap. of the county. 

Al'bicore, n. [Fr.J (Zool.) A large species of fish of 
the mackerel family, common in the Mediterranean; 
the Bonito. or Horse-mackerel. 

Albitica'tiom, n. [Fr. from Lat. albus, white.] The 
act of malciug white, (o.) 

Albig-en'ses, n. pi. (Eccl. Hist.) The general name 
of several religions sects which appeared in the south 
of France, iu the 12tli century, and were the object of 
long and cruel persecutions and wars. The two principal 
branches of A. were the Cathari and the Vallenses, or 
Waldenses, who agreed in opposing the dominion of the 
Roman hierarchy, and endeavoring to restore the sim¬ 
plicity of primitive Christianity. They were denomi¬ 
nated A , from the district Albigeais, (territory of Alby, 
q. v.,) where the army of the Cross, called together by 
Pope Innocent III., attacked them ill 1209. This war, 
the first which the Roman Church waged against here¬ 
tics within her own dominions, was carried on with 
much cruelty by the legates Arnold and Milo, and by 
the military leader Simon de Montfort, who at last was 
killed at the siege of Toulouse, iu 1218. The war, never¬ 
theless, lasted till the year 1229, when the Count of 
Toulouse, Raymond VII., the principal sustainer of the 
A., pressed on ull sides, made peace with Louis VIII., 
king of France, who had been induced by Pope Hono- 
rius III. to take the field in person. Kef. Fauriel, 
Crnisade centre les Albigeais. (Par., 1838); Faber, Inquiry 
into the History and Theology of the Vallenses and 
Albigenses, (Lon., 1838.)—See Cathari, Waldenses. 

Al binism, and Albin'oiNiil. n. [From Lat. albus, 
white.] I he state or condition of an Albino. 

Albi'itos, n. pi. (Physiol.) A word by which the 
Portuguese denominated the white negroes whom they 
found on the coast of Africa. These negroes were also 
termed Leuccethiopes, white negroes. Both names are 
now used to designate individuals who exhibit charac¬ 
teristics similar to those observed in the white negroes, 
among whatever race or in whatever country the 
variety may arise. The skin of these singular beings 
is of a pearly whiteness, without any mixture what¬ 
ever of a pink or brown tint. The whiteness of the 
hair always corresponds to the whiteness of the skin ; 
aud with this whiteness of skin aud hair is connected a 
disagreeable reduess of the eyes, which are exactly 
similar to those of the white rabbit »-jd the ferret. The 


A. cannot bear a strong light, and even the full 
glare of clay appears to excite in them some degree 
of uneasiness. They are more common among the 
African and the Indian tribes than among the Euro¬ 
pean people; nevertheless, they are found in aP 
parts of the world. All accounts agree in repre¬ 
senting their physical strength as inferior to that ol 
persons of the ordinary conformation. But in w r hal 
degree their intellectual powers are confined, we hav6 
at present no means of forming an accurate judgment. 
Some writers represent the Albinism as the result of 
disease, but as far as can be judged from external 
appearances, and from their accounts of their own 
feelings, they exhibit not a single mark of any disease 
whatever. It is also certain that domestic animals 
which exhibit varieties perfectly analogous to those of 
the human A., are free from disease, as is familiarly 
known with respect to the sheep, pig, horse, cow, dog, 
cat, rabbit, Ac. In animals, tlie pure whiteness of the 
skin and other integuments, and the redness of the iris 
and pupil, mark the same deficiency of coloring-matter 

Albi mis, a Roman general, who was made governor 
of Britain by Commodus. After the murder of Perti 
nax, he was elected emperor by the soldiers in Britaiu. 
Severus had also been invested with the imperial dig¬ 
nity by his own army; and these two rivals, with about 
50,000 men each, came into Gaul to decide the fate of 
the Empire. Severus was victorious, and he ordered 
the head of A. to be cut off, A. D. 198. 

Albiiius, Bernard Siegfried, whose true name was 
Weiss, (White,) B. at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1096. In¬ 
structed by his father, Bernard, who enjoyed a good 
reputation as professor of medicine, he was himself 
for 50 years a professor of anatomy at Leyden. Ilis 
auatomical plates, in 3 vols. folio, 1744, 1740, and 1753, 
prove him to have been one of the greatest uuutomisU 
that ever lived. 

Al'bion, the oldest name by which the island of Great 
Britain was known to the Greeks and Romans. Great 
Britain and Ireland were known by the general appella¬ 
tion of the Britannic Islands, while the former was des¬ 
ignated by the particular name of Albion or Al wion, and 
the latter by that of lerue, Ionernia, or Kriu. Carsar 
does not use the word Albion ; his name for England is 
Britannia. Pliny says (iv. 16), “The name of the island 
was Albion, the whole set of islands being called Britan¬ 
nic.” The word Albinn is still the only name by which 
the Gaels of Scotland designate that country; and the 
word signifies in tlie Gaelic language, white or fair 
island. The word alb itself is not now iu use in the 
Gaelic, but is probably the same root that we find in 
the Latin adjective alb-us, and iu tlie word “ Alps.” The 
termination inn signifies island. The name of AlbioD 
was probably given to England by the Gaels ol the oppo¬ 
site coast, who could not fail to be struck with the chalky 
cliffs that characterize the jeureet part of Kent. Some 
authors derive it from Albion, eon of Neptune by Am- 
phitrite, who, according to his fabulous history, came 
iuto Britaiu, established a kingdom, and first introduced 
astrology and the art of building ships, lie was killed 
at the mouth of the Rhone, with stones thrown by Jupi¬ 
ter, because lie opposed the passage of Hercules. In 
poetry, A. is still used for Great Britain. 

Al'bion, in Cali forma, a post-village of Mendocino co., 
43 m. W.N.W. of Ukiah. 

Al'bion, in S. Carolina, a village of Fairfield district 
about 35 m. N. of Columbia. 

Al'bioil. in Illinois, a town, cap. of Edwards co., 170 
m. S E. of Springfield. It has a high and salubrious 
situation, aud possesses several imposing public build¬ 
ings. 

Al bion, in Indiana, a town, cap. of Noble co., 26 m. 
N.W. of Fort Wayne. 

Al'bion, in Iowa, a township of Butler co. 

—a township of Howard co. 

—a post-village of Marshall co., about 52 miles N.E. of 

Des Moines. 

Al'bioil. in Maine, a township of Kennebec county, 
26 m. N.E. of Augusta. 

Al'bioil, in Michigan, a city of Calhoun co., ou the 
Mich. Cent. A Lake Shore aud M. S. ll.Rs., 96 ni. W. 
of Detroit. Has extensive plow factory and other in¬ 
dustries. Pop. (1898) 5,120. 

Al'bioil, in Minnesota, a township of Wright co. 

Al'bioil. in Nebraska, a post-village, cap of Boone co., 
41 in. N.W. of Columbus, on U. P. ii.lt. Pap. (1895) 926. 

Al bioil. in New York, a post-village In Barre town¬ 
ship, cap. of Orleans county, about 40 miles N.E. of 
Buffalo. 

—a township of Oswego county, 30 miles from Water- 
town. 

Al bion, in Ohio, a post-village of Ashland co., about 
87 m. N.N.E. of Columbus. 

Al'bioil, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Erie 
county, 26 in. S. W. of Erie, on the Beaver and Erie 
Canal. 

Al'bioil, in Rhode Island, a post-village of Providence 
co., 11 m. from Providence. 

Al'bioil, in Wisconsin, a village and post-township of 
Dane co., about 25 m. S.E. of Madison. 

—a village of Iowa co., about 56 hi. W. of Madison. 

—a township of Jackson county, about 44 m. N.E. of La 

Crosse. 

Al'bioil. (Jfew.) the name given to California by Sir 
Francis Drake; limited by Humboldt to that part of the 
N.W. coast of America which extends from Lat. 43° to 
48° N., which was subsequently divided into Oregon 
and Washington. 

AVbiones. n. pi. (ZoU.) A genus of the order Abran 
chians, distinguished by having the body bristled with 
tubercles. 







ALBG 


ALB D 


ALCA 


65 


Al'bitc, n. [From Lat. albus, white] ( Min.) An unsilicate, 
tricliuic white crystal of the Feldspar group. Comp. 
silica 6S-6 alumina lu-6, soda 11*8. It is a constituent 
of several rocks. Different varieties are found in the 
United States. 

Ai'boin. a king of Lombardy, who, after having slain 
Cuuiiuuud, King of the Gepidie, married his daughter 
Kosainond. lie was slain in 674, by an assassin instigated 
by his wife. lie had incurred her hatred by sending 
her, during one of his fits of intoxication, a cup, wrought 
from the skull of her father, filled with wine, and forc¬ 
ing her, according to his own words, to drink with her 
father. This incident has been introduced by Alfieri, in 
a very pathetic mauuer. in his tragedy called Rosmunda. 

Al bon, Jacques d’ See Andi;£, St. 

41'hora. n. (Med.) A sort of itch; or rather of compli¬ 
cated leprosy. It terminates without ulceration, but 
by foetid evacuations in the mouth and nostrils; it is 
also seated in the root of the tongue. 

Al'borak, n. The white mule on which Mohammed is 
said to have journeyed from the temple of Jerusalem to 
heaven. 

Il'borau, a small island belonging to Spain, off the 
Mediterranean coast, the resort of smugglers, pirates, 
and fishing-vessels. It is not more than 2 in. long and 
1 broad. Lut. 35° 58' N.; Lon. 31° 1' W. 

Al'bret, Jeanne d,’ daughter of Margaret, Queen of 
Navarre,, b. 1528. She married Antoine de Bourbon in 
1548; gave birth in 1553 to a son. who was afterwards 
Uenri 1 V.of Frauce; and on the death of her father, in 
1555, became queen of Navarre. She lost her husband 
in 1562, and eagerly began to establish the Reformation 
in her kingdom. Being invited to the French court to 
assist at the nuptials of her son with Margaret of Valois, 
she suddenly expired, not without suspicion of having 
been poisoned. D. 1572. 

ATbriglit, in Minnesota, a village of Scott co., on the 
Minnesota river, 21 m. S.W of Shakopee. 

Albright's. in Iowa, a post-village of Des Moines co., 
about 3 m. N.W. of the Mississippi river. 

Al brighlsville, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of 
Carbon co. 

AlhticaSa, or Albucasis, an Arabian physician, who 
compused many excellent works, excelled in surgery, 
and has described many instruments and operations. 
Lived in the 11th century 

AlbiicJl'la. an immodest woman, mentioned by Tacitus. 

Albue'ra. or Aluuhera, a town in Spain, Estremadura, 
13 m. S.S.E. of Badajoz, on the river and near the moun¬ 
tains of the same name. Here, on the 16th May, 1811, a 
sanguiuary conflict took place between the allied Brit¬ 
ish, Spanish, and Portuguese troops under Marshal Beres- 
fnrd, and a French force under Marshal Soult. Each 
army lost about 7,000 men in killed and wounded. In 
the end Soult, who commenced the attack, retreated. 

Albufei'ra. a seaport town of Portugal, S. coast Al¬ 
garve, 28 m. E. of Lagos, Lat. 37°7' 30" N.; Lon. 7° 19' 12" 
W. Large vessels may anchor in the port. Pup. 2,800. 

Albule'ra, a lake near Valent,a. in Spain, from which 
the title of Duke was given to Marshal Sachet. It is 
connected with the town by a canal, and is 10 miles in 
length and the same in breadth, being divided from the 
sea by a narrow tongue of laud. 

Albugi'llOA, n. [Lat., from albus, white.] (Anat.) 1. A 
membrane of the eye: See Adnata Tunica.— 2. A strong, 
white, and dense membrane immediately covering the 
body or substance of the testicle. 

Albugin'eous, a. [Fr. albugineux.] Resembling the 
white of the eye, or of an egg;—a term applied to tex¬ 
tures, humors, <tc., which are perfectly white. 

Albu'go, n. [Lat. albugo ; Ur. leucoma.] (Med.) A white 
opacity of the cornea of the eye. 

Albu'la, a mountain-pass in t-witzerland, Grisons. It 
crosses Mount Albula from the valley of Bergum. 
Highest point 7,713 feet above the level of the sea. 

Albu'la. (Anc. (Jeog.) The river Tiber. 

Al bum, n. [Lat., from albus, white.] A tablet on which 
the Roman praetor’s edicts wore written; it was put 
up in a public place. It was probably called album 
because the tablet was white. The word was also used 
to signify a list of any body of persons, as of the sena¬ 
tors and of the judices.— In our day, a book which is 
intended to contain the signatures, or short verses, or 
other contributions of persons of note or supposed note, 
is called an album. The name is also given to a book 
which is merely intended as a repository for drawings, 
prints, verses, and such matters. Trifling as it may 
appear, an album, in the hands of a person possessing 
good taste, may be made a very graceful article of artistic 
decoration.— Photograph A.: a book whose leaves have 
open spaces to contain and display photographs. 

Albu'men. Albu'min, m. [hat,, the while of eggs] A 
substance which forms a constituent principle of or¬ 
ganized bodies. It is common to plants and animals. 
It is found in the green feculee of plants in general, but 
it exists much more abundantly in animals than in 
plants. Of the animal fluids, it forms an essential part 
of the serum of the blood. In the animal solids it forms 
the principal part of all membranes; of the skin, of 
fibrin, the basis of muscle or flesh, and of the glands. A. 
then exists in the animal body in the fluid and in the 
•olid form. The best example of fluid A. is the white 
of eggs, which is nearly pure albumen, held in solution in 
water, and combined with a small quantity of saline 
matter. In this state it is a tasteless, somewhat glairy, 
colorless liquid, soluble in cold water. If exposed to a 
heut of 160° F., it is readily coagulated, and becomes 
then insoluble. A., like most other animal substances, 
b composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and uitrogen 
In thi proportions of: C. 52-89; U. 7-64: 0.23-87; N. 16 70 
cl00. From its property of coagulating by beat, A. is 


of great use in the clarification of liquids. Being ren¬ 
dered solid by the application of heat.it entangles all 
the substances not held in solution by the fluid, and 
carries them with it to the surface in the form of scum. 
— It is a sure and effectual antidote against the corrosive 
sublimate, or bichloride of mercury, which is one of the 
most virulent of the mineral poisons. 

(Hot.) l’lie substance which in some seeds is inter¬ 
posed between the embryo and their coat. It varies 
very much in density, ami other characters and is often, 
the most valuable part of a plant. In the cocoanut. it 
is the meat, the milk being a fluid, uncondeused portion 
of it; in the coffee-seed, it is lhe part that is roasted; 
and in corn, it is that which is ground into flour The 
oil of the castor-oil plant, and of the poppy, the aroma 
of the nutmeg, and the greasy, nutritious substance that 
forms chocolate, are all ihe produce of albumen. This 
substance in the beginning is of a pulpy nature, and is 
the matter in which the young embryo first makes its 
appearance, in this state it is present in all plants; but 
as the embryo, for the nutriment of which it is destined, 
increases in size, the albumen is gradually absorbed by 
it. either wholly, as in the turnip, the pea, the bean, and 
the like; or in part only, the residue being of a consist¬ 
ence vary: ig between softness, as in the poppy, and ex¬ 
treme hardness, as in the date-palm. The composition 
and essential properties of the vegetable A. are tile same 
as those of the animal albumen. 

Albii'ntciiize, v. a. ( Photxg.) To impregnate with 
albumen. 

Album Grpe'cnin, the white faeces of dogs, formerly 
used in medicine, and now by tauuers for some secon¬ 
dary purposes. 

Albu'iuinoill, a. [Lat. albumen, and Gr. eidos, form.] 
Resembling albumen. 

Albuminoid Group. (Chem.) A group of com¬ 
pounds of organic origin, comprising albumen, fibrin, 
casein, and legumin. It owes its name of albuminoid to 
the general resemblance of its members to albumen, or 
white of eggs; the proportion of carbon to nitrogen being 
in all that of 8 equivalents of the former to lof the latter 

Albu'minose, n. (Physiol.) Albuminoid matter 
prepared for absorption by the process of digestion. — 
Webster. 

Albu'minouB, Albuminose, a. [Fr. albumineux.] 
Having the properties of albumen. 

A lbu'm i no usness, n. The state of being albuminous. 

Albuminu'ria. See Bright’s Disease. 

Albuquerque, Alfonso d’, viceroy of India, surnamed 
the Great, and called the Portuguese Mars. Sent with a 
squadron to India, by king Emanuel, he arrived Sept. 
26, 1503, on the coast of Malabar; took possession of 
Goa; subdued the whole of Malabar, Ceylon, the Suuda 
islands, and the peninsula of Malacca. In 1507 he made 
himself master of the island of Ormus, at the entrance 
of the Persian gulf. Notwithstanding his great merits, 
he did not escape the envy of the courtiers, aud the sus¬ 
picions of king Emanuel, who sent Lopez Soarez, the 
personal enemy of A., to fill bis place. He died a few 
days after receiving the intelligence, at Goa, in 1615. A. 
was the first to lead a European fleet into the waters 
of the Red sea. That he was a great and enlightened 
man there can be no question; and this is testified in the 
rare fact of both Moors and Indians, after his death, re¬ 
pairing to his tomb as to that of & father, to implore 
redress from the cruelty and wrong which they were 
doomed to suffer from his successors. Fifty years after 
his death, his remains were conveyed to Portugal. 
Emanuel ennobled the son of A., who wrote a history 
of his father’s enterprises. 

Albuquer'que, in New Mexico territory,.a post-town 
of Bernalillo co., on the Rio Grande, abt. 60 m. S.W. of 
Santa Fe. A. has an elevation of abt. 5,000 ft. above 
the sea. 

Albuquer'que, a town of Spain, prov. of Estrema- 
dura, on the frontier of Portugal, 22 m. N.N.W. of 
Badajoz. Pop. 5,470. 

Arbur^’, in Vermont, a township of Grand- Isle co., on 
a peninsula between the Canada line, Missisque Bay, 
and Richelieu river, in communication with Lake 
Champlain. 

Al'bui'K; Springs, in Vermont, a post-village in the 
above township, 87 miles N.W. of Montpelier. 

Albur'lioust, a. Belonging or relatiug to alburnum. 

Albur'niuu, n. [From Lat. albus, white] (Bot.) 
That part of the stem of trees which timber-merchants 
call sa/nuood. It is the newly formed, unchanged wood 
lying immediately below the bark, aud is always of a 
very light color. It is the irincipal clianuel through 
which the crude sap is convey id from the roots into the 
leaves, and is, therefore, an indispensable part in all 
exogenous trees. (See Age of Trees.) It consists of 
little besides vegetable tissue: iu which respect it dif¬ 
fers from heartwnod or duramen, which is vegetable 
tissue combined with solid secretions, the nature Df 
which varies with species. It is probably on the la ter 
account that heartwood is so much more durable than 
sapwood: for all vegetable tissue is in itself equally 
perishable, and it only ceases to be so in consequence 
of the presence of secretions of a less destructible char¬ 
acter. While many plants have the alburnum and 
heartwood distinctly separated, there are others, tech¬ 
nically called whitewooded trees, which consist of noth¬ 
ing but alburnum. This arises from their not forming 
any solid secretions which can give durability to the 
central parts; hence all such trees are quickly perish¬ 
able, and are generally unfit for any but temporary 
purposes. 

Alliiir'iiiis. n. (Znol.) See Bleak. 

Al bus I’;« K IIH. (Anc. Grog.) A place near Sidon, In 
Syria, where Antony waited for the arrival of Cleopatra. 


AlT»y, a town of France, cap. of the dep. of Tarn, oo 
the Tarn. It is situated on a hill, and has a fim Gothic 
cathedral, which was begun in 1277, and finished in 
1480. Pop. 25,493. Alby, formerly Albigu, has suffered 
much at different periods for its attachment to Protes¬ 
tantism. 

Alea. n. (Zool.) See Auk. 

AI cade', ra. See Alcaid, and Alcalde^ 

Alcidis, a celebrated lyric poet of Mitylene in Lesbos, 
a contemporary of Sappho, to whom he paid his ad¬ 
dresses. Flourished about 600 B. c. His lyric muse was 
versed in all the forms and subjects of poetry, and anti¬ 
quity attrib es to him hymns, odes, and songs. Of all 
his works nothing but a few fragments remain; they 
are found in Athensens. — See Alcaic. 

Al'caliest, n. See Alkahest. 

Aloa'io, n. [Lat. alca'icus.] (Anc. Pros.) A kind of verse 
consisting of five feet, a spondee or iambic, an iambic, 
a long syllable, and two dactyls. It is one of the most 
beautiful and melodious of all the lyric metres. Heroes 
has employed it in many of his odes. German poets, 
too, have imitated it, as Klopstock. It was invented 
by Alcasus. 

— a. Relating to the kind of verse invented by Alcseus. 

•-And take the Alcaic lute. 

Or thine own Horace, or Anacreon'# lyre.** — B. Jonion. 

Aleaid', n. [Sp. alcaide; Port, alcayde■] The same ac 
Alcalde, q. v. 

Alcal a, n. [Ar. el-calaat, a castle.] A very common 
name iu the southern parts of Spain, where the empire 
of the Arabs was of the longest duration. 

Alcal'a lie Gisvert, a town of Spain, prov. Valen¬ 
cia : pop. 4,954. 

Aleal'atle Henares, a beautiful town of Spain, in 
New Castile, on the river Henares, 17 m. E.N.E. of Ma¬ 
drid. Pop. 5,000. It is the birthplace of Cervante*. 
The polyglot bible of Alcala, by Cardinal Ximenes, was 
printed here. It took 12 years to complete it, namely, 
from 1602-1517, and the cost exceeded $275,000. It was 
the first polyglot Bible ever printed. 600 copies were 
struck off, 3 ou vellum. One of these three was depo* 
ited in the royal library at Madrid, a 2d in the royal 
library at Turin, the 3d, supposed to have belonged t« 
the cardinal himself, after passing through various 
hands, was purchased at auction, Paris, 1817, for$17,900 

Alcal a de los Gazulcs, a town of Spain, prov 
Cadiz, 38 m. E. of Cadiz, and 48 m. S. of Seville. Pup 
5,516. 

Alcal'a la Real, a town of Spain, prov. Jaen, on the 
Gualcoton, 2.700 feet above the level of the sea, 30 m 
W.S.W. of Jaen. Pop. 6,738. On the 28th Jan., 1810, 
the French defeated the Spaniards in the vicinity of 
this town. 

Aleal'atraz, or Al'catraz [Sp.], in California, a small 
fortified island, commanding the entrance of the Golden 
Gate, in the bay of San Francisco, 2J4 miles N. of the 
town. Called also Pelican Island. 

Alcal'lle. n. [Sp.,from Ar. al-kadi, judge.] A Spanish or 
Portug. magistrate, answering to our justice ofthe peace. 

Alcaine’nes, a Greek sculptor, me disciple and riial 
of Phidias. He was one of the three greatest statuaries 
of ancient Greece, the others being Phidias and Poly ole- 
tus. Fifth century b. c. 

Alcamciies, one of the Agidse, king of Sparta, suo 
ceeded His father, and reigned 37 years. Lived B. C. 900 
and is known by his apothegms. 

Alea'mo, a town of Italy, in the Island of Sicily, 24 m 
W.S.W. of Palermo. It is situated on high ground, iu • 
fine, open, cultivated country, and is well sheltered by 
large woods of olive-trees. Pop. 19,518. Not far from 
the town are the ruins of Sagitta, q. v. 

Al'cauiz, a town of Spain, prov. of Ternel, in Aragon, 
on the Guadaloupe. There are in this vicinity rich 
mines of alum. Pop. 6,4u0. 

Alcan na, n. (But.) See Henna. 

Alcan tara, a seaport town of Brazil, prov. of Mar 
anhao, on a hill, 25 m. N.W r . of San Luis de Maran- 
bao. The surrounding territory is productive of excel¬ 
lent cotton and ric»*: and the salt lakes, a little to the 
N. of the town, might yield the hugest supplies, if they 
were properly managed. 

Alcantara, a fortified town of Spain, can. of a district 
of the same name, prov. of Estremadura;—the Nova 
Caesarea ol the Romans. Pop. 4,273. 

A. (Order of.) At the expulsion of the Moors la 1213, 
which was aided by the Kits, 
of San Julian del Pereyro, 
the defence of the town was 
intrusted to them, and they 
thenceforward assumed the 
title of Knights of Alcantara. 

In 1492, Ferdinand the Catho¬ 
lic united the office of Grand 
Master with the crown. The 
order lias been since abolish¬ 
ed. At their nominations, the 
knights might prove four gen- 
erationsof nobility. The crest 
of the order was a pear-tree. 

Alcau’larilla, a town of 
Spain, prov. ol Murcia, 5 m S. 

W. of Murcia, in a district of 
the same name, famous for its 
wines. liip. 4,083. 

Alicar'az, a town of Spain, 
prov. of New Castile, 34 m. 
from Albacete. There are in 
the neighborhood mines of 
zinc and copper. 

Alcarra'fcR. n. [Sp., from Ar. al-kurrtlt.) A vessel of po* 
rous earthenware, used for cooling liquors.—See Ooolul 







66 


ALCH 


ALCI 


ALCO 


Alcasal'ica, in Georgia, a creek entering the Ocmul- 
gee lu Irwin co. 

Alca zar de San J nan, a town of Spain, prov. of 
La Mancha, 55 m. S E. of Toledo. Pop. 7,800. 

\lce’a, n. ( Bot .) See Althea. 

Alcedin'idic. «. pi. (Zool.) The Kingfishers, a family 
of birds, order Insessores. Their principal charac¬ 
teristics are, a long, straight, quadrangular bill, thick 
and pointed; the nostrils at the side of the base of the 
bill running obliquely; the tail and legs short; very 
short tarsi, and the outer and middle toes united half 
their length. Ponds and slow waters are their favorite 
resorts; they live principally on fish, and are of solitary 
habits. Their plumage is of a brilliant blue or green 
color. The genus Alcedo forms the type of this 
group. 

Alce'do, Antonio de, a native of Spanish America. lie 
spent '20 years of his life in compiling a “ Dictionary of 
American History and Geography,” published in Madrid, 
1786. 

Alce'do, or (leryle, n. (Zool.) A genus of birds, 
family Alcedinid.e. Two species are found in the U. S. ; 
the common kingfisher or Ceryle Halcyon, about 13 
Inches long; and the Texas kingfisher, Ceryle Ameri¬ 
cana, only 8 inches long. When watching for its prey, 
the kingfisher perches itself upon some overhanging 
branch, with its long dagger-like bill pointed down ward, 
and its eye intent upon the water beneath. Suddenly, 
tt darts downward, plunges headlong into the water, 



Fig. 73.— kingfisher, (Ceryle Halcyon .) 


and speedily reapnears with a minnow or other small 
fish betweeu mandibles. Without losing its hold, 
it passes the fish through its Hill until it has fairly 
grasped it by the tail, and then destroys its life by 
smartly striking its head three or four times against 
the branch, after which it gulps ijs prey at one mouth¬ 
ful, except when it bears it away to the nest for the 
supply of the young. The fishbones, scales, and other 
indigestible parts are afterward disgorged by the 
mouth. 

Alces'te, or Alcestis. (Myth.) Daughter of Peleas, 
and wife of Admetus, king of Thessaly. Her husband 
was sick, and, according to an oracle, would die, unless 
some one else made a vow to meet death in his stead. 
This was secretly done by A. She became sick, and 
Admetus recovered. After her decease, Hercules vis¬ 
ited Admetus, with whom he was connected by the ties 
of hospitality, and promised his friend to bring back 
his wife from the infernal regions. He made good his 
word, compelling Pluto to restore A. to her husband. 
Euripides has made this story the subject of a tragedy. 

A1 'cester, a parish and town of England, eo. of War¬ 
wick, 16 m. W.S.W. of Warwick. Pip. of parish, 2,128. 

Alchein'ic, Alchemical, a. Relating to alchemy 
or produced by it. 

Alchem'icaily, adv. In an alchemical manner. 

Al'clieuiilla, n. (Hot.) A genus of plants, ord. San- 

guisorOawiB. (]. v. 

Al'chemist, ». One who practises, or is versed in, 
alchemy. 

Alcliemi«t ic. Alclieiui*'! leal, a. Relating to 

alchemy . an hemical. 

Al chemize, v. a. To transmute, (r.) 

Al chemy, Alch rwr, n. [Kr. alchimic, from Ar. 
al-kimia.] The pretended art of making gold and sil¬ 
ver, and, subsequently, of preparing a universal medi¬ 
cine. Those alchemists who were supposed to be skilled 
in the art were termed adepts. —In the opinion of the 
alchemists, all the metals are compounds, the baser of 
them containing the same constituents as gold, but 
mixed with various impurities, which, being removed, 
the common metals were made to assume the properties 
of gold. The change was effected by what was termed 
Lapis philosophnrum, or the philosopher’s stone, which 
is commonly mentioned as a red powder possessing a 
peculiar smell. It is not quite certain at what period 
or in what country A. arose; but it is generally sup¬ 
posed that it origiuated among the Arabians when they 
began to turn their attention to medicine, after the 
establishment of the caliphs; or that, if it had been 
previously cultivated by the Chinese and the Greeks, 
as there is some reason to suppose, it was taken up by 
the Arabians and reduced by them iuto regular form 
and order. The Egyptian Hermes Trismegistus (q. v.) is 
mentioned as one of the earliest alchemists. For this 
reason, chemistry and alchemy received the name of 
Hermetic art; but the writings bearing his nan e are 
undoubtedly spurious. Geher, an Arabian physician 
who lived in the 7 th century, is one of the earliest 
alchemists whose works are extant. After him, the 
iwnat celebrated alchemists are : Albertus Magnus, 


Raymond Lully, Roger Bacon, Arnoldus de Villa JVova, 
Nicolas Flummel, Pierre le Bon, Ferrari, John Isaac 
Hollandus, George Riply, and Basil Valentine. As the 
alchemists were assiduous workmen, says Ur. Thomson, 
(History of Alchemy,) —as they mixed all the metals, 
salts, <fcc., with which they were acquainted, in various 
ways with each other, and subjected such mixtures to 
the action of heat in close vessels, their labors were 
occasionally repaid by the discovery of new substances, 
possessed of much greater activity than any with 
which they were previously acquainted. In this way 
they were led to the discovery of sulphuric, nitric, and 
muriatic acids. These, when known, were made to act 
upon the metals: solutions of the metals w ere obtained, 
aud this gradually led to the know ledge of various me¬ 
talline salts and preparations, which were introduced 
with considerable advantage into medicine. Thus the 
alchemists, by their absurd pursuits, gradually formed 
a collection of facts which led ultimately to the estab¬ 
lishment of scientific chemistry. Modern chemistry 
places metals in the class of elements, and denies the 
possibility of changing an inferior metal into gold, 
but electricity has not said its last word; and when 
man will have mastered that great power of nature, 
many of the elements will be found, probably, to be only 
compound bodies. The possibility of obtaining metals 
from other substances which contain the ingredients 
composing it, and of changing one metal into another, 
or rather of refining it, must, therefore, be left unde¬ 
cided. 

Alcibi'ades, the son of Clinias, n. in the 82d Olym¬ 
piad, abt. 450 b. c., was one of the most distinguished 
statesmen and generals of Athens during the eventful 
period of the Peloponnesian war. Descended on both 
sides from the illustrious families of his country, born 
to the inheritance of great wealth, endowed with extraor¬ 
dinary beauty of person, and with mental qualifications 
no less brilliant, it seemed evident from his early youth 
that he would exert no slight intluenco over the coun¬ 
sels and the fortunes of Athens. The faults of Alcibi- 
ades were those of a spoilt 
child of fortune, he was 
fickle, selfish, overbearing, 
and extravagant. l!ut these 
faults clouded, not concealed, 
his nobler qualities. Pas¬ 
sionately fond of show and 
splendor, a frequent victor 
in the Olympic games, aud 
possessed of a more criminal 
notoriety as a favored suitor 
among the most dignified 
matrons of Athens, he never 
lost sight of more manly ob¬ 
jects of ambition; and he met 
the proffered friendship of 
Socrates with eagerness, as 
the surest means of acquiring 
that mental cultivation 
which at Athens was the 
best, though uot the only key to political power. The 
philosopher soon acquired over his wayward pupil that 
influence which he seems to have exercised over all 
who came within his circle: and the close intimacy 
which arose between these opposite characters was 
cemented by a singular reciprocity of benefits. In a 
battle fought near Potidsaa, Socrates saved the life of 
A., and the latter repaid the obligation by a similar 
service at the battle of Delium. But the influence of 
Socrates was insullicient in this case to work a perma¬ 
nent change of character; and the political life of A. 
proves that he had not profited much by the moral in¬ 
structions of his master. In the Pelononnesian war, he 
was appointed to command with Lysimachus, under 
Niches, iu an expedition against Syracuse; but while he 
was thus employed, a charge of impiety was preferred 
against him at home. One morning all the Hernia?, or 
half-statues of Mercury, which abounded in Athens, 
were fouad defaced; and on a reward being offered for 
the discovery of the offenders, some slaves gave informa¬ 
tion that it was done by A. and his drunken companions. 
For this he was ordered home; but, fearful of the con¬ 
sequences, be withdrew to Sparta, and stirred up the 
Lacedaemonians to declare war against Athens. Soon 
after this, however, his friendship for the Spartans de¬ 
clined. when he went over to the king of Persia. Sub¬ 
sequently, he was recalled by the Athenians, when be 
obliged tlie Lacedaemonians to sue for peace, made 
several conquests in Asia and was received in triumph 
at Athens. His popular ty was of short duration; the 
failure of an expedition against the island of Andros ex¬ 
posed him to the resentment of the people, and he fled to 
Pharnahuzus, whom he almost induced to make war upon 
Lacedivmon. This was told to Lysander, the Spartan 
general, who prevailed upon Pharnabazus to murder A. 
Two servants were sept for that purpose, aud they set 
on fire the cottage where he was, and killed him with 
darts as he attempted to make his escape, lie was in 
t be 46th year of liis age; 404 B. c. 

Alci'dea. (Myth.) A name of Hercules, either from his 
strength (alke), or his great-grandfather, Alcseus.— 
Also a name of Minerva. 

Al'cidse. or Alcad-e. n. pi. (Zool.) The Auks, a family of 
birds, order Natatores, including the Auks proper, Pen¬ 
guins, Puffins, and Guillemots. They are oceanic birds, 
and have the bill compressed and pointed. The powerof 
their wings as organs of flight is generally very circum¬ 
scribed,but their ill structure is admirably adapted for an 
aquatic life. The legs are extremely short but powerful, 
and placed so far backward that, in resting on the rocks, 
the birds appear to stand in an upright position. Their 


food consists of fishes, Crustacea, and other tuarlDO 
Auctions; but they never resort to fresh water. 



Fig. 75. — penocin (A. patagonica.) 

Al'ciinus, suruamed Jacuim, a high-priest of the Jews, 
who obtained that office from Antioclius Eupator, king 
of Syria, but rendered himself odious to his countrymen 
by his avarice and cruelty. He died two years after 
his election. Lived in the 2d century B. c. 

Al'cinse, n. pi. (Zool.) A sub-family of birds, fam. 
Alcidce. The gen. Alca, or Auk, forms the type ot thit 
group. — See Auk. 

Alcin'ous, king of Pliseasia (Corfu), entertained and 
listened to the wonderful adventures of Ulysses when 
shipwrecked on his coast; whence arose the proverb of 
the Stories of Alcinous for improbability. 

Alcinocs, a Platonic philosopher, lived in the 2d cen¬ 
tury, a. D. He wrote an “ Introduction to the Philoso¬ 
phy of Plato,” translated into English by Stanley. 

Al'ciope, n. (Zool.) A gen. of DorsibraDchiate Annob 
ides, distinguished by having two foliated gills aud a 
couple of bronchial tubercles. 

Al'ciphron, the most distinguished of the Grecian 
epistolary writers, flourished probably in the 2d century 
before Christ. We have 116 fictitious letters by him, 
which give a curious picture of Grecian manners. 

Alci'ra, a town of Spain, prov. Vulencia, on an island 
of the Xucar, 25 m. S.S.W. of Valencia. Pop. 13,000. 

Alck'inuar, or Alkmaar, the chief town in North 
Holland, 19 m. from Amsterdam. It is the greatest 
cheese-mart in the world, upward of 4,000 tons of that 
art. being sold every year. Lat. 52° 38' N.; Lon. 4° 43' 
E. — In 1573, A. was besieged by the Spaniards, who 
failed to take it, after persevering for ten years in the 
attempt. In 1799 it was taken by the British and Rus¬ 
sian troops under the Duke of York. 

A1 cmieoii, a philosopher of Crotona, and disciple of 
Pythagoras He was the first writer on natural philos¬ 
ophy, and believed iu the theory that the stars were 
animated beings. 

Ai.csiioN, (Myth.,) son of Amphiarous ami Eriphyle of Ar¬ 
gos; chosen chief of theseveu Epigoni,in which capacity 
he took and destroyed Thebes. His father, goingto war, 
charged A. to put to death Eriphyle, w ho had betrayed 
him. He did so, and was pursued by the Furies. An 
oracle informed him that, to escape their vengeance, he 
must reside in a land which was not in existence whet, 
he was cursed by his mother. Heat last found rest,for 
a short time, on an island in the river Achelous, where 
he married Callirrlioe, the daughter of the god of the 
river, after repudiating his former wife, Arsiuoe. But 
he did not long enjoy peace. At the request of his 
wife, he attempted to recover the fatal necklace of Her- 
mione from his former father-in-law, the priest Phlegeus, 
who caused him to be murdered by his sons. 

Ale man, of Lacedaemon or Sardis, one of the earliest 
Grecian writers, of whose poems only some fragment* 
remain in different authors. He is said to have been 
the first writer in amorous poetry. Flourished 672 B. 0. 

Alcina'niaii, a. Relating to the lyric poet Aleman. 

Alcmanian Verse. (Anc. Pros.) A kind of verse con 
sisting of two dactyls aud two trochees. 

Al r'liirna. (Myth.) Daughter of Electryon, king of 
Argos, and wife of Amphitryon. Jupiter loved her, and 
deceived her by assnmiug 1 tie form of her liusbaud. 
From this connection, which continued for 3 night*, 
sprung Hercules. 

Al'co, n. (Zool.) A kind of dog domesticated in Pern 
and Mexico before the discovery of America, and also 
found in a wild state in those countries. Its origin has 
not been ascertained. 

Al'coate, and Alcoliate, n. See Alcoholatx. 

Al cohol, n. [Ar. alkohl; Fr .alccJiol and alcool .] (Chem.) 
A colorless, volatile, inflammable liquid, of an Agreeable 
well-known spirituous odor, and an acrid, burning taste, 
termed also spirit of wine, and Ethylic or vinic alcohol. 
It is an ingredient of all fermented liquors. It consists 
of vol. ether vapor, and % vol. vapor of water; spec 
grav. -7947 at 59; boiling-point, 173°; spec. grav. of 
vapor, T6133. Formula, CoII 6 0. It has never been 
frozen, though at 166° below zero it becomes viscid. 
Brandy and whiskey contain about 50 per cent, of 
A. When inflamed in the open air, A. burns with s 
bluish-white flame, the product of combustion being 
carbonic acid and water. Alcohol furnishes a cleanly 
and valuable fuel to the chemist; it emits a high tem 
peratnre during its combnstion, and deposits no soot 
upon cold bodies which are introduced into <*« flam* 




























ALCO 


ALCY 


ALDE 


67 


It is a solvent of great value. It usually exerts but 
little chemical action upon the bodies which it dis¬ 
solves, and owing to its volatility, it is easily expelled 
by a gentle heat, leaving the substances which it previ¬ 
ously held in solution in a pure state. It dissolves 
many of the gases freely; some of them, as for instance 
protoxide of nitrogen, carbonic acid, and cyanogen, are 
dissolved by it more readily than by water. Most of 
the deliquescent salts are soluble in alcohol, but the 
efflorescent salts, and those which are sparingly soluble 
in water, are not dissolved by it. With anhydrous 
saline bodies, it forms the compounds termed alcohol- 
aies. Alcohol likewise dissolves many organic bodies 
freely, such as the resins, the essential oils, the vegetable 
alkaloids, and many of the vegetable acids. It also dis¬ 
solves, more sparingly, sugar, and the soaps of potash, 
soda, and ammonia; but the fats and finer oils, with 
the exception of castor-oil, are dissolved by it in but 
small quantities. — Preparation. Alcohol may be ob¬ 
tained in a state of purity by subjecting to distillation 
any saccharine solution that has undergone fermenta¬ 
tion; for, being more volatile than water, it passes over 
in the first part of the distillation, accompanied with 
more or less water. By repeated rectification, it may 
be concentrated till it contains about 10 per cent, of 
water. Beyond this point the water adheres to it so 
strongly that it requires a different process for the com¬ 
plete separation of the last portions :—it is first rectified 
from charcoal, with a view of retaining all essential 
oils to which the peculiar odor or flavor of different 
spirits are mainly owing, and is then mixed with about 
half its weight of quicklime, and allowed to stand for 
('tree or four days ; the lime gradually slakes and falls 
to powder, in consequence of its conversion into a hy¬ 
drate, at the expense of the water in the alcohol; then, 
on applying the heat by means of a bath of chloride of 
calcium, the pure spirit maybe distilled off,the hydrate 
of lime retaining the water at temperatures far above 
300° F. Any traces of water which it may still retain 
are removed by a second distillation from quicklime, or 
from caustic baryta. The alcohol thus obtained is 
anhydrous, or, as it is often termed, absolute alcohol. — 
As -4. mixes with water in all proportions, it is often 
important to determine the amount of A. contained in 
the mixture. That is easily done by means of the AL¬ 
COHOLMETER, q. V. 

(Physiol.) As a drink, A. is one of the most powerful 
antagonists of life. When pure, it is a deadly poison; 
when diluted, its pernicious effects are not so rapid, of 
course, but it is ever injurious to health. The able and 
recent researches of Dr. E. Smith, and MM. Lallemand, 
Duroy, and Perrin, have positively proved that A. is not, 
in any case, a food, as it is too generally believed; and 
that it is neither transformed nor destroyed within the 
organism. A. does not assimilate; it passes out of the 
Stomach in precisely the same condition in which it 
entered it. It shows itself in the breath of the habitual 
drinker, in his perspiration, his evacuation. It is still 
alcohol. Part may be retained in the blood, which it 
th ins and weakens. For explaining the effects of alco¬ 
holic inebriation, it is said that A., taken in large doses, 
is at first intensely stimulating, but that a secondary 
depression quickly arises, which disturbs all the intel¬ 
lectual powers. We believe it highly improper to give 
the name of stimulant to the effect of A. on the mental 
faculties. A. does not stimulate; it paralyzes. This 
will be easily understood. — As opium, ether, and chloro¬ 
form, A. is a narcotic. The narcotics which especially 
affect the brain may exercise their depressing influence 
in such a way as to render that organ, at once, more or 
less incapable of ministering to any mental operation; 
or they may lessen, at first, only its capacity for giving 
effect to certain kinds of mental energy, as it occurs 
when a large dose of A. is taken into the stomach. The 
first warning of alcoholic inebriation is flushing in the 
face, an occurrence which indicates that the blood is be¬ 
ginning to be saturated, the cervical sympathetic is 
beginning to be paralyzed. It is about this period that 
the drinker finds himself in unnaturally high spirits; 
that his animal passions are more prominent; that feel¬ 
ings of vanity carry him away in garrulity of talk, 
and that whatever sentimentalism there may be in his 
nature, is apt to come out, often ludicrously enough. 
The clue to a right appreciation of the successive phe¬ 
nomena is this: that the feelings, ordinarily suppressed 
by voluntary effort, are displayed, by the removal of the 
customary veils, in the order of their concealment. 
Reason and prudence and the moral sense, which form 
the varnish, mostly a thin one, superimposed upon the 
sensuous nature, vanish simultaneously with the faculty 
of estimating ideas of time and space, and with the 
power of accurate co-ordination of the muscular move¬ 
ments. This is the first stage of inebriation. The 
effects of A. proceeding gradually to develop them¬ 
selves, the nerves of sensation are completely paralyzed, 
and the drunkard, then voiceless, falls to the rank of 
an animal of the lowest class. This is the second 
Stage, characterized by the stupidity of the face. At last, 
paralysis extending itself to the nerves of motion, leaves 
the body in a state of complete insensibility. After this 
regular and progressive extinction of the vital properties 
of the various portions of the nervous system, a fourth 
and last stage may follow, if the quantity of the absorbed 
A. was considerable; the paralysis reaches the heart, 
aud death is the immediate consequence, exactly as it 
occurs with other narcotics. — In the recovery from the 
poisonous influence of A., the brain is the first to lose 
the influence of the poison. As a consequence of the re¬ 
storation of consciousness which this brings about, the 
mind takes cognizance of the condition of the still 
half devitalized sensory nerves, and there is therefore 


usually the sensation of neuralgic pain, often followed 
by vomiting and muscular tremor. When A. is brought 
into contact with a solution of molybdic acid iu strong 
sulphuric acid, a deep azure coloration takes place. 
This test is so sensitive, it is affirmed, that so small 
a quantity of A. as .1666 part of a grain may be de¬ 
tected. 

AI coliolate, Alcoliate, Aleoate, n. [Fr.alcn- 
holat. J (Chent.) Crystallizable compounds formed by the 
combination of anhydrous alcohol with many anhy¬ 
drous saline bodies in definite proportions, and in which 
the alcohol seems to occupy the place of water of crys¬ 
tallization. The chlorides and the nitrates offer the best 
examples of the formation of alcoholates. 

Alcohol ic, a. [Fr. alcoholique.] Pertaining to, contain¬ 
ing, or having the properties of, alcohol. 

Alcolioliza'tion, n. [Fr. alcohulisation.] The act of 
rectifying spirits. 

Al'ooiioiize, v. a. [Fr. alcoholiser.] To convert into alco¬ 
hol ; to rectify spirits. 

Alcohol'metcr, Alcoholom'e- 
ter, Alcuometer, n. [Fr. alcoholo- 
metre.'] An instrument for deter¬ 
mining the strength of spirits, and 
usually made of glass, in the form 
represented (Fig. 76). This is the 
Gay-Lussac's A., the simplest and 
the best of all. The stem is divided 
into 100 degrees; it sinks to 0° or 
A in pure water, and to 100° or B 
in pure alcohol. If it sinks to 55°, 
it indicates that the liquor con¬ 
tains 55 per cent, alcohol and 45 
per cent, water. This instrument 
is only accurate at the temperature 
of 15° C. If the temperature is dif¬ 
ferent, the indication of the Alcohol- 
meter must be corrected by means 
of tables prepared for the purpose, 
to be seen in special books. 

Alcoholmet'rical, a. Relating 
to the alcoholmeter. 

Alcoliolom'etry, Alcoom'etry, 
n. The process of ascertaining the Fig. 76. 
strength of alcohol by determining the quantity of wa¬ 
ter contained in it.—See Alcoholmeter. 

Alco'na, in Michigan , a county bordering on Lake 
Huron, and drained by the Au Sable river. Area, about 
630 sq. m. 

Alcoomet'rical, a. See Alcoholmetrical. 

Alcoom eter, n. [Fr. alcoometre .] See Alcoholmeter. 

Al'cora, a town of Spain, prov. Valencia, 48 m. N. of 
Valencia; pop. 5,609. 

Al'coran, n. See Koran. 

Alcoran'ic, Alcoran'ish, a. Relating to the sacred 
book of the Mohammedans, or to Mohammedanism. 

Alcoran'ist, n. One who adheres strictly to the letter 
of the Koran or Alcoran. 

Al'corn'S, in Iowa, a village of Adair co., 160 m. W. 
by S. of Iowa City. 

Al'cott, Louisa Mat. See Section II. 

Al cove, «. [Fr., probably from Ar. al-kauban, a tent.] 
(Arch.) This word strictly means a recess in a chamber 
for the reception of a bed, separated from the other 
parts of the room by columns, ant;e, or balusters. The 
Frencli were particularly partial to the alcove, using it 
almost always for state beds.—The term is commonly 
applied, in England, to ornamental and covered seats in 
gardens. 

Ai 'cove, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Fond du Lac 
co.. 70 m. N.E. of Madison. 

Al'covy River. See Ulcofauhachee. 

Al'coy, a town of Spain, prov. Valencia, 24 m. N. of 
Alicante. 1'op. of town and district, 27,000. It is situ¬ 
ated among hills, at the source of a river of the same 
name, which, 35 m. further, falls into the Mediterranean 
near Gondia. 

Al'cuin, or A11) in us. Flaccus, was one of the most 
learned persons of the 8th century. B. at York, or in 
Scotland, in 732, he was made abbot of Canterbury. 
Charlemagne became acquainted with him in Parma, 
on his return from Rome, whence he had brought the 
pallium for a friend. At the invitation of the emperor, 
he consented to come to France. Soon after he arrived, 
780, the emperor bestowed upon him several rich ab¬ 
beys. But the principal occupation of Alcuin was as a 
public teacher of what was then called the tntum scibile, 
or entire circle of human learning. In this capacity 
he was frequently honored with the attendance at his 
lessons of the emperor himself, his children, and the 
lords of the court. The school thus established by 
Alcuin is considered by French antiquaries as the germ 
from which the University of Paris originated. In 
796, the emperor gave him the abbey of St. Martin of 
Tours, where he established a school, which soon be¬ 
came greatly celebrated. J. died in 804, and was buried 
in the church of St. Martin. Over his remains was in¬ 
scribed, on a plate of copper, an epitaph composed by 
himself, of which the following are two of the lines: 

41 Quod nunc es, fueram. famosus in orbe, viator; 

Et quod nunc ego sum. tuque futurua eris." 

The first edition of his collected works was published 
at Paris in 1617, (1 vol. folio.) 

Al'cyon, n. See Halcyon. 

Alcyo'narea, n. pi. (Zool.) A sub-ord. of polyps, 
ord. Alcyonaria. It comprises polypes which are tur¬ 
binate at the base, and which are found incrusting 
foreign bodies. It embraces 4 fain., Alcyonidce, A’em- 
dce, Oirnularidtr, and Tubiporidce. 

Alcyona'rla. n.pl. (Zool.) An ord. of polyps, con¬ 
taining those which have well-developed actinal, mural. 



and abactinal regions: eight long, pinnately-lobed ten¬ 
tacles around a narrow- disk; and which are united 
by budding. It comprises 3 sub-ord.,— Pennatulacea, 
Gorgonacea, and Alcyonacea. 

Aloy'one, or IIalcyone. (Myth.) A daughter of Eolus. 
She married Ceyx. w ho was drowned as he was going 
to consult the oracle. IVhen she found his body lying 
on the shore, she threw herself into the sea, and was, 
with her husband, changed into birds of the same name, 
with pow-er to keep the waters calm while they built, 
and sit on their nests on the surface of the ocean. 

Aloy'one. (Myth.) One ot the Pleiades, daughter of 
Atlas and I'leione. She had Aretliusa by Neptune, 
and Eleuthera by Apollo. She, with her sisters, was 
changed into a constellation.—See Pleiades. 

Alcy one. (A n<:. 6 eng.) A town of Thessaly, where 
Philip of Macedon, Alexander s father, lost one of his 
eyes. 

Aloy'one, n. ( Astrnn.) A star of the 3d magnitude, 
the brightest among the Pleiades, sometimes for that 
reason called the Light of the Pleiades. 

Alcyonia 1‘aius. Arc. Geog.) A lake of Corinth, 
whose depth the emperor Nero attempted in vain to 
fathom. Nocturnal orgies were annually celebrated 
there in honor of Bacchus. 

Aleyon'ic, a. Pertaining or relating to the Alcyonidae. 

Alcyon'itlse, n. pi. (ZnCl.) A tarn, of polyps, sub-ord. 
Alcyonacea, containing those in which the polyps are 
united, forming lobed or arborescent clusters ol fleshy 
or coriaceous texture, filled with calcareous particles. 
The cells occupied by the polyps are placed at the ter¬ 
mination of canals which run through the polvpodoa^ 
and which, by their union with each other, serve t# 



Fig. 77. — ALCYONICM ELEQAN3. 


maintain a communication betw-een the individual po 
lypes constituting the mass. The A. are always at 
tached to submarine bodies. The gen. Alcyonium is the 
principal one. 

Al'cyonite, n. (Pal.) A fossil zoophite, found in chalk 
formations. 

Al'cyon i uni, n. (Zool.) A gen. of polyps. Tam.Alcyonidce. 

Al'cyoniuni Mare. (Anc. Geog.) A name given to 
that portion of the Sifi us Corintliiacus. or Gulf of Lepanto, 
which lies between the promontory of Antirrhinm and 
the coast of Megans. 

Al«l, or Alde, a l iver of England, in Suffolk, rising near 
Framlingham and joining the North sea at Oxford. 

Abla'bra, an island in the Indian ocean, composed of 
three separate parts, having a connection by ce r al 
rocks. Lat. 9° 26' S.; Ion. 46® 35' E. 

Al'dan, a river of Siberia which rises on the confines of 
China and joins the Lena, at lat. 63° 12' N., Ion. 129° 
4 (y E. There are several tow-ns upon its banks, and in 
a course of 300 miles it is fed by various tributaries. 

Al'dan Mountains, an E. Siberian chain of moun¬ 
tains terminating at Behring’s Strait, average height 
4,000 ft. A branch which traverses Kamtscliatka reaches 
an elevation of 10,548 ft. and in Klintshewskaja attains 
15,7 63 ft. — See Alt ai. 

Ald'boroiijjt'li. a market-town in the Vest Riding of 
Yorkshire, England; pop. of town and parish 2,438. 
This is a place of great antiquity, supposed to have been 
the capital of the Brigantes, the most powerful of the 
nations of Britain before the conquest of that people by 
the Romans. But however this may be, the remains, 
which attest the former greatness of the place, go no 
further than the Roman dominion. Under that people 
A. had the name of Isurium. 

Aldborough, or Aleborough. another town of England, in 
Suffolk, on the Aide, 94 miles from London. The 
encroachments of the sea have made it lose its former 
importance. It is a sea-bathing resort; pop. of parish 
1,627. 

Aldeb'aran, n. [Ar.] (Astron.) The Arabic name of » 
large and bright star of the first magnitude, called in 
modern catalogues A. Tauri, situated in the eye of the 
constellation Taurus, whence it is called also by the 
Arabs Ain al Thaur, the bull’s-eye. It is the Iright star 
in the group of the Hyades. Its light is rather reddish, 
and of late years it has become remarkable as having 
been frequently occulted by the moon, and having ex¬ 
hibited the curious phenomenon of projection on the 
moon’s disk. It is easily found in the heavens by the 
following directions. If a line be drawn through the three 
conspicuous stars forming the belt of Orion, toward the 
head, it passes just below Aldebaranand the Hyades; if 
toward the feet, it passes through Sirius, which is about 
the same distance from the belt asAhlebaran. Itcotnes 
to the meridian at 9 o'clock on the loth of Jan. 























6S 


ALE 


A LEM 


ALEE 


Alliosro'voi", Heinrich, a German painter and en¬ 
graver a pupil and successful imitator of Albert Diirer. 
H. in Westphalia iu 1502, d. 1502. 

Aiileliydeie, a. Denoting an acid prepared from an 
aldehyde. 

Al'deliydes, n. pi. [A contraction from alcohol dehy- 
drogenatus, alcohol deprived of its hydrogen ] ( Chem.~) 
The name of a series of compounds produced by the ox¬ 
idation of the alcohol, less liignly oxidized than the 
acids, anil standing in an intermediate position between 
the alcohol and the acids. The characteristic reaction 
of the series is the formation of definite compounds with 
the acid sulphites of alkali metals. Aldehyde is a volatile 
inflammable liquid, with a peculiar pungent irritating 
odor, which has a faint resemblance to that of apples. 
It is obtained by a gradual oxidation of alcohol in vari¬ 
ous ways. Form., C. 2 II. 1 O. It may be mixed in all 
proportions with alcohol, ether, and water. It can 
scarcely be exposed to the air, without absorbing oxy¬ 
gen, and it then forms an acid compound. 

Arden, in Illinois, a post-village and township of Mc¬ 
Henry co., 70 m. N.W. of Chicago. 

Ar«len. in Iowa, a post-village and township in Hardin 
c<>. — Alden Village is on the Iowa river, about 70 miles 
N by E. of Des Moines. 

Al'den, in New York, a township of Erie co., 22 m. 

5 of Buffalo. 

Alden, iu Wisconsin, a township in the S.E. of Polk 
co. 

Aldenville, in Penna., a post-office of Wayne co. 

Alder, n. (Bot.) See Ai.nus. 

Alderbrook., in Arkansas, a post-office of Indepen¬ 
dence co. 

Alderbury, a small town of England, county of Wilts. 
3 m. from Salisbury. Pop. 1,438. At about a mile from 
the town is Clarendon, where formerly stood a mansion, 
which was a frequent residence of the early English 
monarchs. In it Parliament assembled, and Henry II. 
enacted the celebrated Statutes of Clarendon, framed to 
check the encroachments of Catholicism. 

A1 der Creek., in New York , a village of Oneida 
co., 107 m. W.N.W. of Albany. 

Alderley, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Dodge co. 

Alderman, in N. Carolina, a vill. of Cumberland co. 

Alderman, in N. Dakota, a village of Barns co. 

Alderman, n.; pi. Aldermen. [A. S., eahterman, 
from ealder, older, and man, a man.] Princes, earls, 
governors of provinces, and othei persons of distinc¬ 
tion, were generally termed aldermen by the Anglo- 
Saxous. But besides this general signification of the 
word, it was also applied to certain officers in uarticu- 
lar; thus, there was an A. of all England ( ahiermannus 
tot his Anglae), the nature of whose office has not been 
well ascertained. There was alsc a king’s A. ( alder- 
mannas regis), who has been supposed to have been an 
occasional judge, with authority to administer justice in 
partial districts. There were also A. of cities, boroughs, 
and castles, and A. of hundreds, upon whose particular 
functions it is useless to speculate. Aldermen, at present, 
are officers associated with the mayor of a city, for the 
administration of municipal governments, both in Eng¬ 
land and the United States. — In some places they act 
as judges in certain civil and criminal cases. 

Al'tlerinancy and Al'ilermanry, n. The quality 
or office of an alderman. 

Al'dci'man'ic, a. Belonging or relating to an aider- 
man. 

Al'tlerman-like, and Aldermanly, a. Like an 

alderman. 

Al'tler in ans hip, n. The condition of an alderman. 

Al'deril, a. Made of alder. 

Al'der it ey , or Aurigny, an islandbelonging to Great 
Britain, in the English Channel, 55 m. S. from the isle 
of Portland, and 18 m. W. of Cape La Hogue in Nor¬ 
mandy. The channel between A. and the latter is dan¬ 
gerous in stormy weather from the strength and rapid¬ 
ity of the tide. This isle is about 3]^ miles in length, 
by 3% in breadth. It is celebrated ior its breedof cows 
(see Ox). Pop. -1932. 

Al'dersliot, and Aldershott, a parish of England, co. 
of Hants. Pop. 16,720. There is here, since 1854, a per¬ 
manent camp of 20,000 men. 

Al'die, in Virginia, a post-village of Loudon co., on 
Little river, 110 m. N. of Richmond. 

Al'dine Editions. (Bibli-g. i The name given to 
the works which proceeded from the press of the family 
of Aldus Manutius. — See Manutius. 

Aldobraiitl'ini. See Clement VIII. 

Aldroviin'dus, Ulysses, an Italian, distinguished as 
a natural historian. B. at Bologna iu 1522, D. 1607. 
After passing a life devoted to the most exalted pur¬ 
suits. and bringing together, at vast labor and expense, 
a magnificent collection of minerals, plants, and ani¬ 
mals, he died in an hospital, whicr. ne was compelled to 
Miter on account of his poverty. 

Alils'to lie Moor, a parish and town of England, co. 
of Cumberland, Leath ward, on the border of Northum¬ 
berland. The town stands on a hill washed by the 
Tyne. Pop. of parish, 6,404. It is chiefly celebrated for 
its lead mines. 

Aldus. See Manutius. 

Ale, n. [A. S. eale, eala, aloth, from aelan, to inflame.] 
An amber-colored, malt, fermented liquor, differing 
from beer chiefly by its strength and the quantity of 
saccharine matter remaining uufermented. Common 
beer has only 1 per cent, of alcohol, while brown ale 
has from 5 to 6 per cent. The st T "ngest Burton ale is 
made with the best pale malt, and contains as much as 

6 per cent, of alcohol. The Scotch ales also, especially 
those of Edinburgh and Prestonpans, which have a high 
ceDutation, contain a very small amouut of hops, and 


are distinguished for their vinous flavor. India pale ale 
differs from others chiefly in having a larger quantity 
of hops. The use of an intoxicating beverage composed 
of barley and other grain steeped iu water and after¬ 
wards fermented, may be traced in several parts of the 
ancient world. Pliny states that in his time it was in 
general use among the natives who inhabited the west¬ 
ern parts of Europe, and under different names in 
Egypt, Spain, and Italy. 900 years before Pliny. Hero¬ 
dotus tells us that the Egyptians used a liquor made 
of barley, and Tacitus states that the ancient Germans 
for their drink drew a liquor from barley and other 
grains, and fermented it so as to make it resemble wine. 
Ale was also the favorite liquor of the Anglo-Saxons 
and Danes, and before the introduction of Christianity 
it was an article of belief among them that drinking 
copious draughts of ale formed one of the chief felicities 
of their heroes in the hall of Odin. It is equally named 
as one of the chief liquors provided for a royal banquet 
in the reign of Edward the Confessor. By a statute of 
Henry III. (1266 1 , the preamble of which alludes to 
earlier statutes on the same subject, a graduated scale 
was established for the price of ale throughout Eng¬ 
land. For a long time after the introduction of hops in 
England, which took place about the year 1524, the 
name Ale was restricted to the unhopped liquors in 
opposition to the German beer or hopped liquors. But 
as now used, the word ale does not imply the absence, 
but only a less proportion of hops. 

Ale'a, w. [Lat., a game of hazard.] (Law.) The chance of 
gain or loss in a contract. 

(Conch.) A gen. of minute land-shells, found in marshy 
ground, roots of trees, moss, Ac. 

Ale'a. (Anc. Geog.) A town of Arcadia, built oy Aleus. 
It had three famous temples—that of Diana Ephesia. of 
Minerva Alea, and of Bacchus. At the annual festival 
held here in honor of the latter deity, women were 
beaten with scourges, in accordance with a command of 
the Delphian oracle. 

Aleak', adv. In a leaking condition. 

(Naut.) To spring a leal., is said of a vessel, when a 
leak commences in some part of her. 

Al'eatory, n. [From alea.] (Law.) An A. contract is an 
agreement of which the effects, with regard both to the 
advantages and losses, whether to all the parties, or to 
some of them, depend on an uncertain event. 

Ale'-berry, n. A beverage made by boiling ale with 
spice, sugar, and sops of bread. 

Ale'-brewer, n. One who brews ale. 

Ale'-conner, Ale'-kenner, n. In England, an officer 
sworn to look at the assize and goodness of ale and 
beer. — Also an officer whose office is to inspect the 
measures used in public-houses. 

Ale'cost. n. (Bot.) The costmary, Balsamita vulgaris, 
sometimes put into ale to improve its taste. 

Alec'tor, n. (Zool.) See Curassow. 

Aleetorom'aeby, n. [Gr. alector, a cock, and mache, 
a battle.] Cock-fighting. 

Alec'trures, n. pi. See Alectrurin*. 

Alectruri'nse, v.pl. (Zool.) A sub-fam. of dentirostral 
birds, ord. Passeres, fam. Muscicapidae. 

Alectryom'ancy, and Alectrom'ancy, n. [Gr.] An 
ancient practice of foretelling events by means of acock. 
The letters of the alphabet were traced on the ground, 
and a grain of corn laid on each; a cock was then per¬ 
mitted to pick up the grains; and the letters under the 
grains selected, being formed into words, were supposed 
to foretell the events desired. 

Alec'tura, n. (Zool.) See TalfgalLA. 

Aiello. in Illinois, a city, capital of Mercer co., about 75 
miles W.N.W. of Feoria. Pop. (1899), 1,601. 

Ale'-tlraper, n. A keeper of an ale-house. 

Alee', adv. [From a and lee. In Fr. sous It vent, under 
the wind.] (Naut.) The situation of the helm when it is 
pushed down to the lee side of the ship, in order to put 
the ship about, or to lay her head to the windward. 

Aleft', adv. Ou the loft, (r.) 

Ale'tioof, n. (Bot.) A species of ground-ivy, the Nepeta 
lechmna, ord. Lamiace w; once so called on account of it* 
eing the chief ingredient with which ale was made. 

Ale'-house, n. A house where ale and beer are drunk; 
—distinguished from a tavern, whore wines and liquors 
are also retailed. 

A I' email, Mateo, a Spanish writer, who lived in the 
16th century. He satirized the manners of his country¬ 
men in the masterly creation of Guzman de Alfarache, 
a novel published in Madrid, 1599. 

Alema'nni, or Allemanni, n. pi. [0. Ger . Allemannen, 
from alle, all, and Mann (pi. Manner), a man; — all 
men, all sorts of men; a vast union of many tribes.] 
The name of a confederacy of several German tribes, 
which, in the beginning of the third century,approached 
the Roman territory. Their principal abode was tlie 
very heart of Germany, the space between the sources 
of tiie Rhine and the Danube; from this vital centre, 
tiieir sway seems to have extended very far along the 
hanks of both those rivers, occupying the entire space 
between them. In the earliest period of their history, 
their limits are supposed to have been the Rhine, the 
Danube, and the Maine; in subsequent ages, their terri¬ 
tory extended towards the Alps and the Jura mountains. 
Caracalla first fought with them, on the southern part 
of the Rhine, in 211, but did not conquer them. Maxi- 
min drove them beyond the Rhine, in 236, and Posthu- 
mius pursued them into Germany. But the A. did not 
desist from their incursions. Successively repulsed by 

| Lollianus, the emperor Probus, and Constantins Chlorus, 
they were defeated by Julian, 357, who forced their 
princes to sue for peace. Valentinian I. had almost in¬ 
cessantly to contend with them in his own domain. 
Gratian, iu 377, fought with them a bloody battle, at 


Argnsturia (Harburg). Til the middle of the 5th cerv 
tury, they spread over Helvetia Alter the great victory 
gained by the Frankish Sing Clodwig, at Tolbiacum, 496, 
many of them sought reluge witli Theodoric the Great, 
who assigned to them abodes in Rhaetia. They consoli¬ 
dated with the Suevi into a dukedom, called the Duchy 
of Alemunnia, alter which their history is absorbed in 
the general history of Germany. 

Aleman'ilic, n. The language of the Alemanni. 

— a. Pertaining or relating to the Alemanni. 

Alem'bert, Jean le Road d’, b. at Paris, 1717, was 
a natural child, abandoned by his mother, exposed in 
a public market, by the church of St. Jean le Rond, and 
found by the overseer of the district, who intrusted him 
to the wife of a poor glazier. D’Alembert commenced 
his studies in the college of Mazarin, where he made 
surprising progress in mathematics. AN hen he Ieit col¬ 
lege, he returned to his foster-mother, with whom ho 
lived altogether 40 years. Giving tip all hopesol wealth 
or civil honors, he devoted himself entirely to his lavov- 
ite studies. Some memoirs, which he wrote in the years 
1739 and 1740, procured him admission to the Academy 
of Sciences, in 1741, at the age of 24. From this time 
may be dated the career of honor which ranks him 
among the greatest benefactors to science ol the last cen¬ 
tury. In 1743 he produced his treatise on dynamics 
In 1749 he solved the problem of the precession ol the 
equinoxes, ascertained its quantity, and explained the 
rotation of the terrestrial axis. In 1752 he published 
an essay on the resistance of fluids, and soon alter ob¬ 
tained a pension from Louis XV. lie next engaged with 
Diderot in compiling the celebrated “ Encyclopedic,” lot 
which lie wrote the preliminary discourse, which was so 
excellent, that it drew from Condorcet the compliment, 
that in a century only two or three men appeared ca¬ 
pable of writing such. While engaged on mathemati¬ 
cal subjects, his name was not much known; hut now 
he became celebrated by works ol an historical and mis¬ 
cellaneous character, such as his “Philosophical, Ilis 
torical, and Philological Miscellanies; ” “The Memoirs 
of Christina, Queen of Sweden,” and his “Elements of 
Philosophy.” Frederick, king of Prussia, offered him 
the office of president of his academy, and Catharine, 
the empress of Russia, invited him into her dominions as 
tutor to the grand-duke; but Alembert refused both. 
In 17G5 he published his dissertation on the destruction 
of the Jesuits. He also published nine volumes of mem¬ 
oirs and miscellaneous pieces, and the “ Elements of 
Music.” In 1772 he was elected secretary to the French 
Academy, and wrote the history of 70 of its members. D. 
1783. D’Alembert has been heldupto reprobation on ac¬ 
count of his religious opinions. Nevertheless, the pub¬ 
lished writ ings of D’A. contain no expressions offensive to 
religion. Had it not been for his private correspondence 
with Voltaire and others, which was published after his 
death, the world would not have known, except by im¬ 
plication, what the opinions of D’A. were. On this 
point we will cite respectable Catholic authority. The 
Bishop of Limoges said, during the life of D’A., “I do 
not know him personally; hut I have always heard that 
his manners are simple, and his conduct without a stain. 
As to his works, I read them over and over again, and 
I find nothing there except plenty of talent, great infor¬ 
mation, and a good system of morals. If his opinions 
are not as sound as his writings, he is to bo pitied, but 
no one lias a right to interrogate his conscience.” The 
style of D’A. as a writer is agreeable, but he is not 
placed by the French in the first rank. His mathemati¬ 
cal works show that ho wrote as he thought uitlioul 
taking much trouble to finish. Ilis expression was, 
“Let us find out the thing — there will ho plenty of peo 
pie to put it into shape,” — an assertion abundantly 
verified since his time. 

Alem'bic, n. [Ar. al, the, and ambeeq, a cup.] (Che.m.) 
Au obsolete form of still. In France, the term alembic 
is used to designate a glass still, consisting of a retort 
and head. 

Alem'broth, n. (Cheni.) An old term, which was ap¬ 
plied by alchemists to the poisonous salt of wisdom, a 
double chloride of mercury and ammonia. It was used 
as a stimulant. 

Alemte'jo. See Alentejo. 

A'len, John Van, a distinguished Dutch painter of birds, 
landscapes, and representations of still life. B. at Am¬ 
sterdam, 1651; D. 1678. 

Alen'COil, a city of Fi ance, cap. of tliedep. of the Orne, 
in a ilain on the Sartlie, 105 m. W.S.W. of Paris.— Man. 
Cloth, linen, tanneries. Some houses still make the 
celebrated lace called point d’Alcnfon. The A. diamonds 
are crystals of smoke quartz iouud iu neighboring 
granite quarries. Pop. 14,700. 

Alcngth', adv. [From a fur ad, and length.] At full 
length; along; stretched at full length, (o.) 

Ale'nio, Jui.ius, an Italian Jesuit, who propagated 
Christianity with great success in China during: 6 years 
and wrote several books in the Chinese language. D 
1649. 

Aleiite'jo, a prov. of Portugal, between Lat. 37° 20' ana 
39° 40', having, N. Beira, S. Algarve, E. Spain, and W 
the Atlantic and part of Estremadura.— Area, 10,224 
sq. m. — Climate, hot and dry. Surface undulating.— 
Rivers, Tagus, Guadiana, and Sado.— Chief towns, Evora. 
the cap.; lit ja, Villa-Viscosa, Portalegre,Elvas, and Es- 
tremoz. Lisbon is mostly supplied with corn from 
hence, and rice is grown in the low grounds; pop. 
329,277. 

Alep'po, or IIaleb-es-Shabba, a city of Turkey in 
Asia, cap. of a pashalic of the same name, in the N. of 
Syria, on the Koeik (anc. Chalus), 70 m. E.of the Mediter 
ranean. Lat. 36° 11' N.; Lon. 37° 10' E. The city roa* 
to importance on the destruction of Palmyra, and b« 







ALEX 


ALEX 


ALEX 


69 


tame the great emporium of trade between Europe and 
the East. A. lias a castle, a Mohammedan college, with 
numerous pupils, many Christian schools and churches, 
an ancient aqueduct, several large inns, and many ex¬ 
tensive warehouses and bazaars.— Man/. Silk, cotton, 
gold and silver thread studs. Large caravans arrive 
from Bagdad, tlassora, Diurbekir, Mosul, Kurdistan, and 
Armenia. Consuls of most European nations reside at 
Aleppo. About 30 in. N.W. is Angoli 'l'agh, a mountain 
with ruins of a convent, and a number of deserted 
villages, which indicate its former populousness. Prp. 
about 100,000; but previously to the earthquake of 1822 
it is said to have been upward of 200,000. 

Hep |»o, in Pennsylvania, a township of Green coun¬ 
ty. 

Alert', a. [Sp. aV erta, on the mound or post of the senti¬ 
nel ou the fortification or rampart. I Watchful; vigilant; 
ready at a call; active; brisk; nimble.—Although A. is 
used for briskness or activity in general, it still is most 
appropriately used of cases in which, according to the 
etymology, the mind and body answer to some external 
call upon them, to be on the alert, or to be on the look¬ 
out, ready to act on short notice, being found prepared. 

(MU.) Upon the. alert, on one's guard; upon the watch; 
guarding against surprise or danger. 

Alert', in Ohio, a post-village of Butler co 

Alertness,?!. The quality or state of being alert; 
nimbleuess; sprightliness. 

Ale'-pole, Ale-post, n. A pole or post set up for a 
sign before an ale-house. 

Ale -silver, n. A rent or tribute anciently paid to the 
Lord Mayor of London by the sellers of ale. 

Alessau'Uria. (“City of Alexander,”) a fortified town 
of N. Italy, Piedmont, cap of a jirov. of the same name, 
on the Tanaro, 66 m. E.8.E. of Turin. It has a cathedral, 
barracks, and many public edifices. Man/., silks, linens, 
woollen goods, stockings, and hats. Pop 59,000. In 
the extensive and barren plain of San Giuliano, 2 miles 
S.E. of A., is the little village of Marengo, celebrated 
for the great victory gained by Napoleon 1. over the 
Austrians, on June 14,lsOO. 

Ales'si, Gal :us. a famous architect, who planned the 
monastery aud church of the Escurial, the royal palace 
near Madrid. B at Perugia, 1500; D. 1572. 

Ales'so, d", Matteo Pep.lz, au eminent painter and 
engraver, n.at Rome. His most celebrated performance 
is a gigantic fresco figure of St. Christopher, in the 
great church of Seville. D. 1000. 

Ale t ris, n. [Gr. aleialros, meal, from the powdery 
dust with which the plant is covered.] (But.) A gen. 
of the ord. HatmoUnracece. The A. fannosa, or star- 
grass, grows in low grounds in the U. States Its roots 
are intensely bitter. It is used in infusion as a tonic 
and stomachic, and has been employed in chronic rheu¬ 
matism. 

Aleu'rites, n. (But.) A gen. of the ord. Ettphorbiacece 
The A. triloba, a Molucca tree, has much reputation for 
its nuts, said to be aphrodisiac. 

Aleii roinancy, u. [Gr.] A kind of divination by 
flour, used by the ancients. 

Aleurom'eter, n _ [£} r . aleuron, flour, and metron, 
measure.] An instrument to ascertain the quantity of 
gluten in flour. 

Aleu'tian, or Alectan, Islands, a chain of islands in 
the North Pacific, extending between Kamtschatka in 
Asia, and the peninsula Alaska in America. They are 
very numerous, occupying a circular area, extending 
from 165° to 195° E. ion., whose chord is in 55° N. lat., 
and over 600 in. in length. Behring’s island, Attoo, 
and Uualaska, are the largest. They are rocky aud 
volcanic, having some volcanoes in constant activity. 
Vegetation scanty; there are no trees nor any plants 
surpassing the dimension of low shrubs aud bushes. 
The seas abound in fish, aud the feathered tribes are 
numerous. Poxes are the principal quadrupeds. Only 
a few islands are inhabited, and the total population, 
variously estimated, is perhaps 2,500. The islands were 
partially discovered by Behring, in 1741. The E. part 
of the chain belongs to the U. States, and a few islands 
at the extreme W. end to Russia. See Alaska. 

Ale'wife, n. A woman who keeps an ale-house. 

(/tool.) The clupea serrata, an American fish, resem¬ 
bling the herring. 

Alexander I., king cf Macedon, son of Arayntas I., 
was alive at the time of the great Persian invasion of 
Greece, b. c. 480. 

ILBX.an'der II., the 16th king of Macedon, was the son of 
Ainyntas II., and ascended the throne about b. c. 370. 

Alexan'der III., (The Great,) son of Philip II., king of 
Macedon, was born b. c. 356. His mother was Olympia, 
the daughter of Neoptolemus, king of Epirus, through 
whom A. claimeu a descent from the great Plithiotic 
hero Achilles. The history of A. forms an epoch in the 
history of the world. Whatever difficulties we may 
have in making an exact estimate of his personal char¬ 
acter, we can hardly assign too much importance to 
the great events of his life, and their permanent influ¬ 
ence on the condition of the human race. The over¬ 
throw of the great Asiatic monarchy which had so often 
threatened the political existence of Greece, the vic¬ 
torious progress of the Macedonian arms from the 
plains of Thebes to the banks of the Danube, and from 
the Hellespont to the Nile, the Jaxartes, and the Indus, 
—these have formed in all ages the theme of historical 
declamation, and are still the subject of vulgar admira¬ 
tion. But the diffusion of the language and the arts 
of Greece, the extension of commerce by opening to 
Europeans the road to India, the great additions made 
to natural science and geography by the expedition of 
A., —these are the real subjects for enlightened and 
critical reseat'.h. If we knew nothing more of A. than 
« 


that Aristotle was his master, the memory of the phi¬ 
losopher would preserve that of the pupil. But it is a 
rare coincidence to find the greatest of conquerors in¬ 
structed by the first of philosophers—the master of all 
knowledge teaching the future master of the world. 
Some of the great projects of A. might pass for the 
mere caprice of a mail possessed of unlimited power, if 
we did not know that Arislotie bad given him lessens 
in political science, and written for his use a treatise 
on the art of government. That the pupil, amid all 
his violence and excesses, possessed a vigorous and clear 
understanding, with enlarged views of the advantages 
of commerce, and of the nature of civil government, is 
amply confirmed by some of the most prominent events 
of his life. Unfortunately, Aristotle was not his only 
master; the flattery of Lysimachus, and the obsequi¬ 
ousness of his attendants, conspired to cherish those un¬ 
governable passions which seem to have descended to 
him from both his parents.—His first essay in arms was 



Fig. 78.— tetradrachm or four-drachm coin of Alexan¬ 
der THE GREAT. 

(The reverse of this coin is a figure of the eagle bearing Jupiter.) 
made at the battle of Clueronea, b. c. 338, when his father 
crushed the united forces of Thebes and Athens with 
their allies, and established the Macedonian supremacy 
in Greece. Philip was murdered during the celebration 
of his daughter's marriage, when he was just on the 
eve of setting out on his Asiatic expedition, at the head 
of the combined force of Greece, and A., in his 20th 
year, succeeded to the monarchy and to the great de¬ 
signs of his father. After having punished Philip’s 
murderer, A. went into the Peloponnesus, and received, 
in the general assembly of the Greeks, the chief com¬ 
mand already conferred on his father. After his 
return, he found the Illyrii and Triballi in arms, went 
to meet them, forced a passage through Thrace, and was 
everywhere successful. But the Thebans, having heard 
a rumor of his death, had taken up arms, and the Athe¬ 
nians, urged by Demosthenes, were about to joiii them. 
A. hastened to prevent this junction, and appeared be¬ 
fore Thebes, took and destroyed the city. 6000 of the 
inhabitants were put to the sword, and 30,000 car¬ 
ried into captivity. The house and family of the poet 
Pindar alone were spared. This severity terrified all 
Greece. Leaving Antipater to govern in his stead in 
Europe, he crossed over into Asia, in the spring of 334, 
with 30,000 foot and 5,000 horse. When he approached 
the Granicus, he learned that several Persian satraps, 
with 20,000 foot, end as many horse, awaited him on 
the other side. A., without delay, led his army through 
the river, and obtained a complete victory, having 
overthrown, with his lance, Mithfidatos, the son-in-law 
of Darius, and exposed himself to every danger. Most 
of the cities of Asia Minor, even Sardis, opened their 
gates to the victor. Miletus and Halicarnassus resisted 
longer. A. restored democracy in all the Greek cities. 
In passing through Gordium, he cut the Gordian knot, 
and conquered Lycia, Ionia, Caria, Pamphylia, and Cap¬ 
padocia. But a dangerous sickness, brought on by 
bathing in the Cydnus, checked his course. Ou this 
occasion he showed the elevation of his character. He 
received a letter from Parmenio, saying that Philip, his 
physician, had been bribed by Darius to poisoti him. 
A. gave the letter to the physician, and at the same 
time drank the potion which he had prepared for him. 
Scarcely was he restored to health, when he advanced 
toward the defiles of Cilicia, whither Darius had im¬ 
prudently betaken himself, with an immense army. 
The second battle took place near Issus, netween the 
sea and the mountains. The disorderly masses of the 
Persians were broken by the charge of the Macedonians, 
and fled in wild confusion. The treasures and family 
of Darius fell into the hands of the conqueror. The 
latter were treated most magnanimously. A. did not 
pursue Darius, who fled toward the Euphrates, but, in 
order to cut him off from the sea, turned toward Ccelo- 
Syria and Phoenicia. The victory at Issus had opened 
the whole country to the Macedonians. A. took pos¬ 


session of Damascus, and secured all the towns along 
the Mediterranean sea. Tyre, emboldened by tbs 
strength of its situation, resisted, but was taken, after 
seven mouths of incredible exertions, and destroyed, 
A. continued his victorious march through Palestine, 
where ail the towns surrendered, except Gaza, which 
shared the fate of Tyre. Egypt, weary of the Persia n 
yoke, received him as a deliverer. In order to confirm 
lii- power, he restored the former customs and religious 
rites, and founded Alexandria. At the return of spring, 
A. marched against Darius, who, in the meantime, had 
collected an army in Assyria, and rejected the proposals 
of A. for peace. A battle wil- fought at Gaugamela, not 
iar from Arbela, in 331. Justin estimates the forces of 
Darius at 50U,U(M men ; Diodorus, Arrian, and Plutarch 
at more than double that number. Notwithstanding 
the immense numerical superiority ol his enemy, A. 
was not a moment doubtful of victory. At tlie head of 
his cavalry, he attacked the Persians, and routed them 
immediately; he then hastened to the aid of his lelt 
wing, which had been, in the mean time, severely 
pressed. His wish was to take, or kill, the king of 
Persia. The latter was on an elevated chariot, in the 
midst of his body-guards. These, when they saw how 
A. overthrew everything, fled. Darius then inouuted 
a horse, and fled likewise, leaving his army, baggage 
and immense treasures to the victor. Babylon and ftusa, 
where the riches of the East lay accumulated, opened 
their gates to A., who directed his march toward Peisepi*- 
lis, the capital of Persia. The only passage thither, Pylm 
Persidis. was defended by 40,000 men under Artoburzaues. 
A. attacked them in the rear, routed them, and entered 
Persepolis triumphant. From this time the glory of A. 
began to decline. Master of the greatest empire in tlie 
world, he became a slave to his own passions; gave 
himself up to arrogance and dissipation: showed him¬ 
self ungrateful and cruel, and, in tlie arms of pleasure, 
shed the blood of his bravest generals. Hitherto sober and 
moderate, this hero, who called himself a god, sunk to 
the level of vulgar men. Persepolis, the wonder of the 
world, he burned in a fit of intoxication. Ashamed of this 
act, he set out with his cavalry to pursue Darius, who 
was assassinated by Bessus, sal rap ot Bactriuna. and 
mourned by the Macedonian hero. The ambition for con¬ 
quest had now become in A. an inordinate passion, lie 
entirely subdued Persia, and then prepared to invade 
India. In the early part of the year 326 b.c he crossed 
the Indus, and entered the Punjab. On the banks of the 
Hydaspes he encountered Porus, an Indian prince, with a 
numerous army, in which were several elephants. The 
wonted fortune of the Macedonians prevailed; but A was 
so pleased with the gallantry ol Porus, that he restored 
him his kingdom and entered into an alliance with him. 
Pursuing the tide of conquest, which seemed to roll 
him to success, he advanced to the Acesines itheCho- 
naub), traversed the barren plain between it and the 
Hydraotes (the Ravee), when he was met by a second 
Porus; him he defeated, and gave his kingdom to the 
former Porus. Continuing his march, he arrived at the 
river Hyphasis (the Garra), which was the limit of his 
Indian expedition. Here he erected twelve colossal 
towers to mark this circumstance. He now ordered a 
fleet to be built, and sailed down the Indus; and leaving 
the ships to Nearchus. whom he directed to the Persian 
Gulf, he returned with his army through Persia to Baby¬ 
lon, where he was carried oil by a fever, in the 33d year 
of his age, 323 b. c. He had four wives: Barsina, the 
daughter of Artabazes; Roxana, a Persian princess, l y 
whom he left a son of his own name, who was assassi¬ 
nated with his mother, by Cassauder; Parisatis, daugh¬ 
ter of Artaxerxes Oclius; and Statira, daughter of Da¬ 
rius Codomannus. By his own direction, his body was 
carried to Alexandria, where Ptolemy Lagus deposited 
it in a gold coffin, which one of his successors changed 
for a glass one. Having appointed no successor, bis 
generals divided his conquests among themselves.—The 
character of A. was made up of very great and very 
bad qualities. lie committed many odious cruelties, 
and he drank to a shameful excess. In one of his 
drunken fits he stabbed his most intimate friend Clytus 
with his own hand. Yet he often performed deeds that 
indicated a benevolent mind: and though he was pleased 
with the fulsome ascription of divinity, on other occa¬ 
sions he expressed his abhorrence of adulation and flat¬ 
tery. He possessed a taste for learning and the fine 
arts, and had always about him men of science, philoso¬ 
phers, and poets. 

Alexan der. Jannsus, king of the Jews, third son of 
Johannes Hyrcanus, succeeded his brother Aristobulus 
as king and as high-priest from 106 or 104 to 79 b. c. He 
began his reign by murdering one of his brothers, aud 
entered into hostilities, which lasted long, with Ptolemy 
Lathyru8, king of Egypt. His cruelties irritated his 
subjects, and produced a civil war, which lasted six 
years. A., however, proved successful, and in one day 
caused 800 captives to be crucified, after their wives 
and children had been murdered before their eyes. 
Alexan'der, son of king Aristobulus II., and grandson 
of Jannams, was taken captive in Judasa by Pompey, 
who intended to exhibit him with his fatlierand brother 
in his triumph at Rome. Alexander escaped on the 
journey, and returned to Judtea, where he raised an 
army. But Marcus Antonius, who was sent by Ga- 
binius, governor of Syria, defeated Alexander near Jeru¬ 
salem, b. c. 57, and besieged him in Alexandrion, where 
he capitulated. After his father, Aristobulus, had escaped 
from Rome to Judma, and had been again defeated anf 
put into prison, Alexander once more took up arms ant 
conquered Judasa. But he was defeated in a battle near 
Mount Tabor, fell into the hands of Metellus Scipio. arjj 
was beheaded at Antioch, 49 b. c. 




















TO 


ALEX 


ALEX 


ALEX 


llexan'der I., sur- 
named Balas,reign- 
3d as king of Syria 
from 150 lo 145 B. c. 
ilo was an adven¬ 
turer, who was em¬ 
ployed by the Ro¬ 
mans to personate 
the son of Antioclnis 
Epiphanes, king of 
Syria, in order to 
take possession of 
that kingdom, lie 
defeated Demetrius 
Soter, the lawful heir 
and married at Ptole- 
mais, Cleopatra, a 
daughter of l'tole- 
m a* u s Philometor, 
king of Egypt, who 
afterwards turned 
against him and em¬ 
braced the cause of 
Demetrius Soter. Ba- 
las being defeated by 
Ptolemy, escaped into 
Arabia, where he was 
slain. On some coins, 
the head of Balas is 
associated with that 
of Cleopatra, who oc¬ 
cupies the foregn mud 
with amodius on her 
head, — an indication 
of his subordination to that proud woman. 

Alexan'der II., called Zabina, or the brnught-ov, as it 
was reported that he had been purchased from slavery. 
He reigned over a part of Syria, from 128 to 122 B. c., 
and was put to death. 

Alexander I., king of Scotland, son of Malcolm III., 
succeeded his eldest brother Edgar. 1107, and d. 11241 
He was very rigorous in the administration of justice; 
on w htcb account several insurrections took place, all 
of which he subdued. Alluding to the most serious of 
them, excited by the English, the old chronicler Wyn¬ 
ton says, 

“ Fra that day forth his lieges all 
Used him Alexander the fierce to call." 

Alexander II., succeeded his father, William the Lion, 
1214, at the age of 16. He engaged in a long and de¬ 
structive war with England. His marriage with the 
sister of Henry III., 1221, restored peace between the 
two kingdoms. D. 1249. 

Alexander III., son of the preceding by his second 
wife, came to the crown at the age of eight years. Soon 
after he was married to Margaret, daughter of Henry 
III. of England, whom he assisted against the English 
barons. He defeated the king of Norway, who had in¬ 
vaded Scotland with a large army. He was killed in 
hunting, 1286, leaving the character of a great and good 
prince. 

Alexander, Pope, succeeded Evaristus in 109; d. 119. 
He was a Roman by birth, and stands as a uiarytr and 
prince in tlie Roman Calendar. 

Alexander II., succeeded Nicholas II. in 1061. He car¬ 
ried the Pupal powers to a great height, and most of 
the sovereign princes yielded to his authority. D. 1073. 
Alexander ill., succeeded Adrian IV. in 1159. The 
emperor Frederick I. having procured an anti-pope 
to be elected, A. deposed the emperor,, and absolved 
his subjects from their allegiance. Upon this, Frederick 
marched to Rome, and having driven out A., placed his 
rival in the pontifical chair: but becoming weary of the 
contest, he acknowledged A. as legal pontiff. A. took 
part with Thomas A Becket in his quarrel with Henry 
II., and canonized him after his assassination. D. 1181. 
Alexander IV., of Anagnt, succeeded Innocent IV., 1254. 
He claimed unsuccessfully the right to dispose of the 
crown of Sicily. D. 1261. 

Alexander V., succeeded Gregory XII. in 1409. B. 
on the Island of Candia, of such poor parents that in 
his childhood he was obliged to go about begging, he 
was admitted among the Friars Minors, went to Paris 
for his studies, obtained the bishopric of Vicenza, and 
afterward the archbishopric of Milan; Pope Innocent 
VII. made him cardinal. He was a liberal and munifi¬ 
cent pontiff. D. 1410. 

Alexander VI., (Roderigo Borgia,) b. at Valencia, Spain, 
1431, succeeded Innocent VIII. 1492. His mother 
was sister to Calistus III., by whom he was made car¬ 
dinal. By his intrigues lie got himself elected by the 
conclave, though he had then four sons an 1 a daughter by 
a Roman lady. His son, Cesare Borgia, was a monster of 
wickedness like himself. There is hardly a crime of 
which they have not been accused, and it seems with 
justice. At length Providence punished them by the 
same means which they had prepared for the ruin of 
others. In 1503, the Pope and liis son attempted to 
oison a rich cardinal, on account of his wealth: when, 
y a mistake of the attendants, they drank the wine 
which they had destined for their victim. The Pope 
died almost instantly, but Borgia recovered, and was 
killed some years after. His daughter Lucrezia was 
married, first to Giovanni Sforza, Lord of Pesaro, 
whom she afterward divorced; then to a prince of the 
house of Aragon, who was murdered by her brother 
Cesare; after which sire lived some time in the pontifical 
palace, sharing in the intrigues and licentiousness of that 
court. She was married a third time, in 1501, to Al¬ 
fonso d’Este, son of Hercules, duke of Ferrara.—The 
pontificate of A. is certainly the blackest page in the 


history of modern Rome. The general demoralization 
of that period, of which abundant details are found in 
Catholic as well as Protestant writers, appear in cur 
time almost incredible. 



Fig. 80. — ALEXANDER VI. 

Alexander VII., Fabio Chigi of Siena, succeeded Inno¬ 
cent X. 1655. He published, in 1656, the famous bull 
against the Jansenists. He protected learning, but 
was accused of favoring too much his relatives and con¬ 
nections. D. 1667. 

Alexan der VIII., Cardinal Ottdboni of Venice, suc¬ 
ceeded Innocent XI. 1689; d. 1691, at the age of 82. 

Alexan'der I., emperor and autocrat of all the Russias, 
and king of Poland, was born Nov. 6, 1777, and in 1801, 
on the death of his father, Paul, ascended the throne. 
From 1805 to 1815, his name and his influence were con¬ 
nected with all the most important political transactions 
of Europe. In the year 1S05, Alexander united with 
the emperor of Austria against France. This coalition, 
however, was of short continuance; it was broken up, 
in consequence of the success of Napoleon at Austerlitz. 
In the following year he joined with Prussia; hut, in 
1807, after having been defeated at Friedland, he signed, 
at Tilsit, a peace with the French emperor, very soon 



Fig. 81. — ALEXANDER I. 

after which he became one of his closest allies. The 
interval between 1807 and 1812 was filled up with the 
seizure of Finland, and a war against Turkey. Ir the 
latter year, hostilities were again commenced between 
France and Russia, and were actively continued until 
the downfall of Napoleon. During his last years, A. was 
leader of the reaction against his former liberal tenden¬ 
cies. D. Sept., 1825, and was s. by his brother Nicholas. 

Alexan'der II., M icolaievitrh, b. 1818, son of the emperor 
Nicholas and Alexandra Feodonnvna, sister to the king 
of Prussia, William IV. (I. of Germany), s. his father. 
Mar., 1855, during the Crimean war. A. continued to re¬ 
sist the allied armies of England, France, Sardinia, and 
Turkey. Sebastopol was taken by the allies Sept. 8,1855; 
an armistice was agreed on Mar. 30, 1856, and peace was 
restored by the treaty of Paris, Sept. 7, 1856. He 
crushed the Polish insurrection (1863-4) with a cruelty 
which leaves a stain on his name, but proved himself a 
beneficent ruler to his own subjects. The great dis¬ 
tinguishing feature of his reign is the abolition of serf¬ 
dom throughout the Russian empire (decree of March 
3,1861). After several attempts against his life, A. was 
at last killed, Marcli 13,1881, by the explosion of bombs 
thrown under his carriage and at his feet while alight¬ 
ing, by two Nihilists, who, together with their accom¬ 
plices, were hanged, April 15,1881. A. left five sons: 
Alexander, who succeeded him; Vladimir (b. 1847),i 
Alexis (b. 1850), who visited the U. States in 1871-2; 
Serge (b. 1857), and Paul (b. 1860). 

Alexander III., Nicolaievitch, late emperor of Russia, 
b. 1845; became heir-apparent on the death of his elder 
brother Nicholas, in 1865; married in 1866 the Danish 
princess Dagmar, and succeeded his father, Alexander 
II., March 13, 1881. Under him Russia pursued her 
policy of Asiatic conquests and the consolidation of her 
dominions. D. Nov. 2,1894; succeeded by Nicholas II. 

Alexan'der, king of Poland, succeeded his brother, 
John Albert, in 1501. D. 1506. 

Alexan'der, Archibald, D.D., a distinguished Ameri¬ 
can author, b. in Virginia, 1772; n. 1851. 

Alexan'der Newslioi. a Russian hero and saint, 
son of the grand-duke Jaroslav, b. 1219. In order to 
defend the empire, which was attacked on all sides, but 
especially by the Mongols, Jaroslav quitted Novgorod, 
and left the charge of the government to his sons, Fedor 
and Alexander, the former of whom soon afterwards 
died. A. repulsed the assailants. Russia, nevertheless, 



came under the Mongolian dominkD. in 1238. A., whea 
prince of Novgorod, defended tie western frontier 
against the Danes, Swedes, and Knights of the Teutonio 
order, lie gained, in 1240, » splendid victory on the 
Neva, over the Swedes, and thence received his surname. 
He overcame, in 1242, the knights of the sword, on the 
ice of lake Peipus. After the death of his father, in 
1245, A. became grand-duke of \\ ladimir. He died in 
1264. The gratitude of his countrymen has commem¬ 
orated the hero in popular songs, and raised him to the 
dignity of a saint. Peter the Great honored his mem¬ 
ory by the erection of a splendid monastery in Peters¬ 
burg, on the spot where A. gained his victory, and by 
establishing the order of St. Alexander Newskoi; but 
dying before he had named the knights, this was done 
by Catharine I. in 1725. 

Alexan'der, of Paris, a French poet, who flourished 
in the 12th century. He wrote a poem on the life of 
Alexander the Great, in verses of 12 syllables, which 
measure has ever since been called Alexandrine. 

Alexan'der Set erus. See Sevei us. 

Alexan der, St., an Asiatic; who founded the order 
called Acemetes, because one of the monks was always, 
to be on the watch to sing hymns. D. about 430. 

Alexan'der, \\ jlliam. See Stirling. Kaelof. 

Alexan'der (Archipelago). See Alaska. 

Alexan'der, in North Carolina, a western county, 
founded in 1846, from Wilkes, Caldwell, ard Iredell 
counties. Area about 300 sq. m.; soil hilly and partially 
fertile; cap. Taylorsville. 

Alexan'der, in Georgia, at township of Burke co, 
about 30 in. E. of Milledgeville. 

Alexan der, in Illinois, a county lying between the 
Ohio on the S.K. and the Mississippi on the S.W. Area 
245 sq. m. Cash river, after flowing along the E. 
boundary of the county, flows into the Ohio. 'J he soil 
is fertile, but some parts of this county are subject to 
inundation. Chief towns, Thebes, and Cairo, the cap¬ 
ital. 

Alexan'der, in Maine, a post-township of Washington 

co., 25 m. N. of Machias. 

Alexan'der, in New lark, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Genesee co. The village, at 258 m. W. of Albany, 
on the Tonawanda creek, contains a flourishing semi¬ 
nary. 

Alexan'der, in Ohio, a township of Athens co., about 
80 m. S.E. of Columbus. 

—a village of Licking co., about 12 miles west of New¬ 
ark. 

Alexan'der, in Tennessee, a small village of Cannon co- 

Alexan'dersville, or Ai.exandervii.ue, in Ohio, a. 
post-village ot Montgomery co., on the Miami Canal, 7 
m. S. of Dayton. 

Alexan'tlretta. [Turk, lskanderoon .] The ancient 
Alexandria ad Issum, a seaport of Syria, on the E. side 
of the hay of lskanderoon, 23 m. N ofAntioch. ybp.1,000. 

Alexan dria, a celebrated city and seaport of Egypt, 
near the westernmost branch of the Nile, on the Mediter¬ 
ranean, 112 in N.W. Cairo, with which it communicates 
by railway,canal, and the river Nile. Lat. of lighthouse 
31° 12' 9" N.; Lon. 29° 53' K. The modern city is 
built on a peninsula (anciently tlie island of Pharos), 
and on the isthmus connecting it with the continent, 
the ancient city was on the mainland, where its rttim 
cover a vast extent of surface. A castle called Farillon, 
and serving as a landmark to sailors, replaces the famous 
Pharos of antiquity, which was considered one of the 
seven wonders of the world. A. is the great emporium of 
Egypt.— Ezp., corn, cotton, w r ool, gum, soda, rice, dates, 
senna, feathers, and other African products, hides, and 
manuf. goods. — Imp., cotton, woollen, and silk goods, 
hardware, with timber, coal, drugs, and colonial prod¬ 
ucts. A is an important station in the overland route to 
India, and is connected by railway with Suez. Consuls 
of the chief European countries reside here. P. (1897) 
estim. at 250.000. chiefly Copts, Turks, Jews, and many 
Europeans of all nations. A. was founded in 332 B c„ 
by Alexander the Great, cn the plans of the celebrated 
architect Dinocrates. It made great progress under 
the dynasty of the Ptolenii 2 s. A. at that epoch engrossed 
the commerce of India, the great object of ancient 
ambition. It became also at the same time, the centre 
of all sciences, and conta ned an immense library, the 
largest of antiquity, chiefly collected by Ptolemy Niter. 
Altogether, it consisted of 700.000 volumes, 500,000 of 
which were destroyed when Julius Cassar was blockaded 
in the Greek part of the city, and the rest by the Sara¬ 
cenic general Omar, a.d. 64u. When Omar took A. he 
said in his letters to tlie caliph, that he found in it 
4,000 palaces, 4,000 baths, 40,000 Jews who paid tribute, 
400 royal circuses, and 12,u00 gardens, which supplied 
the city with all kinds of herbs in great plenty. Alter 
falling before the armies of tlie Romans, A. continued to 
be tlie channel by whicli the commodities of india, 
Arabia, arid Eastern Africa were transported to Europe, 
but when conquered by the caliphs, and subjected to the 
Saracen yoke, it then began and continued to decline till 
the discovery of a passage to India by. the Cape of Good 
Hope, in 1497, gave the last blow to its trade. But Me- 
lieniet Ali, being anxious to acquire a navy, perceived 
the importance of A., both as a station for his fleet, and a 
centre of commerce. He greatly improved the city, and 
restored the ancient communications with the Nile by 
means of the Malimotidieh canal, opened in 1817. Since 
that time the pop. lias quadrupled. The opening of the 
Suez Canal (q. v.) has greatly added to its importance. 
Of tlie ancient city, tlie cisterns, catacombs, Pompey’a 
pillar, and tlie obelisk called Cleopatra's Tier die. are the 
principal remains. The obelisk, wliicn in 1878 was 
erected on the Thames embankment in London, was 
originally one of six which adorned the Temple of ttio 


















ALEX 


ALFI 


ALGA 


71 


Sun at On, in Ancient Egypt, hewn from a single block 
of rose-colored granite. But one now remains upon the 
original site — one was transferred to Constantinople, 
one to Rome, one to Paris, one to London in 1878, and 
one, in 1880, to New York. The two latter were long 



Fig. 82.—CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE. 


at Alexandria, where they had been transported at an 
early date (abt. 23 b. c.), and whence they became asso¬ 
ciated with the name of Cleopatra. The weight of the 
one taken to London is 180 tons, and height 68 feet; 
that to New York being somewhat heavier. They are. 
perhaps ove? 3500 years old—21sl March 180), took 
place the battle ot A , the French, under Jleuon. were de 
feated I > the British under Sir Ralph Abercrombie A 
was taken by the English in 1882. See Egypt. 

Alexan dria, Piedmont. See Alessandria. 

Al exa ■ Hi ria, a vill. of Scotland, in the parish Bonhill, 
Du in barton co., on the Level, 3% m. N. of Dumbarton. 
—In Canada, a p.-v. of Glengarry”co., 70 m. W. of Mon¬ 
treal.—In Ala., a town of Calhoun co., abt. 136 m. N.E. 
of Tuscaloosa.—Or St. Paul, in Alaska Ter., a vill. on 
the island Kadiak, or Kodiak.—In lvd., a vill. of Madi¬ 
son co., on Pipe Creek, abt. 45 m. N E. of Indianapolis. 
—In Kansas, a twp. of Leavenworth co.—In Ky., a twp., 
cap. of Campbell co., abt. 13 m. S.S.E. of Newport. 

A1 i‘\a ii '(1 ria, in Louisiana, a town, cap. of Rapides 
parish, on the Red River, 350 m. W.N.W. of New Orleans, 
by steamboat. It is situated on an exceedingly fertile 
plain. 

Alexan'dria, in Minnesota, a post-village, capital of 
Douglas co., about 65 m. W.N.W. of Saint Cloud. 

A lexan'dria. in Missouri, a town of Clarke co., on 
Fox Itiver.near its entrance into the Mississippi. 

Alexan'dria. in New Hampshire, a post-township of 
Grafton co., 34 m. N.N.W. of Concord. 

Alexan'dria, in New Jersey, a township of Hunterdon 
co. 

Alexandria, in New York, a village of Essex co., 
near the N. end of Lake George; 

—A post-township of Jefferson co., on the river St. 
Lawrence, with a village of the same name, 27 m.N.ol 
Watertown. 

Alexan'dria, in Ohio, a post-village of Licking co., 4 
m. W.S.W. of Portsmouth. 

Alexandria, in Pennsylvania, a town in Morris 
township, Huntingdon co., on Frankstown, a branch of 
the Juniata, 78 m. from Harrisburg. 

Alexandria, in Tennessee, a post-village of De Kalb 
co., 45 m. E. o r Nashville. 

Alexan'dria, in Virginia, a county comprising all 
that part of the District of Columbia which lies W. of 
the Potomac, which formerly belonged to V., and was, 
in 1844, returned to that Slate. Area, 36sq.m. Abridge 
of over one mile in length, crossing the Potomac, con¬ 
nects it with the City of Washington. The surface 
is hilly. 

Alexan'dria, the capital of the above county, is finely 
situated on the right bank of the Potomac, 7 miles 
below Washington, in N. lat. 38°, W. Ion. 77° 4' 
It is considerably elevated, ascending gradually from 
the river, which has here a depth of water sufficient for 
vessels of the largest class. The tonnage of this port 
is very important. A. is connected by railroads with 
Washington, Leesburg, and Georgetown. Population 
in 181)0, 14.339; in 1897 (estimated), 15,400. 

Alexan'dria Bay, a village and summer resort in 
Jefferson co., N. Y., on the St. Lawrence river, opposite 
the Thousand Islands arid 7 m. from Redwood. Fop. 1123. 

Alexan'dria Centre, in New York, a post-village 
of Jefferson co. 

Alexan'dria Junction, a station on the B. & O. 
E. R., in Prince George’s co., Md. 

Alexandrian, a. Pertaining to Alexander or to 
Alexandria. 

Alexan drine, n. (Pros.) A kind of verse borrowed 
from the French, first used by the poet Alexander of 
Paris. They consist of twelve syllables. 

“ Then, »s the last, an only couplet, fraught 
With some unmeaning thing they call a thought, 

A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 

Thai, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along."— Pope. 

—n. Relating to the Alexandrine verse. 

Alexandrov, a town of Russia, gov. Vladimir, 55 
m. W.N.W. of Vladimir. It has an imperial stud, and 
a convent founded by Ivan IV., who established here 
the first printing-press known in Russia. 

Jklexsin'drox'sk. a fortified town of Russia, gov. of 

v Ekaterinoslav. 40 m. S.of Ekaterinoslav.on the Dnieper 
below its cataracts. It is the place of embarkation for all 
the products exported by this river to the Black sea. 
Pop. 6,000. 

Alexipliar'mlc, Alexiphar'macal, a. [Gr., keeping 
III!'pirisim.) (Med.) Antidotal. 

Alexiphar'nilc, Alexiphar'mac, n. An antidote 
against poison. 


Alex'is, a Greek comic poet, uncle of Menander, of 
whose works a few fragments remain. Flourished 4th 
century b. c. 

Alexis I., Comne'nns, b. at Constantinople, 1048, 
was nephew to the emperor Isaac Comtienus, He as¬ 
cended the throne in 1081, after banishing Nicephorus, 
and distinguished himself by his war against the Tu: ks 
and other northern invaders. He received with coldness 
the crusaders, but, intimidated by their numbers, he 
signed a treaty of peace with them and promised them 
support. D. 1118. His daughter Anna Comnena has 
written a Greek account of his reign; hut her history 
is a panegyric, and not the record of truth. 

Alexis II., Comnenus, surnamed Porpuyrogenitus, suc¬ 
ceeded his father Manuel, 1180, in his 12th year. He 
was murdered two years- after, with his mother, by 
Andronicus Comnenus, who usurped the tliroue.D. 1210. 

Alexis III, Angei.us, dethroned his brother Isaac Angelas, 
1178, and put out his eyes. Besieged and taken in his 
capital by an army of Venetians and French crusaders, 
headed by Aleanius, the son of Isaac, he was in his turn 
deprived of his sight an 1 confined in a monastery, 
where he died. 

Alexis IV., after the punishment of his uncle, placed 
his blind father, from the dungeon, on the throne, and 
reigned with him; but his elevation was succeeded by a 
rebellion, because he laid too heavy contributions upon 
his allies, and his life was sacrificed to the lury ol the 
people, 1204. 

Alexis V., Ducas, surnamed Murtzufflus, from his black, 
heavy eyebrows; an officer at the court of Alexis IV., 
who dethroned and murdered his master, and was raised 
to the throne. The Latins, however, laid 6iege to Con¬ 
stantinople, and pressed it so closely, that A. was obliged 
to escape by night. He was deprived of his eyes by his 
father-in-law, to whom he fled for refuge; and after 
rambling about as a mendicant, was seized by the Latins, 
who cast him from the top of Theodosius's Pillar, where 
he was dashed to pieces. Beigned at the commencement 
of the 13th century. 

Alex'is del Areo, surnamed el Tordili.o dr Pekfda, 
a celebrated deaf and dumb Spanish portrait-painter. 
B. at Madrid, 1625; D. 1700. 

Alex'is, or Alexei, Michaelovitch, son of the Czar 
Michael Feodorowich Romanov, b. 1630, succeeded to the 
throne in 1645, at the age of 16, and distinguished him¬ 
self by his war against the Turks, the Swedes, and Poles. 
Respected abroad, he was beloved at home, as the im¬ 
provement of his barbarian subjects was the sole wish 
of his heart. D. 1677, and was succeeded by his son. 
Peter the Great. 

Alex'is, or Alexei, Fbtrowitch, the eldest son of the 
czar Peter the Great. B. 1690. Inclined to low pleasures, 
and decidedly adverse to that reformation of the ancient 
manners of the country, which it was the object of 
Peter’s life to effect. A. secretly' quitted Russia, and re¬ 
tired to Naples. By a promise of forgiveness, he was 
induced to return to Moscow, where he was thrown into 
prison tried secretly, and condemned to death. Ho was 
found dead in prison, and it was given out that he hud 
been carried off by some natural illness; but suspicions 
have been naturally enough entertained that a private 
execution accomplished the end, without incurring the 
risks of a public one. D. 1718. A. left a son who, in 
1727, became emperor, under the name of Peter II. 

Alexiter'ic, a. and n. The same as Alexipharjuc. 

Alexiter'ieal, u. The same as Alexipharmacal. 

Aley'bell, a large and popular place in W. Africa, on 
tlie bank of the Senegal; lat. 16° 50' N.; Ion. 14° 4' IV. 

Alfa Grass. See Stipa. 

Altar' Bug h, a mountain of Turkey in Asia, Anato, 
lia, near the Black Sea. Lat. 41° 35' N.; Ion. 33° 5' E. 

Al'laro, a town of Spain, Old Castile, on the Ebro, 
37 m. S.E. of Logrofio. Pop. 5,000. 

Al'feld, a walled town of Hanover, on the river Leine. 
Pop. 3,000. 

Alfe'nus Var'iis, Publius, a Roman jurist, lived 1st 
century' b. c. Front being a shoemaker, lie became an 
advocate, and at length consul, lie wrote forty books 
of digests, and some collections, cited by Atilus Gellius. 

Al'fet, n. [A.S .atfat, a pot to boil in.J A vessel of 
boiling water into which an accused person plunged his 
arm by way of trial to prove Ids guilt or innocence. 

Al'fieri, Vittorio, the most eminent of Italian tragic 
poets, was born at Asti. Piedmont, in 1749. His family 
was rich and noble. His youth was spent in travelling 



over the greatest part of Europe, and in adventures 
which were marked only by dissipation and licentious¬ 
ness. After his return to Turin, love inspired him with 


the spirit of poetry ; and, in 1775, he produced his tra¬ 
gedy of Cleopatra. Thenceforth he continued constant 
to the muses and to study ; and the result was no less 
than fourteen dramas in seven years, besides many com¬ 
positions in verse and prose. In France, where he next 
settled with the Pretender’s widow, the countess of 
Albany, whom lie secretly married, (see Albany, Coun¬ 
tess of,) he composed five more tragedies. The tall of 
the throne, in 1792. drove him from France; his prop 
erty there was unjustly confiscated; and Alfieri evei 
after entertained a deadly hatred of that country. Worn 
out by his incessant literary labors, lie died at Florence 
in 18U3. As a tragic writer, Alfieri lias bad many imi¬ 
tators in Italy, but his throne is still unshared by any 
rival—no one has yet equalled him in nervous dialogue, 
in grandeur of style, or in t lie delineation of strong pas¬ 
sions and energetic characters. His Saul and his Pelipo 
are considered the finest of his productions. 

Alton!', in Indiana , a post-village of Madison co., 24 
m. N.E. of Indianapolis. 

Alfon'so. See Alphonso. 

Alford, in Massachusetts, a post-village of Berkshire 
co., on Green river, 130 m. W. of Boston. 

Al'ford, a district and parish of Scotland, 28 m. N.W 
of Aberdeen. Pop. of the district. 13,000. — In 1645. a 
battle was fought in the parish between the Covenant¬ 
ing army underGen. Baillie. and the Royalists under the 
Marquis of Montrose, in which tlie former was defeated. 

Al'fordsviile. in Indiana, a post-village of Daviess 
co., 15 m. S.E. of the county-seat. 

Alfordsville. in North Carolina, a post-village of 
Robeson co.. 107 m. S.S.W. of Raleigh. 

Al lbrt, a village of France, dep. of the Seine, 5 nt. S.E. 
of Paris, with an imperial veterinary college and bo¬ 
tanical garden. 

Al'fred the Great, the youngest son of Ethelwolf, 
king of the Wist Saxons, b. 849. Alter the death of 
his brother, A. mounted the throne of England in 871, 
in his 22d year, at a time when the kingdom was a prey 
to the invasion of the Danes, and to domestic dissen-* 
sions. After several unfortunate actions with the Danes, 
A. concealed his misfortunes for a year under tlie dress 
of a peasant, till the success of one of liis chiefs, Odun, 
earl of Devon, in defeating a body of Danes, drew him 
from his retirement. The Danes were completely de¬ 
feated at Eddington, in May, 878. After the victory, A. 
behaved with great magnanimity to his foes, giving up 
the kingdom of the East Angles to those of the Danes 
who embraced Christianity. From that time, however, 
though the Danes occasionally repeated their depre¬ 
dations, the mind of A. was not shaken from its noble 
purpose of enlightening his subjects, and giving sta¬ 
bility to their independence. He is said to have bee a 



Fig. 84. — COIN OF ALFRED THE GREAT. 

(From the British Museum.) 

engaged in 56 battles, by sea and land, although hi* 
valor as a warrior has excited less admiration than hi* 
wisdom as a legislator. He composed a body of statutes, 
instituted the trial by jury, and divided the kingdom 
into shires and tithings. He was so exact in his govern- 
ment that robbery was unheard of, and valuable goods 
might be left on the highway without danger. Ha 
founded, or,according to others, restored the University 
of Oxford, and filled the professional chairs with men 
of taste, genius, and erudition. He was himself a 
learned prince, and composed several works. To A., 
also, England is indebted lor the foundation of her naval 
establishments, and he was the first to send out ships 
to make the discovery of a north-east passage. In pri¬ 
vate life he was benevolent, pious, cheerful, and affable, 
and his deportment was both dignified and engaging. 
After a reign of over 28 years, he died on the 28th of 
Oct., 991. He left by his queen, Elswithn, two sons and 
three daughters, and was succeeded by his 2d son, Ed¬ 
ward, surnamed the Elder. 

Al'lred, in Maine, a post-village and township, capital 
of York co., 78 m. S.W. of Augusta. 

Al'fred, in New York, a township of Alleghany co — 
Alfred Centre, the post-village, is about 250 m. W.S.W. 
of Albany. 

Al'freton, a town and parish of England, Derby co., 
6 m. N N.E of Belper. Man. of stockings and pottery 
Pop. of parish, 8,400. 

Allride, or El'frid, the natural son of Oswy, king 
of Northumberland, fled to Ireland or Scotland, te 
avoid the persecutions of his brother Egfrid, who 
waged war with those who granted him an asylum. 
Egfrid was slain in this contest. A ascended the 
vacant throne, 686, and deserved the applause of his 
subjects by his benevolence and mildness, and the liberal 
patronage which he offered to literature. D. 705. 

Al'gte, n.pl. (Bot.) The name given by Jussieu to th» 
Algales. 

Al g al, a. Pertaining to the algals. 

Al'gales, n.pl. (Bot.) The Algals, an alliance of plants, 
class Thallogens. They are cellular, flowerless plants, 
nourished through their whole surface by the medium in 
which they vegetate; living in waters or very swampy 
places; propagated by znsphores, colored spores, or tetra- 
spores. In structure they vary through a vast variety 
























72 


ALOE 


ALGE 


ALGO 


mediate gi-adations, from the stale of simple microscopic 
vesicles, to branched, woody individuals many fathoms 
in length. Some of them are only visible to the naked 
eye when they are collected in heaps; others grow 
togetiier in the beds of the ocean, and when they rise 
to the surface, form floating banks of such extent as to 
impede the course of ships. The A. are divided into 
five orders: Diaiumacete, Oonfervaceae, Fucacece, Ceram- 
iacete, Characeae; q. v. 

Al^an'see, in Michigan, a post-township of Branch 
Co., about 7 m. S.E. of Coldwater.' 

Algar'di, Ai.exa.ndkr, an Italian painter and sculptor, 
B. at Bolognan D. 1651. Ho executed many fine works, 
among which may he mentioned the Attila, which is the 
largest alto-relievo in the world, and is in St. Peter’s 
Church, at Rome. 

Al'g nrinejo, a town of Spain.prov. of Granada, close 
to the frontiers of Cordova. Pop. (1695) 2.670. 

Alguii-oha-Betm, n. [Ar. a I, the, and garoba, bean- 
tree J (Bit.) A plant called also carob-tree, the Cera- 
trrnia siliqua, ord. Fabiacece. It is consumed in South 
Spain by horses, and is used in England as a substitute 
for oil-cake. The dry pulp in which are the seeds is 
very nutritious, and is supposed to have been the food 
of St. John in the wilderness, wherefore it is called 
locust-tree, and St. John's bread. Singers are said to 
chew this fruit for the purpose of improving their voice. 
The seeds of the Carob-tree are said to have been the 
original carat weights for the jeweller. 

Ml'garotli, n. [from Vittorio A., a physician of Vero¬ 
na, its inventor.] ( Chmn .) A powder obtained on diluting 
a hot solution of terchloride of antimony in hydrochloric 
acid with hot water. It is violently emetic in doses of 
two or three grains, aud was formerly much used in 
medicine. 

Algnrot'ti, an Italian writer of lively but superficial 
genius. B. at Padua, 1712. His writings, published in 
Italian, 1765, and afterwards translated into French, 
show a great taste for the. fine arts, but they convey 
little information. D. 1764. 

Algar ve, or Alarva. [Ar. the west.) The most S. 
prov. of Portugal, having N. the prov. Alemtejo, E. 
Spain, S. and \V. the Atlantic. Area. 2,151 sq. m. On 
its N. frontier is the Sierra de Monchique. In the S. 
are plains yielding aloes aud dates. Chief towns: Pavira, 
Faro, and Lagos. 

Algebra,, n. [It. and Sp.: Fr. algebre, probably from 
the Ar. Aljebreal nin/cubalah, restoration and reduc¬ 
tion.] (Math.) The method of calculating indeterminate 
quantities. It is a sort of universal arithmetic, founded 
on the same principles as common arithmetic, and pro¬ 
ceeding by rules and operations precisely similar. But 
it is not confined merely to questions relating to num¬ 
bers, being applied generally to investigate the relations 
that subsist among quantities of all kinds, whether arith¬ 
metical or geometrical. The reasoning is carried on by 
general symbols, which are of two kinds.—those which 
denote quantity, and those which denote the affections 
or relations, or properties of quantities, and operations 
to be performed on them. For representing quantities 
or magnitudes, the letters of the alphabet are employed. 
Thus, in the solution of an arithmetical problem, a num¬ 
ber may be represented by the letter a ; in geometry, a 
may represent a line or an angle; in mechanics, a force. 
The relations of quantities are expressed by other con 
ventional symbols. The relation of equality is expressed 
by the sign = ; thus, to express that the quantity rep¬ 
resented by a is equal to the quantity represented by b, 
we write a = 6. The symbol > or < coming between 
two quantities denotes inequality; thus, a>b signifies 
that a is greater than b, and a < b denotes that a is less 
than b. The two primary operations of which quantities 
are susceptible, are addition and subtraction, and these 
are respectively indicated by the symbols -j- plus, and — 
minus. For example, a + b denotes the sum of the two 
qu mtities a and b, or that a is to be increased by b; aud 
a — l) denotes the difference between a and b. or that a 
is to bo diminished by b. Multiplication is indicated by 
the symbol X , or by simply placing the letters beside 
each other without au intervening symbol. Thus, in 
numbers, a s 6, or a 6, denote the same thing, namely, 
the product arising from the multiplication of the num¬ 
ber a into b. In geometry, two letters joined together, 
as a b, denote a rectangular parallelogram, one of the 
sides of which is represented by a and the other by b. 
Division is indicated by -i-; or more frequently by plac¬ 
ing one of the numbers above the other in the form of 
a fraction; as in this case: 30 -j-10, or jg- In addition and 
subtraction, the quantities connected ny the appropriate 
symbols must be homogeneous, or of the same kind ; for 
it is only such quantities that admit of addition or sub¬ 
traction. Of two quantities connected by the symbol 
of multiplication, one must necessarily be an abstract 
number, for a quantity can only be multiplied by a 
Number, or. which is the same thing, added to itself 
once or twice, or some other number of times. W hen 
division is to be performed, the divisor may either be a 
quantity of the same kind as the dividend, or it may be 
an abstract number; in the former case, the quotient is 
an abstract number; in the latter, it is a quantity of 
the same kind as the dividend. In the multiplication of 
quantities, the frequent repetition of the same symbol 
would become inconvenient; it is usual, therefore, to 
write the root only once, and to place over it, on the 
right, the exponent or number indicating the power: 
thus, a- denotes the same thing as a a, or the square of a; 
a? is the same as a a a, or the cube of a, and a n denotes the 
wth power of a, or a multiplied by n times into itself. 
Algebra is in its nature essentially distinct from arith¬ 
metic. In arithmetic, absolute numbers are given, from 
which other absolute numbers are required to be deter¬ 


mined. But in algebra the symbols that are employed 
are perfectly general, aud may represent any numbers 
whatever; and the expressions which result from com¬ 
bining them according to the conditions of the problem, 
indicate the solution not of a particular question, but of 
all questions whatever, in which numbers are subjected 
to the same series of operations. In this manner the 
general properties of numbers are discovered. For ex¬ 
ample, the expression (a-j-6) (a — b), which signifies 
that the sum of the two numbers a and b is to be multi¬ 
plied by their difference, becomes, on performing the 
multiplication, a 2 — h 2 ; whence we infer this general 
or universal truth, namely, that the product of the sum 
and the difference of any two numbers is equal to the 
difference of the squares of those numbers. Arithmetic 
could only prove the property to be true in respect of 
particular numbers. The only necessary preliminary 
to the study of A. is a good knowledge of the four rules 
of arithmetic, and of common and decimal fractions. 

Algebra'ic, Algebraical, a. Relating to algebra. 

Algebraical Curve. A curve of which the relation be¬ 
tween the abscissa and the ordinates is expressed by an 
equation which contains only algebraic quantities. The 
term algebraic is here used in contradistinction to tran¬ 
scendental, under which is comprehended infinite series 
and quantities of the following kind : log. x, a* sin. x, 
cos. x, tan. x, &c. 

Algebraic Equations. An equation of which the terms 
contain only algebraic quantities. — See Equation. 

Algebra ically, adv. By algebraic process. 

Al'gebraist, n. One who is versed in algebra. 

Algebraize, v. a. To perform by algebra, or reduce 
to algebraical form. 

Algoci ras. a seaport-town of Spain, Andalusia, prov. 
of Cadiz, on the W. side of the Bay of Gibraltar, oppo¬ 
site to and 6 m. W. of Gibraltar. Pop. about 12,000. It 
was the scene of a naval engagement between the Eng¬ 
lish and French, 1801. 

Al'g’emesi, or Algemesia, a town of Spain, prov. and 
18. m. S. of Valencia. Pip. 5,000. 

Al'genib, or Ai.genkb, n. (Astmn.) A star of 2d mag¬ 
nitude in the constellation Pegasus, 14° S. of Alplieratz, 
16[^° E. of Markab.— A. in Pegasus, Alplieratz in An¬ 
dromeda, and Caph in Cassiopeia, are situated on the 
prime meridian, and point out its direction through the 
pole. For this reason they are sometimes called the 
three guides. They form an arc of that great circle 
in the heavens from which the distances of all the 
heavenly bodies are measured. 

Alg* 'ria. [Fr. A/gerie..] A country of North Africa, 
the largest and most important of the colonial posses¬ 
sions of France, cap. Algiers. This territory is situated 
beMveen lat. 35° and 87° 17.; extending from Ion. 2° 11' 
W. to 8° 53' E.: length about 550 m., greatest breadth 
about 200 m It is bounded N. by the Mediterranean, 
S. by the Sahara, E. by Tunis, and W. by Morocco.— 
Area , 96,369,000 acres. Desc. Algeria is traversed through¬ 
out by the Atlas mountains, which rise in successive 
stages parallel with the coast, the highest points exceed¬ 
ing 7,000 feet. The coast is steep and deficient in good 
ports. The chief plains are those of Oran, Metidjah, 
and Shelif; the principal rivers are the Wad-el-Gedy, 
which rises. S. of the Atlas range, and flows to the Mel- 
gig Lake; the Shelif, which rises on the borders of Saha¬ 
ra, and flows to the Mediterranean; the others are the 
Seims, Isser, Hama, and Jafna. There areseveral lakes, 
called sebkhas, which are generally dry in summer: 
the chief of these are the Zagries in Constantine, the 
Sliott and the Sebkha in the S.E. of the Melgig. The 
climate is temperate and healthy on the N. slopes of the) 
mountains, but pestilential in the marshy plains. The 
heat is often excessive under the influence of the si¬ 
moom, or hot wind of the desert. From April to Octo¬ 
ber the sky is serene; the winter is mild, and marked 
by abundant rains. The mean temperature of winter 
is from 54° to 65°, and of summer 74° to 104° Fahr.; 
but this elevated temperature is moderated by constant 
sea-breezes. The mountains contain mines of iron, cop¬ 
per, and lead, but their extent is imperfectly known. 
In the mountains of Bou Hamra there are rich iron 
mines, which appear to have been worked by the Ro¬ 
mans. '1 he country is divided by the natives into the 
Tel, or country of grain crops, in the N., and the date 
country in the S. Vegetation is developed with great 
activity. The level part of the Tel, occupied by Arabs, 
is fertile in cereals, and the mountainous country, oc¬ 
cupied by the Kabylet,, has extensive forests, and rich 
and varied vegetation. The Algerian Sahara is not, as 
was supposed, a sterile desert, but a vast archipelago 
of oases, each of which presents an animated group of 
towns and villages, surrounded by olives, figs, vines, 
and palms. Throughout the Tel, wheat, barley, and 
legumes are extensively cultivated, and in some places 
maize, millet, and rice are raised. Cotton, indigo, and 
the sugar-cane succeed well. The natives rear cattle, 
sheep, and goats. The horses, which are of an excel¬ 
lent breed, are employed only for the saddle; the camel, 
dromedary,ass, and mule, are used for draught. Among 
wild animals may be noticed the lion, panther, jackal, 
and the antelope. The harvests are sometimes ravaged 
by locusts. Excellent coral and sponge are fished on the 
coasts. Very recently numerous artesian wells, bored in 
the immense plains of A., have given life to countries 
till then desert. This system, pursued witli activity, 
will do more for the civilization of A. than forty years 
of military warfare. — Man/. Carpets, blankets, and 
other woollens; silks in the form of sashes and handker¬ 
chiefs. A considerable trade is carried on in salt, ostrich- 
feathers, hides, wax, cattle, aud sheep ; and there are 
imported, European manufactures and colonial produce. 
With the French-African settlement of Senegal a profit¬ 


able trade is carried on, across the interior, by means of 
caravans.— Towns. The principal are, Algiers, Constan 
tine, Bona, Philippeville, Bildah, Oran. Tlemsen, and 
Setiff. —Division and Gov. The commauder-in-chief ol 



Fig. 85.— RED coral of commerce. 

(CoruUium rubrum.) 

No. 2 is a part of No. 1 amplified. 

the French forces in A., is governor-general, ana re¬ 
sponsible to the French cabinet. The country is divided 
into five great military districts,—Autnale, Dellys, 
Medeah, Milianah, and Orleunsville,—which are subdi¬ 
vided into military circles. For the civil administra¬ 
tion, the territory is divided into the three departments 
of Algiers, Oran, and Constantine. — Hist. A. embraces 
the ancient Numidia, the kingdom of Massinissa, Sy- 
phax, and Jugurtha; and the Mauritanian kingdoms of 
Bocchus and Juba. It lias been successively conquered 
by the Romans, the Vandals, the Byzantine Greeks, 
and the Arabs, who, in the beginning of the 8th cen¬ 
tury, invaded North Africa, and established Islamism. 
The Spaniards, for a short time masters of the country at 
the beginning of the 16tli century, were driven out by 
the famous corsairs Barbarossal. and II.. the survivor of 
which obtained in 1520, from Sultan Selim, the title of 
Dey. Since then A. was in almost incessant hostilities 
against the powers of Christendom, capturing their 
vessels and reducing their subjects to slavery. In 1541, 
tlie emperor Charles V. made an unsuccessful attempt 
against Algiers. In 1815, the Americans captured an 
Algerian frigate; and the Dey consented to renounce 
all claims to tribute from them, and to pay them 60,000 
dollars as an indemnification for their losses. In 1816, 
Algiers was bombarded by the British under Lord Ex¬ 
mouth ; and in June, 1830. in consequence of an insult 
to the French consul, a large fleet and army were dis¬ 
patched by Charles X., when the Algerians fell under 
the power of that nation. From that time the invad¬ 
ers gradually extended their conquest, not without 
much bloodshed. Their bravest and most persevering 
foe was Abd-el-Kader, q.v. —In 1879, civil was substitut¬ 
ed for military rule. In 1881, just after the occupation 
of the Tunisian territory, a formidable insurrection of 
the Arabs broke out in several parts of A., producing 
at the time much anxiety. Pop. 4,124,732. of whicu 
272,662 are of French origin or naturalization. 

Alg'e'rian, and Al'gerine, n. <Ge/g.) A native of 
Algeria. Algerine is used sometimes in poetry as a 
synonym for pirate. 

— a. Belonging or relating to Algeria or to Algiers. 

Algbe'ri, or Alghe'ro, a town and seaport of the island 
of Sardinia, on its W. coast; lat. 40° 25'5U"N.; lot. 
8° 16' 45" E. Pop. 8,419. 

Al'g-idum. (Anc. Geog.) A town and mountain of 
Latiitm, near Tuseulum, 12 m. from Home. 

Al'giers. [Ar. Al-jezair, the islands; Fr. alger.\ A city 
and seaport of Africa, cap. of the French territory of 
Algeria, built in the form of an amphitheatre, on the 
Vi. side of a bay of same name, in the Mediterranean. Lat. 
of lighthouse. 36° 47' 20" N.; Ion. 3° 4' 32" E. The city, 
situated on a slope facing the sea, and crowned by a 
citadel, is 2 m. in circumference, and strongly walled; 
since 1830, the French have been actively engaged in 
extending its defences and improving the port. The 
streets have been widened, and it in part resembles a 
European town. A., owing to its mild climate, has be¬ 
come a favorite winter resort—frost is almost unknown. 
A railroad connects A. witli Oran, and another,-in con¬ 
struction, to Tunis. Several forts and outworks protect 
it on the land side ; by sea it has in front two rocky isl¬ 
ands (whence its name!, connected witli the mainland 
by a mole; this and another mole, both furnished witli 
batteries, enclose the harbor. A. has two suburbs, and 
numerous villas in its environs, which are of great 
beauty; is tlie seat of tlie gov.-gen. of Algeria aud of 
many foreign consuls, and has regular steam commu¬ 
nication with Marseilles and Cette in France, and Bona 
in Africa. Pop. in 1890, 74,792; in 1897 (est.), 82,500. 

Al'giers, a village of Orleans parish, La.; the terminus 
of the Southern Pacific, the Texas aud Pacific, and tlie 
New Orleans, Fort Jackson and Grande Isle Railroads. 

Al'goa Bay, or Port Elizabeth, ail extensive bay on 
the S.E. coast of Africa, Cape Colony, bet. Capes Recife 
and Padron, 425 m. E. of tlie Cape of Good Hope; is open 
to S. winds, but lias good anchorage. In this bay, Fort 
Elizabeth and Fort Frederick have already some com¬ 
mercial importance. Lat. 33° 56' S.; Ion. 26° 53' E. 








AL1B 


ALIG 


ALIP 


73 


Al'sol, n. [Ar. al ghdl, destructive.] ( Astron .) A re-| 
markable ska- in the Head <f Medusa, 12° E. of Almaak. 
It ss on the meridian the 21st of December. Nine degrees 
E. by N. from A. is the bright star Algenib, which with I 
Almaak makes a perfect right angle at A., with tho 
open part towards Cassiopeia. By means of this strik¬ 
ingly perfect figure, the three stars may always be re¬ 
cognized without the possibility of mistaking them. A.\ 
varies from the 2d to the 4th magnitude in about 3]^ 
hours, and back again in the same time; after which il j 
remains steadily brilliant for 2% days, when the same 
change occurs. Dr. Herschel attributes the variable 
appearance of A. to spots upon its surface, and thinks it 
has a motion on its axis similar to that of the sun.— 
Haiti sun. 

Algol'ogy, n. [Lat. alga, seaweed, and Gr. logos, dis¬ 
course.] {Bat.) The description of the algals or alga;. 

Alt? o'ma, in Michigan, a post-township of Kent co., 
14 m. N. by E. of Grand Rapids. 

Algo ma. in Wisconsin, a post-township of Winnebago 
co., about 80 m. N.N.E. of Madison. 

Al go'na, in Iowa, a town and township, cap. of Kossuth 
co., on the Des Moiues river, about 120 ill. N. by W. of 
Des Moines city. 

Alcona?', in Michigan, a post-village of St. Clair co., 
on the St. Clair river, 40 m. N.E. of Detroit. 

Algou qni n. in Illinois, a post-township of McHenry 
co., about 50 ui. N.W. of Chicago; 

Algolsq ii in, in Iowa, a post-village of Butler co., 29 
m. W. of Cedar Falls. 

Algon'quin, in Michigan, a post-village of Ontonagon 
co., about 12 ni. S. of Ontonagon. 

Also, a post-village of Houghton co. 

Alg'on'quin. in Ohio, a post-village of Carrol co. 

AIgon il ii ins. a numerous family of N. American 
Indians, once spread over all the northern part of the 
Rocky Mountains, and S. of tho St Lawrence. Their 
language was heard from the bay of Gaspe to the valley 
of the Des Moines; from Cape Fear to the land of the 
Esquimaux: from the Cumberland river, of Kentucky, 
to the western banks of the Mississippi. It was spoken 
though not exclusively, in a territory that extended 
through oO degrees of Ion. and more than 20 degrees 
of lat. ( Bancroft.) All the tribes of New England were 
Algonquins; the tribes in Maine, the great tribe of the 
Delaware Indians, the Creeks in the region of Great Slave 
Lake, and the Ottawas and Potawattomies in Michigan 
claimed the same origin. Traces of the primitive A. lan-J 
guage appear in the names of places, such as Alleghany, 
Connecticut. At present the A. do not number more than 
a few hundred warriors. 

Algor, n. [Lat., coldness.'] (Med.) A sudden chilliness or 
rigor. 

Al'gorab, n [Ar.] (Astron.) A star of 3d magnitude in 
the constellation Corvus, 1 )]4° S.W. of Spica Virginia. 
It is on the meridian about the 13th of May. 

Al'gori t Inn, a. [Ar.J (Math.) The art of computing in 
reference to some particular subjects, or in some partic¬ 
ular way': as, the A. of numbers, the A. of the differen¬ 
tial calculus. 

Al gous, a. [Lat. algisus.] Abounding with, or like, 
algals or tig®. 

Alsuazil , n. [Sp. alguacil, Pg. alguazil, from Ar. 
al-wasir, administrator, vizier.] An inferior officer of 
justice in Spain; a constable. 

A 111 a'ill a. [Ar the bath.] In Spain, a town of Anda¬ 
lusia, 24 m. S.W. of Granada. Near it are celebrated 
warm baths; pop. 6,2S4.— A town of Murcia, 13 m. W. 
of Murcia city, having also warm baths. 

Alliam'lira. SeeGRtNiDA. 

Alhambra, in Illinois, a vill. of Madison co. 

Alhambresque', a. After the fanciful manner of the 
ornaments in the Alhambra. — See Granada. 

Alliau'rin el Grande, a town of Spain, prov. of 
Granada, 22 m. \\ .S.W. of Malaga Pop. 5,514. 

Allince'mas. a small island and fortress belonging to 
Spain, in the Mediterranean, on the coast of Morocco. 
Lat. 35° 15' N.; Lon. 4° 12' E. 

Ali. surnamed by the Arabs Asad Allah, and by the Per¬ 
sians Siir-i-Khoda, i. e., the Lion of God, was the cousin 
of Mohammed, and the first man who acknowledged his 
divine mission. From these circumstances, and also on 
account of his marriage with Fatimah. the daughter of 
Mohammed, Ali appeared to have strong claims to the 
succession of the Prophet. Abu-Bekr, Omar, and Oth- 
man were, however, successively appointed caliphs be¬ 
fore Ali came to the throne, A. D. 655. The controversy 
concerning the respective rights of the three first caliphs 
on the one side, and of Ali and his lineal descendants on 
the other, has given rise to the schism of the Sunnites 
and Shiites in the Mohammedan community. The com¬ 
mencement of the troubles arising lrom this division 
disturbed the reign of Ali, who was assassinated in a. d. 
660. He was succeeded for a short time by his eldest 
son Uassan. 

Alias, adv. [A Lat. word signifying otherwise.] (Law.) 
When a defendant sued on a specialty, or a prisoner had 
more than one common appellation, he was designated, 
in the Latin form of instruments, as, John, alias Dtctus, 
Peter. 

—n. Another name than the ordinary one; an assumed 
name. 

(Law.) A second or further writ, which is issued 
after a first writ has expired without effect, and contain¬ 
ing this clause: We command you as we formerly have 
commanded you.” (Sicut alias prcecepimus.) 

A1 i as'k a. See Alaska. 

A li Bey, Pasha of Egypt, b. in Circassia about 1728. 
lie fell, when a child, into the hands of robbers, who 
carried him to Cairo, and sold him to Ibrahim, lieuten¬ 
ant of the Janissaries, who reared and adopted him. 


Ali soon rose to the rank of Sangiac, or member of the 
Council; and when his patron was. assassinated by 
Ibrahim the Circassian, he avenged his death and slew 
the murderer with his own hand. This raised against 
him numerous enemies, and he was obliged to flee 
to Jerusalem, and thence to Acre; but in time he 
was recalled by the people, and being placed at the 
head of the government, Egypt began to recover its 
former splendor. In a battle fought against the troops 
of the rebellious Mamelukes, Ali was cut down, after 
defending himself with desperate valor, and died of 
his wounds eight days afterward, 1773. 

Al'ibi, n. [A Latin word signifying elsewhere.] (Law.) A 
defence resorted to in criminal prosecutions, when the 
party accused, in order to prove that he could not have 
committed the crime with which he is charged, offers 
evidence that he was in a different place at the time the 
offence was being committed. 

Al iean'tf*. a province of Spain, founded in 1834, out of 
tlie S. part of theancient kingdom of Valencia,and part 
of Murcia. Area, 2.911 sq. m. It yields excellent wine, 
sugar, rice, and fruits. Pop. 412,514. 

Alican'te, cap. of the above province; a fortified city 
and seaport, on a bay in the Mediterranean. Lat. 380 
20' N.; Lon. 0° 27' W. It is defended* by a castle 
on a rock about 400 feet high. A. is important as a 
commercial place. Exp. wine, almonds, barilla, olives, 
brandy, figs, wool, silk, and linen; pop. 33,086. 

Alica'ta, or Lica'ta, a seaport-town of Sicily, prov. 
Girgenti, on the S. coast of the Mediterranean: lat. 37° 
4' 25" N.; Ion. 13° 55' 40" E. Exp. corn, macaroni, 
fruit, and excellent wines; pop. 15,481. 

Al 'ice, a town of Cape Colony', prov. of Victoria; lat. 
82° 48' S.; Ion. 26° 52' E. 

Al 'ice-IIolt, a forest in England, Hants co., on the 
border of Surrey; area, 15,000 acres. 

Alicu'di, the ancient Ericusa, the most IV. of the 
Lipari isles, on the coast of Sicily, 6 m. in circumference, 
and rising as a cone from the sea; pop. 450. 

Ali da. in Illinois, a post-office of Stephenson co. 

Alidade. n. [Ar.] The index or ruier moving about the 
centre of an astrolabe or quadrant, carrying the sights. 
Brandt. 

Al 'ion, a. [Lat. alienus, from alibi natus, born else¬ 
where, in another country.] Belonging to another coun¬ 
try; hence, metaphorically, foreign to the purpose; as, 
“ principles alien to our religion.” 

Al' ien, n. A foreigner; in contradistinction from a nat¬ 
ural-born citizen. 

(Law.) In the United States, one who, being born in 
a foreign country, has not been naturalized, unless his 
father were a natural-born citizen, in which case he will 
himself be deemed a natural-born citizen, to all intents 
and purposes.— An A. cannot hold landed property; 
and if he purchases land, he may be divested of the fee, 
upon an inquest of office found; but until this is done 
he may sell, convey, or devise the lands, and pass a good 
title to the same. That is the general rule, but the 
disabilities of A., in respect to holding land, are removed 
by statute law in a considerable number of .States, and 
modified in others. Where the disability is not removed 
legislation is in nearly every instance favorable to resi¬ 
dent aliens, permitting them, if they intend to become 
citizens, to acquire land for a limited peiiod, and dis¬ 
pose of it or transmit it to heirs.—An A. may hold and 
dispose of, by will or otherwise, goods, money, or other 
personal estate, and may take a lease of a house for 
habitation or trade. His property is liable to taxation; 
he cannot exercise any political rights whatever; he 
cannot be a member of Congress till the expiration of 
seven years alter his naturalization. Even alter being 
naturalized, he is forever ineligible to the office of Presi¬ 
dent of the United States. Under the laws of Congress 
an alien is not entitled to take out a copyright. In time 
of war an alien enemy is not entitled to make a contract 
with a citizen. Such a contract cannot be enforced, even 
after peace. See Naturalization. 

Alienability, n. (Law.) The capacity of being 
alienable. 

Al'ienable, a. That may be alienated. 

Al'ienage, n. (Law.) The condition or state of an 
alien. 

Al'ienate. v. a. [Fr. alidner.] To transfer property to 
another. — To change from friendliness to aversion. 

Al'ienate, a. Withdrawn; alienated. 

— n. An alien. 

Aliena'tion, n. [Fr., from Lat. alienatio.] Estrange¬ 
ment; change of affection. — Constitutional estrange¬ 
ment of mind. 

(Law.) The act of parting with property, more espe¬ 
cially real property. 

Alienator, n. (Law.) One who transfers property. 

Aliene', v. a. (Law.) To transfer property; to alienate. 

Alienee', n. (Law.) One to whom a transfer of prop¬ 
erty is made. 

Al'ienism, n. The state of being an alien; alienage. (R.j 

Alienor', n. (Law ) One who transfers property. 

Alight', a. Lighted; lit: —as, “The lamps were alight.” 

Alight', v. n. [A. S. alihtan, to come down.] To come 
down and stop. The word implies the idea of descend¬ 
ing ; as, of a bird from the wing; a traveller from his 
horse or carriage, and generally of resting or stopping. 

41 There is alighted at your gate a young Venetian."— Shake. 

—It is used also of any thing thrown or falling; to fall 
upon. 

41 Rnt storms of stones from the proud temple’s height, 

Pour down, and on our batter’d helms alight." — Dryden. 

Al'ighnr, a district of British Tndia, presidency of 
Bengal, prov. Agra, watered by the Ganges and Jumna; 
barren toward the N., but fertile in the S. — Area, 


2,145 sq. m.; pop. 739,356. — The fort of Alighur, 50 m. 
N. of Agra, lat. 27° 56' N., Ion. 77° 59' E., was taken 
by the British in 1803; and retaken from the Sepoy 
rebels in 1857. 

Ailin', v. a. [Fr. aligner.] To adjust by a line; to form 
in line, as troops. 

Align'ment, Alignement, n. [Fr.] Position in a 
straight line, as a body of soldiers. 

Alike', adv. and a. [From a and like.] Like in charac¬ 
ter or nature or community of circumstances;—resem¬ 
bling ; similar; homogeneous; akin; equally. 

Alime'da. or Alameda, in Iowa, a village of Louisa 
co.. on the Iowa river, about 20 m. S W. ot Muscatine. 

Al'iiiient,n. [Fr. from Lat. alimentum.] Any substance 
which, when introduced into the living body, contributes 
to its growth, or to tlie repair of the losses it is con¬ 
tinually sustaining. Thus, water and air may he called 
aliments. Wlien applied specially to animals, its sense 
is generally confined to those materials which are ab¬ 
sorbed and applied to the purposes of nutrition, only 
after undergoing the process of digestion.—See Food. 

Aiiniciit'al, a. Nourishing. 

Alinient’ally, adv. So as to serve for nourishment ol 
sustenance. 

Al mien t ariucss. n. Quality of being alimentary. 

Alimentary, a. Belonging to aliment; nourishing. 

Alimen'tiveness, n. (Pliren.) The organ of appetite 
for food and drink. 

Alimo'nious, a. That nourishes. 

Al iinony . n. [Lat. alimonia, maintenance.] (Law.) 
The allowance made to a wife out of her husband’s 
estate for her support, either during a matrimonial suit 
or at its termination, when she proves herself entitled 
to a separate maintenance by showing a legal and 
valid marriage.—A. pendente lite. The whole property 
being supposed by the law to devolve upon the husband, 
lie is generally obliged to pay the expenses on both 
sides, and to allow his wife A. during the suit, and that 
whether tlie suit be commenced by or against him. It is 
usually about one fifth of tlie husband’s net income. It 
inay be reduced or increased according to the fluctua¬ 
tions of tlie husband's income —Permanent A. does not 
consist of a sum of money, nor of a specified propor¬ 
tion of the husband's estate given absolutely to the 
wife, but is a continuous allotment of sums payable 
at regular intervals for her support from year to year. 
For being entitled to it. the wife must be separated from 
the bed and board of her husband by judicial decree; 
voluntary separation, for whatever cause, is insufficient. 
The amount of alimony to he allotted depends wholly 
upon the discretion of the court, equitably exercised 
with a view to the circumstances of each particular 
case. In forming their estimate in this respect, the 
courts have held, that after a separation on account of 
tho husband’s misconduct, tlie wife is to be alimented 
as if she were living with him as his wile; they attend 
carefully to the nature, as well as to the amount of the 
husband's means, drawing a distinction between a sub¬ 
stantial property and an income derived from personal 
exertion. The station in life of both parties, and tlie 
fortune brought by the wife, are also considered: and 
much stress is laid upon the disposal of the children 
and the expense of educating them. The conduct of tho 
parties forms also a very material consideration; where 
tlie wife has eloped from her husband, or where the 
sentence of divorce proceeds upon the ground of her 
adultery, tho law will not compel the allowance of ali¬ 
mony. 

A liotli, n. (Astron.) A star in the constellation Ursa 
Major, P/p of Mizar. It is the 3d star in the handle of 
the Dipper. A. is very nearly opposite Shedir in Cassio¬ 
peia, and at an equal distance from the pole. 

Ali Paclia. V izier of Yanina, b. in Albania, 1744. His 
father, an Albanian chief, died of grief in consequence 
of being stripped of his territories; but his mother, who 
was remarkable for energy of character, spirited up her 
son to assume the conduct of her dependants and avenge 
his father. W ith this band be committed so many 
depredations, that the adjacent tribes took up arms in 
their own defence, and carried oft liis mother and sister, 
whom they treated with great cruelty. This roused 
the naturally implacable temper of All, and he vowed 
the extermination of the whole race. He raiseil a body 
of 2,000 men, assumed great authority, and wreaked 
his vengeance upon tlie Suliotes, whom ho treated with 
the most horrible barbarity. During fifty years of con¬ 
stant warfare, he brought under his sway a wide extent 
of territory, which the Porte sanctioned his holding, 
with the title of Pacha. He received agents from for¬ 
eign powers, and ultimately intrigued with England, 
France, and Russia. But the jealousy of the Porte was 
at length excited, and Hassan Pacha was sent to demand 
his head. On declaring his errand, Ali replied, *• My 
head is not to he delivered up so easily,” accompanying 
tlie words with a pistol-ball, which broke his opponent’s 
thigh. He shot two men dead on the spot, but fell the 
same moment. His head was severed from his body, 
and sent to Constantinople, 1822. Lord Byron visited 
him in his fortress of Tepelen, and thus sings of him in 
his second canto of Childe Harold: 

44 He passed bleak Pindus, Acherusia’s lake, 

And left the primal city of the land, 

And onward did his further journey take 
To greet Albania's chief, whose dread command 
Is lawless law." 

Al'ipee, a town of Hindostan, in Cochin. Exp. pepper 
and timber. Lat. 9° 30' N.; Ion. 76° 24' E.; pop. 13,0uC. 

Alipher'ia. ( Anc. Geog.) A town of Arcadia, situatea 
on a lofty hill, 8 m. S. of Here®. It was taken from 
the iEleans during the Social War, by Philip, king oj 
Macedon. 







74 


ALKA 


ALL 


ALLA 


Al iped, n. and a. [Lat. ala , a wing, and pes, a foot.] | 
Having toes connected by a membrane, serving lor a 
wing, as a bat. 

Aliquant. a. [Lat. uliquuntus, somewhat.] (Arith) 

A part of a given quantity which will not divide it ex¬ 
actly, or without remainder. — 5 is an aliquant part of 
10, twice 6 being 12, thrice 6 making 18. 

Al iquot, a. [Lat., some.] (Arith.) Aliquot part is a 
number which divides the given number without leav¬ 
ing a remainder. Thus, 2, 3, 4, and 6, are aliquot parts 
of 12. To find the aliquot parts of any number, divide 
the given number by its least divisor; divide the quo¬ 
tient also by its least divisor, and so on, always dividing 
the last quotient by its smallest divisor, till the quotient 
is 1. The divisions thus used are the prime aliquot parts 
of the given number; and the products of every 2, every 
3, every 4, etc., of the prime aliquot parts of the given 
number. Suppose the given number 30; divide 30 by 
its least divisor, which is 2, and the quotient is 15; 
divide 5 by itself, (it has no smaller divisor,) and the quo¬ 
tient is 1. Therefore, 2, 3, and 5 are the prime aliquot 
parts of 30. The compound aliquot parts are 2x3 — 0, 
2X5 = 10, 3X5 = 15. 

Alis'ul, in Cal fimia, a village of Monterey co., abt. 30 
m. E. by S. of Monterey. 

Alisli, a. Resembling ale. 

Al'isma, n. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Alismacett. 
The species A. plantago, water plantain, found in U. S., 
is a handsome inhabitant of ponds and ditches. Its 
leaves resemble those of the common plantain. It gives 
in July numerous flowers tinged with purple. 
Alis'inacete, n. pi. (Bot.) The alisinals, an ord. of 
plants, fam. Ali,mates. — Ding. Alismal endogens with 
3-petaled flowers, few-seoded, simple and axilo, or 
basal placentas, and a solid embryo. They are floating 
and swamp plants, generally native of the northern 
part of the world. This order is to Endogens what 
crow-foots are to Polypetalous Exogens, and is in like 
manner recognized by its disuniting carpels and hypogy- 
nous stamens. 

A&'ismales, r. pi (Bot.) The alismal family. Diag. 
Hypogynous, tri-hexapetaloideous Endogens, with sepa¬ 
rate carpels and no albumen. This alliance seems to 
close the class of Endogens, and to stand on the limits 
of Exogens, in consequence of the intimate relation 
between Alismads and crow-foot. It is divided into the 
three ord., Butomacexz, Alismaceac, and Juncaginacem. 

A1 ison. Sir Archibald, Bart., b. in Shropshire,England, 
1792. His principal work is, a History of Europe f rom 
the Cimmencement of the French Devolution in 1789, to 
the Accession of Louis Napoleon in 1852. 1). 1867. 
Aliso'nia. See Alusonia. 

Al'itrnnck, n. [Lat. ala, a wing, and truncus, body.] 
(ZoOl.) The post rior segment of the thorax of an insect, 
to which the abdomen is affixed, and which bears the legs, 
properly so called, or the two posterior pairs and wings. 
Ali ve', a. [Prefix a and live.] In the state of life; not 
dead. 

" Nor well alive , nor wholly dead they were.”— Dryden. 
—Figuratively, uuextinguished ; uudestroyed ; active; in 
full force ; as, to keep the affections alive-, — cheerful; 
sprightly; full of alacrity; as, “ She was not much alive 
the whole day.”—In a popular sense, it is used only to 
add an emphasis, like the French du monde; as, the 
best man alive-, that is, the best, with an emphasis. 
Al'iwal, a village of Upper India, on the banks of the 
Sutlej, 20 m. from Loodiana. was the scene of a battle 
fought on January 28th, 1846, between the British under 
Sir Harry Smith, and the Sikhs, commanded by Runjoor 
Singh. The Sikhs were defeated with a loss of nearly 
6,000 men. 

Alizar'ic Acid, or Phosphalic Acid. (Chem.) Pro¬ 
duced from alizarin with boiling dilute nitric acid. 
Aliz'arin, or Alizarine, n. [From alizwri, the nameof 
the madder in the Levant.] (Chem.) A red crystalline 
matter destitute of odor and taste ; neutral to test-paper, 
soluble in hot water and alcohol, obtained of the l.ubia 
tinctorum; the madder. Potash dissolves it freely, and 
strikes a beautiful purple; but it is precipitated un¬ 
altered on adding an acid; with lime, baryta, and oxide 
of iron, it forms an insoluble purple lac. With alumina 
it forms a beautiful red lac. By a heat of 420° alizarin 
is sublimated and forms beautiful transparent orange- 
colored needles, which are anhydrous and of high lustre. 
Form, Cj 4 H 8 0 4 . 

Alj u bar rot a. a town of Portuguese Estremadura, 15 
in. S. of Leiria; pop. 1,600. In the vicinity Alphonso I. 
defeated the Moors in 1139, and on the same field John 
I. of Portugal gained over John I., king of Castile, in 
1385, the signal victory of Campo de Ouriques, described 
by Camoens in the fourth Canto of his Lusiad. 
Al'kaliest, n. [Ar.] The supposed universal solvent of 
the alchemists. 

AIKalies'lit*, a. Relating or pertaining to alkahest. 
AKliaisseria, a town in the N. part of Morocco, not 
far from Al-Kasar; pop. abt. 8,000. 

^Ikales'reuey, n. [Fr. alkalescence.] A tendency to 
become alkaline. 

Alkales'cent, a. [Fr. alcalescent.] Having a tendency 
to the properties of an alkali; slightly alkaline 
Alkali, n; pi. Alkalies. [Fr. The name of the curb, 
of sod. obtained from the ashes of sea-weeds.] (Chem.) 
A class of substances possessing many qualities exactly 
the reverse of those which belong to the acids. An al¬ 
kali is soluble in water, and produces a liquid which is 
soapy to the touch, and has a peculiar nauseous taste; 
it restores the blue color to vegetable infusions, which 
have been reddened by an acid; it turns many of these 
blues to green, as in the case of the red cabbage and I 
syrup of violets, and it gives a brown color to vegetable 
yellows, suck as turmeric and rhubarb. Potash, soda, 


and hartshorn, or ammonia, are instar.res of well-known 
alkalies. Like the acids, they are remarkable for their 
great chemical activity; so, potash or soda destroys the 
skin if allowed to remain upon it, and also gradually 
dissolves portions of earthenware, or of glaze front the 
vessels which contain it; and the solutions, if suffered to 
fall upon a painted surface, quickly remove the paint. 
But the most remarkable property of alkalies and acids 
is the power they possess of uniting with each other, 
and destroying or neutralizing the chemical activity 
which distinguished them when separate. Any com¬ 
pound produced by the union of an acid with an alkali 
is termed a salt. The alkalies constitute one subdivision 
of the class of bodies known as bases. 

Fixed Alkalies, bee Potash, Soda. 

Vegetable Alkalies. See Alkaloids. 

Volatile Alkali. See Ammonia. 

Alkal'iliable, a. [Fr. alcalijiable.] That which may 
be converted into an alkali. 

Alkal'ify, v. a. [Fr. alcaiifier.] To convert into an alkali. 

Alkalijg'enous, a. Generating alkali. 

Alkalim'eter, n. [Fr . alcalimetre.] (Chem.) A gradu¬ 
ated burette or tube lor ascertaining the purity of alka¬ 
lies, tliatis.to say, the amount of carbonate which they 
contain. 

Alkalimet'ric, and Alkaliinet'rical, a. Relat¬ 
ing to alkalimetry. 

Alkalim'etry, n. (Chem.) The method or process 
of analysis of an alkali, to the effect of ascertaining the 
amount of carbonate which it contains. It depends upon 
the determination of the number of divisions of diluted 
acid, of definite strength, which a hundred grains of the 
different samples of ash are capable of neutralizing: the 
neutralization being estimated by the action of thesolu- 
tion upon blue litmus. 

Al'kaline, a. [Fr alcalin .] Belonging to, or having 
the qualities of, alkali. 

Alkaline Earths Substances which greatly resemble al¬ 
kalies, but are sparingly soluble, such as lime and baryta. 

Alkalin'ity, n. The quality which distinguishes the 
alkalies from other chemical compounds. 

Alka'lious, a. Having the properties of alkali. 

A lkalizat ion, n. [Fr. alcalisation.] The act of alka¬ 
lizing, or impregnating bodies with alkali. (R.) 

Al'kalize, v. a. [Fr. alcaliser.] To make substances 
alkaline, by changing their nature, or by mixing alka¬ 
lies with them. 

Al'kaloid, a. Pertaining to, or containing, alkali. 

Al kalaids, n. pi. [From alkali, and Or. eidos , lbrm.] 
(Chem.) A group of natural organic bases, in great 
majority derived from the vegetable kingdom, and con- 
stitutiug the active principle of the plant that contains 
them. They are of great interest to the chemist, not 
only on account of their remarkable composition, but 
also from their powerful effects as medicinal and poison¬ 
ous agents upon the animal economy. When in solution, 
the vegetable bases have generally a decidedly alkaline 
reaction upon test-papers, and lor the most part they 
completely neutralize the acids, forming definite and 
well-crystallized salts. They are generally soluble in 
boiling alcohol; the alcoholic solutions, as they cool, 
deposit the alkaloids in the crystalline form. They 
may be subdivided into two well-marked classes:—1st. 
those which, like aniline (C„H 7 N), do not contain 
oxygen; and, second, those which, like quinine (C ao H 24 
.N a O a -t-6 H a O),do uot contain it. The bases of the first 
class are oily and volatile; they absorb oxygen rapidly 
from the air, have a powerful odor, and may bo dis¬ 
tilled either alone or with the vapor of water, without 
undergoing decomposition. Many organic bases may be 
prepared by artificial means; but all attempts at obtain¬ 
ing those which occur naturally in plants, as morphine 
and narcotine, the alkaloids of opium, have been unsuc¬ 
cessful. Hence, another division of the A. into artificial 
bases and natural bases. 

Al'kanet, n. [From the Fr. arcanette.] (Chem.) A kind 
of reddish purple dye, obtained from the roots of An- 
chusa tinctona. Formerly used lor staining the face, 
but now only for coloring preparations. 

Alkar'sin, n. (Chem.) See Kakodvl, Oxide of. 

Alker'mes, n. See Kermes. 

Al'koran. See Koran. 

Alk'inaar. (Geog.) See Alckmaar. 

Alkniaar. (dlk-mahr',) Henrik van. The reputed author 
of tlie first German version of tlie world-renowned 
apologue of "Reynard the Fox." It is written in Low 
German, and was printed in LUlieck in 1498. Its title 
is ‘‘Rebu ke de Vos.” For a full account of this work, 
and of the controversy respecting its authorship, see 
Carlyle’s Essays, voi ii. p.298. He lived about 1475-1500. 

Alkool', or Alkoohl, n. (Chem.) A preparation of 
antimony, used by the women of Eastern nations to 
tinge the eyelids and lashes of a bla”k color. Dr. Shaw, 
speaking of the women of Barbary, says, “None of 
these consider themselves dressed till tin y have tinged 
the edges of their eyelids with alkoohl.” 

All. a. [A.S. eall .] The whole number, extent, quantity or 
duration; whole, entire, complete, total. — All always 
precedes the article the, and the definite pronouns my, 
thy, his, our, your, their, while its synonyms follow them. 

All, adv. Quite, completely. 

“ And swore so loud, 

That, all amazed, the priest let fall the book."— Shre f- 

—Altogether: wholly; without any other consideration. 

“ They are all for present money, no matter how they pay it after¬ 
wards."— Dryden. 

—Only; without admission of anything else. 

“ Sure. I shall never marry, like my sister, 

To love my father all." — Shake. 

All the better, wholly the better: that is,better by the 
whole difference. 


All, n. The whole; everything; the total; as, “Our a# 
is at stake.” 

All in all, everything to a person; everything desired. 

“ Thou shalt be all in all." — Milton. 

All in the wind. (Naut.) A phrase denoting that the 
sails are parallel with the course of the wind, so as to 
shake. 

Alla, an Italian preposition, or the dative of the femi¬ 
nine article la, which, prefixed to certain words, signi¬ 
fies, or has the power of the phrase, in the manner: — 
all’ anlica, in the ancient manner; alia Francese, alF 
Jnylese, in the French or English style, &c. 

Al ia breve. [It., according to the breve. J (Mus.) A 
movement whose liar or measure consists of the note 
called a breve, equal, therefore, to two semi-breves or 
four minims. It is denoted at the beginning of a 6tuve 
by a 0 with a bail drawn through it vertically. 

Al'la capel'la. [It., according to the chapel.] (Aft/s.) 
The same as alia brere. 'The name originates in the 
circumstance of this time being principally used in 
church or chapel. 

All-acconi'plislied. a. Completely accomplished. 

All-admir'ing, a. Wholly admiring. 

All-advised', a. Advised by all. 

A1 lali, the Arabic name of the Supreme Being. It is 
properly a contraction of ul-ildh : al is the Arabic defi¬ 
nite article, and il&h, which corresponds to the Hebrew 
words Lloah and Elohim, signifies a deity generally; the 
prefixed article restricts the meaning, and al-ildh or 
Allah signifies the True God, as opposed to the deities 
worshipped liy idolaters. The word Allah is frequently 
met with as a component part of Arabic proper 
names: e. g. Abd-Alluh, i. e. the Servant of God. Allah 
akbar (God is great) is the common battle-cry of the 
Mohammedans. The phrase Bism Allah or Bism-illah 
(in the Name of God) is invariably uttered by devout 
Mussulmans before the commencement of any under¬ 
taking, and before their meals: it is also put at the 
beginning of their hooks. 

Allahabad', in Hindustan proper, a British province 
of Soubali, bounded on the N. by Oude and Agra, S. by 
Gundwarra, E. by Bahar, and W . by Malwah and Agra. 
It is about 270 m. in length by 120 in breadth, between the 
24° and 26° N, Lat., and 79° and 83° E. Lon. It is divided 
into the zillahs or districts of Allahabad, Benares, Mir- 
zapoor, Juanpoor, llewali territory, Bundelcund, C’awn- 
poor, and Manicipoor territory. The chief towns are 
Allahabad, Benares, Callinger, Chatterpoor, Chunar, 
Ghazepoor, Juanpoor, and Mirzapoor. — Watered by the 
Gauges, the Jumna, and the Goomtee, A. is one of the 
most productive countries in India. — Fn ducts. Opium, 
sugar, indigo, coffee, all kinds of grain, and fruits. Adja¬ 
cent to the Ganges, the country is flat, but in the S.W., 
in the Bundelcund district, it forms an elevated table¬ 
land, diversified with high hills, containing the cele¬ 
brated diamond mines of Poonali. Pop. (1891), 1,548,737. 

Allahabad', the capital of the above prov., and of a 
district of the same name, is an ancient city, near (lie 
confluence of the Ganges and Jumna, 76 m. from Be¬ 
nares, and 475 m. from Calcutta. Lat. 25° 27' N.; Lon. 
81° 51/ E. — At the junction of the two rivers is situated 
the fortress, founded by the emperor Akber in 1583, in¬ 
dicating one of the most esteemed places of Hindoo wor¬ 
ship and ablution, to which, every summer, multitudes 
of pilgrims resort from all parts of India. The extensive 
cultivation of cotton in India, a result of the American 
civil war, has been favorable to A ., it having become the 
chief seat of an extensive trade in the article. A. 
was occupied by the British ill 1765. In the course 
of the Indian mutiny in 1857, it became the scene of 
the several demoniac massacres which distinguished the 
revolt of the Sepoy troops. Pop. (1891), 175,246. 

All-along', adv. Throughout ; in the whole. 

Allamakee', a N.E. co. of Iowa, bordering on Minne¬ 
sota; area, 660 sq. m.; cop. Wawkon. 

Allaman'da, n. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Apocyn- 
acece. An infusion of the leaves of the A. cathartica is 
considered a valuable cathartic in medicine, in moderate 
doses, especially in the case of painters’ colic. In over¬ 
doses it is violently emetic and purgative. 

All-a-mort', a. [See Amort.] Dispirited. 

“ What I sweeting, all a-mort t — Shake. 

Allamuch'y, or Ali.amuchee, in New Jersey, a post 
village of Warren co., abt. 60 ni. N. ol Trenton. 

Allan, David, b. at Alloa, Scotland, 1744, has been 
called the Scottish Hogarth ; although far inferior to the 
distinguished artist in the pathos of humorous and ec¬ 
centric delineations of human characteristics. Lord 
Erskine of Mar sent him to Rome to prosecute his stud¬ 
ies. Here a painting of the Corinthian Maid who exe¬ 
cuted a profile of her lover’s countenance, round the 
shadow thrown by a lamp upon the wall, procured him 
a golden medal in the Academy of St. Luke, and a pro¬ 
portionate amount of reputation, liis most popular 
designs are the twelve illustrations of Ramsay’s far- 
famed Scottish pastoral, The Gentle Shepherd. D. 1796. 

Allan, Sir William, an historical painter, b. in Edin¬ 
burgh, 1782. He was an old and attached friend of Sir 
Walter Scott. In 1838 he was chosen president of the 
Royal Scottish Academy, and was knighted in 1842 
His best productions are, the Circassian Captives, the 
Slave-Market at Constantinople, Mary and Rizzio, and the 
Battle of Waterloo. D. 1S50. 

Allan. in Scotland, a river noted for the beauty of the 
scenery through which it flows for 18 m., when it falls 
into the Frith of Forth, 2 m. from Stirling. 

Allan, Bridge of, a neat town on the above river, 3 m. 
N.W. of Stirling. It is a good deal resorted to in summer 
by visitors, on account of its mineral spring lip 2.000. 










ALLE 


ALLE 


ALLE 


75 


lllanbnrg, in West Canada, a post-village of Wel¬ 
land co. 

Al'lamlale, in Georgia, a post-village of Habersham co. 

Al'laurtale, in Minnesota, a village of Goodhue co., 15 
m W.S.W. of Redwing. 

Allanto ic, a. Belonging or relating to the allantois. 

Allan'toin, n. (Chem.) A neutral, tasteless substance, 
crystallizing in hard,brilliant prisms,soluble in boiling 
water. It occurs in the allantoic fluid of the cow, or in 
the urine of the.fcetal calf, but it may also be procured 
by the oxidation of uric acid. Form., C 4 H 3 N 2 0 3 . 

Allan tois, Allantoid, n. [Gr. alias, a sausage, and 
eidos, form.] (digs.) A thin membranous sac, devel¬ 
oped from the termination of the alimentary canal of 
the embryo, situated between the amnion auu chorion, 
and organized by the hypogastric arteries and umbilical 
vein. Its function as a respiratory organ is of most 
importance in those oviparous vertebrates, where the em¬ 
bryo has no branchial; in the mammalia, its use is 
more or less superseded by the chorion and placenta. 
In some quadrupeds the A. has the form of a sausage ; 
whence its name. 

Allantu'ric Acid. (Chem.) A white deliquescent 
substance produced by heating in a closed tube to about 
280° an aqueous solution of allantoin. Form., 1I0 2 C 10 
H s N 4 0 8 . 

Aria-i*ri'ma. [It., all at once.] (Paint.) The method 
of applying all the colors upon the canvas at once, 
without any retouching. Many of the finest works of 
the old masters were painted in this way; but the 
method demands too much artistic skill, knowledge, and 
decision, to be generally employed. 

Al l ass.St rait . a channel between the islands Lombok 
and Sumbassa, in the Sunda group of the Malay archi¬ 
pelago. The strait, about 50 m. in length and 9 in. 
wide in its narrowest part, is considered the best for 
navigators. 

Allatoo'na. in Georgia, a post-village of Bartow co., 130 
m. N.W. of Milledgeville. It was attacked by the Con¬ 
federates under the command of Gen. French, Oct. 5, 
1861; but after vigorous assaults, successfully resisted 
by the little Federal garrison commanded by Gen. 
Corse, the Confederates, learning that a hostile force 
was almost upon their rear, gave up the contest. The 
loss of the garrison was about 700 men — over one third 
of the entire command; that of the Confederates was 
estimated at 2,000 dead or captured. In this action, 
Gen. Corse was woundel in the lace. 

Allay', v. a. [A.S. alecgan, to lay down.] To quiet; to 
pacify; to appease. 

“ If, by your art, you have 

Put the wild waters in this roar, allay them."— Shake. 

—To repress; subdue; abate; mitigate; as, to allay the 
severity of a pain. 

— v. n. To abate; to subside; as, 

“ When the rage allays.'' — Shaks. 

Allay', n. [Fr. aloi.~\ The same as Allot. 

Allay 'er, n. The person or thing which allays. 

Allay'nient, n. That which allays; a palliative; 
abatement; ease, (o.) 

All-beau'teous, a. Completely beautiful. 

“Some emanation of the all-beauteous mind."— Pope. 

All-bintl'inif, a. That binds all. 

A1 Ibriuiit, in Virginia, a post-village of Preston co. 

All-tHvine', a. Supremely excellent. 

All-tlreatl'etl, a. Feared by all. 

Al'lecret, n. [Ger. alles, all; kraft, strength.] Light 
armor used both by cavalry and infantry in the 16th 
century, especially by the Swiss. 11 consisted of a breast¬ 
plate and gussets, often reaching to the middle of the 
thigh, and sometimes below the knees. 

Al'leg;aii, in Michigan, a W. co., bordering on Lake 
Michigan ; area, 835 sq. m. Hirers. It is drained by the 
Kalamazoo, Black, and Rabbit rivers. Surface, gener¬ 
ally undulating, with considerable fine forest. Cap. 
Allegan. Pop. (1894) 39,185. 

—A post-village, cap. of above co., 25 m. N.W. of Kala¬ 
mazoo. Pop. (1894) 2,673. 

Allega'ny. See Allegheny. 

Allegation, n. [Fr. allegation.'] Affirmative, posi¬ 
tive assertion. The thing alleged or affirmed. 

(Law.) The assertion, declaration, or statement of a 
party of what he cun prove. 

Allege', v. a. [Fr. al'eguer, from Lat. allegare..] To affirm; 
to send or put forth, as an authoritative statement; 
hence, as adding strength, to adduce the authority of 
another; to declare; to affirm; to assert; to asseverate; 
to depose; to plead; to cite; to quote; to assign; to 
advance. 

“ If we forsake the ways of grace, we cannot allege any color of 
ignorance."— Sprat. 

Allege'able, a. That which may be alleged. 

Alleg' er, n. One who alleges. 

Alleglia'ny, in the United States, a river which rises 
on the N.W. side of the Alleghany mountains, in Potter 
co neai the northern confines of Pennsylvania, at a 
height of neaily 2000 feet above sea level. It enters 
the State of New York, making a somewhat extended 
deiour through Cattaraugus Co., and returns to Penn- 
s.vlvunia,in which it flows southwestwardly toFranklin, 
Venango Co., in the oil region, receiving here the 
waters of French Creek. Thence, with a long curve 
to the east, it flows southwardly to its junction with 
the Monongahela at Pittsburg, tho two forming the 
Ohio Its chief tributaries ou the east are ihe Clarion 
and Conemaugh rivers. It has a length estimated at 
about 3 >0 miles, and is navigable for small steamboats 
for 200 miles or m >re above its mouth, the principal 
towus on its banks being Warren, Franklin, and Kit¬ 


tanning. It flows through a hilly country, abounding 1 
in pine timber, bituminous coal, and petroleum. Its! 
waters are remarkably pure and limpid. 

Alleg-ha liy. in California, a post-village of Sierra 
county, on Kanaka Creek, 60 miles E.N.E. of Marys¬ 
ville. 

Alleg'ha'ny, or Allega'ny, in Maryland, acouuiyon 
the borders of Pennsylvania anil Virginia. Area, 800 
sq. m.— Rivers. The Potomac forms the S. boundary of 
the co., which is intersected in its W. part by Youghio- 
gheny river. It is also drained by Town, Evils, Wills, and 
Glade creeks.— Surface. Rocky and broken, the co. being 
traversed by the main Alleghany mountains and several 
smaller ridges.— Mines. Limestone, sandstone, iron ore 
and stone coal abound, the latter being extensively 
mined at Cumberland, the capital.— Soil. The valleys 
or glades in the mountains are fertile and furnish the 
celebrated glades butter and mutton. 

A llegha'ny, in New Fork State, a county organized in 
1806, in the W.S.W. part of the State, intersected from 
S. to N. by the Genesee river, which affords immense 
water-power. Area, abt. 1,050 sq. m. The soil is fertile, 
but generally better adapted to grazing than tillage. 
The E. and W. parts of theco. consist of an elevated table 
land.— Mines. Bog iron ore and limestone.— Cap. Bel¬ 
mont. 

—In the same State, a post-village and township of Cat¬ 
taraugus co., on the Alleghany river, 408 m. from the 
city of N. Y. It contains a Roman Catholic college 
and a Franciscan convent, and important industrial 
interests. 

Allegha'ny, in Pennsylvania, a county organized in 
1788, in the W.S VV. part of the State. Area, abt. 750 sq. 
m.— Rivers. The Monongahela and Alleghany unite to 
form the Ohio, which runs 14 m. within the co., Yo- 
ghiogheny, Chartiers, Turtle, and Pine creeks. Soil. 
Though hilly, the county, nearly all arable land, is fer¬ 
tile, and the natural growth is dense and large.— Mines. 
Bituminous coal procured in large quantities near Pitts¬ 
burg, which is the cap. of the comity.— Ind. See Pitts¬ 
burg. Pop. in 1890,551,959. A. is the second county in 
importance in the State. 

Alleg'ha'ny, in Virginia, a county in the central part 
of the State; area, 500 sq. m.— -Rivers. Jackson’s river 
intersects the co., and uniting with Cow Pasture river 
on the E. border, forms the James river. — Mountains. 
The main Alleghany chain forms its N.W. boundary. 
Middle Mountain extends alongtheS.E. line, and Peter’s 
Mountain and the Warm Springs through the centre. 
Soil. The surface is very mountainous, but the valleys 
are fertile. Prod, corn, wheat, oats, and butter. Min. 
Iron ore. Cap. Covington. 

Allegha'ny City, or Alleghe'ny City, one of 

the chief manufacturing cities of Pennsylvania, is 
situated on the Alleghany river, opposite Pittsburgh, 
with which city it was consolidated by a Legislative Act 
in 19U7. It is the site cf the Western Penitentiary 
of the State, and possesses an observatory, the Carnegie 
Public Library, a Presbyterian theological seminary, 
and other institutions. Among its chief industries are 
rolling mills, cotton and woolen mills, foundries, steel 
and locomotive works, breweries, See. Its population 
increased from 53,180 in 1870 to 105,289 in 1890, and to 
120,896 in 190 ). It is a favorite place of lesidence foi 
Pittsburgh busioe-s nw i 

Allegha'ny Mountains. See Appalachian M. 

Allegha'ny Springs, a fashionable watering-place 
of Montgomery co., Virginia, midst highly picturesque 
scenery, 77 m. S.W. of Lynchburg. The waters here 
are saline and beneficial for dyspepsia and other diseases 
of the stomach. 

Alleghe'ny. See Alleghany. 

Alle'giance, n. [Lat. alligare, to hind to.] The tie 
which binds the citizen to the government, in return for 
the protection which the government affords him. Natu¬ 
ral A. is that which results from the birth of a person 
within the territory and under the obedience of the gov¬ 
ernment. Acquired A. is that binding a citizen who 
was born an alien, hut has been naturalized. Local A . 
is that which is due from an alien while resident in a 
country, in return for the protection afforded by the 
government. 

Allegor'ie, Allegor'ical, a. [Fr. allegorique.] After 
the manner of an allegory; figurative. 

Allegor'ically, adv. In an allegorical manner. 

Allegor'iealness, n. Thequality of beiugallegorical. 

Allegor'ist, n. A writer of allegory. 

Allegor'ize, v. a. To turn into allegory; to form an 
allegory. 

— v. n. To use allegory. 

Al'legorizer, n. One who allegorizes or turns things 
into allegory; an allegorist. 

Al'legory, n. [Gr. alios, another.and agoreyo, I speak.] 
(Rhet.) A figurative discourse, which employs terms 
appropriate to one thing, to signify another; it is a 
metaphor prolonged and pursued: for example, when 
the prophets represent the Jews under the allegory of a 
vine, planted, cultivated, and watered by the hand of 
God, but which, instead of producing good fruits, brings 
forth sour grapes: and so of others.—An A. is not intend¬ 
ed to deceive or perplex, in which respect it differs from 
an enigma or riddle. — A. has been a favorite mode of 
composition in ail countries and ages. Sometimes it 
has been recommended by seeming to afford the only, 
or the fittest available means of giving a lively or intel¬ 
ligible representation of certain subjects or notions. 
The poets of different nations, for example, have resort¬ 
ed to tliis method, in order to convey sufficiently vivid 
conceptions of the different virtues and vices, and other 
abstractions which they have wished to set before their 
readers. They have personified these notions, as it is 


termed; that is to say, they have figured them in th» 
6hape of living beings invested with the forms and quali¬ 
ties naturally adapted to the character of each. Such 
pictures are allegories, and are to be found abundantly 
scattered over nearly all poetry. Some have even con. 
ceived that the whole mythology of pagan antiquity ia 
merely a cluster of allegories: but this hypothesis ia 
not favored, either by what we know generally of the 
birth and growtli of superstition in the human mind, 
or by the earliest and simplest form in which these 
mystic fables have come down to us. Of all poets whe 
have dealt in A., Spenser is the most famous and the 
greatest; no other has ever produced so vast a number 
of these vivified idealities, or put into them such a spirit 
of life and air of actual existence. It is commonly said, 
and it is generally true, that too long an A. is wearisome; 
but nobody complains of fatigue in reading Swift’s Tale 
of a Tub, which is a tolerably long A. This and other 
examples which might he quoted, seem to prove that, 
if the A. be sufficiently simple and natural, it may be 
protracted, without becoming tiresome, to a considerable 
extent. 

(Faint, and Sculpt.) Allegory may be addressed to the 
eye, by means of forms intended to convey, besides the 
notion of those sensible objects which they represent, 
certain abstract ideas to which those objects are sup¬ 
posed to bear analogy. 

Allegran'ja, the most northern of the Canary Island*, 
inhabited, and possessing extensive woods. Lat. 29° 28 
N.; Ion. 13° 31' IV. 

Allegret to. [It.] (Mus.) The diminutive of allegro; 
denoting that the time is not so quick as that of allegro. 

All'egri, Gregorio, a celebrated musician, whose com¬ 
positions are still retained in the pontifical chapel. The 
chief is the Miserere, which is always sung on Good 
Friday. 

Alle'gro. [It. merrily, sportively.] (Mus.) A term de¬ 
noting the third degree of quickness. It is also used in 
combination with other terms; for example, A. agitato, 
quick and agitated; A. furioso, vehemently quick; A. 
assai, more quickly’; A. di molto, very quickly; A. non 
•motto, not very quick; A. ma non presto, quick, but not 
extremely so. 

Al'lehgunge, a town of British India, on Rampung* 
river, 11 m. from Furruckabad. Lat. 27° 33'N.; Lon. 
79° 45' E. Fop. 6,000. 

Allelu' ia, n. [Heb. hallelu-jah, praise the Lord.] Tlii* 
word occurs at the beginning, and at the end of many 
psalms. — “And all the streets shall sing alleluia;" 
says Tobit, speaking of the rebuilding of Jerusalem 
(Tob. viii 18). This expression of joy and praise was 
transferred from the synagogue to the church. At the 
funeral of Fabiola, says Jerome, in Obit. Fabiolae, “sev¬ 
eral psalms were sung with loud alleluias.” — An expres¬ 
sion in sound very similar to this, seems to have been 
used by many nations, who can hardly be supposed te 
have borrowed it from the Jews. Is it impossible that 
this is one of the most ancient expressions of devotion! 
From the Greeks using tXeXev tg as a solemn begin¬ 
ning and ending to their hymns to Apollo, it should 
seem that they knew it; it is said, also, to have bees 
heard among the Indians in America; and Alla, Alla, 
as the name of God, is used in great part of the East 
What might he the primitive stock which has furnished 
such spreading branches ? 

Allemance', in North Carolina, a post-village of Guil¬ 
ford co., 70 m W.N1Y. of Raleigh. 

Allemande', n. [Fr.] A waltz or dance supposed t* 
have derived its name from the country, Germany, ia 
which, according to the prevailing opinion, it originated 
It is written in two-crotchet time, and is now understood 
to be moderately quick, the word allegretto best indi¬ 
cating its movement. But anciently this was a slon 
dance, according to Morley, Brossard, and Rousseau. 

Alleman'nic , a. See Alemannic. 

Allemon'tite, n. (Min.) A rhombohedral mineral 
of the Arsenic group. Comp, arsenic 65-22, antimony, 
34-78 = 100. 

Al'len, Ethan, a brigadier-general in the American 
Revolutionary army, b. 1744, in Salisbury, Conn., but 
educated in Vermont. In 1775, after the battle of Lex¬ 
ington, he collected a small party, and marched against 
the fortress of Ticonderoga and Crown Point; ana in 
each of these enterprises he was successful. In the at¬ 
tempt to take Montreal, at tile head of a small body of 
troops, he was captured, after a severe battle, and sent to 
England. On his releas; from confinement, he returned 
to Vermont, where he was appointed to the command 
of the State militia. D. Feb. 13, 1789. 

Allen, Henry Watkins, b. in Prince Edward co., Va., 
1820. A lawyer as bis father, he was elected, in 1859, to 
the legislature of Louisiana, and took very soon in that 
body a prominent position. Upon the outbreak of the 
war, Mr. Allen joined the Delta Rifles as a volunteer, 
was made colonel, and appointed military governor of 
Jackson. W ounded at the battle of Ship Island, and 
more severely at the battle of Baton Rouge, he was ap¬ 
pointed brigadier-general in Sept. 1864, and soon after 
he was almost unanimously elected governor of Louisi¬ 
ana. Eminently fitted for the position, his devotion to 
the interests of all classes speedily won the general con¬ 
fidence and affection, and gave him almost arbitrary 
power. At the close of the war. Governor Allen lelt the 
country and took his residence in Mexico, wliere he 
died, April 22,1866. W r e have from his pen “Travels 
of a Sugar-Planter in Europe.” 

Allen. Philip, b. in Providence, R. I., 17S7, D there Dec. 
13,1867, was one of the foremost manufacturers of cotton 
in the State of Rhode Island. In 1831 he began printing 
calicoes at the large establishment, still known by his 
name, situated on the river north of Providence. The 









ALL/E 


ALLF 


ALLI 


«-i 

<o 


perfection of the styie of print made at these works has 
justly given them a celebrity all over the continent. In 
1851, Mr. Allen was elected, as the candidate of the Demo¬ 
cratic party, governor of Rhode Island, and was re¬ 
elected in 1852 and 1853, when he resigned the guberna¬ 
torial office to accept that of United States Senator lor 
six years, after which he retired from public life. 
Allen, Slit Thomas, an English admiral, who distin¬ 
guished himself during the reign of Charles II. in the 
war against the Dutch. In 166(5 he defeated the van of 
the Dutch fleet, three of their admirals falling in the 
fight. D. 1680. 

men. William, chief-justice of Pennsylvania before 
the Revolution, co-operated with B. Franklin in estab¬ 
lishing the college of Philadelphia. On the approach of 
the Revolution, he returned to England, where he died, 
1780. 

Allen, Wili jam, an eminent chemical and experimental 
English professor, b. in London, 177o; d. 1843. 

U len, W illiam Hexry, a naval officer of the United 
States, distinguished for his courage and success in the 
war of 1812-13 against Great Britain. Born at Provi¬ 
dence, R.I., 1784. On Aug. 18,1812, after a very successful 
cruise, the Argus, of which he was the master-com¬ 
mandant, became a prize to the British brig Pelican, 
and Allen received a wound, of which he died two' 
davs after. 

illen, in Illinois, a township of La Salle county, 
lllen, in Indiana, a county in the E.N.E. of the State, 
on the Ohio line. Area, 638 .sq. m.— Rivers. A co. is well 
watered by the St. Joseph and St. Mary rivers, which 
unite at Fort Wayne, and form the Maumee river; sev¬ 
eral creeks also flow through it. Desc. The surface is 
levei; the soil very fertile; with the exception of some oak 
openings and wet prairies, the county is well wooded. 
Ilist. It was organized in 1824, and received the name 
from Col. Win. Allen, of Kentucky. Cap. Fort Wayne. 
Pop in 1890, 66.689. 

—a township of Miami co. 

— “ Noble co. 

41'len. in Iowa, a post-office of Harrison co., 160 m. 

W. of Iowa City. 

—a township of Polk co. 

— “ Warren co. 

Allen, in Kansas., a county in the S.E. part of the 
State. Area, 72J sq. in.— Rivers. The Neosho, which 
intersects the co., and numerous creeks, the principal 
being Deer and Elm. Soil. The county consists mostly 
of prairie, but the timber abounds along the rivers. 
Minerals coal. Cap., Iola. 

—a post-village of Lyon co., abt. 40 m. S.W. of Topeka. 
Allen, in Kentucky, a S. county, on the Tennessee line. 
Aren , 300 sq. m. Rivers. Tennessee, Big Barren river, 
and Trammel’s creek. Prod. Corn, wheat, oats, and to¬ 
bacco. Hist. The county was formed in 1825, and 
named in honor of Col. John Allen. Cap. Seottsville. 
Pop. (1897) 15,650. 

Allen. in Michigan, a flourishing township of Hills¬ 
dale co. 

Allen, in Missouri, a post-village of Randolph co., 147 
m. W N.W. of St. Louis. 

Allen, in Mew York, a post-township of Alleghany co., 
250 m. W.S.W. of Albany. 

Allen, in Ohio, a county in the W.N.W. part of the 
State Area. 405 sq. m. Rivers. It is intersected by 
the Auglaize and Ottawa rivers, and by Riley and Sugar 
creeks. Pesc. The surface is generally level, the soil 
fertile and abundantly timbered with hard wood. Prod. 
Corn, wheat, oats, hay, and butter. The Miami canal 
passes through t ie county and affords good water-power. 
Cap. Lima. 

—a township of Darke co. 

— “ Hancock co. 

— “ Union co. 

Alien, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Cumberland co. 
—a township of Northampton co. 

— “ Washington ce. 

Allen, Bog - of, in Ireland. The name given to a 
number of contiguous morasses separated by ridges of 
dry ground, situated in Kildare, King’s and Queen’s coun¬ 
ties. Area, 238,500 acres. It gives birth to the rivers 
Boyne. Barrow, and Brosna. 

Allen Centre, in New York, a post-village in Allen 
township, Alleghany co. 

Allen Centre, in Ohio , a post-village in Allen town¬ 
ship, Union co., 36 m N.W. of Columbus. 

Alien, Isle of, a village of Ireland, county of Kil¬ 
dare, 5 m. N.E. of Kildare. 

Allen, Lough, in Ireland, a lake in Leitrim co., 10 
m. in length and 4 to 5 in width. It is supposed to he 
the source of the Shannon. 

Allendale, in England, a market-town and parish of 
Northumberland. P p. of parish about 7,000. 
Allendale, in Kansas, a village of Johnson co. 
Allendale, in Kentucky, a post-office of Greene co. 
Allendale, in Michigan, a post-townsliip of Ottawa 
county. 

Allendale, in Missouri, a post-village of Worth co., 
about 18 m. N. of Albany. 

Allendale, in South Carolina, a township of Barnwell 
district. 

Al'lendorf, in Germany, a town of Hesse-Cassel, on 
the Werra. Pop. 4,000. 

Alien's, in Ohio (post-office, Lena), Miami co., 62 m. 
W. of Columbus. 

Al'lenis Bridg-e, in South Carolina, a village of Mar¬ 
ion co., about 130 m. E. ot Columbia, 
lllensburg, in Oh in, a post-village of Highland co.. 
8 m. W. of Hillsborough. 

A1 'len’s Creeli, in Virginia, a township of Hanover 
co. 


Allen's Fresh, in Maryland, a township of Charles 
co., about 40 m. 8. by E. of Washington, 

Allen's drove, in Iowa, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Scott county, 14 miles N. N.W. of Daven¬ 
port. 

Allen’s Grove, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Wal¬ 
worth co. 

Allen's Hill, in New York, a post-village of Onta¬ 
rio co. 

Allen’s Settlement, in Louisiana, a post-office of 
Claiborne pari.-h, 4UU m. N.W. ol New Orleans. 

Alien's Spring;, iu Kentucky, a p. o. of W arren co. 

Allenstein, a town of East Prussia, 65 m. from 
Kbnigsberg. 

Allenstown, in New Hampshire, a post-townsliip of 
Merriinac co., 10 m. S.E. of Concord. 

Al'lensville, in Indiana, a village of Randolph co., 
about 8 m. N. by W. of Union City. 

—a post-village of Switzerland co. 

Allensviile, in Kentucky, a post-village of Todd co., 
18u m. S.W. of Frankfort. 

Allensviile, in Ohio, a post-village of Vinton co., 60 
m. S.S.E. of Columbus. 

Allensviile, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Mifflin 
co., 70 m. N.W. of Harrisburg. 

Al'lenton, in Alabama, a post-village of Wilcox co., 
about 110 m. S. of Tuscaloosa. 

Allenton, in Missouri, a post-village of St. Louis co., 
about 30 m. W.S.W. of St. Louis. 

Allenton, in Rhode Island, a post-office of Washing¬ 
ton co. 

Allentown, in New Jersey, a post-village in Upper 
Freehold township, Monmouth co., 12 m. E. by N. of 
Trenton. 

Allentown, in Ohio, a post-village of Allen co., on 
the Ottawa creek, 7 m. W. of Lima, and 70 m. N.W. of 
Columbus. 

Al'lentown, in Pennsylvania, a flourishing city,, 
capital of Lehigh co., pleasantly situated on an eminence 
on the W. bank of the Lehigh river, 51 m. N. by W. of 
Philadelphia. The beds of iron ore and anthracite, which 
are very extensive in the valley of A., have given lo 
that town a very great importance. It contains numer¬ 
ous iron-works, and has some fine public buildings, an 
academy, a theological seminary, and a military insti¬ 
tute. The first house of A. was built by William Allen, 
in 1750. on a grant of 20,000 acres received from William 
Penn; in 1812, it became tiie county-town, and in 1838, 
its former name of Northampton was changed to Allen¬ 
town. Its inhabitants are mostly of German descent. 
Pop. in 1890, 25,228; iu 1897 (estimated), 33,600. 

All er, a river of Germany, rising in the district of 
Magdeburg, and falling into the Weser. 

All 'er, a parish of England, in Somersetshire, where, in 
1644, a battle was fought between the Royalist and Par¬ 
liament forces. Here, also, Alfred the Great defeated 
the Danes. 

Alle rion, or Aleriox, n. 

[Fr. alirinn, from Lat. ala, 
wing.] {Her.) An imaginary 
bird like an eagle, without 
beak or feet, so called be¬ 
cause they have nothing per¬ 
fect but the wings. They dif¬ 
fer from Martlets in that 
they are represented facing, 
with the wings expanded. 

Alle'viate, v. a. [Lat. alle.- 
vare.] To make light, some¬ 
times in a literal, but ordi¬ 
narily in a figurative sense; 
hence, to lessen; to soften; Fig. 86.— moxtmorency’s 
to palliate; to mitigate; as, he escutcheon. 

alleviates his faults by an ex¬ 
cuse; your friendship alleviates my sorrow. 

Alle'viating, a. That which affords alleviation. 

Allevia'tion, n. [Lat allevatin.\ The act of making 
light; alleviating; lessening; mitigating or extenuat¬ 
ing.— That by which any pain is cured, or fault ex¬ 
tenuated. 

Alle'viative, n. That which alleviates. 

Alley, n.; pi. Alleys. [Fr. allee .] A walk in a garden;— 
a narrow passage or way in a city, narrower than a street; 
a lane. 

(Arch.) A passage from one part of a building to 
another; also, the passage or walk between the pews of 
a church. 

Al ley’s Mills, in Texas, a post-office of Cass co., about 
300 m. N.E. of Austin. 

All-Fool's Bay, n. The first of April;—so called from 
the custom of making fools of as many as possible on 
that day. 

All-Fours, n. (Sport.) A game played by two persons 
with an entire pack of cards. The name is derived from 
the 4 chances of which it consists, viz. High, Low, Jack, 
and Game.— Laws of the game. 1. If, in dealing, the 
dealer discovers any of the adversary’s cards, a new 
deal may be demanded. 2. If the dealer, in dealing, 
discovers any of his own cards, he must abide by the 
same. 3. If it is discovered, previous to playing, that 
the dealer has given his adversary too many cards, there 
must be a new deal; or, if both parties agree, the extra 
cards may be drawn by the dealer from his opponent’s 
hand; and the same if *he dealer gives himself too 
many cards. But in either case, if a single card has 
been played, then there must he another deU. 4. No per¬ 
son can beg more than once in a hand, unless both par¬ 
ties agree. 5. In playing, you must either follow suit 
or trump, on penalty of your adversary’s adding one 
point to his game. 6. If either player sets up his game 
erroneously, it must not only be taken di wu, but the 


antagonist is entitled to score four points, or one. an 
shall have been agreed upon. 7. It is allowable for tbe 
person who lays down a high or a low trump to inquil e 
whether the same be high or low. 

To go on all fours. To move on four legs, oron two legs 
and two arms or hands. Hence, to go on all Jours, fig., 
to be exactly similar in tbe minutest points. “This ex¬ 
ample is on all fours witli the other.” 

Allgo'sa, iu South Carolina, a post-office of Spartan¬ 
burg district. 

A1 S-tiail', interj. See Hail. 

Aill-lial low, or All-hallows, n. All-Saints’Day thl 
first of November. 

All-lial'low-tide, n. [A.S. lid, time.] The time neat 
All-Saints or November first. 

All linmls alloy ! ( Mar.) The order by which the 
ship’s company is summoned on deck by tbe boat¬ 
swain. 

All hands to quarters ahoy! is theorder to the crew to 
prepare for battle. This command is more generally 
given by the boatswain piping down the hatchway. 
All'ia, a small river in Italy, rising in (lie hills ol Crus- 
tuminuni, and flowing into the Tiber, about 11 m. N. of 
Rome. Near its confluence, tbe Romans were defeated 
with great slaughter by tbe Gauls, under Brennus, b. c. 
490. The barbarians captured the city. On its hanks 
also, the dictator Cincinnatus defeated the Framestines. 
b. c. 377. 

Ailin' ceous, a. Relating to, or having the properties 
of, allium, or garlic. 

Alii' mice, n. [Fr. from Lat. ad ligare, to bind.] A vol¬ 
untary compact, binding persons or communities. The 
alliance of States is either offensive or defensive, or 
both; with individuals it means friendship or marriage- 
relationship.— Compact; treaty; union; cooperation; 
confederation; friendship. 

(Rot.) The first division of a class, including the or¬ 
ders having certain common characters which separate 
them from the rest of tbe class. 

Alli'ance, in Ohio, a manuf. city and R. R. centre in 
Lexington township, Stark co. Pop. in 1890, 7,607. 

All i'efe, n. pi. (Rot.) A tribe of plants, ord. Liliacete. 
Allied', p. a. United by kindred or alliance; confeder¬ 
ated. 

Al'lier, a dep. in France, bounded on the N. by those 
of Cher, Nievre, and Saone et Loire, and on the S. by 
those of Creuse, Puy de Dome, and Loire. It com¬ 
prehends a great part of the ancient: province of Bour- 
bonnais. Lat. between 45° 58' and 46° 47' N.; Lon. be¬ 
tween 2° 16' and 3° 57' E. Area, 2,821 Sq. m. It is 
traversed by tbe Allier, the Clier. and other lesser 
rivers. The soil is fertile, but the agriculture is in a 
backward state. Tbe ponds and woods are extensive. 
Manf Iron machinery and tools of every description, 
cutlery, paper, porcelain, glass, cloth, 4c. Mineral 
springs attract visitors to the towns of Yicliy, Bourbon- 
L’Archambault, and Neris. The dep is divided into 
four arrondisst nents, named Moulius, Ganuat, La 
Palisse, and Montlugon. Pop. 424,582. 

Al'lier, a river that gives its name to the above depart¬ 
ment. It rises in the mountains of the Lozere, and 
traversing the centre of France, falls into the Loire, a 
few miles below Nevers, after a course of 220 miles. 
Al'lig'ate, v. a. [Lat. alligare, to bind to.] To tie one 
thing to another; to unite. 

AlHg'a'tion. n. The act of tying together; the state ol 
being tied. (R.) 

(Arith.) A rule by wlii Ji tbe price of a mixture it 
found when the price of the ingredients is known. This 
is applicable to commercial arithmetic only, but the 
following questions, which fall under tbe rule, will show 
its scope better than any general definition.—How much 
wine at $12 a dozen must be added to a pipe worth $18 
a dozen, in order that the mixture may be worth $15 a 
dozen ?—If a cubic foot of copper weighs 8,788 ounces, 
and of zinc (,200 ounces, in what proportions must copper 
and zinc 0 i mixed, so that a cubic foot of the mixture 
may weigh 8,000 ounces ?—For the algebraist we may 
sny, that all questions fall under the rule of alligation 
which involve the solution of such an equation as, ax 
-f- by + cz — n (x + y + z) in which n must be inter¬ 
mediate between a, b, and c; which is indeterminate 
unless further relations between x. y, and z are given. 
Any person moderately skilled in algebra may reduce 
a question of alligation to an equation of this form. 
The number of cases is infinite, and several of those 
given in the books of arithmetic are useless. We shall, 
therefore, confine ourselves to two rules of the most 
simple cases for the reader not skilled in algebra. 
Rule. 1. Where the quantity of each ingredient, and 
its price, are given, to find the price per pound, gallon, 
or whatever it may be, of the mixture; multiply the 
quantity of each ingredient by its price, and add; then 
divide the sum of all these products by tlie sum of all 
the quantities in the ingredients. 

Ex. What is the worth per ounce of a mixture of 25 
ounces of sugar at 10c. with 15 ounces at 12c. ? 


25 oz. at 10c. is worth .$2.50 

15 “ “ 12c. “ . 1.80 

40 4.30 40 

Answer 10%. 10.75 


Rule II. To find in what proportions per cent, two in¬ 
gredients must be mixed, in order that the price per 
ounce, &c. of the mixture may be one which has been 
previously determined upon. To find the proportion of 
the^irst ingredient, take the difference of price between 
the mixture and the second ingredient, multiply by 100, 
and divide by the difference between the prices of the 
ingredients. Ex. I wish to know in what proportion 





























ALLI 


ALLO 


ALLO 


77 


wine at 45c. and 70c. the pint must oe mixed, in order 
that the mixture may be worth 65c. the pint? 


Price of the mixture. 55 

Price of the 2d ingredient.|.. 70 

Difference.... 15 

Multiply by. 100 


divide the product by 25, diff. bet. 45 and 70 1,500 25 

60 

There must be, therefore, 60 per cent, of the first, and 
consequently, 40 per cent, of the second. 

Al ligator, n. [Lat. lacerta , a lizard.] ( Znbl .) A genus 
of very formidable and ferocious reptiles, found in 



Fig. 87.— ALLIGATOR. 


tropical regions of America, and closely resembling the 
gen. Crocodile , the species of which are all found in the 
Old World.—See Crocodilid.®. 

Alligator, in Florida, a post-village, cap. of Columbia 
co., See Lake Ciiy. 

Al ligator, in Louisiana, a post-office of St. Mary's 
parish. 

Al'ligator-apple, n. {Hot.) The fruit of a species of 
custard-apple, native of the West Indies; tho Anona 
palustris. 

Al'ligator-pear. n. (Bot 1 The fruit of the Persea 
Gratissinra , a West Indian tree 

Al'ligator .Swamp, in North Carolina , a large tract 
of marsh, covering nearly the entire peninsula between 
Pamlico and Albemarle sounds. 

Al'ligator Tortoise. See Tortoise. 

Allig'atnre, n. See Ligature. 

Al'ligazant, n. A kind of rosewood. 

Alligliur. See Aiighur. 

Allign'ment, n. See Alignment. 

Al liotIt. See Alioth. 

Allision, n. [Lat. allisio. ] The act of striking or dashing. 

41 The island was severed from the continent 
By the boisterous all is ion of the sea.”— Woodward. 

Al'lison. in Michigan, a township of Lapeer co., about 
60 m. N. of Detroit; now called Burnside, q. v. 

Al'lison, in Illinois, a township of Lawrence coun¬ 
ty- 

A1 lison. in Pennsylvania, a township of Cl in ton co., now 
divided into Lockhaven city and Lamar township. 

A1 lino'll Li. in Tennessee, a post-village of Franklin co., 
on Elk river, 77 m. S.E. of Nashville. 

Al lison's Creeli, in South Carolina, flows into Ca¬ 
tawba river, in York district. 

Allitera'tion, n. (Pros.) The juxtaposition, or fre¬ 
quent recurrence of words commencing with the same 
letters, or of syllables of the same sound, in the same 
sentence. A. is pleasing when skilfully managed, so as 
to produce what the French have called harmonic imi¬ 
tative; but by too frequent use it becomes trivial and 
ridiculous. An excellent instance of imitation having a 
happy A. is afforded by the lino of Virgil, describing the 
measured gallop of the horse: 

44 Quadrupedante pedum sonitu qualit uugula campum.” 

Or another verse of the same poet: 

"I.actuates ventos tempestatesque sonoras.” 

In which the continual recurrence of the t reminds us 
of the uninterrupted noise of the winds. Greek litera¬ 
ture affords many instances of this imitative harmony. 
In German literature, Burger has made the most use of 
A. A sohnet of Schlegel finishes with the following: 

“ Wo Liebe lebt und labt, ist lieb das Leben.” 

Among the French, a verse of Racine — 

“ Pour qui sont oes serpents qui sifflent sur nos tetes ?" 
represents very happily the hissing of the serpent. A. 
has been most used as an ornament of diction in the 
Celtic and Gothic dialects. Giraldus Cambrensis, who 
lived in the twelfth century, says, in his description 
of Wales, that in his day, both the English and 
Welsh were so fond of this figure of speech, that 
they deemed no composition to be elegant, in which 
it was not plentifully employed. The most famous poem 
in the English language, entirely composed in A. metre, 
is that entitled “ The Vision of Piers Plowman ,” written 
about the middle of the 12th century, attributed to 
William or Robert Longland, and which has been fre¬ 
quently printed. So strongly had A. obtained possession 
of tne English ear, that even for some time after the 
introduction of rhyme, it appears to have been still con- 
jiderad au important embellishment of verse. The 


English popular ballad or lyrical poetry is full of such 
hues as those with which the Scotch song commences: 

41 -berry may the maid be 
That marries the miller: 

For /oul day aud /air day,” &c., &c. 

Down even to the present day, the use of A., to a con¬ 
siderable extent, has continued to characterize English 
versification in its most polished form, and in the hands 
of some of the greatest poets. Byron’s line in the con¬ 
cluding stanza of the second canto of Childe Harold, 

44 What is the worst of woes that wait on age ? ’* 
may he given as an example. Churchill has at once 
ridiculed and exemplified tho figure in his well-known 
verse, 

44 And apt alliteration’s artful aid," 
where every word begins with the same letter. 

A11 i t <“ra t i VO. a. Pertaining or relating to all iteration. 

Allit'erator, n. One who makes use of alliterations. 

Al'lium, n. [Lat.] (Bot.) A gen. of plants, 0. Liliacece, re¬ 
markable fortlieir 
pungent odor. A. 
sativum.the garlic, 
a native of Sicily, 
is cultivated in all 
parts of the world. 

Its bulb, used as 
seasoni ng, and also 
in medicine, is com¬ 
posed of several 
smaller ones sur¬ 
rounded by a com¬ 
mon white mem¬ 
brane, and called 
cloves of garlic. 

They are strong- 
scented, and have a 
bitter, acrid taste. 

(Med.) The garlic 
is a local irritant 
and rubefacient. 

Internally it quick¬ 
ens the circulation 
and stimulates tho 
secretions gener¬ 
ally. It is employed as an expectorant in chronic ca¬ 
tarrhal affections, and as a stomachic in flatulence, Ac. 
Externally, it is used as a revulsive rubefacient to the 
feet, as a resolvent in indolent tumors, and as a lini¬ 
ment in infantile convulsions. See Onion. 

All'iiess, n. Totality; entirety; hence, completeness 
of attributes, (r.) 

44 The allness of God, including his absolute spirituality."— 

Turnbull. 

Alloa, a seaport town and parish in the shire of Clack¬ 
mannan, Scotland, on tho Forth, 25 m. W.N.W. of Edin¬ 
burgh. The harbor is excellent, and the trade consid¬ 
erable. A. is supposed to be the Alloma of Ptolemy. 
Pop. of town 7,000. 

Allob'roges. a warlike nation of Gaul, who dwelt near 
the Rhone, in those parts of France aud Italy now called 
Savoy, Dauphin®, and Piedmont. The Romans destroyed 
their city on account of their assistance to Hannibal. 

Alloca tion, /;. [Fr.] The act of putting one thing to 
another. The admission of au article iu reckoning, and 
addition of it to the account. 

(Eng. Law.) An allowance made upon accounts in the 
Exchequer, or rather a placing or adding to a thing. 

Alloca tur, n. [Lat., it is allowed.] (Law.) The allow¬ 
ance by a master or prothonotury of a hill referred for 
his consideration, whether touching costs, damages, or 
matters of account. 

Allocu'tiou, n. [Lat. al for ad. to, and locvtio, a speak¬ 
ing.] An address, usually of a formal nature; particu¬ 
larly applied to an address delivered by the Pope at the 
college of cardinals, on matters of importance to the 
Church, or by a general to his troops prior to a battle. 

Allodial, and Allo'dian, a. [Fr.] (Feudal Law.) 
Held without any acknowledgment of superiority; not 
feudal; independent. 

Allo'dially, adv. In an allodial manner. 

Allo'tlitini, or Alodium, n. In the feudal law, an A. 
was a property held in absolute dominion, without ren¬ 
dering any service, rent, fealty, or other consideration 
whatever to a superior. It was opposea to Feodum 
or Fief, which means property, the use of which was 
bestowed by the superior upon another, on condition 
that/ the person to whom the gift was made should per¬ 
form certain services to the giver, upon failure of which, 
or upon the determination of the period to which the 
gift was confined, the property reverted to the original 
possessor. Hence arose the mutual relations of Lord and 
Vassal. The etymology of the word A. has not been 
ascertained. — See Feudal System, and Fief. 

Allog'amy, a. [Gr. alios, other, and gumos, marriage.] 
The fecundation of one flower by pollen from another of 
the same species; cross-fertiization. The op. of autogamy. 

Alloge'neoiis. a [Gr. allogenes, from alios, and genus, 
kind.] Of a different nature, of another kind. The 
opposite of homogeneous. 

Allonge', n. [Fr., from allnnge.r, to lengthen.] (Fencing.) 
A pass with a sword or rapier; sometimes contracted 
into longe or lunge. — A long rein, where a horse is 
trotted by the hand. — A paper attached to a bill of ex¬ 
change when the successive indorsements are too numer¬ 
ous to be written on the bill itself. 

— v.n. To make a pass or thrust by stepping forward 
and extending the sword or rapier. 

Alloo', v. a. and n. [Probably from the Fr. allons, let 
us go.] To incite a dog by crying alloo. 

Alloo thy furious mastiff.”— Philip*. 


Allopath'ic, a. Belonging or relating to allopathy. 

Allopatll'icaliy, adv. According to the principles 
of allopathy. 

Allop'atllist, n. One who adheres to, or practises, 
allopathy. 

Allop'atlsy, n. [Gr. alios, other, and pathos, cuffering.] 
The ordinary medical practice, as opposed to Homoeo¬ 
pathy. — See Homie pathv. 

Al'lopSian®, //. (Min.) A subsilicate,amorphous min* 
eral; vitreous lustre; color usually pale sky-blue, some* 
times greenish, brown, yellow, or colorless. It is re¬ 
garded as a result of the decomposition of some alumi¬ 
nous silicate. Found iu the U. S. in mines of limouite, 
zinc, copper, &c. 

Allot', v. a. [0. Fr. allotir .] To divide or distribute by 
lots.—To distribute; to parcel out; to give each his 
share. 

Allot ment. n. The act of allotting.—That which is 
allotted; the part; the share; the portion granted. 

Allotrop'ie, a. (Chem.) Belonging to allotrophy. Thus 
a substance is allotropic when it is capable of assuming 
two or three of the four conditions in which solid bodies 
may exist, (crystalline, vitreous, amorphous, and organ¬ 
ized;) and an allotropic substance is in an allotropic 
state when it occurs in one of its regular conditions. 

Allot'ropliy, and Allot'ropism, n. [Gr. alios, another, 
tropns, manner.] (Chem.) The existence of the same 
substance in different forms, each endowed with differ¬ 
ent properties arising, not from differences in their 
chemical nature, but in their molecular arrangement. 
Sulphur, for example, often occurs naturally in beauti¬ 
ful and hard octohedral crystids. But if a quantity of 
these crystals be melted, and heated considerably be¬ 
yond the boiling-point of water, and the liquid be then 
suddenly cooled by pouring it into cold water, a tough, 
flexible, transparent substance, of an amber color, is 
procured, which may be kneaded in the hand or drawn 
out into long threads, and is less easily inflamed than 
ordinary sulphur. Tliis constitutes vitreous sulphur; 
but if it be left a few days, it becomes brittle, opaque, 
and partly crystalline. However, it is not all crystal¬ 
lized, for, if digested with bi-sulphide of carbon, part 
of it only will be dissolved; the crystallized portion is 
taken up, and a buff-colored powder is left, which is in¬ 
soluble. It lias no crystalline appearance, and is amor¬ 
phous sulphur. This, if melted by heat, becomes as 
soluble as before. The carbon, as diamond, graphite, 
and charcoal, is another striking example of allotrophy. 

Allot'tee, n. A person to whom shares in a public un¬ 
dertaking are allotted. 

Allow', v. a. and ?/. [Fr. allnuer, from Lat. allocare or 
allaudarc .] To make a deduct ion, as upon an account.— 
To graut or give in a stated manner or periodically.— 
To graut the claim of a thing on the ground of truth, 
justice, reason, or equity; to concede for reasons best 
known to one’s self; to allot; to assign; to afford; 
to grant; to remit; to recognize; to acknowledge; to 
avow; to confess; to admit; to permit; to suffer. 

Allow'able, a. [Fr. allouable.) That which may be 
admitted without contradiction. — That which is per¬ 
mitted or licensed; lawful, not forbidden. 

44 1 war. by the freedom allowable among friends, tempted to 
vent my thoughts with negligence."— Foyle. 

Allow'ableness, n. The quality of being allowable; 
lawfulness; exemption from prohibition. 

A1 Iot alily, adv. In an allowable manner. 

Allow'ance, n. Admission without contradiction; ac¬ 
knowledgment. 

44 Without the action and allowance of spirits, our philosophy 
will be defective.”— Locke. 

—Sanction; license; authority. 

44 To conclude, 

Without the king's will, and the state's allowance.'' — Shakt. 

—Permission; freedom from restraint; indulgence. 

"To consult their reason before they give allowance to then 
inclination."— Locke. 

—A settled rate; or appointment for any use. 

"And his allowance was a continual allowance given him of 
the king; a daily rate for every day, of the days of his life.” 

'i Kings xxv. 30. 

—Abatement from the strict rigor of a law, or demand. 
“ Parents never give allowance for an innocent passion.” 

(Com.) A deduction ; au average payment; a portion. 

— v. a. (Naut.) To put upon allowance, i. e., to limit the 
portion of food allowed to a crew or passengers. 

Al'loway, in Scotland, a parish of Ayrshire, in which 
stand the ruins of the au'ld haunted kirk; immortalized 
by the “ Tam O’Shanter,” of Robert Burns. 

Al'loway, in New York-, a post-village of Lyons town- 
ship, Wayne co., 3 m. S. of Lyons. 

Al'loway's in New Jersey, flows into the 

Delaware river, in Salem co. 

Al'lowaystown. in New Jersey, a post-village of 
Salem co., 60 m. S S.W. ot Trenton. 

Allox'ail, n. [Gr alios, other, and oxos, vinegar.] 
(Chem.) A substance obtained in octohedral crystals, 
by mixing 4 parts of uric acid with 8 of commercial hy¬ 
drochloric acid, and gradually adding 1 part of powdered 
chlorate of potash It stains the skin pink, and gives it 
a sickly odor. A characteristic property of alloxan is 
the formation of an intensely violet, purple-colored 
liquid on admixture with solution of a protosalt of iron. 
Form. C 8 HoN 2 0 8 + 2 and 8 Ao. 

Allox'anic Acid, n. (Chem.) An unstable com¬ 
pound obtained bv treating alloxan with baryta water. 
Form. 2110. C 8 H 2 N 2 0 8 . 

Alloxan tin, n. (Chem.) A compound obtained by 
the mixture of dial uric acid with alloxan. It forms 
small, white, hard, brilliant prismatic crystals; it is freely 
dissolved by boiling water, and its solution reddens life 
m us. Form. C e II a 0j + 3 Aq. 



Fig. 88. — ALLIUM SATIVUM. 
(Common garlic.) 

















ALLU 


ALMA 


ALMA 


78 


\lloy'. v. a. [’From Fr. alni, ;he fixed standard for gold 
and silver ] To reduce the purity ct’ metals by mixing 
with a less valuable substance: as to alloy gold with 
silver, or silver with copper. — Metaphysically, to abate, 
impair, or corrupt; as, ‘‘To alloy pleasure with misfor¬ 
tune.” 

Alloy', n.; pi. Alloys. A base metal mixed with a finer.— 
.Evil mixed with good; as, “No happiness is without alloy.” 

{Chem.) Metals enter into combination with each 
other, and form compounds termed alloys, many of which 
are most extensively used in the arts. Comparatively 
few of the metals possess qualities such as render them 
suitable to be employed alone by the manufacturer; 
aluminium, zinc, iron, tin, copper, lead, mercury, sil¬ 
ver, gold, and platinum, constitute the entire number 
soused. Arsenic, antimony, and bismuth are too brit¬ 
tle to be used alone, but are employed for hardening 
other metals. Many of the physical properties of the 
metals are greatly altered by combination with each 
other; the combination or alloj’ being often adapted to 
purposes for which either metal separately would be 
unfit. So. copper alone is not fit for castings, and it is 
too tough to be conveniently wrought in the lathe or by 
the file; but when alloyed with zinc, it forms a much 
harder compound, which can be cast, rolled, or turned, 
and which constitutes the different kinds of brass, the 
qualities of which can be varied by varying the proper¬ 
ties of the two metals. — When the metals combine with 
mercury, the resulting body is called an amalgam — 
Sometimes alloys are true chemical compounds, resulting 
from the combination of metals in definite proportions, 
as is the case with silver and mercury; most frequently 
they are only mixtures of definite compounds with an 
excess of one or other metal, and the separation of their 
components from each other is easily affected by simple 
means. For instance, by exposing brass to a high tem¬ 
perature, the zinc is volatilized, leaving the copper be¬ 
hind.— Generally speaking, the hardness of metals is 
increased by alloying them; of this a familiar instance is 
afforded by the standard coin of the republic: neither 
gold nor silver, when unalloyed, is sufficiently hard to 
resist attrition to the degree required for the currency, 
but the addition of jf or ^ of its weight of copper to 
either metal increases its hardness to the requisite point. 
The more important alloys will be considered under 
their respective names. See Sec. II. 

Alloy' age, n The act of alloying metals; alloy. 

All-Saints’ Bay, in Brazil, prov. of Bahia. Lat. 12° 
42' S.; Lon. 38° 42' W. With the town of Bahia on the 
E., and its surface dotted with islands, All-Saints’ Bay, 
37 m. long and 27 wide, is one of the largest and finest 
natural harbors in the world. 

All-Saints’ !>ay, or All-Hallows, n. (Eccl. Hist.) 
A Catholic festival celebrated on the 1st of November. 
This feast, established by Boniface IV. in 611, for the 
commemoration of all the martyrs, was extendedinto the 
festival of All-Saints’ by Gregory IV., in 830. 

All-Saints’ Islands, three small islands S. of 
Guadaloupe, West Indies. Lat. 15° 51' N.; Lon. 61° 41' 
W. Total area abt. 5 sq. m .', pop. 1,409. They belong 
to France 

Alls'borougll, in Alabama, a post-village of Col¬ 
bert co. 

All -se er, n. One who sees or beholds everything. 

“That high All-seer.” — Shales. 

All-Souls Day, n. (Keel, list.) A Catholic festival, 
held on the 2d of November, in commemoration of all 
the faithful deceased. 

Allspice, n. See Euofnta. 

Alls'ton. Washington, an eminent American painter; 
B. in Charleston, S. Carolina. He went to London in 
1801, and entered as a student in the Royal Academy. 
He next visited France and Italy, and pursued the study 
of his art at Rome for four years, where he distin¬ 
guished himself by his coloring, which acquired for 
him the name of the American Titian. In 1809 he vis¬ 
ited America, married the sister of Dr. Channing, and 
afterward resumed his residence in Loudon, where his 
first historical picture, the “Dead Man Revived,” ob¬ 
tained for him the first prize of the British Institute. 
Having lost his wife, he came home in 1818, mar¬ 
ried, in 1830, the daughter of Chief Justice Dana, 
and took his residence iu Cambridge, where he died, 
on the 9th of July, 1843. Ilis principal works are: 
Elijah in the Wilderness, Jeremiah, Saul and the Witch 
of Endor, Miriam, Dante's Beatrice, and Valentine. The 
Feast of Belshazzar was not finished. A. published in 
1813 a small volume of poems, called the “ Sylph of the 
Season, and other Poems,” and, in 1841, a tale called 
Monaldi. 

Allude', v. i. [Lat. alludere.] To have reference to a 
thing, without the direct mention of it; to hint at; to 
insinuate; as, he alludes to an old story. 

Allumette', n. [Fr. from allumer, to light.] A match 
for kindling. 

Allure', v.a. [From ad and lure.) To entice to anything 
whether good or bad; to draw toward anything by 
enticement. 

Allure'ment, n. That which allures or has the force 
of alluring; enticement; temptation. 

“....Adam, by his wife's allurement fell."— Milton. 

Allur' er, 7i. The person or thing that allures. 

Allur'ing’ly, adv. In an alluring manner. 

Allur'ing'ness, n. The quality of alluring, (r.) 

Alin Sion, n. [Fr.] That which is spoken with refer¬ 
ence to something suppesed to be already known, and 
therefore not expressed; a hint; an implication; as, 
“ allusion to customs lost to us.” 

All u'stve, a. Referring to something not fully ex¬ 
pressed; hinting. 


Allu'sively, adv. In an allusive manner; by impli¬ 
cation; by insinuation. 

Allu'siveness, n. The quality of being allusive, (r.) 

Allu'sory, a. Allusive, (it.) 

Allu'vial, a. [From alluvion.] isolating or pertaining 
to alluvium; as, alluvial laud. 

Allu'vion, n. [Fr. from Lat. alluvio.] An alluvial 
land. The same as Alluvium, q. v. 

Alluvium, n.\ pi. Alluvia. [Lat., from alluere,, to 
wash upon.] The name given to those accumulations of 
sand, earth, and loose stones or gravel brought down by 
currents of water, generally from higher regions into 
plains, and which, when spread out to any extent, form 
what is called alluvial laud, or formation. The superior 
crust of the earth is constantly being disintegrated by 
the action of the air, by tides, currents, and streams of 
running water, and deposited at the bottom of rivers, 
lakes, estuaries, and the ocean itself. In time, these 
lakes, Ac., are completely filled up, become dry land, 
and a valley composed of this alluvial soil is formed. 
So in the United States, the town of New Orleans stands 
on land formed by alluvium. 

{Law.) Alluvium, or, more properly, as a legal term, 
alluvion, is that land gained from the sea. or a river, by 
the washing up of sand and soil, so imperceptibly, that 
i* is impossible to judge how much is added at each 
moment of time. The proprietor of the bank increased 
by alluvion is entitled to the additions. 

Ally', v. a. [Fr. allier, from Lat. ad ligare, to bind.] To 
make a voluntary compact between States by treaty, 
coalition, or confederation: or between individuals, by 
affinity of kindred, friendship, or mutual interest; to 
connect by resemblance, or similitude. 

“ Wants, frailties, passions, closer still ally 
The common interest or endear the tie."— Pope. 

Ally', n .; pi. Allies. [Fr. a!lie.] A prince or State 
united to another by treaty or league; a confederate. 

—One related to another by any tie. 

“ The English soldiers and their French allies.' 1 

All'yg'urlj. {Geog.) See Alighur. 

Al'lyl, n. [From Lat. allium, the garlic.] {Chem) An 
hydro-carbon, which is the basis of all the oils of the 
sulphuretted essences. Oil of garlic is a mixture of ox¬ 
ide with sulphide of allyl; the essential oils of mustard, 
of horse-radish, and of scurvy-grass, consist chiefly of 
sulphocyanide of allyl. — Allyl is a very volatile liquid, 
possessed ol a peculiarly penetrating odor resembling 
that of radishes Its vapor burns with a very luminous 
flame. It is obtained by decomposing iodide of allyl with 
sodium. Form. C 3 H 6 . 

Iodide of Allyl, A colorless liquid, soluble in alcohol, 
and having an alliaceous odor. It is obtained by the 
action of equal parts of phosphorus diniodide and 
glycerine upon each other. Form., C 3 H B I. 

Sulphide of Allyl. A colorless oil, lighter than water, 
contained in various essential oils, particularly in those 
of garlic, onions, leeks, cress, radishes and assafoetida. 
Its odor is less repulsive than that of crude oil of 
garlic. It causes a precipitate in many metallic solu¬ 
tions, such as those of silver, mercury, gold and plati¬ 
num. Form.. C, IT. „ 8. 

Al'nia, Al'me, Al'inai. or Ai/meh, n. [Ar., probably 
corrupted from dlimah, the feminine form of the active 
participle cUim, learned.] The name given by the mod¬ 
ern Egyptians and Arabs to the dancing and singing 
girls of Egypt. They form a particular class or society, 
jiving together in bands, who are distributed in the 
various towns, or travel about the country in quest of 
employment. They are present at all festivals and mar- 



Fig. 89. — an alma. 

(Egyptian dancing-girl.) 

riages, and other ceremonies. The girls who are admit¬ 
ted into this society have generally a fine voice. But 
they chiefly excel in pantomimic dances, which represent 
the various incidents of fife, and above all, the passion 


of love. The suppleness of their bodies is very great, 
as well as the flexibility and expression of their features; 
but the indecency of their attitudes is excessive. These 
A. are admitted into tiie harems of the great, where 
they instruct' the women iu dancing and singing, or 
amuse them by reciting poems. The Turks, enemies 
as they are to the fine arts, pass whole nights it) lis¬ 
tening to them. The A. also accompany funerals, 
at which they sing dirges, and utter groans and 
lamentations. The higher and more accomplished 
class of the A. attend none but wealthy people, and 
their price is high. The common people, however have 
also their A , who try to imitate the superior class, but 
have neither their elegance, grace, nor knowledge. They 
are seen everywhere; the public squares and walks 
around Cairo abound with them. Their morals are as 
licentious as their songs; they are, in fact, the common 
courtesans of the country. Although there are A. in 
Syria and other parts of the Ottoman empire, yet Egypt 
seems to have been at all times their favorite, and, as it 
were, their native country. The Bayaderes, or Nauich- 
girls of India, are a sort of Alme. See Almah. 

Al'nia, a small river in the Crimea, near which a great 
battle was fought, Sept. 20th, 1854, between the allied 
French and English, and the Russian armies. Afier a 
fearful struggle of three hours’ duration, the Russians 
were driven from their intrenchments with a loss of 
6,000 men. The English lost 2.000, and the French 1,400 
men in killed and wounded. 

Al' ma, in Illinois, a post-village of Marion co., about 20 
m. N.N.E. of Ceutralia. 

Al'nia, in Kansas, a city and township of Wabaunsee 
co., 36 in. W. by S. of Topeka. Fop., 1,125. 

Al'nia, or Almy, in Michigan, a post-village of Gratiot 
co., on Pine river, 7 m. N. N.W. of Ithaca. 

Alma, in New York, a township of of Alleghany co.; has 
considerable manufacturing industry. 

Alina, in Wisconsin, a city, capital of Bn'T-do county, 
on the Mississippi river, near the mouth of the Buffalo 
river. A. is also the name of the twp. A. enjoys con¬ 
siderable reputation in the making of wagons, brick, etc. 

—A township of Jackson co., on Black river. 

Alinacan'tar, or Almacanter, n. (Ast.) An Arabic 
term iormerly employed in astronomy. The name is 
given to all the small circles parallel to the horizon; so 
that two stars which have the same almacantar have 
the same altitude. A. would now be called a circle of 
altitude, in the same way as a small circle parallel to 
the equator, all whose points have tlieretore the saint 
declination, is called a circle of declination. 

Al'mada, a town of Portugal, prov. of Kstremadura, on 
the Tagus, opposite to Lisbon; pop. 3,500. 

Almatlen', a town of Spain, prov. of La Mancha, in 
the Sierra Morena, 57 m. \\ .S.W. of Ciudad Beal; pop. 
8,645. Near the town is a famous mine of quicksilver. 

Alniadcil', in California, a twp. of Santa Clara co.; im¬ 
mense quantities of quick silver are found here. 

AS'madie, or Almady, n. [Fr., from Ar. al-niadiyat, a 
raft ] (Naut.) A bark canoe used by the Africans. 

—A long-boat used at Calicut, in India, 80 leet long, and 6 
or 7 feet broad; called also Cathuri. 

Al'niagell. Pass of, the highest mountain-pass in 
Europe, being 11.603 feet above the level of the sea. It 
is between the valleys Visp and Zermatt, in the Valais, 
Switzerland. 

Al'lliagest, n. [Ar. al, the. ami Gr. megiste, greatest.] 
The mime of a celebrated book, composed by Ptolemy, 
consisting of numerous observations and problems of 
the ancients respecting geometry and astronomy. The 
name of Almagheste was given to it by the Arabs when 
they tianslated it into tlieir own tongue, about the 
year 800. 

Alma'g'ra, n. [Sp.from Ar. almaghest, red elay.] A fine, 
deep-red oclire, somewhat purplish, used in India for 
painting the face or person. Il is the Sil ulticum of the 
ancients. Under the name of Indian-red it is used for 
polishing glass and silver. 

Alina'g'ro, Diego Df,, a Spaniard of low origin, who 
accompanied Pizarro in the expedition against Peru, in 
which his valor, profligacy, and cruelty were equally 
displayed. In 1525 ho took Cuzco, the capital of Chili, 
by storm, and put Atahualpn, the last of the Incas, to 
a most cruel death; but quarrelling with the brothers 
of Pizarro about the division of their 6poil, lie was 
taken prisoner and strangled, 1538. 

Alllia gro. a town of Spain, prov. of La Mancha. 12 m. 
E.S.E. of Ciudad Real. It has an important manuf. of 
blondes (lacei. Pip. 12,605. 

Al'niagueral, a town of Now Granada, S. America, 
40 m. from Popayan. It is built on a table-land, 7,440 
feet above the level of the sea. 

Al'mali, n, [A Heb. word derived from a root signify¬ 
ing to conceal .] {Holy Scrip.) Almah signifies properly 
a virgin; the authors of the. books of the Maccabees, 
and Ecclesiastes, speaking of the young unmarried 
women, give them the epithets, lcept in — secluded— 
hidden, to distinguish them from married women, who 
occasionally appear in public. St. Jerome establishes a 
distinction between Bethula, a young woman, and Ah 
mail, a virgin, in that the latter is one who lias never 
been seen by men. This is its propei signification in 
the Punic or Phoenician language, which is the same as 
the Hebrew In this sense it occurs in the famous pas¬ 
sage of Isaiah vii. 16: “Behold, a virgin {almah) that 
conceived and bare a son.” The Hebrew lias no term 
that more properly signifies a virgin than almah ; but 
it must be remarked that sometimes, by mistake foi 
instance, a young woman, whether truly a virgin or not, 
is called almah. In like manner, in Latin, the name of 
virgn is sometimes given to a young woman who has 
not, strictly speaking, lieu virginity 
















ALME 


ALMO 


ALOE 


79 


Alma'll, a town of Turkey in-Asia, 52 m. from Makrl. 
beautifully situated in an amphitheatre of the Massan- 
ghis mountains. The peaks of these shoot away far up 
into the blue ether, the highest of them attaining au 
elevation of 10,000 feet. Lat. 36° 47' N.; Lon. 29° 50' 
E. Pup. about 20,000. 

41iuaniouii, Alirminnsn, Alinaniown, or 

Abdallah, caliph of Bagdad, son of Haroun-al-Kaschid, 
B. 786, succeeded his brother Al-Amin 814, and D. 833. 
His reign formed a very brilliant epoch in the history 
of the Saracens. Its glory was less of arms than of let¬ 
ters and arts. A., who has been compared to Augustus, 
Leo X., and Louis XIV'., promoted literature and sci¬ 
ence, and went so far in his passion for learning as to 
go to war with the Emperor Theopliilus for refusing to 
allow the learned Archbishop Leo to go to Bagdad. 

41 'manac, n. [Fr. almanach 9 from Sp. almanaque, 
probably derived from the Ar. al, the, and mana or 
manuh, a reckoning.] An A. or calendar, in the mod¬ 
ern sense of the word, is an annual publication, giving 
the civil divisions of the year, the movable and other 
feasts, and the times of the various astronomical phe¬ 
nomena, and such information relative to the weather 
as observation has hitherto furnished. The agricul¬ 
tural, political, and statistical information which is 
usually contained in popular almanacs, though as valu¬ 
able a part of the work as any, is comparatively of 
modern date. The Greeks preserved the chronology by 
the monthly course of the moon; which, after many 
inventions, they reconciled to the annual course of the 
sun, and had doubtless their calendar. According to 
Porphyry, almanacs were known to the Egyptians be¬ 
fore the Arabs; and predictions of events were annexed 
to the month. The Romans had calendars containing 
names of feasts, lucky and unlucky days, customs in 
husbandry, &c. — Almanacs were used by the ancient 
northern nations in their computations of time They 
were introduced into England by the Danes. The tirst 
A. printed was in 1457. Muller, or Regiomontanus, 
published the first that contained eclipses, about 1475, 
at Nuremberg. The first -4. printed in Pennsylvania, 
and we believe in North America, was issued from the 
press of William Bradford, near Philadelphia in 13,5 

Almau ila, in Missouri, a village of Crawford co., 
about 23 m. E.N.E. of Rolla. 

Al’inandite, Al'mandine, n. (Min.) A variety of 
ruby or Garnet, q. v. The precious A. is distinguished by 
its fine deep-red and transparent color, whilst the color of 
the common A. is brownish-red and translucent. Comp. 
Silica, 36*1, alumina, 20'6, protoxide of iron, 43-3 = 100. 
Its name comes from the Alabantic carbuncles of Pliny, 
so called because they were cut and polished at Alabanda. 

41' man-rivets, Almai.v, or Almayne-rivets, n. pl.\ 
[From Fr. Allemagnt, Germany.] An ancient light armor, 
first used in Germany, consisting of over-lapping plates, 
which were arranged to slide on rivets, and yield to the 
motions of the body. * 

Alman za, a town of Spain, province of Murcia, 56 m. 
N.W. of Alicante. On the 25th of April, 1707, the 
French, under the Duke of Berwick, gained near A. a 
great victory over the allied forces in the interest of 
the Archduke Charles. Pop. 10,000. 

Almanzor, Al-mansur, or Al-mansoor, Abu- 
Givfar abd allah, of the dynasty of the Abbasides, a. d. 
754 lie made war on his uncle Abdallah, who claimed 
the caliphate, but was defeated by Abu Moslem, general 
Of Almanzor. The victorious general, who was immensely 
rich and very haughty, was soon after murdered by order 
of his sovereign. Almanzor founded Bagdad, and made 
it the seat of the caliphate, lie was the tirst caliph who 
promoted literature, and thus led the way for the glori¬ 
ous reigns of Haroun Al-Raschid, and Al-Mamun. 

Almanzor. or Al-mansur, Abu Mohammed. One 
of the most famous captains of his age; B.in Andalusia, 
about a. d. 939. On the death of Al-llakem II., caliph of j 
Cordova, he was appointed guardian of the infant caliph, 
and was virtually absolute sovereign for 23 years, lie i 
was continually engaged in war. and though he under¬ 
took over 50 expeditions against the Christian princes j 
of Spain, he was only ouce defeated. He appeared to be 
on the point of becoming master of all Spain, when the 
kings of Leon and Navarre, and the Count of Castile, 
combined against him, and totally defeated him at the 
great battle of Calatanazor, a. d. 998. The chagrin he 
experienced at his first personal defeat caused his death 
in 1002. A. was distinguished as the patron of letters, 
arts, and sciences. 

A 1 maii /iir, or Almansur II., Jacob, caliph of the Al- 
mohades, and the greatest prince of that dynasty, suc¬ 
ceeded his father Joseph on the throne of North Africa 
and Mohammedan Spain, in 1184. He gained in 1195. 
over Alfonso III., king of Castile, the memorable victory 
of Alarcos. D. 1199. 

Al'inas, the name of several towns in Hungary. The 
principal, in lat. 46° 7' N , Ion. 19° 23' E., has about 
8,000 inhab. The others are of no importance. 

Aline, n. See Alma. 

AI mei'da. Francisco de, appointed, in 1505, the first 
Portugueseviceroy of India. His government of the colo¬ 
nies was firm and wise. When Albuquerque was sent 
out to supersede him A. resisted and imprisoned him; 
but after a few months released him, resigned his vice¬ 
royalty, and embarked for Portugal. He Avas killed on 
his return in a quarrel with the natives of the Cape, in 
1510 .—, 4 ., Lorenzo, his son. was also an enterprising 
commander and navigator, and distinguished himself by 
many expeditions in the Indian seas. D. 1508. 

AI mei'da, or Almeda, in Missouri , a post-village of 
Newton co., about 50 m. W.S.W. of Springfield. 

Almei’da, a fortified town of Portugal, prov. of Beira, 
24 in. W. by N. of Ciudad Rodrigo. From its position 


on the frontier it has always been deemed a military 
post of great importance. It was taken in 1762 by the 
Spaniards, and in 1810 by the French, who abandoned 
it in the following year, alter blowing up the fortifica¬ 
tions. Pop. 6,850. 

Alme'na, n. [Ar. mand, or mend.] A weight of about 
4o0 pounds in India. 

Alme lia. in Michigan, a post-township of Van Buren 
co., 50 m. S. by W. of Grand Rapids. 

Almcndrale'jo, a town of Spain, prov. Estremadura, 
28 in. from Badajos. A considerable number of horses, 
mules, goats, and sheep,are raised in the neighborhood. 
Pup. 6,000. 

Al'iner, or Alma, in Michigan, a township of Tuscola 
co.; 

Almerante'. in Florida, a post-village of Walton co., 
about 14 i m. W.N.W. of Tallahassee 

Alme'ria, a prov. of Spain, in Andalusia, mountainous, 
but fertile; arc a, 3.906 sq. ,n.; pop. 338.649. 

Almi.'ria. cap of the above prov.; near the mouth of the 
river and at the bottom of the gulf of the same name. 
Lat.36° 50' N.; lou. 2° 32' W.— Fr.p. principally barilla, 
lead and esparto. A. at the time of the Moor*, was 
next to Granada, their richest city. The gulf runs 10 
m. inland and is 25 m. wide at its entrance. /’op.4o,000. 

Alme'ria, a town of Mexico, prov. of Vera Cruz. Lat. 
20° 18' N.; Ion. 97° 30' W. 

Almight'ily, adv. With almighty power. 

AlmijrSit’iuess, n. Unlimited power; omnipotence. 

Aimiglit'.v, a. [From all and mighty.] Of unlimited 
power; omnipotent 

“ The Lord said unto Abraham, I am the Almighty God."— 

Gen. xvii. 1. 

Al'mo. (Anc. Grog.) A small river near Rome, falling 
into the Tiber, in which the statue of Cybelo was annu¬ 
ally washed on the 25th of March. It is now called 
Aequo Santa. 

Almodo'var del Cam'po, a town of Spain, prov. 
of LaMaucua, 18 in. from Ciudad Real; pop. about 6,000. 

A1 inog ia. a town of Spain in Granada; pop. 4,500. 

Almo'Iiades, or AImo'hedes, termed by Gibbon 
the fanatic princes of Morocco, a Mohammedan dynasty, 
that grew out of a religious sect formed by Mohammed 
Ben Abdallah, surnauied El Mehedi, the guide, or 
teacher. His successor. Abdelmumen, captured Morocco 
in 1120, and established the dynasty of the Almohades 
in Africa. The next year he invaded Spain, won several 
battles, and established the dynasty in part of that 
country, and of Portugal. — The A. ceased to rule in 
Europe in 1237. and in Africa in 1270. 

Almon'bnry, or Almond'bury, a parish of England, 
W. Riding of Yorkshire. Manf. of woollens and cottons. 
Haddeisfield, ( q. v.) has so increased that now the 
parisli cf A. includes a part of that important citv. 

Al'moml, n. [Fr. amande.] (Bot.) The fruit of the 
Amygdalus communis. —See Amygdalus. 

( Anat .) One of the two glands, called tonsils, which 
ere at the base of the tongue. 

Al'moiul, in Alabama, a village of Randolph co. 

Al'mond, in New York, a post-township of Alleghany 
co., oti the Canisto River. 

—In the above township, a village on the N. Y. and Erie 
Railroad, 123 m. E. of Dunkirk. 

Al mond, in Wisconsin, a post-village and township of 
Portage co., about 58 miles nortb-west of Fond du 
Lac. 

Al'moml, or Almon, two rivers of Scotland, one of 
which enters the Frith of Forth at Cramond, 5 m. N. 
W. of Edinburgh; the other rises in theGiampian hills, 
and enters the Frith of Tay. Neither is of great extent. 

Al'moml Grove, iu Texas, a post-office of Red River 
co. 

Al mond-tree, n. (Bot) The Amygdalas communis .— 
See Amygdalus. 

Al'moiui-u'illow, n. (But.) The Salix amygdalina. — 
See Salia. 

Al'moiul-wortS, n. pi. (Bot.) The English name of 
the ord. of plants Drupacra, q. v. 

Al'moner, n. [Fr. aumonier.] An officer whose duty 
is to distribute alms. Iu former times every sovereign, 
prince, noble, man of high estate, abbey or monastery, had 
his, or its, A. — The Lord High Almoner of England is an 
ecclesiastical officer whose duties, enunciated in an old 
judicial treatise of the time of Edward I., were to collect 
tins fragments from the royal table for daily distribution 
to the poor, to visit tliesiek and poor persons in distress, 
to remind the king of the duty of almsgiving, and to 
see that the value of the cast-off robes should be given 
to increase the king's charity Since 1136, the office of 
Lord High A. has been held by the archbishops of 
York.—In France, the great A. of the kings of France 
was ever the highest ecclesiastical dignitary in that 
kingdom. The office has been restored by Napoleon III., 
who has also several A. performing the duties ofordinury 
priests inthechapels of the imperial palaces.—The term 
of A. is generally applied to priests who have charge of 
hospitals or prisons. 

Al monry, re. [Fr. aumonerie, from Lat. almonarium.] 
A room or place whence alms are distributed to tlie poor. 

(Arch.) In monastic establishments. thnA. was gener¬ 
ally a stone building near the church. In some abbeys, 
it was removed to the gate-house, for keeping beggars 
from the refectory door. 

Al'mont. in Michigan, a township of Lapi er co. In 
this township, a post-vill., 50 m. N. of Detroit. 

Almon'te, a vill. of co. Lanark, Ont. 

Alino'ra, a town of Hindustan, cap. of the British 
district of Kuniaon. 90 in. N. by E. of Bareilly, 'sit. 
29° 35' >1.; Lon. 79° 40' E. The surrounding country 
is bleak and naked. A. stands on a ridge, 5,337 feet 
above the level of the sea, and is compactly built. 


Almo'ral, in Iowa, a post-village of Delaware co, 
about 34 m. N.W. of Dubuque. 

Almora'vides, an Arab dynasty, founded in the N.W. 
of Africa by Abdallah Ben Yakim, who died in 1058. 
They conquered a large portion of Spain. A long strug¬ 
gle followed between them and the Almohades, q. v., 
and the latter dynasty was overthrown in 1270. 

Almost, adv. [From all, and most; that is, most part 
of all.] Nearly; well-nigh; iu the next degree to the 
whole. 

“ There can be no such thing as an almost infinite."— Bentley. 

Alius, n. pi. [A. S. dimes, from Lat. eleemosyna; Fr. 
aamune.] What is given gratuitously, in relief of the 
pour. It has no singular. 

Alms'deed, n. An act of charity; a charitable gift. 

Alms'liotise, n. [Ger. Almosenhaus.] A building 
appropriated for the reception of poor aged people, and 
endowed with revenues for their support. 

Al'mu^e, Au'muce. n. [O. Fr.] A furred tippet 
worn by the clergy in the middle ages, when officiating 
in cold weather. 

Almude', n. [Sp. almud, from Ar. al-mudd, a dry 
measure.] A measure for liquids and grain in Spain 
and Portugal, varying from three gallons and a half to 
five and a half. 

Al'mag, or Ai.'gcm, n. [Heb. ahnugim, algdmtn.] A 
tree mentioned in Scripture. Of (lie wood were made 
musical instruments, and it was used also for rails and 
in staircases. It may have been the red sandal-wood, 
Pterncarpus santalinus. 

AlmuneVar, a seaport town of Spain, prov. of Gra¬ 
nada. 41 m. S. of Granada. The anchorage is only fit 
for small vessels. P<p. 5,400. 

Al'na, in Maine, a post-townsliip of Lincoln co., on the 
Sheepscot river, 20 m. S.S E of Augusta. 

Al'nag'e, n. (0. Fr. aulnagr; N. Fr. aunagr.] EU-meaa- 
nre; measure by the ell. 

Al'nus. n. (Bot.) The alder, a gen. of plants, ord. Beta- 
lacece. The A.glutinnsa, or common alder, wild in Europe, 
from Lapland to Gibraltar, is a deciduous tree; leaves 
roundish, wedge-shaped, wavy, serrated, glutinous; 
flowers brownish in March and April; truit brown, ripe 
in October. In the wild state, it is seldom seen higher 
than 40 or 50 feet; but in good soil, near water, it will 
attain to 50 or 60 feet. The wood, though soft, is of 
great durability in water; it is used for sculpture, cabi¬ 
net-making, wooden vessels, sabots, Ac. The A. rubra, 
a variety of the A. glutinosa, is a well-known shrub, 
growing in clumps, and forming thickets on the borders 
of ponds and rivers, and in swamps. 



Fig. 90 — alnus glutinosa. 

(The common alder.) 

Aln'wiclc, or Alnewick, a town of England, cap. of 
Northumberland co., near the river Alne, 313 m. from 
London, by the Great Northern Railroad. At the N. 
entrance stands Alnwick castle, once a principal strong¬ 
hold of the kingdom on the side of Scotland, and now 
the magnificent baronial residence of the Dukes of 
Northumberland. This castle is the subject of a humor¬ 
ous poem, by the American poet Ilalleck. Pip. of 
parish, 7,350. 

Alo'adiu, a Mohammedan sheik, better known by thv 
appellation of the Old Man of the Mountain, was prince 
of the Arsacides, or Assassins. His residence was a 
castle between Antioch and Damascus, and he had a 
number of youthful followers so devoted to his will as 
to eugage in any of his attempts to assassinate the mon- 
archs and princes with whom he was at enmity. Lived 
in the 13tb century. 

Al 'oe, n.; pi. Aloes. [Lat. aloe; Fr. aloes; Ar. alioeh.] 
(Bot.) A gen. of succulent, herbaceous plants, belong¬ 
ing to the sub-ord. Alainece, and growing in warm coun¬ 
tries. It comprehends a very considerable number of 
species which differ from each other exceedingly in the 
size, form, and surface of their leaves, in stature, and in 
the color, size, and structure of their flowers. The 
greater part of them are mere objects of curiosity, but 
among them are species of much value, on account of 
their yielding the well-known medicinal drug generally 
called aloes. 

( Chem.) Aloes is the inspissated juice of the leaves of 
numerous species of the genus Aloe. The finest kinds 
are obtained by exudation. The choicest variety is the 
Socotrine aloes, A. socotrina, collected in the island of 
Socotra, and occurring in pieces of a yellowish or reddish- 
brown color. Its powder is of a trolden yellow ; its odor 
peculiar, but not unpleasant. In taste it is bitter and 
disagreeable, but aromatic. The extract of aloes may, 












80 


ALON 


ALPE 


ALPH 


by the action of nitric acid, be made to yield various i 
compounds, which admit of being fixed by means of 
mordants upon silken and woollen fabrics, to which the} - 
impart red dyes of great durability and beauty.—See 
Aloin, and Chrvsammic Acid. 

(Meil) Aloes is tonic in small doses, and purgative in 
large ones. As a purgative, it is remarkable for the 
slowness of its operation. Its action is exerted on the 
large intestines, principally on the rectum. In all bil¬ 
ious diseases, A. is the strongest purge. Its efficacy in 
jaundice is very considerable, as it proves asuccedaneum 
to the bile, of which in that disease there is a detective 
supply to the intestine either in quantity or quality. A. 
may be considered as injurious where inflammation or j 
irritation exist in the bowels or neighboring parts, in: 
pregnancy, or in habits disposed to piles; but highly! 
serviceable in all hypochondriac affections, cachectic | 
habits, and persons laboring under oppression of the 
stomach caused by irregularity. Its medium dose is 
from 5 to 15 grains; nor does a larger quantity operate 
more effectually. 



Fig. 91. — GROUP OF ALOES. 

Al'oes-wood. See Agallochum. 

Aloet'ac, Aloet'ical, a. [Kr. aloUique..] Consisting 
chiefly of aloe; belonging to or extracted irom aloe or 
aloes. 

Aloet'ic, n. A medicine which chiefly -onsists of aloes. 

Alce'us. (Myth.) A giant, son ofTitar and Terra, mar¬ 
ried to Sphimedia, by whom Neptune had two sous, 
Otlxus and Ephialtus. A. educated them as his own, and 
from that circumstance they have been called Aloides. 
They grew up nine inches every month, and were only 
nine years old when they undertook a war against the 
gods, and were killed by Apollo and Diana. They built 
the town of Ascra, at the foot of Mount Helicon. 

Aloft', adv. [A.S. lyft, the air, with prefix a for on.] 
On high; above; in the air; — used chiefly in poetry. 

44 Upright he stood, and bore aloft his shield.” — Dryden. 

(Naut.) Above the deck. 

Alo'gians, n. pi. [’Or. a., privative, and logos, speech.] 
The name given by Epiphanus, by way of reproach, to a 
sect of Christians of tiie 2d century, who denied that 
Christ was the Logos, or eternal word, and, like the 
Arians, rejected the gospel of St. John as spurious. 

Alo^ot'ropliy, n. [Ur. alngos, unreasonable, and 
trophe, nourishment.] {Med.) Unequal nourishment, as 
in the rickets. 

A1 '©in, n. [From aloes.] ( C/iem .) A neutral substance, 
with a sweetish-bitter, persistent taste, crystallizing in 
groups of pale-yellow needles, extracted by evaporation 
from a warm alcoholic solution of powdered Barbadoes 
aloes. It constitutes the purgative ingredient in aloes. 
The alkalies, both caustic and carbonated, dissolve it 
readily, lormiug an orange-colored solution. Form., 
C, nil, n0 7 . 

Aloin'eue, or Aloes, n. pi. (Bot.) A sub-ord. of plants 
in the ord. Liliacece. They differ from the Hemerocal- 
leae only by their succulent foliage. The gen. Aloe (q. v.) 
is the most important. 

Aiom pra, the founder of the Burmatt empire, was a 
man of obscure birth, who raised himself to indepen¬ 
dence and sovereign power, and established the now 
reigning dynasty. D. 1760. — See Ava, Bciimah, Pegu. 

Alo'iia, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, ord. Nolanacece. 

Alone', a. [Ger. allein, from all, and e.in, or one, single.] 
Apart from, or exclusive of others; single; solitary; ap¬ 
plied to persons or things. 

44 The quarrel toucheth none but us atone.’* — Skate. 

“Eaglrs we see fly atone." — Sydney. 

Sole; only, (r.) 

41 God, by whose alonl jower we all live." — Bentley. 

To let alone; to leave untouched, unmolested, or in 
the same state as before. 

t—adv. Separately; by itself. 

Along;', adv. [A. S. andlang.] At length,by the length; 
through any space measured lengthwise. 

“Some laid along, and,.. on spokes of wheels are hung."— Dryden. 

— In company; joined with; together; — with the parti¬ 
ble with expressed or understood; as, 

44 Take this along." — Dryden. 

44 '173 shall to England along with you..— Shake. 


— Forward; onward. 

44 Gome, then, my friend, my genins, come along, 

Thou master of the poet aud the song.” — Pope. 

Along of, denotes owing to, or on account of; as in 
Shakspeare, when the mayor was willing to have the 
troops come in, 4- so ’twere not dong of him; ” i. e. not 
owing to his leave. So too, in the London “ Punch,” — 
“This increase of price is all along of the foreigners.” 

All along, the whole way, distance, or length;—pros¬ 
trate. 

(Naut.) Alongside, side by side. — Along-shore, by the 
shore or coast; lengthwise, aud near the shore. 

_ prep. By the length of, as distinguished lrom across. 

44 Along the lowlands." — Dryden. 

Aloof% adv. and prep. [For all off.] At or from a distance. 
It generally implies a short distance, such as within 
view or observation, and is applied to distance more 

i commonly than to altitude. 

“ Then bad the knight this lady yede aloof, 

Aud to an hill herself withdrew aside."— Faerie Queen. 

Aloof'ness, n. The state of being at a distance. 

Alop'ece. (Anc. Ge.og.) An island in thePalus Mmotis. 

—Another in the Cimmerian Bosphorus. 

—Another in the JEgean sea, opposite Smyrna. 

Alop'eces. (Anc. Geog.) A small village of Attica; the 
native place of Socrates and Aristides. 

Alopeeu'rus, n. [Gr. alopex, a fox, oura, a tail.] (Bot.) 
'V\\<s fox-tail grass. A gen. of plants, trib. Phalare.ee, ord. 
Graminace.ee. One species, the meadow fox-tail grass, A. 
pratensis, is a valuable grass to the farmer, if sown in 
meadow-land. It is the most grateful of all grasses to 
cattle, and possesses in a higher degree than any other 
the three great requisites of a good grass,—quantity, 
quality, and early growth. The slender or field fox-tail 
grass, A. agrestis, from its fibrous root, is a troublesome 
weed to farmers among wheat, and is called by them 
black bent. It is a useful grass, however, when sown on 
light sandy soils on the sea-coast. 

Al'opeey, n. [From Gr. alopex, a fox, because this 
disease is common among foxes.] (Med.) Baldness, or 
the falling off of the hair. 

Alo'ra, a town of Spain, in Andalusia, 20 m. from Ma¬ 
laga. Pop. about 7,000. 

Alo'sa. n. (Zoul.) A gen. of fishes of the Clupeidce or 
herring family. They are distinguished from the her¬ 
ring by having the upper jaw notched in the middle, 
and by the roof of the mouth and the tongue, the former 
of which is destitute of teeth. The A. communis, or com- 



Fig. 92.— alosa communis. 

(Gouunou Skad.j 

mon shad, reaches a length of two or three feet, and its 
flesh is highly esteemed. The gen. A. contains the shad, 
alewife, mendahen, and autumnal herring. 

A'lost, or Aals r, a town of Belgium, in Flanders, on the 
Bender, 15 m. from Brussels. It was the capital of im¬ 
perial Flanders, and was dismantled in 1667 by Marshal 
Turenne. Pop. 17,000. 

Aloud', adv. [From a and load.] Loudly; with a strong 
voice, or great noise. 

“ Cry aloud, spare not, lift up thy voice."— Isa. lviil. 1. 

Alow', adv. [From a and low.] In a low place; not 
so high ;—opposed to uloft. 

44 And now alow, and now aloft they fly." — Dryden. 

Alp, n. [From Lat. alb us, white.] A name sometimes 
poetically given to any high summit or lofty mountain. 
See Alps. 

44 O’er many a frozen, many a fiery alp." — Milton. 

Alpac'a, n. (Zool.) The Peruvian sheep, a variety of the 
Guauaco or Llama, q. v. It inhabits the more elevated 
parts of the mountai'n ranges, living almost on the bor¬ 
der ot perpetual snow. The Peruvians keep vast flocks 
of them for the sake of the silky lustre and fineness of 
their wool, which furnishes material for the best of 
fabrics.—The name given to a description of cloth woven 
from the wool of the A., extensively manufactured in 
the West Riding of Yorkshire, in England, and used, for 
the most part, for articles of apparel. It is also used 
as a covering for umbrellas, its material being of a finer 
and more durable texture than cotlon,and not so costly 
as silk. 

Alp-Ars'lan, second sultan of the dynasty of Seljuk. 
succeeded his uncle Togrul Bey in 1063. He had for his 
grand vizier Nizam-al-Muluk, who by his wise adminis¬ 
tration did so much for the interior improvement of the 
empire. Himself a conqueror, he defeated Romanus 
Diogenes, emperor of the Greeks, in 1071. He was assas¬ 
sinated in 1072. 

Al'pen,a. Belonging, or relating to the Alps, (r.1 

Alpe'na, formerly Anamickee, in Michigan, a county 
bordering on Lake Huron and Thunder Bay. Area, 
about 700 sq. m. 


—a city, capital of Alpena co., at the mouth of Thundei 
Bay river, on Lake Huron. Pop. (1890), 12,139. 

A lpons tool*. n. A long staff or pole, pointed sharpi v 
with iron, used in ascending the peaks of the Alps, aud 
crossiug the glaciers of Switzerland. 

Alpe'nns. (Anc. Geog.) The capital of Locris. 

Alpes llaritimes. 

Alpes'trine, a. [Lat. alpestris.] Pertaining to the 
Alps, or to any high summit or lofty mountain; as, 

“ Alpestrine diseases.” 

Al'plia, n [Gr.J The first letter of the Greek alphabet, 
answering to our A, and written A <p a- In the Holy 
Scriptures, Alpha and Omega, the first and the last let¬ 
ters of the Greek alphabet, signify the beginning and 
end, or the first and the last ; i. e. before and after al! 
things They are therefore used as a symbol of the 
Divine Being. 

44 I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first 
and the last."— Bev. xxii. 13. 

Alpha. in California, a post-village of Nevada co., 18 
m. E. of Nevada city. 

Alpha. in Kentucky, a post-office of Clinton co. 

Alpha, in Ohio, a post-village of Greene co., about 9 
in. E S.E. of Dayton. 

Al phabet, n. [From Alpha and Beta, the two first 
letters of the Greek alphabet; perhaps derived from the 
Ileb., which gives to the correspondent letters the 
names Aleph, Beth J The name given to the series of 
letters used in different countries at different times. 
For information respecting tlieorigin of letters, the rela¬ 
tion between the different alphabets, and the different 
systems on which they are based, see Writing. 

Al'phabet, v. a. To range in the order of the alphabet 

Alphabeta'rlan, n. A scholar who learns the alpha¬ 
bet 

Alphabet'ic, and AJphabet'ical. a. In the or¬ 
der of the alphabet; according to the series of letters; 
pertaining to the alphabet. 

Alphabet'ically, adv. In an alphabetical manner; 

according to the order of the letters. 

Alphabetize', v. a. To class or arrange in alpha 
betical order. 

Al'phseus, [Gr. alphaios, a thousand, from the Heb. 
aleph, a chief.] Alphasus, father of St. James the Minor, 
was the husband of Mary, believed to have been sister 
to the holy virgin; for which reason James is called the 
Lord’s brother; hut the term brother is too general in 
its duplication to fix their relation, though’ the fact is 
probable. Many are of the opinion that Cleophas, men¬ 
tioned in Luke xxiv. 18, is the same as A.; Alphams being 
his Greek name, and Cleophas his Hebrew, or Syriac 
name, according to the custom of that time, when men 
had often two names. 

Al'phai'etta, in Georgia, a post-village, cup. of Miltoq 
co., abt. 28 in. N. by E. of Atlanta. 

Alphcn'ic, n. [Fr. alphenie; Ar. a!-fluid, whitest.] 
(Med.) The white barley sugar; sugar-candy. 

Alpli e'us.or Alpiieius. (Myth.) A river of Peloponnesus, 
rising in Arcadia, and falling into the Ionian sea, now 
called Itofia. The god of this river fell in love with the 
nymph Arethusa, and pursued her till she was changed 
into a fountain by Diana. 

Alpliitmnaiicy. n. (Gr. alphitnn, barley-meal, and 
manleia, divination.] Divination by meansot harley-meal. 

Alplion'sin, n. (Surg.) A kind of instrument for ex¬ 
tracting halls, invented by Alphonso Ferrier, a Neapol¬ 
itan physician. It consists of three branches, which sepa¬ 
rate from each other by their elasticity, but are capable 
of being closed by means of a tube in which they are 
included. 

A1 pilou sinc Tables, celebrated astronomical ta¬ 
bles, composed under the direction of Alphonso. king 
of Castile, in 1252. Their principal object was to correct 
tiie tables found in Ptolemy's Almagest, which then no 
longer agreed witli the heavens. — See Alphonso. 

Alplion'so I.. or Alfonso, king of the Asturias, 739; 
took Lara and Salda.ua in Castile,from the Moors, a. d. 757. 

AlpllOll'so II. He was called to the throne ic 791: 
D. 842. 

Alphon'so III., or the Great, succeeded his father Ordoguo, 
806. He waged successful wars against tiie Moors, and 
abdicated in favor of his eldest son Garcias; but when 
the Moors threatened the kingdom, lie quitted his retire¬ 
ment, and obtained a most signal victory over the 
enemy. D. at Zamora, 912, universally respected for 
valor and benevolence. He wrote a chronicle of the 
Spanish monarchs. 

Alphon'so IV', suruamed flie Monk, abdicated in favor of 
his brother Ramiro, and retired to a monastery. D. at 
the end of the 10th century. 

Alphon'so V., king of Leon in 999, when 5 years old. 
Cordova was conquered during his reign. Killed at the 
siege of Viseu, 1028. 

Alphon'so VI., crowned in 1066. He was a successful 
warrior, and held under his authority Asturias, Leon, 
Castile, and Galicia. Had not Spain been invaded by 
the Almoravides, he would have succeeded in driving 
the Moors from the peninsula. It was in the reign of 
this monarch that the Cid achieved the poetical celebrity 
with which his name has been surrounded by the Span¬ 
ish romance-writers. 

Alphon'so VII., became Alphonso I. of Aragon; D. 1134. 

Alphon'so VIII. The. military order of Calatrava was in¬ 
stituted during his reign ; d. 1157. 

Alphon'so IX., fought against the Moors like his prede 
cessor, D. 1230. 

Alphonso X., king of Leon and Castile in 1252. He was 
elected emperor of Germany, but delaying to visit ihat 
empire, ltodoiphus was chosen in his stead. He was de¬ 
throned by his son, and D. 1284. As an astronomer and 
a man of letters, A. obtained greater fame than as a 


















ALPS 


ALPS 


ALST 


81 


monarch. He perceived the errors of Ptolemy’s tables, 
and under his direction those tables called the 4 nlumnine 
tabu>s were drawn up by the Jew Hazan, and their epoch 
fixed on the 30th of May. 1332. 

AlpuonS' XI., succeeded his father Ferdinand IV in 
1312. He took Algesiras and Tarifa from the Moors, 
and died of the plague in 1360. 

At]>lion so I., Henriquez, first king of Portugal, suc¬ 
ceeded his father Henry, as count of Portugal, in 1112. 
In 1139 he obtained a great victory over five Moorish 
kings, and soon after was proclaimed king by the a^my, 
a title which was confirmed by the States, who at the 
same time settled the law of succession.— A. took Lisbon 
from the Moors, and made it the capital of his kingdom. 
D. 1185. 

Alphonso II., d. 1223. 

Alphonso III. He made some conquests over the Moham¬ 
medans; n. 1279. 

Alphonso IV., surnamed the Brave, succeeded his father 
Dionysius, 1325. He was an able sovereign, and distin¬ 
guished himself against the Moors; but his memory is 
stained by his unjust treatment of his natural brother, 
and the cruel murder of Inez de Castro, whom his son 
Pedro had married against his father's will; i>. 1357. 

Alphonso V., b. in 1132, lie succeeded his father in 1137, 
and was a beneficent prince. In his reign Guinea was 
discovered by the Portuguese. He invaded Africa and 
took Tangier. D. of the plague at Cintra, in 1181. 

Alpbon'so V., king of Aragon, surnamed the Mag¬ 
nanimous, succeeded his father. Ferdinand the Just, 1116, 
as king of Aragon and Sicily, and subsequently, on the 
death of the queen Joanna, obtained the crown of Naples. 
His claim was, however, resisted for several years, by 
Rene of Anjou. He died 1158, aged 71, leaving the king¬ 
dom of Naples to his natural son Ferdinand, and thoseof 
Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily to Juan his brother, king of 
Navarre. He was not only a brave prince, but a man of 
learning, the patron of literature, and the father of his 
people. He walked with the greatest familiarity among 
his subjects, observing to his courtiers, who fancied 
dangers and conspiracies, that a father has nothing to 
fear among his children. Seeing once one of his vessels 
ready to perish, he hastened in a small boat to the 
assistance of the crew, exclaiming, “ I had rather die 
with you than see you perish.” 

Alphoil'so II., king of Naples, succeeded his father 
Ferdinand in 1191. lie was of socruei and tyrannical a 
disposition, that his subjects invited Charles VIII. of 
France to invade the country. That prince took Naples; 
and A., after abdicating the throne, retired to a mon¬ 
astery ; D. about 1496. 

Alphoil'so XII.. king of Spain, b. 1857. In 1875, 
while residing with his mother, the ex-queen Isabella, 
in exile, he was declared by the army king of Spain. 
His reign, which ended with his death in 1885, was but 
a continual struggle with the Carlist insurrection. 

Alphon'so XIII.. king of Spain, b. 1886, 6 months 
afterthe death of his father, Alphonso XII. His mother, 
Maria Clitistiiia, was queen regent during his minority 
He assumed the duties of the throne on May 17, 1902, 
when sixteen years oi age. 

Al'pigene. a. [Lat. alpes, alp. and gignere, to produce.] 
Growing in Alpine regions. 

Al'pine, a. [Lat. aljrinus.] Belonging to the Alps, or to 
any lofty mountains; high. 

Al'pine, in California, a northern county, bounded on 
the N. and E. by the State of Nevada and El Dorado co., 
and on the S. by Mono and Tuolumne. Lying on either 
side of the Sierra Nevada, it covers that range at one of 
its most broken and lofty points, Silver Mountain, the 
loftiest portion of this northerly trending spur, being 
over 10,000 feet high. Forming the sources of several 
forks of Carson river are numerous small lakes, most 
of them situated on the summit of the mountain. 
Many of them are very wild and beautiful, being skirted 
by belts of grass and bordered by plats of lawn-like 
meadow-lands. There are also many grassy, well 
watered valleys, rendered the more attractive by their 
rugged and desolate surroundings. But the great ac¬ 
tive interest in A. county is, and always will continue 
to be, vein-mining. The mines consist almost wholly of 
argentiferous lodes, though a few gold-bearing veins and 
masses of quartz have been iound, some of them of 
great richness, in the Mogul district. The ledges here 
are of large size and crop boldly, being often traceable 
for miles by their surface projections. While a vast 
amount of work has been expended upon them in a 
small way, but little exploratory labor of a thorough 
and systematic kind has been performed; consequently, 
scarcely a single prominent mine has been fully proven. 

A. abounds in spruce and pine forests. Couuty seat, 
Markleeville. 

Al'pine, in Iowa, a post-village of Wapello co., on the 
Des Moines river, about 9 m. S.E. of Ottumwa. 

Al'pine, or Al'pina, in Michigan, a post-township of 
Kent co. 

Al'pine City, in Utah, a post-village of Utah co., 16 
m N. of Trovo; 

AI pi n i. Prospero, a Venetian physician and botanist, 

B. 1553 : was the first who discovered the sexes and gen¬ 
eration of plants. D. 1617. 

Al'pinia, n. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Zingiberacece. 
The root of the A. gulanga, known under the name of 
galangale, has aromatic stimulating properties. 

Alps, in New York, a post-village in Nassau township, 
Rensselaer co., 24 m. E. by S. of Albany. 

Alps. [See Alp.] The most extensive mountain system 
of Europe. They extend from the banks of the Rhone 
in France on the W., to the centre of Slavonia and the 
frontier of Turkey on the E., from the 5th and 28th de¬ 
gree of E. Ion., forming a vast semicircular bulwark, 


which encompasses on the N. Ttaly and the Adriatic 
sea. The extremities of this semicircle approach 43° N. 
lat., but the great body of the range occupies the space 
between the 46tli and 48th deg. of N. lat.—The Alps are 
closely united to two otlie< mountain ranges ; on the IV. 
to the Apennines, which traverse Italy in its whole 
lengtli; and on the E. to the Balkan, which covers 
Turkey and Greece with its numerous ramifications.— 
Their length is between 600 and 700 miles, their breadth 
very various.— Divisions. The principal divisions are the 
Maritime, the Cottian, the Greek or Graian, the Pennine, 
the Rhaetian,—distinguished into the High Alps, the Le- 
pontine, and the Rliratian proper; the Tyrolese and Tri¬ 
dentine (including those of Suabia;) the Noric, the Car- 
nic, and the Julian.— Passes. The most southern pass 



Fig. 93. — summit of the thierberg. ( Bernese Alps.) 


of the Maritime Alps is that by the Col de Tende, which 
connects the town of Nice with the town of Coni, in 
Piedmont. UDtil the time of Napoleon I., who made it 
a carriage-road, it was practicable only for mules. This 
division is terminated by Mont Vico, which rises 12,582 
feet above the level of the sea. Across the Cottians, by 
the Col of Mont Genevre, Napoleon also constructed a 
carriage-road at the height of 6,353 feet above the sea- 
level. Across the Graian, Napoleon caused another road 
to be constructed by the Col of Mont Ceuis. This was 
the most frequented route in the days of the overland 
coaches between Fiance and Italy, and until the con¬ 
struction of the present railroad tunnel. This great 
undertaking was commenced in the early part of 
1858, under the patronage of king Victor Emmanuel; 
and was completed in the latter part of 1871. The 
pass by the Little St. Bernard is in the Grecian 
range, and is that by which Hannibal is supposed 
to have entered Italy. The Pennine is the loftiest divi¬ 
sion of the whole range, and includes Mont Blanc. 15,777 
feet high; Mont Rosa, 15,200 feet; and Mont Cervin, 
14,835 feet. These are the three loftiest peaks in Europe. 
On each side of Mont Blanc are the cols De-la-Seigle and 
Da-Ferret, which are respectively 8,072, and 7,613 feet 
high, and those by which tourists generally traverse the 
Alps. The pass by the Great St Bernard lies between 
Aosta in Piedmont and Martignv in the Valais, in 
Switzerland, and is that by which Napoleon and his 
army crossed in 1800. Between the Great St. Bernard 
and the Simplon there are two other passes: one, that 
of Mont Cervin, is the second highest in Europe, being 
11,195 feet above the level of the sea. The most easterly 
pass of the Pennine division is the Simplon, which leads 
from the Valais to Milan, and which, though only 6,576 
feet high, is one of the most stupendous works con¬ 
ceived by the genius of Napoleon. Across the Rhas- 
tian and Noric Alps there are several passes and two 
railroads, the one over the St. Gothard, connecting 
Lucerne with Milan, and the other over the Semmer- 
iug pass, completing the connection between Trieste 
and Vienna. — Minerals. Anthracite coal, iron, cop¬ 
per, lead, silver, quicksilver, gold, and salt.— Wild ani¬ 
mals. On the higher parts, the ibex, chamois, and white 
hare; in the upper wooded region, bears, marmots, and 
moles: and lower down, lynxes, foxes, wolves, and wild 
cats. Besides the lammergeyer, or grpat vulture of the 
Alps, there are numerous eagles and other birds of prey. 
Immediately below the line of perpetual snow, (8,000 
feet,) the white partridge is found, and further down, 
among the pine forests, bustards are abundant. Quails 
and partridges are plentiful in the lowest regions, and 
the lakes are frequented by numbers of palmipedes. 
Insects are represented in almost every variety as far as 
vegetation ascends the mountains.— Vegetation. Travel¬ 
ling from the base of the Alps upward, beautiful vine¬ 
yards, and the forests common to Europe, are passed 
through, until the elevation of 2,000 feet is obtained, 
when the vine is no longer found. The chestnut disap¬ 
pears at 1,000 feet higher, and by the time that another 


thousand feet are climbed, the oak, hardy as we are ao 
customed to call it, is not to be found in a flourishing 
condition. At 5,000 feet no deciduous trees are to be 
seen, and at 6.000 the spruce-fir alone appears. At this 
height the mountains become covered with the Rhodo¬ 
dendron Ferrugineum, which, in its turn, succumbs to 
the change of soil and climate, to be succeeded by a few 
still more hardy plants, which exist until they are lost 
in the mosses and lichens which fringe the line of per¬ 
petual snow. — Glaciers. Of these there are about 400 
lying between Mont Blanc and the Tyrol. Several 
of these are 2) miles long, with, perhaps, an average 
width of a mile or a mile and a half. They are supposed 
in the aggregate to cover a space of upward of 1.U00 
sq. m. The summits of the greatest part of the Alps 
are capped in perpetual snow.— Geology. The central 
ridges of the Alps are composed of primitive rocks, 
especially of granite and gneiss, and are distinguished 
by their pointed peaks. On the N. side of this forma¬ 
tion extends a slate formation of considerable width. 
This does not appear to accompany' the range on the 
S., except along the E. Alps, where it has been observed 
to extend from Brixen on the Eisach to Marburg on the 
Drave, skirting that river on the S. Beyond the slate 
formation, the chalk occupies a considerable space. It 
is found to occupy the greatest extent on the S.E. of the 
mountain system, the whole Julian Alps being composed 
of it. On the opposite or N.W. side, the sandstone for¬ 
mation extends from the lake of Geneva as far as the 
S. boundary of Bavaria. The chalk formation is dis¬ 
tinguished by its summits, which do not rise in pointed 

f eaks, but form either cones or cupolas. 

ps, (Upper and Lower.) See Hautes- and 
Basses- Alpes. 

Alpnjar'ras, a mountainous region in Spain, begin¬ 
ning at the Mediterranean, and ending at the Sierra Ne¬ 
vada. In 1834 it was divided between the provinces cf 
Almeria and Granada. 

Al'«|liiere, n. [Pg. alquiere, from Ar. al-koyl.] A Portu¬ 
guese measure called also cantar. The A. of Lisbon 
contains 3'7, and the A. of Oporto 5'6 imperial gallons. 
AI<|IIiiia. in Indiana, a post-village of Fay'ette co., 62 
m. E.S.E. of Indianapolis. 

Alread'y, adv. [From all and ready.) Prior to some 
specified time, either future, present, or past. 

“ Can I love him, already loving you ? " — Dryden. 

It has reference to past time, but may be used for a fu¬ 
ture past; as, “When you shall arrive, the business will 
be already completed, or will have been completed al¬ 
ready.” 

Al'saee, a province bordering on the Rhine, was in¬ 
cluded in Charlemagne’s empire. It remained connected 
with Germany till 1648, when a portion of it was ceded 
to France. Louis XIV. seized Strasburg in 1681, and 
this city, with the remainder of the province, was se¬ 
cured to France by the treaty of Ryswick, 1697, and 
formed the depts. of the Haut and Bas Rhin until 1871, 
when it was ceded to Prussia. (See Alsace-Lorraine, 
and Germany.) 

Al'saee, in Pennsylvania , a twp. of Berks co. 
Alsa'eian, a. (Geog.) Pertaining to Alsace. 
Alsa'tia, n. A name given formerly to the precinct of 
Whitefriars in London, Eng., noted during the 17tli cen¬ 
tury as being a colony for lawless and abandoned peo¬ 
ple. It is frequently referred to by English writers of 
the time, as for instance, Shadwell, in his Squire of Alsar 
tia. It forms, also, the scene of a portion of Sir Walter 
Scott’s novel. The Fortunes of Nigel. 

A1 seg no. [It., to the mark or sign.] (Mus.) A notice 'cj 
for a performer to recommence a strain, marked y? 
Al'seil, a Danish island in the Baltic,between the Island 
of Fiinen and the E. coast of Schleswig : area, 132 sq m. 
The principal towns are Nordborg and Sonderborg. Lat. 
between 54° 51' and 55° 5' N.; Ion. between 9° 37' and 
10° 7' E. 

Als'feld, in Ober-Hessen, Ger., a town situated 26 m. 
from Giessen, and 50 m. N.E. of Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
Pop. (1895) 3,882. 

Alsh' Uocli, an inlet of the sea in Ross-shire, Scotland, 
nearly opposite the southern end of the Isle of Skye. 
Its shores are rendered romantic by the ruins of several 
feudal castles. 

Alsin'ese, n. pi. (Bot.) A sub-ord. of plants, ord. Caryo- 
phyllaceee, distinguished by having sepals distinct or 
nearly so. 

A1 -si'rat. [ Ar., the path.] A bridge from this world to 
the next, over the middle of hell, which must be passed 
by every one entering the Mohammedan paradise. It is 
as fine as the edge of a razor. The deceased pass with a 
rapidity proportionate to their virtues, while the sinful 
load of the wicked precipitates them into the gulf be¬ 
neath. 

Al'so, adv. and conj. [From all and so; A.S. eal.owa.] In 
the same manner; likewise; too; in addition to. 
Alsotle'se, n.pl. (Bot.) A sub-ord. of plants, ord. Vio- 

lacece, q. v. 

Al'stead, in New Hampshire, a post-township of Che¬ 
shire co.. 50 m. W. b. S. of Concord. 

Al'ston, in South Carolina, a post-village of Fairfield 
district, on Broad river, 25 m. N.W. of Columbia. 
Alstree'mer, Jonas, a distinguished Swede, who in¬ 
troduced great improvements into arts and manufac¬ 
tures in his country. For his great services he was made 
Chancellor of Commerce and a member of the Academy 
of Sciences. The National States decreed a statue to be 
erected to his memory in the Exchange of Stockholm. 
D. 1761. 

Alstronieri'ese, n. pi. (Bot.) A tribe of plants, ord. 
Amaryllidacece. A kind of arrowroot is prepared from 
the succulent roots of Alstromeria pallida, and other* 
in Chili. 











82 


ALTA 


ALTE 


ALTH 


Alt, n. [It. alto, from Lat. altus, high.] (Mus.) That part i 
of the great scale lying between F, the 5th line in the tre¬ 
ble clef, and ending at E, the 3d leger, or additional line 
above the same clef. 

Alt, a river of England, rising in Lancashire, and falling 
into the Irish sea. 

Alta'i Mountains, the name given to that exten¬ 
sive range which forms the northern border of the high¬ 
lands of Upper Asia (a region composed of high table¬ 
lands, mountains, and valleys), and which divides them 
from the low lands that extend northward to the Arctic 
ocean. This mountain range begins on the eastern bank 
of the river Irtish, 80° E. Ion., and here it occupies all 
the space between the Lake of Zaizang, 40° 30' N. lat., 
and Semipalatinsk, 53° N. lat., consequently about 5]^ 
degrees of latitude. From 80° E. Ion., it extends east¬ 
ward till it reaches the Sea of Okhotzk, a gulf of the 
Pacific ocean. It grows broader as it advances toward 
the east; its northern declivities extend, on the banks of 
the river Yenesei, to Krasnoyarsk, 56° N. lat., and from 
that town to a point about 200 m. N.of the most northern 
extremity of the lake of Baikal, where, between 57° 
and 58° N. lat., they join the Aldan Mountains. The 
southern part of the Altai, traversing countries subject 
to the Chinese empire, is not perfectly known, but it is 
probable that they extend even further to the south 
than to the north, and that, between the meridian of 
88° and 105°, the mountains occupy no less than 12° of 
latitude, from 45° to 57°. About the 105° of longitude, 
er the meridian of the lake of Baikal, the great desert 
of Gobi or Sliamo, advancing to the north, narrows the 
mountain range considerably, and changes its direction 
from E. to N.E. Between the plains to the N. of Irkutzk, 
and the valleys about Nertshinsk, it occupies no more 
than about 500 m. in breadth. In the parallel of the 
N. part of the lake of Baikal (between 54° and 56° lat.), 
it runs again to the E., until it arrives at the Pacific 
ocean, at the S. extremity of the sea of Okhotzk. oppo¬ 
site the island of Tarakai. In the latter part of its ex¬ 
tent, the breadth of the range cannot be determined; 
for here it joins the Aldan Mountains, which may be 
considered as a branch of the Altai, nearly filling up the 
whole space between the Lena and the sea of Okhotzk, 
an extent of more than 1000 m. from W. to E., and run¬ 
ning to N.N.E. till they terminate at Cape Kshukotsbd- 
Noss, the north-eastern extremity of Asia. It was once 
thought that the Altai were connected with the Ural 
mountains, but it is now well known that an immense 
tract of low country separates the western extremity 
of the Altai from the southern ranges of the Ural. 
The mean elevation of the Altai may be regarded 
as ranging between 4,000 and 5,000 feet. The Bialnkha 
mountains, near the head of the Oby, is estimated at 
10,300 feet above the level of the sea. Their summits 
generally do not taper away into peaks, like those of the 
Alps, but swell into rounded masses of granite, or 
spread into level plains of considerable extent. There 
are two chief roads over the Altai. One is from Ir¬ 
kutzk by lake Baikal to Kiakhta, by which the trade 
between Russia and China is principally carried on; the 
ether is from Udinsk, on the Selenga, to the mining dis¬ 
trict of Nertchiusk, on the Shiker, an affluent of the 
Amoor. — Minerals. Gold, silver, lead, iron and copper; 
and the cornelian, the amethyst, the onyx, the topaz, 
and other gems are found. Mineral wealth seems to be 
unfailing as regards the more valuable metals. — Wild 
Animals. Altai is the native abode of the wild sheep, 
Which, like the chamois and the bagnetis, lives in the 
most inaccessible places.— Vegetation. The forests con¬ 
sist of the alper, alder, acacia, larch, birch, fir, and 
willow, besides the Siberian cedar. This last is found 
7,000 feet at the altitude, and at 6,000 feet, attains to 
the circumference of 16 feet. The birch reaches nearly 
6,000 feet, and the dwarf willow nearly 6,000. The snow¬ 
line has not yet been accurately determined, but is sup¬ 
posed to be at about 8,000 feet. 

A-lta'iail, Altaic, a. Belonging to the Altai moun¬ 
tains. 

Altair, n. (Astron.) A star of the 1st, or between the 
1st and 2d magnitudes. It is the principal star in the 
constellation Aquila , and is situated about 14° S.W. of 
the Delphinus. It may be known by its being the 
largest and middle one of the three bright stars which 
are arranged in a line bearing N.W. and 8.E. It is one 
of the stars from which the moon’s distance is taken for 
computing longitude at sea. Its mean declination is 
nearly S]/p N., and when on the meridian, it occupies 
nearly the same place in the heavens that the sun does 
at noon on the 12th day of April. It culminates about 
6 minutes before 9 o’clock, on the last day of August. 
It rises acronically about the beginning of June.— 
Mattison. 

AI 'taite, n. (Min.) An isomeric mineral of the Galena 
division; comp, tellurium 37-31, lead 60-71, silver 1-17. 
This rare species has been identified at the Stanislaus 
mine, California. 

Altania'ha, in Georgia, a river formed by the conflu¬ 
ence of the Oconee and the Ocmulgee, in the S.E. central 
part of the State. See Ai.atamaha. 

Alta'mira. a town of Mexico, State of Tamaulipas, 10 
m. N.W. of Tampico. 

Al'tamont, in Tennessee, a post-village, cap. of Grundy 
co., on the top of the Cumberland mountains, 80 m. S.E. 
of Nashville. 

Attain u'ra, a town of Southern Italy, prov. of Bari, 
at the foot of the Apennines, 29 m. S.W. of Bari; 
pop. 17,365. 

Al 'tar, n [Heb. Al, God,and tar, appointed ] Anelevated 
table of either stone, marble, or wood, dedicated to par¬ 
ticular ceremonies of religious worship. The earliest 
authentic notice of altars occurs in Holy Writ, where 


it is said that “ Noah built an altar to the Lord.” The 
principal altars, under the Mosaic ritual, were the A. 
of Incense, small, of shittim-wood, overlaid with plates 
of gold; the A. of Burnt-Offering, a large coffer of shit¬ 
tim-wood, covered with brass, within which, suspended 
from the horns of the four corners, was a grate of brass, 
whereon the flesh was laid, and sacrifices were made. 
“ In Solomon’s temple the altar was considerably larger, 
square as the ordinary altar, but 20 cubits long, 20 broad, 
and 10 high, made entirely of brass. It had no grating, 
and the ascent to it was probably by three successive 
platforms, w-ith steps leading to each, as in the figure 
annexed.”— Britton. All the nations of antiquity con- 



Fig. 94.— ALTAR OP BURNT-OFFERING, 
sidered large, massive, unhewn stones, to be emblematic 
of dignity and power. In the great temples of ancient 
Rome, there were ordinarily three altars. The first, upon 
which incense was burned, and libations offered, was 
raised in the sanctuary, at the foot of the statue of the 
divinity; the second stood before the gate of the temple, 
and on it were sacrificed the victims: and the third, upon 
which were placed the offerings and the sacred vessels, 
was portable. In the Roman houses, small altars were 
dedicated to the lares, penates, and genii.—In the Chris¬ 
tian church, the A. is the table of communion. The prin¬ 
cipal is almost invariably situated at the eastern end of 
the choir. Christian altars are generally in the form of 
small, oblong tables, but they are sometimes made to 
resemble sarcophagi. They are often very splendidly 
decorated, being richly adorned with carving or em¬ 
bossed work, and studded with precious stones and 
metals. On great festivals, the relics of a church are 
displayed on the high altar, which is then illumined 
with numerous wax candelabra. 


1 



1. 2. Egyptian, from bas-reliefs. 

3. Assyrian, found at Khorsabad. 

4. Baby Ionian. Bibliotheque Nationals. 

6. Assyrian, from Khorsabad. 

Al'tarag-e, n. [Lat. altaragium.] The profits arising to 
a priest on account of the altar, as well as the offerings 
themselves placed upon it. 

Al'tar-piece, n. A painting placed over or behind the 
altar in a church. 

Al'ta Spring-s, in Texas, a post-village of Limestone co. 

Al'taville, in California, a village of Calaveras co., 21 
m. from Mokelumne Hill. 

Altay', in Hew York, a post-village of Schuyler co. 

Alt'tlorf, a town of Bavaria, circ. of Rezat, 13 m. S.E. 
of Nuremberg. A great number of wooden toys are 
manufactured here, and exported to all parts of Europe 
and to America. Pop. 2,800. 

Alhlor'fer, or Al'torf, Albert, a Bavarian painter 
and engraver, B. 1488. One of his most remarkable 
paintings is the Battle of Arbela, now in the picture 
gallery of Munich. As an engraver on wood, A. almost 
rivals Albert Diirer; d. 1538. 

Al'tea, a town of Spain, prov. of Valencia, near the sea, 
30 m. N.E. of Alicante; pop. 6,000. 

Alte'nn, a town of Prussia, in Westphalia, 18 m. from 
Arnsberg; pop. 5,942. 

Al'tenburg-, a town of Prussia, formerly cap. of the 
Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, 24 m. S.S.E. of Leipsic, near 
the Pleisse; pop. 30,000. 

Al'tenbnrg, in Missouri, a post-village of Perry co., 
about 20 m. S.E. of Perry ville. 

Al'tendorf. a village of Bavaria, 8 m. from Bamberg, 
noted for the victory which Kleber. the French general, 
gained over the Austrians on the 9th of August, 1796. 


Al'tengaard, a Norwegian seaport, 53 m. from liana 

merfest. Lat. 69° 50' N.; Ion. 23° 6' E. 

Altenkir'chen, a town of Prussia, prov. of the Rhine, 
lo m. N.E. of Coblentz. Near it, on 21st of September, 
1796, General Marceau was killed, in a conflict between 
the French and the Austrians. Pop. 1,697. 

Al'ter, v. a. [Fr. altirer, from Lat. ulterare .] To change 
a thing in some of its parte; to render it otherwise than 
it was; so, to alter a writing is to blot and interpolate 
it; to change it, is to substitute another in its place. 

—To take off' from an opinion, a persuasion, or party. 

•* I am no way altered from my opinion."— Dryden. 

— v. n. To become otherwise than it was; to vary; as, 
“the weather alters from bright to cloudy.” 

Alterabil'ity, n. The quality of being susceptible ol 
alteration. 

Al terable, a. [Fr.] That which may be altered or 

varied. 

Al'terableness, n. The quality of being alterable, or 
admitting alterations from external causes. 

Al'terably, adv. In such a manner as may be altered. 

Al'terant, a. [See Alter.] That which has the power 
of producing alterations in anything. 

— n. Same as Alterative. 

Alteration, n. [Fr. alteration .] The act of altering or 
changing in some particular. The state of being altered 
to, or changed. 

Alterative, n. (Med.) Such medicines as induce a 
favorable change in the system, without any manifest 
operation or evacuation. The principal therapeutic em¬ 
ployment of the Alteratives is as antiphlogistics or re¬ 
solvents. The mercurials are chiefly employed in acute 
inflammation, the preparations of iodine, bromine, Ac, 
in chronic inflammation. 

— a. Producing gradual change. 

Altercate, v.a. [ Lat. ulteicare.] To dispute warmly, to 
wrangle, to contend in words. 

Altercation, n. [Fr.] Warm contention by words; 
dispute carried on with heat or anger; controversy! 
wrangling; contest. 

“ Their whole life was little else than a perpetual wrangling and 
altercation.”—Hakewell. 

Alter'ity. n. [Lat. alter, the other.] The state of being 
another, and not the same. 

Altern', a. [Fr. alterne, from Lat. al ternus.] (Crystallcg.) 
Exhibiting in two parts, an upper and a lower part, 
faces which alternate among themselves, but which, 
when the two parts are compared, correspond with 
each other. 

Alter'nacy, n. [From alternate.] Performance or ac¬ 
tion by turns. (R.) 

Alter'nal, a. Alternative, (r.) 

Alter'nally, adv. By turn, (r.) 

Alter'nant, a. [Lat. alternans.] ( Geol.) Applied to 
rockR composed of alternate layers. 

Alter'nale, a. [Lsd.atternatus.] Being by turns; one 
after another; reciprocal. 

"Friendship is a generous strife in alternate acts of kindness."— 

South. 

(Bol.) Denoting the arrangement of parts of the plant, 
as leaves, Ac.,at different heights and sides, on the same 
axis. 

(Her.) It denotes the position of quarters, partitions and 
other figures, succeeding one another by turns, as in the 
coronet of the Prince of Wales, set round with four 
crosses-pattee, and as many fleurs-de-lis alternately. 

(Geom.) Alternate angles', the interior and exterior an¬ 
gles made by a line cutting two parallels. The angles 
AFH and F’ IID, also FI1C and B F H, are alternate 
interior angles. The angles I F B and CHG, also AFI 
and G H D, are alternate exterior angles. 



Alter'nale, n. That w-hich happens by turns with 

something else; vicissitude, (r.) 

Alter'nale, v. a. [Fr. alterner, from Lat. alternate .) 
To perform alternately; to cause to succeed by turns; 
to change one thing for another reciprocally. 

— 1 >. n. To act or succeed by turns; follow ed by with. 

" Rage, shame, and grief alternate in his breast."— Phillips. 

Alternately, adv. In reciprocal succession: by turns; 

as light follows darkness, and darkness follows light. 
Alter'nateness, n. The quality of being alternate, 
or of happening in reciprocal succession. 
Alterna'tion, n. The act of alternating; reciprocal 
succession ; alternate performance, as of singers in the 
choir of a Catholic church. See Generation. 
Alternative, a. That which offers a choice of two 
things. 

— n. The choice given of two things; so that if one be 
rejected, the other must be taken. 

"A strange alternative.... 

Must ladies have a doctor ora dance?■'— Young. 

Alternatively, adv. In alternate manner; by turns; 

reciprocally. 

Alternativeness, n. The quality or state of being 

alternative. 

Alter'nity, v. Reciprocal succession; turn; change of 
one thing for another; alternating. 

Altlise'a,or Alth.®'.e, n. [From Gr .altho, to cure.] ( BotJ 
A genus of plants, ord. Malvacese. The A. officinalis , 
marsh-nmllow, a European plant, naturalized on the 
borders of the salt marshes in the U. S, abounds in 




























































































ALTI 


ALTO 


ALUM 88 


mucilage, and is used in med. as an emollient to prevent 
suppuration. The A. rosea, native of China, is cultivated 
in gardens, and gives flowers of various shades of color¬ 
ing. Its leaves are said to yield a blue coloring-matter, 
not inferior to indigo. 

Alth<e'menes. (Myth.) A son of Creteus, king of 
Crete Hearing that himself or his brothers were to be 
their father’s murderer, he fled to Rhodes, where he 
settled, to avoid becoming a parricide. After the deaths 
of all his Other sons, Creteus went after his son A. Upon 
landing at Rhodes, the inhabitants attacked him, sup¬ 
posing him to be an enemy, and he was killed by the 
hand of his own son. Upon this coming to the knowl¬ 
edge of A., he entreated the gods to remove him, and 
the earth immediately opened and swallowed him up. 

411ike nitt, n. A genus of plants, ord. Naiadacete. 

Although', cimj. [ From all and though.] Notwithstand¬ 
ing; however it may be granted; however it may be 
that. 

Alt'hotise, in Oregon, a village of Josephine co.,24 m. 
S.E. of Kirbyville. 

Alt im'eter, n. [Fr. altimetre, from hat. altus, high, 
and metrum, measure.] An instrument for taking alti- 
tu..cs, Whether accessible or inaccessible, by the help oi 
trigonometry, on the known principle that the sides of 
triangles having equal angles, are in exact proportion 
to one another. 

Altim'etry. n. The art of taking heights by means of 
an altimeter. 

Altin'car, n. See Tincal. 

Ailing ia'ce:e. n. pi. (Dot.) An ord. of plants in the 
alliance Ament ales. Its only gen. is the Liquidambar, 
the spines of which form generally a branching tree, 
having very much the appearance of a maple. Diagnosis : 
Leaves alternate, simple or lobed, aments monoecious, 
roundish, with achlamydeous flowers, styles, 2 and long; 
fruit, a kind of strobile, composed of the indurated 
scabs and capsules; capsules 2-beaked. 2-cel led. opening 
between the beaks; seeds, several-winged. They are 
natives of the Levant, India, and N. America. The 
Liquidambar altingia. which gives its name to the order, 
is a superb tree, 120 to 150 feet high, with a brown-red¬ 
dish, hard, and very aromatic wood. The Altingia or 
Liquidambar styraciflua, a sweet gum or gum-tree, 60 
feet high, with a diameter of 5 feet, is thinly disseminated 
through the U. States. Its trunk is covered with a 
deeply furrowed bark, which, when punctured in sum¬ 
mer, distils a fragrant resin used in medicine under the 
name of storax or sty rax. — See Storax. 



Fig. 96.— I. LIQUIDAMBAR ALTINGIA. 

X. Pistillate flower; 3. Section of a mature fruit; 4. Section of 
a seed. 


(Myth.) A sacred grove round Jupiter’s temple 
at Olympia. 

Altis'onous, and Altis'onant, a. [Lat. altisnnus, 
from altus, high, and sonus, sound.] High-sounding; 
pompous, or lofty in sound. 

Altis'simo. [It., the superlative of alto.] (Mus.) The 
scale in altissimo commences with F, the octavo above 
the fifth line in the treble. 

Al'titmle, n. [Lat. altitude, from altus, high.] The 
height of an object, or its elevation above that plane to 
which the base is referred; thus, in mathematics, the 
altitude of a figure is the perpendicular or nearest dis¬ 
tance of its vortex from the base. The altitude of an 
abject is the elevation of an object above the plane of 
the horizon, or a perpendicular let fall to that plane. — 
Accessible Altitude of an object, is that to whose base 
there is access, to measure the nearest distance to it on 
the ground, from any place. — Inaccessible Altitude of 
an object, is that to whose base there is not free access, 
by wliich a distance may be measured to it, by reason 
of some impediment, such as water, wood, or the like. 
The instruments mostly used in measuring altitudes, are 
the quadrant, theodolite, geometrical square line of shad- 

OWS (fee. 

(Math.) The A. of a triangle is measured by a perpen¬ 
dicular let fall from any one of its angles upon the base, 
or upon the base produced; therefore the same triangle 
may have different A., accordingly as we assume one side 
or other of its base. Again, the A. of a cone or pyramid, 
whether right or oblique, is measured by a perpendicu¬ 
lar let fall from the vortex to the plane' of its base. 
Similar remarks apply to other solids. 


(Phys.) The A. of the eye, in perspective, is the per¬ 
pendicular height of the eye above the geometrical 
plane. The A. of a mountain may be determined by 
trigonometry or by the barometer; for as the weight 
and elasticity of the atmosphere diminishes as we rise, 
so the fall of the barometer determines the elevation of 
any place. — See Height. 

(Astrnn.) The A. of a star or other celestial object is 
measured or estimated by the angles subtended between 


S 



the object and the plane of the horizon. Thus, if A be the 
. position of a spectator on the earth, and AB the line on 
the horizon which is drawn toward the point directly 
under the star S, the angle BAS is the altitude of the 
star. This A. is either true or apparent. The apparent 
A. is that which is obtained immediately from observa¬ 
tion; and the true A. that which results from correcting 
the apparent A., by making allowance for parallax, re¬ 
fraction, Ac.— The A. at sea is directly observed with the 
sextant. — In fixed observation on land, the A. of stars, or 
rather their zenith distance which are what the A- wants 
of 90 degrees, are observed with the mural or the transit 
circle.—See Sextant, Circle-mural, Transit. 

Altituclinarian, a. Which has, or pertains to, alti¬ 
tude. (r.) 

Alt'muhl, a river of Bavaria, which falls into the Dan¬ 
ube at Kelheim. From Dietfurfc to Bamberg-on-the- 
Regnitz, there is a canal called the Maine-and-Danube, 
which connects the Black sea with the German ocean. 

Al'to, n. [It., high.] (Mus.) The highest natural adult 
male voice, or counter-tenor, the usual compass of which 
is from F the 4th line in the base, to C the 3d space on 
the treble. 

—Also, the instrument that we call the Tenor, and the 
Italians Viola. 

Alto Clef, a name of the C clef, when placed on the 
3d line; called also the counter-tenor clef. 

Alto, in Illinois, a township of Lee co. 

Alto, in Indiana, a post-office of Howard co. 

Alto, in Michigan, a post-office of Kent co. 

Alto, in Texas, a village of Cherokee co. 

Alto, in Virginia, a post-office of Amherst co. 

Alto, in Wisconsin, a post-township, in the S.W. of Fond 
du Lac co. 

Al'to et Bas'so. [Lat., high and low.) (Law.) An 
agreement between two parties, including an absolute 
submission of all differences to arbitration. 

Altogether, adv. [From all and together .] Com¬ 
pletely; without restriction; without exception. 

“ I do not altogether disapprove of the manner of interweaving 
texts of Scripture." — Swift. 

—Conjunctively; in company:—i. e., all together. 

Alton, in Illinois, a. city and port of entryin Madison 
co., on the Mississippi river, about 21 m. above St. Louis, 
3 m. above the mouth of the Missouri river, and 76 m. 
S.S.W. of Springfield. A., connected by railroads with 
Chicago and St. Louis, is a thriving place. It is the mar¬ 
ket town and port of exportation for the grain, hay, 
fruit, and lime of a large county. Limestone and stone- 
coal abound in the vicinity. It is the seat of a Roman 
Catholic diocese,with a large cathedral. P. (1890) 10,294. 

Al'ton, in Indiana, a post-village of Crawford co., on 
the Ohio River, about 40 m. W.S.W. of New Albany. 

Alton, in Iowa, a thriving twp. of Buchanan co. 

—a post-village of Dallas co., on the Racoon river, about 
36 m. N.W. of Des Moines. 

•—a village of Howard co. 

Al’ton. in Maine, a post-township of Penobscot co., 
about 15 m. N. of Bangor. 

Alton, in Michigan, a post-office of Kent co. 

Alton, in Missouri, a post-village, cap. of Oregon co., 
about 170 m. S.S.W. of St. Louis. 

Alton, in New Hampshire, a post-township of Belknap 
co., 22 m. N.E. of Concord. 

Alton, in New York, a post-village of Sodus township, 
in Wayne co., 10 m. N. of Lyons. 

Alton. inOhio, apost-villageof Franklin co.,9 m. W.of 
Columbus. 

Alton, in Penna., a thriving town of McKean co. 

Al'ton, in Virginia, a post-office of Halifax co. 

Al'ton, in W. Va., a post-office of Upshur co. 

Al'ton Ilill, in Tennessee, a post-office of Macon co. 

Al'tona, in Prussia, prov. Schleswig-Holstein, on the 
Elbe, 2 m. W of Hamburg, Lat. 53° 32' N.; Lon. 90° 
56' E. It is a free port. A. has a good deal of trade; 
shipbuilding is also carried on to a considerable extent. 
Manf. Velvets, silk stuffs, calico, stockings, gloves, 
tobacco, starch, wax, and looking-glasses. It was burnt 
by the Swedes in 1713. Population (1895), 142,249. 

Al’tona, in Nebraska, & village of Platte co., about 60 
m. W. by N. of Omaha. 

Al'tona, in New York, a post-township of Clinton co., 
about 10 m. N.W. of Plattsburg. 

Al'tona, in Wisconsin, a village of Buffalo co., on the 
Mississippi river. 


—a village of Calumet co., about 24 m. N.E. of Fond. 
du-Lac. 

Altoona. [from Lat. alto, high,] in Pennsylvania, a 
flourishing city of Blair co., at the foot of Alleghany 
mountains, 2364 m. W. of Philadelphia, and 117 N.E. of 
Pittsburgh.— lnd The Pennsylvania railroad has here 
extensive machine-shops, where thousands of operativee 
are employed in the manufacture of locomotives, rail¬ 
way cars, Ac.— A. has also steam planing-mills, brew¬ 
eries, several daily and weekly papers, 4 banks, Ac.—It 
was laid out in 1849, and incorporated as a city in 1868. 
Pop. in 1880,19,746 ; in 1890,30.337 ; in 1897 (est.) 39,500, 

Al'to otta'vo, n. [It.] An octave higher. 

Al'to-relie'vo, n. [It.] (Sculp.) That kind of sculp¬ 
ture which is executed on a flat surface, but projects 
considerably above the ground or plane. The degree 
of projection given to alto-relievo depends on the will 
of the sculptor; more than three-fourths of the figure 
are frequently shown, and figures in basso-relievo (low 
relief) are sometimes added, to express gradations of 
distance. The largest performance ever executed in 
alto-relievo is the stupendous work by Algardi, in 
St. Peter’s at Rome, representing the repulse of Attila 
by St. Peter and St. Paul. The alto-relievos of Dona- 
telli at Florence are among the most perfect examples 
of this art. 

Al'torf, or Alt'dorf, a town of Switzerland, cap. of 
the canton Uri, near the S.E. extremity of the lake of 
Lucerne, at ihe N. extremity of the pass over Mount St 
Gothard. Here there is a tower which marks the spot 
where William Tell is said to have shot off the apple 
from his son’s head. Close by is the village of Burglen, 
pointed out as being the birthplace of that patriot. 
Pop. 2,426. 

Al'to ripie'no. [It.] (Mus.) The tenor of the great 
chorus in the full parts of a concert. 

Al'to violi'no. [It.] (Mus.) A small tenor violin. 

Al'ti'inctiam, or Al'trinoham, a town of England, 
in Cheshire, 8 m. from Manchester. Manf. Cloths, cot¬ 
tons, and yarns. Pop. 6,628. 

Alt'stetten, a town of Switzerland, canton of St. Gal- 
len, 9 m. S. from the embouchure of the Rhine into the 
Lake of Constance, on the declivity' of a mountain in a 
beautiful country. Pop. 1,187. 

Altu'ras, in Idaho, the former name of a southcentral 
county', east of Boise co. and containing the flourishing 
town of Hailey—now 7 called Blaine co. 

Aln'cita. See Alucitid^. 

Aluci'tidte, n. pi. (Zoiil.) A family of small lepidop- 
terous insects, distinguished by the wings being singu¬ 
larly divided into narrow feathered rays. The larvae are 
clothed with very long hairs; they have sixteen feet, 
and are very inactive; the pupa; are either naked, and 
enclosed in a transparent silken cocoon; or conical, 
hairy, and either suspended perpendicularly by a 
thread, or affixed at the posterior extremity of the 
body to a layer of silk or leaves. These insects vary in 
the time of their flight; the Alucita frequenting our 
gardens, and sitting with its beautiful fan-like wings on 
our hot-houses, whilst the Pterophori, being crepuscular, 
fly over low plants. 

Alula, n. [Lat , dim. of ala, a wing.] See Otis. 

Arum, n. [Fr. from Lat. alumen .] (Chem.) The alum, 
or sulphate of aluminium and potassium, is a very impor¬ 
tant salt, occasionally found native in volcanic districts, 
in the form of an efflorescence produced by the action 
of the sulphuric acid of the volcano upon the alumina 
and potash contained in the lava and trachytic rocks. 
For the purposes of commerce, alum is manufactured 
artificially. It has a sweetish, astringent taste, is solu¬ 
ble in about 18 parts of cold water, and in less than its own 
weight of boiling water. The solution has a strongly 
acid reaction, and dissolves iron and zinc with evolution 
of hydrogen. Comp, potassium sulphate, 18.4: alumi¬ 
nium sulphate, 36.2 ; water 45.4 = 100. Form. A1,(S0 4 ) 3 
+ K 3 S0 4 + 24H 2 0. Alum is used in large quantities in 
many' manufactories. When added to tallow, it renders it 
harder. Printers’ cushions, and the blocks used in the 
calico manufactory, are rubbed with burnt alum to re¬ 
move any greasiness, which might prevent the ink or 
color from sticking. Paper impregnated with alum is 
useful in whitening silver, and in silvering brass without 
heat. A. mixed in milk helps the separation of its butter. 
If added in a very small quantity to turbid water, in a 
few minutes it renders it perfectly limpid, without any 
bad taste or quality. It is used in making pyrophorus, 
in tanning, and many other manufactories, particularly 
in the art of dyeing, in which it is of the greatest and 
most important use, by cleansiug and opening the pores 
on the surface of the substance to be dyed, rendering it 
fit for receiving the coloring particles (by which the A. 
is generally decomposed), and at the same time making 
the color fixed. Bakers mix a quantity of A. with their 
bread, to render it white, a process highly pernicious. 

(Med.) A. is employed internally as a powerful 
astringent in cases of passive hemorrhage from the 
womb, intestines, and sometimes lungs. In bleed¬ 
ings of an active nature, i. e. attended with fever and 
a plethoric state of the system, it is highly improper. 
It is a powerful tonic, and is given in a dose of 10 grains, 
in such cases as require powerful tonic and astringent 
remedies. Externally A. is much employed as a lotion for 
the eyes, in dissolution with rose-water. It is applied 
as a styptic to bleeding vessels, and to ulcers, waec 
there is too copious a secretion of pus. It is also em¬ 
ployed as an injection in cases of gleet or fluor albus 

A I'llIll Bank, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Bed¬ 
ford co. 

Al'nm Creek, in Ohio, a post-office of Delaware co. 

Al um Creek, in Texas, a post-office in Bastrop «o. 

Al'liuied, a. Mixed with alum. 










84 


ALYA 


ALYP 


AMAD 


Aln'men, n. The same as alum, q. v. 

Alii' mian, n. (Min.) A rhombohedral mineral of the 
crocoite group. It occurs iu microscopic white crystals, 
or in a massive form. Comp, sulphuric acid 60'9; alu¬ 
mina 39-1 ~ 100. 

Alu'mina, and Alu'mine, n. [Fr .aluminei] (Chem .) One 
of the earths, the only known oxide of aluminium. It 
forms one of the materials that enter most largely into 
the composition of the superficial strata of the earth. 
It is the basis of all the varieties of clay, and is present 
in greater or less quantity in almost every soil It 
occurs nearly pure, and crystallized in six-sided prisms, 
in Corundum, hard enough to cut glass. The sapphire 
and ruby are also composed of this earth, tinged with 
a small quantity of oxide of chromium. They are only 
inferior to the diamond in hardness. Emery is another 
form of alumina, colored with oxides of iron and man¬ 
ganese. It is procured from alum, or from aluminate 
of sodium. It possesses properties which approach 
somewhat to those of an acid, for it has a strong ten¬ 
dency to unite with basic oxides. When combined with 
silica, it forms clay, which is the basis of porcelain and 
of earthenware. To the dyer and the calico-printer, 
the compounds of A. are of high value; the hydrate of 
A has the property of combining intimately with cer¬ 
tain kinds of organic matter, and when salts of alumin¬ 
ium are mingled with colored vegetable or animal solu¬ 
tions, and precipitated by the addition of an alkali, the 
alumina carries down the greater portion of the color¬ 
ing matter, forming a species of pigments termed lakes. 
By soaking the cloth with a preparation of aluminium, 
the earth attaches itself to the fibre; and if cloth thus 
prepared bo plunged into a hath of the coloring mat¬ 
ter, it becomes permanently dyed. Sp. gr. 3 - 95 ; form. 

(AU) 3 ). 

Alu minate, n. (Chem.) An earthy combination of 
alumina. 

Alii'minate of Sodium. A whitish, infusible, 
but freely soluble compound, which furnishes a valued 
material in the preparation of lakes for pigments, as 
well as for purposes of a mordant to the calico-printer, 
and which will probably to a large extent supersede the 
use of the different terms of alum. It is used in the 
preparation of alumina, for which it is chiefly required. 

Al'umine, n. See Alumina. 

Aluminiferous, a. Which contains or affords alum. 

A1 u'mini forni, a. Having the form of alumina. 

Alu'minite, n. (Min.) A reniform massive mineral, of 
an earthy taste and white color, occurring in connection 
with beds of clay in the Tertiary formation. Comp, alu¬ 
mina 29 - 8, sulphuric acid 23‘2, water 47'0 = 10l). 

Alu' mi nous. a. Relating to, or consisting of alum. 

Alu'ininum. and Aluinin'ium, n. [Lat.] (Chem.) 
A white malleable metal, nearly resembling zinc in color 
and hardness; it may be rolled into very thin foil, and 
admits of being drawn into fine wire; after being rolled, 
it becomes much harder and more elastic. It is re¬ 
markably sonorous and emits a clear musical sound 
when struck by a hard body. When heated in the form 
of foil with a splinter of wood in a current of oxygen, it 
burns with a brilliant bluish-white light. Nitric acid 
is without action upon it, but it is attacked rapidly by 
hydrochloric acid, forming chloride of aluminium, whilst 
hydrogen is disengaged. A. readily forms alloys with 
copper, silver, and iron, but not with lead. The alloys 
with copper are very hard, and susceptible of a high 
polish; one of these, a beautiful alloy of a golden-yellow 
color, containing about 10 per cent, of aluminium, is 
manufactured under the name of aluminium bronze. Sp. 
gr. 2'5 to 2 67. Symbol, Al.— History. A. was first obtained 
from its oxide by Wohler in 1827, and more perfectly in 
1845, but it was not until 1854 that it was produced by 
Deville in a nearly pure state, and its properties dis- 
(Continued in Section II.) 

Alum'na. n., pi. Alumn.®, feminine form of Alumnus 
and Alumni. 

Alum nus, n.\ pi. Alumni. [Lat.] A pupil; applied to a 
graduate of a college or other seminary of learning. 

Alnm-slate, n. (Min.) A variety of shale or clay- 
slate containing iron pyrites. 

AT um-stone, n. See Alunite. 

Al'unite, and Aluminiute, n. (Min.) A rhombohedral, 
white metal, known also under the name of alumen de 
Tolpha, alum-stone,and alumde Koine. It forms seams 
in trachytic and allied rocks, where it has been formed 
as a result of the alteration of the rock by means of sul¬ 
phurous vapors. Comp, sulphuric acid 38-53, alumina 
37-13, potash 11-34, water 13-00 = 100. 

Al n'liogen. n. (Min.) A hydrous sulphate of alumina, 
occurring in delicate masses or crusts. It has a vitreous, 
silky lustre, and white color. Its taste is like that of 
common alum. Found as an efflorescence in numerous 
places in the United States. Comp, alumina 15-4, sul¬ 
phuric acid 36-0, water 48-6 = 100. 

Aluta'ceous, a. [Lat. aluta, a soft leather.] Being of 
a pale brown color, as that of tanned leather. 

Alu'teres, n.pl. (Zool.) A gen. of fishes, family Plectn- 
gnathi, q. v. 

Al va, or Al'ba, Ferdinand Alvarez de Toledo, duke 
of, the greatest general of his age, B. in Spain, 1508. He 
was present at the battle of Pavia, at the siege of Tunis, 
and in the attack on Algiers. He defeated and made 
prisoner the elector of Saxony at the battle of Muhlberg, 
in 1547, and assisted at the siege of Metz. In 1577 he 
was sent, with the title of Vicar-General of the Austrian 
dominions in Italy, to oppose the French there, and invade 
the States of the Church; but he was compelled to make 
peace and beg pardon of the Pope. He is "In(‘fly noto¬ 
rious for the merciless rigor which characterized his 
dictatorial power in the Netherlands, where he was sent 
in 1567, to carry out the plans of Philip II. Under his 


rule, 18,000 persons were sent to the scaffold, and a re¬ 
volt provoked which only ended, after nearly 40 years of 
war, in the independence of the United Provinces. 
Alva’s overweening pride was shown iu the erection of a 
statue of himself in the citadel of Antwerp, with nobles 
and people at his feet, and a false, bombastic inscrip¬ 
tion in his own praise. Ho was recalled in 1573. by his 
own wish, and altera temporary disgrace and exile, was 
sent to command in Portugal and rapidly conquered 
it. It is said that in 60 years of warfare he was never 
beaten, nor taken by surprise. D. at Lisbon. 1582. 

Al va, a village and parish of Scotland, in Stirling co., 
7 m. S.E. of Stirling: pop. 3,283. 

Al vamari'na, n. [Lat. alga marina, sea-weed.] (Com.)\ 
Dried sea-weed with which mattresses are stuffed. 
Al'van, in Pennsylvania, a hamlet of Jefferson co. 

Alvara'llo, Pedro, one of the Spanish conquerors of 
Mexico. He accompanied Grijalva to Central America, 
in 1518, and in the tollowing year took part in the expe¬ 
dition of Cortez, was present at all the battles of the 
campaign, and greatly contributed to its success, lie 
explored California, and was killed during ail expedition 
against the Indians of Xalisco, in 1541. 

Alvara'llo, Alphonso d’, a Spanish adventurer, 
who accompanied Pizarro in his expedition to Peru ; 
and was equally distinguished for his bravery and his 1 
cruelty. D. 1553. 

Alvara'llo, a small town of Mexico, near the month 
of the river of the same name, 40 m. S.S.E. of Vera 
Cruz; lat. IS 0 34' 18" N.; Ion. 65° 39' 15" W. The bar at 
the mouth of the river renders it inaccessible for vessels 
drawing more than 10orl2 feet of water. Pop. abt. 5,000. 

Alvarado, in California, a thriving village of Ala¬ 
meda co., on Alameda creek, 10 nt. S. of San Leandro, 

5 m. from the bay of San Francisco. 

The collection of salt is the principal industry-. 

Alvara'llo, in Texas, a city of Johnson co., 26 m. by 
rail S. of Ft. Worth. Pop. 1,543. 

Alvar'ez tie Luna, the favorite and first minister 
of John II., king of Castile. After enjoying the splen¬ 
dor of royal favor for more than forty years, he fell 
into disgrace and was beheaded for high treason in 1453. 

Alvar'ez, Don Josls, a Spanish sculptor, b. near Cor¬ 
dova, 1768. A statue of Ganymede, which he executed 
in 1S04, whilst studying at Paris, placed him in the first 
rank of modern sculp lors. His studio was twice visited 
by Napoleon I., who presented him with a gold medal 
Subsequently, he chiefly resided at Rome, and became 
court sculptor to Ferdinand Til., of Spain, for whom, 
in 1818, he executed his famous group of Antilochus 
and Memnon. D. at Madrid, 1826. 

Al'veateil, a. That has a prismatic cellular structure, 
as a honey-comb. 

Alvensle'ben, Pnnip Karl,C ount of,a distinguished 
Prussian diplomatist in the service of Frederick the 
Great and his successor; b. 1745; d. 1802. 

Alve'olar, Alve'olaey, a. Pertaining to the alveoli, or 
sockets of the teeth. 

Alve'olate, a. (Hot.) Having deep angular cavities, 
separated by thin partitions, as the receptacle of the 
cotton-thistle. 

Alve'olites, n. pi. [Lat. alveus, a cavity, and Gr. lithos, 
a stone.] (Pal.) A gen. of fossil corals formed in the 
cretaceous and tertiary strata. 

Al' verson, in Michigan, a village of Ingham co. 

A1'vers to It e, a parish in Hants, on the Solent and 
Portsmouth harbor, England. It embraces Gosport, 
Anglesey, forts Monckton and Blockhouse. Pop. 17,000. 

Al' Veits, n. [Lat., a cavity.] A boat, formed from the 
trunk of a tree hollowed out, in US6 among the ancients, 
and in one of which, according to Ovid, Romulus and 
Remus were exposed. 

(Anal.) A canal or duct, as the A.ampullosceus, which 
conveys the chyle to the subclavian vein. 

—The bed of a river. (R.) 

Alvia'no. Bartolommeo, an eminent Venetian general, 
whose exploits in the war against the emperor Maxi¬ 
milian, iu 1508, caused the republic to decree him tri¬ 
umphal honors. B. 1455 ; D. 1515. 

Al' vine, a. [Fr. alvin, from Lat. alvus, belly.] Relating 
or belonging to the lower belly or intestines; as, alvine 
discharges. 

Alvi' ra, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Lycoming co. 

AI vise, in California, the shipping-port of Santa Clara 
co., located at the junction of the Alviso Slough with the 
Guadajupe river, about 3 m. from the bay of San Fran¬ 
cisco, in Alviso township. Pop. of township 588. 

Alvi'to, a town of Southern Italy, prov. of Caserta, 6 
m. S.E. of Sora. Pop. 4,242. 

Al' war, or Machery, a state of Rajpootana, India, 
under English control. Area, 3,573 sq.m. Lat. between 
27° 4' and 28° 13' N.; Lon. between 76° 71' and 77° 14' E. 
Pop. about 778,600.— Alwar, the capital, stands on an 
eminence of 1,200 feet above the surrounding country. 

Al ways, adv. [From all and way; pi. ways.] Perpetu¬ 
ally; throughout all time; opposed to sometimes, or to 
never. 

“ Man never is, but always to be blest.”— Pope. 

—Constantly; without variation: opposed to sometimes. 
or to now and then. 

” He is always great, when some great occasion is presented to 
him.”— Dryden. 

— This adverb is sometimes written alway, but in poetry 
only. 

Alycae'us, son of Sciron, who was killed by Theseus. 

A place in Megara was named after him. 

Aly'mon, the husband of Circe. 

Alyp ius. a geographer, who was employed by the 
emperor Julian in rebuilding the temple of Jerusalem. 
Lived in the 4th century. He has left a geographical 
description of the world, printed at Geneva in 1628. 


Alyp'ins, bishop of Tagasta, Africa, and the friend e* 
St. Augustine, with whom he was baptized at Milan in 
388. lie opposed the Donatists and Pelagians with 
great zeal; D. 430. 

Alys'sidsc, n. pi. [Gr. a priv., lussa, rage.] (Hot.) A 
tribe of plants of the order Hrassicacece; so called 
because the ancients supposed that some species of this 
tribe allayed anger. 

Alyssum, n. (Hot.) A gen. of plants, tribe Alyssidee. 
Two species are cultivated in gardens. 1. A. saxatile, 
rock alyssum, a pretty perennial plant, 1 foot high, giv¬ 
ing in April numerous yellow flowers in close corymbose 
bunches. 2. A. maritimum, sweet alyssum, a sweet- 
scented plant, 1 foot high, with fine leaves and small 
white flowers. 

A'lytli. a town and parish of Scotland, in Perth co., 12m. 
W. of Forfar. Pop., 2,134. 

Al' zey, in Rheinhessen Prov., Oer., a town on the Selz, 
18 m. S. S. W. of Mayence. Pop., 5,663. 

Ain, a frontiir stronghold of Afghanistan, 50 m. N. of 
Attock. 

Amacet'ta, in Virginia, a village of Wayne co. 
Ainai*rat'ic, a. [Gr. ama, together, and cratos, power.] 
Applied to a certain kind of lens, styled also amasthenic 
lens, which unites the chemical rays of light into one 
focus. 

Amatlava'de. See Amadina. 

Aniaililcil'ulat, the founder of the Persian dynasty, 
was the son of a fisherman. He and his two brother* 
took Persia Proper, Persian Irak, and Caramania, which 
they divided amongst them. A. settled at Shiraz in 
Persia Proper, in 933; d. 947. 

Amailc'us V,, The Great, count of Savoy, succeeded 
to the sovereignty of that State in 1287, to the exclusion 
of his nephew Philip, the rightful heir. He immortal¬ 
ized his name by the defence of Rhodes against the 
Turks, on which occasion ho added to his arms the cross 
of the order of St. John of Jerusalem; D. 1323. 

Amade'us VI., count of Savoy, one of the most war¬ 
like princes of bis age. He assisted John, king of 
France, against Edward, king of England, and in 1366 
passed into Greece to the assistance of the emperor 
John Paleologus ; D. 1383. 

Amade'us VIII., the Peaceful, Count and first duke of 
Savoy, B. 1383, succeeded his father Amadeus VII. in 
1391. In 1434 he resigned his sovereignty and retired 
to a monastery, where he instituted an order of knight¬ 
hood by the name of the Annunciata. On the deposi¬ 
tion of Pope Eugenius IV., A. was chosen to succeed 
him, and took the name of Felix V. 'i he schism thus 
created lasted ten years, and ended with the second re¬ 
tirement of A. in 1440. D. 1451. 

Amade'us IX., the Hlessed, duke of Savoy, succeeded his 
father Louis in 1465. He was feeble in health and mind, 
and a regency was intrusted to his duchess Yolande, 
daughter of Charles VII. of France. A. was famed for his 
benevolence and care for the poor; D. 1472. 

Amade'us, duke of Aosta, 2d son of Victor Emmanuel, king 
of Italy, B. 1845. In 1870, he was chosen king of Spain, 
and so reigned until 1873, when, finding himself unac¬ 
ceptable to the Spanish nation, he abdicated the thron* 
and returned to Italy. D. Jan. 17, 1890. 

Amaili'na, n. (Zool.) A gem of birds belonging to the 
sub-fam. Frinyilliancc, and containing the Java-sparrow 
and amadarada or amadurat, pretty Indian birds, which 
are without song, and delicate to rear. 

A'mailis de Gaul, the hero of an old romance of 
chivalry, written in Spanish prose by Vasco Lobeira, 
toward the end of tliu twelfth century. It was after¬ 
ward corrected and edited in more modern Spanisli by 
Garcia Ordofiez of Montalvo, about the beginning of the 
sixteenth century, and became a very popular book in 
Italy and France; it was translated into French by 
D’Herberay, and printed in 1555, with many additions, 
under the title of Amadis des Guules. The Amadis is 
considered as one of the most interesting works in the 
whole library of chivalry and romance. There are also 
several other Spanish romances concerning Amadis 
and his family, which are, however, deservedly for¬ 
gotten. Bernardo Tasso, the father of Torquato, wrote 
a poem on the subject of the Amadis de Guula, which 
he called Amadigi di Francia. This poem has ne\ar 
been held in great esteem in Italy. 

Amailor', in California, a northern county, measuring 
52 m. in length, and 10 in breadth. The Mokeluinne 
river separates it from Calaveras in the S. Formerly 
this county extended into and beyond the high Sierra, 
but since the erection of Alpine county in 1864, it 
barely reaches to the E. of the base of the great Bnowy 
range. The eastern portion is, nevertheless, very rug¬ 
ged and broken. Among the lower foot-hills of A. are 
some of the richest agricultural valle 3 - s in the State. A 
belt of auriferous earth and rocks about 12 m. wide, 
runs entirely across its lower and most populous part, 
and has for years been profitably worked, yiedding good 
returns. Many mines have been opened in this belt, of 
which a considerable number have proved productive. 
Small diamonds have frequently been picked up at Fid- 
dletown, Volcano and other places. As in California 
generally, however, agriculture gives the best promise 
for the futuro of the country, and much attention i* 
being paid to the cultivation of the soil. County seat, 
Jackson. Pop. (1890), 10,490. 

Amador', in Minnesota, a post-village in Chicago co., 
in Amador township, on the St. Croix river, abt. 50 m. 
N.N.E. of St. Paul, 

Amailor', in Nevada, a village ot Lander co., 7 m. N. ol 
Austin. 

Amailor' City, in California., a post-village of Amadoi 
co., on Amador creek, 8 m. N W. of Jackson. 









AMAL 


AMAR 


AMAR 


A1 vn, iti Oklahoma, the cap. of Woods co. Pop. (1897) 
ah* 1.000. 

Amittloii', re. [Fr.] A kind of tinder made chiefly from 
the fungus called Polyporous fomentaria, which grows 
on the ash and cherry-trees, &c. The fungus is dried, 
steeped in a strong solution of saltpetre, and cut into 
thin slices. When thick, it is beaten with a mallet or 
hammer. A. is obtained also from other species of fungi. 

Amagansett, in New York, a large village in East 
Hampton township, Suffolk co., 25 m. from Kiverhead. 

Amain', adv. [From Lat. magnus.] With vehemence 
or vigor; fiercely; violently.— It is used tor any action 
performed with precipitation, when resulting from fear, 
courage, or any violent effort. 

(Naut.) Suddenly; at once; as, “Lower amain 1“ 
“ Let go amam ! ” &c. 

,4'niak, or Amager, a Danish island to the S. of Copen¬ 
hagen, on which its suburb Christianshaven is buiit: 
pop. abt. 8,000. 

Amako'sa, or Kosas, a tribe of the Caffres, settled in 
Cape Colony, Africa. They are shepherds and hunters. 

Anialui'tail, one of the Kuriles islands, q. v. 

A'mal, a town of Sweden, 50 tn. from Weversborg. Its 
harbor is on Lake Weser, and its trade consists princi¬ 
pally of deals, iron, and steel. Pop. 11,500 

Amal'uric, or Amaory, the last Visigoth king of Spain, 
son of Alaric It. He succeeded his grandfather Theodo- 
ric in 526, and married Clotilda, the daughter of Clovis, 
king of France, whom he barbarously used to make her 
embrace Arianism. She complained to her brother 
Childebert, king of Paris, who in 531 marched against 
him and defeated him in a battle fought in Catalonia. 
He fled to a church and was slain. 

Am'alelt, son of Eliphaz by his concubine Timna, 
grandson of Esau, and a chieftain of Edom. If he be not 
the actual father of the Amalekites, he has at least given 
his name to this people, so ancient that they were 
called the first of all the nations. 

Ainnl'ekites, a tribe of Edomite Arabs, who were the 
first to oppose the Israelites after the passage of the Red 
sea (Exod. xvii. 7-161, at the battle of Rephidiin. B. c. 
1491. Saul overcame them (1 Sam. xv. 8) b. c. 1093 ; and 
their descendants were exterminated by the Simeonites, 
about b. c. 725 (1 Chron. iv. 42, 43). 

Amal'fi, or Amalphi, a city and seaport of Southern 
Italy, prov. of Citra, on the Gulf of Palermo. It was in 
the middle ages a small republic of considerable emi¬ 
nence. Conquered by Robert Guiscard in 1035, it re¬ 
gained its independence in 1196, submitted to the king 
of Sicily in 1131, and was sacked by the Pisans in 1135. 
It is the birthplace of Masaniello, and of Flavio Givia, 
the inventor or improver of the mariner’s compass. 
Pop. once of 5u,000, it is now abt. 8,000. 

Amal'gani, n. [Fr. amalgam, from Gr. ama, together, 
and gameo, to marry.] (Cheni.) A combination of mer¬ 
cury or quicksilver with other metals. Many of these 
crystallize definitely, and may be separated from the 
excess of mercury with which they are surrounded. 
They are mostly brittle and soft. Tin aDd mercury 
unite by mere rubbing; it has a high reflecting surface, 
and is used for the back of looking ; glasses. A. for the 
electrical machine is composed, of mercury 4 parts, zinc 
2 parts, and 1 part tin. These, when smelted and rubbed 
up with a little lard, are fit for use. 

(Min.) Named also naturlich A., mescure argental, A. 
natif It is an isometric mineral, opaque and of a sil¬ 
ver-white color. It is said to occur when veins of mer¬ 
cury and silver intersect each other. Comp. The pro¬ 
perty of the two metals is variable.— Gold amalgam. 
The California variety occurs in yellowish-white, four¬ 
sided prisms; the Columbia var., in small white grains 
as large as a pea, easily crumbling. Comp. The propor¬ 
tion of gold varies from 38-39 to 41-63 per cent. 

Amal'gam, v. n. To form an amalgam; to amalga¬ 
mate. 

Amal'^ama, n. A mixtureof different ingredients, (r.) 

Amal gamate, v. a. [Fr. amalgamer.) to compound 
or mix, as quicksilver with another metal. To mix, so 
as to make a compound ; to unite. 

u Ingratitude is (ndeed their four cardinal virtues compacted 
and amalgamated, into one."— Burke. 

—v. a. To unite in an amalgam; to blend with another 
metal, as quicksilver.—To coalesce, as a result of growth; 
as, two organs or parts amalgamate. 

AuKilgama'tiou, re. [Fr ] The act or practice of 
amalgamating metals; a mixture of different things or 
races. 

(Chem.) The process of extracting gold and silver 
from Gieir matrix by means of mercury. When gold 
or silver exists in a native state, as in ore, all that is 
necessary is to triturate one part of the ore deprived of 
rocky matter with 2 parts of mercury, in a mortar of 
greater or lesser dimensions. The excess of mercury is 
poured off, the amalgam strained through leather, and 
distilled in a retort, the mercury being condensed in wa¬ 
ter. But for amalgamating sulphuret of silver, chloride 
of silver, and similar poor ore, the earths are triturated 
with watei iu a wide shallow cylinder, in a similar man¬ 
ner to clay at a pottery, and then dried; from 1 to 5 per 
cent, of common salt is then added to it, according 
to its purity, and the whole triturated. Sulphate of 
copper, in the proportion oflb to 1 lb., is next added, 
and the whole triturated; 6 times as much quicksilver 
is now added as the ore contains, which is done at three 
different times, and trituration performed. The amal¬ 
gam is washed and distilled. 

Ama lia. See Amelia. 

Amal ie Acid. (Chem.) A weak acid, obtained by act¬ 
ing on caffeine with chlorine. Form. C 12 NoII 7 ( > g . 

Aiiial'ric. or Arnauld, a Spanish military churchman, 
who distinguished himself by his cruelties against the 
6 


Albigenses. In 1209, he laid siege to Beziers, and com¬ 
manded 60,000 of its inhabitants to be slaughtered after 
the town had surrendered. “ How are we to distinguish 
the Catholics from the heretics ? ” inquired one of his 
officers. “ Kill them all—God knows his own,” replied 
Amalric. f>. 1225. 

Aina 11 lise'a. ( Myth.) The name of a goat in Crete, 
which suckled Jupiter when his mother concealed him 
there through fear of Saturn. From this goat came the 
horn of plenty, which Jupiter gave to the daughters of 
Melissus, who assisted Rhea, with the power of obtain¬ 
ing from it everything necessary for their subsistence; 
called cornu A nialthcea’. (the same as cornu copier, the horn 
of plenty). According to some, A. was the name of the 
nymph who watched this goat. The Cumaean sibyl also 
bore this name.—See Sibtlline Oracles. 

A'inaii. [Heb., gathering-place.] (Anc.Geng.) A city in 
the S. of Juda-a, named with Shema and Moladah in 
Joseph, xx. 26 only. 

A'man, the minister of Ahasuerus. See Haman. 

Ain'ana. and Am'anus, a chain of lofty mountains sep¬ 
arating Cilicia from Syria. This name was given by the 
Greek and Roman geographers, and is also sometimes 
applied by modern geographers to the branch of mount 
Taurus, which, beginning at the mountain of Cape Ilyn- 
zyr, on the Gulf of Scanderoon, runs in a N.E. direction 
into the interior. 

Am'ana, in Iowa, a township of Iowa co., on the Iowa 
river 

A'mand, Marc Antoine Gerard, Sieurbe St., a French 
poet, B. at Rouen. 1594; d. 1661. His poems, which are 
chiefly comic, were printed in 8 vols., 1647, at Paris. 

A'mand, St., a town of France, cap of an arrond. in 
the dep. of the Cher, at the confluence of the Cher with 
the Marmande, 26 m. from Bourges. It is the most com¬ 
mercial of the department. There are forges, cannon 
foundries, and porcelain manufactories in the neighbor¬ 
hood. Pop. 8,607.—There are several other towns of this 
name in France, but none of them has a pop. over 3,000, 
neither is there anything remarkable to be said about 
them. 

A'niand. St., a town and parish of Belgium, on the 
Scheldt, 15 m. from Antwerp ; pop. 3,000. 

Aman'da, in Kentucky, a village of Greenup co., on 
the Ohio river, 138 m. E.S.E. of Frankfort. 

Aman da, in Ohio, a township of Allen co., 10 m. 
W.S.W. of Lima. 

— a village of Butler co., in Lemon township, 12 m. N.E. 
of Hamilton. 

— a post-village and township of Fairfield co., 8 m. S.W. 
of Lancaster. 

—a township of Hancock county, about 10 miles S. E. of 
Finley. 

AlllRll'daville, in Georgia, & post-office of Hart co., 
about 90 m. N.W. of Augusta. 

Aman'dine, re. [Fr. from amande, almond.] A kind 
of cold cream, prepared from almonds, for chapped 
hands, Ac. 

A'mand-les-eauat, St., a town of France, in the 
dep. Du Nord, 7 m. N.W. of Valenciennes. It is situated 
in a rich, well-cultivated country, where the flax is pro¬ 
duced (lire rame) of which the finest laces are manufac¬ 
tured in the town. This place is visited for its thermal 
baths. Pop. 10,210. 

Amaranta'cese, re. pi. [From Gr. amaranthus, un¬ 
fading.] (But.) An ord. of plants of the Chenopodales 
alliance. Herbs or shrubs remarkable for the dry colored 
scales of which all their bracteae and floral envelopes are 
composed; a character by which they are principally 



Fig. 98.— AMANTHUS POLYGAMDS. 

1. A calyx and bractere, with stamens. — 2. The same with the 
pistillum. —3. The pistillum. —4. A seed.—5. The embryo.—R. A 
seed cut down, shewing the opening embryo;—all unmagnified. 

known from other chenopodals. Their essential distinc¬ 
tion is briefly this: calyx, dry, colored, not falling away: 
petals, wanting; stamens, five or more; ovarium, quite 
simple, superior; fruit, a utricle, containing a single 


ay 


seed, which has an embryo curved round a centra) fart 
naoeous albumen ; leaves, destitute of stipules. They are 
found chiefly in tropical countries. The cock’s-comb 
the globe-amaranth, the prince’s-feather, the love-lies 
bleeding, cf our gardens, belong to this order. Several 
species of the gen. A maranthus are remarkable for th» 
durability of their blossoms. 

Aiiuin'itine,n. [Gr. amanita?, a sort of fungi.] (Chem.) 
The poisonous principle of some mushrooms,—unex¬ 
amined. 

Aman'tea, a seaport-town in Southern Italy, prov. 
Cosenza, 14 m. S.W. of Cosenza. It is supposed to occupy 
the site of the ancient Nipezia. There are hot springs 
in the vicinity. It was taken by the French in 1806, 
after an obstinate defence. Pop. 4,0J7. 

Amanuen sis, n.;pl. Amanuenses. [Lat.,from ah. an# 
manus, haud.] A person who w-rites what another die 
tates, or copies wiiat another has written. 

Ama|ial'la, a town of Central America, prov. of Nica¬ 
ragua. It gives name to a large gulf of the same name, 
220 leagues S.E. of Guatemala. 

Aniapon'da, a tribe of the Caffres, South Africa. 

Ainar'a, Well of, a caravan-station of Arabia, on the 
E. coast of the Gulf of Suez; lat. 27° 35' N.; Ion. 32° 
55' E. It is thought to be the Marah of Holy Writ, the 
waters of which were rendered wholesome in answer to 
the prayer of Moses. 

Amaran'te, a town of Portugal, prov. of Minho, on 
the Tamega, 35 m. N.E. of Oporto. Pop. 5,500. 

Am aranth, re. [Fr. amaranthe, from Lat. amaranthus, 
unfading.] A color inclining to purple. 

(Poet.) An imaginary flower, supposed, according to 
its name, never to fade. 

(Bot.) See Amarantds. 

Amaran'thine, a. Relating to, or consisting of ama¬ 
ranth ;—never fading, as the amaranth of the poets;— 
having a purplish color. 

Am'arantus, re. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Ama 
rantacece, q. v. 

Amari'ah, high-priest in the reign of Jelioshaphat, 
(2 Chr. xix. 11,) son of Azariah, and the seventh in de¬ 
scent from No. 1. (1 Chr. vi. 11.) 

Amar'itucle, re. [Lat. amaritudoi] Bitterness, (o.) 

Amarillo , or Mana', a river in French Guiana, rising 
in about lat. 30° 35'N., and falling into the Atlantio 
after a course of 146 m. 

Aniarupu'ra, Amarapura, or Unmarapura, formerly 
the cap. of the Burman empire, 6 m. N E. of Ava; lat. 
25° 55' N.; Ion. 96° V E.—In 1800, the pop. was esti¬ 
mated at 175.000, but the seat of government having 
been transferred to Ava in 1807, it has since rapidly de¬ 
clined. Near the city is a temple, much frequented by 
devotees, containing the celebrated bronze statue of 
Guadama, brought from Aracan iu 1784. 

Amaryl'lese, re. pi. (Bot.) A tribe of plants, ord. Ama- 
rgllidacece. Diagnosis: Bulbs, without a coronet in the 
flower. 

Amarylli'tlacese, re. pi. (Bot.) The amaryllids, an 
ord. of plants, of the Narcissales alliance. Diagnosis: 
Hexapetaloideous, much umbricated flowers, 6 or more 
stamens with the anther turned inward, and the radicl* 
next the hilum. They are generally bulbous plant® 



Fig. 99. 


sometimes fibrous-rooted, occasionally with a tall, c, 
lindrioal woody stem. They are found in countless num 
bers in South America, West and East Indies; some 
species of the genera narcissus and galanthus only ar» 



























66 


AMATJ 


AMAZ 


AMAZ 


found in northern countries. This is one of the few 
monocotyledonous ord. in which poisonous properties 
occur. They are principally apparent in the viscid juice 
of the bulbs of Haemanthus toxicarius, in which the Hot¬ 
tentots are said to dip their arrow-heads, and amaryllis 
Hippeastra, which is employed for poisoning in the 
West Indies.—The ord. is divided into the tribes Ama- 
ryllece, and Narcissece, Alstromeriece, and Agavece, q. v. 
imaryl'lis, the name of a country woman in Vir¬ 
gil's Eclogues. Some commentators have supposed that 
the poet spoke of Rome under this fictitious name. 

(Bot.) A gen. of plants, tribe Amaryllea;, including 
numerous beautiful species, many of which are highly 
poisonous 

4.maryn'tli us. (Myth.) A village of Euboea, whence 
Diana'is called Amarysia, and her festivals in that town, 
Amarynthise. 

Alil'asa. [Ileb.. burden.) Son of Ithra or Jether, by Abi¬ 
gail, David s sister. He was pardoned by David, though 
he had fought against him in the army of Absalom, and 
appointed Joab’s successor. Joab afterwards stabbed 
him with his sword, which he held in his left baud. 
(2 Sam. xx. 10.) 

Ani asai. [Ileb., burdensome.] Chief of the captains of 
Judah and Benjamin, who joined David at Ziklag. 
(1 Chr. sii. 18.) 

Amasi'ah, son of Zichri, and captain of 200,000 war¬ 
riors of Judah, under Jeliosliaphat (2 Chr. xvii. 16.) 
4ma'sieli, or Amasiyeh, the ancient Amasia, a town 
of Turkey in Asia, cap. of a sanjiac of same name, in 
the E. part of Natolia, on the Jekil-Irmak or Yeskil- 
Irmak, 95 miles N.W. of Sivas; lat. 40° 32' N.; Ion. 
36° 26' E. Great quantities of silk and wine are pro¬ 
duced in the surrounding country, and some brandies 
of the silk manufacture are carried on in the town, 
which has a considerable trade. It was anciently the 
capital of the kings of Pontus. It is the birthplace 
of the king Mithridates, and of the geographer Strabo. 
Pop. about 25,000. 

Amass', v. a. [Fr. amasser.] To collect together into a 
heap or mass; — in a figurative sense, to add one thing to 
another. 

Amassette', n. [Fr.] (Paint.) An instrument of horn 
used for collecting painters’ colors on the stone, &c. 
Amass'ment, n. A heap collected; an accumulation. 
Amastlien'ic, a. [Gr. ama, together, slhenos, force.] 
The same as Amacratic. 

Amatem'bu, or Tam'boukis, a tribo of the Caffres, 
South Africa. 

Amateur', n. [Fr. from Lat. amator, a lover.] A person 
having a taste for a particular art, yet not professing, 
nor being dependent upon it. 

Amateur'ship, n. The quality or character of an 
amateur. 

Ama'thus. (Anc. Geog.) A city on the S. side of the 
island of Cyprus, especially dedicated to Venus. The 
island is sometimes called Amathusia. A. is now named 
Limmesol. 

t ma t i, Andrea and Antonio, father and son, eminent 
as violin-makers. Andrea lived in the 16th, and Antonio 
in the 17th century, at Cremona, Italy. Their instru¬ 
ments, named Amati or Cremonas, now bear a high 
price. 

Am'ative, a. Full of love; amorous; amatory.— 117.5- 
ster. 

Am'ativeness, n. [From Lat. amare, to love.] (Pltren.) 

The organ of sexual desire; propensity to love. 
Amat'lan, a district of Central America, with a rich 
and fertile soil. Cochineal is produced here. It is 20 
miles from Guatemala. 

Ama'to, Giovanni Antonio d’, a distinguished Neapol¬ 
itan painter, b. 1475; n. 1555. 

Amato'rial, a. [Lat. amatorius.] Relating to love; 
as amatorial sonnets. 

—Produced by illicit intercourse; as, amatorial progeny.— 
Webster. 

(Anat.) A term given to the muscle of the eye, by 
which that organ is moved in ogling. 

Amato'rially, adv. In an amatorial manner. 
Amato'riau, a. Pertaining to love; amatory. 
Amato'rious, a. [Lat. amatorius.] Pertaining to 
love, (o.) 

Am'atory, a. Relating to love; causing love; as, 
amatory potions. 

Amatri'ci, a town of Southern Italy, prov. of Aquila, 
22 m. N. of Aquila; pop. 5,725. 

Amauro sis, n. [Fr. amaurose, from Gr. amauros, 
dark.] (Med.) A disease of the eye, named also Gutta 
serena (drop serene), and Amblyopia, attended with a 
diminution or total loss of sight, without any visible 
injury to the organ, and arising from a paralytic affec¬ 
tion of the retina and optic nerve. It arises generally 
from compression of the optic nerves, amaurosis com- 
pressionis; from debility, amaurosis atonica; from 
spasm, amaurosis spasmodica; or from poisons, amauro¬ 
sis venenata. —The symptoms of amaurosis are noted for 
being very irregular, in many cases, the pupil is very 
much dilated, immovable, and of its natural black color. 
Sometimes, however, in the most complete and incura¬ 
ble cases, the pupil is of its natural size, and the iris 
capable of free motion. In some cases ttie pupil has a 
dull, glassy, or horny appearance. Sometimes its color 
is greenish, occasionally whitish and opaque, so as to be 
liable to be mistaken for an incipient cataract. The 
blindness produced by amaurosis is generally preceded 
by an imaginary appearance of numerous insects, or 
substances like cobwebs, interposing themselves be¬ 
tween objects and the eye. The origiu of a cataract, 
on the other hand, is usually attended witli a simple 
cloudiness of vision. Violent contusions of the head, 
apoplectic fits, flashes of lightning, frequent exposure 


to the rays of the sun, severe exercise, strong passions, 
drunkenness, and other causes of paralytic affections, 
are enumerated as producing this complaint. The dis¬ 
order is generally difficult to be removed. 

Amau'ry I., king of Jerusalem, succeeded his brother 
Baldwin III., in 1162. He was a courageous and enter¬ 
prising prince, but these qualities were sullied by 
avarice and cruelty. D. 1173. , , . , ,, 

Amauky II., king of Jerusalem, succeeded his brother, 
Guy de Lusignan, in 1174, and married Isabella, second 
daughter of Amaury I. The Saracens having taken 
his capital, he applied for assistance to the European 
princes; but before their succor arrived, be died, in 1205. 

Ani'ansite, n. A variety of felspar or Ai. bits, q. v. 

Amaxi'clii, a seaport town, cap. of Santa Maura, one 
of the Ionian islands. It is separated from the strong 
castle of Santa Maura by a lagoon a mile wide. It is 
the see and residence of a bishop of the Greek Church. 
Pop. 7,000. 

Amaze', v. a. [From a and maze, perplexity.] To con¬ 
fuse with terror and astonishment. 

“ Yea, I will make many people amazed at thee, and their kings 
shall be horribly afraid of thee.” — Ezek. xxxii. 10. 

— To put into confusion with wonder. 

** Go, heav'nly pair .... amaze and charm mankind."-— Smith. 

— To put into perplexity. 

“ That cannotchoose hut amaze him. If hebe not amazed, he will 
be mocked: if he be amazed, he will every way be mocked.”— Shak. 

Amaze', n. Used in poetry as a synonym of Amaze¬ 
ment, q. v. 

Then casting back his eyes with dire amaze, 

Sees, on the Bunick shore, the mounting biaze 1 ” — Dry den. 

Amaz'edly, adv. Confusedly; with amazement; with 
confusion, (r.) 

Amaz'edness, n. The state of being amazed; aston¬ 
ishment; wonder; confusion. 

Amaze'ful, a. Full of amazement. 

Amaze'ment, n. Such a confused apprehension as 
does not leave to reason its full force; extreme fear; 
horror. 

•* But look! amazement on thy mother sits: 

O step between her and her lighting soul. Shake. {Hamlet.) 

— Extreme dejection. 

“ lie ended, and his words impression left 

Of much amazement to th* iufernul crew.” — Milton. 

— Height of admiration. 

“ Had you, some ages past, this race of glory 
Run, with amazement we should read your story." — Waller. 

— Astonishment; wonder at an expected event. 

** They were filled with wonder and amazement at that which had 
happened unto him." —Acta ill. 10. 

Amazi'ali, son of Joasli I, and eighth king of Judah, 
succeeded his father at the ago of 25. lie blended idola¬ 
try with the worship of God. With the assistance of the 
Israelites, he defeated the Edomites in the valley of salt; 
but afterwards commenced war on his allies, by whom 
he was taken prisoner. Slain by his own subjects, 810 
B. c. 

Amaz'ing. a. Wonderful; astonishing. 

Auiiiz ingl), adv. To an amazing degree; wonder¬ 
fully. 

Am'azon. n. [Fr. amazone, from Gr. a, priv., and mazos, 
the breast ] One of the Amazons, q. v. — A warlike wo¬ 
man; a virago.—In French fashions, the name A. is also 
applied to a long dress worn by ladies when riding; and 
extensively to lady-equestrians themselves. 

Am'azon, in Illinois, a village of Boone co., abt. 15 m. 
N.E. of Beividere. 

Am'azons, n. pi. A race of female warriors, of Scyth¬ 
ian origiu, dwelling on the banks of the Therinodon, in 
Cappadocia. In order to use their weapons with greater 
force and precision, their right breasts were burned off 
or destroyed at an early age. They are mentioned by 
Homer and Herodotus, but all accounts concerning the 
A., although repeated by many authors, have been re¬ 
jected as. fabulous. — The name of A. is now given to 
the female body-guard of the king of Dahomey, in W. 
Africa, q. v. They are remarkable for the valor and 
ferocity they exhibit when engaged in warfare. 

Am'azons, Amazon, or Maranon, the largest river 
in the world, not only for the length of its course, but 
also for the extent of country watered by its noble 
stream, and great tributaries. It rises in Lake Lauri- 
cocha, 14,000 feet above the sea, in 10° 30' S. Lat., 
near the town of Cerroda Pasco, in Peru. Under the 
name of Upper Maranon or Tunguragua, it runs N.N.W. 
through a longitudinal valley of the Cordilleras, up to 
about 5° of S. Lat., or 350 m. The direction of its course 
is then changed to the N.E. for about 50 or 60 m., and 
in this part of its course, the river descends from the 
high valley of the mountains to the E. plain, by the 
long rapid called the Pengo de Manseriche. On entering 
the plain, the Tunguragua receives from the right, the 
Huallaga or Guallaga, and between the 4th and 5th 
degree of S. Lat. the waters of the river are increased 
from the left by the two rivers Pastuga and Tigre. 
Then the Tunguragua meets at St. Jnaquim de Omaguas, 
its rival the Ucayali, which rises near the 14tli S. parallel, 
and is considered the true source of the Amazon by those 
who think that the stream which runs furthest from 
the mouth has tlie best claim to the honor of being con¬ 
sidered its source.—From its junction with the Ucayali, 
the Tunguragua is called Amazon or Marafion. The 
river running then neatly in an E. direction, enters the 
Brazil at Tabatinga, and receives from the north the 
Napo, the Putumayo, and the Rio Negro, which is, by 
far, the largest of the northern tributaries of the A. 
river. Its whole course is about 1,400 m., and it may 
well be compared with the Mississippi before its junction 
with the Missouri. To the E. of the Rio Negro, a few 


other rivers fall Into the A. on its north side They 
rise in the mountains of French Guiana, but have a 
comparatively short course. From the S. the A. re¬ 
ceives the Yavari, a small river, but of political impor¬ 
tance, as forming the boundary between Brazil and the 
republic of Peru, the Yutaia, the Yuma, the TeJ'e, the 
Purus, the Madeira, the Topayos, and the JCvngu. All 
the country between the rivers Ucayli and Turus may 
be considered as unknown; but the Madeira, tiie largest 
of the tributaries of the A., is pretty veil known, even 
in its upper branches. Its whole course extends to 
upward of 1,800 m., and is navigable almost in its entire 
length. Toward its embouchure, the A divides into 
two branches, of which the northern is by far tbe broad¬ 
est, aud retains its name. The southern, called 'Jagy - 
pura, runs south of the island Mai a jo, and joins on 
the eastern side of the island the river Jocanlins, q. v, 
which after this junction is called the river Para. Th# 
width of the channel between the island and the conti¬ 
nent is about 18 m., widening toward its mouth to 30 
m. The two branches of the A., united to the river 
Para, terminate by a mouth upward of 150 in. in width. 
The width of the A.averages from one to two m. in the 
upper part of its course; but lower down it grows much 
wider, and after its junction with the Xingu it is hardly 
possible to perceive its opposite banks.—from tbe sea 
to the mouth of the Rio Negro, the depth of the main 
channel is nowhere less than 30 latlioms , higher up, it 
varies from 10 to 12; and up to the basin ol Omaguas, 
near the junction of the Tunguragua with the Ucayali, 
there is depth of water for vessels of almost every de¬ 
scription. Higher up, those vessels only can proceed 
witli safety, which do not draw more than 6 or 6 feet 
water.—The shoals of the river are very numerous, and 
the navigable channels in many places narrow, winding, 
and subject to continual changes. The banks of the 
river being low, are subject to be under water, owing to 
freshets and great overflow in the rainy season ; when 
these happen, the country is inundated lor many miles 
on each side of the river, the whole of the numerous 
islands are covered witli water, and often either change 
their situation, or are formed into new ones. The islands 
of the A. are almost innumerable, andof all sizes; many 
are from 12 to 15 m. in circumference, and some from 
30 to 36 m. The most remarkable are tbe islands of Tu- 
pinambas, Marujo, and Canaria, q. v. Tbe tide which 
enters the river may be observed as far as the town of 
Ubidos, 400 m. from its mouth. When it begins to ebb, 
and the sea-water receding liberates the imprisoned 
current of the river, the A. pours out witli increased 
force and velocity into the ocean, and as it here meets, 
at no great distance from the land, the current which 
from Cape St. Roque runs along the N.E. coast of Brazil, 
it gives rise to that phenomenon called by the Indians 
Pororoca. The river and the current, having both great 
rapidity, and meeting nearly at right angles, come into 
contact witli great violence, and raise a mountain of 
water to a great height. The shock ol these two bodies 
of water is so powerful, that its sound is heard for 
miles around. It may he said that the river and 
the ocean contend for the empire of the waves, hut 
yet they seem to come to a compromise, for the sea cur¬ 
rent continues its way along the coast of Guiana, and 
tlie current of the river is still observable in the ocean 
at a distance of 500 nautical miles from its mouth. The 
whole course of the A. from Lake Lauricocha to the sea 
is upward of 3,300 m. — The mouth ot the A. was dis¬ 
covered in 1500, by Vincent Yanez Pinion. In 1537, 
liancisco d’Orellana, a Spanish adventurer, having em¬ 
barked on the Rio Napo, one of its remote tributaries, 
followed the current and was carried down tlie stream 
to its embouchure. Having reported that armed women 
were met with on its banks, it thence obtained its pop¬ 
ular name of A.—The origin of tbe name Marafion is 
probably derived from that of an Indian nation inhabit¬ 
ing some parts of its banks. The A. was first described 
by M. de la Condamine, a French traveller, who having 
embarked upon it, in 1743, near Jaen, and followed tli* 
current to its mouth, gave an interesting account of th# 
expedition, with a map of the river; Palis, 1745. The A. 
was explored in 1799 by Humboldt, and in 1667 by tbe 
illustrious naturalist Agassiz, who inis made us familiar 
with tbe course of the river as far as Tabatinga. His atten¬ 
tion was principally directed to tbe till then unknown 
Ichthyology of the Amazonian valley, and about 1,900 
new species of fishes were discovered and ascertained by 
him. I’he valley of tlie A. was again explored in 1870 
by Prof. F. C. Hartt, of Cornell University In th# 
month of June, 1866, the Peruvian government Bent a 
steamer up the Ucayli, and its tributary tlie Pachitea, 
with the view of ascertaining if it would be possible to 
establish an easy communication by a watery road, up 
to the town of Mayro, at the bottom of the Andes of 
Upper Peru, E.from Lima. This expedition resulted in 
the death of two officers, killed and eaten by the natives, 
on the banks of the Pachitea. A second expedition, sent 
some months after for the purpose of avenging the death 
of the officers, was more successful. The Indians were 
chastised, and the steamer, by pursuing its vay up th# 
Pachitea, and the Palcazu, has proved the navigability 
of those rivers up to Mayro. From Mayro to Lima, 
a distance supposed to be about 40U m., a road is to be 
opened, which will put the valley of the A. in direct 
communication with the shores of tlie Pacific ocean. 
The country immediately on the banks of the A. i« 
very low, subject to be inundated, and therefore unfit 
for cultivation; but further from the banks it rise# 
and is much diversified with low hills covered with 
tall trees. The mature growth of these trees, the 
hardness of their wood, and their vigorous vegeta¬ 
tion, bear unequivocal testimony to the richness o i 









AMBA 


AMBI 


AMBO 


87 



toil in which they grow. But it is almost entirely 
without culture, and, with the exception of a few spots 
where the Por¬ 
tuguese and 
$P- in iards have 
Settled, it is 
only inhabited 
by the native 
savages, who 
roam about in 
the immense 
forests, and live by hunting. 

The mineral wealth of the 
Amazonian valley is abso¬ 
lutely unexplored. In 1867, 
the emperor of Brazil opened 
the river to the free naviga¬ 
tion and trade of the world, 
a liberal and politic step, 
from which it may bo fore¬ 
told that the basin of the A. 
will date its sera of civiliza¬ 
tion. Great encouragement 
is also given to foreign immi¬ 
gration. But it would be 
dangerous for foreign com¬ 
panies to compete with the 
Brazilian steamers, which 
receive large subsidies from 
the government, and in other 
ways it remains to be expe¬ 
rienced, whether or not the 
white race is able to perform 
agricultural labor under the 
tropical sun of the A. From 
the difficulty, if not impossi¬ 
bility of enslaving its im¬ 
mense and tempestuous wa¬ 
ters; from the indolence of 
the natives, the intense 
heat of the climate, and 
the price of manual labor, it 
may be predicted that cen¬ 
turies will pass away before 
the Valley of the A. may 
compete in civilization and 
wealth with the temperate 
valley, watered by its north¬ 
ern rival, the Mississippi. Pig. 100. —pashuiba palm. 
Of late years the A mazon has (Iriartea exorhiza.) 

attracted much attention, and exploring parties from 
the U. S.and other conn tries have added considerably to 
our knowledge of this great river and its capabilities. 

Amazo nian, a. Lik» an amazon ; of masculine man¬ 
ner; warlike;— specially applied to women. 

(Geog.) Belonging to the river Amazons, or to its valley. 

Ama zu la, or Zulus, a tribe of Caffres, South Africa. 
They inhabit the territory between Natal and the 
Portuguese frontier at Delagoa Bay. 

Am I)-, [hat. ambi, amb; A.S. emit.] A prefix found in 
words derived from the Latin, and signifying about; 
around. 

Amba'ges, n. pi. fhat. from ambi. and agere, to drive.] 
A circuit of words; a circumlocutory form of speech ; a 
multiplicity of words; an indirect manner of expression. 

“ Tbey gave these complex ideas names, without long ambages 
and circumlocutions.”— Locke. 


Ambag'inoiis, Amba'gious, and Ambig'itory. [Lat. 
ambagiosus.] Circumlocutory ; perplexed; tedious; indi¬ 
rect. (r.) 

Ambala'ga. a town in the island of Madura, Malay 
Archipelago; pop. 4,000. 

Ambarva'lia. [Lat. from ah ambiendis arvis, going 
around the fields ] Processions round ploughed fields, 
celebrated by the Romans in April and July, in honor 
of Ceres, the goddess of corn. They went three times 
round their fields, crowned with oak-leaves, singing 
hymns to Ceres, and entreating her to preserve their 
corn. A sow, a sheep, and a bull, called A. hostile, were 
afterwards immolated, and the sacrifice has sometimes 
been called suovetaurilia, from sits, mns, and taurus. 

Ambassador, n. [A. S. ambeht; F r.ambassadeur] The 
name most commonly given to every kind of diplomatic 
minister or agent sent by one sovereign power to another 
to treat upon affairs of state. A. were employed in very 
ancient times. Moses sent messengers to the king of 
Edom to request a passage through his territories (Nam. 
xx. 14-21), b. c. 1452; and David made war upon the 
Ammonites because their king ill-used his messengers 
and treated them as spies (2 Sam. x.) B. c. 1058. Em¬ 
bassies were anciently sent only on particular occasions, 
but with the progress of commerce and civilization, the 
intercourse between States became so great, and their 
interests so complicated, that it was found expedient, and 
therefore customary, for one power to have its A. residing 
constantly at the court of another. The ordinary func¬ 
tions of an A. are. to conduct negotiations on behalf of 
his country, according to the powers intrusted to him, 
and to watch over the accomplishment of all existing 
engagements He has also duties to perform toward 
private individualsot his own nation ; such as to provide 
them with passports; to protect them from violence 
and injustice, and secure for them the full benefit of the 
laws. It is a duty between nations at peace with each 
other to receive reciprocally their A. and insure to them 
perfect security A refusal to receive an A. properly 
accredited, if made without sufficient cause, is considered 
a gross insult to the power he represents. The more 
essential privileges of an A. are, that no legal process 
can affect him, in his person or property, so much of his 
property, at least, as is connected with hi* official char¬ 


acter, such as his furniture, equipage, Ac., Ac., but the 
title of Extraordinary being considered more exalted, 
is now usually bestowed even upon those who are regu¬ 
larly resident. The rank and pomp attached to the 
office of A. being attended with considerable expense, 
it was found expedient to employ ministers under other 
denominations, who, though inferior in point of dignity, 
should be invested with equal power. The chief differ¬ 
ence by which all the lower orders of diplomatic agents 
are distinguished from A. properly so called, is, that they 
are the representatives, not of the personal dignity of 
their sovereign, or of an executive power, but merely of 
the affairs and interests of their country. To this order 
belong envoys, ordinary and extraordinary, and the 
ministers-plenipotentiary. The United States is now 
represented by an A. at the courts of Great Britain, 
France, Germany, and Italy, each of which nations sends 
an officer of equal rank to Washington. 

Ambassado rial, a. Belonging to an ambassador. 

Ambassadress, n. A woman sent on an embassy. 
The wife of an ambassador. 

Ambat'iki, an island in the S. Pacific, of the Feejee 
group;Lat. 17°47'S.; Lon. 179° 11' W. It attains an ele¬ 
vation of 750 feet, in the form of a dome. Pr/p. 500. 

Amba'to, a town in the rep. of Ecuador, S. America, 
near the foot of Mount Chimborazo, 8,837 feet above 
sea-level; pop. 13,000. 

Am'be, n. [Gr., an edge.] (Anal.) A superficial eminence 
on a bone. 

(Surg.) An old instrument once used for reducing dis¬ 
locations of the shoulder. Its invention is imputed to 
Hippocrates. 

Ambela'kia. a town of Turkey in Europe, in Thessaly, 
on the W. declivity of Mount Ossa, near the Peneus, 15 
m. N.N.E. of Larissa; pop. about 4,000. 

Am'ber, or Succinite. [Fr. arnbre, from Ar. ambar .] 
(Min. and C/iem.) A beautiful fossil resin of trees be¬ 
longing to the ord. Omiferce, now extinct. It occurs in 
beds of lignite,in Germany, France, Ac.; but the greatest 
portion of it comes from the S. coast of the Baltic sea. 
It takes a good polish; when rubbed, it becomes elec¬ 
trical, and the word Electricity is derived from the Greek 
name of amber, Electron. It is a hard, brittle, tasteless 
substance, at times perfectly transparent, but mostly 
semi-transparent or opaque, and of a glossy surface. It 
occurs of all colors, but chiefly yellow or orange, and 
microscopic fungi and insects are often found preserved 
in it. Its fracture is even, smooth, and glossy. \} hen 
rubbed or heated, it gives a peculiarly agreeable smell, 
particularly when it melts, that is at 550°. Projected 
on burning coals, it burns with a whitish flame, but 
gives very little soot, and leaves brownish ashes. It is 
soluble in sulphuric acid, and is precipitable from it by- 
water. Nitric acid converts it into a resinous substance, 
and dissolves it totally. Density, from 1-065 to 1-070. 
Gimp, carbon 80-59; hydrogen 7 - 3l; oxygen, 6-73; 
ashes (lime, silica, alumina) 3-27 ; loss 2-10 =. 100.— A. is 
employed for ornamental purposes in the manufacture 
of necklaces, Ac. It is used also for preparing amber 
varnish, for obtaining a peculiar oil used in medicine, and 
yields succinic acid employed in chemical investigations. 

Am'ber. a. Consisting of amber. 

— v. a. To scent with amber. 

Am'ber Drink, n. Drink of the color of amber. 

Am'berg, a town of Bavaria, on the Vila, 31 m. N.N.W. 
of Ratisbon. It was formerly the capital of the Upper 
Palatinate. Man/, fire-arms, earthenware, tobacco, iron, 
and woollen and linen fabrics. Lat. 49° 25'N.; Lon. 11° 
50' E. Pop. 12,942. 

Amber ger, Christoph, a German painter, b. at Niirn- 
berg, 1490. Ilis principal work is the “ History of Jo¬ 
seph,” in 12 pictures; n 1568 or 1569. 

A m'bergris, n. [Eng. amber, and Vv.gris, gray.] ( Chan.) 
An ashen-gray, light, soft substance, which is found 
floating in water; spec. grav. -78 to -92; smell, agreea¬ 
ble; taste, insipid; soluble in alcohol and depositing 
crystals. It is a concretion apparently formed in the 
stomach or intestines of the Physeter macrocephalus, or 
spermaceti whale. The best kind comes from the coasts 
of Madagascar, Surinam, and Java. It is occasionally 
found in large masses, sometimes of the weight of up¬ 
wards of 200 lbs. When first found floating in the sea, 
it is soft, and of a very strong smell; this diminishes by 
degrees, as it hardens by exposure to the air, and ulti¬ 
mately becomes highly aromatic. The active principle 
contained in A. is chiefly used as a perfume, generally 
in the form of an alcoholic solution. The Orientals use 
it as an aphrodisiac, and esteem it highly. It has also 
been used in nervous diseases. 

Am bergris Key, an island in the Bay of Honduras, 
3o m. from Belize, about 30 m. long, and 3 broad. Lat. 
18° 50' N.; Lon. 87° 48' W. 

Am'ber Seed, n. The seed of the Hiliscus abdmo- 
schus. It resembles millet, is brought from the West 
Indies and Egypt, is of a bitterish taste, with a flavor 
resembling that of musk. It is also called musk-seed. 

Am'berson’s Valley, in Pennsylvania, a post-office 
of Franklin co. 

Am'ber-tree, n (Bit) See Anthospermum. 

Am'bert, a town of France, cap. of an arrond. in the 
dep. of Puy de Dome, 36 m. S.E. of Clermont. From 
50 to 60 mills are employed in fine printing and engrav¬ 
ing. Pop. 7,661. 

Am'ber-weeping-, n. Distilling amber. 

Ambidexter, n. [Lat. ambo, both, and dexter, the 
right hand.] One who can use both hands with equal 
facility, and for the like purposes that the generality of 
people do with their right hands. A person acting 
with both sides. 

(Law.) A juror who takes bribes from both parties 
to influence his verdict. 


Ambidexter'ity, and Ambidex'trousness, n 

The quality of being able to use both hands; double¬ 
dealing. 

Ambidextrous, a. Having with equal facility the 
use of either hand; double-dealing; practising on both 
sides. 

Am bient, a. [Fr. from Lat. ambiens .] Surrounding; 
accompanying; investing. Thus, the air is frequently 
called an ambient fluid, in consequence of being diffused 
round all terrestrial bodies.— This word is sometimes 
found used by old authors as a noun; as, “Air is a pen 
petual ambient." 

Ambig'enal, a. [Lat. ambo, both, and genu, knee.] 
(Math.) A term applied to a hyperbole of the third order, 
one of whose infinite branches is tangent to the asymp. 
tote within, and the other without the angle which the 
asymptotes form with each other. 

Am'bigu, n. [Fr.] An entertainment, consisting of a 
medley set on the stage at the same time. 

Ambigu'ity, n. [Fr. ambiguite, from Lat. ambiguus.] 
The quality or state of being ambiguous; doubtfulness 
of meaning; uncertainty of signification; double 
meaning. 

“ We can clear these ambiguities, 

And know their spring, their head, their true descent.”— Shake. 

Ambig uous, a. [Fr. arnbigu, from Lat. ambigerc, to 
wonder about.] That quality of an expression which 
leaves us in doubt which of two ways to take in it, and, 
by an extension of meaning, which leaves us in doubt 
generally; equivocal; doubtful; conjectural. 

Ambig'uously, adv. In an ambiguous manner; 
doubtfully; with a dark meaning. 

Ambig'uousness, n. The quality of being ambigu¬ 
ous ; uncertainty of meaning; duplicity of signification. 

Ambile'votis, a. [Lat. ambo, both, and Icevus, on the 
leftside.] Left-handed on both sides;—opposed to am¬ 
bidextrous. 

Ambi'orix, a king of the Eburunes, in Gaul. lie was 
a great enemy to Rome, and was killed in a battle with 
Caesar, in which 60,000 of his countrymen also fell. 

Am'bit, n. [Lat. ambitus, circuit.] The compass or cir¬ 
cuit of anything; the line that encompasses anything. 

(Geom.) The perimeter or periphery of a plain fig¬ 
ure. (R.) 

Ambi'tion, n. [Fr. ambition; Lat. ambitio, from am- 
bire, to go about, as they did in ancient Rome when can¬ 
vassing for office.] A tendency to self-raising, which 
may be either moderate or immoderate; aspiration; 
emulation: appetition. 

Ambi'tionless, a. Devoid of. or without ambition. 

Ambi tious, a. [Lat .ambiliosus; Yr.ambitieux .] Seized 
or touched with ambition; desirous of advancement, 
eager of honor, power, distinction, Ac.; aspiring. 

“ The neighb'ring monarchs, by thy beauty led, 

Couteud in crowds, ambitious of thy bed." 

—Indicating ambition; as. an ambitious style. 

Ambi'tiously, adv. In an ambitious manner. 

Ambi'tiousness, n. The quality of being ambitious. 

Am'bit us, n. [Lat.] The external edge or border of a 
thing, as the border of a leaf, or the outline of a bivalve 
shell;—circumference; circuit. 

(Arch.) The open space round a building. 

(Hist.) In ancient Rome, the act of setting up for 
some magistrature or office, and formally going round 
the city to solicit the interest and votes of the people. 

(Mus.) The particular extent of each tone, or modifi¬ 
cation of grave and sharp. 

Am'ble, v. n. [Fr. ambler, from Lat. ambulare, to walk.] 
To move upon an amide; to pace quickly. 

—In a ludicrous sense, to walk affectedly. 

44 1 am rudely stampt, and want love's majesty, 

To strut before a wanton, ambling nymph.”- -Shake. 

Am'ble, n. [Fr.] A pace or movement in which a horse 
removes both legs on one side; thus, on the off side he 
removes his fore and hinder leg at the same time, whilst 
the legs on the near side stand still; and when, in turn, 
the off legs are upon the ground, the fore and hind legs 
on the near side are removed, and the off side legs ara 
still. An amble is the first pace for young colts, which 
they quit when they get strength enough to trot. Thera 
is no amble in the manege; riding-masters allow of 
walk, trot, and gallop only. A horse may be put from 
a trot to a gallop without stopping; but cannot be put 
from an amble to a gallop without a stop, which inter¬ 
rupts the justice of the manege. 

Am'bler, n. A horse which ambles; a pacer. 

Am' bier’s Mills, in Virginia, a hamlet of Louisa oo. 

Am'bleteuse, a small maritime town of France, dep. 
of Pas de Calais. 6 m. N. of Boulogne. It was formerly 
a sea-port of importance: and both Louis XIV. and 
Napoleon endeavored, by improving its harbor, to regais 
for it some portion of its ancient consequence. But 
owing to the accumulation of sand, their efforts have 
had no permanent influence, and the town is almost 
deserted. Pop. 600. 

Am'liling, n. The motion of a horse that ambles. 

— p a. Moving with an amble. 

Am'blingly, adv. With an ambling movement. 

Am'blygon. n. [Gr. amblys, obtuse, and gonia, angle.] 

( Geom.) An obtuse-angled triangle 

Amblyg'onal, a. Having an obtuse angle. 

Amblyg'otine, n. (Min.) A triclinic mineral, having 
a pearly lustre, and generally a pale mountain or sea- 
green color. It contains alumina, lithia, and fluorine. 
It is found in Maine, at Hebron. 

Amblyrliyn'ckus, n (Zoiil.) A gen. of lizards re 
sembling the iguanas, found in the Galapagos islands 
They are very ugly animals, but harmless. 

Am'boise. Busst d’ See Busst. 

Ain'boiso. George p’, a French cardinal, and minlstei 
of state, b. 1460. He became successively bishop of 














88 


AMBR 


AMBR 


AMEL 


Montauban, archbishop of Narbonne, and of Rouen. 
Louis XII. made him prime-minister. He was one of 
the wisest statesmen France ever had. He reformed the 
church, remitted tire people’s burdens, and conscien¬ 
tiously labored to promote the public happiness. D. 1510. 
Am'boise. Aymeiue d’, a famous French admiral, and 
brother of Ueorgo d'Amboise, q. v. He became, in 1500. 
Grand-Master of the Knights of St. John in Rhodes, and 
gained a splendid victory over the Sultan of Egypt, in 
1110. D. 1512. 

Am boi.se, a town of France, dep. of Indre-et-Loire, on 
the left bank of the Loire, 15 m. S.E. of Tours. It stands 
on the foot of a hill on whose summit there is an an¬ 
cient fortress celebrated in French history. This castle, 
which is of vast extent, was commenced under llugues 
Capet, and finished under Charles VII. It was a favorite 
residence of Louis XL, and in it Charles VIII. was born 
in 1470, and p. 1498. It is famous as the birthplace of the 
conspiracy, called the Onjuration(VAmboise, against the 
Guises, concocted in 1560. It was here too, as some say, 
that the Calvinists, in 1568, were first called Huguenots, 
a term which, though applied to them contemptuously, 
signifies only confederates. It suffered very much dur¬ 
ing the religious wars. The views from the towers and 
battlements are superb. Poo. of the town, 4,570. 
Am'buor, a town of Ilindostan, in the Carnatic, district 
S. Arcot, 108 m. W.S.W. of Madras. Lat. 12° 50 7 N.; Lon. 
78° 4 / K. 

Am'boy, in Illinois , a flourishing city of Lee co., on 
Green river, 95 m. W. by S. of Chicago. Pop. 2,257. 
Am'boy, in Iowa, a village of Washington co., 32 m. 
W.S.W. of Muscatine. 

Ani'boy, in Michigan, a township of Hillsdale co.; 
pop. (1S90), 1,232. 

—a post-village in the above township, on Silver creek, 
abt. 35 m W.S.W. of Adrian. 

Amboy , in New York, a post-township of Oswego co., 
abt. 17 m. S.E. of Fulaski. 

Amboy , in Ohio, a post-village of Ashtabula co., abt. 

30 m. W.S.W. of Erie city. 

—a township of Fulton co. 

Amboy Centre, in New York, a post-village of Os¬ 
wego co., in Amboy township. 

Amboy'na, the principal of the Molucca or Spice is¬ 
lands, in the Eastern seas. Lat. 3° 46' S.; Lon. 127° 59' 
E. Its length is about 32 m., and its average breadth 
10 miles. Its S.W. coast is indented by a bay so deep, 
that the island is nearly divided by it into two un¬ 
equal levels, which are connected by a narrow isth¬ 
mus. A. is mountainous, and abundantly furnished with 
trees and underwood. It is considered healthy, notwith¬ 
standing the great heat of the climate. It was first dis¬ 
covered by the Portuguese in 1515. It was taken by the 
Dutch in 1607, and in 1615 by the English, who, soon 
after expelled by the Dutch, captured the island a second 
time in 1796, and restored it at the peace of Amiens. 
They recaptured it in 1810, but it was finally restored to 
Holland by the treaty of Paris in 1814.—The main ob¬ 
ject of the different European powers, who endeavored to 
possess themselves of A., was to monopolize the trade in 
cloves, the cultivation of which spice forms ttie principal 
object of industry with the natives. With the desire of 
keeping the cultivation of the clove-tree completely 
within their power, the Dutch caused it to be extirpated 
from every island with the exception of A., where they 
provided for a sufficient production of the spice, by oblig¬ 
ing every native family to rear a certain number of clove- 
trees. The cloves are collected twice a year; the aver¬ 
age quantity produced in the island exceeds 600,000 lbs. 
The sago-treo grows in A., which also produces all the 
vegetables and fruits commonly found in that quarter 
of the globe, file woods contain great numbers of deer 
and wild hogs, the flesh of which forms a principal arti¬ 
cle of food with the natives. Buffaloes, cows, horses, 
sheep, and goats, have been introduced by the Portuguese 
and Dutch from Java and Celebes. — A. is inhabited by 
four different races of people, the Aborigines, the Amboy- 
nese, Chinese, and Europeans. The first of these races, 
called Horaforas, wild and savage, are now much re¬ 
duced. The Amboynese are the descendants of Malays, 
and were found on the island when the Portuguese first 
landed there: the greater part of them profess the re¬ 
ligion of Mohammed; a few have been converted to the 
Catholic faith by the Portuguese, or to Lutheranism by 
the Dutch. The Chinese settled at Amboyna are not 
numerous; but they are very industrious and enterpris¬ 
ing traders. Still fewer are the European race of in¬ 
habitants. Ihey are principally Dutch,and the descend¬ 
ants of Dutchmen, many of them being the offspring of 
Amboynese mothers. Pop. about 50,000. 

Amboy'na, or Amboinv, the principal town of the 
above island, oil the S.E. side of the bay of Binnen, near 
Fort Victoria, in 3° 40' S. Lat. and 128° 75' Lon. It is 
clean, neat, and regularly built. Pop. 8,966. 
Auih'jy'na Wood, a beautiful mottled and curled 
wood, varying in color from orange to a chestnut- 
brown; said to be obtained from the pterospermum ln- 
dicum. 

Amboynese', n. sing, and pi. (Geog.) The natives, 
or a native, of Amboyna. 

—a. Relating to Amboyna or its inhabitants. 

Amboy, Perth. See Perth Amboy. 

Aiubo /es, three small islands on the coast of Benin. 
Lat. 40° 15' N. 

Ainbra'cius Sinus, a bay of the Ionian sea, near 
Ambracia, about 35 m. long, narrow at the entrance, 
but within, about 12 m. in breadth. 

Am'brestte, n. ( Chtrn .) A salt formed by the combi¬ 
nation of ambreic acid with a base. 

Ambre ic Arid. ( Chem .) Obtained by heating am- 
breine with nitric acid, in yellow or white plates or 


masses, having a peculiar odor. It reddens litmus. 
Solid at 212°, it forms salts with bases. It is used as a 
perfume in the form of tincture. Composition uncertain. 

Am'breine, n. [Fr.J (Chem.) Colorless needles, a 
white, brilliant, insipid solid, with an agreeable smell; 
obtained by digesting ambergris with hot alcohol. It 
distils without alteration. Comp. C. 83 - 37, H. 13-32, 
O. 3-31. 

Am'brim, one of the islands of the New Hebrides, Pa¬ 
cific ocean; Lat. 60° 9' 30" S.; Lon. 167° 5' E. It is about 
60 m. in circumference. 

Anibriz', a small African kingdom, S. of Guinea, with 
a port on the Atlantic, at the mouth of the Ambriz 
river, 70 m. N. of Loando. It has an extensive trade in 
gums, ivory, &c. Cap. Quebranza. 

Ambriz', a town of S. Africa, prov. of Angola, belong¬ 
ing to the Portuguese. A Catholic church has lately 
been built at this place. 

Ambrizette', a small kingdom of Africa, in South 
Guinea, between the rivers Congo and Ambrizette, with 
a town on the Atlantic, about 30 m. N. of Ambriz. 

Ambro'cia. (Anc. Geog.) A city of Epirus, near the 
Acheron, the residence of king Pyrrhus. Augustus, alter 
the battle of Actium, called it Nicopolis. 

Ambroix', St., a town of France, in the dep. of Gard, 
11 m. N.N.E. of Alais. Pop. 4,060. 

Ambro'nes, a warlike nation of Gaul, who lived near 
the Alps, between Switzerland and Provence. They ac¬ 
companied the Cimbri and Teutones in their invasion of 
the Roman territories, and were routed with great 
slaughter by Marius, 101 b. c. Their women, after a 
futile attack upon the Roman soldiers, who were follow¬ 
ing in pursuit of the flying foe, offered to yield on the 
condition that their chastity should be preserved. This 
proposition being rejected, they first slew all their chil¬ 
dren, and then themselves. 

Am'brose, St., the son of a prastorian prefect of Gal¬ 
lia Narbonensis, who became governor of Liguria and 
iEmilia, and in 374 was consecrated archbishop of 
Milan, after a contest between the Arians and Catholics. 
In 383, he was deputed by the emperor Valentinian to 
prevail upon the tyrant Maximus not to enter Italy, 
and was successful in his mission. Subsequently, how¬ 
ever, Maximus entered Italy, made himself master of 
the Western empire, and entered Milan in triumph. 
Valentinian sought refuge with Theodosius, who de¬ 
feated Maximus, and restored the fugitive monarch to 
his throne. While Theodosius was in Italy, an insur¬ 
rection arose in Thessalotiica, in which the emperor’s 
lieutenant was slain. Theodosius, out of revenge, put 
to death a great number of people in cold blood; soon 
after this massacre he came to Milan, and was about to 
enter the great church, when he was met on its thresh¬ 
old by Ambrose, who refused him admittance as a 
homicide; and it was not until a year afterward, and 
upon his showing tokens of repentance, that the prelate 
would admit him to Christian communion. B. at Treves, 
340; D. 397. The best edition of the works of St. Am¬ 
brose is that of Paris, in 2 vols. fol., 1691. He composed 
that noble hymn. Te Deum laudamus. 

Am'brose, in Oregon, a village of Jackson co., on 
Rogue river, about 10 m. N.N.W. of Jacksonville. 

Ambro'sia, n. [Gr. from ambrosias immortal.] (Myth.) 
Festivals held in honor of Bacchus in cities of Greece, 
the same as the Brumalia of the Romans. The food of 
the gods was called Ambrosia, and their drink Nectar. 
It had the power of bestowing immortality on those who 
ate of it. It was sweeter than honey, and of a most odo¬ 
riferous smell. It had also the powerof healing wounds. 
Apollo, in Homer's Iliad, saves Sarpedon's body from 
putrefaction by rubbing it with ambrosia: and Venus 
heals the wounds of her son, in the iEneid of Virgil, 
with the same. 

(Bot.) A gen. of the ord. Asleracece. They are her¬ 
baceous plants with mostly opposite leaves, and un¬ 
sightly flowers. The species hog-weed (A. artemisiae- 
folia) is a common and troublesome weed of the gar¬ 
dens, fields, &.c. It gives in Aug. and Sept, barren 
flowers, small, green in terminal racemes; the fertile 
ones settle about the axils of the upper leaves. 

Ambro'sia. in Iowa, a hamlet of Lee co. 

Ambro'sial, a. Partaking of the nature or qualities 
of ambrosia; fragrant; delicious; delectable. 

Ambro'sialize, v. a. To render ambrosial, (it.) 

Ambro'sialiy, adv. In an ambrosial manner. 

Ambro'sian, a. Relating to, or resembling ambro¬ 
sia. — Pertaining to St. Ambrose. 

Ambrosian chant. The choral music introduced by St. 
Ambrose from the Eastern into the Western church. It 
was superseded by the Gregorian chant about the year600. 

Ambrosian lilrrary. See Milan. 

Ambro'sins Aureliauus, king of the Bretons. 
He came from Armorica to assist in expelling the Sax¬ 
ons, who had been invited ov'—; and on the death of 
that monarch, the sovereignty was vested in him. D. 
598. 

Am'brotype, n. [Gr. ambrntos, immortal, and typos, 
impression.] (Photog.) A picture taken on a plate of 
prepared glass, in which the lights are represented on 
silver, and the shades are produced by a dark background 
visible through the unsilvered porlions of the glass. 

Am'bry, n. [ 0. Fr. ambrey.) A place in which are depos¬ 
ited all ntensils necessary for housekeeping. — In the 
ancient abbeys and priories there existed an office under 
this denomination, wherein were laid up all charities for 
, the poor. 

Ambrys'sus. (Anc. Geog) A city of Phocis, destroyed 
by the Amphictyons. rebuilt and fortified by the The¬ 
bans before the battle of Chteronea, and taken by 
Quintus Flaminius in the Macedonian war. Its ruins 
may be seen near the village of Dystomo. 


Ambs-ace', n. [Lat. ambo, both, and ace, q.v.] A doubU 
ace, two aces turned up at the same time by two dice. 

Ambuba'Jte, or Ambubade, dissolute women of Syria, 
resembling the modern aline, who were in the habit 
of attending the festivals and public assemblies of 
Rome, as minstrels. Their name is derived either from 
the Syriac word abab, a flute, or from am, round, and 
Baice, the place which they generally frequented. 

Ambuia'era, n.pl. [Lat. ambulacrum, an alley.] ( ZoSl .) 
Prominences or perforations in the shell of the Echinus, 
or sea-urchin, from which extend the tentacles or spines 
used for prehension or locomotion. 

Ambula'ci’al, a. Belonging to ambulacra. 

Am bulance, n. [Fr.] (Mil.) A flying hospital, so 
organized as to follow an army in its movements, and 
intended to succor the wounded with all haste.—A two 
or four-wheeled vehicle for conveying the wounded from 
the field ; also, a similar vehicle used in Gities, usually 
in hospital service or by police surgeons. 

Am'bulant, a. [Fr. from Lat. ambuiarc, to walk.] Mov¬ 
ing from place to place. 

AinlHiia'tion, n. [Lnt. ambulation.] The act of walk¬ 
ing. (R.) 

Alll'bulator, n. One who walks about. 

(Sure.) An instrument for measuring distances; 
called also perambulator. 

Am'bulatory, a. [Fr. ambulatine, from Lat. ambula- 
torias.] That which has the power or faculty of walk¬ 
ing; as, an ambulatory animal. — That which happens 
during a journey or walk, (r.) 

“He was sent to conduct hither the princess Maria, of whom his 
majesty had an ambulatory view in her travels.”— Wotton. 

—Movable; as, an ambulatory court; a court which moves 
from place to place for the exercise of its jurisdiction. 

(Law.) Movable; changeable; that which is not fixed. 

Am'bury, n. See Anbury. 

Ambuscade', n. [Fr. ambuscade; L. Lat. emboscata; 
It. imboscala; Sp. embotcada; O. Sp. embosques, from 
bosque, a wood.] Literally, in the woods. ( Mil.) A place 
where soldiers may lie concealed, till they find an op¬ 
portunity to surprise the enemy;—an ambush. The 
purpose of an ambuscade may be to capture a post, a 
cantonment, a patrol, a drove of cattle, ora oonvoy of 
military stores or merchandise; or to seize upon some of 
the inhabitants, especially an important personage; also, 
to mukeareconnoissance ; or, again, to fall upon a troop, 
which is either upon a march, or already engaged in a 
combat. 

Ambusca'do, n. Same as Ambuscade, (o.) 

Am biisli. n. [fr. from en, in, and bois, a wood.] Any 
mode of concealment adopted for purposes of stratagem ; 
applied both in the literal and metaphorical sense. 

— v. a. To place in ambush. 

— v. n. To lie insidiously hidden. 

Am'buslied, p. a. Placed in ambush. 

Ambus'tion, n. [Lat. ambustio.] A burn or scald. 

Amebe'an. See Amiebean. 

Ameer', n. See Emir. 

A'meillion, Hubert Pascal, a learned Frenchman, b. 
1730; author of the History of the Commerce and Navi¬ 
gation of the Egypt ians under the Ptolemies. D. 1811. 

Am'el. n. See Enamel. 

Amelan'chier, n. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Pcma- 
cece. The A. canadensis is a small tree or shrub rarely 
exceeding 35 feet in height, found in woods in the 
United States. Its flowers, large, white, in terminal 
racemes, appearing in April and May, render the tree 



Fig. 101. — AMELANCHLER CANADENSIS. 
1 and 2. Flower and fruit—natural size. 


quite conspicuous in the yet naked forest. The fruit, 
ripe in June, is not to be despised, either when eaten in 
a raw state, or cooked in tarts, pies, and puddings. 

Am'el-corn. n. A species of corn used for making 
starch. 

Am'eles. (Myth.) A river of hell, whose waters no ves¬ 
sel could contain. 

Ame lia, the wife of the duke of Saxe-Weimar, who, at 
an early age. lost her husband, but managed to preserve 
her little State intact during some of the most troublous 
times of the Continental wars. She resided in the city 
of Weimar, and invited the most distinguished men of 
letters to her capital. Wieland, Herder, Schiller, and 
Goethe settled here, and enjoyed her patronage as well 
as her society. D. 1807. 

Amelia, a town of Italy, prov. of Perugia, 23 m. S.W. 
of Spoleto. It is the anc Ameria, one of the most con¬ 
siderable and ancient cities of Umbria. Pop. 7.024. 

Amelia, an island on the N E. coast of Florida, from 
which it is separated by a narrow channel; 40 m. N. 
of St. Augustine, between St. Mary's and Nassau rivers. 
Lat. 30° 28' N. It is 20 m. in length, by 2 m in breadth, 
and is fertile. Chief town, Fernandina. 

Amelia, in Ohio, a post-village of Clermont co, in Bar 
tavia township, 25 m. E. by S. from Cincinnati. 













ABORIGINAL AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. 

at Mitla, Mex. 



i. Teocalli at Papantla, Vera Cruz. V 
palace at Uxmal, Mex. 6. Teoca i 


Coiner of a 

Tehuantepec. 


Teocalli at Xochicalco, Mex. 3. 
1 - Corner of the Palace de las 




Gate at Labnah. Mex. 4. Teocalli at Tuspan, Mex. 5..Ruins of a 
Monjas, Uxmal, Mex. 8. Mural Decoration of a Hall in a palace 

























































































































. 
































. 



















































' . . 






















































AMEN 


AMER 


AMER 89 


Amelia, in Virginia, a S.E. county, organized in 1734; 
area, 300 sq. m. It is drained by Namazine, Flat, and 
Deep creeks, and by the Appomattox river, which en¬ 
circles it. The surface is somewhat diversified. Cap. 
Amelia Court-House. 

Amelia Court-House, in Virginia, a post-village, 
cap. of Amelia co., 47 m S.W. of Richmond. 

Amel'ioraMe, a. That which may be ameliorated. 

Ameliorate, v. a. [Fr. amdiorer, from Lat. ad, and 
melwrare, to make better.] To improve; to raise; to 
make better; to meliorate. — In present usage, amelio¬ 
rate seems to be confined to such material improvement 
of men's condition as is closely dependent on a corre¬ 
sponding moral or mental state. Thus, we do not speak 
of ameliorating an individual by knowledge, but of 
ameliorating the condition of the people by education. 

— f. n. To grow better; to meliorate. 

Allteliora'tian, n. [Fr. amelioration.] The act of 
ameliorating, or the state of being ameliorated; a 
making or becoming better; improvement; meliora¬ 
tion ; an amelioration of land. 

Amel iorative, a. Which produces amelioration, or 
improvement. 

Ameliorator, n. One who ameliorates. 

A'inen', adv. and n. [Heb., firm, true, truth.] A word 
used in strong asseveration, fixing as it were the stamp 
of truth upon the assertion which it accompanies, and 
making it binding as an oath. Examples of its use are 
numerous in the Bible. When the priest has declared 
to the woman suspected of adultery the effect of the 
water of jealousy, “the woman shall answer, Amen, 
amen.” (Numb. v. 22.) When curses are pronounced 
against the wicked, ( Deut. xxvii. 15,) all the people are 
ordered to repeat, amen. —The word amen concludes all 
the gospels, and almost all the epistles; it is repeated 
at the end of the 41st, the 72d, the 89th, and the 106th 
Psalms.—In many churches, the word A. is pronounced 
aloud by the people: this was the ancient practice of 
the Christian world, and St. Jerome relates, that when 
the congregated people at Rome pronounced amen, 
the sound was like that of a clap of thunder. They 
possibly attributed great efficacy to the loudness of their 
voices, after the example of the Jews, who imagined 
that this shouted forth with great force, had 

power to op“n the gates of heaven.— A. is often used by 
our Saviour at the beginning of a discourse, as an im¬ 
pressive particle, which in our version is rendered 
“ verily.” In the Gospel of St. John, the word is always 
repeated.—In one instance this word is used as an ad¬ 
jective, meaning certain, fixed. “ For all the promises 
of God in him are yea, and in him Amen.” (2 Cor. i. 20.) 
In one other instance the word denotes our Saviour. 
“ These things saith the Amen.” (Rev. iii. 14.) 

Amenabil'ity, Ame'nableness, n. The state 
of being amenable; liability to answer for; answer¬ 
ableness. 

Ame'nable, a. [O. Eng. amesnable, from Fr. amener 
quelqu’un, to oblige one to appear and answer a charge 
exhibited against him.] Responsible; subject to be 
liable to inquiries or accounts. 

—It indicates also voluntariness of subjection; as, “ame¬ 
nable to reason.” 

Ame'nably, adv. In an amenable manner. 

Amend', v. a. [Fr. amender, from Lat. ex, and men- 
dum, fault] To correct; to change anything that is 
wrong into something better; to improve; to mend;— 
to reform one’s life, or give up wickedness. 

“ Amend your ways and your doings, and I will cause you to 
dwell in this place." — Jerem. vii. 3. 

—n- n. To grow better.—To amend differs from to im¬ 
prove, in that, to improye supposes, or does not deny 
that the thing is good already ; while, to amend implies 
something wrong. 

—When used as neuter it has a general, when as active, 
a particular or detailed force: thus, “ His character or 
condition has amended in general.”—“ He takes pains 
to amend his ways,” implies specific attention to the 
counteracting of certain faults. 

Amend'able, a. That which may be amended. 

Amend'atory, adv. Supplying amendment; correc¬ 
tive. 

Amende', n. [Fr.; seo amend.] In French, this word 
signifies a fine, by which reparation is supposed to be 
made for a fault committed. Its English synonym is 
the word Amends, q. v. 

A. honorable. [Fr.] An infamous kind of punishment 
formerly inflicted in France and in England on traitors, 
parricides, or sacrilegious persons, who were to go naked 
to the shirt, with a torch in their hand, and a rope 
about their neck, into a church or a court, to beg pardon 
of God, the court, and the injured party. — The modern 
acceptation of the term indicates that an open apology 
is made for an offence or injury done. 

Amend'er, n. One who amends. 

Amend'fnl, a. Full of improvement, (o.) 

Amend'! ng 1 , n. The act of correcting, or of making 
better. 

Amend ment, n. [Fr. amendement ] A change from 
bad for the better; —reformation of life. 

(Legislation.) An alteration proposed to be made in 
the draught of any bill, or in the terms of any motion 
under discussion.—When amendments are made in 
either House of Congress upon a bill which passed the 
other, the bill, as amended, must be sent back to the 
other house. The Senate may amend money bills 
passed by the House of Representatives, but cannot 
originate such bills. Art. 5 of the United States Con¬ 
stitution contains a provision for its amendment. 

(Law.) A correction of any errors in actions, suits, or 
prosecutions. They are of two sorts: those affecting 
the substance of the case; and those relating to the, 


parties. The courts are very liberal in permitting the 
amendment of a bill; but a defendant is of course enti¬ 
tled to make a new defence to any A. of the plaintiff’s 
bill. 

Amends', n. sing, and pi. [From Fr. amende.] The fill¬ 
ing up of any defect in obligations toward another; 
compensation; satisfaction; atonement; reparation. 

“ If I have too austerely punished you, 

Your compensatiou makes amends." — Shake. 

(Law.) A satisfaction given by a wrong-doer to the 
party injured, for a wrong committed. 

Ame'iiia, in New York, a post-village and township 
ol Dueness co., 88 m. N.N.East of the City of New 
York. 

Ame'nia Union, in New York, a post-village of 
Amenia township, Duchess co., 25 m. E.S.E. of Pough¬ 
keepsie. 

Amen'ity , n. [Fr. ameniti. from Lat. am emus, pleasant.] 
Pleasantness; mildness; blandness; graciousness; gen¬ 
iality ;—applied to physical influences, as climate, and to 
demeanor. 

” This climate has not seduced by its amenities." — W. Bowitt. 

A men’sa et tho'ro. [Lat., from board and bed.] ( Old 
Law.) It was a partial divorce, which caused the sepa¬ 
ration of the husband and wife only, but did not annul 
the marriage, so that neither of them could again marry 
in the lifetime of the other. Such partial divorce exists 
in France under the name of Separation de corps et de 
biens. It is effected by sentence of the courts in the 
cases of cruelty of the husband, or adultery of either 
of the parties. — See Divorce. 

Am'ent, n. [Lat, 
amentum, a strap.] 

(But.) A catkin, or 
inflorescence, con¬ 
sisting chiefly of 
scales arranged 
along a thread-like 
receptacle, as in 
Fig. 102. 

Ameiita'cese, n. 

pi. [See Ament.] 

( Bot .) The name 
formerly given by 
De Jussieu to the 
plants of the ord. 

Betulacece, q.v. 

Amentaceous, 
a. (Sot.) Producing 
or bearing aments. 

Amentia, w.[Lat. 
a, priv., and mens, 

7>ietitis, mind.] 

(Med.) Imbecility 
of intellect, by 
which the relations 
of things are either 
not perceived, or 
not recollected. It 
is a nervous dis¬ 
ease. Whenitorig- Fig. 102. — Betula papykacea. 
inates at birth, it is (The Paper Birch.) 

called amentia con¬ 
genita, natural stupidity; when from the infirmities of 
age, amentia senilis, dotage or childishness; and when 
from some accidental cause, amentia acquisita. 

Amen'tnm, pi. Amenta. [Lat.J (Bot.) The same 
as Ament, q. v. 

A'merbaeli, Johann, a celebrated Swiss printer of 
Basle, in the loth century, was the first who used the 
Roman type instead of Gothic and Italian. He was a man 
Of learning, piety, and wealth, and spared no labor or 
expense in the production of his edition, the first pub¬ 
lished, of the complete works of St. Ambrose. D. 1515. 

Amerce', v. a. [0. Fr. amercrier, to impose a fine; from 
Lat. merces, penalty.] To punish with a pecuniary pen¬ 
alty; to exact a fine; to mulct. 

“ But I’ll amerce you with so strong a fine, 

That you shall all repent the loss of mine."— Shake. 



Amerce'able, a. Liable to amercement. 

Amerce'ment, n. [0. Fr. amendment, from A. Lat. 
amerciamentuin.] (Law.) A pecuniary punishment im¬ 
posed on offenders at the mercy of the court. Amerce¬ 
ments differ from fines, inasmuch as the latter are 
defined, and the former are proportioned to the fault, or 
more properly T at the discretion of the court. A. have 
been disused for a long time past. In some of the 
United States, however, the sheriff may be amerced, by 
statutory provision, for making a return contrary to the 
provision of the statute. 

Asner'cer, n. One who amerces. 

Amer'ciament, n. The same as Amercement, (o.) 

Ame'ria. ( Geog.) See Amelia. 

America. The New World, or the Western Hemisphere, 
one of the great divisions of the Earth, and, with the ex¬ 
ception of Asia, the largest. 

I. History. —During the latter part of the 15th century, 
an ardent spirit of discovery existed in Europe, the 
principal object of which was to find a passage by sea to 
the E. Indies. The States of Venice and Genoa concen¬ 
trated the commerce of Italy, but the overland trade 
with India was engrossed by Venice. In this state of 
things a project was formed by Christopher Columbus, 
a citizen of the rival State of Genoa, to sail westward to 
the Indies, an idea showing Columbus’ knowledge of the 
figure of the earth to have been superior to the general 
notions of his age. He offered his services,for this pur¬ 
pose, to the government of Genoa. France, England, and 
Portugal, by whom the proposal was successively re¬ 
jected ; but after the expiration of eight years, his offer 


was accepted bv Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen 
of the united kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. The ex¬ 
pedition, consisting of three vessels, sailed from Spain on 
the 3d of August, 1492; and on Friday, thel2thofOctober 
following, an island was descried upon which Columbus 



Fig. 103.—CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 


landed on the same day. This island was named by 
him San Salvador, and is now otherwise known as Gua- 
nahain, one of the Bahama islands. Columbus then 
proceeded to Cuba and Hayti, to which latter he gave 
the name of Espanola, or Hispaniola. Here he left a 
few of his companions to form the groundwork of a 
colony, and returned to Spain to procure reinforcements. 
During this voyage, he had acquired a general knowl¬ 
edge of the islands in the seas between North and South 
America, but he had no notion of there being an ocean 
between them and China; they were considered as part 
of India, from whence arose the appellation of West 
Indies, as well as that of Indians, which has ever since 
been given to the original inhabitants of the whole con¬ 
tinent of A .—In three subsequent expeditions, Columbus 
discovered the islands of Jamaica and Trinidad, visited 
the mouth of the river Orinoco, and landed on the coasts 
of South America which now form part of Colombia. 
After having thus discovered the continent of A. and 
made settlements on the islands, it was the hard fate of 
Columbus to be sent home in irons, and treated with 
great indignity, — owing to the machinations of his 
enemies, (see Columbus.) The success of Columbus soon 
gave encouragement to private adventurers to the New 
World, one of the first of whom was Alonzo de Ojeda, 
who, in 1499, followed the course of Columbus to the 
coast of Paria, and, standing to the west, ranged along 
a considerable extent of coast beyond that on which 
Columbus had touched, and thus ascertained that this 
country was part of an entire continent. Amerigo Ves¬ 
pucci, a Florentine gentleman, accompanied Ojeda in 
this voyage, aud having had a chief share in the direc¬ 
tion of it, and published an account of it on his return, 
the country of which he was supposed to be the discov¬ 
erer came gradually to be called by his name, and by 
universal usage the name of America has been bestowed 
on this new division of the globe; an injustice which 
has received the sanction of time.—In 1497, Sebastian 
Cabot, a Venetian, visited Newfoundland. —In 1500, 
Gaspar Cortoreal, a Portuguese, touched at Labrador; 
and Brazil was accidentally discovered by a Portuguese 
fleet under Cabral. The coast of the province of Tierra 
Firma, from Cape de Vela to the Gulf of Darien, was first 
visited by Bastidas, a Spaniard, iu 1501. Yucatan was 
discovered by Diaz de Solis and Pinzon in 1508, and 
Florida by Ponce de Leon, in 1513. The Pacific, or 
Southern ocean, was first seen from a mountain-top 
near Panama, by Vasco Nunez de Balboa, in 1513; and, 
two years afterward, a landing was effected on the south¬ 
east coast of South A., about the mouth of the Rio de la 
Plata, by De Solis, who, as well as several of his crew, 
was killed, roasted, and eaten by the natives. When 
A. was first discovered, it was inhabited by a multitude 
of peoples, differing in origin, language, and destiny; 
some of whom had attained to a material civilization, to 
which the monuments they have left bear witness; but 
none of them possessed a written language, and they only 
retained confused traditions of their past history. In 
colonizing A., Europe doomed to apparent extermination 
its aboriginal inhabitants, whom it crushed with all the 
superior force of its civilization. To conquer the empire 
of Mexico, Hernando Cortez (see Cortez) required only 
600 men and IS horses; Pizarro (see this name) de¬ 
stroyed the empire of Peru with even feebler resources. 
These two countries were at once the most populous 
and the most civilized of the New World ; but their in¬ 
habitants disappeared so quickly before the Europeans, 
that it is doubtful if one half of their present popula¬ 
tions., respectively, are of the indigenous race. The 
savage tribes experienced no better fate, wherever the 
colonists settled ; and, after the lapse of two centuries, 
not a single inhabitant of the ancient race remained in 
the Antilles. This native depopulation proceeded to 
such an extent, that hands had to be sought and brought 


< 















90 


AMEK 


AMER 


AMER 


from elsewhere, in order to cultivate the soil of A. ; hence 
arose the slave-trade. One hundred thousand slaves were 
annually imported from Africa, to fertilize with their 
sweat the American plantations. It Wits by such means 
that Spain succeeded in creating a wonderful empire, 
embracing one-half of botli Americas. This empire 
lasted for three centuries, and was divided into the vice¬ 
royalty of Buenos Ayres, Chili, Peru, and New Granada; 
the oaptain-generalcy of Caracas; and the vice-royalty 
of Mexico The Portuguese, following the example of 
the Spaniards, conquered and civilized a portion of the 
basins of the Amazon, and Paraila, which they called 
Brazil: but to effect this, they were obliged to extermi¬ 
nate, or drive into the interior, the natives, a very small 
number of whom agreed to remain among them. The 
Portuguese and Spaniards were at first the sole rulers 
of A.; but soon after them came the other setirfaring 
nations. The first English colony settled in Virginia in 
1607. The first French settlements were those of Canada 
in and after 1G04. These colonies, purely agricultural 
in their character, were founded in territories occupied 
by savage and warlike tribes, who had either to be ex¬ 
terminated, or pushed back into the interior wilds. The 
French settled mainly in the lower basins of the Missis¬ 
sippi and St. Lawreuce, (Louisiana and Canada;) the 
English occupied the entire watershed of the Alleglia- 
nies; and these two nations likewise shared with the 
Spaniards the possession of the Antilles. Rivals in 
Europe, they wereperpetaally at war in A.; these con¬ 
tentious were terminated in 1761, when France ceded to 
England, Canada, all her possessions on the left bank of 
the Mississippi, the islands of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
and several of the West India islands, Ac. Tho power 
of Great Britain thus became preponderant throughout 
North A.; but her colonies having attained a high 
degree of prosperity, and wishing to shake off the 
trammels i mposed on their trade by the mother-country, 
thirteen of the provinces revolted in 1776, and in 
1783 succeded in accomplihing their independence, 
and getting acknowledged as the newly established Fed¬ 
eral Republicof the United States. This new State gained 
constant accessions of territory at the expense of the 
indigenous tribes, obtained Louisiana from the French, 
Florida from the Spaniards, Texas and California from 
the Mexicans, Alaska from the Russians, and its popu¬ 
lation being increased by a constant influx of European 
emigrants, it h;is attained a prodigious development, 
and is now the first power of the New World.—In 1826, 
France acknowledged the independence of St. Domingo, 
which, after passing through numerous revolutions, had 
ended, in 1822, by establishing the republics of Hayti 
and San Domingo. — The emancipation of the British 
colonies aroused those of Spain, which, through the 
decay of the mother-country, had fallen into a state not 
far removod from barbarism. Tho provinces of Venezuela 
and Caracas commenced the revolution in ISOS; Peru, 
Chili, and Mexico followed their example; but twenty 
years of anarchy, civil war, atrocity, and misery of ever}' 
description, were required to secure the independence of 
these colonies, which are split up into a multitude of re¬ 
publics. Cuba and Porto Rico were lost to Spain as a 
result of the war with the United States in 1898. 
In 1821 Brazil declared jts independence, formed 



Pig. 104. — a Spanish ship, (15th cent.) 

(From Epistola Cristoferi Colom. y &c., 1495.) 

itself into an empire, and elected Dom Pedro, the son of 
the king of Portugal, as its sovereign. The S. American 
provinces which had, previous to the overthrow of the 
Spanish power in the New World, formed the viceroyalty 
of Buenos Ayres, Became, after the revolutionary year 
1808, divided into a number of independent States under 
the name of the Confederation of La Plata or Argentine 
Republic, Uruguay or Banda Oriental, Paraguay, and 
Bolivia. All of these respective countries have since 


passed through almost a periodicity of civil wars and 
revolutions, after the example of Mexico, Peru, and the 
HispaBo-American countries between the tropics. An 
attempt in 1864, to found a permanent empire in Mexico 
upon the Europeau model, by Maximilian of Austria, 
with the support of France, led, after the withdrawal 
of the French army of occupation in 1867, to acivil war, 
which ended in the downfall of the imperial power, with 
the violent death of Maximilian (q. v.), and the reestab¬ 
lishment of a republic which has since attained a stable 
and prosperous condition. 

II. Topograph?. —This vast continent is bounded onl 
the E. by the North and South Atlantic oceans, which 
separate it from Africa and Europe; and on the W. ty 
the North and South Pacific oceans, separating it from 
Asia and Australia. It consists of two peninsulas and a 
contral part, named, respectively, North and South, and 
Central America; and as Africa is joined to Asia by a 
narrow neck of land called the Isthmus of Suez, so the 
two great divisions N. and S. of this continent are con¬ 
nected by the Isthmus of Panama, or Darien, which at its 
narrowest point is 28 m. in width. Where broadest, N. 
America, excluding Greenland, is not less than 3,500 m. 
across, and S. America, not less than 3,200 miles. — Its 
area is about 14,950,000 sq. miles; stretching N. and 
S. a distance of about 9,000 miles, or from about the 
72d degree of N. lat. to Cape Forward, in about 54° S. 
lat.—In A., nature appears on the grandest scale of mag¬ 
nificence and sublimity. Whether we regard her moun¬ 
tains, cataracts, rivers, lakes, forests, or plains, she is 
distinguished by a vastness unapproached in any other 
part of the globe. Out of the 270 active volcanoes, the 
estimated number on the face of the earth, 190 are on 
the shores and islands of A.; and although in height 
some of the peaks of the Asiatic Himalayas surpass those 
of the Andes, in extent the range of the former is in¬ 
ferior to that of the latter.—The form of N. America has 
sometimes been compared to that of a triangle, with the 
vertex terminating at the Isthmus of Panama, and the 
base determined by the shores of the frozen ocean. She 
is more indented than any other of the great divisions 
of the globe, with immense gulfs and arms of the sea. 
One of the principal of these, in the N.E. part of the 
continent, consists of what Balbi has called the sea of 
the Esquimaux, including the two great divisions, Davis’ 
Straits, and Baffin’s Bay, separating Greenland from the 
rest of the continent and Hudson’s Bay, lying more to 
the S. and W., but connected with the former by numer¬ 
ous channels, some of which have been only recently 
discovered, the next great inlet of the sea on the A. 
coast is the gulf of St. Lawrence, so called from the 
great river of that name, which falls into its S.W. ex¬ 
tremity. Passing over the numerous inlets and noble 
bays on the coast of the United States, we come to the 
Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean sea. If the islands 
that in an irregular line lie stretched in front of the 
Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean sea were united with 
one another and with the main land—a state of things 
that we have no difficulty in imagining to have once ex¬ 
isted—we should have a large internal sea analogous to 
the Mediterranean. If it be doubted if this sea was ever 
closed like the Mediterranean, we cannot doubt that the 
islands which now line its eastern limits have been 
hacked and broken into smaller pieces by the action of 
the ocean. Between the tenth degree of north latitude, 
which is near the island of Trinidad, and the twenty- 
filth of north latitude, (the southern extremity of Florida,) 
we find the eastern limits of this great inland sea; but 
as wo advance into it toward the west, we find it scooped 
out into various basins, each of which, with their winds 
and currents, will require a separate description. The 
Gulf of Mexico is on the N.W.; and on the south, the 
Gulf of Honduras, and what is sometimes called the 
Caribbean Gulf or Sea, comprehending the Bay of Darien 
and the deep indentations of the northern coast of South 
America. The Archipelago, which the great inland sea 
of tho Americas presents, is one of the most extensive 
and interesting in the world. The Gulf of Mexico, 
hemmed in by the peninsulas of Florida and Yucatan, and 
by the western side of the island of Cuba, is the most 
important part of this inland sea.—The W. coast of N. 
America presents no very deep and extensive indenta¬ 
tions. The most important is the immense Gulf of Cali¬ 
fornia, abt. 800 m. in length, and from 60 to 80 m. in 
average width, formed by the mainland and the long 
narrow peninsula of California.—S. America bears a strik¬ 
ing resemblance in the form of its coasts to Africa. It 
is much more compact than N. America, and is com¬ 
paratively but little indented by arms of the sea. The 
great rivers. Amazons, La Plata, Para, Orinoco, &c., may, 
however, be looked upon as a species of inland seas. 
The W. coast, from the pioximity of the Andes, has but 
few gulfs, and is, in great part, all but destitute of har¬ 
bors. The S. extremity of S. America, or the country 
of Tierra del Fuego, is properly an archipelago, being 
separated from the continent by the narrow and wind¬ 
ing strait of Magellan.— Mountains. All the elevations 
of A. belong to that great chain which, under different 
denominations, extends from one of its extremities to 
th<5 other, along its W. coast, over a space of not less 
than 10,000 m. The mountains of A. may, however, be 
divided into 8 systems, 3 of which belong to S. America, 
3 to N. America, and one each to the W. Indian and 
Arctic archipelagos. 1st. The system of the Andes, or 
Peruvian system, e«tending from Cape Horn to the Bay 
of Panama; its culminating points being Chimborazo, 
near Quito, 21,424 ft., and Aconcagua, in the Chilian 
Andes, 23,910 ft. above the level of the sea, or more than 
6,500 ft. above the height of Mont Blanc. See Andes. 
2d. The system of La Parima, or Guiana, embraces the 
mountains scattered over the immense islands formed 


by the Orinoco, Cassiquiare, Rio Negro, aud Amazons 
The Pic of Duida, 8,280 ft., is the culminating point, 
See La Pakima. 3d. The Brazilian system, embracing 
the mountains lying between the Amazons, Paraguay 
and Rio de la Plata, culminating in Serra do Piedada, 
about 6,000 ft. high. See Brazil. 4th. In N. America, 
the Mexican Alps, and Rocky Mountains, whose cul¬ 
minating point is believed to be Mt. Logan, on the 
Canadian border of Alaska, estimated at 19,500 feet 
in height. 5th. The California Maritime Alps, which, 
parallel to the Rocky Mountains, runs N. from the Pen¬ 
insula of California till it is lost in Alaska; culminating 
point, Mount St. Elias, 19,500 ft. high. 6th. The moun¬ 
tains E. of the Mississippi, called the Alleghany or Ap¬ 
palachian system, extending in a N.E. by N. direction 
from Alabama to the banks of the St. Lawrence, the 
culminating points being Mount Mitchell, N. C., 
6.688 feet, and Mount Washington, 6 293 feet. See 
Appalachian Mountains. 7th. The A -otic system, em¬ 
bracing all the mountains that already are, or may 
hereafter be, discovered within the Arctic archipelago, 
the culminating known point being the Cour du Cert, in 
Greenland, about 8,000 It. above the level of the sea. 
8th. The system of the Antilles, embracing the moun¬ 
tains in the archipelago of the same name, the culmi¬ 
nating points of which are the Antonsepo in Hayli, and 
the Sierra de Cobre in Cuba, about 9,000 ft. in height.— 
Plateaux. The most remarkable for their elevation are, 
the plateau of Titicaca, divided between Bolivia and 
Peru, comprising an area of about 18,000 sq. m., with a 
mean elevation of 13,000 ft.; the plateau of Quito, which 
is elevated about 9,600 ft.; and the extensive table-land 
of Anahuac, in Mexico, from 6,000 to 9,000 ft.— Volcanoes. 
They are numerous, and some of them are among the 
most elevated volcanic mountains in the world. The 
most remarkable are, Cotopaxi, Sanguay, aud Pieliin- 
clia, in the Colombian rep. of Ecuador; Pusto, Sorate, 
and Purace, in that of New Grenada; Guagua-Plitina, or 
the volcano of Arequipa, and Scharna, in Peru; the vol¬ 
canoes of Copiapo, Chilan, Antoro, and Peteroa, in Chili; 
those of SocomuBco, Guatemala or Fuego, Agna, Pacaya, 
San Salvador, Granada, and Telica, near St. Leon de Ni¬ 
caragua, in Central America; Popocatapetl, or the vol¬ 
cano of Orizaba, the volcano of Colima, and that of Xo- 
rullo, in the Mexican territory; St. Elias and Fair- 
weather, in the Californian Alps; the two volcanoes of 
the peninsula of Alaska, and those of the Aleutian 
Islands; with Ilecla, and others in Iceland.— Plains. In 
N. America, the immense space from the outlet of the 
Mackenzie river to the delta of the Mississippi, and be¬ 
tween the central chain of the Mexican system and the 
Rocky Mountains, and the Alleghany, forms the largest 
plains, not only of A., but of the world. In S. America, 
the great plain of the Amazons comprises more than half 
Brazil, with S.W. Colombia, the E. part of Peru, and the 
N. of Bolivia. The plains or pampas of the Rio de la 
Plata extend from between the Andes, aud their prin¬ 
cipal branches, and the mountains of Brazil, to the At¬ 
lantic ocean and the Straits of Magellan.— Pivers. They 
are on a much larger scale than those of any other por¬ 
tion of the globe, affording facilities of internal com¬ 
munication quite unequalled anywhere else. The prin¬ 
cipal are, in N. America, the Mississippi, (the second 
largest river in the world,) with its tributaries, the Mis¬ 
souri, which receives the Yellowstono and the Platte; 
the Arkansas, which receives the Red River, and the 
Illinois and Ohio, which receive the Tennessee. These 
drain the great valley of the Mississippi. The Macken¬ 
zie, with its tributaries, Peace river and the Athabaska, 
the Coppermine aud the Back. These run north. The 
St. Lawrence, with its tributary the Ottawa; the Nelson, 
with its tributary the Saskatchewan ; and the Churchill, 
with its tributary the Beaver, all run east. The St. John, 
the Hudson, the Delaware, and the Susquehanna drain 
the country east of the Alleghanies; the Rio del Norte 
drains the country east of the Mexican mountain range; 
the Oregon, with its tributary the Snake; the Colorado, 
aud the Sacramento, drain the country west of the Rocky 
Mountains. The Frazer takes its course through British 
Columbia. In S. America, the Amazons (the largest 
river in the world) with its affluents the Napo, Putu¬ 
mayo, Yapura, Rio Negro, Yavari, Madeira, Topajos, 
Xingu, and Tocantins; the Rio de la Plata, formed by 
the Parana, and the Uruguay; the Orinoco, the Magda¬ 
lena, and the San Francisco.— Lalces. No part of the 
world has so many lakes as N. America, especially that 
portion between 42° and 67° lat. It presents not only 
the greatest masses of fresh water on the surface of the 
globe, bu* so many smaller lakes and lagoons, that their 
enumeration is almost impossible. The principal are 
those of Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario, 
the total length of these five being 1,534 m., with an 
area of upward of 90,000 sq.m.; Great Slave Lake, Win¬ 
nipeg, Great Bear Lake, Champlain, Little Winnipeg, 
Deer Lake, Athabaska, Lake of the Woods, and Great 
Salt Lake. The limited size of the lakes of S. America 
strikingly contrasts with the dimensions of those in N. 
America. The lake of Titicaca, the largest and most 
celebrated, near the N.W. frontier of Bolivia, is elevated 
12,870 ft. above sea-level. — islands. A multitude of 
islands belong to A. The principal are in the Arctic 
ocean, Greenland, Iceland, Cockburn, Southampton, Mel¬ 
ville, Bathurst, and Cornwallis. In the Atlantic, New¬ 
foundland, Prince Edward, and Cape Breton; and the 
West Indies, composed of the Bahamas, the Bermudas, 
and the Greater and Lesser Antilles. In the Pacific, the 
Patagonian archipelago. Chiloe, Juan Fernandez,Gala¬ 
pagos. Vancouver’s, Queen Charlotte’s. Prince of Wales, 
Sitka, and the Aleutian islands. In the Antarctic are, 
Tierra del Fuego, Staten, Desolation, S. Georgia, the S. 
Orkneys, the S. Shetlands, Graham’s Land, and Trinity 












































NORTH 

AMERICA, 


COUNTRIES. 

Alaska.C 3 

Area sq. m. 

531,000 
Pop. 1900.-63,592 
Bahama Islands 
L 7 

Area sq. m..5,450 
Pop. 1901.-53,735 

Belize.K 8 

Area sq. m.7,562 
Pop. 1901. 37,479 
Bermuda Islands 
M 6 

Area sq. m... 166 
Pop. 1902, abt. 

196,000 

Canada.H * 

Area sq. m. 

3,745,574 
Pop. 1901, 

5,371,315 
Costa Rica. .18 
Area sq. m.18,400 

Pop.253,040 

Cuba.L 7 

Area sq.m 44,000 
Pop. 1899 1,572,845 
Greenland . .. O 2 
Area sq.m . 46,740 
Pop. 1901.. 11,893 

Guatemala.J 8 

Area sq. m.48,290 
Pop.19001,647,300 

Haiti.L 8 

Area sq. m.10,204 

Pop.1,294,400 

Honduras_K 8 

Area sq. m.46,250 
Pop. 1902, abt. 

650,000 

Jamaica.L 8 

Area sq. m 4,200 
Pop. 1903, abt 

785,434 

Labrador.M 4 

Area sq. m. 

120,000 
Pop. 1901... 3,947 

Mexico.H 7 

Area sq. m. 

767,005 

Pop. 1900, 

13,605,919 

New Foundland 
N 5 

Area sq.m.40,200 
Pop. 1901.217,037 

Nicaragua....K 8 
Area sq.m 49,200 
Pop.1895, abt. 

380,000 

Panama.L 9 

Area sq.m 31,571 
Pop. abt..300,000 
Porto Rico. ...M 8 
Area sq. m.3,600 
Pop. 1899.. 953,243 

Salvador.K 8 

Area sq. m.7,225 
Pop.19011,006,848 
Santo DomingoL8 
Area sq.m.18,045 
Pop.610,000 

United States.G 6 
Area sq. m. 

3,507,640 
Pop. 1900, 

76,303,3* 



























o«f<» 

,bcs<Jn C) 


CORiivvalL 

ISLANDS 'Z'" 


\^C0BUR6'' 


f £ tille, 
’OUItD P«C 


'agnetic 

1 


s_ vicfof 
^ W ld L J 10 ' 


•erlcina So 


Stra ll ^ 


Baker - 

^*S Chtsltr 


rL -poobaunp 
Ft. Reliance 


P yaihK£cd L. 
rfTha&'nne L. 


*."V / Peacejjj 


1 asea 


- *&yrh a- Anni 

Ft.ChurchVll C.Chui 


y'-Reindeei 


Indian 


Prince 
-*7%. Albert 
tieforci^j* 


estmln; 


Medicine 


iismarcki 


- jSheridanj 
^JeadWy 


Winona 


^ORTII « 
AMERICA 


inciftn. 
‘‘srilte < SS 

Prankf#' 
?■ • 


;,>■*»»* 7. «>"2! 

Blanca Pk // -47 

I 1 ** 

l Santa Pf$Y\% J\ 

i xrV\^ ,,u J ) ^3uf 


ENGLISH STATUTE MILES 


100 200 300 400 500 

KILOMETERS 


°geles 


rmilp? hacn ; 


?JVh-p>& X 
I.i'ndTln ! 

v\ V P oloraf, °' 


-t>allasXv 


£o jost van dyke. 

I 6T.T0BA60 l«6 .<Zs 
LOLLIK IQy 

... « < s.e\V 1 * , 


Orleans^ 


Wtoip* 


Jloust< 


Galveston 


Chihuahua 


(Santa Rosalia (X. 
X. Lnmpazos 

tv\ . M °nt»ri 


LaredoJ 


■ c O ■ \ 

«.cY Vle«*V , 

HAVAn^^s } 


’orreon 


mean 


9.4*0 ER 


AltatJk 0 
Pax \_ 
Mazatlan 


lurant 


Cate* 1 * 


"Tampico 


. A^juaa t'TtHe ntcs 

Guadalajara^ 

C.C»rrientc«5> 

~ V.CJijm 
^ MauzaniuiT 


progres 




, Camped 
i veche < 


ST.OROIX I. 

(SANTA CIteZWLvtA 


Pacha^hA_ 

S|| 

»axMa>lT ef , u !^ 

^eUflantepe*^ 

baipuLVTuz. 

—V JVmH 


"^pST*- 

5. Rhode Island 
(J. New Jersey 

7. Dclawaro 

8. Maryland. 


"'MEXIQi 

d.Av*a. 


1. Vermont 

2. New Hampshire 

3. Massachusetts 

4. Connecticut 


Fred rlcksted 

&!»; Point C- 

„ p^ 1 
i. n(t * «/ 


Balsas 


MILES 


5^ 

YllM'V L jeiUiJ 

xXs»« J '“ v 

roM'^st „ 


X^I.OMETEPE 

ffMcanagua 

tevSOLENTINAMEJ. 5 ; 




Colon 

r Lun<>. ( 


Carlo] 


(Julfof Pa) in ff it I/O <p 

PACIFIC <X*‘ 

Gulf of Cult Or a 

OCEAN i 


Gordon a 


Corru do 
x Cbbras/ 


TADO< 


ELEVATIONS EXAGGERATED 
100 TIMES 


EXCAVATEO 

PORTIONS 


ELEVATIONS EXAGGERATED 200 TIMES 




#M.P6LO.». 

(Ci4«) 


FEET 

<00 - 
300- 
200- . 
loo - 


L.Nlcarayua 


rATER LEVEL OF DOTH OCE 


WATER LEVI L OF DOTH OCEANS 


MILES 


Longittuli 






























































































































SOUTH 

AMERICA, 


COUNTRIES. 

Argentina ... .D 6 
Area sq. in. 

1,135,840 

Pop.5,022,024 

Bolivia. D 1 

Area sq. in. 

703,400 

Pop.1,816,271 

Brazil .E 3 

Area sq. m. 

3,218,130 
Pop....14,333,915 

Chile. C a 

Area sq. m. 

307,62o 

Pop.2,712.145 

Colombia. C 2 

Area sq. m. 

504,773 

Pop.3,878,600 

Ecuador. C 3 

Area sq. m. 

116,000 

Pop.1,400,000 

Guiana (British) 

E 2 

Area sq. m. 

104,000 

Pop.278,328 

Guiana (Dutch)E2 
Area sq. m. 

46,060 

Pop.70,007 

Guiana (French) 

E 2 

Area sq. m. 

30,500 

Pop.32,910 

Paraguay.E 5 

Area sq. m. 

157,000 

Pop.630,103 

Peru.C e. 

Area sq. m. 

695,733 

Pop.4,609,999 

Uruguay.. —E 6 
Area sq m. 

72.210 

Pop.978,048 

Venezuela.... D j 
Area sq. m. 

593,9*3 























































































































































































AMER 


AMER 


AMER 


9i 


Land.— Climate. If we except a limited space along the 
W. shores of A., protected by the Audes, Rocky Moun¬ 
tains, and Maritime Alps, the temperature in the same 
latitude is everywhere inferior to that of the Old World. 
Countries which, from their geographical position, we 
should suppose would be inild and temperate, are ex¬ 
posed to long and severe winters. Tims, in the 45th 
parallel, on the N. side of the Canadian lakes, frost is 
continuous for more than six months. Every variety 
of temperature is, nevertheless, to be found, in accord¬ 
ance with the difference of latitude and elevation. The 
temperate zone is subject to sudden and violent changes, 
and the torrid, to the extremes of wet and drought; but 
as this feature will be particularly noticed under the 
different countries composing the American continent, 
it is unnecessary here to do more than indicate the 
characteristics of the climate. The discussion of the 
causes of the difference of mean temperature between 
the New and the Old worlds will be found under the 
name United States, which comprehends the largest 
portion of the habitable part of N. America. — The cli¬ 
mate of S. America is variable. In Peru, rain scarcely 
ever falls, and along the lower parts of the tropical 
countries it is exceedingly unhealthy. On the coast of 
the Caribbean sea, yellow fever prevails, and frightful 
hurricanes sweep over the Pamp;is. The southern part 
of S. America is both cold and dry, but as two thirds of 
the peninsula lie within the tropics, it has a higher tem¬ 
perature than N. America. 

III. Minerals. The mineral riches of A. are prob¬ 
ably superior to these of any of the other great divi¬ 
sions of the globe. The discovery of the mines of Mexico 
and Peru effected an entire revolution in the value of 
precious metals; and another revolution, in the same 
sense, followed the discovery of the mines of California. 
Mines of silver are successfully worked in several terri¬ 
tories of the United States. Besides gold and silver, most 
other metals are found in lesser or greater abundance. 
Chili and Cuba have some of the richest copper mines 
in the world. Lead is fouud in the greatest plenty in 
different parts of the United States, as also antimony, 
mercury, &c. Diamonds are found extensively in Brazil, 
and also in the United States. Iron is extremely abun¬ 
dant in the U. States, and in many other parts of the 
continent; salt also is very widely diffused; and coal, 
including anthracite, is found in vast and indeed all but 
inexhaustible deposits in different parts of the U. States, 
in British America, and in Chili. 

IV. Botany. Stretching from the Arctic to the Antarctic 
Circle, and possessing soil of every elevation and quality, 
A. is necessarily rich in vegetables of every description. 
Her forests and pastures are unrivalled for extent, luxu¬ 
riance, and magnificence. Tiie forests consist generally 
of very heavy timber, including many species of pines and 
larches unknown in Europe, with an endless variety of 
oaks, maples, cypresses, tulip-trees, mahogany trees, 
logwood, Brazil wood, &c , &<•. The Old World owes to 
A. potatoes, tobacco, maize or Indian corn, millet, cocoa, 
vanilla, pimento, copaiba, chinchona or bark, jalap, sas¬ 
safras, nux-vomica, Ac. The cactus coehinilifi, which 
furnishes the cochineal, is also peculiar to A., and the 
•ugar-caue is indigenous to the West Indies. A. is in- 



Fig. 105. — SUGAR-CANE. 

debted to the other hemisphere for wheat, barley, oats, 
rice, oranges, peaches, Ac., and for the coffee-plant, now 
one of her staple products. 

V. Geology. The continuous belt of high moun¬ 
tains traversing the W. border ot A .. from Behrings 
Straits to Tierra del Fuego, forming the most uninter¬ 


rupted extent of primitive mountains known, appears to 
be chiefly granitic in the Rocky Mountains, while in the 
Cordilleras of Mexico, and the Andes of S. America, the 
primitive strata are, for the most part, covered with im¬ 
mense accumulations of transition porphyries, tra¬ 
chytes, and lavas, — presenting numerous volcanoes, 
many of which arein constant activity. The wide expanse 
of low, and generally plain country, which immediately 
on the W. succeeds to the above-mentioned mountain- 
zone, consists of immense deposits of newer rocks, over 
which is everywhere strewn, like a mantle, the alluvial 
formation, or a covering of sand and gravel, with which 
are intermingled rolled masses of rocks. — The principal 
masses, and highest points of the chain of mountains of 
lower elevation, which forms the eastern boundary to 
the low country, are composed of granite. The clusters 
of islands of the West Indies are almost without excep¬ 
tion of volcanic origin. The geological character of A. 
partakes of the simplicity observable in her great moun¬ 
tain ranges, which obey highly uniform laws of arrange¬ 
ment, and are, in a measure, free from those interrup¬ 
tions which occur in Europe, arising out of its numerous 
chains, whose irregular and often contradictory struc¬ 
ture it is frequently difficult to reconcile or explain. 
The two continents agree in the prevailing primitive 
character of their northern extremities, and in the prev¬ 
alence of volcanoes about their equatorial and southern 
regions; and an investigation of their geological relations 
affords no grounds for the common opinion, that the New- 
World is of a more recent origin than the Old. 

VI. Zoology. A. contains a great variety of wild 
animals, and, since its discovery, the various domestic 
animals of Europe have been introduced, and are now 
found in great numbers. In comparing animals of the 
same species, in the two continents, it has been found, in ' 
a majority of instances where a difference of size has 
been ascertained, that the American animal is larger than 
that of the eastern continent. The Llama, which bear i i 
a considerable resemblance to the camel, inhabits Peru. 
The buffalo, or American ox (Bos Amcricus), the largest 
native quadruped of the New World, is principally found 
on the prairie lands near the Rocky Mountains. Th 9 
musk-ox ( Box moscatus) is found only to the W. of Hud¬ 
son’s Bay. The Rocky Mountain goat, remarkable for 
the fineness of its wool, is a habitat from Mexico to the 
extremity of that range. The reindeer is found chiefly 
in Greenland The best variety of the A. dog is the Canis 
familiaris, found in Newfoundland. The beaver was 
once very common in the N.W. parts of North A.; but 
the high price obtained for its fur has nearly led to a 
total extirpation of this animal in the more accessible 
parts of the country. The coypou or neutra, and the 
chinchilla, are found in South A. The beasts of prey 
are not very numerous. The jaguar ( Felix onca), found 
in S. America, is the most formidable. The puma ( Felix 
discolor) is found in both Americas. A number of bears 
inhabit the shores of the Arctic sea, and are found as far 
south as the Rocky Mountains. Tropical A. possesses a 
great variety of apes: here, also, is found the vampire bat, 
w-hich attacks the largest animals, and even man him¬ 
self when asleep. Reptiles are numerous, the largest 
being the rattlesnake and the true boa-constrictor , which 
is fouud in enormous size in the lagoons and swamps of 
tropical countries. Insects also abound, and in many 
parts are very offensive.—The birds are exceedingly 
numerous: they are generally more beautiful in plu¬ 
mage than those of Asia and Africa, but their notes are 
less melodious. The condor, which frequents the Andes 
of S. America, holds, on account of its size, strength, and 
rapidity of flight, the pre-eminence over tho feathered 
creation. The American waters are remarkable for the 
variety and abundance of their fish. 

Vll. Species of Men. Of the 125 millions making up 
the total population of A., about 15 millions only are of 
indigenous race, and these 15 millions speak in upward 



—AMERICAN INDLAN. 

(Sac Chief.) 


of 400 different languages. These 400 different tribes 
are the remnants of great nations destroyed by the col¬ 
onization of the New World. The principal of them) 


will be found under their own peculiar names, or under 
those of the countries which they inhabit. See, mors 
especially, the word Indians. —Of the other 85 millions 
of inhabitants, about 65 are of Europeau origin, 10 of 
Negro race, and 10 of a mixed race of white, black, and 
indigenous or red men. 

VIII. Religion. Before its colonization by Europeans, 
all the natives of A. were idolaters. Christianity is now 
professed by the great majority of the population; it is 
only the most barbarous tribes that have not adopted 
it, aud remain heathen. Catholicism and Protestantism 
divide almost equally the Christian population of the 
New World. 

IX. Political Divisions, Population, and Foreign Pos¬ 
sessions. The following account of the different Ameri¬ 
can States and Foreign Possessions, and of their respec¬ 
tive population in 1500, has been carefully compiled 
from the latest and best authorities. 


States. 



Population. 

North. United States of America 

. Republic, 

76,303,387 

Mexico, 


it 


13,o70,54."> 

Central and South. Guatemala, 


it 


1,574,340 

San Salvador, . 

. 

tt 


915,512 

N icaragua, . 


u 


420,000 

Houduriis, 

. 

(i 


42! 1,000 

Costa Rica, 


it 


309,663 

Colombia, . 


it 


4,600,000 

Bolivia, 

. 

it 


2,500,000 

Equador, . 

, 

it 


1,300,000 

Venezuela, 

. 

it 


2,444,816 

Peru,.... 


it 

# 

3,0(0,000 

Chili, .... 


it 


3,110,083 

Argentine Republic, 


it 


4,800,000 

Brazil, 


it 


18,001 i,0u0 

Uruguay, . 

a 

it 

. 

863,804 

Paraguay,. 

• 

it 

• 

600.000 


Patagonia and Falkland Islands, . 100,000 

W. Indies, llayli, . , .Republic, 1,211.625 

San Domingo, . . . “ 600,000 


Foreign Possessions. 

England. In North America: Canada, New¬ 
foundland, and Labrador, . . . 5,536,8S3 

In W. Indies aud S. America: Baha¬ 
mas, Turk’s Island, Jamaica, Bermuda, 

Virgin Islands, St. Christopher or St. 

Kitts, Nevis, Antigua, Montserrat, Do¬ 
minica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Barba- 
does, Grenada, Tobago, Trinidad, British 
Honduras, and British Guiana, . . 1,587,006 

France. In W. Indies aud S. America: Marti¬ 
nique, Guadeloupe, Maria-Galande, De- 
siderada, Saintes, a part of St. Martin, 
and French Guiana.—In Newfound¬ 
land : St. Pierre, and Miquelon, . 377,000 

Holland. In W. Indies and S. America: Curs- 
90 a, St. Eustatius, St. Martin, and Suri¬ 
nam or Dutch Guiana, . . . 146 300 

Denmark. In W. Indies: St. Thomas, Santa 

Cruz, and St. John, .... 113,000 

Sweden. In W. Indies: St. Bartholomew, 5,(00 


144,409,03? 

.(mer'ica, in Indiana, a post-village of Wabash co. 

Amer'ica City, in Aare.,a post-village of Nemaha co, 

Amer'iean, n. A native of America;—in a restricted 
sense, an inhabitant of the United States. 

—a. Belonging to America;—or, in a restricted 6 ense, to 
the United States. 

Amer'ican. in Cal., a twp. of Sacramento co. 

Amer'ican Creek, in California, Marin co.; falU 
into the Pacific ocean. 

Amer'ican Fork. in Utah, a t. of Utah co. 

American Revolution, see United States. 

Amer'ican River, in California. It rises in th« 
Sierra Nevada, flows for about 100 m. in a W.S.W. direc¬ 
tion between Placer and El Dorado cos., receives at the 
W. extremity of the latter co. the waters of a south 
fork coming from Lake Bonpland, and after flowing S. W. 
for about 30 m., falls into the Sacramento river, near 
the city of Sacramento. 

Amer'icanism, n. Any word, phrase, or idiom, in 
general use among the inhabitants of the United States, 
which deviates from the English standard. Every living 
language is subject to continual changes; and it is not 
to be expected that a large community, in a state of 
social and political activity, who are daily developing 
new and characteristic features, will fail to exercise 
their share of influence upon that which they naturally 
consider as a part of their Inheritance. Indeed, tlie 
number of new words, 1 r of words now used in America 
in a different sense from that which they have in Eng¬ 
land, is but small among our good writers, and some of 
them have already been adopted in the mother-country. 
Although the lash of ridicule has been unsparingly 
applied to the American pronunciation, there is muck 
greater uniformity in the U. S. than in Great Britain, 
and the general standard is certainly higher. In manj 
places, as for example Philadelphia, the pronunciation 
is at least as good as in any place in the British domin 
ions. See Bartlett's Did. of A. 

Amer’iranize, c. a. To render American; to natu¬ 
ralize in America. 

Amer'icns Vespucins, properly Amerigo Ves 
pucci, an eminent navigator, b. at Florence, 1451. Aftei 
receiving a liberal education, he was sent by his fatnuf 




























AMET 


AMIA 


AMIE 




to Spain for the purpose of conducting his commercial 
affairs; and being at Seville when Culumbus was making 
preparations for his second voyage, he resolved to enter 
on a career of maritime discovery. His first expedition 
to tho new continent was in 1499, under the command of 
Ojeda, a year after the discovery and examination of the 
coast of Darien by Columbus, lie made a second voyage 
in the following year. After this, he entered the service 
of king Emanuel of Portugal, and made two voyages 
in Portuguese ships; the first in 1501, the second in 
1503. The object of this last voyage was to find a west¬ 
erly passage to Malacca. He arrived at Brazil, and dis¬ 
covered the bay of All-Saints. In 1505, he again entered 
the service of the king of Spain, but made no more 
voyages, as appears from memoranda showing that he 
was at Seville till 1508. at which time lie was appointed 
principal pilot His duties were to prepare charts, and 
prescribe routes for vessels in their voyages to the New 
World, which soon received his name. This honor cer¬ 
tainly belonged to Columbus, rather than to Amerigo, 
for the prior discovery of the continent by the former 
is aot to be questioned. D. at Seville, Eeb. 22,1512. 



one was not intoxicated by drinking liquors from out 
of an amethystine cup.] (Min.) A variety of Quartz, 
q. v. Its clear purple or bluish-violet color is due to 
manganese, or to a compound of iron and soda. — The 
Oriental A. is a precious variety of Sapphire, distin¬ 
guished by its purple color. 

(Her.) A violet color, used instead of purpure, in 
emblazoning the arms of the English nobility oniy. 

Ametliys'tine, a. Having the color, or composed of, 
the amethyst. 

Ain e-wa i U, n. A small settlement and Friends’ 
meeting-house, on the eastern boundary of Yorktown, 
West Chester co., N. Y.—The post-office near is named 
Haliock’s Mills. 

Am'ga, a river of Siberia, rising in the mountains of 
Yablouoi-Krebet, and after a course of 466 in., falling 
into the Aldan, in Ion. 135° E. 

Amha'ra, an independent kingdom of Abyssinia; Lat. 
between 10° and 14° N.; Eon. between 35° 10-' and 38° 
30' E. 

Anihar'lc, n. The chief language spoken in Abyssinia. 
The name comes from Arnbara, where it is spoken in 
its greatest purity. A knowledge of the A. enables a 
traveller to make himself understood in nearly every 
part of Abyssinia. 

Am'lierst, Jeffery, Lord, a distinguished British offi¬ 
cer, b. 1717. He entered the army at an early age, and 
ultimately became major 


Fig. 107. — AMERICUS VESPUCIU8. 

Amer'icus, in Georgia, a city, the capital of Sumter 
co., on the Muckalee creek, 71 m. S.W. of Macon; was 
was incorporated in 1822. Pop. (1890), 6,398. 

Amer'icus. in Indiana, a post-village of Tippecanoe 
co* on the Wabash river, 10 m. N.E. of Lafayette. 

Amer'icus, in Kansas, a post-village and township of 
Lyon co., 10 m. N.W. of Emporia. 

A'merkote, a town of India, territory of Scinde, in 
the desert, 85 m. E. of Hyderabad; Lat. 25° 20' N.; Lon. 
69° 49' E. The emperor Akhar was born here in 1541. 

A'lnersfort, a town of the Netherlands, prov. of 
Utrecht, on the Eem, 12 m. E.N.E. of Utrecht; pop. 
12,700. 

Am'ersliam. a town and parish of England, in Buck¬ 
ingham co., near the Co.'ne, 26 m. W.N.W. of London; 
pop. 3,350. 

Ames', Fisher, an American publicist, orator, and 
statesman; b. in Mass., 1758. Entering at an early 
age upon the practice of the law, he soon became dis¬ 
tinguished for his forensic powers, and achieved a still 
more extended reputation as an author of political 
essays. He was a member of the convention for ratify¬ 
ing the Federal Constitution in 1788, and was afterward 
returned to Congress for the district which at that time 
included Boston. Like the great English orator, Ed¬ 
mund Burke, he denounced the excesses of the first 
French Revolution, and almost rivalled him in the fer¬ 
vid eloquence of his speeches. D. 1808. 

Ames', Joseph, the historian of English Typography, 
B. at Yarmouth, 1689 ; D. 1759. He was a ship-chandler 
at Wapping, in London, which business he carried on 
until his death, notwithstanding his antiquarian pur¬ 
suits. He published a work entitled Typographical 
Antiquities; being an Historical Account of Printing in 
England, <£c., 4to. By the labors of subsequent editors, 
this work has been improved and extended to 4 vols. 

Ames', in New York, a post-village in Canajoharie town¬ 
ship, Montgomery co., about 13 m. from Fonda. 

Ames', in Ohio, a post-township of Athens co., about 30 
m. W. of Marietta. 

Ames'-ace. n. Tho same as Ambs-ace, q. v. 

Ames'bury, or Ambres'bury, a town and parish 
of England, in the co. of Wilts, on the Avon, 7 m. N. 
of Salisbury. It is the birthplace of Addison. Pop. 1,138. 

Ames'bury, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Es¬ 
sex co. 

Ames'bury Mills, in Massachusetts, a village of 
Essex co., in the above township; 4 m. N.W. of New- 
buryport. 

Ames'tratus. (Anc. Geog.) A town of Sicily, (now 
Mistretta, in the Yal de Demona.) It held out against 
the Romans seven months; hut was obliged to yield 
after a third siege, when the inhabitants were sold as 
slaves. 

Ames'ville, in Illinois, a post-village of Boone co., 
70 m. W.N.W. of Chicago. 

Ames'ville, in New York, a village of Ulster co. 

Ames'ville, in Ohio, a post-village in Ames township, 
Athens co., 11 m. N.E. of Athens. 

Ametabo lia, n. pi. (Zool .) A division of insects which 
do not undergo any metamorphosis. 

Ametabo'lian, n. [From Gr. a, priv., and metabollein, 
to change.] ( Zool.) An insect that does not undergo 
any metamorphosis. 

A'metliie, a town of British India, in the district of 
Partabgurah, Oude; Lat. 26° 8 '; Lon. 82° 2'; pop. 10,000. 

Am'etiiyst, n. [Gr. amesthystos, a remedy against 
drunkenness, so called because, according to Plutarch, 



Fig. 108.— LORD AMHERST, 
ive, but humane part in suppressing the London 
;s of 17K). Upon resigning his chief command in 


general. Sent over to 
America, he captured 
Louisbourg, and followed 
it up by the reduction of 
Forts Duquesne, Niagara, 
and Ticonderoga, which 
paved the way for the 
entire conquest of Cana¬ 
da. In 1763, A. was made 
governor of Virginia, and 
created Baron Amherst of 
Holmesdale in 1776. He 
was appointed command- 
er-iu-cliief of the British 
army in 1778, in which 
capacity he took a most 
activ 

riots or ju mj. upon resigning_ 

1795, he was made a field-marshal. D. 1798. 

Am'lierst, William Pitt, Earl, nephew of the above; 
appointed British ambassador-extraordinary to the 
Court of Pekin, in 1816. He was not allowed to pene¬ 
trate into the interior of China, and refusing to conform 
to the prescribed etiquette of the court, obtained his 
ietterof recall. A. wassubsequently appointed governor- 
general of India, and created an Ear!. D. 1857. 

Am'lierst. a seaport town and spacious harbor of Brit¬ 
ish Burmah, on a point of land in the N.E. angle of the 
Gulf of Martaban, facing the mouth of the Tchautweng 
and the isle of Balu to the N. Lat. 10° 4' 4S" N.; Lon. 
97° 45' 24" E. Pop. 6,580. 

Am'lierst, a northern district of Tenasserim, British 
Burmah. Pop. (1895) 235,738. Capital, Maulmain. 

Am'lierst, , in Maine, a post-township of Hancock co., 
25 m. E. of Bangor. 

Am'lierst, in Massachusetts, a town of Hampshire co., 
on a branch of the Connecticut river, 82 in. W. of the 
city of Boston. Near the town is situated Am¬ 
herst CoUege, an institution founded in 1821, and now one 
of the most flourishing in America. It possesses a cabi¬ 
net of natural history, and an astronomical observatory. 

Am'herst, in Minnesota, a township of Fillmore 
county. 

Am'herst, in New Hampshire, a post-township of 
Hillsborough co., on the Souliegan river, 23 m. S. of 
Concord. 

Am'herst, in New York, a township of Erie coun¬ 
ty. 

Am'herst, in Ohio, a village of Allen co. 

— A townsiiip of Lorain county.—In this township is a 
post-village of the same name, 33 m. S.W. by W. of 
Cleveland. 

Am'herst, in Virginia, a county bounded on the S.W. 
and S. by James river, and on the N. by the Blue 
Ridge. Formed from Albemarle in 1761. Area, 418 
sq.m. The soil is fertile,and the scenery picturesque. 
The passage of the James river through the Blue Ridge 
is especially noted.— Prod. Tobacco, corn, wheat, and 
oats. Cap. Amherst Court-House. Pop. in 1880, 
18,705; in 1890, 17,551. 

Am'herst, in Wisconsin, a post-village and township 
of Portage co., 12 m. E. of Stanton. 

Am'liersthurg', a town of Ontario, Canada, 3 miles 
above the entrance of the river Detroit into Lake Erie. 
Pop. (1890), 2,279. 

Am'lierst Court-House, in Virginia, a post-vil¬ 
lage, cap. of Amherst co., aht. 15 m. N. by E. of Lynchburg. 

Amherst Four-Corners, in Ohio, a village of Am¬ 
herst township in Lorain co., 35 m. S.W. by W. of 
Cleveland. 

Am'herstiese, n. pi. (Hot.) A tribe of plants, suh- 
ord. Ccesalpiniese. 

Arn'ia, n. (Zool.) A small malacopterygious fish, found 
in the rivers of South America. It belongs to the fam. 
Clupeidce. 

Amiabil'ity, n. The quality or state of being amia¬ 
ble; amiableness. 

A'miable, a. [0. Fr. amiable, from Lat. amiahilis; Fr. 
aimable..] Lovely; pleasant; worthy of love;—generally 
applied to persons. 

A'miableness, n. The quality of being amiable; 
lovingness; amiability. 

Amiably, adv. In an amiable manner. 


Am'ianth, n. (Min.) See Amianthus. 

Amiaii'thiibrm, and Amian'thoid, a. [From aimam 
thus, and form.] Resembling amianthus. 

Amiaii'thiiini, n. (Hot.) A gen. of plants,ord. Melan* 
thacece. They are lierbs with scapiform stems, grass-like 
leaves, and numerous white flowers. The species A, 
muscitoxicum, or Fly-Poison, found in shady swamps, 
in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and the Southern States 
is said to poison ilies, and also the cattle which fetf 
upon its foliage in the autumn. 

Amian'tliiis, n. [Gr. aviiantos, undefiled.] (Min.) A 
mineral substance occurring in long capillary crystals 
placed side by side in parallel positions, thus forming 
a fibrous mass flexible and elastic. This is a variety 
of the Tremolite. There are two kinds of this mineral. 
One, which is composed of very delicate and regularly 
arranged fibres of very flexible nature, is called Amian¬ 
thus ; the other, of coarser fibre, and of little flexibility, 
is called Asbestos. The ancients possessed the art of 
drawing the fibres into threads, and then weaving them 
into a cloth capable of resisting ordinary flame. It is 
found in Corsica, Italy, Ac., and also in the United States. 
It is now successfully used for a non-conducting envel¬ 
ope of steam-pipes, for safes, for a fire-proof roofing, &c. 

Amiba. and Ainteba, n. [Gr. urnoibe, changing.] 
(Zool.) See Proteus. 

Ainicabil'ity, n. The quality of being amicahlei 

amicableness. 

Am'ieable, a. [Lat. amicabilis.] Exhibiting the char¬ 
acter of a friend; a friendliness on a specific occasion; 
friendly; propitious; favorable; kind; cordial. 

(Math.) Amicable Numbers. Pairs of numbers, each 
of which is equal to the sum of all the aliquot parts of 
the other. Thus, 220 and 284 are amicable numbers. 
The aliquot parts of the first are, 0, 2, 4, 5, 10,11, 20, 22, 
44, 55, and 110, and their sum-total is 284. The aliquot 
parts of the second are, 1, 2,4,71, and 142, and their sum- 
total, 220. 

(Law.) Amicable. Action. A practice, prevailing in 
Pennsylvania, by which an action is entered on tho 
dockets of the courts by agreement of parties. 

Am'icableness, n. The quality of being amicable ; 

friendliness; good-will. 

Am icably, adv. In an amicable manner; inafriendly 

way. 

Amicabo'lo. in Georgia, a post-office of Dawson co. 

Ami'eal, a. [Fr.J Amicable, (n.) 

Ain'ica, a lake of S. America, in the prov. of Cumana, 
Venezuela, on a plateau between the Rupumung and 
Tocoto rivers. In the age of Queen Elizabeth, the vicinity 
of this lake was called the El Dorado,—“ The great lake 
with the golden hanks,”—and near it was supposed to 
stand the wonderful imperial city of Mauoa, forming 
the object of the expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh and 
his ill-fated followers, hut which they failed to dis¬ 
cover. 

Am'ice, n. [0. Fr. amis, from Lat. amicere, to throw 
around.] (Eccles. Hist.) The first, or innermost part of 
a Catholic priest’s habit, over which he wears the alb. 

Amid'. Amidst', prep. [From prefix a, and mid, or 
midst.] In the middle; equally distant from either ex¬ 
tremity. 

“ But of the fruit of this fair tree, amidst the garden, God hath 
said, ye shall not eat.”— Milton. 

—Mingled with; surrounded by. 

“ Amid my flock with woe my voice I tear.”— Sidney, 


—Amongst; conjoined with. 

•* What tho’ no real voice nor sound 
Amid their radiant orbs be found ?”— Addison . 

Anii'ila. (Anc. Geog.) A city of Mesopotamia, taken by 
Sapor, king of Persia. It was called Constantia in 
honor of the Emp. Constantius, who fortified it. Now 
known as Diarbekir, or Cara-Amid. 

Am ide, Amid'ogen. «. (Chem.) The term amide 
is given to a class of substances which contain ammo¬ 
nia deprived of an atom of hydrogen, (NH 2 .) Some of 
the most familiar of these amides or amidogen are, po* 
tassamide NHoK., sodamide NILNa, oxamide NHoCgOj, 
benzamide, NH 0 C 4 H 5 O 2 , sulphamide, NHjSOg, carba¬ 
mide, NH 2 CO. Some of these amides are formed by 
heating organic salts oi ammonia, by which they lose 
water, and leave an amide. It is probable that many 
animal substances, as albumen, belong to this class. 

Am'illiiie, or Amydin, n. [From the Fr. amidon, starch.] 
(Chem.) A yellow or white substance when hydrous, 
which is the soluble part of starch. The insoluble por¬ 
tion or outer covering of the starch granules is called 
annyline. 

Amido-Snlpliurie Acid. (Chem.) An acid formed 

by the action of oil of vitriol on starch. 

Amid'slllps, adv. (Naut.) In the centre between two 
extremes, either of length or breadth.— To put the helm 
amidships, is to place the tiller on a line with the keek 

A'lliiens, a town of France, cap. of the dep. of tho 
Somme, and formerly of the prov. of Picardy. It stands 
on the banks of the Somme, about 35 miles from the 
English channel, and 71 m. N. of Paris. -The town is 
agreeably situated, and is the centre of a large trade. It 
is a bishop’s see, and possesses courts, an academy of 
sciences, a botanical garden, &c.—J/an.Woollens, kersey¬ 
meres, and velvets, linen and cotton goods, &c. There are 
here bleaching, dyeing, and chemical works ; beet-loot 
sugar and soap factories, and paper-mills. A. was once a 
place of considerable strength, and played an important 
part in the wars of the middle ages. Its most celebrated 
building is the magnificent Gothic cathedral, one of the. 
finest in Europe, founded in the 12th, and only finished 
at the end of the 14th century. Its interior exhibits, 
one of the grandest spectacles that architectural skill 
has ever produced, impressing the mind by ite exquisite 










AMME 


AMMO 


AMMO 


93 


proportions, great height, and the noble simplicity 
which everywhere meets ttie eye. Its length is 442 feet, 
while the vault is 140 feet high, which is half as high 
again as that of Westminster. The spire has an eleva¬ 
tion of 120 feet. Pop. 8<>,28S. 

Tre itt op A. — The celebrated Treaty of Amiens, which 
terminated a war of ten years’ duration, was concluded 
at Amiens on the 27th of March, 1803, between trance, 
Holland, and Spain, on the one hand, and Great Britain 
on the other. England gave up to their former owners 
all the conquests made during the war. except Trinidad 
and Ceylon while the French agreed to evacuate Naples, 
and Egypt was restored to Turkey. The peace was of 
brief duration: England did not evacuate Malta, and the 
war was renewed. May 17, 1803. 

Amil'car. See IIamilcar. 

Am'ilene. n. (Conn.) A colorless fluid of a peculiar 
odor, floating on water, boiling at 320°; spec. grav. of 
vapor, 5-061; obtained by distilling oil of potatoes or 
grain with anhydrous phosphoric acid. Firm. Ci 0 H 10 . 

Amim'one, or Amtmone. (Myth.) A daughter of Da- 
naus, changed into a fountain near Argos, which flow's 
into Lake Lerna. 

A'inir, «. See Emir. 

Am irante Islands, a group of small islands in the 
Indian ocean, lying about 300 m. to the N. of the island 
of Madagascar. They are generally from 2 to 3 m. in 
length, and from20to25 feetin height. Lat. bet. 4°and 
60°S.; Lon. bet. 54° and 56° E. They belong to England. 

Amish ( liuroti. See Mknnonites. 

A'misfi, in I>wa, a post-village of Johnson co., about 
17 m. S.W. of Iowa city. 

Amiss', a. [From a and miss.] Faulty; criminal; out 
of order; wrong; improper; unfit. It always follows 
the substantive to which it relates: so, we say '* the ac¬ 
tion was amiss,” but never, “an amiss action.” 

r-adv. Faultily; criminally; contrary to propriety or order. 

** If I have done amiss , impute it not.” — Addison. 

A'misville, in Virginia, a post-village of Rappahan¬ 
nock co., 121 m. N.W. of Richmond. 

Amite', a river which rises in the S.W. part of the State 
of Mississippi, passes into the State of Louisiana, and 
empties into Lake Maurepas. Navigable for small 
steamboats fora distance of 80 miles. 

Amite', in Mississippi, a county bordering on Louisiana. 
Area, 700 sq. m. It is drained by Amite river, which 
flows through the centre of the county, and from which 
it derives its name, and by the river liomochitto. In sur¬ 
face it is uneven, but the soil is fertile. — Prod. Cotton, 
rice, Indian corn, and sweet potatoes. Cap. Liberty. 
Pop. (1880) 14,004; (1890) 18,198. 

Amiter'num. (Anc. Geog.) A town of Italy, the birth¬ 
place of Sallust. The ruins of this town are to be seen 
near St. Vittorino. 

Am ity, n. [Fr. amitii, from Lat amicitia.'] Friendship, 
in a general sense, whether between nations opposed to 
war, or among people opposed to discord. 

11 Let there be 

’Twixt us and them no league nor amity.” — Sir J. Denham. 

•—Between private persons it expresses an ordinary amount 
of goodwill, without intimacy or strong feeling; friend¬ 
liness; goodwill. 

Am'ity, in Arkansas, a post-village of Clarke co. 

Amity, in Illinois, a post-village of Richland co., 50 m. 
E.N.E. of Peoria. 

Am'ity, in Indiana, a post-village of Johnson co., abt. 
7 m. S.E. of Franklin. 

Am'ity, in Iowa, a township of Page co. 

—A post-office of Scott co. 

Am'ity, in Maine, a post-township of Aroostook co., 100 
m. N.E. of Bangor. 

Am'ity, in New York, a township of Alleghany 
county. 

—A post-village of Orange co., 120 m. S. of Albany. 

Am'ity, in Oregon, a post-village and township of Yam 
Hill co., 11 m. S. of Lafayette. 

Am'ity, in Pennsylvania, a township of Berks coun¬ 
ty- 

—A township of Erie co. 

—A post-village of Washington co., 35 in. S.W. of Pitts¬ 
burg. 

Am'ity Hill, in North Carolina, a P. 0. of Iredell co. 

Am'ity vi lie. in New York, a post-village of Suffolk co., 
31 m. E. ot Brooklyn, on L. 1. R.R. Pop. (1898) 2,750. 

A'mjlierra, in North India, a small Rajpoot state; 
area, 584 sq. m.; pop. about 68,0(10.—There is a town of 
the same name, 60 m. N.W. of Oojein, containing about 
500 houses, and weli supplied bazaars. 

Am'la, one of the Andreanov islands, E. of Ateha, 40 
m. long and 10 broad. 

Am'lai, one of the Aleutian islands, in the Fox group, 
the E. point of which is in Lat. 52° 6' N.; Lon. 172° 
50' W. 

Amltrcli, a seaport town of England, in N. Wales, on 
the N. shore of the island of Anglesea. It has a good 
port. The famous copper mines in the adjoining Pary’s 
Mountain are considered inexhaustible. 

Am'rna, re. [Heb., mother. ] An abbess; a spiritual mo¬ 
ther. 

Ammalapoor', a town of British India, presidency 
of Madras, 65 m. from Masulipatam. 

Am man. (Geog.) See Ala-shehr. 

Amme'litle, n. (Chem.) A white powder, obtained by 
dissolving ainmeline in strong oil of vitriol; mixing the 
solution with 2 vols. water, and then with 4 of alcohol. 
Form. C^NglMV 

Am'meline, re. [From ammonia and mellone.] (Chem.) 
A base obtained in white powder by super-saturating 
with acetic acid the alkaline liquid which has deposited 
melamine. 


Am'mer, the name of two small rivers and a lake, in 
Germany, one of the rivers joining the Neckar at Tu¬ 
bingen, and the other falling into the Isar, 2 m. from 
Mosburg. The lake A. is traversed by this one, and is 
10 m. long, by 4 broad 

Amnierpoor', a town of Ilindostan, in Nepaul, 110 m. 
from Khatmandoo. 

Am'morseli tvilir, or Marivillier, a town of Prussia, 
prov. Alsace-Lorraine, 4 m. N.W. of Colmar. Excellent 
wine is grown in the neighborhood. Pop. 2,036. 

Ammia'uus Marcel I in us, a Roman historian of 
the 4th century, B. at Antioch. lie wrote the Roman 
history from the reign of Nerva to the death of Yalens, 
in 31 books, of which 18 only are extant; served long 
in the army, and took part in the Persian war under 
Julian. His history is esteemed impartial and trust¬ 
worthy, but his style is faulty. 

Ain'miolite, re. (Mm.) An earthy powder having a 
deep-red scarlet color. It is regarded as an antimonate 
of copper mixed with cinnabar and other impurities. 

Am'nii tok, an island in lat. 59° 28' N., Ion. 63° O' W., 
off the N.E. coast of Labrador, about 75 m. S.E. of the 
entrance into Hudson's Straits. 

Am'inocetes, n.pl. (Zool.) A gen. of chondroptery- 
gious fishes, allied to the lampreys. The A. branchialis 
is about the thickness of a goose-quill, and is known in 
England as the Stone Grig. It is of no use but as bait 
for other fish. 

Am'motlyte, re. [Gr. ammos. sand or mud; dute, plung¬ 
er.] (Zool.) A gen. of apodal malacopterygious fishes, 
belonging to the f;im. Mnrctnidce. They are known 
under the name of Sand eel, A. tobianus, and Launce, 
A. lancea. Worms and insects are their food, and they 
are in their turn preyed upon by the mackerel and 
salmon They are from 8 to 10 inches long. 

Am’modytes, n.pl. (Zool.) A gen. of serpents, allied 
to the viper, but distinguished from it by au erect 
pointed process on the tip of the snout. A species found 
in the East is so extremely poisonous as to prove fatal 
in three or four hours. 

Am'moline, re. (Chem.) An oily base, occurring in 
liippel’s animal oil, smelling of horse-radish; separated 
from several other oils, as animine. 

Ammon, Amon, A mux, Amx-ra, or IIammon, an 
Egyptian deity, whom the Greeks considered synony¬ 
mous witli their Zeus 
(Jupiter). He appeared 
in the form of a ram 
to Hercules, or, accord¬ 
ing to others, to Bac¬ 
chus, who with his ar¬ 
my was suffering the 
greatest extremity for 
want of water in the 
African deserts, and 
showed him a fountain. 

Upon this, Bacchus 
erected a temple to his 
father, under the name 
of Jupiter Ammon, 
which had a famous 
oracle, established 
about 18 centuries be¬ 
fore the time of Augus¬ 
tus ; but when it pro¬ 
nounced Alexander to 
be the son of Jupiter, 
such flattery destroyed 
its reputation, and in 
the age of Plutarch it 
was scarcely known. In 
1772, the site of the 
temple of Ammon was 
discovered in a fertile 
spot, called the Oasis 
of Siwah, situate in the midst of a desert, five degrees 
from Cairo. The ancient Egyptian name of the deity 
is A mn-ra. He was one of the eight gods of the first 
order, and chief of the triad of Thebes. He was repre¬ 
sented sometimes as a man wearing a cap with two high 
plumes, and often with a ram’s head and human body. 

Ammo'nia, Volatile Alkali, Animal Alkali, Spirits 
of Hartshorn, re. [Probably from the temple of Jupiter 
Ammon, near which the chloride of ammonium was first 
made from the soot produced by burning camel’s dung 
in Libya.] (Chem.) A. is a gaseous compound, possessing 
the properties of the alkalies proper, potash and soda; 
spec. grav. 0 59. It was first isolated by Priestley, 1774, 
who named it alkaline air. By submitting it to heat, he 
found it to consist of three parts of hydrogen, and one 
of nitrogen. It is difficult to form it by the direct union 
of these gases; but wherever nascent hydrogen and 
nitrogen are eliminated by any chemical action, a por¬ 
tion of A. is ever found in the resulting compound. 
During the decomposition of water containing air, by 
the electric current, a small quantity of A. is formed: 
also, when a mass of moistened iron filings is exposed 
to the air; but it is formed in the greatest quantities 
when nitrogenous organic matter putrefies, or is submit¬ 
ted to destructive distillation. A. is also found during 
the distillation of coal in gas-works, the ammoniacal 
liquor produced in this way being the great source of 
A. for commercial purposes. It is generally prepared in 
a laboratory, by the action of caustic lime on some salt 
of A. By submitting this liquid to the action of solid 
carbonic acid, solid A. is produced. A. does not support 
either combustion or life, and inflames with difficulty. 
It is decomposed into its elements by passing through 
it a series of electric sparks. Form. NII 3 . On exposure 
to a pressure of 6 atmospheres, at a temperature of 50°, 
A. condenses into a colorless liquid, sp. gr. 0'76, boiling 



Fig. 109. — ammon. 
(From an Egyptian sculpture.) 


at — 28-75°. By exposing the dry gas to a pressure of 
20 atmospheres and a cold of—75° C., it freezes to 
a transparent solid. An interesting application of 
the principle of the latent heat of vapors was first 
made in the case of A. in M. Carre’s freezing-machine; 
(see fig. 110.) This consists essentially of two strong iron 
vessels connected in a perfectly air-tight manner by a 
bent pipe; one of these vessels contains an aqueous so¬ 
lution of ammonia saturated witli the gas at 0°. When 
it is desired to procure ice, the vessel A. containing the 
ammonia solution (which we will term the retort) is 
gradually heated over a large gas burner, the other ves¬ 
sel B (the receiver) being placed in a bucket of cold 
water; in consequence of the increase of temperature, 
the gas cannot remain dissolved in the water, and passes 
into the receiver, where, as soon as the pressure amounts 
to about 10 atmospheres, it condenses in the liquid form. 
When the greater part of the gas has thus been driven 
out of the water, the apparatus is reversed, the retort 
(A) being cooled in a current of cold water, whilst the 
liquid it is desired to freeze is placed in the interior of 
the receiver (B). A re-absorption of the ammonia by 
the water now takes place, and a consequent evaporation 
of the liquefied ammonia in the receiver; this evapora¬ 
tion is accompanied by an absorption of heat which be¬ 
comes latent in the gas; hence the receiver is soon 
cooled far below the freezing-point, and ice is produced 
around it.—See Freezing Apparatus, Ice. 



Fig. 110. 

Ammonia Liquid, Ammonle Aqua, Ammonia (Solutiom 
of). A. is readily absorbed by water, which takes 
up 670 times its own volume of the gas, forming the so¬ 
lution of A., or liquid A., as it is generally improperly 
called. This solution is a colorless transparent liquid, 
having a characteristic pungent smell, a burning caus¬ 
tic taste, and a strong alkaline reaction. At its greatest 
strength its specific gravity is -850. and it can only bo 
kept in closely stoppered bottles. It is made bypassing the 
gas through distilled water kept near the freezing-point 
by means of ice. It is of great use in the laboratory as 
a reagent, dissolving many oxides and salts insoluble 
in water. It is employed in medicine as a stimulant. 
There are two degrees of strength used: the liquor am¬ 
monite fortior, of ‘S50, and the ordinary liquor ammonite, 
or spirits of hartshorn, at -960. Mixed with oil, with 
which it forms a soap, it is used as a rubefacient, under 
the name of soap liniment. A. forms an infinite num¬ 
ber of salts with the different acids, most of them simi¬ 
lar in their properties to the corresponding salts of pot¬ 
ash and soda. 

Acetate of A., or Spirits of Mindererus, used in medi¬ 
cine as a refrigerant and diaphoretic. 

Carbonate of A. The carbonate of ammonia forms the 
smelling-salts of the chemist’s shop, generally called 
Preston salts. Solution of carbonate of A. is sometimes 
used as an emetic. It is also used in the manufacture 
of unfermented bread. It is used in medicine as a 
stimulant. Form. NH 4 C0,. 

Nitrate of A. Used in the laboratory for the produc¬ 
tion of nitrous oxide, or laughing-gas. The crystals are 
melted in a retort, at a gentle heat, nitric acid being 
evaporated, and water remaining behind. Form. NH 4 
NO,. 

Sulphate of A., much used as a cereal manure, is 
obtained in great quantities by neutralizing bone or 
gas-liquor, with sulphuric acid, evaporatiug and crystal¬ 
lizing. It is a four-sided prism, with square base; spec, 
grav. 2 ; of sharp, bitter taste; soluble in 2 parts of 
cold water; melts at 284°, and decomposes at 536°. 
Form. NH 4 S0 4 . 

A. as a motive power. —The extreme solubility of am¬ 
moniacal gas is a property of which advantage may be 
taken for creating a vacuum, exactly as the same object 
is accomplished by the condensation of steam. On the 
other hand, it boil? at 122° F., and affords a pressure 
of six atmospheres at 232°, while steam requires a heat 
of 320° to produce the same result. Ammoniacal gas, 
therefore, seems to possess a combination of properties 
favorable to the production of an economical motive 
power. The first ammoniacal engine attracted much at¬ 
tention during the Paris exhibition of 1867, and is tbus 
descrioed. “The apparatus consists of a receiver for 
condensing the gas, and a condenser for its preservation 
and regeneration after it has served its purpose. The 
gas is driven off from the ordinary aqua-ammonia, and is 
liquefied under its own pressure in a condenser, placed 
in a refrigerating mixture. The receiver, full of liquid 
ammonia, resembles the contrivance used to hold car¬ 
bonic acid water for soda fountains. It is provided with 



























94 


AMMO 


AMOK 


AMOS 


coupling screws and washers, so that it can be attached 
to the stationary piston where the work is to be done. 
The liquefied gas, in strong receivers, and exerting a 
force of 7 to 10 atm., according to the heat applied, can 
be transported in vans and delivered to customers, pre¬ 
cisely as soda-water is now carried through the streets. 
Attached to every stationary engine is a vessel filled with 
cold water, into which the gas passes from behind the 
piston, just as steam is condensed in the low-pressure 
engine, and this condenser contains all of the gas in a 
form to be again converted into liquid. When a new 
supply of liquefied A. is delivered from the van, the con¬ 
densers will be carried away, and the A. recovered from 
them at the principal factory. It is claimed that, with 
twenty pounds of liquefied A., a force equal to one-horse 
power can be maintained for one hour. An omnibus, 
with an A. engine of two-horse power, can be propelled 
8 m. with 50 pounds of liquefied A. and 120 pounds of 
cold water. At the end of the route, a fresh supply of 
the liquefied A. and of cold water can be attached, and 
the A. afterwards reclaimed from the 1 20 pounds of water. 
Such an engine would disengage no smoke and no vapor; 
it would always be ready, and could bo used to advan¬ 
tage on elevated railroads, in private houses, in mines, 
in tunnels, and on city railroads, for fire-engines, for bal¬ 
loons, and in situations where the combustion of air 
must be avoided.—A 3 A. will attack copper and brass 
with great avidity, it is necessary to have these parts 
substituted by iron. Iron is preserved from rust, instead 
of suffering from it, and the whole engine can be made 
of this metal. The oil and fatty matters employed for 
lubrication will saponify with the A., and thus make the 
joints tight and prevent friction.—Another Frenchman, 
M. Fort, employs the solution of A. in water, or aqua- 
ammonia. This solution only absorbs 126 units of heat 
in its vaporization, while water absorbs nearly five times 
as much heat.”—Down to the present time (1897), 
however, these machines and other attempts to use 
Ammonia as a motive power, have come to no practical 
use. 

Ammo'niacal, a. Having the properties of, or con¬ 
taining ammonia. 

Ammo'niar, (Sal.) See Ammonium, Chloride op. 

Anunoni acum, n. ( Chem.) The Ammoniac Gum, a 
fetid gum-resin which exudes from the stem of the Do- 
rema ammoniacum, a plant growing in Persia. It is 
occasionally prescribed as an expectorant, and is ap¬ 
plied externally to promote the absorption of tumors 
and chronic swellings of the joints. 

Am'munites, descendants of Ben Ammi, the son of 
Lot ( Gen . xix. 38), abt. b. c. 1897. They occupied a terri¬ 
tory at one time in the possession of the Zamzummim, 
“ a people great, and many, and tall as the Anakim.” 
( Deut . ii. 19—21.) Although the Israelites were com¬ 
manded not to molest them, several wars ensued be¬ 
tween the two nations, with varying success. They op¬ 
pressed the Israelites b. c. 1206, but were defeated by 
Jephthali with great slaughter {Judges xi. 32, 33), b. c 
1188, and by Saul (1 Sam. xi.), B. c. 10*95. David subdued 
them b. c. 1038. They afterwards recovered strength, 
and attacked Jehoshaphat, but were defeated, and, Bome- 
what later, were nuub tributary to UzZiah and Jotham 
(2 Chron. xx. 1—30, xxvi. 8, xxvii. 5). Their enmity still 
continued: They united with the Chaldeans to distress 
Judah, and occupied the territory east of the Jordan. 
They harassed the Jews after their return from captiv¬ 
ity, and attacked them in the Maccabean wars (1 Macc. 
v. 6 , 30-13). Yet marriages were occasionally made be¬ 
tween Israel and Ammon: thus the mother of Iieho- 
boam was an Ammonitess (1 Kings xiv. 31). 

Am'monites, Ammonium:, or Snake-Stones, n. pi. 
[From Lat. Ammon or Jupiter, who was worshipped in 
Libya under the form of a ram, the A. having been at 
one time considered to be petrified ram’s horns.] {Pal.) 
Spiral fossil shells, of which there are a great abundance 
in Europe, Asia, and America, especially in the lias, chalk, 
and oolite formations. They appear like a snake rolled 
up; some are very small, but occasionally they are met 
with upward of three feet in diameter. In some places 
they are so numerous, that the rocks seem, as it were, 
composed of them alone. Upward of 200 species have 
been already described, and it appears that many of 
them were very widely distributed; some being found 
in the Himalayan mountains, at the elevation of 16,000 
feet, similar to species discovered in the oolite series of 
rocks in Europe. The nearest recent ally of this extinct 
fam. of Mollusca is supposed to be the Spirula, q. v. 



Fig. 111. —AMMONITE OP BAYEUX. 


Ammo nium, n. (Chem.) The existence of an hypo¬ 
thetic compound metal called A., and having the con¬ 
stitution NH 4 , has been assumed as the only method of 
explaining the perfect analogy that exists between the 


salts of ammonia and those of the precious metals. Act¬ 
ual experiments have already strengthened this theory, 
at first only founded on analogy. (See the Treatise on 
Chemistry by E. Miller.) 

Chloride of A. A salt ordinarily called sal-ammoniac, 
or muriate of ammonia. It is made extensively by neu¬ 
tralizing bone-liquor, or gas-liquor, with hydrochloric 
acid, evaporating, crystallizing, and subliming. It 
was formerly manufactured by subliming the soot pro¬ 
duced by a mixture of coal, salt, animal matter, and clay. 
It is much used in the arts, more especially in tinning 
iron, copper, and brass. It may be formed directly by the 
union of dry ammonia and chlorine. Form. N Ii 4 Cl. 

Iodide of A. A salt much used in photography for 
iodizing collodion, on account of its great solubility in 
alcohol. Its manufacture is very difficult: it should, 
therefore, be bought of a respectable chemist. 

Ammo'nius, surnamed Saccas, or The Porter, a 
philosopher of the 3d century, was born at Alexandria, 
probably of Christian parents, and became the founder 
of a new school of philosophy, which sought to effect a 
reconciliation of the Platonic and Aristotelian systems. 
The great critic Longinus, the mystic Plotinus, and the 
great church teacher Origen, were his disciples. D. 
about 243. 

Aminonoo'snck, the name of two rivers which take 
rise in New Hampshire, Coos co., near Mount Washing¬ 
ton, and fall into the Connecticut river, the Lower A. 
after a course of about 100 miles, and the Upper A. 
after a course of 75 m. 

Ammotlie'a- (Myth.) One of the Nereids. 

Ammunition, n. [Lat munitio, a fortifying.] ( Mil.) 
All warlike stores, especially powder, shot, shell, gre¬ 
nades, cartridges, &c. Muskets, swords, bayonets, and 
other small arms are sometimes, but improperly, in¬ 
cluded under this term. When the term is connected 
with artillery, fixed A. is understood to comprise loaded 
projectiles; and unfixed A., those which are unfilled. 
The chief forms of A. will be found under their proper 
headings, as Cartridge; Case-shot; Gunpowder; Gre¬ 
nade; Shot; Shell; &c. 

Am ne'sia, n. [Gr. a priv.,and mnesis, memory.] {Med.) 
Loss of memory; mostly a symptomatic affection. 

Am nesf y. n. [Fr. amnistie, from Gr. a priv., and mnestis, 
remembrance.] {Polit.) An act of pardon or oblivion, by 
which crimes against the government to a certain time 
are so obliterated that they can never be brought into 
charge. An amnesty may be either absolute and uni¬ 
versal,or it may except certain persons specifically named, 
or certain classes of persons generally described. The 
Constitution of the United States gives to the President 
the right of granting “ reprieves and pardons for offences 
against the U. S.” It was by virtue of that power that 
the President Andrew Johnson, after several declarations 
ot conditional or partial amnesties, at last, December 
25,1868, proclaimed, “ unconditionally and without re¬ 
servation, to all and to every person who directly or in¬ 
directly participated in the late insurrection or rebel¬ 
lion, a full pardon and amnesty for the offence of treason 
against the United States, or of adhering to their enemies 
during the late civil war, with restoration of all rights, 
privileges, and immunities, under the Constitution, and 
the laws which have been made in pursuance thereof.” 

Am'nion, Am'nios, n. [Gr., a lamb or lamb’s skin.] 
{Physio.) The soft internal membrane which surrouuds 
the foetus. It is very thin and pellucid in the early stage 
of pregnancy, but acquires considerable thickness and 
strength iu the latter months. The amnios contains a 
thin watery fluid, in which the foetus is suspended. The 
incontestable uses of this fluid, named also the waters, 
or liquor amnii, are to serve the purpose of affording a 
soft bed for the residence of the foetus, to which it allows 
free motion, and prevents any external injury during 
pregnancy; and inclosed in the membranes, it procures 
the most gentle yet efficacious dilatation of the os uteri, 
and soft parts, at the time of parturition. 

Am'nios, n. (Bot.) A thin semitransparent gelatinous 
substance in which the embryo of the seed is suspended 
and fed in its early stages. 

Am'non. [Heb., faithful.] The eldest son of David. He 
dishonored his half-sister Tamar, and was in conse¬ 
quence murdered by his brother Absalom. 

Am«eba', n.; pi. A m (E b a: . [From Gr. amoibe, change.] 
(Zuol.) An animalcule that has power of undergoing at 
will many changes of form. 

Amoebe'an, a. [From Gr. amoibaios, mutual.] Al¬ 
ternately answering, as it occurs in several of the ec¬ 
logues of Virgil, in which persons are represented as 
speaking alternately. 

Amoe'bous, a. Like an amoeba in structure. 

A'mol, a city of Persia, prov. of Mazanderan. lat. 36° 
30' N.; Ion. 52° 23' 56” E. Pop. 30,000. 

Automates, n. pi. (Bot.) An alliance of plants, class En- 
dogens, including the ord. Musaceee, Zingiberaceie, and Ma- 
rantacex. Diag. Epigynous petaloid Endogens, with un- 
symmetrical flowers, 1-5 stamens,and albuminous seeds. 

A1110 mum, n. [Lat. from Gr. amomos, blameless.'] 
{Bot.) A genus of plants, ord. Zingiberaceie. They are 
aromatic herbs, and were used in embalming; whence 
the name mummy. The acrid seeds of some species are 
called Grains de Paradis. 

A'mon, 14tli king of Judah, succeeded his father Ma- 
nasseh. He devoted himself wholly to the worship of 
false gods, but was killed in a conspiracy after a reign 
of two years, b. c. 639. 

A'mond, a river of England, in Wales, co. of Carmar¬ 
then. It falls into the Loughor. 

Among', Amongst', prep. [O. Eng. amonge; A. S. 
among.] Mingled with; placed with other persons or 
things. 

“ They hid themselves among the thickest trees.”— Milton. 


—Conjoined with others, so as to make part of the numbe* 

“ There were, among the old Romas statues, several ot Von us." 
A moor. See Amour. Addison 

A'mor, n. [Lat.] See Eros. 

Am'oret, n. [From Fr. amourette, a little love-affair 
A lover, (r.) 

Amor'go, the ancient Amorgos, an island in the Gre¬ 
cian Archipelago, about 36 m. in circumference, at the 
S.E. of Naxia, lat. 36° 50' N.; Ion. 25° 56' E. The chief 
town, on tiie N.E. shore, is of the same name. Port 
St. Anna, on the N. shore, is a good harbor. A. wan 
noted iu antiquity for its fertility, and is still well cul¬ 
tivated. It belongs to Greece, and is the birthplace of 
Simonides. — Amorgo Poulos, is a small uninhabited 
island, 12 m. W. of Amorgo. 

Am'orist, n. [Lat ."mare, to love.] A lover; a gal¬ 
lant. (r.) 

Am'orite, and Am'orites. [Ileb., mountainous.'] Tin 
most powerful tribe of the Canaanites, or aborigines of 
Palestine. The name occurs often in the singular num¬ 
ber, though used collectively for the whole Amoritish 
nation. They were the sons of Hum. (Gen. x. 16-20.) 
They are mentioned among the ten nations whose coun¬ 
try was given to the seed of Abraham. (Gen. xv. 19-21.) 
They dwelt chiefly in the mountains which afterward 
belonged to the tribe of Judah. (Numb. xiii. 29; Deut. 
i. 20.) The river Arnon was the border between Moab 
and the A. (Num. xxi. 13.) Of the cities of the A. it 
was said to the people of Israel, “ Thou shalt save alive 
nothing that breatheth: but thou shalt utterly destroy 
the Ilittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizites, Hivites, 
and Jebusites, as the Lord thy God has commanded 
thee, that they teach you not to do after all their abomi¬ 
nations, which they have done unto their gods.” (Deut. 
xx. 16.) Even their sons and their daughters have they 
burnt in the fire to their gods. (Deut. xii. 31.) — The 
A. were of tall stature. According to Amos (ii. 9), 
they were high as cedars and strong as oaks. This 
poetical description is illustrated by the historical state¬ 
ment, that the size of the iron bedstead of the Ainorit- 
ish king Og, of Bashnn, was nine cubits by four. (Deut. 
iii. 11.) But it is most likely that this bedstead, as it is 
called, was a kind of Divan. About the year b. c. 1120 
there was peace between Israel and the A. The Gibeon- 
ites were of the remnant of the A., whom Joshua had 
made hewers of wood and drawers of water. (Jos. ix.; 
2 Sam. xx.) Another branch of the A. dwelt between 
the rivers Jordan and Arnon. (Num. xxi. 13, xxii. 36} 
Judges xi. 18.) Here Moses and the children of Israel 
had smitten two kings of the A., namely, Sihon, who 
dwelt at Heshbon, and Og, king of Bashan. in the plain 
east of Jordan. These kings had refused to let the 
Israelites pass through their borders. But it appears 
that these A. were not extirpated, and that their de¬ 
scendants formed, even during the time of the Macca¬ 
bees, a distinct tribe; for we read in Josephus’s AntU 
quit. (xiii. chap. 1), that the A. from Medaba fell sud¬ 
denly upon the corps of Johannes Gaddis, when he was 
conveying, according to the command of his brother 
Jonathan, the baggage of the Jewish host to the Naha- 
thsean Arabs who roved between the Euphrates and ths 
Red Sea. 

A-morn'ings, adv. In the mornings. ( 0 .) 

Amoro'sa, m. [It.] A wanton woman: a courtesan. 

Amoro so, n. [It.] A lover, a man enamoured. 

— adv. (Mus.) Iu a tender, slow manner. 

Am'orous, a. [It. amoroso; Fr. amoureux. ] In love} 
enamoured;—with of 

“ Nature is amorous ot whatsoever she produces.”— Dryden. 

—Materially inclined to love; disposed to fondness; fond, 
as, an amorous disposition. 

—Relating to, or belonging to love. 

“ And into all things from her air inspired. 

The spirit of love and amorous delight.”— Milton. 

Am'orously, adv. In an amorous manner; fondly} 
lovingly. 

Am orousness, n. The quality of being amorous, a* 

inclined to love; fondness; lovingness. 

Amor'phism, n. [Gr. a priv., and morphe. shape.] Th* 
state of being amorphous. 

Araor'plious, a. The opposite of the crystallized or 
definite form of a body. Charcoal is the amorphous , and 
diamond the crystalline state of carbon. This word 
extensively gains more and more curreucy in the sense 
of floating, or not yet compacted into a settled shape; 
shapeless; unformed; incompact;inchoate;incomplete; 
unordered; unarranged; floating. 

Amorpliozo'a, n.pl. [Gr. amorphos, shapeless.] {Znol.) 
A name given by some authors to living substances that 
have no regular internal structure, as the sponges. 

Amort', a. [Fref. a, and Fr. mart, death.] In the stat* 
of the dead; dejected; depressed; spiritless. 

“ How fares my Kate? what, sweeting, all amort t"—Shaks. 

Amortization. Amortizement, it. [Fr. amcr- 

tissement .] {Eng. Law.) An alienation of lands in mort¬ 
main to any corporation or fraternity and their succes¬ 
sors, i. e., to some community that never is to cease. 

Amortize, v. a. [Fr. amortir.] (Eng. Law.) To alienate 
lands in mortmain. 

A'nios. [Heb., a burden.] The fourth of the ancient 
prophets; was a native of the town of Thekou, near 
Bethlehem. He was not a prophet's son, but a herds¬ 
man,and a gathererof sycamore fruit,and the Lord took 
him, as he followed the flock, to prophesy unto Israel. 
His prophecies were probably delivered between the 
years 798-784 b. c. The canonical authority of A. rests 
upon the internal Character of his work, upon the 
united testimony of the Jewish and Christian churches 
and upon the use which the apostles made of him- 
(V. 25,26, in Acts vii. 42; Amos ix. 11, and in Acts xv. Id ) 








AMPH 


AMPH 


AMPH 


93 


Amoskoag', in New Hampshire, a post-village of 
Hillsborough co., 17 m. S. by E. of Concord, on the 
Merrimac river. 

Amo tion, n. [From Lat. amovere, to remove.] {Eng. 
Law) A putting away; a removing; deprivation of 
possession. 

Amount', v. n. [0. Fr. amounter; Fr. monter .] To rise 
to in the accumulative quality; to compose in the whole. 
It is used of several sums in quantities added together. 

“ Let us compute a little more, particularly how much this will 
amount to.’ 1 ~ Burnet. 

—To reach the apex or culminating point, or a certain 
point or degree; to reach; to come; to rise; to attain; 
to extend. 

Amount', n. The sum total; the result of several 
sums or quantities accumulated.—The effect, substance, 
or result; as, “The amount of his speech was unim¬ 
portant.” 

Amour', n. [Fr] An affair of gallantry; a love intrigue : 
generally used of an unlawful connection in love.— The 
ou sounds like oo in poor. 

** But how can Jove in his amours be found? "— Addison. 

Anionr', Amour, or Sagha'lien, a large river of East¬ 
ern Asia, formed by the union of the Sliilkaand Argun; 
the first rising in the Russian government of Irkutsk, 
and the second near Ourga, in Mongolia, and hitherto for 
400 m. forming the boundary line between the Chi¬ 
nese and Russian empires. The A. traverses the centre 
of Mantchooria, entering the gulf of Saghalien, in lat. 
52° 27' N., and Ion. 140° E. Its entire course is estimated 
at 2,000 m. After a struggle of fifty years, with the 
view of annexing the territory through which flows the 
A., the Russians were excluded from this river, by treaty 
with the Chinese in 1G89. In 1847, its navigation was 
again opened to them by treaty; and the territory, with 
an area of 173,552 square miles, is now a province of 
Asiatic Russia. Cap., Blagovechensk. 

A'ntoy, a.seaport town of China, prov. of Fo-kien: lat. 
84° lty N.; Ion. 118° 10'E. Its port, commodious and 
secure, is one of the five opened to foreign trade in 
China. The town is built on an island of the same name, 
opposite Formosa. It is large; contains many public 
buildings, and carries on a considerable trade. Pop. 
about 250,000. 

Am'pelic Acid. ( Chem.) White flaxes, without taste 
and smell, soluble in hot water; fuses at 500°, and sub¬ 
limes at a higher temperature ; combines with alkalies, 
forming very soluble salts. Obtained in the rectifica¬ 
tions of that portion of the oil from alum slate (ampe- 
lite) which distils at. 302°. 

Ampel'idte, or Bnmbycil'lidie, n. pi. (Zobl.) A 
family of birds, ol d. Jnsessnres. They are characterized by 
having the bil 1 short, strong, broad, somewhat depressed 
at the ltase, and more or less curved at the tip. Gape wide; 
torsi short and strong; claws very strong, and tail often 
very short. —They are generally natives of America, 
and live on fruits and berries. The Wax-wing, or Cedar- 
bird, Ampelis Oarolinensis, of North America, where in 
the fall, and beginning of summer, it becomes very 
fat, and is then very much esteemed for the table. They 
breed in June, building a large nest, and laying three 
or four eggs. See Bombycillidae. 

Ampel'idese, n. pi. {But.) See Vitace.e. 

Am'peline, n. {Chem.) A colorless oil, without smell, 
obtained by distilling sulphuric acid, and the oil from 
alum slates, which boils between 392° and 536°. 

Am pelis, n. (Zobl) The wax-wing. See Ampelidje. 

Am pelite, n. {Min.) A generic name given to slates, 
the aluminous A. being alum slate, and the graphic, 
common writing-slate. 

Ampelop'sis, «. (Bot.) See Cisscs. 

Am pire, A-vmtf: Marie, whose name is imperishably 
connected with the great discoveries in electro-mag¬ 
netism, was B. at Lyon, 1775. In 1801, he was nominated 
professor of the Polytechnic School of Paris; and here, 
in connection with (Ersted, Faraday, and other distin¬ 
guished men of science, he paved the way for those 
brilliant discoveries that have already resulted in the 
electric telegraph, and promise an illimitable extension 
of the boundaries of science. D. 1S36. 

Am'pfere, Jean Jacques, son of the above, a distin¬ 
guished French historian and littirateur, was born at 
Lyons in 1800, and was a pupil of Cousin. In 1833, he 
became a professor of the College of France, and was 
received into the French Academy in 1817. He visited 
Egypt and Nubia in 1844,and contributed some interest¬ 
ing articles on those countries to the “ Revue des Deux 
Mondes.” He wrote a number of valuable works in rela¬ 
tion to French literature and language, and Hisloire lto- 
maine d Rome, a work of critical scholarship. i>. 1804. 

Ampdre (Am'-pair). A term in practical electricity, 
denoting the unit of current, so called in houorof A.M. 
Ampere. An ampere is the amount of current which will 
be generated in a conductor whose resistance is 1 ohm 
(q.v.), when the difference of potential between the ends 
of the conductor is 1 volt (q.v.). 

Am'pbi-, n. [Gr.] A prefix in words of Greek origin, 
signifying about, arourul, on both sides &c. 

Alli'phiaraiiN, (Mi/th. ,) son of Oicleus (according to 
some, of Apollo) and Ilypermnestra; endowed by the 
gods with prophetical powers. Foreseeing that he should 
perish before Thebes, he hid himself; but being betray¬ 
ed by his wife, Eriphyle, q. v., he joined Polynices in his 
expedition against this city, and was one ol his most 
valiant warriors. The besiegers having been repulsed 
in one of their attacks, the earth opened under him in 
his flight, and swallowed him, with his horses. On the 
spot where this event is said to have taken place, at 
Oropus, a feast was celebrated in honor of him ( Ampin - 
%-tsa), and, not far from this city, a temple was dedi¬ 


cated to him, where oracles were delivered. His death 
was revenged by his son, Alcmaeon. 

Amphib'ean, and Ampliib'ial, n. One of the 
Amphibia. 

Amphibia. n. pi. [Gr. amphi, on both sides, and 
bins, life.] (Zobl.) Strictly speaking, the term Amphibia 
will apply only to such animals as have the power of 
living, indifferently, at the same time, either upou land 
or in water, yet in common conversation we are accus¬ 
tomed to denominate seals, otters, beavers, &c., besides 
many reptiles, amphibious, because their organization 
disposes them to resort either to the land or water for 
procuring food, or whose habits are at once terrestrial 
and aquatic. But this is by far too comprehensive a 
sense. Liniueus applied the term generally to the third 
class of Ills system of zoology, which comprised not 
only all the animals since more properly denominated 
reptiles, such as the tortoises, lizards, serpents, and 
frogs, but likewise the cartilaginous fishes. It is now 
admitted, however, that Linnaeus was not correct in this 
classification, and that a truly amphibious animal should 
possess the extraordinary double apparatus (lungs and 
gills at one and the same time) for extracting the prin¬ 
ciple which supports animal life indifferently from either 
element. It is only then to the genera lepidostren, 
Ih’oteus, Siren, the Axolotl, and Menobranchus, that the 
term amphibious really applies, as these animals possess 
in reality both lungs and gills. Modem zoologists, how¬ 
ever, use the name A. to designate all the animals 
classed by Cuvier, as an order of reptiles, under the 
name of Batrachiam. —See Batrachi.a. 

Ampliibiolog'ical, a. Belonging to amphibiol- 
ogy- 

A ill ;>!■ iblol'ogy, n. [Fr. amphibinlogie, from Gr. 
amphibins, amphibious, and logos, discourse.] A treatise 
on amphibious animals. 

Allipllib'ious, a. That which partakes of two na¬ 
tures, so as to live in two elements: as in air and wa¬ 
ter, like frogs, Sic. —It is often used metaphorically. 

“The amphibious character of the Greeks was already deter¬ 
mined; they were to he lords of land and sea.” 

Amphib'ioiisness, n. The quality of being able to 
live in two elements. 

Ampliib'iiim, n. {Zobl) One of the amphibia, q. v. 

Am'pltibole, n. [Gr. amphibolos, equivocal.] {Min) 
A class of minerals, consisting of many varieties. White 
A. is tremolite; compact A.,corneine; black A. is horn¬ 
blende; green A. is actinote. Oblique rhombic prisms, 
spec. grav. 2-92 to 3-48 ; very frangible, lustre vitreous. 
This mineral affords an example of isomorphism in a 
striking degree. Hornblende may be taken as an aver¬ 
age of its composition. Form. 4 R 0 , 3 Si 03 - Found in 
primary rocks. 

Aiupliibol'ic, a. Belonging to, or partaking of the 
nature of ainphibola. 

Amptlib'olites, n. pi. {Mitt) Trap-rocks, with a 

basis of amphibole. 

AmphiboIog , 'icaI. a. Ambiguous; doubtful. 

Amphibologi'ically, adv. Doubtfully; with a 

doubtful meaning. 

Amphibol'ogy, n. [From Gr. amphi, on both sides, 
hallo, to throw, and logos, discourse.] {Gram) A loose 
manner of expression, whereby the sense may be con¬ 
strued into a double meaning. It has a similar applica¬ 
tion to phrases or sentences with the word equivocal, in 
respect to words. 

Amphibolous, a. Tossing from one to another; as, 

“an amphibolous quarrel.” 

Ampliib'oly, n. [Lat. amphibolia .] Ambiguous dis¬ 
course; amphibology, (r.) 

Amphi brajh. aud Ampliib'racliys. n. [Gr. 

amphi, on both sides, and brachys, short.] ( Anc. Pros) 
A foot of three syllables, the middle one long, the other 
two short; as, habere. 

Amphicar'psea. n. {Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord Faba- 
ceie. The pea-vine, A. monoica, giving in Sept, a pale 
purple flower, is a very slender vine, found in woods 
and thickets of Canada and the United States. 

Ampliicar'pic, o. [Gr. amphi, both ways, and kar- 
pos, fruit.] {Bot) Producing fruit of both kinds either 
as to form or time of ripening. 

Amjiiiic'tyoii, re. A member of the Amphictyonic 
council, q. v. 

Amphictyon'lc, a. [Gr. amphiktyonikos.] Pertain¬ 
ing to the Council of the Amphictyons. 

Ampliic'tyonic Council, one of the earliest in¬ 
stitutions in Greece, so called, it is said, from Amphic- 
tyon, son of Helenus. Grote says: “ The belief of zEschi- 
nes was that it commenced simultaneously with the 
first foundation of the Delphic temple, an event of which 
we have no historical knowledge.” Twelve tribes sent 
sacred deputies called Amphictyons, to this association, 
which held two meetings every year, one at the temple 
of Apollo, at Delphi, in the spring, and the other at the 
temple of Ceres at Thermopylae, in the autumn. They 
took into consideration all matters of disagreement 
which might exist between the different States of Greece. 
Their decisions were, held sacred and inviolable, and even 
armies were raised to enforce them. The interference 
of the Amphictyons led to the first sacred war, b. c. 595. 
This council underwent various changes and vicissi¬ 
tudes, although it survived the independence of the 
country; and, so late as the battle of Actiurn, b. c. 31, 
it retained enough of its ancient dignity to induce Au¬ 
gustus to claim a place in it for his new city of Nicopo- 
lis. Pausanias states that it existed in the second cen¬ 
tury of our sera. 

Ampliic'tyony. n. [<!r. amphiktynnia) An associa¬ 
tion of several States for the promotion of common inter¬ 
ests.— See Amchictyonic Council. 


Amphig'am«u§, a. [Gr. abnphi, on both sides, ant 
gamos, marriage.] (Bot.) A term applied byDe Candolle 
to those plants that have no traces of sexual organs. 

Ampliig'eaii, a. (Geol.) Extending over all the zones, 
from the tropics to either polar zone. 

Am'pliigene, re. (Min) See Leucite. 

Am'plii-liexahe'tlral, a. [Gr. amphi, on both sides, 
aud Eng. hex'ihedral.] (Min) Applied to a crystal, the 
faces of which, counted in two different directions, give 
two hexahedral outlines, or are found to be six in num¬ 
ber. 

Amplii'la, an island in the hay of the same name, in 
the Red sea. Lat. 14° N.; Lon. 40° 22' E. 

Ainphirogy, re. See Amphibology. 

Amphim'acer, re. [Lat. amphimacrus, from amphi, 
ou both sides, and macros, long.] (Anc. Pros.) A loot 
of three syllables, the middle one short, and the others 
long, as in CdsWds. 

Amplii'on. (Myth) Son of Jupiter and Antiope; the 
eldest of the Grecian musicians. In Lydia, where he 
married Niobe, the daughter of king Tantalus, lie learned 
music, and brought it thence into Greece. He reigned in 
Thebes, which was before called Cadmea. A. joined the 
lower and upper city by walls, built the 7 gates, and 
gave it the name of Thebes. To express the power of his 
music, and, perhaps, of his eloquence, the poets said, that, 
at the sound of his lyre, the stones voluntarily formed 
themselves into walls; that wild beasts, and even trees, 
rocks, and streams, followed the musician. With the aid 
of his brother, Zethus, he is said to have revenged Anti¬ 
ope, who was driven into banishment by his father, and 
to have hound Dirce to the tail of a wild hull; which 
incident is supposed to be represented by the famous 
piece of sculpture, the Farnese bull. 

Ampliip'oda, re. pi. [Gr. amphi, all around, and pou$ % 
a foot.] (Zobl.) A numerous group of tetradecapodous 
crustaceans, containi nga considerable number of species, 
ail of small size, having the power of swimming and 
leaping with great facility, but always on one side. 
Some are found in streams and rivulets, but most in salt 
water; and their color is of a uniform pale red or green¬ 
ish. In this order the eyes are sessile and immovable; 
the mandibles are furnished with a palp; the abdominal 
appendages are always apparent and elongated; and 
they have ciliae, which appear to fulfil the office of 
branchiae. The antennae are ordinarily four in number, 
and the body is mostly compressed and bent. Some of the 
species are parasitical, living attached to fishes, and in 
acalepliae; others are free and very active, some living 
in the sand of the sea-shore, others in the sea or in fresh 
water, as the sandhoppers, gammarus. 

Aniphip'odous. a. Belonging to the amphipoda. 

Ampliipolis. (Anc. Geog.) A town on the Strymon 
between Macedonia and Thrace, named also Acra. My- 
rica, Eion, Sic. It is now called Iamboli. It was the 
cause of many wars between the Athenians and Spartans. 

Ampllip'rostyle. re. [From Gr. amphi, on both sides, 
and prostylos, with pillars in front.] (Arch.) An edifice 



Pig. 112.— temple of victory; restored. 
(Athens.) 


having the form of an ancient Greek or Roman paral- 
lelograinmic temple, witli a prostyle, or portico, on each 
flank, as in fig. 112. 

Ampliisbse'na, n. [Gr. amphi, both ways, baino, to 
walk.] (Zobl.) A gen. of reptiles, fam. Amphisbcenida. 

Ampliisbae'nidje, n.pl. (Zool) A family of reptile* 
belonging to the ord. Amphisbeertia of Gray, natives of 
South America, and distinguished by their bodies hav¬ 
ing nearly the same uniform thickness throughout their 
whole length, it being difficult at first sight to dis> 
tiuguish the head from the tail. They are harmless, 
living chiefly in ants’ nests, upon which animals they 
feed. Their eyes are so small that they have been sup¬ 
posed to he blind. The species of the gen. Amphisbana 
are destitute of limbs, hut the gen. Odrotes is peculiar 
for having two small rudimentary front legs. 

Ampii iscii. n.pl. [Lat. from Gr. ampin, both ways, 
and scia, a shadow.] A name applied to the inhabitants 
of the torrid zone. A., as the word imports, have their 
shadows one part of the year toward the north, and at 
the other toward the south, according to the sun’s place 
in the ecliptic. When the sun is in its zenith they havt 
no slindow, wherefore Pliny calls them Ascii. 

Amphitbe'atral, a. Resembling an amphitheatre 

































































96 


AMPH 


AMPU 


AM ST 


Amphittie'atre, n. [Gr. amphi, about, and theaomai, 
to see.] A building of an oval form, in which were 
exhibited various kinds of games and spectacles, espe¬ 
cially combats of gladiators and wild beasts. The build¬ 
ing was open at the top and was provided with an awn¬ 
ing, which could be let down or drawn up at pleasure, 
and was occasionally used to defend the spectators from 
the rain and sun. The first A. of stone was erected by 
Statilius Taurus, by desire of Augustus. The largest 
was the Flavian A., or, as its ruins are generally called, 
the Qolosseum; built, as Suetonius informs us, on the 



Fig. 113.— THE COLOSSEUM, OR COLISEUM. 


(Rome.) 

ancient site of the gardens of Nero. It was commenced 
by Flavius Vespasian, a. d. 72, and completed by bis son 
" Titus, and was capable of seating 87,000 persons, leaving 
standing-room for 20,000 more. It is recorded that 30,000 
Jews, the victims of war, were employed in its construc¬ 
tion. Theruinsof several A. are still found in Italy and 
France, the most remarkable being those of Capua, 
Verona, Nimes, Pola, and Paestum. The principal parts 
of the A. were the arena , or place where the gladiators 
fought; cavea, or hollow place where the beasts were 
kept; podium, or projection at the top of the wall which 
surrounded the arena, and was assigned to the sena¬ 
tors ; gradus, or benches, rising all round above the 
podium; aditus, or entrances; and vomitories, or gates 
which terminated the aditus. 

Amphitlieat/ric, Amphitheat'rical, a. Per¬ 
taining to, or exhibited in an amphitheatre. 

Amphitlieat'rically, ado. In the form of an am¬ 
phitheatre. 

Ainpilito'ites. n. {Pal.) A gen. of fossil zoophytes 
which occur in the quarries of Montmartre. They do 
not approximate to any recent gen. of zoophytes known 
to exist. 

Am'pliitrite. (Myth.) A daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys, or of Nerous and Doris. Neptune wished to make 
her his wife, and, as she hid herself from him, he sent a 
dolphin to find her, which brought her to him, and re¬ 
ceived as a reward a place among the stars. As a god¬ 
dess and queen of the sea, she is represented as drawn in 
a chariot of shells by Tritons, or riding on a dolphin, 
with the trident of Neptune in her hand. 

Am'pliitrite, n. [Gr. Amphitrile, the wife of Neptune.] 

(Zool.) A gen. of annellides,fam. Tubicolee, q. v. 

Am'pliitrite Islands, in the China sea, near lat. 16° 
N., and Ion. 112° E. They are included in the group of 
the Paracels, and are themselves divided into two groups. 

Anipliit'ropal, Ampliit'ropous. a. [Gr. amphi, 
around, and tre.pe.in, to turn.] {Bot.) Having the ovals 
inverted, but with the attachment near the middle of 
one side; half anatropous. 

Amphit'ryon, king of Thebes, son of Alcaeus, and 
husband of Alcmena. Plautus, after him Moliere, and, 
still later, Falk and Kleist, have made the trick played 
upon him by Jupiter (see Alcmena) the subject of 
amusing comedies, in which the return of the true A., 
and his meeting with the false one, occasion several 
humorous scenes at the palace and in the city. The 
French give this name to a courteous host. 

Ain plii n'ma, n. (Zool.) A gen. of reptiles, ord. Pseudo- 
sauria, q. v. 

Ampiiotl'elite, n. {Min.) A reddish-gray or dingy 
peach-blossom red variety of Anorthite, q v. 

Amphora. n.; pi. Amphora. [Lat. from Gr. amphi, 
on both sides, and phe.ro, to bear.] In its ordinary ac- 



Fig. 114.— MODE OF FILLING AMPHORA! FROM A WINE-CART, 
ceptation, A. means an earthen vessel, used as measure 
for liquids both by the Greeks and the Romans. It re¬ 


ceived its name on account of its two ears or handles. 
It was generally about two feet in height; and the 
body, about six inches in diameter, ending upward with 
a short neck, tapers toward the lower part almost to a 
point. The Roman amphora contained forty-eight sex- 
taries, and was equal to about seven gallons one pint 
English wine-measure; and the Grecian or Attic am¬ 
phora contained oue third more.—Amphora was also a 
dry measure in use among the Romans, and contained 
three bushels. When filled with wine, they were lined 
with pitch, on account of the porous nature of the 
material of which they were formed. They were some¬ 
times used as funeral urns. Homer mentions amphorae 
both of gold and stone. 

Am'phoral, a. Relating to or resembling an amphora. 

Amplior'ic, a. {Auscultation.) Applied to a sound 
emitted from the lungs, like that produced by blowing 
into an empty decanter. 

Amphoter ic, a. [Gr. amphoteros, both.] Partly one 
and partly the other. 

Am'ple, a. [Fr. from Lat. amplus, large.] It prima¬ 
rily expresses fulness of superficial, though not neces¬ 
sarily plane extent, as ample space; the ample folds 
of a robe. In usage it expresses such a fulness as testi¬ 
fies requirement or need. Large; bountiful; liberal; 
sufficient; plentiful; abundant. 

Am'pieness, n. The quality of being ample: largeness. 

Ample'piiix, a town of France, dep. of the Rhone, 
19 m. W.S.W. of Villefranche; pop. 5,311. 

Amplex'icaul, a. [Lat. amplecti, to embrace, caulis, 
a stem.] {But.) A term applied to a leaf which is en¬ 
larged at its base, so as to clasp the stem from which it 
springs, as in fool’s-parsley. 

Am'pliate, v. a. [Lat. ampliare.] To enlarge; to make 
greater; to extend, (r.) 

Ampliation. n. [Fr. from Lat. ampliatio ] Enlarge¬ 
ment; extension; diffuseness; amplification, (r.) 

{Law.) A deferring of judgment until the Cause is 
further examined. — (French Law.) A duplicate of an 
acquittance or other instrument. — A notary’s copy 
of acts passed before him, delivered to the parties. 

Am'pliative, a. Adding to that which is already 
known or received; synthetic. 

Amplification, n. [Fr. from Lat. amplification The 
act of amplifying or enlarging in dimension; enlarge¬ 
ment. 

{Rhet.) A part of a discourse or speech, wherein a 
crime is aggravated, a praise or commendation height¬ 
ened, or a narration enlarged, by an enumeration of 
circumstances, so as to excite the proper emotions iu the 
minds of the auditors. 

Am'plificative, and Am'pliticatory, a. That 

enlarges or amplifies. 

Am'plifier, n. One who amplifies or enlarges. 

Am'piify, v. a. and n. [Fr. amplifier, from Lat. amplifi- 
care.] 'To make ample. The word is commonly applied 
to the augmentation of resources and the enlargement 
of some literary subject or argument. To enrich; to 
enlarge; to extend; to increase; todilate; toexpatiate; 
to expand. 

Am'plitmle, n. [From Lat. amplus, large.] The state 
of being ample; extent; largeness. 

(Astron.) The angular distance of a celestial body 
from the east point when it rises, or from the west point 
when it sets. It depends upon the declination of the 
star and the latitude of the place. It must be measured 
toward the N. and S. points of the horizon, according 
as the declination is N. or S. For the fixed stars, the A. 
remains the same throughout the year; but for the sun 
it varies with the declination. 

{Gan.) A. is sometimes used for the range of a shell, 
or other projectile, from its departure out of the mouth 
of the piece to the place where it falls. Thus, French 
engineers speak of the A. de parabole, &c. 

Magnetical amplitude, with reference to the direction 
of the magnetic needle or compass, the arc of the hori¬ 
zon contained between the sun or a star, as its rising or 
setting, and the magnetical E. or W. points of the hori¬ 
zon; or it is the difference of the rising or setting of the 
sun or star from the E. or W. points of the compass. 

Am pul, n. See Ampulla. 

Ampul'la, n. [Lat., a bottle.] A vessel bellying out like 
a jug, used by the ancient Romans, either for containing 
unctions for the bath, or for drinking at table. 

{Eccl. Hist.) A vessel for holding the oil at Chris¬ 
mation, consecration, &c.; also for anointing monarchs 
at coronation. In France and England, a vessel of this 
kind was in use for the last-mentioned purpose. The 
French A. was at Rheims, the archbishop of which city 
performed the act of coronation of the French kings. 
A dove, it is said, brought this A. from heaven for the 
baptismal unction of Clovis I., in 496. In the revolution, 
this A. was lost; and it is said that a soldier oiled his 
boots with the miraculous liquid. On the coronation of 
Charles X., the last monarch anointed, it was stated 
that a phial containing some of this unction bad sur¬ 
vived the catastrophe. The A. of the English kings was 
in the form of an eagle, weighing about 10 ounces, of 
the purest chased gold. It was deposited by the Black 
Prince in the Tower of London. Henry IV. is the first 
king who was anointed from it. 

(Chem.) A big bellied vessel. 

{Bot.) A bladder-shaped bag. 

Ampiilla'ceoiis, a. Having the form of a bottle or 
inflated bladder. 

Ampulla'ria, n. [Lat. ampulla, a globular flask.] 
(Zool.) A gen. of Mollusca,of the fam. Ampullariida , q v. 

Aiiipollari'itlce. n. pi. {Zool.) A family of fresh-water 
gasteropodous Mollusca, the shell of which is large, 
thin, and globular. In addition t» their gills they are 
said to have a bag which opens beneath, placed on 


the side of the respiratory cavity, which they can prot> 
ably fill with water. It is most likely by means of 
this apparatus that the animals have the power of sur¬ 
viving a long drought or removal from the water, in¬ 
dividuals having been known to live after having been 
packed up dry for a year or two. 

Am'putate, v. a. [Fr. amputer , from Lat. amputare.] 
To cut off', as a limb.—It is also used in a general sense; 
to prune; to lop; to curtail. 

Amputation, n. {Lat. ampule , I prune or lop off.] 
(Surg.) The operation of cutting off a limb or some 
part of the body. The human frame is so constituted 
that if one member be diseased, the whole body suffers 
with it; and frequently the life of an individual may 
depend upon the removal of an injured or diseased mem¬ 
ber. The ancients, while they saw the necessity of cut¬ 
ting off a limb, shrunk from the operation with dismay, 
for Miey knew of no means of stopping the hemorrhage 
but red-hot irons aud boiling oil or resin; and hence, 
besides the Suffering entailed upon the patient, their 
operations were se dom successful. The advance of 
modern surgery is here very marked, not only in the 
improved methods and appliances for operating, but, 
lrom their increased knowledge of the human body, 
surgeons are now able to determine with tar greater 
accuracy when an operation is necessary, or, by a minor 
operation, are able frequently to save a limb, little or at 
all impaired, which even half a century ago would have 
been ruthlessly sacrificed; while the recent introduc¬ 
tion of anaesthetics has been of inestimable value to the 
patient. An amputation may be performed by what is 
termed the circular, the double-flap, or the single-flap 
operation. In proceeding to amputate, the patient is 
first placed in a convenient position, and the main ar¬ 
tery is compressed by the tourniquet (see Tourniquet) 
or by the hand of a skilled assistant. The circular oper¬ 
ation is performed by first detaching the skin a short 
distance below where the amputation is to be made. It 
is then drawn upward, and the muscles divided down 
to the bone, which is then sawn through. The arteries 
are then seized with a small forceps, drawn slightly 
out, and tied with a thread, after which the skin is 
brought over the wound, and either stitched or held 
together by strips of adhesive plaster. The double-flap 
operation differs from the above, in that the skin and 
muscles are cut down in a slanting manner, on opposite 
sides, so as to form two flaps, which are then drawn up, 
and the knife carried round the bone, dividing any flesh 
that may still be adhering to it; after which the sur¬ 
geon saws the bone. It is objected to this method, that 
it makes a greater wound, and that the arteries, from 
being cut obliquely, will be less securely tied; but it is 
in favor with many, who maintain that there is little 
force in these objections, and that they are more than 
compensated for by the greater protection afforded by 
the flaps to the bone The single-flap operation is sel¬ 
dom resorted to, unless where a portion of the limb is 
destroyed on one side, and it becomes necessary to take 
the flap from the opposite side. 

Am'pyx. [Gr.] In ancient Greece, 
a frontal, or broad band or plate of 
metal, which ladies of rank wore 
above the forehead as part of the 
head-dress. — The frontal of a horse 
was called by the same name. 

Ain'ran, a walled city of Arabia, 
iu the Djebel, or mountain-land of 
Yemen, 25 in. N.W. of Sana; Lat. 

16° 32' N.; Lon. 43° 38' E. It stands 
in a fertile country, in the centre 
of the coffee lands. Though being a 
part of Haschid-u-Bekel, it is under 
the government of the Imaum of 
Yemen Proper. Pop. about 2,000. 

Ain'ran Mountains, a S. Af¬ 
ghanistan mountain range; highest 
peak, 9.000 feet. It is crossed by 
the Kajuk pass. 7,457 feet high. 

Ain'ran, a town and fortress of Hin- 
dostan, prov. of Gujerat, 22 m. from 
Mallia. Lat. 22° 35' N.; Lon. 70° 35' E. 

Am'rawutti, or Amaravati, a considerable town of 
India, in the Deccan, 28 m. from Ellichpoor. Cotton is 
grown in its neighborhood. 

Ainret'slr, Amrit'sir, or Umrttsur, the Pool of Im¬ 
mortality, a town of the Punjab. India, the holy city of 
the Sikh people, and formerly called Cl.uk, at 44 m. E. 
oi Lahore; Lat.31°33'N.; Lon. 74° 56' E. Manufactures 
inconsiderable; but being situated on the high-road 
between Cabul and Delhi, and Cashmere and the Dec- 
can, it enjoy s an extensive trade.—It is the principal 
seat of the Sikh religion. Amritsir, orthe“Pool of Im¬ 
mortality,” is abasin 135 paces square, built of brick, in 
the midst of w hich is a temple dedicated to the war¬ 
rior-saint Gooroo Goviou Singh, the principal foupder 
of the religion and power of the Sikhs. Immersion in 
the sacred pool is believed by the Sikhs, and by many 
tribes of Hindoos, to purily from all sins. Pop.' (1891) 
136,766; now (1897), est. at 141,500. 

Am'ru-ebn-a'1-as, or Umru-ben-el-as, a famous Sar¬ 
acen general, at first a great enemy of Mahomet, but 
afterward his zealous disciple. lie conquered Syria 
and Egypt. D. a. d. 663. 

AII1NO J1 ia. n. {Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Apocynacece. 

Am'stel, r. small river of Holland, which, running 
through the city of Amsterdam, joins the arm of the 
Zuyder Zee called the Wye. It is canalized, and made 
navigable for vessels of considerable size. 

Am'sterdam. [From Amstel, a river running into the 
city, and dam, a dyke, or embankment of earth to sepa¬ 
rate two lakes or canals.] The cap. of the kingdom oi 






















































AMUL 


AMY G 


AM YE 


97 


Holland and of tlio prov. of N. Holland, on the S. hank 
of the Ji or Y, a gulf of the Zuyder Zee, in Lat. 52° 22' 
6" N., Lon. 4° 53' 2" E., 107 in. N. of Brussels. The city 
is in the form of a crescent, with the two horns project¬ 
ing to 'the Y, which forms the port of A. The approach 
to this capital on the land-side is very striking, the view 
extending over spacious meadows covered with luxu¬ 
riant grass to the town, where the tall masts of ships, 
spires, and houses are all mingled together; and this 
scene of activity and wealtli is in the middle of a marsh, 
which seems at every moment to be threatened with in¬ 
undation from the brimful canals and waters which sur¬ 
round it. But these form the best defeuce of A and 
enable its inhabitants to lay the whole country around 
under water. A. was originally a salt-marsh, and in 
order to make a foundation for houses, it was necessary 
to drive large piles of wood, or rather masts, through a 
layer of peat, which in some places is said to be from 
40 to 50 feet thick. The streets are generally in a 
straight line along the banks of the canals which inter¬ 
sect the city; among the finest are the Iieeren Graft, or 
Gragt, and the Keizer’s Gragt. The canals, or gragten, 
are so numerous that the city is divided into 90 islands, 
which communicate by 290 bridges; the Amstel itself 
divides the town into the eastern or old, and western 
or new part, and is crossed by a bridge, the Amstel- 
Brug, with 35 arches; it is about 610 feet long and 66 % 
wide. Through the eleven central arches large ships pass. 
Near the bridge is the great sluice (Amstelsluis), by 
which the waters of the river can be either dammed out 
or allowed to flow through the city. By shutting the 
gates, the course of the Amstel is stopped, and the 
country round the city laid under water. — Of the pub¬ 
lic buildings, the palace, formerly the Stadt-house (town- 
house), is the most magnificent; among the other pub¬ 
lic edifices are, the Exchange, founded in 1608, and capa¬ 
ble of accommodating 4,500 persons; the City Hall, for¬ 
merly the Admiralty; the museum; the arsenal, built on 
the island of Kattenburg; and the buildings of the so¬ 
ciety of Felix tleritis, having a superb concert-liall, three 
theatres, &c. Of the churches, that most worthy of at¬ 
tention, the New Church, was begun in 1408.—Among 
the literary institutes is the Athenaeum, or College, a 
school of navigation, a royal academy of the fine arts, 
and the Amsterdam Institute, or Society of Felix Men¬ 
tis. — Man uf. All sorts of stuffs, damasks, galloons, laces, 
velvets, woollen cloths, carpets, leather, borax,camphor, 
cinnabar, sulphur, &c. The art of cutting diamonds has 
here attained great perfection. About 10,0 >0 persons, 
9,000 of whom are .Tews, are engaged in the trade.— 
Throughout the 17th century, and the first half of the 
18th, A. was the metropolis of the commercial world. 
The growth of commerce and navigation in England 
and other countries has greatly lessened the carrying 
trade, which she had almost wholly engrossed; but 
though far short of its ancient importance, its commerce 
is still of very considerable extent and value. The old 
bank of A., founded in 1609, and so celebrated among the 
moneyed institutions of the 18th century, ceased to exist 
in 1796. The present bank of the Netherlands was es¬ 
tablished in 1814. — A . has been sometimes called the 
Venice of the North. 1 n the 12th century it was only a 
small fishing-village; in 1482 it was fortified. It sup¬ 
ported for a long period the cause of the Spaniards; 
and it was not until 1578 that it joined the confedera¬ 
tion, when it began rapidly to increase. A ship canal, 
15 m. long, was completed Nov. 1876, connecting A. with 
the German Ocean, thecosrof which is said to have been 
810,000,000. Pop. in 1880, 296,200; in 1891, 42G,914. 
Am'sterdam, in Indiana, a post-village of Cass co., 9 
m. W. by S. of Logansport. 

Am'sterdam, in Michigan, a village of Ottawa co., on 
Lake Michigan, 33 m. W. S. W. of Grand Rapids. 
Amsterdam, in New York, a thriving city of Mont¬ 
gomery co., in township of same name, on Mohawk river, 
33 m. N. IV. of Albany. Manuf. of carpets, knit goods, 
steel springs,<fec. Pop. (1890) 17,336; (1897) est. 20,000. 
Am'sterdam. in Ohio, a post-vill. in Springfield twp., 
Jefferson co., 21 m.VV.N.W. of Steubenville. 
Am'sterdam. in Virginia, a post-village of Botetourt 
co., 181 m. W. of Richmond. 

Amsterdam Island, a small island in tlieS. Indian 
ocean, discovered by Van Vlaming in 1697 ; Lat. 37° 
47' S.; Lon. 76° 54' id.; being 4% m. in length, by 2% in 
breadth, and 700 feet high. It is of volcanic formation, 
and the surface is in parts burning hot. No trees nor 
quadrupeds are found on this island, but it is resorted to 
by vast numbers of sea-birds. 

Am'sterdam, New, a town and harbor of British 
Guiana, South America, near the mouth of the Berbice 
river. Lat. 6°20' N.; Lon. 57° 11' IV. Founded by the 
Dutch, it is built in their fashion. Pop. (1896) 5,530. 
Amstet'ten. an Austrian village, 28 m. from Linz. 
Here the Austrians and Russians were defeated by the 
French, on the 5th of Nov., 1805. 

Amt'zell, a town of WUrtemberg. district of the Lake 
of Constance, 8 m. from Ravensburg. There is a fine 
castle here. Pop. 2,130. 

Amuck', n. [Malay.] Act of killing; slaughter. — To 
run amuck, is to rush through the streets, frantically 
attacking all that come in the way. 

Am'ulct, n. fLat. amuletum; Fr . amidette.] An orna¬ 
ment or any other thing, generally inscribed with mys¬ 
tic forms or characters, worn as a preservative against 
enchantments, disease, or other evil, and for securing 
good-fortune; a charm. — A. of various kinds wore in 
use among the Jews, (Gen. xxxv. 4, and Hosea. ii. 13.) 
The Persians and the Egyptians used them: aud the 
Greeks and Romans made them of gems of various 
kinds. Homer mentions them as charms Pericles 
wore an A. The emperor Caracalla, about a. p. 216, 


prohibited the use of them. They were used by the | 
ancient Druids, and both necklaces and beads, intended 
as charms, are frequently found in their burrows.— Even 
at the present time, the superstitious faith in the virtue 
of certain charms has not entirely ceased to exist. 

Amulet'ic, a. Pertaining to an amulet, (o.) 

Amii'lius, king of Alba. — See Romulus. 

Amuratli' 1., a sultan of the Turks; succeeded his 
father Urchan in 13> 0. He founded the corps of Janis¬ 
saries, conquered Phrygia, and on the plains of Cassova 
defeated the Christians. In this battle he was wounded, 
and died the next day, 1389. 

Amurath II., one of the more illustrious of the Ottoman 
emperors, succeeded his father Mohammed I. in 1421, at 
the age of 17. In 1423 lie took Thessalonica from the 
Venetians; in 1435, subdued the despot of Servia, be¬ 
sieged Belgrade, which was successfully defended by 
John Ilunniades; defeated the Hungarians at Varna, in 
1444, and slew their king Ladislaus. D. 1451. 

Amurath III.,succeeded his father Selim IT. in 1574. His 
first act was the murder of his five brothers, lie added 
several of the best provinces ol Persia to the Turkish 
empire. He was noted for his avarice, and his sensual 
excesses made him prematurely old. D. 1595. 

Amurath IV., succeeded his uncle MustaphaX.,1623. After 
two unsuccessful attempts he took Bagdad from the 
Persians in 1638, and ordered the massacre of 30,000 
prisoners who had surrendered at discretion. The ex¬ 
cessive cruelty and debauchery of A. have earned for 
him the character of being one of the worst sovereigns 
that ever reigned over the Ottomans. D. 1640. 

Amnr'cous, a. [Lat. aniurca .] Full of dregs or lees; 
foul, (r.) 

Ainus'nble, a. Capable of being amused. 

Amuse', r. n. [Fr. amuser, from 0. Fr. muser, to stand 
idle, or to act in a leisurely way.] To entertain with 
tranquillity; to divert; as, “He amuses himself with 
trifles.”—To keep in expectation; to draw on from time 
to time; to deceive; as, “He amused his followers with 
idle promises.” 

Amuse'meni, n. [Fr.] That which amuses; enter¬ 
tainment. 

Amus er, n. [Fr.] One who amuses, as with false 
promises. 

Amiisette', a small light cannon, carrying a ball of 
one-pound weight, and formerly used for service in 
mountainous countries. This gun was highly esteemed 
by Marshal Saxe, but has now gone entirely out of 
use. 

Anius'iiig, p. a. That which affords amusement; pleas¬ 
ing; entertaining. 

Amus'ingly, adv. In an amusing manner. 

Amu'sive, a. That which has the power of amusing. 

Amu'sively, adv. In an amusive manner. 

Am’well, in Pennsylvania, a township of Washington 
co. 

A myg'dalute, a. [Lat. amygdala, almond.] Made of, 
or pertaining to, almonds. 

— n. (Med.) An emulsion of almonds. 

Aittyg'dalese, n. pi. (But.) A name of the Drupacea, 
q. v. 

Amygdal'ic Acid. (Chem .) A soft, crystalline mass 
when prepared in the cold state, gummy when hot, ob¬ 
tained by boiling amygdalin with diluted solution of 
caustic alkalies; ammonia is evolved, and umygdalic acid 
formed, soluble in water. It may be regarded as a com¬ 
pound of oil of bitter almonds, anhydrous formic acid, 
aud sugar. Form. C 20 li 28 O l2 . 

Amyg'dalin, «. (Chem.) A crystalline compound 
procured from bitter almonds. It occurs in pearly scales 
without water, when crystallized from alcohol, and in 
colorless prisms when crystallized from water. Its solu¬ 
tion in water is slightly bitter. Distilled with nitric 
acid, it is converted into ammonia, hydride of benzoyl, 
formic, aud benzoic acids. Form. C 20 H 37 NOn. 

—Relating to, or resembling almonds^ 

Amyg'daloid,?!. [Gr. amygdule, almond, eidos, form.] 
(Min.) A variety of trap-rock, containing, imbedded in it, 
as almonds in a cake, nodules, agates, and other bodies. 

Amygdaloid'al, a. That which relates to amygdaloid. 

Amyg'dalus, n. (But.) A gen. of plants, ord. Drupacea. 
The A. communis, almond-tree, a native of N. Africa 
aud of Asia, is extensively cultivated in the S. of Europe. 
It is a medium-sized tree, nearly allied in habit and gen¬ 
eral appearance to the peach, q. v.—There are two va¬ 
rieties, the var. dulcis, or sweet almond, and the var. 
aniara, or bitter almond In Southern Europe, the A. 
is much cultivated, and large quantities of its nuts ex¬ 
ported. The kernel is the part used; the sweet varieties, 
whether green or dry, form a very nutritive article of 
food, and a most agreeable addition to the dessert. A. 
are used in confectionery.cooking, perfumery, and medi¬ 
cine. The bitter A. is the kind used in perfumery and 
flavoring; it contains prussic acid, which, though a vio¬ 
lent poison, is not thought to be injurious in the small 
quantities required for these purposes.— Cultivation: si 
warm, dry soil is most suitable for the A , which is cul¬ 
tivated like the peach, and is subject to the same dis¬ 
eases; it may he budded on the A., peach, or plum 
stock.—The better varieties: Common A.; nuts 1% inch 
long, hard, smooth, compressed, and pointed, with a 
kernel of agreeable flavor; its flowers open before the 
leaves appear. Ladies' thin-shelled; the soft-shelled 
almonds of the shops: flowers are of a deeper color, nut 
oval, one-sided, pointed, with a porous light-colored 
shell, so tender that it may be crushed with the fingers. 
Kernel sweet, rich, and highly esteemed.— Bitter A. are 
of several varieties, differing in the hardness of the shell, 
closely resembling the others, except in the bitterness 
of kernel; blossoms pale pink: leaves larger, and of a 
darker green than the other varieties. The almond has 


been introduced into Florida, where it is quite at home. 
All who will take the trouble to plant, and care for th« 
tree, may be assured of an abundant reward. — The A, 
rersicus, or peach tree, is extensively cultivated in tha 
U. States, and the object of a large trade. It will bo 
minutely described under the name Peach. 



Fig. 116. — amygdalis communis. (Almond.) 

1. The flower; 2. the nut; natural size. 

Amyla'ceons, a. [Lat. amylum .] Containing, or re- 
sembhng starch. 

Amyla'min,or Amide op Amyl, n. (Chem.) A fluid 
base, boiling at 203°, aud having the smell of ammonia. 
Obtained by treating amyl cyanate with strong caustic 
potash. Sp. gr., ‘7503. Form. C 6 N 13 N. 

Am'ylate, n. (Chem.) A compound of starch with abase. 

Alll'yl, a. [Gr. amylon, flue meal.] (Chem.) An oil boil¬ 
ing at 311°. Obtained by acting on iodide of amyl hy 
zinc. Form. Cjll,,. 

Hydrous oxide of A., named also amylic alcohol, oil of 
grain, fusel oil, oil of whisky, oil of potatoes. A colorless 
oil, boiling at 269%°, and crystallizing at 4°, of peculiarly 
penetrating odor, affecting the chest; burns with a 
white flame, aud is poisonous. Spec. grav. - 812, of vapor 
3147. This oil comes over in the distillations of the 
fermented infusion of barley, oats, aud potatoes, mixed 
w ith alcohol and water, and is purified by washing it 
with water, aud distilling over .ocium chloride. Form. 
C 5 H ls O. The valerate of A., formed by distilling this 
oil with sulphuric acid and potassium bichromate, aud 
the acetate witli the same materials, and the addition of 
an acetate, is employed to flavor confections and brandy, 
under the name of oil of pears, &c. The oxide of A., or 
amylic ether, is obtained by acting on chloride of A. 
with a solution of potash in alcohol, while the chloride 
is formed by distilling amylin with phosphorus 
chloride. 

Ain'ylene, n. (Chem.) See Amilene. 

Amyl'ic Acid. Valerianic Acid, or Delphtnic Acid. 
(Chem.) A colorless oil, boiling at 347°. It is obtained 
from the Valerian, and exists in the berries of the 
guelder-rose. Spec. grav. ’937; of vapor, 3 86 . Form. 
C B H 10 O a . 

Amy line, or Amylin, n. (Chem.) The insoluble part 
of starch.—See Amidine. 

Ain'yloid. a. Being of the nature of amyle. 

Am'ylum, n. [Gr. amylon. starch ] (Chem.) See Starch. 

A'myot. James, bishop of Auxerre, and great almoner 
of France. Though educated hy charity, he rose hy merit 
to become professor in the university ot Rourges. Ilia 
translation of Plutarch is admired for its style, rather 
than its correctness, and has done much toward deter¬ 
mining and improving the Trench language. B. at Me- 
lun. 1513; D. 1593 

Amyrid'acea*. n. pi. ( Bot .) An ord. of plants, of 
the Rutales alliance. Diagnosis: consolidated, hard, dry, 
and somewhat valvular fruit, valvula petals, free stamens, 
and generally dotted leaves. — They are trees or shrubs, 
abounding in balsam or resin, with the appearance of 
oranges: the only positive mark of distinction being 
that the fruit *>f the A forms a shell whose husk event¬ 
ually splits into valve-like segments. They are exclu¬ 
sively natives of tropical India, Africa, and America. 

Am'yrine.n. (Chem.) A crystalline resin from arbola* 
brea, by hot alcohol. 

Am'yrifl, tt. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Amyridaceae. 
The A. balsamifera. a Jamaica tree, furnishes one of th< 
varieties of Lignum Rhodium. 















98 


ANAC 


AN AC 


AMS 


An. art. [A.S. ane; Ger. ein.] The indefinite article 
used before nouns of the singular number, beginning 
with a vowel or an h mute. It is used also for one, but 
with less emphasis; as, “ There stands a harp.”—Any, or 
some; as, “An elephant might swim in the water.” 

A lia, a Latin termination of the neuter plural form of 
the nouns in anus. In modern times this termination 
has been used to denote collections, either of remarks 
made by celebrated individuals in conversation, or of ex¬ 
tracts from their note-books, letters, or even published 
works, or generally, of particulars respecting them. The 
most celebrated of such collections are the colloquial 
remarks of Scaliger, known under the name of Scali- 
gerana secunda. 

—A prefix, in words of Greek origin, implying repetition, 
upward motion, inversion, distribution, parallelism, or 
proportion. 

—In medical prescriptions, it denotes that an equal quan¬ 
tity of each of the ingredients is to be taken; as, *• wine 
and honey, a a, or a, or ana Sij.,” i.e. of wine and honey, 
each, two ounces. 

—A. is also used as a noun, applied to collections of re¬ 
marks and anecdotes. Such works had an extraordinary 
success during the last century, principally in France. 
We have in English, Selections from the French Anas, 
translated, 2 vols., Oxford, 1797. There is a well-known 
little poem, by La Monnoye, in which he enumerates 
the names of the most celebrated A., concluding with 
the couplet, 

"Messieurs, nut de tous ces ana 
Ne vaut l'Ypecacuauba." 

Anabap'tism, n. See Anabaptists. 

Anabap tists, n. pi. (Eccl. Hist.) A name applied 
to all Christians who for any reason re-baptize those 
who join their communion. The term denotes a great 
variety of religious beliefs. The Novations and Donat- 
ists were Anabaptists, because they claimed to be the 
true church, and held that the sacraments of the 
Catholic Church were null and void. The mediaeval 
Anabaptists held a different principle, viz., that faith in 
Christ should precede baptism or it was meaningless. 
Hence, they re-baptized those who had been baptized as 
infants, without faith. There were several classes of 
these mediaeval Anabaptists: First, the evangelical—the 
Swiss Anabaptists and those of South Germany—whose 
leaders were Conrad Grebel. Balthazar Hiibmaier and 
John Denclc. These held a theology substantially like 
that of Calvin, and were peaceable, law-abiding citizens, 
though bitterly persecuted. Many of them denied that 
a Christian may use the sword in any case, even in self- 
defense or to enforce law. Second, the mystical and 
fanatical, of whom Melchior Hofmann was the teacher. 
His disciple, Jan Matthys, a baker of Haarlem, applied 
his master's teachings regarding the speedy coming of 
the kingdom of Christ, by attempting to set up that 
kingdom in the city of Munster. After his death in a 
sortie, John Bockhold, a tailor of Leyden, was hailed as 
prophet, made king of the new Zion, proclaimed polyg¬ 
amy, and the wildest excesses followed. Munster was 
taken by its bishop in 15:55, and most of the Anabaptists 
were put to death, horrible tortures being inflicted on 
the leaders. Third, the Mennonites, or followers of 
Menno .Simons, who were merely Anabaptists under this 
new name. Simons was a priest in the Roman church, 
who became an Anabaptist in 1536 and gathered thous¬ 
ands of disciples before his death in 1559. The Menno¬ 
nites spread through most of the countries of Northern 
Europe, and formed a considerable colony in Russia, 
but were most numerous in Holland where they still 
survive. Many have emigrated to the United States, 
where the census of 1390 enumerates twelve branches 
of them, with an aggregate membership of 41,541. The 
name Anabaptist was also applied in England to the 
body since known as Baptists. See Baptists. 

Anatm'ra, a river in Siberia, in the government of 
Tobolsk. It rises in Lat. 66° N., and after a course of 
400 m. falls into the Arctic ocean, at Lat. 72° N., and 
Lon. 112° E. 

An'abas. n. [Gr. anahainn, to ascend.] ( ZoOl .) A genus 
of fishes.—See Anabasis. 

Anabas'idtp, n. pi. A family of fresh-water fishes, 
belonging to the ord. Acanthupte.rygii. The species 
generally resemble in form the perches, but their respi¬ 
ratory organs are so constructed as to enable them to 
sustain life for a space of time out of water, by having 
small apertures or some receptacle, where they can pre¬ 
serve sufficient water to moisten their gills. In cold or 
temperate regious this is not required, but in tropical 
countries it often happens that many of the rivers and 
ponds are dried up. At such times no fish, but such as, 
like the Anabas. are furnished with the necessary pha¬ 
ryngeal apparatus for keeping the gills moist, could 
exist. The naturalist Daldorf claims to have seen the 
climbing perch (Anabas scanderus ) in the act of ascend¬ 
ing palm-trees, which it did by means of its fins and 
tail, and the spines of its gill-covers; but this fact has 
not been confirmed by other naturalists. 

Anab'asis. [Gr., an ad vance,an expedition.] The name 
of two ancient historical works. 1. The Anabasis of 
Cyrus, by Xenophon, giving an account of the unfor¬ 
tunate expedition of the younger Cyrus against his 
brother, the Persian king Artaxerxes, and of the retreat 
of the Ten Thousand Greeks under Xenophon. 2. The 
Anabasis of Alexander, by Arrian, giving an account of 
the campaign of Alexander the Great. 

Auabro'sis, ». [From Gr. anabmskofo devour.] (Med.) 
A corrosion of the solid parts, by sharp and biting 
humors. 

Aiiiicamp'tic, a. [From Gr. ana, back, and kamptein, 
to bend.] Reflecting, or reflected; as, an anacamptic 
Sound. (o.) 


| Anableps', n. [Gr. anablepo, to look up.] A gen. of 
fishes, ord. Mcdacupterygii. The eyes are prominent, and 
the cornea being divided by transverse bands, the fish 



Fig. 117.—anableps tetrophthalmus. 
has the appearance of possessing four eyes. The only 
known species, A. tetrophthalmus, is a native of Guinea. 

Aiiui'aiup'ticaUly, adv. By reflection; as, echoes are 
produced anacamptically. (o.) 

Anacamp'tics, n. stag. The obsolete name of the 
Catoptrics. 

Ana C’a'pri, a town in the Neapolitan island of Capri, 
Italy, on the N. side of Mount Solaro, about 2,000 feet 
above the level of the sea. It can only be reached by a 
flight of 552 steps, cut in the rock, called La Scalinata. 
The inhabitants are said to be so much attached to their 
town, that some have never descended La Scalinata. 
From there, tlio prospect is extensive and beautiful, com¬ 
manding the Tyrrhenean sea, the Gulf of Naples, and 
Vesuvius. Pop. 1,667. 

Anacartlia'eefe, Anacards, Terebinths, n. pi. [From 
Gr. ana. up, and kardia, the heart.] (Bot.) An ord. of 
plants, of the alliance Rutales. — 1>tag. Apocarpous fruit, 
ar.d a high ovule 
rising by a cord 
from the base of 
thecell .—They are 
trees or shrubs, 
with a resinous, 
gummy, caustic, 
or even milky 
juice. Leaves sin¬ 
gle or compound, 

— alternate, de¬ 
ciduous or ever¬ 
green ; flowers 
generally unisex¬ 
ual, terminal or 
axillary, in pani¬ 
cles, with bracts; 
calyx 5 - parted; 

5 petals; 5 or 10 
stamens; styles 
1 -3, sometimes 
wanting; fruit 
inheriscent. The 
A. are chiefly na¬ 
tives of tropical countries. — Large trees, with incon¬ 
spicuous flowers abounding iu a resinous, sometimes 
acrid, poisonous juice, are the ordinary representatives 
of this order, to which belong the Cashew-nut ( Anacar- 
ilium occiilentale), the Pistachio-nut ( PUtacia vera), and 
the Mango fruit (Mangifera iridicu). 

Auaear'dic Acid. ( Chem .) A white, crystalline in¬ 
odorous mass, of a feebly aromatic, and afterward 
burning taste, obtained from the fruit of Anacardium 
occtdentale. It fuses at 79°; at 212 has a peculiar odor, 
and is decomposed at 392° into liquid products. Its al¬ 
coholic solution i 3 acid. 

An.rear'dinm, n. (But.) A gen. of plants, ord. Ana- 
cardiace.ce. — A black varnish, well know'll in India, is 
manufactured from the nuts of the A. semecarpus, or 
Cashew-nut. This nut is eatable, but it is said to pro¬ 
duce a singular effect on the brain. 

Anafrathar'sis, n. [Gr. ana, up, and Jcatairo, to 
purge] (Med.) A purgation by expectoration, in con¬ 
tradistinction from Catharsis, or evacuation downward. 

Aiiacathar tic, «. (Med.) A medicine that promotes 
expectoration, or vomiting. 

— a. Promoting discharges from the mouth or nostrils. 

AnaeUar'sis, a Scythian philosopher, who, in the 
time of Solon, visited Athens, where he was so much 
esteemed as to be the only barbarian ever admitted 
to the honor of citizenship. Lived in the 7th cen¬ 
tury B. c. The life of this philosopher w'as written by 
Loelius, who, with Plutarch and others, has preserved 
many of his apothegms. 

Anacli'oret, n. See Anchoret. 

Anacliron'ic, Anachron'ical. See Anachron¬ 
istic. 

Anachronism, tt. [Gr. ana, upward, krnnos, time.] 
The name given to an error in chronology, by which 
the date of an event is placed earlier than it really hap¬ 
pened. Anachronisms are not infrequently to be found 
in works of art, and are sometimes introduced for the 
sake of effect; as where Schiller, in his “ Piccolomini,” 
speaks of a “ lightning-conductor,” although not in¬ 
vented till 150 years later. An error on the other side, 
where an event is placed later tiian it should be, is 
called a parachronism. 

Anachronistic, Anachronistical, a. Containing 
an anachronism. 

Anacliua'na, a village and bay on the N coast of the 
Isthmus of Panama; Lat. 6 ° 41' N.; Lon. 77° 48' W. 

Ana'clache, a snowy peak of the Bolivian Andes; 
height, upward of 22,000 feet. Lat. 18° 12' S.; Lon. 69° 
20' W. 

Anaclas'tic, a. [From Gr. anaklao, to bend back.] 
Noting apparent curves seen at the bottom of a vessel 
of water, caused by the refraction of light. 

Anaclas'tics. n pi. That part of optics which consid¬ 
ers the refraction of light. 

Anac'letns, the name of two popes. The first is said 
to have suffered death as a martyr, A. i>. 91. — The sec¬ 
ond, at first called Peter de Leon, was a monk in Clugny, 
a cardinal and papal legate in France and England, and 


in 1130, competitor for the papal chair, against innocent 
II. Rome, Milan, and Sicily were on bis side, and Roger 
of Sicily received from him the royal title. He also 
maintained himself against Lothaire 11., and D. 1138. 

Anacolu'thic, «. Wanting sequence. 

Anacolu'thon, n. (Rhet.) A want of coherence, gen¬ 
erally arising from inattention on the part ot the write' 
or orator. 

AwacoBi'da, n. (Zoijl.) A Cingalese serpent,of enormoue 
magnitude and strength, belonging to the Boa family. 

Anaco'sa, ill Louisiana, a post-office of Sabine co. 

A iiacos'tiil, in the United States, a post-office of W ash- 
ingtou co , District of Columbia. 

Anae'reon, one of the most famous lyric poets of 
Greece, was born at Teos, in Ionia, and flourished about 
50U b. c. l’olycrates, king of Samos, invited him to his 
court, and bestowed on him his friendship. Here A. 
composed his songs, inspired by wine and love. Alter 
the death of his protector, lie went to Athens, where he 
met with the most distinguished reception from Hip¬ 
parchus. The fall of the latter drove him from Athens, 
and probably he returned to Teos. But when Ionia re¬ 
volted from Darius, he fled to Abdera, where he passed 
a gay and happy old age, and died in his 85th year. 
According to tradition, he was choked by a grape-stone. 
The city of Teos put his likeness upon its coins; his statue 
was placed on the Acropolis in Athens, and he was held in 
honor throughout Greece. Only a small part of his works 
has come down to us. Of 5 books, there are 68 poems re¬ 
maining, under the name of A. Among these, criticism 
acknowledges but few as genuine. Those generally 
believed to bo A.’s are models of delicate grace, sim¬ 
plicity, and ease. The difficulty of attaining these ex¬ 
cellences is proved by numberless unsuccessful imita¬ 
tions, unworthy of the name of Anacreontics. I he 
measure in which A. composed his poems, and which is 
called after him, is commonly divided into 3 iambuses, 
with a caesura. 

Aiiacreon'tic, n. A poem in the manner of Anacreon. 

— a. After the manner of Anacreon. 

Anatlar'io, iu Texas, a post-office of Rusk co.. 17 m. S. 

of Henderson. 

Aiiadem', and Anademe'. n. [From Gr. ana. up, and 
dein, to bind.] A crown of flowers; a garland or fillet; 
a wreath. 

Anauiplo'sis, n. [Gr.] (Rhet.) A figure in which the 
last word or words of a sentence are repeated at the 
beginning of the next; as, ‘‘lie retained his virtues 
amidst all his misfortunes — misfortunes which no pru¬ 
dence could foresee or prevent.” 

An'adroiu, n [From Gr. ana, upward, and dromos, 
course.] A fisu of anadromous habits. 

Anad'romous, a. A term applied to the class of fish 
which, at certain seasons, pass from the sea into fresh 
waters, as the salmon. 

An'adyr. or Anadir, a river of Siberia rising in Lake 
Ivachno, and alter a course of 450 m., tailing into an 
inlet of the sea of Anadyr (N. Pacific), in Ion. 177° E.— 
There is only one station on its banks, which is called 
Anadyrsk; Lat. (5° N.; Lon. 167° E. 

Aiise'mia, n. [FromGr.a, priv., and aima, blood.] (Med.) 
A term used to denote a deficiency of the red globules 
or coloring matter of the blood. It is characterized by 
a pale waxy complexion, and a pallor in those parts, as 
the lips, which are generally suffused. It is to be treated 
with pure air, nourishing diet, and tonics, such as iron. 

Aineiii ie. ". Bloodless; exsanguious. 

Anaero'bia, n. pi. (Biol.) Bacteria whose existence 
does not require free oxygen; opposed to aerobia. 

Allcl'Sthe'sia, n. [Gr. from a, priv., and aisthanomai, 
to feel.] (Surg.) This term is given to partial or com¬ 
plete insensibility of the human body, produced by in¬ 
halation or absorption of substances which act upon 
the nervous system. These substances belong to the 
class known as narcotics. A familiar instance of A. is 
the effect produced by an overdose of alcohol—drunken 
people, who have become utterly insensible to pain (see 
Alcohol). 

General. The production of loss of sensation by the 
use of narcotics was without doubt known to the 
ancients. Dioscorides and Pliny allude to the use of 
mandragora (Atropa mandragora) for the prevention of 
pain in surgical operations. Hoa-Tho, a Chinese physi¬ 
cian of the third century, rendered his surgical patients 
insensible to pain by the use of hashish ((Jattnabis 
saliva). Shakespeare, in Romeo and Juliet, and in 
Hamlet, alludes to anaesthetic draughts. In 1800 Sir 
Humphrey Davy foreshadowed the probable inhalation 
of volatile antesthetic agents when he said: “As nitrous 
oxide in its extensive operation seems capable of de¬ 
stroying physical pain, it may probably be used with 
advantage in surgical operations in which no great ef¬ 
fusion of blood takes place.” The inhalation of sul¬ 
phuric ether for asthma was practiced by Richard 
Pearson in 1795. Its power to produce anaesthesia was 
demonstrated by Goodwin in 1822, Mitchel in 1832, anu 
was referred to by Wood aud Bache in 1834. The first 
utilization of this agent to prevent pain during surgical 
operation, however—aud probably the first inhalation 
of any agent for this purpose—was by a backwoods sur¬ 
geon, Dr. W. C. Long, of Jefferson, Jackson Co., Ga., in 
March, 1842. In December, 1844, Horace Wells, a den¬ 
tist of Hartford, Conn., had a tooth removed while 
under the influence of nitrous oxide, and during the 
next two years used this agent quite extensively in his 
practice. Dr. Morton, a dentist of Boston, on the 30th 
of September, 1846, administered sulphuric ether for 
the extraction of a tooth, and subsequently for surgical 
operations. He succeeded in making known this prac¬ 
tice to the profession to such a degree that his name is 
commonly associated with the first administration oi 








ANAH 


ANAL 


ANAN 


99 


anaesthetics in surgery.—The first employment of A. in 
midwifery was the use of ether to relieve the patient, 
by Sir James V. Simpson, on the 19th of January, 1847; 
and in November of the same year, he drew the atten¬ 
tion of the profession to the effect of chloroform.—A 
number of volatile substances have been used for the 
purpose of producing amcsthesia, hut the most valuable 
are nitrous oxide, ether, chloroform (already named), 
and hydrobromic ether, or the bromide of ethyl. The 
latter agent was discovered by Serullas in 1827; its use 
advocated by Thomas Nunnelly, of Leeds, iu 1819. It 
was introduced in America by Lawrence Turnbull iu 
1877, and was shortly afterward very largely used by 
Dr. Richard J. Levis.—Nitrous oxide is a very rapid 
aua?sthetic, but its eSects pass quickly. It is serviceable 
in dental work and for surgical operations requiring 
but little time. Its chief objection is that, being a gas, 
it requires for its administration a rather cumbersome 
apparatus which is inconvenient to transport. Bromide 
of ethyl also acts quickly, and its effects are very evanes¬ 
cent. It is an admirable an,'esthetic for short opera¬ 
tions, and for the examination of patients, as its effects 
are quickly removed, and it is less likely than the 
stronger anaesthetics to be followed by nausea. In 
general surgery, ether and chloroform are preferred. 
The power of chloroform is to that of ether iu the pro- 
{Continued in Section II. 

tniesthet ic, a. Belonging or relating to anaesthesia. 

— n. A substance which produces insensibility in the whole 
or part of the human body, generally by acting on the 
nervous system, as nitrous oxide, amylene, kerosolene, 
sulphuric ether, and chloroform. 

An»es'tll®tize, v. a. To produce anaesthesia by means 
of chloroform or other anaesthetics. 

ilnagal'lid*, n. pi. (Bot.) A tribe of plants, ord. 
Primulacece, q. v. 

Anagal'Ils, n. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, tribe Anagal- 
lidce. The common pimpernel, A. arvensis, well known 
as the poor man's weather-glass, is a little trailing plant, 
with a pretty scarlet flower and violet mouth, common 
in our fields. The flowers open about eight o’clock in 
the morning, and close iu the afternoon, and they are 
so sensitive to light, that in cloudy weather, especially 
when there is moisture in the air, they remain closed 
altogether. 

Anaglyplfic. n. [Qr. from ana, upon, and glyphn, I 
carve.] (Sculp.) The name anciently given to a chased or 
embossed work on metal, or to anything worked in relief. 
When raised on stone, the production was a cameo. 
When sunk or indented, it was a diaglyphic, or an in¬ 
taglio. 

Anaglyptograph'ie, a. Belonging to anaglyptog- 
raphy. 

AiiagIyptog ,, raptay, n. [From Gr.ana, up, glyphein, 
to engrave, and grapkein, to write.] The art of so en¬ 
graving as to give the subject an embossed appearance, 
as if raised from the surface of the paper; — used in 
representing coins, bas-reliefs, and the like. 

Auag'ni, a decayed town iu the Canipagnadi Roma. 37 
m. from Rome; pop. 5,500. — Here Popes Innocent III., 
Gregory IX., Alexander IV.. and Boniface VIII., were 
born. 

Anago'ge, and An'agogy. n. [Gr. from ana, up, 
and agngc, a leading.] An extraordinary elevation of 
mind. — The mystical interpretation of the Scriptures; 
one of the four ordinary modes of interpretation, in dis¬ 
tinction from the literal, allegorical, and tropoulogical. 

Anagogi'ical, a. Mysterious: elevated. 

Analogically, adv. In a mysterious sense. 

Anagog'ics, n. pi Mystical interpretations. 

An'agi'ain, n. [Gr. anagramma, from ana, back, and 
grapho, I write.] The change of one word or phrase into 
another, by the transposition of its letters. The most 
proper and most difficult species of A. is that which is 
formed by the reading of the letters of a word or words 
backward; as, evil, live. 

“ Live, vile, and evil, have self-same letters ; 

He lives but vile, wliuui evil bolds iu letters." 

A less perfect A. is that which is made by the transposi¬ 
tion of letters ad libitum. The composition of A. formed 
a favorite exercise of ingenuity in the 16th and 17 th cen¬ 
turies. But, perhaps, never was A. more appropriate 
than that made by Dr. Burney on the name of the hero 
of the Nile, just after that important victory took place: 
Horvtio Nelson, “ Honor est a Nilo.” They are fre¬ 
quently employed satiiically, or jestingly, with little aim 
beyond that of exercising the ingenuity of their authors. 
Of all the extravagances occasioned by the anagram- 
matical fever, when at its height, none probably equals 
that which is recorded of an eccentric Frenchman, An- 
dr 6 Pujoin. He read in his own name the A “ pendu a 
Riom” (the seat of criminal justice in the province of 
Auvergne), fult impelled to fulfil his destiny, committed 
a capital offence in that province, and was actually 
hanged in the place to which the omen pointed. 

Anagraminat'ie, Anaqrammyt'ical, a. Belonging 
to, or forming, an anagram. 

Anaa;ramma.t'ically, adv. In the manner of an 
anagram. 

Anag’ram'matism, n. The act or practice of mak¬ 
ing anagrams. 

A nagrain matisf, n. A maker of anagrams. 

Anagram'inatize, v. a. To make anagrams. 

An'agraph, n. [From Gr. ana, up, and graphein, to 
write.] An inventory; a commentary, (r.) 

Aifagros. n. A measure of grain in Spain, containing 
about two bushels. 

Ana'gua, in Texas, a post-village of Victoria co. 

An'ulioim. in California, a flourishing city of Orange 
co., about 8 miles from the sea, 3 miles from Santa 


Anna River. It was founded in 1857, by Germans.— 
Prod. Wines and fruits. 

Anal] unc, ( dn-ah-wauV,) the ancient Indian name of 
New Spain or Mexico, and the actual name of the great 
table-land between Lat. 15° and 30° N., and Lon. 95° 
and 110° W. See Mexico. 

Anahuac, in Texas, a post-village of Chambers co., in 
the N.E. extremity of Galveston Bay, 35 in. N.E. by N. 
of Galveston. 

A'lial, a. Belonging, or relating to the anus. 

Anai'cite, Analcime, n. [Gr analkis, weak; from its 
weak electric power.] (Min.) An isometric compound, 
of the hydrous silicates section. Color white, passing 
into gray. Lustre vitreous ; brittle, sometimes nearly 
transparent. Spec. grav. 2'27-S to 2'008. Comp, silica 
514, alumina 23'3, soda 1P1, water 8'2 — 100. 

Analec'tic, a. Collected or selected; made of selections. 

An'alects, Axalec'ta, n. pi, [From Gr. ana, up, and 
lege.in, to gather.] A collection of literary fragments. 

Analem'ina, n. [Gr. analambun >. I take up.] (Geom.) 
An ortographic projection of the sphere on the plane of 
the meridian. In this projection the eye is supposed to be 
placed at an infinite distance. Every great circle whose 
plane is perpendicular to the plane ot projection,—the 
horizon for example,—is represented by the chord which 
forms its diameter. A small circle parallel to the plane 
of projection is represented by a circle. Every circle, 
great or small, of which the plane when produced does 
not pass through the eye, or is not perpendicular to the 
plane of projection, will bo seen obliquely, and under 
the form of an ellipse.-— A. also denotes an instrument 
of brass or wood, composed of a plate upon which 
the projection of the sphere is made, having a horizontal 
fitted to it. Since the invention of trigonometry, con¬ 
trivances of this sort have become useless. 

Analep'sis, n. [Gr. analambann, to recover.] (Med.) A 
recovery of strength after sickness.—A species of epi- 
lepsy, which proceeds from a disorder of the stomach, 
and with which the patient is apt to be seized very often 
and suddenly:—named, also, analepsia. 

Analep'tic, n, [Gr. analeptikns.] (Med.) Restoratives 
which serve to repair the strength, and to raise the de¬ 
pressed spirits. 

— a. Comforting; restorative. 

Analog ical, a. That expresses or implies analogy. 

Analogically, adv. In an analogical or analogous 
manner. 

Analogical iiosm, n. The quality'of being analogical; 
fitness to beapplied for the illustration of some analogy. 

Anal'ogism, n. [Gr. analogismos, course of reasoning.] 
(Log.) An argument from the cause to the effect.—A 
mode of reasoning by analogy. 

A nal ogist, n. One who adheres to analogy. 

Analogous, a. [Fr. analogue, from Gr. ana, according 
to, and logos, proportion.] Having analogy; bearing 
some resemblance or proportion; having something 
parallel. 

“ This incorporal substance may have some sort of existence, 
analogous to corporeal extension."— Locke. 

Analogously', adv. In an analogous manner. 

An'alog'ue, n. A body that resembles another. A fossil 
shell of the same species; as, a recent one is its analogue. 

Analogy, n. [Gr. analogia, from ana, equally, and 
logos, ratio ] (Rhet.) A certain relation and agreement 
between two or more things, which in other respects 
are entirely different. A ratio or relation between two 
objects denotes that they are composed togother in refer¬ 
ence to some quality which they possess in common, or 
to some manner in which the one is affected by the other. 
In this way wo speak of one tiling greater, smaller, or 
more beautiful than another; or the relation of a child 
to its parents, of a prince to his people. It is, however, 
only when we cotno to compare relations, when we find 
that the relation or ratio of two things is like the rela¬ 
tions of two other things, that we properly have an 
analogy. A may resemble B, but there is no analogy 
between them; but if A bears the same relation to B 
tliaf C does to D, then there is analogy. In relation 
we have only two terms or objects of comparison; 
in analogy we must have four, though it is not neces¬ 
sary that all the four bo different; for A may bear the 
same relation to B that B does to C. Two things may 
be connected by analogy, though they bear in themselves 
no resemblance to each other; for, in analogy, all other 
attributes are kept out of view but those iu which they 
agree. Thus, the bark of a tree is analogous to the skin 
of an animal, though there is no resemblance between 
them. Iu reasoning from analogy, we proceed upon the 
assumption that things which have many observed 
attributes in common have other not observed attributes 
also in common. Analogy concludes from something 
observed to something not observed. Like induction, it 
can give us a high degree of probability, but it never 
reaches to necessity, 

(Geom.) The same thing as proportion, or the equality 
or similitude of ratios.—See Proportion. 

(Zool.) The relation which animals bear to another in 
the similarity of a smaller proportion of their organi¬ 
zation; thus, the Ascalaphus italicus, in the length and 
knobbed extremities of its antennae, the coloring of its 
wings, and its general aspect, exhibits a striking re¬ 
semblance to a butterfly; but in all the essential parts 
of its organization it adheres to the neuropterous type 
of structure: its relation to the Lepidoptera is therefore 
said to be one of analogy, while it is connected to the 
ant-lions by the order of affinity. 

(Gram.) A conformity in the principles or organiza¬ 
tion of different words, or collections of words. 

Anal oiniiik, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Monroe 
co. 


Anal'ysis, n. ; pi. Anal'yses. [Gr., the act of unloos* 
ing.] The process by which facts, results, or reasonings 
are separated into their single and component parts, or 
by means of which a simple truth is obtained, when 
given in a more complicated form. So tiiat, in its most 
general sense, the greatest part of human knowledge 
consists in the results of analysis. Its opposite is syn¬ 
thesis, which is the act of putting together.—It is also 
used for a brief, but methodical illustration of the prin¬ 
ciples of a science ; in which sense it is nearly synony¬ 
mous with wiiat is termed a synopsis. 

(Math.) The means made use of for discovering the 
truth or falsehood of a proposition, or iis possibility 
and impossibility. This is done by supposing the pro¬ 
position, such as it is, true; and examining what follows 
from thence, until we arrive at some evident truth, or 
some impossibility, of which the first proposition is a 
necessary consequence ; and from thence establish the 
truth, or impossibility of that proposition. “It is used 
in contradistinction to the geometrical method, so that 
every mathematical process in which symbols are em¬ 
ployed, and which is not geometrical, is analytical. A. 
is the great instrument of invention, and to its success¬ 
ful cultivation may be ascribed the immense improve¬ 
ment which has taken place in mathematics, and the 
vast range of discoveries which have been made in 
philosophy during the last two centuries.—In Ardhme- 
tic and Descriptive Geometry, they give the name of A. 
to the synopsis or exposition of the principles to be em¬ 
ployed in demonstrating a proposition, or solving a 
problem.” 

(Gram.) The explaining the etymology,construction, 
and other properties of words. 

( Bot.) The study of a plant in its different parts; its 
dissection. 

(Chem.) The separation of compound bodies, either 
into their simpler or their elementary constituents. 
When merely the number and nature of these are as¬ 
certained, it is termed qualitative analysis; but when 
their proportions also aro determined, the analysis is 
quantitative. If the analysis consist only in determin¬ 
ing the quantities of the simpler constituents of a com¬ 
pound, it is proximate, as when carbonate of potash is 
separated into carbonic acid and potash ; but when the 
operation is extended, and the carbonic acid is resolved 
into carbon and oxygen, and the potash into potassium 
and oxygen, the analysis is ultimate; for neither carbon, 
oxygen, nor potassium is divisible into two or more 
kinds of matter. The theory of definite proportion, or 
Atomic Theory, as it is usually called, lias materially 
facilitated many analytical processes, and is specially 
valuable in furnishing an unerring test or criterion of 
the general accuracy of the results. 

An'alyst, n. [Fr. analyste.] One who is versed in 
analysis. 

Aiasiiyt ic. Analytical, a. Proceeding by analysis; 
resolving anything into its first principles or elements; 
as an analytical experiment in chemistry. 

Analytically, adv. In an analytical manner. 

Analyt'ies, n. sing. The science of analysis. Any 
branch of a science analytically considered. 

Analyz'ahle, a. That may bo analyzed. 

Analyz'ableiiess, n. The state of being analyzable. 

Analyza'tion, n. The act of analyzing. 

An'alyze, v. a. To resolve a compound into its first 
principles; to study a thing unto its component parts 
or propositions.—8ee Analysis. 

An'alyzei*, n. One who, or that which, analyzes, or 
has the power of analyzing. 

A'nam, or An-nani. Empire of. See Cochin-China. 

Anaill'bas, a group of fifteen islands in the China sea, 
mostly inhabited by poor Malays. Pop. about 1,500. 

AnaniI I’apaS mil, a river in Brazil, prov. of Para, 
which, after a course of 200 m., falls into the actuary 
of the Amazons, at Lat. 0° 15' S. ; Lou. 60° 55' W. 

Anainir'ta. n. (Bot.) See Coccclus Indiujs. 

Anamne'sis, n. [Gr. from ana, again, and mnesis, a 
remembering.] ( Rhet.) An enumeration of the thiugs 
treated of before; a sort of recapitulation. 

Anamor phosis, n. [Gr. ana, backward, and mnrphe, 
form.] (Persp.) The representation of some image, 
either on a plane or curved surface, which appears de¬ 
formed or disturbed when viewed in the common way. 
but which appears regular and in just proportion when 
viewed from a particular point, or on being reflected 
from a curved mirror. 

(Zool. and Bot.) The change of form which may be 
traced throughout the species of higher members of a 
natural group of animals or plants, either in the actual 
series, or as they have succeeded each other in the course 
of time on this planet. 

Anauio'sa, in Iowa, a city, the capital of Jones co., 
on the Wapsipicon river, 4<l miles Northeast of Iowa 
City. Pop., in 1890, 2,078; in 1897 (est.). 3.000. 

A'nuiiut r. the most southern point of Asia Minor. Lat. 
30° 2' N.; Lon. 32°50'E. 

Ana'nas, n. (Bot) See Ananassa. 

Ananas'sa, n. (Bot,) A gen. of plants, ord. Bromeli■ 
acese. The common Pine-apple, A. saliva, gives one of 
the most delicious fruRs we have (Fig. 423). A native 
of the hotter parts of South America, it has beeu nat¬ 
uralized in Africa and India. From the fibres ol its 
leaves a fine kind of muslin is prepared. At first, the 
fruit presents only a mass ot flowers, the calyces and 
bractse being united together, but afterward it becomes 
succulent. It is covered on all sides with small trian¬ 
gular scales, and resembles in appearance the strobile 
of the pine-tree; hence its common English name. 
Many varieties are cultivated. When wild, the pine¬ 
apple bears seeds like other plants; but in a state of 
cultivation, generally owing to the succulence of ail the 








100 


ANAR 


ANAS 


ANAT 


parts, no seeds are produced, and consequently the plants 
can only be multiplied by suckers, or by their branches, 
which gardeners call the gills and crown. 

An'simlale, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Butler co. 

An'amtale, in Virginia, a village of Fairfax co. 

Ana’.E'drous, a. [From Gr. an, for a priv., and an.tr, 
a man.] (Bat..) Destitute of stamens. 

Anan'gular. a. Containing no angle, (r.) 

Ananias. [Heb, the cloud of the Lord.] A hypocrite 
of the primitive church at Jerusalem, who was struck 
dead, with his wife Sapphira, for lying.—An evangelist 
of Damascus.—A tyrannical high-priest of the Jews. 

An a'pa, a fortified town and fortress of Russia, in Cir¬ 
cassia, on the N.E. coast of the Black sea, 47 m. S.E. of 
Yeulkale; Lat. 44° 54' 52"; Lou. 37° 16' 21" E. This town, 
ceded to Russia by the Turks in 1828, is at present only 
important as a military post; but so great are the ad¬ 
vantages offered by its situation, that it will probably 
become the seat of a considerable commerce. Pap. 3,000. 

(kn'agiest, n. [From Gr. ana, back, and pa.ie.in, to strike.] 
(Pros.) A foot in Greek and Latin metre, consisting of 
two short syllables followed by a long. It was some¬ 
times called Antidactylus, as being the opposite of the 
dactyle, which consists of a long syllable followed by two 
short. Assuming accent in English to be the same thing 
with quantity in Greek and Latin, the word temporal 
would be an example of a dactyle, and the word super- 
dild of an anapest. From the tendency of English enun¬ 
ciation to carry back the accent toward the begin¬ 
ning of polysyllables, there are not many single words 
w.hich make anapests in our language. But the foot 
frequently results from the union of two or more words; 
as in Do you hear, Lei alone ; and sometimes it is found 
in part of a single word; as, for instance, in the three 
middle syllables of the word anticipation. The predomi¬ 
nance of dactyles in English, and of anapests in French, 
forms one of the most marked distinctions between the 
musical character of the one language und that of the 
other. 

Anapestic Verse, a species of verse composed of a suc¬ 
cession of anapests. Among the Greeks, the anapestic 
verse was freely used both in tragedy and comedy; some 
forms of it occur very often in Aristophanes. Both in 
tmgedy and comedy, the anapestic verse admits also 
dactyles and spondees. In English, only poems of the 
lighter sort have been usually written in anapestic verse. 
Anstey’B Naiv Bath Guide may be quoted as a well-known 
example. The lino is often reduced to eleven syllables, 
by the retrenchment of the first, or the substitution at 
the beginning of an iambus instead of the anapest. 
Thus, in the following lines from the work just men¬ 
tioned, 

*' For I'm told the discourses of persons refined. 

Are better than books for improving the mind. 

But a great deal of judgment's required iu the skimming 
The polite conversation of sensible women," 

it will be observed, that the first foot of the second line 
consists only of one short or unaccented syllable fol¬ 
lowed by a long; and a similar retrenchment might be 
made of the commencing syllable of any of the others, 
without spoiling its prosody. 

Anapes'tic, n. The anapestic measure. — See Anapest. 

•— a Belonging to, or consisting of an anapestic foot. 

Anapes'iienl, a. The same as Anapestic. 

Aiiapest/ically, adv. In an anapestic manner. 

Anaplio ra. n. [Gr. from ana, up, back, and pherein, 
to carry.] ( Rhet.) A figure which consists in the rep¬ 
etition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of 
several successive sentences: as, “ Where is the wise ? 
Where is the scribe? Where is the disputer of this 
world?”—A similar repetition at the end of sentences is 
called epiphora, or homoiotekuton. Anaphora is some¬ 
times used as the general name for both figures; the for¬ 
mer is then called epunaphora. The A. aims to increase 
the energy of the phrase, but is often rendered ineffectual 
by too frequent repetition. 

Aiiaphredi sia, n. [Gr. from a, priv, and aphrodisia, 
the feast of Venus.] (Med.) Impotence, arising from 
paralysis, or from gonorrhoea. 

Auaplerot'ic, n. [From Gr. ana, up, and plernyn, to 
fill.] (Med.) A medicine which restitutes, or fills up 
wasted parts ; a renewing of wasted parts. 

Auaquafifi'cook, in New York, a village of Wash¬ 
ington co. 

An arch, n. [Gr. anarchos.] An author of anarchy; one 
who causes confusion, or excites revolt, (o.) 

“ Him thus the anarch old .... answer’d.”— Milion . 

Anar'chal, a. Anarchical, (r.) 

Anar'oliic, Anarchical, a. [Fr. anarchique.] Confused; 
without rule or government. 

“ In this anarchical and rebellious state of human nature,” 

Cheyne. 

An'areliisia. n. [Fr. anarchisme.] A state of anarchy. 

A ii'a re hist, n. [Fr. anarchiste .] A promoter of dis¬ 
order, revolt, or anarchy. 

An 'arehize, v. a. To bring into a state of anarchy. — 

Anarchy, (dn'dr-ke,) n. [From Gr. a, priv., and arche, 
government; Fr. anarchie.] (Polit.) Properly, the entire 
absence of political government; the condition of a 
society or collection of human beings inhabiting the 
same country, who are not subject to a common sover¬ 
eign. Every society of persons living in a state of nature 
(as it is termed) is in a state of anarchy; whether that 
state of nature should exist in a society which has never 
known political rule, as a horde of savages; or should 
arise in a political society in consequence of resistance 
on the part of the subjects to the sovereign, by which 
the person or persons in whom the sovereignty is lodged 
ore forcibly deprived of that power. Such intervals are 


commonly of short duration; but after most revolutions, 
by which a violent change of government has been 
effected, there has been a short period during which 
there was no person or body of persons who exercised 
the executive or legislative sovereignty,—that is to say, 
a period of A .—Anarchy is sometimes used in a trans¬ 
ferred or improper sense to signify the condition of a 
political society, in which, according to the writer or 
speaker, there has been an undue remissness or supine¬ 
ness of the sovereign, aDd especially of those who wield 
the executive power. In the former sense, A. means 
the state of a society in which there is no political govern¬ 
ment ; in its second sense, it means the state of a politi¬ 
cal society in which there has been a deficient exercise 
of the sovereign power. As an insufficiency of govern¬ 
ment is likely to lead to no government at all, the term 
A. has, by a common exaggeration, been used to signify 
the small degree, where it properly means the entire 
absence. 

Anar'i’hicits, Anarrichas, or Anarrhichas, n. (Zool.) 
A gen. of Acanthopterygious fishes, bearing great re¬ 
semblance to the Bleunies, except in their being destitute 
of ventral fins. 

Anar'throiis, a [From Gr. an, priv., and arthron, 
joint, the article.] (Gram.) Without the article. 

(Zool.) Having neither legs nor wings, as some insects. 

A'nas, n. (Zool.) A gen. of birdsof thesub-fam. Anatinac, 
distinguished by a bill broad, depressed, larger than the 
head, and a pointed tail. The common wild duck or 
mallard, A. hoschus, is the original stork of our tame or 
domesticated duck. The flesh of the wild duck is highly 
esteemed as an article of food. The tame, or domesti¬ 
cated duck is a very valuable bird, as contributing to 
man's subsistence. Ducks are reared with greater 
facility than almost any other domesticated fowl, as 
they subsist on scattered corn, the refuse of vegetable 
and animal substances, worms, snails, and bisects. They 
annually lay a great number of eggs, and the ducklings 
are easily fattened. The widgeon (Mareca pene/ope), a 
species of the same genus, is a migratory bird, bred in the 
morasses of the north, which they quit on the approach 
of winter, spreading themselves along the shores, and 
over the marshes and lakes in various parts of the U. 
States. They are easily domesticated in places where 
there is plenty of water, and are much admired for their 
beauty and sprightliness. 



Fig. 119.—widgeon: (Mareca Penelope.) 

Anasar'ta, n. (Med.) See Dkopsy. 

Anasar coiis, a. Relating to, or affected by, thespecies 
of dropsy named Anasarca. 

Anastai'tic, a. [From Gr ana, up, and stellein, to send.] 
(Med.) Astringent; styptic. 

Anasta'sia, an island on the E. coast of Florida, 18 m. 
long, V/, broad. Lat. 29° 4U' N.; Lon 81° W. 

Anastasias I., emperor of Constantinople, succeeded 
Zeno, a. d. 491. He distinguished himself by his mod¬ 
eration toward different Christian sects, whose quarrels 
at that time disturbed the peace and safety of the 
Byzantine empire. He died a. d. 518, after a reign of 
27 years. 

Anasta'sius II., proclaimed emperor of Constantinople 
after the deposition of Philippicus, 713; was dethroned 
by Theodosius, 716, and afterwards put to death,abt.720. 

Annsta'sins. I., Pope, a native of Rome, succeeded 
Siricius about the year 398. He was a contemporary of 
St. Jerome, who speaks highly of his probity and apos¬ 
tolic zeal. D. 402, and was succeeded by Innocent I. 

Anasta'sius II., a native of Rome, succeeded Gelasius I. 
in 496. D. after a short pontificate, 49S. 

Anasta'sius III., likewise a Roman, succeeded Sergius III. 
in 9 1, and D. the following year. 

Anasta'sius IV., Cardinal Conrad, elected Pope in 1153, 
after the death of Eugenius III., and d. 1154. 

Anastat'ic. a. [From Gr. ana, up, and statikos, causing 
to stand.] Having the quality of opening the vessels, or 
of removing obstructions. 

Anastomo'sis, n. [From Gr. ana. through, and stoma, 
a mouth.] (A not. and ltot.) The communication of blood¬ 
vessels with each other by the opening of the one into 
the other. The blood-vessels are the tubes by which the 
different parts of the body are supplied with nourish¬ 
ment. If the blood-vessels destined to nourish a part lie 
obstructed so that it cannot receive a due supply of 
blood, that part must necessarily die, or, as it is techni¬ 
cally termed, mortify.. But the blood-vessels are soft, 
compressible tubes, liable, by innumerable circum¬ 
stances, to have their sides brought so closely into.con- 


tact as to prevent the flow of a single particle of blood 
through them. In order to prevent the consequences 
that would result to the system from the operation of 
causes thus tending to impede the circulation, provision 
is made for the freest possible communication between 
the main trunks of the blood-vessels and their branches, 
and between one branch and another. It will be shown 
hereafter (see Artery) that all the arteries of the body 
spring from one great trunk which issues from the 
heart, and which passes from the heart through the 
chest, into the abdomen, where it divides into large 
branches which supply the lower extremities. In this 
course this vessel gives off innumerable branches, which 
supply different parts of the body, and these branches 
form innumerable unions with other branches which 
proceed from the main trunk of the artery. All tire 
branches which form such communications are called 
anastomosing branches, and this union of branch with 
branch is termed anastomosis. Now, so numerous are 
these anastomosing branches, and so competent ure they 
to carry on the circulation, that if the main trunk of the 
aorta be tied in the abdomen, or even in the chest, the 
lower extremities will receive a sufficient supply of blood 
to maintain their vitality through these collateral or 
anastomosing branches. The knowledge of this tact 
enables the modern surgeon to perlorm with ease and 
safety operations which the surgeon of former times 
would have pronounced impossible. 

Anastomot'ic, n. ami a. (Med.) That which opens the 
pores and mouths of the vessels, as cathartics, diuret¬ 
ics, sudorifics, Ac. 

Anas'troplic, n. [From Gr. ana, back and strepheiv, to 
turn.] (Rhet.) A species of inversion or departure from 
the ordinary construction of words. The Latin locutions 
mecum, vdbiscum, are anastrophes for cam me. cum voids. 
The English locution, here I am, for 1 am here, is also an 
antistrophe. 

Anatli'enia, n. [Gr. from ana, up,and tithemi, to put; 
properly, to sepnrate.] (Keel. Hist.) The cutting off a 
person or persons from communion with the faithful; 
expulsion; curse. The Greek and Roman Catholic 
churches both make use of the A. In the latter it only 
can be pronounced by a pope, council, or some of the 
superior clergy. The subject of the A., who is himself 
termed an Anathema, is declared an outcast from the 
Ca tholic church ; all Catholics are forbidden to associate 
with him, and utter destruction is denounced against 
him, both in body and soul. The curse is terrible. Mere 
excommunication is less severe. When an heretic wishes 
to reconcile himself with the Church, he is obliged to say 
anathema to his errors. 

Aiiatlicinat'ifal, a. Having tho properties of, or re¬ 
lating to, an anathema. 

Anathemat'icaiiy, adv. In an anathematical man¬ 
ner. 

Aiiath'einatifitn, and Anathematiza'tion, n. The 

act of anathematizing. 

A util ii'eniatize. v. a. [Fr. anathimatiser.] To pro¬ 
nounce anathema; to excommunicate. 

AiiatBi'eniatizer, n. One who pronounces an an¬ 
athema. 

An'athoih. [Heb. answer, song, affliction, or poverty.] 
A grandson of Benjamin.— A city of the Leviles, the 
birthplace of Jeremiah. 

Anat'itltc, n. pi. (Zool.) The duck tribe; an extensive 
fain, of birds,ord. Anseres, or Natatnres. They are prin¬ 
cipally distinguished by a broad, depressed bill, which is 
covered with a soft skin ; and by the hinder toe not being 
included in the web. The family, including the Ducks, 
the Goose, the Swan, Ac , is divided into numerous gen¬ 
era, spread over all parts of the world. 

Anat'insc, n.pl. (Zool.) A sub-fam. of the Anatidce, 
containing the Ducks, properly so called. '1 here are 
many species, generally seen on lakes and rivers, but 
sometimes also on the seashore, and living on vegetables, 
grains, insects, and shell-fish. The* principal genera 
are Anas, or common duck; Mergus, or sliieldrakes; 

( uirina. or musk-ducks; Ay thy a, or pochards; Isomate, 
via, or eider-ducks; Oiuemiu, or scoters. 

Aiiiit'ocisin, w. [Gr. anutokismos.] Compound interest. 

Anato'lia. ScoNatolia. 

Anatoli'eo, a town of Giltolia, in Greece, 6 m. from 
Missolonghi, standing on a rocky island in a salt lagune 
on the A\. side of the Gulf of Patras. The iuhitbitants 
are chiefly fishermen. Lat. 38° 24' N.; Lon. 21° IS' E. 
The houses of this town are mostly built upon piles, and 
number about 400. In March, 1820, the town surren¬ 
dered to the Egyptian troops of Ibrahim Pasha. 

Anatom ic. Anatom'ical, a. Relating or belonging to 
anatomy. 

Anatom'ieally, adv. In an anatomical manner. 

Anat'oniist, n. One who is skilled in anatomy. 

Aisatoiiiiza tioa, n. The act of anatomizing. 

Anat'omize, v. a. To dissect an animal; to divide tha 
body into its component or constituent parts:—hence, to 
lay anything open distinctly, and by minute parts. 

Aiiat'oiny, n. [From Gr. anatome, to separate a thing 
into parts by cutting; Lat., It., Sp. anotomiu; Fr. 
anatomic.] The act of dissecting, or artificially sep¬ 
arating and taking to pieces the different parts of the 
human body, to discover their situation, smu ture, and 
economy.—The doctrine of the structure of an organ¬ 
ized substance, learned by dissection.—The dissection 
of the bodies of animals is called Zootomy, or Compara¬ 
tive Anatomy. A. is a part of Natural History, and 
one of the most important in the sciences ol Medicine 
and Surgery. This art is very ancient, though for a long 
time known only in an imperfect manner. In the writ 
ings of Plato we see that the philosophers had carefully 
considered the human body, both in its organization 
and functions; and though they had not arrived at the 















ANAT 


ANCE 


ANCH 


101 


•trrowledge of the more minute and intricate parts, 
which required the successive labor and attention of 
many ages, they have made up very noble and comprehen¬ 
sive ideas of the subject in general. Plato gives the 
rudiments of the circulation of the blood, viz.: “The 
heart is the centre or knot of the blood-vessels; the 
spring or fountain of the blood which is carried impetu¬ 
ously round: the blood is the pabulum or food of the 
tiesh; and for the purposes of nourishment, the body is 
laid out into canals, like those which are drawn through 
gardens, that the blood may be conveyed, as from a 
fountain, to every part of the pervious body.”—Hip¬ 
pocrates, who lived 4G0 years before the Christian Era, 
is generally supposed to be the first who wrote upon 
anatomy. Nothing is known that was written expressly 
npon the subject before; and the first anatomical dis¬ 
section which lias been recorded, was made by his friend 
Democritusof Abdera The descriptions by Hippocrates 
were imperfect and incorrect, except that of the bones. 
He seems to have studied mostly from animals. From 
Hippocrates to Galen, who flourished 131 years after the 
Christian Era, that is, a the space of about 600 years, 
anatomy was greatly improved by more accurate and 
extended observations. During this time a great insti¬ 
tution for Grecian education was established at Alexan¬ 
dria, Egypt, in the palace itself, witli a museum and 
library, by the great. Ptolemus. A ., among other sciences, 
was publicly taught. Ilerophilus and Erasistratus were 
the distinguished anatomists at that time; and according 
to the writings of Celsus, the first (Herophilns) was 
allowed to open the bodies of living culprits. He added 
many important discoveries about the brain, the action 
of the nerves, the blood-vessels of the intestines, Ac. 



Fig. 120. — ARTERIES OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


j. Tarsal.—2. Peroneal. —3. Posterior tibial.—t. Anterior tibial. 
5. Femoral.—6. Iliac. — 7. Sacral. — 8. Renal.—9. Intercostal. — 
10 Aorta.—11. Subclavian.—12. Carotid —13.Vertebral.—H. Tem¬ 
poral.—15. Curvature of the Aorta.— 16. Axillary.— 17. Brachial. 
18. Cceliac. — 19. Mesenteric arteries. — 20. Radial.—21. Ulnar. 
See Arterv. 

Erasistratus defined more particularly the structure of 
the brain, and discovered and named the valves in the 
vena cava. — The Homans did not apply themselves to 
anatomy for a long time.—Archagathus was the first 
Greek physician established in Home, and he was ban¬ 
ished tiie city on account of the severity of his opera¬ 
tions. Asclepiades flourished in Rome in the time of 
Pompey, and attained a very high reputation. One 
Cassius, commonly thought to be a pupil of Asclepiades, 
accounted for the right side of the body becoming para¬ 
lytic on hurtlt.g the left side of the brain, in the same 
manner as lias been done by the moderns, viz.: by the 
crossing of the nerves from the right to the left side, Ax, 
From the time of Asclepiades to the second century, 
physicians seexo to have beeD greatly encouraged in 


Rome; and during this time Celsus, Rufus, Pliny, Coe- 
lius, Aurelianus, and Ara-teus, made anatomical obser¬ 
vations. Toward the end of the second century, Galen, 
whose name is so well known to the medical world, 
applied himself to the study of anatomy, and did more 
than all who went before him. The Roman empire 
being now overwhelmed by barbarous nations, every 
appearance of science was almost extinguished in Eu¬ 
rope. The only remains of it were among the Arabians 
in Spain, and in Asia. A general impression against 
dissection prevailed until the 16th century, when the 
Emperor Charles V. ordered a consultation to be held 
by the divines of Salamanca, to determine whether or 
not it was lawful in point of conscience to dissect a dead 
body. In the 15th century, but one great man flour¬ 
ished, Leonardo da Vinci, in Italy. He was a painter, 
and made dissections to make dm wings to paint from. 
In the beginning of the 16th century, Achillanus, Bene- 
dictus, Bereugarius, and Massa followed out the improve¬ 
ment of anatomy in Italy. Soon after this, about 1540, 
the great Vesalius appeared. He was born in Brussels, 
went to Louvain, and to Paris to teach anatomy, and 
from there was called to Italy. In his disputations with 
the other anatomists of hi.s time, they made their appeals 
to the human body; and thus in a few years the art 
was greatly improved. He gave the names to the mus¬ 
cles, most of which are retained to this day. Formerly 
they were distinguished by numbers. In 1561, Fallopius 
published a treatise on Anatomy, at Padua. He made 
many great discoveries. In 1563, Eustachius published 
his work at Venice. From this time the study of anat¬ 
omy gradually diffused itself throughout Europe. In 
the 17 th century, Harvey discovered Ihe circulation of 
the blood; Pecquet, the thoracic duct; Bartholine, the 
lymphatics; and Malpighi. Bellinus, Wirzung, Schneider, 
Bidlov, Ac., flourished. In the ISth century, Pacchioni, 
Valsalva, Lancise, Morgagni, Hunter, Albin. Haller, 
Boerhaave, Vicq d'Azyr, and Monro became noted lor 
their anatomical researches, as well as Meckel, Horner, 
Tiedemann, Miiller, Seiler, Weber, Bischott, Gray, Leidy, 
Goodsir, Bowman, Hyrtel. Henle, Rokitansky, Kolliker, 
Virchow, and others in the present century.— The anat¬ 
omy of the body is divided into different groups accord¬ 
ing to the organs, Ac., as. Osteology , treats of the form, 
structure, Ac. of the bones; Myology, of the muscles; 
Syndesmology, of the ligaments; Splanchnology, of the 
viscera; Angiology, of the vessels; Neurology, of the 
brain and nerves ; Dermatology, of the skin. See Anat¬ 
omy, Comparative. 

Anatri'he, n. (Med.). Friction all over the body. 

Ananx'ite, n. (Min.) A greenish-white, pearly, gran¬ 
ular variety of Cimolite. 

Ana’vn, a river of Brazil, and a tributary of the Branca 
or Parima. Length abt. 200 m. 

Anavcllia'na, a river of Brazil, and an affluent of the 
Rio Negro, into which it falls near Toroma. Length 
abt 200 m. 

Anaxag'oras, one of the principal Ionic philosophers, 
B. at Clazomene, B. c. 500. He visited Egypt, and went 
to Athens, where he formed an intimacy with Pericles. 
His principle was, “from nothing comes nothing.” He 
adopted, therefore, the idea of a chaos, and as the pri¬ 
mary element of all bodies, a kind of atoms, of the same 
nature as the bodies which they formed. These atoms, 
in themselves motionless, were, in the beginning, put in 
motion by another equally eternal, immaterial, spiritual, 
elementary being, which he called Intelligence. He con¬ 
tended that the real existence of things, perceived by 
our senses, could not he demonstrably proved, and con¬ 
sidered reason as the source of truth. On account of this 
principle, many have regarded him as the first theist 
among the philosophers. D. 428 b. c. 

Anaximan'der, a philosopher of Miletus, b. 610 b. c 
He discovered, or taught at least, the inclination of the 
elliptic, and was the first to use figures to illustrate the 
propositions of Geometry. His system seems to have 
been that infinity is the origin of all existence, trom 
which all emanates, and to which everything returns. 
The number of worlds is, according to him, infinite. D. 
546 b. c. 

Anaxiin'enes, a philosopher of Miletus, flourished 
about 556 B. c. He was a disciple of Anaximander, 
from whose doctrines he, however, deviated. According 
to him. the air is the infinite, divine, perpetually active, 
first principle of all tilings. Pliny attributes to him the 
invention of the sun-dial. 

An'bert KeiHl. [Hind., the cistern of the waters of 
life.] A celebrated hook of the Brahmins, wherein the 
Indian religion and philosophy are contained. It is di¬ 
vided into 5b lieths or discourses, each consisting of 10 
chapters. It has been translated into Arabic, under the 
title of Moral at Maani, i. e.. the marrow of intelligence. 

An'bnry, n. (Farriery.) An Ambury. q. v. 

(Gard.) An A., or club-root, is a sort of galls produced 
by insects on the roots of cabbages, turnips, hollyhocks, 
aiid other species of cultivated plants. The destruction 
of the adult insects before they have laid their eggs, is 
the only remedy indicated against anbury: and it is pe¬ 
culiarly difficult to put this into practice, in the case of 
so small a species. 

An'caster, in Ontario, a post-village and township of 
Wentworth co., 8 miles W.S.W. of Hamilton.^ 

Ancen'is, a town of France, dep. of Loire-inferieure, on 
the Loire, 21 m. E.N.E. of Nantes; pop. 4,628. 

An cestor, r. [Fr. ancetres, pi.; from Lat. antecessor, 
one who goes before.] One from whom a person descends, 
either by the father or mother; a progenitor; a fore¬ 
father. . , , 

Ancestors. — All nations, in any way civilized, have 
paid respect to the memory of their ancestors. Some 
have gone so far as to offer them religious homage. The 


Bible abounds in genealogies, and modern traveller! 
6tate, that the same pride of descent prevails among the 
Arabians, Persians, Ac. Men of rank in the East are 
frequently entertained with songs in praise of their air 
cestors — a custom which prevailed in Greece and Rome, 
and throughout Europe in the middle ages. There is 
hardly any age which does not furnish many instance^ 
some even in the shape of political institutions, of an 
erroneous transfer to a man s posterity of the honor 
belonging to himself, by which a natural and laudable 
feeling has been made the source of much injustice, and 
moral and political confusion. Another very common 
fault, into which mankind constantly fall, is that of 
suffering reverence felt for the persons of ancestors tts 
produce an undue respect for their knowledge and wis¬ 
dom,— an error which arises, perhaps, partly from the 
idea of age and experience attached to that of ances¬ 
tors. The age and experience of living ancestors de¬ 
mand our respect, and the same feeling is transferred to 
the dead and to former ages, which, in point of fact, 
were younger and .ess experienced than we. Individu¬ 
als and whole nations act as if wisdom belonged only to 
the dead. The Americans are noted for the esteem in 
which they hold their ancestors, hut they do not look to 
the past ages as to the only model to he imitated. The 
true feeling of respect to ancestors has been admirably 
expressed by one of their orators, who said: “ Let us not 
act as they did, hut as they would have acted to-day.” 

(Law.) One that has gone before in a family; it differ* 
from predecessor, in that it is applied to a natural per¬ 
son and his progenitors, while ihe latter is applied to a 
corporation, and those w ho have held offices before those 
who now fill them. 

Ancesto'rial, a. Ancestral. 

An cestral, a. Relating to. or having been done by 
one‘6 ancestors.—That which belonged to one s ancestor 
(Law.) Ancestral estates are such as come to the pos¬ 
sessor by descent. 

An'cestress, w. A female ancestor. 

An'cestry, n. [From ancestor.) Lineage; a series of 
ancestors, or progenitors; the persons who compose the 
lineage.— Hence, the honor of descent; birth. 

“ Title and ancestry render a good man more illustrious, but at 
ill one. more contemptible."— Addison. 

Ancli'ilops, n. The same as zEgilops, q. v. 

Anehi'ses, son of Capys. and great-grandson of Troaa 
Venus, captivated by his beauty, appeared to him on 
Mount Ida, (according to some, near the river Simois,) 
in the shape of a Phrygian shepherdess, and bore him 
.Eneas. His son carried him off on his shoulders at the 
burning of Troy, and made him the companion of his 
voyage to Italy. He died during the voyage, in Sicily. 
According to other accounts, Jupiter killed A. with a 
thunder-holt, because, when excited with wine, he be¬ 
trayed the secret of his intimacy with Venus. 

Aneh'olme, a river of England, rising in Lincoln¬ 
shire, and joining the Humber 9 miles from Glanford 
Brigg. 

Anchor, (dng'kur,)n. [Lat. anchnra; Fr. ancre.) ( Naut .) 
A heavy iron instrument cast or dropped from a ship into 
the water in a harbor or roadstead, to retain her in a 
convenient station there, the several parts of which 
are shown in the accompanying figure.—A. were origT 



Fig. 121. 

A. The ring. 

B. The stock, (placed at right angles with the plane of the arma.; 

C. The shank. 

D. The crown, or place where the arms are joined to the shank 

E. The arms. 

G. The throat of the arms, or rounded angular point where th* 

arm is joined by the shank. 

H. The palms, or flukes. 

L. The bill, or peak. The end of the shank, on A. is called a nut 

Daily mere weights; at present they are so contrived as 
to sink into the earth as soon as they read) it, and to 
hear a great strain before they can he loosened or dis¬ 
lodged. The number of anchors carried at both the 
hows and stern of a ship have been finally reduced to 
four principal, and these all at the hows. 1 lie anchors 
supplied to men-ot-war are the best and small bowers, the 
sheet, and the spare; these are of the largest size; to 
which are added, the stream and the hedge, which are 
used for particular or for temporary purposes. Since 
there is but small difference in the form of anchors of 
different weights, the stream of a large vessel serves for 
the bower of a smaller. — “An A. corne.s home, when it 
loses its hold of the ground, hy the violence of the sea 
or wind; in which case, as the vessel drifts, the anchoi 
drags. — To cast A., is to release it from the cathead hy 
letting run the cathead-stoppers, that it may fall to the 
bottom, and so hold the vessel.— To lie at A. >r riding at 
A -; the situation of a vessel which is kept in a particu¬ 
lar place hy her A. resting on the ground.— To bach an 
A. ; to lay "out or plant a smaller A. ahead of the large 
one by which the vessel rides; the cahla of the formas 








































102 


ANCH 


ANCI 


AND 


being fastened to the crown of the latter, or secured with 
a running clinch around t lie cable of the latter, to fetch 
up at the ring.— To cat and fish an A.; to raise the ring 
to the cathead by the cat-purchase, and then hoist the 
dukes to the gunwale by the fish-purchase, after which 
the cat-stopper and shank-painter are passed.— To sweep 
far an A.; to sweep with the bight of a rope over the 
bottom, to find a lost A. — To shoe an A ; to place over 
the flukes, broad, triangular pieces of plank, that the A. 
may take hold better in a soft bottom.— To weigh an A.; 
to heave it up to the bows by means of the cable, in 
order to set sail.” 

(Arch.) Seo Echinus. 

(Com.) A Dutch liquid measure. See Anker. 
—Metaphorically, that which confers stability or se¬ 
curity. 

“ Which hope we have as an anchor of the soul.”— Heb. vi. 17. 

—An anchor, thus ' s s y m k°l of Hope. 

/Lnch'or, v. a. To place at anchor; as, to anchor a ship. 
Figuratively, to fix or fasten; to fix in a stable condi¬ 
tion ; as, to anchor the cables of a suspension-bridge. 

“ TUI that my nails were anchored in thine eyes.”— Shahs. 

— v.n. To cast anchor; as, the ship anchored in the harbor. 
Figuratively, to stop; to rest; to rest upon; as, “My 
intention anchors on Isabel.”— Shales. 

4tlch'orable, a. Fit for anchorage. 

Anch'ora^e, n. [Fr. ancrage.) A suitable place to 
drop an anchor.—The hold of the anchor.—The dues or 
duty paid for the libert y of anchoring in a port. 
Anch'ored, or Ancred, p. a. (Her.) Having the ex¬ 
tremities turned back, like the flukes of an anchor; as, 
an anchored cross. 

Andl'oress, n. A female anchoret. 

Audi'Orel, Anach'oret, or An'chorife, n. [Gr. 
anarhoreles ] A person who retires from the world 
through religious motives. 

(Eccl. Hist.) Under Christianity, anchorets sprung 
up about the middle of the third century in Egypt and 
Syria, where many believers came to hide themselves in 
caves and solitary wilds from the fury of the persecu¬ 
tion which arose under the Emperor Decius. Paul, com¬ 
monly called the hermit, has the credit of having been 
the first regular anchoret. A distinction, however, came 
afterward to be drawn between anchorets and hermits ; 
the former name being given only to those who rigidly 
confined themselves to their caves or cells, and the 
latter to those who, although they had broken off all 
commerce with the world, still wandered about at large 
in the wilds to which they had retired. Both descriptions 
of recluse were entirely distinguished from the Coeno¬ 
bites, or those living in communities. Many of the an¬ 
chorets were laymen; and there were also female as well 
as male anchorets. From nearly the commencement of 
the seventh century, the Church assumed a jurisdiction 
over anchorets; and persons were not allowed to enter 
upon the mode of life in question, except by permission 
of their ecclesiastical superiors, and after an appointed 
ceremony had been performed, at which the bishop pre¬ 
sided. Churchesand religious houses in the middle ages 
would sometimes keep an anchoret shut up in a cell, 
which was usually attached to the choir of the church. 

It was eventually found necessary to lay down, certain 
regulations with a view of discouraging the adoption 
of this solitary life. The most singular species of an¬ 
chorets recorded in the history of the Church, is that 
which arose in Syria in the fifth century, and of which 
Simeon Stylites was the founder. This zealot and his 
followers, instead of resorting, according to the custom¬ 
ary fashion, to caves, elevated themselves into the air, 
on lofty pillars of stone, on the tops of which they 
passed their lives. They have hence received the names 
of pillar saints, holy birds, and aerial martyrs. 

Anclioret'ic, Anclioret'ical, a. [Gr. anachoreli- 
Aos.] Belonging or relating to an anchoret. 

Anch'or-grotind, n. Anchorage. 

Ancli'or-liold, n. The hold of an anchor; security. 

(Nnut.) The hold, or compartment in a ship, in which 
the anchors are deposited. 

Ancli'orite, n. An anchoret. 

Aneti'or-stocli, n. See Anchor. 

Anche'vy, ». [Fr .anchois; Sp. <mchova.~) (Zofil.) The 
Engraulis encrasicolus , a well-known small fish of the 
dupevUe. or Herring family, abounding in many parts 
of the Mediterranean, particularly on the coasts of 
Italy, Greece, Spain, and France. It is about four 
inches long, of a bluish - brown color on the back, 
and silvery wrote on the belly. They were known to 
the ancients, and were used both by the Greeks and 
Romans as a pickle or sauce under the name of garum. 

Ancho'vy-pear, n. (Bot.) The Grias caul (flora, only 
species of the gen. Grias. ord. Myrtacere. It is a tail 
tree with few brandies, very long oblong leaves, and 
large white flowers, growing in Jamaica. The fruit, 
an oval berry, is the size of an alligator’s egg, of a brown¬ 
ish-russet color, and is eaten as a pickle, in the same 
way as the mango. 

Aii'cUusa, n. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, tribe Anchusem. 
The A. tinctoria, or alkanet. contains a reddish-brown 
substance used by dyers.—See Alkavet, and Am husine. 

Ancliu'seae, n. pi. (Bot.) A tribe of plants, ord. Bo- 
raginace.ee. 

In'chusine, Anchusic Acid, n. (Client.) A dark- 
red, resinous body, permanent in light, softening at 
140°, and subliming, without change, at a higher 
temperature, in the form of violent fumes, like iodine; 
Insoluble in water, and soluble in alcohol with a red I 
*»lor. It is the red coloring matter of the Anchusa 


tinctoria, or alkanet, obtained by acting on the root 
with boiling absolute alcohol or ether. 

An'cliylose, v. a. [see Anchylosis.] To make stiff; 
to fix immovably, as a joint. 

Anchylo'sis, n. [Gr. from agchylomai, to bend.] 
(Med.) A still' joint. It is divided into the true and spu¬ 
rious, according as the motion is entirely or but partly 
lost. This state may arise from various causes, as tume¬ 
faction of the ends of the bones, caries, fracture, dislo¬ 
cation, Ac., also dropsy of the joint, fleshy excrescences, 
aneurisms, aud other tumors. It may also be owing to 
the morbid contraction of the flexor muscles, induced 
by the limb being long kept in a particular position, as 
a relief to pain, after burns, mechanical injuries, Ac. 
The rickets, white swellings, gout, rheumatism, palsy, 
from lead particularly, aud some other disorders, often 
lay the foundation of anchylosis; and the joints are 
very apt to become stiff iu advanced life. Where the 
joint is perfectly immovable, little can be done for the 
patient; but in the spurious form of the complaint, the 
first thing is to remove, if possible, any cause mechani¬ 
cally obstructing the motion of the joint, and then to 
get rid of the morbid contraction of the muscles. If 
inflammation exist, this must be first subdued by proper 
means, but no rapid improvement is to be expected in 
general. 

Anoliy lot'ic, a. Belonging to anchylosis. 
An'cient, a. [Fr. ancien, from Lat. antea, ante, before.] 
Old; that happened long since; of old time; not modern. 

“ Witness those ancient empires of the earth. 1 '— Milton . 

—Old; that hits been of long duration. 

“ God was of all things the most ancient, because he never had 
any beginning."— Raleigh. 

— Past; former. 

“ I see thy fury ; if I longer stay. 

We shall begin our ancient bickering-.'— Shahs. 

—Ancient and old are thus distinguished: Old relates to 
the duration of the thing itself, as, an old coat, a coat 
much worn; and ancient to time in general, as, an an¬ 
cient dress, a habit used in former times. But this is 
not always observed ; for we mention old customs; but 
though old is sometimes opposed to modern, ancient is 
seldom opposed to new. 

(Hist.) In a limited sense, ancient is used in reference 
to a certain period in the existence of the human race; 
as when we speak of ancient, as distinguished from 
modern, history; of the ancient classics, ancient litera¬ 
ture, and generally, of the ancients. The boundary-line 
between ancient and modern in this latter sense is not 
very accurately drawn; but according to the vulgar ac¬ 
ceptation of the terms, the period of the ancients seems 
to be closed by the final and complete overthrow of the 
western Roman empire. With reference to the nations 
over which that empire extended, the distinction is not 
altogether arbitrary, or without an intelligible reason. 
The overthrow of the Roman empire marks the com¬ 
mencement of a now order of things, when we begin to 
discover the rudiments of those powerful independent 
nations, of those various languages, and peculiar insti- 
tutious, which so remarkably distinguish a large por¬ 
tion of what is called modern Europe, from Europe 
under Roman dominion. There is of course a short 
interval, which may bo considered as doubtful ground, 
for the possession of which the terms ancient and mod¬ 
ern will always be allowed to contend. 

Ancient, in Wisconsin, a hamlet of Dane co. 

Ancien I ly, ado. In old times. 

An'cientness, n. The state of being ancient; an¬ 
tiquity ; existence from old times. 

An cientry, n. The honor of ancient lineage; the dig¬ 
nity of birth. 

“ The Irish think to ennoble themselves, by wresting their an¬ 
cientry from the Spaniard." — Spenser. 

Anci’Ic, or Ancy'le, n. [Lat.] ( Antiq .) A small brazen 
shield which fell, as was pretended, from hoaven in the 
reign of Numa Pompilins, when a voice was heard, de¬ 
claring that Home should be mistress of the world as 
long as she would preserve this holy buckler. To secure 
its preservation in the city, Numa ordered eleven other 
shields, exactly like it, to bo made, and twelve priests of 
Mars Gardivus were appointed under the name of Salii, 
whose office it was to preserve the twelve ancilla. 
Every year, on the calends of March, the A. were taken 
from the temple of Mars, on Palatine mount, by the 
Salii, who carried them about the city, singing warlike 
songs and performing dances, which they accompanied 



(From a sculpture en the tomb of a Pootifex Ralius.) 
by striking the A. with rods, one of which may be seen 
in Fig. 122. 


Ancil'la, or Ancillaria, n. (Zool.) A gen. of Mollusca, 
inhabiting a spiral, univalve marine shell. Numerous 
species, chiefly confined to tropical countries. 
Ancil'lon, David, a Protestant minister, who fled from 
France after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and 
D. at Berlin, 1672, 75 years old. was an author of some 
merit; as was also his son Charles, who was historiog¬ 
rapher to the king of Prussia, and n. at Berlin, 1715. 
Ancil'lon, Johann Peter Fkiedrich, a Prussian states¬ 
man who, during the wars of Napoleon I., took an ac¬ 
tive part ill directing the affairs of his country. At his 
death he held the appointment of minister of foreign 
affairs. B. at Berlin, 1766; p. 1837. 

An'cillary, a. [Lat. ancillaris, a maid-servant.] De¬ 
pending on; subordinate to. 

Ancip'ital. Aneip'itons, a [Lat. anceps, gen. ana 
cipihs, two-handed.] With two edges, as the stem of sisy- 
rinchium anceps. 

An'cle, n. See Ankle. 

An'cobar, a river on the Gold Coast, Africa, which there 
forms the west boundary of the Dutch possessions. Lak 
4° N.; Lon. 2° 16'W. 

An con, n. [Lat.] (Anat.) The elbow. 

(Arch.) An angle or corner-stone. 

Anco'na, a large maritime town of Italy, on the Adri¬ 
atic, 15 m. N.N.W. of Loreto, and 134 m. N.E. of Rome. 
Lat. 43° 37' 47" N.; Lon. 13° 30' 35" E. — The harbor is 
well adapted for building and repairing ships, and is 
frequented by those of nil nations. It was made a free 
port by dement XII. On the mole stands a noble an¬ 
cient triumphal arch, in honor of the emperor Trajan, 
said to be the finest marble arch in the world. The 
trade is chiefly in the hands of the Jews, who inhabit 
a separate harbor. Steamers leave for Corfu, Patras, 
Athens, and Constantinople. — A. was one of the princi¬ 
pal naval stations of the Romans, and was anciently 
famous for its purple dye. In 1797, it was taken by the 
French, and restored to the Papal See in 1814. In 1832, 
the French again took possession of its citadel, which 
they did not leave till 1837, after the evacuation of the 
Austrian troops from the Papal territories. In 1849, the 
town sharing in the revolution in the Roman States, 
was bombarded, and then occupied by Austrian troops 
until 1859. On 29tb Oct., 1860, it surrendered to the 
Piedmontese troops, and has since formed part of the 
Italian kiugdom. Later, the harbor has been greatly 
improved. Pop. 31,238. 

Anco'na, iu Illinois, a post-village of Livingston co, 
abt. 22 ni. S. of Ottawa. 

An'conc, n. [Gr. ageon, the bend of the arm.] (Arch.) 

A sort of ornamental console, applied on each side of a 
door to support the cornice. 

Anconc'us, n. [Lat, from Gr. ageon, the elbow.], 
(Anat.) A small triangular muscle, situated on the baclt 
part of the elbow. Its use is to extend the fore-arm 

Anco'ny, n. (Metallurgy.) A piece of half-wrought 
iron, of about three-quarters of a hundred-weight, of 
the shape of a bar at the middle, but rude and tin- 
wrought at the ends. It is afterwards sent to a forge- 
called a chafery, where the ends are wrought into the 
shape of the middle, and the whole is made into a bar. 

An'cram, in New York, a post-township of Columbia 
co. 

An'cram Lead-Mine, in New York, a post-village 
in Ancram township, Columbia co, 50 m S.S.E. of Al¬ 
bany. So called from the lead ore found in the vicinity. 

Ancre, Concino Concini, Baron de Lussigny, Marshal 
d’, a Florentine, who in 1600 accompanied Marie de 
Medicis, the queen of Henry IV, to France. He mar¬ 
ried one of the queen’s attendants, Leonora Galigai; 
both acquired a strong influence over her mind, and 
thereby became unpopular. Upon the queen becoming 
regent, stie made her favorite Concini a marshal of 
France, and prime minister. He was an object of dis¬ 
like, both to tliecourt and the people. A conspiracy, to. 
which the young king, Louis XIII, lent himself, Was. 
formed against him, and he was assassinated openly in 
the Louvre, April 24,1617. His body was ignominiously 
dragged through the streets of Paris by the people, and. 
burnt. His wife, accused of sorcery, was also executed 
shortly afterward. 

An'crum, a village and parish of Roxburgnshire, on. 
the Teviot, in Scotland. Area, 8,316 acres. Pop. 600.— 
Here, in 1544, the battle of Ancrum Moor was fought i 
between the English and Scotch, the latter being the 
victors. 

An'cnd, the gulf of, lies between the Island of Chiloe* 
and the mainland of S. America. Ext. nearly 150 m. 
long, with an average width of 60. Lat. extending from 
41° 30' to 43° 30' S.; Lon. from 72° to 73° W. 

An'cus Har t ins. the fourth king of Rome, succeeded, 
Tullius Hostilius, 638 b. c. (114 a. u.) and died 614 b. c. 

(138 a. u.) He built the harbor at Ostia, the month of I 
the Tiber. Rome, therefore, must have liad, as early as< 
that period, some navigation, even if it did not amount I 
to more than a coasting trade. He revived the neglected 
observance of religion, and inscribed the laws respecting: 
religious ceremonies on tables set up in the market- I 
place. Ennius and Lucretius called liim the Good. ' 
Virgil reproaches him with undue regard for popular 
favor, because he distributed the conquered lands among j 
the citizens. 

Ancyloc'eras, n. (Pal.) A genus of fossil cephalopp- 
clous molluscs. 

Aney'lus. n. (Zoiil.) A fresh-water gasteropodous- 
mollusc, with a shell similar to that of a patella. They 
live in stagnant waters, adhering to stones and aquatic ' 
plants. 

Ancy'ra. (Geog.) See Angora. 

And, conj. [ A . S. and, ant.] A particle by which sentences, 
or words are joined. 





















































































ANDE 


ANDE 


ANDO 


105 


44 Sure his honesty 
Got him small gains, but shameless flattery. 

And filthy beverage, and unseemly shift. 

And borrow base, and some good lady 's gift. ''-^Spenser. 

An dad Khan, or Anuejan, a town of Independent 
Tartary, Khauat of Kkokan, on the Sihoon ( luxuries ), 
55 m. E. of Khokan; Lat. 41° 20' \ : Lon. 71° 27'.E. 
It is a place of considerable size auu antiquity. 
Amlalu'cia. See Andalu'sia. 

Andalu'sito, Micvphylute, of Adamantine Spar, n . 
(Min.) An orthorhombic minrjal, ot the subsilicates 
section. Color, flesh-red. pear* gray, brownish-red; frac¬ 
ture uneven; lustre glas>y; translucent on edges; in¬ 
fusible before the bb"vp : ,pe. Spec. grav. 3‘314 to 3 - 13. 
Onnp. Silica 36-8, alumina u3 2 — 100. It occurs in An¬ 
dalusia. 

Andalu'sia, or Axdalu'cia, the most southern district 
or ."vain, coin-xif’.iig the four anc. Moorish kingdoms of 
Seville, Cordova, Jaen, and Granada. It is hounded N. 
by La Mancha and Kstremadnra: E by Murcia; S.E. by 
the Mediterranean, and on tire W. by Portugal, Lat. 
between 36° V N.; and Lon. between 2° and 1° 20' XV. 
Area, 27,153 sq. in. A. is now divided into 8 provinces, 
viz.: Seville. Cadiz, Cordova, Granada, Jaen, Malaga. 
Huelva, and Almeria. Desc. Extremely uneven, except 
the basin of the Guadalquivir, which, for the greatest 
part, may he regarded as a wide plain. The Sierra- 
Morena runs along its N. portion, and is cut by the great 
road from Madrid to Seville at the pass called the Des- 
pefia-perros, with an elevation of 7,500 feet above the 
sea-level. Another mountain-range, called the Sierra 
Nevada, runs across A., from Carthagena to Tarifa, and 
Cape Trafalgar, and has several points covered with per¬ 
petual snow; the highest, Mnlahacen. being 11,678 feet 
above the level of the sea. Between these two ranges 
runs the Guadalquivir, q. v. The climate is hot and 
oppressive on the coast, but N. of the Sierra Nevada 
the temperature is more equable, and cooler, although 
never at freezing point. The greatest part of the country 
is parcelled out into vast estates belonging to the gran¬ 
dees. Agriculture is in a very backward state. The 
Andalusians are a mixed race, descended from Africans, 
Carthaginians, Homans, Goths. Vandals, and Moors. 
They retain much resemblance, both in person and 
manners, to the latter, although light hair, eyes, and 
complexions are by no means unfrequent. When they 
have any motive for exertion, they are not deficient 
in industry, and are intelligent and imaginative. Pop. 
(1898) 3,470,400. 

Andalu'sia. in Alabama, a post-village cap. of Coving 
ton co., 80 m. S. of Montgomery. 

Andalu'sia. in Illinois, a village of Rock Island co., 
10 m. S.W. of Rock Island. Pop. (1898) 850. 
Andalu'sia. in Penna., a post-village of Bucks co. 
Andalu'sia. in Tennessee, a village of Gibson co. 

An'daman Islands, a narrow group of small islands 
in the E. part of the bay of Bengal, stretching N. and S. 
between Lat. 10° 30' and 13° 40' N., and Lon. about 92° 
50'. Their inhabitants are in the lowest degree of bar¬ 
barism and believed to be cannibals.—A British settle¬ 
ment was established at Port Cornwallis, in 1793, but 
was abandoned in 1796. It is now a British convict 
settlement for East Indian criminals. 

Andan'te, a. [It., from andare, to go.] (Mas.) A term 
noting an exact and just time in playing, so as to keep 
the notes distinct from eacli other. —Andante largo, sig¬ 
nifies that the music must be slow, the time exactly ob¬ 
served, and each note distinct. 

Andanti'no, a. [It.] (AIus.) Gentle, tender; somewhat 
slower than andante. 

An'darac, n. See Sandarac. 

Anile'an, a. (Geng.) Pertaining to the Andes. 
Andelysfl/<*s), a town of France, cap. of an arrond. in 
the dep. of Eure, on the Seine, 11 m. E. of Louviers. It 
properly consists of two towns, the Great and the Little 
Andelys. In the neighborhood are the ruins of Chateau 
Gailiard, a fortress built by Richard Coeur de Lion. 
Pop. 5 , 137 . 

An’dennes, a town of Belgium, prov. of Namur, on 
the Maese, 13 m. E.N.E of Namur; pop. 6,312. 
An'dernacli. a town of Rhenish Prussia, beautifully 
situated on the Rhine, between Coblentz and Bonn. 
Manf. Hydraulic cement, made from volcanic tufa, used 
in the construction of the dikes in Holland; pop. 4,000. 
Andersen, Hans Christian, an ingenious Danish 
writer, who, though born in the humblest circum¬ 
stances, has risen to considerable eminence among his 
contemporaries. Most of his works are of an imagina¬ 
tive, poetical, or light character, and have procured him 
not only the patronage of the crown of Denmark, but 
approbation of a large portion of the literary circles of 
foreign countries, and the highest praise has been as¬ 
signed to his juvenile tales. B. at Odense, Fiinen, 1805. 
— A collected edition of his works was published at 
Leipsic in 1847. D. 1875. 

Anderson, Sir Edmond, an English judge, who was in 
the commission for trying Mary queen of Scots; and 
presided at the trial of Secretary Davison, for issuing the 
warrant by which that unhappy princess was executed. 
B. in Lincolnshire; d. 1605. 

Anderson, James, LL.I).,a Scotch political, scientific, 
and agricultural writer, and one of the founders of the 
Scotch school of husbandry. He has written about 
thirty different works, and was a large contributor to 
the ‘‘Encyclopaedia Britannica.” B. at Hermiston, near 
Edinburgh, 1739; n. in London, 1808. 

Anderson. Robert. See Sumter, Fort. 

Anderson, Walter. D.D., a Scottish divine who 
flourished in the last century. He wrote a history of 
the kings of France from Francis II. down to Henry IV. 
». 1800 . 


Anderson, in California, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Shasta co., about 130 m. N. NAV. of San Fran¬ 
cisco. 

Anderson, in South Carolina a county formed in the 
N. V . part ot the State, with a part of the district of 

Pendleton, and bordering on the river Savannah._ 

Area, 690 sq. in.—it is drained by Kiowee river, Rocky 
river and Deep Creek. Soil fertile. Pop. (1890), 43,910. 
—A post-village, cap. of Anderson county, 148 m. W. N.W. 
of Columbia. 

Anderson, in Georgia, a village of Walker co. 
Anderson, in Illinois, a township aud post-office of 
Clark co. 

An'clerson, in Indiana, a thriving city, cap. of Madi¬ 
son co., located on the White river, and on the P. C., C. 
& St. L. and two other R.Rs.; has extensive and varied 
manufacturing interests, aud a prosperous trade. Pan , 
(1898) 21,800. 

Anderson, in Kansas, a S.E. county.— Area, 576 sq. 
m.; cap. Garnett. It has a fertile soil and is well-tim¬ 
bered. It is drained by Pottawattomie aud Sugar 
creeks. 

Anderson, in Kentucky, a N. county, washed by Ken¬ 
tucky river, which forms its E. boundary, and by 
Crooked, Stony, and Hammond creeks; surface undu¬ 
lating; soil fertile. Area, abt. 300 sq. m. Cap. Law- 
renceburg. Pop. in 1880, 9,361; in 1890, 10,610. 
Anderson, iu New Jersey, a small village of Warren 
co., 60 m. N. of Trenton. 

Anderson, in Ohio, a township of Hamilton co. 

An clersou. in Tennessee, aN.E. county, washed by the 
rivers Clinch and Powell; area, 600 sq.m. The large 
valley between Cumberland mountains, on the N.W., 
and Chestnut ridge, on the S E.. is very fertile and well- 
timbered. There are valuable salt aud sulphur springs 
at Eastbrook. Cap. Clinton. 

—A post-vill. of Franklin co., 103 m. S S.E. of Nashville. 
—A vill. of Sequatchie co., abt20 m. north by west of Chat¬ 
tanooga. 

Anderson, in Texas, an E. county, washed by the 
rivers Trinity and Neelies. Area, 900 sq. m. Soil gen¬ 
erally fertile. Productions, chiefly cotton and corn. 
Capital Palestine, which is usually considered the 
head of steamboat navigation. 

—A post-village, cap. of Grimes co., abt. 140 m. E. by N. 
of Austin city. 

Anderson burg, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of 
Perry co. 

An'tier son River, in Indiana, a village of Spencer 
co. 

Anderson's Creelt, in Indiana, rises in Crawford 
co., and falls near Troy into the Ohio. 

Anderson's Creek, in Pennsylvania. It enters the 
W. branch of Susquehanna river iu Cleai field co. 
Anderson's Rills, in Pennsylvania, a village of 
Butler co. 

Anderson's Store, in North Carolina, a village of 
Caswell co. 

Anderson’s Store, in Ohio, a post-office of Morgan 

co. 

Anderson's Store, in Tennessee, a post-village of 
McNairy co. 

Andersonville, in S. Carolina and Indiana. — See 
Anderson. 

Andersonville. in Indiana, a post-village of Frank¬ 
lin co., 50 in. S.E. by S. of Indianapolis. 

— a post-village of Madison co. — See Anderson. 
Andersonville, in Georgia, a post-village of Sumter 
co., 65 m. S.S.W. of Macon. This place was a notori¬ 
ous Confederate prison during the rebellion; many 
thousands of Federal prisoners were incarcerated here at 
one time, amongst whom the mortality was very great. 
Henry Wirz, supt. of the prison, was convicted and'exe- 
cuted, after the war. on a charge of excessive cruelty. 
Andes. [From the Peruvian word anta, copper or metal 
in general — Humboldt .] The general name given to the 
great range of mountains, which runs along the W. side 
of the continent of S. America. The A. are the highest 
mountains in America, and next to the Himalaya moun¬ 
tains the most elevated in the known world. The Cordil¬ 
leras, a name sometimes given to this chain, is properly 
applicable only to the innermost and highest ridge of the 
mass. In considering these mountains as a great feature 
in the physical structure of the earth, we may fix their S. 
extremity in the rocky islands of Diego Ramirez, off Cape 
Horn, in Lat. 56° 30' S., and their N. termination in the 
69th of N. Lat., at the mouth of the Mackenzie river. It 
is difficult to say where the real chain of the A. com¬ 
mences. It continues, however, when once formed, 
without a break, to the mouth of the river Atrato, or the 
isthmus of Darien, which pours its waters into the Ca¬ 
ribbean Sea, in Lat. 8° 15' N., a distance, reckoning the 
whole line, from Diego Ramirez, of 64° 15' of Lat. The 
A. of S. America, although in our maps they look like one 
long single ridge, are by no means so, hut are composed of 
a series of chains of mountains, more or less parallel, en¬ 
closing vast elevated plains or table-lands, and of sev¬ 
eral great groups, like knots or articulations, at distant 
intervals. The average width of their base js extremely 
narrow, considering their great length, in comparison 
with that of most other extensive systems of mountains; 
for. except where the groups just mentioned occur, the 
breadth varies only from 60 to 70 m. The greatest ex¬ 
tension, from east to west, is between the parallels of 
15° and 18° S., in one of the groups, where a base line 
perpendicular to the axis of the chain would he nearly 
400 m. in length. Toward the Straits of Le Maire, the 
range consists of rocky hills, rising to an altitude of 
2,000 or 3.000 feet. Cape Horn itself is a conspicuous 
rock upward of 3,000 ft. hich. Mount Sarmiento is 
the highest summit, and rises to 6,900 feet above the 


sea. In the IV. part of King Charles’s South-land, th« 
range extends over the whole district S. and W. of Ad 
miralty Bay. Further IV. it changes its direction, run¬ 
ning to the N.W. as far as the Frith of Sansalid. l.at. 52® 
S.: Lon. 73° W., from which point begins the uninter¬ 
rupted chain of the A. It comprehends the Patagonian 
A. (see Patagonia): the Chilian A. (see Chili); the Bo¬ 
livian A. (see Bolivia); the Peruvian A (see Peru); the 
A. of Ecuador (see Ecuador, Republic of); and the A. of 
New Granada (see Granada, New). The A. 6eem to dis¬ 
appear entirely between 7° and 8° N., opposite to the 
harbor of Cupica on the Pacific ; for no mountain range is 
found on the Isthmus of Panama, where it is narrowest. 

— The famous Chimborazo, in the A. of Ecuatlor, rising 
21,420 feet above the sea. was, until lately, considered 
to be the highest summit of the A.; but it is now known 
that Aconcagua, in the Bolivian A., rises considerably 
higher, being 23,910 ft. above sea-level. — Geology. It is 
very imperfectly known. The A. are mostly composed 
of porphyry and mica slate. Porphyry is by far the 
most widely extended of the unstratified rocks of the 
A., and occurs through the whole range at all eleva¬ 
tions, and frequently the highest summiis are composed 
of it. Next to porphyry and mica-slate, trachyte and 
basalt are most frequently met with. Volcanoes are fre¬ 
quent in certain portions of the range: hut. that part of 
the A. in which volcanic agency is most active, lies be¬ 
tween Lat. 3S., and 2° N. The number of summits 
where eruptions are recorded, is here very considerable. 
The farthest N. is that of I’urace. in the neighborhood of 
Popayan, where the A. begin to divide into three ranges. 
Glaciers are of rare occurrence, which is partly to be at¬ 
tributed to the relative positions ol the summits, which 
generally form a continuous line, without having other 
summits on their side; and partly to the considerable dis¬ 
tance which is everywhere found to intervene between 
two summits. Near Lat. 12° S.. the line of perpetual snow 
is at about 18,300 ft. above the level of the tea. — IV gela¬ 
tion. In the lower grounds, between the tropics, fi om l he 
level of the sea to the height of from 3,000 to 5,000 ft., cas¬ 
sava, cacao, maize, plantains, indigo, sugar, cotton, and 
coffee, are cultivated. The low country is also the region 
of oranges, pine-apples, and the most delicious fiuits. Be¬ 
tween the altitude of 6,000and 10,000ft., lies the climate 
best suited for the culture of all kinds of European 
grain, principally wheat, rye, and barley. Within the 
same limits is to be found the oak, which from the ele¬ 
vation of 9,200 ft. never descends, near the equator, be¬ 
low that of 5,500 ft. Beyond the limit of 9,000 ft., large 
trees of every kind begin to disa] pear, though some 
dwarfish pines are to he found at the height of 13,000 ft. 
The grasses clothe the ground at an elevation of from 
13,500 to 15,000 ft., and from this to the regions of ice 
and snow, the only plants visible are the lichens The 
most celebrated product of the A. is the Cinchona, or 
Jesuit's Bark, the better kinds of which are collected 
between Lat. 5° N. and 5° S„ where llie tree grows 
at an elevation of from 10.000 to 14,000 feet above the 
sea. — Animals. The most remarkable kinds of ani¬ 
mals are the guanacos, llamas, and vicunas; of birds, 
condors and vultures.— Minerals. Many of ihe rivers 
descending from tlie A. contain small particles of gold 
in their sands. Silver occurs in many places of the 
range between 33° and tlie equator; but it is more com¬ 
monly found at an elevation where vegetation nearly 
ceases, which renders the working of the mines very ex¬ 
pensive. Quicksilver, copper, ores of lead, tin and iron 
are found in many parts. 

Andes, in New Turk, a post-township of Delaware co., 
70 m. S.W. of Albany 

Andesite. Andesine, n. (Min.) A triclinic min¬ 
eral, of the Felspar group. Spec. gr. 2‘736 to 2 651. 

Andesville, iu Pennsylvania, a post-office of Perry co. 

A ml fra. n. (Bot.) See Dalbergace.e. 

-A-tttliron,, or Handison, n. [From hand-iron or brand- 
iron.] A fire-dog. Formerly used lor burning wood on 
an open hearth; they consisted of a horizontal bar raised 
on short supports, with an upright standard at one end. 
A pair were used, one standing at each side of the hearth, 
whilst the logs of wood rested across the horizontal bars. 
The A. is of general use in Fiance, where it is called 
chenet. Owing to the general adoption of coal as a fuel for 
domestic purposes, the A. is seldom seen in this country, 
except as a furnishing for ornamental fireplaces. 

Amlor'no, a town of N. Italy, in Piedmont, 6 m. from 
Biella, situate in one of the most prosperous districts of 
Piedmont; pop. upwards of 4,000, employed in the lead, 
copper, and iron mines of the neighboring mountains. 

— Tlie painter Cagliari was born here. 

Andorra, or Andorre, (Val d\) [Ar., thick with 

trees.] A small independent, neutral state: which, un¬ 
der the suzerainty of France, shelters itself in the 
heart of the Pyrenees, beiween the French dep. of the 
Ariege and the Spanish Cerdagne. It takes its name of 
Val d’Andorra, (valley of Andorra,) from Andorra its 
principal city. Ext. 30 m. long, and nearly the same in 
breadth. Area, 191 sq.m. Uesc. Amongst the wildest 
districts of the Pyrenees, having little arable land, hut 
exhibiting extensive pastures, with mountains entirely 
surrounding it. Little grain is grown, the inhabitants 
being mostly shepherds, who live an austere life, remote 
from the luxuries of cities. Manf. These are few and 
of the most primitive description. Iron is produced iu 
the mines, and some rude implements and tools are 
made, but nothing that deserves the name of manufac¬ 
tures, as these are now understood in larger and more 
advanced communities. Gov. Under the protection of 
France, hut the administration is carried on by twenty- 
four consuls elected by the whole population. — Com¬ 
merce. Exp. Iron to Spain, and wool and skins to 
France. Imp. The necessaries of life; and an activo 


















106 


ANDR 


ANDR 


ANDR 


contraband trade ig carried on by the republic between 
Spain and France; cap. Andorra: pop. 10,000. — In 790, 
Charlemagne defeated the Moors in a neighboring val¬ 
ley, with the assistance of the Andorrans, and from that 
period they date the independence of their little State. 
As a recompense for their services, the French monarch 
allowed them to make their own laws, a privilege which 
they have continued ever since to enjoy. 
An , dors v ese, n. sing, and pi. (Geog.) A native, or the 
natives c< the Val d’Andorra. 

—a. Belonging to the Val d’Andorra, or to its inhabitants. 
Antlouille', n. [Fr.] (Cookery.) A dish or preparation 
from the entrails of a pig; chitterlings. 

An'dover, a town of England, ia Hampshire, on a 
rivulet called Aude, 12 m. from Winchester. It has an 
ancient Gothic church, is well paved, lighted with gas, 
and plentifully supplied with water. Many. Principally 
silk, and it has a trade in timber. Pop. 5,500. 
An'dover, in Connecticut, a post-township of Tolland 
co,. 18 m. E. of Hartford. 

An'dover, in Illinois, a post-village and township of 
Henry co., 2b m. S.E. of Davenport. 

An'dover, in Maine, a post-township of Oxford co., 
about 30 m. N.W. of Paris. 

An'dover, in Massachusetts, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Essex co., on the Merrimac river, 21 m. N. of 
Boston. Incorporated in 18-16. There are the Phillips 
Academy, instituted in 1778; th e> Andover Theological 
Seminary, founded in 1807, under the direction of the 
Congregationalists: and the Abbott Female Academy, 
founded in 1829. Manf. Flannels, linen, and shoe-thread. 
An'dover, in Michigan, a village of Calhoun co., about 
140 in. W. of Detroit. 

An'dover, in New Hampshire, a post-township and 
village of Merrimac co. It has mauufs. of carriages, 
lumber, paper, &c. 

An'dover, in New Jersey, a post-village of Sussex co., 
about 55 m. N. of Trenton. 

An'dover, in New York; a post-village and township 
of Alleghany co., on a tributary of the Genesee river, 
258 m. from New York city. Manuf. Carriages, furni¬ 
ture, iron foundry, tannery, &c. 

An'dover, in OWo.apost-viliageand township of Ash¬ 
tabula county, 205 miles N. E. of the city of Colum¬ 
bus. 

An'dover, in Vermont, a post-township of Windsor co., 
68 m. S. by W. of Montpelier. 

An'dracio, or Andracv, a town of Spain, on the S.W. 

coast of the island of Majorca; pop. 4,690. 

An'dral, Gabriel, an eminent French physician, mem¬ 
ber of the Institute and of the Academy of Medicine, 
B. in Paris, 1797. In 1828 he was appointed Professor 
of Hygiene; and in 1839 he was almost unanimously 
elected by his colleagues to succeed Broussais in the 
chair of pathology and general therapeutics, the high¬ 
est in the school. His principal works are the Clinique 
M&dicale, and Precis d'Anatomic Pathologique. d. 1868. 
Andranat'omy, n. [Gr. ancr, a man, temno, to cut.] 
(Anat.) The dissection of the human body. 

An'dre, John, an officer in the British army during 
the American Revolutionary war. B. in London in 
1751, he entered the army and came to America as a 
lieutenant in 1774, being subsequently made adjutant- 
general, with the rank of major. He was a good 
scholar, had some ability as an artist and versifier, and 
was a man of varied accomplishments. When Benedict 
Arnold offered to surrender West Point to the British, 
General Clinton sent Audre to negotiate the surrender. 
He had a private interview with Arnold, was furnished 
with the plans of West Point, and on his return to New 
York by land was seized and the papers found concealed 
in his boot. He was condemned to death as a spy, and 
hanged Oct. 2, 1780. A monument to his memory has 
been erected in Westminster Abbey. 

Aiulrc, St., Jacques d'Albon, marquis of Fronsac, gen¬ 
erally known as Marshal of St. Andrt, a French noble¬ 
man, who in 1547 was made gentleman of the bedcham¬ 
ber by Henry II. In 1550 he was deputed to bear the 
collar of his order to Henry VIII. of England, by whom 
he was invested with that of the Garter. On his return 
he was appointed to the command of the army in Cham¬ 
pagne, where he greatly distinguished himself; but at 
the battle of St. Quentin was taken prisoner. On the 
death of Henry II. he was chosen one of the regency. 
Killed at the battle of Dreux, in 1562.—The Huguenots 
called St. Andre “The harquebusier of the West.” 
An'drea, St., a cape on the N. promontory of the 
island of Cyprus. 

An'dreas. James, a reformer of Wirtemberg, and chan¬ 
cellor of the University of Tubingen; B. 1528; D. 1090. 
Andreas, John, a famous canonist of Florence. His 
austerity was such that be was said to have lain upon 
the bare ground for twenty years, with nothing to cover 
him but a bear-skin. He had a daughterof great beauty 
and learning, who was accustomed to lecture to his stu¬ 
dents during his absence, concealed behind a curtain, 
that the attention of the auditors might not be taken 
off by her beauty. Her name was Novella, and in her 
honor he called one of his commentaries The Novella. 
D. of the plague, 1348. 

Andrc'asberg, a town of Hanover, in the Hartz, 10 
m. from Claustlial. It is situated in a district which has 
mines of iron, cobalt, copper, and silver. Pop. 4,300. 
Andre'na, n. (Zool.) A gen. of the fam. Andrenida>,q. v. 
Andre'nida', n. pi. (Zool.) A family of hymenopter- 
ous insects, allied to the bees, Apidce, from which they 
may be known by their not having an elongated probos¬ 
cis. They do not live in society like the hive-bees, but 
aresolitary, and consist only of males and females. They 
form their nest in the ground. 

Andreos'si, Antoine Franjois, Count ; a French gen¬ 


eral, who served under Napoleon, both in Italy and Egypt. 
He was afterward ambassador to London, Vienna, and 
Constantinople, and author of several military memoirs. 
B. 1761; d. 1828. 

An'drew, St., the apostle, b. at Bethsaida, in Galilee, 
brother of St. Peter, and the first disciple whom Christ 
chose. Both brothers were fishermen, but left their 
business, and followed the Redeemer. The fate of A., 
after Christ’s death, is uncertain; the common opinion 
is that he was crucified. The Russians revere him as 
the apostle who brought the gospel to them ; the Scots, 
as the patron saint of their country. In the early ages 
of the church, a pretended Gospel of his was in circula¬ 
tion. The Acta also, which bear his name, are not gen¬ 
uine. 

St. Andrew's Cross. A cross formed obliquely, thus, X; 
so called, because, according to tradition, St. Andrew 
was executed on a cross erected of this particular shape. 
B. at Patras, in Achaia, Nov. 30, A.D. 83. 

Orders of St. Andrew. —I. A Russian order of knight¬ 
hood, the highest in rank of that empire, founded by 
Peter the Great, in 1698. The members are exclusively 
chosen from the imperial family, princes, commanders- 
in-chief, and others of the most elevated position. Its 
badge has on its obverse side a cross of blue enamel, 
bearing a figure of St. A. surmounted by a crown, and 
in the four corners of the cross the letters S. A. P. R. 
(Sanctus Andreas Patronus Russice,) while on the reverse 
side is an eagle with spreading wings, with a Russian 
legend signifying “For religion and loyalty,” and also 
the name of the Saint. The collar of the order is formed 
of St. Andrew's crosses alternate between imperial 
crowns.—II. A Scottish order of knighthood, more com¬ 
monly known as The Order of the Thistle. It derives its 
latter title from the thistle, which is the heraldic badge 
of Scotland, and its former from the patron-saint of that 
country, St. Andrew. Tradition states that a cross of 
St. Andrew appeared in the heavens to Achaius, king of 
Scots, and Ilungus, king of the Piets, as an augury of a 
victory over the English king Athelstane, which they 
gained on the following day; a vow was thereupon made 
to emblazon it on their heraldic insignia; but the authen¬ 
tic formation of the order only dates from the reign of 
James V. Having fallen into desuetude, it was revived 
by James II. of England in 1687, and reestablished in 
the reign of Anne, Dec. 31,1703. The star of this order 
is worn on the left side, and presents a St. A.'s cross em¬ 
broidered in silver, with rays issuing from between the 
points of the cross. In the centre is a thistle of green 
and gold upon a green field, surrounded by a circle of 
green, bearing the motto in golden letters, “ Nemo me 
impune lacessit.” The badge or jewel depends from the 
collar, or is worn on a dark green ribbon over the left 
shoulder and tied under the arm. This badge is a figure 



Fig. 123. — star or the order of the thistle. 
of St. A., enamelled and chased in green and gold. Thistles 
compose the collar, intermixed with sprigs of rue. In 
1827, a statute established the order as one consisting of 
the sovereign and sixteen knights. These knights, for 
the most part nobles of high rank, bear the letters K.T. 
after their name. 

Andrew I., king of Hungary, was the eldest son of 
Ladislans the Bald. On the accession of Peter, in 1044, 
he and his brother Bala were'obliged to quit Hungary; 
but on promising to abolish Christianity and to restore 
paganism, they were recalled. When Andrew, however, 
obtained the throne, he broke his engagement, and com¬ 
pelled his subjects to turn Christians. He was defeated 
and slain by his brother in 1059.—There were other kings 
of Hungary of this name, but there is nothing impor¬ 
tant to record of them. 

An'drew, of Ctrene, an impostor who, in the reign of 
Trajan, had the art to deceive his fellow-countrymen, 
the Jews, into a belief that he was ordained to be their 
liberator. They accordingly revolted, and horrible cruel¬ 
ties were committed on both sides before they were re¬ 
duced to obedience. 

An'drew, of Pisa, a sculptor and architect; b. 1270. He 
built several grand structures at Florence and Venice, 
and also obtained great reputation as a painter, poet, 
and musician. D. 1345. 

An'drew, in Iowa, a post-village of Jackson co., about 
12 miles S.W. of Bellevue. 

An'drew, in Missouri, a N.W. county, bordering on the 
Missouri river; area, 425 sq. m. The soil is fertile and 
well watered by the Platte river. Prod. Wheat, corn, 
oats, wool, potatoes and sorghum. Cap. Savannah’ 
Pop. (1898) 17,650. 

Andrew Chapel, in Tennessee, a post-office of Madi¬ 
son co. 

An'drew. St., in British America, a seaport town of 
Prince Edward Island, King’s co., on Cardigan Bav • 
Lat. 46° 10' N.; Lon. 62° 25' W. 


An'drew, John Albion, b. in Maine, 1818. He grad¬ 
uated at Bowdoin College in 1837,and shortly atterward 
commenced the study of law at Boston. In 1840, he 
was admitted to the bar, and practised in that city fo- 
twenty years. In 1858, he became a member of the Stave 
Legislature, and formed ope of the Chicago Convention 
of 1860. As Governor of the State of Massachusetts, he 
was the 21st occupant of the gubernatorial chair, since 
the convention of 1780. D. Oct., 1867, leaving behind 
him a reputation for political sagacity not often excelled. 

An'drews, Lancelot, an eminent English divine, b. in 
London, 1565; bishop of Winchester in the reigns of James 
I. and Charles I. D. 1626. It is of this bishop that the 
following anecdote is told. Waller the poet was one day 
at court, while King Janies was at dinner, who was at¬ 
tended by the bishop of Winchester, and Neale, bishop 
of Durham. His Majesty said to the prelates, “My 
lords, cannot I take my subjects'money when I want it, 
without all this formality in parliament?” Bishop Neale 
quickly replied, “God forbid, sir, that you shouldn’t; 
you are the brealli of our nostrils.” On which, the king 
said to the bishop of Winchester. “Well, my loid. and 
what say you?” “ Sir,” replied Bishop Andrews, “ I have 
no skill to judge of parliamentary cases.” The king an¬ 
swered, “No 'put-offs, my lord; answer me presently.” 
“ Then, sir,” said be, “ 1 think it lawful for you to take 
brother Neale’s money, for he offers it.” 

An'drews, in Ohio, a post-village of Morrow co., in 
Congress township, about 46 m. N. by E. of Columbus. 

An'drews, in Virginia,*, post-officeof Spottsylvaniaco. 

An'drew’s Mill, in Illinois, a village of Stephenson 
co.. in Loran township, about 15 m. W. by S. of Freeport. 

An'drew’S, St., a parish and seaport city of Scot¬ 
land, co. of Fife.39m.N.N.E. of Edinburgh.The harbor 
is safe and commodious, though the entrance is narrow. 
Lat. 56° 19' 3"." N.; Lon. 2° 50' W.— A university, the 
oldest in Scotland, was founded here in 1410. Though 
decayed, A. possesses some remains of its ancient con¬ 
sequence. Its magnificent cathedral, commenced in 
1162, and consecrated in 1318, was, in 1559, demolished 
in one day by a mob excited by asermon of John Knox. 
Pop. about 7,000. 

An'drew’s, St., in the United States. See St. Andrews. 

An'drew’S, St., an inlet on the coast of Guinea. 

An'drew’s, St., Channel and Sonnd, near the 
strait of Conception, W. of Patagonia. 

An'drew’s, St.. Islands ol’, in the Pacific ocean, 
between Papua and the Pellew Islands: Lat. 5° 32' N.; 
Lon. 128° W. 

An'drewsville, or Andrusville, in New York, a 

village of Franklin co. 

An'dria, a town of Italy, prow, of Bari, 9 m. S. of Bar- 
ietta. It has a large almond trade. Pop. 30,892. 

An'drietix, Francois Guillaume Jean Stanislas, b. 
at Strasburg, 1759; was a professor of belles-lettres in 
Paris, who distinguished himself by the independence 
of bis views during the revolution. He became pro¬ 
fessor of literature in the college of France, and exceed¬ 
ingly popular as a lecturer. He wrote fifteen plays and 
several professional works. D. at Paris, 1833. 

Andrin'ople. See Adrianople. 

An'droelus, or Androdus, a Dacian slave, who. being 
exposed to a lion in the circus, I be nnimal forbore to 
hurt him, because he had formerly taken a thorn out of 
bis foot; he was, in consequence, liberated, and led the 
lion about the streets of Rome.— Aul. Gel. 1. v. c. 14. 

Androg'ynal, a. [See Androgynous.] Having two 
sexes; herniaphroditical. 

Androjf'ynally, adv. In the form of hermaphrodites; 

with two sexes. 

Androg'yne, n. [See Androgynous.^ An hermaph¬ 
rodite. 

Androgynous, a. [Gr. androgynos, hermaphrodite; 
from auer, a man, and gyne, a woman.] (Hot. and Zool.) 
A term sometimes employed in hot. to designate an 
inflorescence which consists of distinct male and female 
flowers; and more frequently in zoology in reference to 
animals which possess a distinct male and female gener¬ 
ative system in the same individual. This is the case 
with very many of the lower kinds of animals, but is 
not inconsistent with a necessity for the co-operation of 
two individuals in the propagation of the species. See 
Reproduction. 

Andro'ides, pi. Android.®. [Gr. aner. a man. and 
eidns, form.] An automaton in the figure of a man, 
wiiich, by means of certain springs and other mechani¬ 
cal contrivances, is enabled to walk, and perform other 
actions of a man. 

Androm'aehe, daughterof JEtion, king of Thebes in 
Cilicia, and wife of Hector. After the conquest of Troy 
she became the prize of Pyrrhus, son of Achilles, who 
carried her to Epirus, and had 3 sons by her, but after¬ 
ward left her to Heienus, brother of Hector, to whom 
she bore a son. Euripides has made her the chief char¬ 
acter of a tragedy. 

Androm'aehus, physician to the emperor Nero, and 
the inventor of a celebrated compound medicine, called 
theriake, described in Galen’s Works. Lived in the 1st 
century, a. d. 

Andromeda. (Myth.) daughterof the Ethiopian king 
Cepheus, and of Cassiopeia. The mother pnd daughter 
were very beautiful. The former having boasted that 
her daughter surpassed the Nereides (if not Juno 
herself) in beauty, the offended goddesses called on 
their father to revenge the insult. He not only inun¬ 
dated tlie territory of Cepheus, but also sent a Viorrid sea- 
monster, which threatened universal destruction. The 
oracle declared that the wrath of Neptune could not be 
appeased unless Cepheus delivered his daughter to the 
monster. In this extremity, Perseus beheld her, when, 
with the head of the Gorgon in his hand, and mounted 









ANDU 


ANEM 


ANEW 


107 


on Pegasus, he was returning from his victory over 
Medusa. Touched by compassion and love, the hero 
promised to kill the monster on condition that the vir¬ 
gin should be given him in marriage. The lather prom¬ 
ised it, and kept his word. In memory of the exploits 
of Perseus (y. v ), A., by the favor of Pallas, was placed 
among the stars. 

(Aslron.) A small northern constellation represented 
by the figure of a woman chained; bounded N. by Cassio¬ 
peia, 10. by Perseus and the head of Medusa, and S. by 
the Triangles and the Northern Fish. It is situated 
between 20° and 50° of N. declination. Its mean right 
ascension is nearly 15°, or one hour E. of the equinoc¬ 
tial colure. It comes to the zenith on the 10th of Nov. 
at 10 o'clock. It consists of 66 visible stars. The stars 
directly in the zenith are too small to be seen in the 
presence of the moon, but the bright star Almuak, of 
tl.e 2d magnitude, in the left foot, may be seen 10° due 
E., and M rack, of the same magnitude, in the girdle 7° 
S. of (ho zenith. The 3 stars forming the girdle are of 
the 2d, 3d, and 4th magnitude, situated in a row, and 
are called Merach, Mu, and Nu. If a straight line, con¬ 
necting Ahnaak with Merach, be produced south-west¬ 
erly 8° further, it will reach to Della, a star of the 3d 
magnitude in the left breast. 

( Bot .) A gen. of plants, ord. Ericaceae; distinguished 
by having a minute, 5-parted, persistont calyx; an 
ovoid-cylindric corolla; and a 5-valved, naked capsule, 
which splits up through the back of the cells. The A. 
polifolia, Wild Rosemary, is a beautiful evergreen shrub, 
ft. high, growing by the side of ponds and in swamps 
in the Northern States. It gives in dune rose-colored 
flowers in pendulous clusters. It has acrid, narcotic 
properties, and sheep are sometimes killed by eating it. 

(Zool.) A species of butterfly. 

An'dron, n. [Gr. from aner, a man.] (Arch.) A name 
formerly applied to the space in a church by which the 
men were separated from the women. 

Amlron'icus, of Cyresthes; a Greek architect, cele¬ 
brated for having constructed, at Athens, the tower of 
the winds, an octagonal building, on each side of which 
was a figure representing one of the winds. On the top 
of the tower was a small pyramid of marble supporting 
a brazen Triton, which turned on a pivot, and pointed 
with its rod to the side of the tower on which was rep¬ 
resented the wind that was then blowing. As each of 
the sides had a sort of dial, it is conjectured that it for¬ 
merly contained a clepsydra or water-clock. 

Amlron'icus, of Rhodes; a follower of Aristotle, who 
lived B. C. 6i, and wrote commentaries on that author. 
He also restored and published the works of that phi¬ 
losopher, which Sylla had brought from Greece. 

Anil roil 'iens, Comnenus, a Greek emperor, grandson 
of Alexis Comnenus, b. 1115; put to death by his own 
subjects, 1185. There are two other emperors of the 
same name, whose lives present nothing remarkable. 

Amlron'icus, Livius, the oldest dramatic author in 
the Latin language. His first piece was performed 
abt. 240 years n. c. His works are lost. 

Amlropet'alous, a. [Gr. aner, a man, and petalnn, a 
petal.] (B it.) A name applied to the double flowers pro¬ 
duced by the conversion of the stamens iuto petals, as 
in the garden ranunculus. 

Androph'agi,n.pi. Anthropophagi, (r.) 

Amlro'pog’on, n. ( B>t.) A gen. of plants, tribe Andrn- 
pogonext. The shaloo, A. saccharatus, is grown in India 
for its grain. The lemon-grass, A. citralam, is used in 
the West Indies as a substitute for Chinese tea. 

Andropogoiieie, n. pi. (Bat.) A tribe of plants, ord. 
Qraminaceas. 

An'dros, or An'dro, an island of the Grecian archi¬ 
pelago, S. of Euboea and N. of Fino. It is 25 m. long 
and 6 broad. Wine is its principal product. Pap. abt. 
14,000.—Its cap., Aw Ira or Castro, is situated on the E. 
Coast of the island; pop. abt. 5,000. 

Andros, E imuid, a governor of the province of New 
York, and subsequently of New England. On April 18, 
1689, the people of Boston, roused into revolt by his 
capricious and arbitrary conduct, took up arms against 
him, seized both the council and governor, and had them 
confined. In the February following he was sent to 
England for trial, but the case involved the government 
in such a dilemma, that they dismissed it without com¬ 
ing to a final decision. In 1692 he was made governor 
of Virginia, where he conducted himself with more dis¬ 
cretion. D. in London 1714. Fort Androscoggin was 
named after him. 

Androncog'gin, or Vmeriscog'gin, the name 
givon to the Margallaway river, after its junction with 
the outlet of Umbagog Lake, in Coos co., New Hampshire. 
It enters into Maine, and after a course of abt. 140 m., 
it falls into the Kennebec river, about 20 m. from its 
mouth. 

Anilrosrog'giil, in Mline, a county bounded N. by 
Franklin and S. by Cumberland counties. It was or¬ 
ganized in 1854. Area, abt. 500 sq in. A. is washed by 
Androscoggin and Little Androscoggin rivers; its soil is 
fertile. Cap. Auburn. 

An'dros Island*, or Isi.es del Espiritu S\nto, a 
group of islands among the Bahamas, extending abt. 
120 m from N. to S.; Lat. 24° to 25° 20' N.; Lon. 77° to 
78° W. 

An'dro-spllinx, n (Sculp.) A lion with ahuman head. 

An'drous, a. (B“t.) Denoting the male sex. 

An'ilrusvillo. in New York. See Andrf.wsville. 

Audit jar. ( an-doo'hdr .) [Probably the anc. Forum Ju- 
lium.] A town of Spain, in Andalusia, on the Guadal¬ 
quivir, at the foot of the Sierra Morena. 20 m. N.N.W. 
frfJaen; Lat.38° 1'32"N., Lon. 3°59'33" W. Pop. 10,000. 

& n il II ze, a town of France, dep. of the Gard, on the 
Gardon, 26 m. N. W. of Nimes; pap. 5,676. 


All'dy, in Delaware, a village of Sussex co. 

An'dy, in IF. Virginia, a post-office of Wetzel co. 

-Amo, suffix. (Cheat.). In the terminology of chemistry, 
according to the classification of Holman, denotes a 
hydrocarbon of the paraffine series; as, ethane, meth¬ 
ane, Ac. 

An'ecdotal, a. Belongingto, or containing anecdotes; 
as, an anecdotal conversation. 

An'ecdote, n. [Gr. anecdotim, something inedited or 
unpublisoed.J In its original sense, some particular 
relative to a subject to which publicity had not been 
given in previous works on that subject. — In its aciual 
sense, the narrative of a particular action or saying of 
an individual. 

Anecdot'ic, Anecdot'ical, a. Relating or belong¬ 
ing to anecdotes; as, anecdoticul traditions. 

Anecdot'ist, n. One who deals in, or relates anec¬ 
dotes. 

Anega'da, the most northerly of the Lesser Antilles, 
belonging to England;*Lat. about 19° N.; Lon. between 
64° and 65° W.; area, 13 sq.m. A. is of coral forma¬ 
tion, and a reef, running 10 m. to the S.E., is marked on 
maps as the scene of numerous shipwrecks. Pap. 
about 300. 

Am'elace, n. A dagger or knife that it was the general 
use to wear at the girdle, in the middle ages. 

Anelec'tric, a. and n. [FromGr. an, priv., and electric .] 
That is not electric. 

Anelec'troile, n. (Phys.) A name given by Faraday to 
the positive pule of a galvanic battery 

Anel'litles. See Anxellides. 

Anem'ic Acid, n. (Cltem.) A yellowish-white sub¬ 
stance from the infusion of the anemone nemorosa by 
exposure to light. 

Anemug'rapliy, n. [Gr. anemns, wind, and graphe, 
description.] (Phys.) The description of the winds. 

Anemol'og'y, n. [Gr. anemns, wind, and logos, discourse.] 
(Phys.) The doctrine of, or a treatise on the winds. 

Anemom'eter, n. [Gr. anemns, wind, and metmn, 
measure.] (Phys.) An instrument used for measuring 
the force and velocity of the wind. Various instrument, 
have been invented for this purpose, the first of which 
is attributed to Wolfius, who described it in 1709. 
Considerable improvements have been since made upon 
the construction of anemome¬ 
ters ; nevertheless, that invent¬ 
ed by Lind in 1775 (Fig. 124] 
is still considered to be one ot 
the most convenient and accu¬ 
rate. It consists of two upright 
glass tubes, A B and C D, about 
9 inches high, and of an 
inch wide, connected below by 
a much narrower tube, E, va¬ 
rying from to to of an 
inch in width. The tube A B 
is bent at right angles, so as to 
receive the wind blowing into 
it horizontally. A scale, grad¬ 
uated in inches and parts of 
an inch, is placed between the 
tubes, and the whole instru¬ 
ment is made to turn round 
the steel spindle, G, which can 
be screwed into a block of 
wood by a screw at the bottom. 

When the instrument is used, 
water is poured into the tubes 
until the level in both stands 
at the middle of the scale. 

When no disturbing force acts 
upon either column of liquid, the level of both is accu¬ 
rately tlie same; but when the mouth of the tube A B 
is turned toward the wind, the column in A B is pressed 
downward, and that in C D rises proportionably, and 
the difference of the heights of the two columns 
gives the column of water which the force of the wind 
sustains. Now, as we know that the pressure of the 
atmosphere at the earth’s surface supports a column of 
water about 33 feet high, or presses with a force of about 
2, >60 lbs. on the square foot, this instrument gives us 
immediately the data from which we can calculate the 
pressure or force of the wind. Thus, supposing the 
wind to blow with a force sufficient to raise the one 
column one inch above the other, we have 1 of 33 ot 
20o0, or about 5A lbs. oi pressure on the square loot as 
the force of the wind. 

Anemom'etry, n. The measurement of the force and 
velocity of the wind. — See Anemometer. 

Anein'one (Sea). See Actinia;. 

Anemo'nese, n. pi. (B it.) A tribe of plants, ord 
Ranunculncerz. DlVG.: calix usually colored, in testira¬ 
tion imbricated. Aclienia one-seeded, tailed. Seed in¬ 
verted. Principal genus, Anemone, </. v. 

Anesnon'ic Aci<l. «. (Chem.) A brown little mass, 
soluble in water, obtained by boiling anomonine with 
barytes water. Farm. II 4 0 3 1I0. 

Aliem'oninc, n. (Chem.) A white crystalline sub¬ 
stance, heavier than water, without smell, at first with¬ 
out taste, but afterwards having a permanent burning 
impression. Obtained as an oil by distilling the root 
of the anemone nemorosa with water. 

Anem'oseope, n. [Fr., from Gr. anemns, wind, and 
senpein, to view.] (Phys.) A machine showing from what 
point of the compass the wind blows. This is done by 
means of an index moving about an upright circul ir 
plate, the index being turned by an horizontal axis, and 
the axis by an upright staff, at the top of which is the 
fane moved about by the wind. Some are so made as 
even in the absence of the observer, to note down the 
changes of the wind. But any contrivance, however 



Fig. 124 


simple, which indicates the direction of the wind, as s 
wind-vane, a weathercock, is properly an anemoscope. 

Anein'one, rt. [Gr. a nemos, wind.] (Bat.) A genus of 
plants, tribe Anemonece. Their popular name of wind¬ 
flower comes from most of the species growing in ele¬ 
vated or windy places. The species are numerous and 
generally beautiful. The wood anemone, A. nemorosa , 
is a common and interesting little plant, and its white 
flowers, external¬ 
ly tinged with 
purple, are an or¬ 
nament of many 
a woodland scene 
and mountain 
pasture in April 
and May. Almost 
all the beautiful 
species cultivated 
in gardeus havo 
been originally 
brought from the 
Levant. Among 
them we will 
name the A. coro- 
naria, a hardy 
plant, with large 
single or double 
variegated flow¬ 
ers: and the A. 

Hortensis, star-an¬ 
emone, one of the 
finest species, 
with double and 
semi-double vari¬ 
eties of red, white, and blue flowers. — The cultivation 
of the A. requires great attention. It prefers a light 
soil. The root, which consists of clustered tubers, is 
taken up after flowering. The plant is propagated by 
parting the roots or by seed. In the latter way, new 
varieties are obtained. Seedling plants do not flower 
til’ the second or third year. 

Ancncejjilt'aliis. n. [Gr. a., priv., and eyeephalos, 
brain.] (Physiol.) A name given to those monsters, more 
common ir, the human species than in the lower ani¬ 
mals, which are characterized by the want of a brain, 
and more or less total want of a spinal marrow. 

Anent', prep. [A Scottish word, perhaps from the 
prefix a, and A.S. nean, near.] Concerning: about; as, 
he said nothing anent t;,.s particular. — Over against; 
opposite to ; ns, he lives anent the market-house. Used 
in Scottish law. 

A'ner, a Canaanite chief, who confederated with Abra¬ 
ham. 

An eroid, a. [Gr. a., priv., nerns, moist, and eidns, form.] 
(Phys.) The name given to a kind of barometer, in¬ 
vented by M. Vidi, which, by means of a system of lev¬ 
els, connected with an air-tight box and internal spring, 
measures the pressure of the air without the use of a 
liquid. — See Barometer. 

Alios, 7i.ptl. See Awns. 

A'net, a town of Fi ance, dep. of Eure-et-Loire, 9 m. N 
E. of Dreux. Here there are the ruins of a fin, castle 
built by Henry II. for Diana de Poitiers. In the neigh¬ 
borhood is the plain of Ivry, where, in 1590. Henry IV 
gained a complete victory over the armies of the League 
Pp. 1.592. 

Aneu'rin, a British poet and chieftain of the 6th cen¬ 
tury, supposed to be identical with the historian Gildas. 
lie took part in the battle of Cartraeth, which he made 
tlie subject of a poem; this, and Odes of the Months, form 
the whole of his known works, and are to be found in 
tlie Welsh archaeology. D. 570. 

An'eurisiii. 7i. [Gr. aneurismos, a widening; Fr ane-o- 
risme .] (Stag.) The swelling of an artery, or the dila¬ 
tation and expansion of some part of an artery. This is 
the true A. There is also a spurious kind of A., when the 
rupture or puncture of an artery is followed by an ex¬ 
travasation of blood in tlie cellular membrane. If the 
external membrane of the artery is injured, and tlie in¬ 
ternal membrane protrudes through, and forms a sac. it 
is called mixed A. Lastly, there is the vai-icose A., the 
tumor of tlie artery, when, in bleeding, the vein has been 
entirely cut through, and at the same time the upper 
side of an artery beneath has been perforated, so that its 
blood is pressed into the vein. The genuine A. arise 
partly from tlie too violent motion of the blood, partly 
from a preternatural debility of the membranes of the 
artery, which is sometimes constitutional. They are, 
therefore, more frequent in the great branches of the 
arteries; in particular, in tlie vicinity of the heart, in 
the arch of the aorta, and in tlie extremities, for in¬ 
stance, in the ham and at the rilis, where tlie arteries are 
exposed to frequent injuries by stretching, violent bodily 
exertions, thrusts, falls, and contusions. They may, 
however, be occasioned also, especially the internal ones, 
by diseases, violent ebullitions of tlie blood, by tlie uso 
of ardent spirits, by vehement passions and emotions, 
particularly by anger; in such cases, the arteries may 
be ruptured, and sudden death produced. The external 
A. are either healed by continued pressure on tlie swell¬ 
ing, or by an operation, in which the artery is laid bare, 
and tied above the swelling, so as to prevent tlie flow 
of the ldood into the sac of the aneurism, which con¬ 
tracts by degrees Sometimes the ligature is applied 
both above and below the A. 

Aneuris'nial, a. Belonging to an aneurism. 

Anew', adv. [Prefix a, and nets).} Over again; anothef 
time; repeatedly. This is the most common use. 

“ And you. 

To show how well you play, m»*.st play anew.” ~ Prior* 

—Newly; iD a new manner. 



Fig. 125. -ANEMONE CORONARIA. 

















108 


ANGE 


ANGE 


ANGL 



Fig. 126. 

ANGEL OF EDWARD IV. 


~ He who begins late, is obliged to form anew the whole disposi¬ 
tion of his soul." — Addison. 

Anfract'uose, a. (Bot.) Winding or turning about; 
as, anfractuose. authors. 

Anfractuos'ity, Anf'raot'iioiisness. n. [From 
Lat. an for ambi, and frange.re, fractus, to break.] The 
quality of being broken off short, or about, so as to pro¬ 
duce the effect of needless coignes or angles. It is used 
metaphorically of style of speech.— Ambagiousness; 
angularity; tortuousuess. 

Anfract uous, a [hat. anfraclns.] Winding; full of 
turnings and winding passages; as, “ There are several 
anfractuous cavities in the ear-bone.” 

An gel, n. [Or. aggelos; Lat. angelus: Fr. ange, a messen¬ 
ger of God.J ( Ecd. Hist.) The name given to those spirit¬ 
ual, intelligent beings who are supposed to execute the 
will of God in the government of the world. Their office is 
to serve the Deity, whose agents they are, in effecting his 
good purposes, as the tutelary spirits of whole nations, 
as the heralds of his commands, and as the guardians of 
particular individuals. They were supposed to be spir¬ 
its with ethereal bodies. This conception of them was 
established as a doctrine of the church by the council of 
Nice, in 787, but is at variance with the decision of the 
Laterau council of 1215, which makes them immaterial 
beings. Those who regard the body merely as an in¬ 
cumbrance, or prison of the soul, and conceive a very 
exalted idea of pure spirits, hold angels to be such spir¬ 
its, and explain their visible appearance by supposing 
that they have the power of assuming at will bodily 
forms and a human shape. Those who consider it no 
imperfection for a spirit to exist in a body, maintain that 
angels have bodies. As finite beings, they must have 
some place where they reside. The ancients easily 
found a habitation for them in their heaven, which was 
conceived to be a vast azure hall, where God dwelt with 
his angels; but we, who have very different ideas of 
heaven and the universe, can only suppose that, if they 
still operate on human things, they dwell invisibly 
with and about us. — As to their names, the Catholic 
Church receives only three as sanctioned by the Scrip 
tures,— Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael - , but their num¬ 
ber is always represented as immensely great, and also 
that there is a subordination among them. Hence, ec¬ 
clesiastical writers make an 
hierarchy of nine orders of 
angels.—But besides these, 
we read of evil angels, the 
ministers of God’s wrath; 
as the destroyi ng angel, the 
angel of death, the angel of 
Satan, the angel of the bot¬ 
tomless pit, and the fallen 
angels, or those who kept 
not their first estate, but 
fell from their obedience 
into sin, and were expelled 
the regions of light. In 
general, good and bad an¬ 
gels are distinguished by 
the opposite terms of an¬ 
gels of light, and angels of 
darkness. 

•-Figuratively, in the style 
of love,the name of angel is 
applied to a beautiful per¬ 
son, as a synonym of per¬ 
fection. 

“ Sir, as I have a soul, she is 
an angel. - ' — Shake. 

( Ntunis .) An ancient gold 
coin of England, bearing 
the figure of an angel, in 
memory of an observation 
of Pope Gregory, that the 
pagan Angli. or English, 
were so beautiful, that, if 

they were Christians, they would be angeli, or angels. 
The coin was worth ten shillings. 

An'gel-bed, n. A bed without posts. 

An'trelet, n. (Nmnis.) A half-angel; an angelot; a small 
gold coin formerly current in England. 

Ai»'g’el-fisl», n. ( Zoiil .) See Squvlid.e. 

Angel ic, a. Partaking of the character of angels, or 
their state; pure; ethereal; spiritual; lovely; heavenly; 
seraphic; rapturous; divine. 

Angerica. in JVeio York, a post-village and township 
of Alleghany co. The village is on Angelica creek, 202 
m.'W. by S. from Alban.. 

Ansel'icn, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Shawanaw 
county. 

Angel ica Balsam. [ Ghent.) A blackish-brown resin¬ 
ous, syrupy matter, with a bitter taste, obtained from 
the root of Angelica archangelica. 

Angel'ical, a. The same as Angelic 
A njfel'ically. at * u - kike an angel. 
Angel'icalness, n. The quality of being angelical; 

resemblance of angels; excellence more than human 
Angel'ica Tree, n. See Araliace®. 
Angeli'cidse, n. pi. (Bot.) A tribe of plants, order 
Apiacese. The species are mostly herbaceous and peren¬ 
nial, natives of the temperate and colder regions of the 
northern hemisphere. They have bipinnate or tripin- 
nate leaves. 

Angelina, in Texas, a county situated in the E. part of 
the State, and bounded on the N.E. by the river Angel¬ 
ina which rises in Smith co., and enters the Neches near 
Bevilport, in Jasper co. Area, about 880 sq. m. Cap. 
Lufkin. Pop. (1898) 7.150. 

An'jgel Island, the largest island in San Francisco 
Bay, California. It contains 800 acres. 


tngrel'ica. n. (Bot.) A genus of water-side plants, 
tribe Angdicidce. The A. triquinata, or Arch angelica 
atropurpurea, common in fields, N. and \V. ot the U. 
States, is a plant well known for its aromatic properties ; 
stem dark purple, furrowed, 4 to 6 ft. high; flowers green¬ 
ish-white. The Garden A., or Archangelica officinalis, 
has greenish flowers in almost spherical umbels. The 



Fig . 127. — ANGELICA ARCHANGELICA, 
fruitis long and straw-colored; the root long and fusiibrm. 
The whole plant, but especially the root, is aromatic and 
bitter, containing much resin and essential oil. The 
root is admitted into the pharmacopoeia as an aromatic 
stimulant and tonic. Its blanched stalks were formerly 
eaten as celery. The tender stalks and mid-ribs of the 
leaves, candied, are a well-known article of confectionery 
and an agreeable stomachic : the roots and seeds are em¬ 
ployed in the preparation of gin and of bitters. 

Angelico, Fra, an Italian painter, so called from the 
beauty of his angels. See Fif,sole. 

An'gelo, in Wisconsin , a post-village of Monroe co. 

An'gido. See Michael Angelo. 

AH'gelo, St., a town of Milan, N. Italy. 

An'gido de Lombardi, St., a town of S. Italy, 48 
m. E. of Naples; pop. 6,345. 

Angelol'ogy , n . [From Gr. aggelos , angel, and legein , to 
say, to speak.] A treaty or discourse on the angels, their 
nature, &c. 

An'gelot, n . ( Numis .) An ancient English coin of the 
same value as the angelet, struck at Baris while under 
the domination of England; — so called from the figure 
of an angel supporting the escutcheon of England and 
France. 

( Mas .) An ancient instrument, somewhat resembling 
a lute. 

Angelot'omy . See Angiotomv. 

An gel’s Camp, in California , a post-village of Cala¬ 
veras co. 

An'gel-shot, See Chain-shot. 

An'gelus, n. [hat.] A prayer to the Virgin, used by 
Roman Catholics. 

Aug ;er, n. [Gr. agehein. to squeeze.] A displeasure or 
vexation accompanied by a passionate desire to break 
out in acts or words of violence against the cause of 
displeasure. — Wrath; ire: resentment; indignation; 
rage; animosity; fury; choler. 

“ Anger is like 

A full hot horse, who, being allow’d his way, 
Self-mettle th-es him."— Shake. 

— v. a . To excite to anger; to make angry: to irritate. 

An'gerinannland, an old and extensive district of 
Sweden, now part of the province of West Nordland, ex¬ 
tends along the Gulf of Bothnia, and is watered by the 
river Angermann, which, in its lower course, becomes 
navigable for the largest ships. It is one of the best 
cultivated districts in Sweden. The chief tow-n, Iler- 
ncesand, has a pop. of ah t. 5,000. 

An'germiinde, a town of Prussia, prov. of Branden¬ 
burg, on the lake Munde, 43 in. N.N.E. of Berlin; pop. 
6,205. 

Angcro'na, in West Virginia, a post-office of Jackson co 

Angero'na, (Math.) The goddess of silence. 

Angero'na. in W . Virginia , a post office of Jackson co. 

Ang'ers, a town of France, cap. of the dep. of Maine- 
et-Loire, on the Mayenne, 161 m. S.W. of Paris, Lat. 47° 
28' 9" N.; Lon. 0° 33' W. It is the seat of an imperial 
court, ami has a school of arts and trades. There are a 
public library, a museum with about 600 pictures, a bo¬ 
tanical garden, a cabinet of natural history, and a thea¬ 
tre. Miinf Fine camlets, serges, and other stuffs, hats 
&c., and quarries of slates in the neighborhood. The 
cathedral church is one of the finest in France.— .1., the 
anc. Juliomagas and Andegavia, was formerly the cap 


of the prov. of Anjon. In its military college bot? 
Lord Chatham and the Duke of Wellington studied, and 
it is the birthplace of David the sculptor. Pog. 73,044. 

Ail's’ll iara, or An'ghiari, a town of Italy, prov. ot 
Arezzo, near the Tiber, IS m. E. of Arezzo; pop. 6,880. 

Aiigi'na, n. [Lat., from Gr. agcho, to strangle.] (Med.) 
Au inflammation of the throat; a Quinsy, g. v. 

Aiigiocar'pous. a. [Gr. aggeion, a vessel, and karpos , 
fruit.] (Bot.) Noting seeds or vessels inclosed within a 
covering that does not form a part of themselves; as 
the filbert, which is covered by its husk, the acorn 
seated in its capsule. 

Angiog'raphy, n. [Gr. aggeion, a vessel, nndgraphein, 
to write.] (Med.) A description of the vessels in the hu¬ 
man body. , , , 

Angiol ogy. n [Gr. aggeion, a vessel, and logos, dis¬ 
course.] ( Med.) The doctrine of the vessels of the human 
body. 

Angiomonosper'mons, a. [Gr. aggeion, a vessel, 
monos, single, and sperma, seed.] (Bot.) Producing but a 
single seed in a pod 

An'gioscope, n. [Gr. aggeion, a vessel, and skopein, to 
view.] (Med.) An instrument for examining the capil¬ 
lary vessels of a body. 

Audios per'ill in. n. [Gr. aggeion, a vessel, and sperma, 
a seed.] I Hot ) In the system of Bentley, the first of the 
two classes into which aresubdivided the Exogens. The 
characters are: ovules produced within an ovary, and 
fertilized by theaction of the pollen through the stigma; 
becoming seeds inclosed in a periscarp; embryo with 
two opposite cotyledons. The oak, rose, &c., are angio- 
sperms. 

Angiosper'mous, a. (Bot.) Belonging to the class 

of the angiosperms. 

Angios'porous, a. [Gr. aggeion. a vessel, and spora, 
seed.] (Bot.) A term applied to plants that have spores 
inclosed in a hollow shell, or bag, as some fungi. 

Allgiot'oiny, n. [Gr. aggeion, a vessel, and te.mnein, to 
cut.J (Anat.) The dissection of the vessels of the hu¬ 
man body. 

Am'gBe, n. [Fr., from Lat. angtdus, comer.] (Geom.) The 
opening between two straight lines which meet one 
another. When several angles are at one point m, (Fig. 
128,) any one of them is expressed by three letters, of 
which the letter that is at the vertex of the angle, that is, 
at the point in which the straight lines that contain the 
angle meet one another, is put between the other two let¬ 
ters. Thus, the angle which is contained by the straight 



lines cm, bm, is named the angle cmb. — When a 
straight line, c m, standing on another straight line, ab, 
makes the adjacent angles equal to one another, each of 
the angles . ma , cmb, is called a right angle; and the 
straight lines are said to lie perpendicular to each 
other. — An obtuse angle, amf is that which is greater 
than a right angle. — An acute angle, cmf, is that which 
is less than a right angle. — Round a given point, as m, 
no more than four light angles can lie constructed, and 
only three obtuse angles; on the contrary, an infinite 
number of acute angles may be formed round the same 
point.—The mutual inclination of the lines including 
the angle is always determined by the magnitude of the 
angle. Thus the situation of a point in relation to a 
plane is partly determined, if we know the angle formed 
by a line drawn from that point to any point of the 
plane. This principle renders the angle so exceedingly 
important, that it is capable of being employed as tho 
key to the most important truths; for a great part of 
the actual observations of astronomers are dependent 
on tho study of angles.—To determine the size of an 
angle the circle is employed. Suppose we describe a 
circle ( opnc,o ) about the point of intersection m of 
the lines ab, cd, which cut each other at right angles, 
there is opposite to every one of the four right angles a 
curve-line or arc of a circle, which is exactly a fourth 
part of the circle; for example, over the angle amc is 
the quadrant or fourth part of the circumference op. 
That the magnitude of the circle is indifferent, is shown 
by the dotted lines; for o" p" and o' are quadrants 
as well as op. — The acute angle cmf is hence equal 
to half a right angle, because the arc by which it is 
subtended is an octant , the 8th part of a circle, and the 
obtuse angle amf is equal to one and a half right an¬ 
gle, because its subtending arc is equal to % of the cir¬ 
cle.—Thus we can very accurately determine the mag¬ 
nitude of an angle, when we state the portion of a circle 
which the arc of that angle forms. For this purpose 
the circle is divided into 360 equal parts, each of which 
is called a degree. And every degree is again divided 
into 60 equal parts, called minutes, and every one of 
these again into 60 seconds. Hence, when we speak of 
an angle of 90 degrees, we necessarily mean a right 
angle, since 90 degrees are the fourth part of the 360 
degrees of the whole circle. Every angle less than 90 


















ANGL 


ANGO 


AIsGC 


105 


degrees is an acute angle; anil every angle of more de¬ 
grees is an obtuse angle.—The accurate measure of an¬ 
gles is taken by means of a simple instrument called a 
protractor, q. v. 

( /’ iysiol.) A ng'e-facial, the angle made by the intersec¬ 
tion of two lines drawn, the one from the most promi¬ 
nent Dart of the frontal bone over the anterior margin 
of the upper jaw, the other from the external orifice 
of the ear-passage along the floor of the nasal cavity.— 
Angle-frontal, the angle which the eulmen, or upper 
line of the beak, makes with the forehead. 

(Opt.) An angle is formed by two rays of light, or two 
straight lines drawn from the extreme points of an ob¬ 
ject to the centre of the eye. The apparent magnitude 
of objects depends on the magnitude of the anglo under 
which they are seen; nevertheless, in observing distant 
objects, our ideas of their magnitude are greatly modi¬ 
fied by the judgment which we form of their distances. 
See Apparent Ma initude. 

Ail 'g 1 o, a. n. To fish with a rod and hook.—Hence, to 
try to gain by some insinuating artifices, as fishes are 
caught by a bait. 

“The pleasant'st angling is o- see the fish 
Cut with the golden oars re- silver stream, 

And greedily devour the treacherous bait; 

So angle we for Beatrice.”— Shahs. 
Augfle-me'ter. n. [Eng. angle, and Gr. melron, mea¬ 
sure.] An instrument used by geologists for measuring 
the dip of strata. 

An'gler, n. One who fishes with an angle. 

(Zool.) See Lopinm®. 

Angles. (Hist.) A German nation, which resided in 
what is now the province of Magdeburg, in Prussia, 
near the Elbe, and probably succeeded to the former 
seat of the Lombards, when these latter had driven the 
Clierusci from the northern half of their country. In 
the 5th century, they joined their powerful northern 
neighbors, the Saxons, and, under the name of Anglo- 
Saxons, conquered the country now called England. A 
part of them remained near the Danish peninsula, 
where, to the present day, a small tract of land, on the 
eastern coast of the duchy of Schleswig, bears the name 
Angeln. 

An 'glesey, (the anc. Mona.) An island and county of 
N. Wales, in the Irish sea; connected with England, 
across the Menai Strait, by the famous Menai-bridge. 
and tlie Britannia tubular railway bridge. Ext. 20 m. 
long and 17 broad. Hirers, Alam, Braint.Gefni, Efraw, 
Dulas. Towns, Beaumaris, Amlwch, Holyhead. Man/. 
trifling. Its mines of copper, once important, have de¬ 
clined.— A. was the last stronghold of the Druids, of 
whose works it has many ruins, called Cromlechs. 
An'glesey. Arthur Annesley, Eari, of, a native of 
Dublin, b. 1614. He took an active part in the restora¬ 
tion of Charles II., for which he was created earl of A., 
and successively made treasurer of the navy and lord 
privy seal. D. 1686. 

Anglesey, or An'glesea, Henry William Paget, 
Marquis of, b. 17< 8, was the eldest son of the first earl 
of Uxbridge, and at an early age entered upon a military 
life. At Waterloo he led the final charge which de¬ 
stroyed the French Guards, and near the close of the 
battle received a shot in the knee, which caused him 
the loss of his right leg. D. 1854. lie has been called 
the English Murat, from the impetuosity with which he 
charged at the head of cavalry. 

An'g'lesite, n. (Min.) A synonym of sulphate of 
lead. — See Lead. 

All'g'lian, a. Of or pertaining to the Angies. 

■—n. One of the nation of the Angles. 

An'g'lican, a. [From Dnt.Angli, the Angles.] English; 
belonging to England, or to the English nation; as, the 
Anglican Church. 

_ n. A member of the Church of England. 

An'g'lican Churcli. See Protestant Episcopal 
Church. 

An'glicanism, n. Strong partiality for England or 
the English Church. 

An'glice. ado. [Lat.] In the English manner, (r.) 
Anglic'ify, v. a. [Lat. Anglicus, English, and facere, 
to make.] To make English ; to Anglicize, (r.) 
An'glicisin, n. [Fr.] A form of speech peculiar to the 
English language: an English idiom. 

An'glicize. v. a. To render English; to introduce into 
the English language. 

An'gling, n. (Sport.) The art of ensnaring fish with a 
hook, which has been previously baited with small fish, 
worms, flies, &c Among no people has this art attracted 
so much attention, and nowhere have so many persons 
of all classes, both clerical and secular, resorted to 
anglingas an amusement, as in England,whose literature 
is richer than that of any other country in works relating 
to this sport, both in prose and verse. A similar fond¬ 
ness for angling exists in the United States. In both 
countries, in England and North America, angling is 
followed by many sportsmen with a kind of passion. 
We find occasional allusions to this pursuit among the 
Greek writers, and throughout the most ancient books 
of the Bible. Plutarch mentions an amusing anecdote 
of Antony’s unsuccessful angling in the presence of 
Cleopatra, and a fine trick which she played him. The 
best season for angling is from April to October: the 
cooler the weather in the hottest months, the. better; 
but in winter, on ihe contrary, the warmes day is the 
most promising. A cloudy day,after a moonlight night, 
is always favorable, as the fish avoid feeding by moon¬ 
light, and are therefore hungry. Warm, lowering days 
are always coveted by anglers. 

Anglo. [From Lat. Anglus, Englisfi.] A prefix used in 
composition for English. — Anglo-American, a, descend¬ 
ant from English ancestors, born in America. — Anglo- 


Danish, an English Dane, or a descendant of the Danes 
who settled in England. — Anglomania, a ridiculous and 
blind reverence for all that is English. — Anglo-Norman, 
an English Norman. 

An'glo-Sax'ons, the generic name bestowed by his¬ 
torians on that people of Teutonic origin who settled 
in Britain after the departure of the Romans. 

( Hist.) In the 5th century, the eastern parts of South 
Britain were invaded by various tribes of Northern 
Germany, consisting for the most part of Angles, Jutes, 
and Saxons. The Jutes, or people of Jutland, now known 
as Schleswig, are believed to have been tire earliest 
comers. These were followed by the Saxons, a race 
who inhabited that part of Germany bordering on the 
Baltic, which forms the modern duchies of Holstein and 
Mecklenburg. At a later period arrived the Angles, 
who came, it is supposed, from Friesland and the adja¬ 
cent country of Hanover. From 527 to 547 these peo¬ 
ples made frequent descents on that part of Britain now 
forming the eastern counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, and 
Essex; settled there, and eventually extended their 
sway over almost the entire country. Becoming nation¬ 
alized under the one general name of Angles, they 
founded the seven kingdoms called the Heptarchy (q. v.i, 
which existed until 827, when Egbert, king of Wessex, 
united them into one kingdom called Angle-land, or 
England. The A. retained their supremacy till the 
invasion of their country by the Danes in 1017. They 
regained it, however, in 1042, and continued their rule 
up to the time of the Norman conquest. From the lat¬ 
ter period their power declined, and they gradually lost, 
to a great extent, their national individuality; though, 
through many generations, and up to the present day, the 
major portion of the English people proper have pre¬ 
served in a singular degree the moral, mental, and phys¬ 
ical characteristics of their Anglo-Saxon progenitors. 

(P/iilol.) The term Anglo-Saxon, as applied to the 
English language, is of modern date. The A. tongue 
has its origin in the Low-German branch of the Teu¬ 
tonic languages, and is nearly allied to the Old Saxon, 
Old Dutch (as in the Netherlands), and the Old Frisian. 
After the conquest of England by the Normans, the A. 
place, as the language of the court, the law, and the 
schools, was usurped by the Norman-French of the suc¬ 
cessful invaders; but it still remained the language of 
the common people, and was the basis of the English 
language, which gradually formed itself during the 
12tli, 13th, and 14tli centuries. At the present time, in 
some of the rural and more remote districts of England, 
the A. language is found existing in all its original 
purity. The A. language and literature has, in modern 
times, been illustrated and enriched by the researches 
of Thorpe, Guest, Madden, Conybeare, and other well- 
known English philologists; and perhaps the most per¬ 
fect examples of A. composition may be found in the 
writings of William Cobbett. 

Angola, a large district of S. Africa, situate S. of 
Congo, W. of Loanda-land, embracing a considerable por¬ 
tion of the coast, and extending far inward; Lat. be¬ 
tween 8° 20' and 9° 21/ S., Lon. extending from 14° to 
19° E. The country is flat and sterile along the coast, 
but mountainous in the interior, where the valleys are 
extremely fertile. Almost all the known wild animals 
of tropical Afina are found there. The rivers are infest¬ 
ed witli crocodiles, and the sea-coasts teem with every 
description of fish. Although situate near the equator, 
the climate is, on account of the trade-winds, more 
temperate, and generally more healthy than in other 
regions of the same latitude; but some parts of A. are 
low, marshy, fever-breeding, and even the natives feel 
the effects of the damp, hot, malarious climate. The 
inhabitants, although dark, are seldom, if ever, black, 
their color being browni-h-red, with a tinge of yellow; 
and although they are so close to the country inhabited 
by the true negroes, they have but few of the negro 
traits. The travelier lteade writes of the Angolese 
women in terms of considerable praise, as far as their 
personal appearance goes. The chief town is Loanda 
San Paulo. Fetichism is the general religion. A. was 
discovered in 1486 by the Portuguese, and held by tbeui 
since that i emote period. By the treaty of 1887 with the 
Congo Free State, the Angola colony was considerably 
enlarged and now consists of 4 districts, Beugueia, 
Congo, Loanda and Mossamedes. Pop. 2,000,000. 
Ange la, in N. Carolina, a post-office of Ousiow co. 
Ango la, in Delaware, a post-office of Sussex co. 
Angola, in Illinois, a village of Lake co., about 45 m. 
N. W. by N. of Chicago. 

Ango'la. in Indiana, a town, cap. of Steuben co., 42 m. 

N. by E. of Ft. Wayne. Pop. (1890), 1,840. 

Ango'la, in New York, a post-office of Erie co. 

A ng o'la. in Ohio, a post-office of Gallia co. 

An'gor, n. [Lat.] (Med.) Agony, or intense bodily pain. 
Airi'gora, [anc. Ancyra ,] a city of Turkey in Asia Minor, 
142 m. N. of Koniyeh ; Lat. 39° 56' 30" N., Lon. 32° 50' E. 
Man/, chiefly stuffs made of the silk-like wool of the 
goat of Angora. — It was there that St. Paul preached 
to the Galatians. — A. came into the possession of the 
Turks in 1359. In its vicinity was fought, in 1401, the 
great battle between Sultan Bajazet and Tamerlane. 
Pop. in 1897, about 36,000. 

An gora Goat. (Zool.) A species of the genus Capra, 
or Goat, q. v. The A. goat, Capra Argorensis, is by far 
the most elegant of all the varieties of the goat, and is a 
native of Angora, a small district of Asia Minor, and 
remarkable for producing not only this peculiar race of 
goats, but also Bbeep, cats, rabbits, &c., with hair of un¬ 
common fineness. The Goat of Angora is generai’y of a 
beautiful milk-white color, short-legged, with black, 
spreading, spirally-twisted horns, and pendulous ears. Its 
chief and distinguishing excellence, however, is the wool, 


which covers the whole body in long pendent spiral riDg 
lets; and it is from the hair of this animal that the fines! 
camlets are made. To the same genus belongs the Cash 
mere Goat, so highly prized for its fleece ; it is descended 
from the Goat of Thibet, which pastures on the Hima¬ 
laya It is smaller than the common domestic goat, and 
lias long, fine, silky wool. Thibet is situated at the 
northern descent of the Himalaya mountains, and Cash- 
mere at the sou fcern; lienee there is some difference in 
the climate; it is observed, also, that the colder the 
region where the animal pastures, the heavier and finer 
is its fleece. The goats which pasture in the highest 
vales of Thibet are of a bright ochre color; in tower 
grounds, the color becomes of a yellowish-white, and still 
farther downward en¬ 
tirely white. The high¬ 
est mountains of the 
Himalaya inhabitable 
by man, contain also a 
species of black goats, 
the wool of which as a 
material for shawls ; n 
India obtains the high¬ 
est price. The goats of 
Thibet and Cashmere 
have the fine curled 
wool close to the skin, 
just as the under hair of Fig. 129. cashmere goat. 
our common goat lies below the coarse upper hair. The 
milk of the Cashmere goat is as rich as that of the com¬ 
mon one, and is used to make cheese; but theso animals 
owe their great celebrity to the extraordinary beauty 
and costliness of the shawls for which the Asiatics have 
been so long famous.—The acclimatization of these goats 
in the U. States is an established fact. F'or several years, 
in different parts of the Union, the Angora goat has been 
bred, both pure and crossed with the native goat. Far 
from deteriorating by the transfer, as had been predicted, 
it is found that in some parts of the country even the 
unmixed breed of the imported goats has shown evident 
signs of improvement resulting from the change. This 
branch of pastoral industry has begun to assume very 
considerable prominence, as is indicated by the fact that 
during the year 1SC6 not less than $100,000 has been 
paid for these goats in Ohio alone. The supply of Angora 
fleece in Asia Minor is limited and precarious. Access 
to it is both difficult and dangerous, from the jealousy 
of the government and the barbarous b’gotry of the 
people. As the stereotyped character of Asiatic industry 
gives no reasonable promise of an enlargement of the 
supply in this quarter, English and Continental manu¬ 
facturers are looking to the Cape of Good Hope, A ustralia, 
and America for an increased production of this staple 
to meet their necessities ; and as the fleece produced in 
the U. States is unquestionably equal, if not superior 
in fineness, delicacy, beauty, and facility of manipula¬ 
tion, to the choicest Oriental specimens, a rapidly increaa 
itig demand for American fleece may be e> pected. 

Manufacture of Coats’ Fleece .—Nearly every nation rep 
resented at the Universal Exposition at Paris presented 
some beautiful manufactures of goats’ fleece. India, 
France, England, and Austria seemed to excel in the 
more delicate fabrics, while Turkey exliibi tedjhe greatest 
variety and richness of the raw material. In England 
the manipulation of this staple is practically monopo¬ 
lized by a few parties, who appear adverse to imparting 
any information in regard to the manufacture and sale 
of their fabrics. The fleece manufactured in England i« 
mainly produced in Asia Minor from the Angora goat 
It is imported to the extent of 3,000,060 pounds per an 
nuni.and is known in commerce by the name of mohair 
The market-price of this fleece (for wool it cannot be 
called with any propriety of language) varies from three 
to four shillings, or from 75 cents to $1 per pound, gold 
value. The demand is permanent and increasing; and 
it will continue to increase until met by a vastly more 
copious production. The present extraordinary demand 
results partly from the attempt of the English monopo 
lists to absorb the entire production of Asia Minor, bj 
sending agents over the whole country to secure the clip 
as soon as it is sheared.—In Europe the fleece is spuD 
into yarn,mostly in England, and at Roubaix in France, 
and thence distributed over Europe for manufacture into 
cloth. The excellence of the yarn Bpnn in England and 
at Roubaix is due partly to superior skill, partly to pecu¬ 
liar and improved machinery, and partly to natural and 
artificial atmospheric humidity. This latter element, if 
not absolutely essential to success, is at least very desir 
able.—From very transparent motives, the process of 
spinning has been represented by those interested in 
the monopoly as very expensive and difficult, nay, even 
a profound secret, known only to those now engaged 
in the business. But these representations were flatly 
contradicted by the exhibition at 1’aris of a great variety 
of machinery for carding, scrubbing, spinning and weav¬ 
ing the tiltik or Angora fleece. This machinery, pur¬ 
porting to have been made largely in Bradford and Rou¬ 
baix, two great seats of yarn production, entirely ex¬ 
ploded the assumption. A good spinning-machine is 
worth from $100 to $300, according to the number of 
spindles. 'Hie leading machine in Europe for tlie weav¬ 
ing of goats' fleece into shawls, is the double Jacquard 
loom, manufactured by Willibald Schrane, of Vienna, 
Austria, and worth $200. It is worked by hand, and 
shawls are made by it of remarkable beauty and cheap¬ 
ness.—Among the prominent shawl manufactories in 
Europe may be named Duehe & Co., of Paris, whose 
specimens are remarkably close imitations of the real 
Cashmere shawls, and II. Lawatch, and Isabey, of Vienna. 
The manufacture of Cashmere, camels’ hair, and othei 
shawls, once so flourishing in Asia, is greatly impaired 

















110 


ANGXJ 


ANIG 


ANIM 


and in many places entirely discontinued. But few of 
the once famous Cashmere shawls have been manufac¬ 
tured since the rise of the fatal competition of Lyons, 
Paris, Paisley, Vienna, and other manufacturing centres 
in Kurope. The immediate introduction of this shawl¬ 
weaving into the United States is perhaps impracticable, 
though its final success here is hut a question of time. 
The obstacles to be overcome are, lack of skilled labor, 
of machinery, and of an active home demand for fabrics 
of goats’ fleece. None of these, however, are very for- 
mida'ble. Sufficient labor and machinery can be imported 
to meet present necessities, while the ready intelligence 
of our workingmen and the profound and subtile genius 
of our inventors may be relied upon to surpass, very soon, 
our imported models. The increasing taste and luxury 
fostered by the rapidly accumulating wealth of the 
American people, and the enormous reduction in the cost 
of manufacturing this beautiful staple, from the fancy 
prices hitherto commanded by Oriental manufacture, 
will soon create a permanent home demand. This will 
give a comfortable support to a largo industrial popula¬ 
tion, and assist in arresting the increasing drain upon 
our circulating medium caused by large importations of 
manufactures of wool, cotton, silk, and flax. 

Angor'iiow, a town cf Bunion, Central Africa, on the 
W. bank of Lake Tchad, 15 m. S.E. of Konka. It is 
nothing more than a straggling aggregation of mud 
huts, but it is the centre of a large trade in cotton, am¬ 
ber, coral, and slaves. Pop. estimated at 30,000. 

Angostll'ra, a small, but strongly fortified place in 
Paraguay, on the Parana river; taken by the allied 
Brazilian and Argentine troops, Dec 22. 1808, during 
the war in which they were engaged against Lopez, the 
dictator of Paraguay. 

Ansosfu'ra. a city of Venezuela, cap. of Bolivar state, 
on the Orinoco, 200 m. S. E. of Caracas. It is the prin¬ 
cipal emporium for the commerce of the Orinoco; does 
a very large trade with Europe and also *vith tire U. S. 
Pop. (1895) 11,080. 

An'gouldme, a town of France, cap. of tire dep. of the 
Charente, on the river Clnrronte, 00 m. N.E. of Bordeaux. 
It is celebrated for the extensive paper manufactories 
in its vicinity. The delicious pdtes de perdrix aux truffes 
d’Angouleme are sent to all parts of the world. Pop. 
24,901. 

Au'gouleme, Charles tie Valois, Duke of, b. 1573; 
was the illegitimate son of Charles IX., and married the 
daughter of the Connetable Henri de Montmorenci. lie 
was actuated by a restless and ambitious spirit, and as a 
military commander acquired considerable reputation. 
In 1028, the siege of La Rochelle was commenced under 
him, and he was engaged in the wars of Germany, Langue¬ 
doc, and Flanders. D. 1050. 

An' gouleme, Louis Antoine de Bourbon, Dlc i>\ son 
of Count d’Artois, afterwards Charles X.. and of Marie 
Thferese of Savoy: was born at Versailles in 1775. With 
his brother, the Duke do Berri, he accompanied their 
father, when, in 1787, foreseeing the course of events, he 
left France and repaired to Turin. In 1799 he married 
at Mittau, his cousin. Marie Ther&se, the daughter of 
Louis XVI and of Marie Antoinette of Austria. The 
Duke d’Augoulome, joining the Anglo-Spanish army 
which crossed the Pyrenees in the beginning of 1814, 
addressed a proclamation to the French nation on 11th 
February, and on 12th March entered Bordeaux. He 
commanded the Frem li army which, in 1823, entered 
Spain to aid Ferdinand in suppressing the constitution; 
and, dqring his stay there, displayed considerable pru¬ 
dence and moderation. At Rambouillet, on the 2d Au¬ 
gust, 1830, ho renounced, jointly with his father, his 
rights to the throne in favor of the Duke do Bordeaux, 
and on the 16th arrived in England with tiie duchess 
and the other members of the exiled royal family. After 
residing a short time in Scotland, he and his wife quitted 
Britain, and spent the rest of their lives in various parts 
of the Continent. He died at Goritz in 1844. Theduchess, 
of whom Napoleon said that she was the only member 
of the family that had the spirit and energy of a man, 
D. in 1851. 

An'ffoumois, a dist. in France, previous to the revo¬ 
lution, formed, in connection with the dist. ofSaintonge, 
one of the provinces into which France was formerly di¬ 
vided. It coincided nearly with the dep. of the Charente. 

An'gra, a seaport town of the island of Terceira, one 
of the Azores. It is the cap. of the Archipelago. 

An'gra dos Reis, a port of Brazil, prov. Rio Janeiro, 
on a bay of the same name, 78 ni. S.W. of Rio Janeiro. 

An'grra Peqiiena, in A, frica, extends from the Orange 
R. to Lat. 2G° 38' S., and inward 80 ra. from the coast. 
Prod., copper, iron, gold, and silver. A German pro¬ 
tectorate was established in 1884. 

An'g'rily, ado. In an angry manner; peevishly. 

An'gry, a. [See Anger.] Touched with anger; provoked. 
It seems properly to require, when the object of anger 
is mentioned, the particle at before a thing, and with 
before a person; hut this is not always observed. 

“ Now therefore be not grieved nor angry with yourselves, that 
ye sold me hither.”— Gen . xlv. 5. 

—Having the appearance of anger; having the effect of 
anger. 

‘‘ The north-wind driveth away rain : so doth an angry counte¬ 
nance a backbiting tongue.”— Prov. xxv. 23. 

(Surg.) Painful; inflamed; smarting. 

“ This serum, being accompanied by the thinner parts of the 
blood, grows red and angry." — Wiseman. 

Ansruil'la, n., and Ang'uil'U«l;e, n. pi. (Zohl) See 
Eel. 

Anguilla, in Indiana , a village of Clay co., on the 
Eel river, aht. 20 m. S.E. of Terre Haute. 

&n£Uii'la, or Snake Island, the most northerly of the 


Caribbee islands, in the W. Indies, 16 m. in length by 3 
in breadth; Lat. 18° 8 ' N.; Lon. 63° 12' E. It is so called 
from its tortuous figure, and belongs to the English. 
Pop. aht. 2,500. 

Anyuil'lilonil, a. [Lat .avguilla, eel, and forma.] Re¬ 
sembling an eel. 

— n. {ZnOL.) The Anguilliformes of Cuvier are now gen¬ 
erally called Muraaidce. 

Auguiifeal, a. [From Lat. anguineus, snaky.] Shaped 
as. or belonging to, a snake. 

A it';£U isla. n. [Fr. angoisse, from bat. an;/or.] Excessive 
pain either of mind or body;—applied to the mind, it 
means the pain of sorrow, and is seldom used to signity 
other passions. 

** Perpetual anguish fills his anxious breast, 

Not stopt by business, nor compos’d by rest."—Dryden. 

— v. a. To distress with excessive pain of mind, (r.) 

Angtiil'lula, n. [Lat., a little eel.] (Znol.) A gen. of 
minute animals belonging to the nematoid worms of the 
class Entozoa, ami including the little creatures known 
as the eels of vinegar, porter, &c. — The A. fluvial ills 
(found in wet moss and moist earth), though dried up 
till it becomes hard and brittle, will recover, swell up, 
take food, and resume its reproductive powers, soon 
alter it is moistened with water. A. trilici, found in 
blighted wheat, has been known to revive in the same 
way after having been kept dry for five years. 

An'guis, n. (Znol.) The blind-worms, a gen. of reptiles, 
fain. Chaleidee. They are innocent and harmless animals, 
feeding on worms and insects. Their eyes are very 
small, and in consequence they have often been supposed 
to he blind. The body is very brittle; the tail is easily 
broken off, but readily sprouts out afresh. They re¬ 
main torpid during winter. 

An'gular, a. Relating to angles, or having angles; as, 
an angular figure.—Hence, figuratively, sharp or stiff in 
character. 

An'g’tilar Motion. ( Astron .) The motion of a body 
moving circularly, or oscillating about a fixed point. 
The angular motion of a planet is measured by the 
angle described at the centre of the sun, by a straight 
line drawn from that point to the planet, called the 
radius vector; and its amount is reciprocally propor¬ 
tional to the periodic time of the planet. 

An gular Section. ( Geom.) The division of an angle 
into any number of equal parts. The bisection of an 
angle is accomplished by elementary geometry. The 
trisection requires the aid of solid geometry, being 
equivalent to the solution of a cubic equation. The 
general division of an angle into any proposed number 
of equal parts is a problem which mathematicians have 
not yet been able to solve. In modern mathematics, the 
term Angular Sections is used to denote that branch of 
analysis which is employed in the investigation of the 
properties of circular functions. 

Angular'ity, n. The quality of being angular, or 
having corners. 

An gularly, adv. In an angular manner ; with angles 
or corners. 

An'g'ttlarness, n. The quality of being angular. 

Align lat ed, a. Formed with angles or corners; as, 
angulated figures. 

An'guloden'tate, a. (Bot.) Angularly toothed, as 
certain leaves. 

Anguloin'eter, n. (Geom.) An instrument for meas¬ 
uring external angles. 

Align los ity, v. The state of being angular, (o.) 

An'gtiM. See Forfar, County of. 

Angus, Earls of, several members of the Douglas fam¬ 
ily, who, vnder the reigu of the Stuarts in Scotland, dis-; 
tinguished themselves by the fierceness with which they! 
exercised the great power they possessed. 

Angus'tate, a. [Lat. angustus , narrow.] When any 
part sensibly diminishes in breadth. 

Angnstifo'liate, Angustifo'lious, a. [From Lat. an- 
gustus, narrow, and folium, leaf.] (Bot.) Having narrow 
leaves. 

An halt, a duchy of German empire, bet. Lat. 51° and 
52° N.. and Lon. 11° and 12° E , almost surrounded by 
Prussian Saxony. Area. 869 sq. m. Its surface, watered 
by the rivers Saale and Elbe, is billy to the N.W., but 
in the centre forms a fertile plain. It contains the 
forest of Bernberg, embracing within its limits mmes 
of iron, copper, and lead.— Prod. Corn, wine, totiacco, 
flax, fruits, Ac.; it also possesses manufactures of wool¬ 
lens, earthenware, and hardware. The inhabitants are 
chiefly Protestant, and engaged in agricultural pur¬ 
suits.— A. was formerly divided into three distinct 
sovereign dukedoms. A.-Cothen, A.-Bernberg, and A .- 
Dessau. After 1863, however, the two former lines 
dying out, they became merged into the remaining one 
of A.-Dessau. The Princes of A. took the title of Dukes 
in 1806. Chief towns: Dessau, Bernberg, and Cothen 
( q v.). Pop. 213,565. 

Anharinon'ic, Anharmon'ical, a. (Geom.) Noting a 
kind of double ratio. 

Anliela'tion, n. [Lat. anhelalin.] The act of panting; 
the state of being out of breath 

An'liolt, a small Danish island in the Cattegat, between 
Lessoeand Zealand: Lat 56° 44'20" N.; Lon. 11°38'51" 
E. It has a lighthouse. 

All'hydrite, n. (Min.) An orthorhombic mineral; color 
white; usually associated with common salt. Spec, 
grav. 2-899 to 2-94. Comp, lime 41-2, sulphuric acid 
£ 8-8 = 100 . 

Anid'sei, n. [Gr. a. priv.,and eidea, form.] (Physiol.) 
The name given to monsters characterized by a total 
want of specific form or shape, occurring sometimes 
in the row and human species. 

Anight', Anights', adv. [Pref. a and night.] In the 
night-time. 



Fig. 130. — keel-bill. 

(Crotophaga ani.) 


•• Sir Toby, yon must come in earlier anights .- yonr niece. 

My lady, takes great exceptions at your ill hours.”— Sltaks. 

Anliy'd rous, a. [Gr.a. priv., and ydor, water.] (Chemi, 
Without water. A term applied to salts, and to certain 
acids when deprived of water. 

A'ni. The former capital of Armenia, now in ruins. 

( Zobl. ) The Keel-bill, 

Crotophaga ani, a bird 
of the family Cuculidse, 
which is a common 
inhabitant of the hot¬ 
ter regions of South 
America, and partic¬ 
ularly of Brazil, but 
is also met with in 
some parts of North 
America, as well as in 
several of the West In¬ 
dia islands. The gen¬ 
eral color of these hi rds 
is black, with more 
or less metallic reflec¬ 
tions, and they have a 
short, arched bill, very 
much compressed. 

They live in flocks: the 
skirts of woods and the 
borders of flooded sa¬ 
vannas being their fa- 
voriie haunts. Many 
pairs are said to use the 
same nest,which is built 
on the branchesof trees, 
and of a large size. Their flesh being rank, is not edible. 

Anil, n. [San'kr. nili, indigo.] (Com.) A kind of indigo, 
obtained from the plant lndigofera anil, native of West 
Indies. It differs from the lndigofera tinctoria, the true 
indigo, in Laving compressed legumes which are not 
torulose. 

An'ile, a. [Lat. anilis, from antis.] Resembling an old 
woman; doting. 

Anil'ic Acid. Indigotic Acid. (Chem.) A light yellow¬ 
ish-white, crystalline substance, soluble in 1,000 parts 
water, fusible and volatile; it unites readily with bases, 
and forms well crystallized salts. It is obtained by 
adding pounded indigo to nitric acid, diluted with an 
equal volume of water.—A. acid is also formed by the 
action of nitric acid on saliciue or salicilic aciiL Form. 
C 14 H 4 O 3 IIO. 

Anil'i aie, Phenylamine, n. (Chem.) A powerful base; 
colorless oily fluid of spec. grav. 1 020. Taste burning, 
aromatic; smell vinous: boiling-point 320°; evaporates 
at all temperatures, and becomes brown in air; it does 
not. in solution, affect vegetable colors; dissolves phos¬ 
phorus, sulphur, camphor, and resin; coagulates albu¬ 
men, and forms crystalline salts with acids. It is ob¬ 
tained from nitro-benzine by dissolving the latter in 
alcohol, saturating the solution with ammonia, and 
passing a current of sulphuretted hydrogen through 
the deep-red mixture. The current of gas is again to 
be renewed, until sulphur ceases to separate on stand¬ 
ing. Hydrochloric acid is then added in excess to the 
solution, and the alcohol being removed by evaporation, 
a clear, slightly colored fluid, aniline, remains, possess¬ 
ing the characters of an organic base.— A. has a re¬ 
markable analogy with ammonia. It is readily detected 
by its producing, in minute quantities, with solutions of 
chloride of lime, a fine violet-blue, resembling ammo- 
niacal oxide of copper. Form. C e H 7 N. A. is a highly 
acrid poison. Its readiness in producing very brilliant 
colors was known from the time Runge and others pro¬ 
duced it from coal tar. but it was only in 1858 that the 
first A. dyes were manufactured in France, a discovery 
which has revolutionized the arts and manufactures 
connected with the dyeing of textile fabrics. Besides 
their great use as dyeing materials, .4. colors are em¬ 
ployed for numerous other purposes in the industrial 
arts. The greater proportion of them are now produced 
from another basic body termed Kosaniline, name under 
which the most important of them are described. 

Anil'ity, A 11 ileness, n. [Lat . anilitas.] The state 
of being an old woman; the old age of woman ; dotage. 

Anil'o-cyanic Acid, n. (Chem.) A volatile liquid, 
with a pungent odor, boiling at 354°, obtained by beat¬ 
ing melanoximide. Form. Cj 4 NII 6 0 2 . 

Anil'o-niellone. 1’henile-mellone, n. (Chem.) A 
fluid obtained by heating mebiniline. It consists of 
melline (C 6 N 4 ), coupled with plienile (C 12 H 4 ), less hy¬ 
drogen. 

An'ima, n. [I,at., the soul.] 'Phis Latin word was for¬ 
merly more than now used among divines and natural¬ 
ists, to denote the soul, or principle of life in animals; 
also among chemists, to denote the volatile or spirituous 
part of bodies. — Anima Mundi, a phrase formerly used 
to denote, a certain pure ethereal substance or spirit 
diffused through the mass of the world, organizing and 
actuating the whole and the different parts. 

( Mus.) With animation; in a spirited manner. 

Animadver'sion, n. [Fr., from Lat. animadversio .] 
Reproof; severe censure; blame. 

“ He dismissed their commission with severe and sharp animad• 
version.” — Clarendon. 

An iniacl ver'si ve, a. That has the power of judging 
or perceiving. 

“ The representation of objects to the soul, the only animadvert 
sive principle, are conveyed by motions made ou the immediate 
organs of sense." — Granville, (o.) 

Aniniadver'siveness, n. The power of animad* 

verting. ( 0 .) 

Animadvert', v. n. [Lat. animadvertere.] Topasscen 
sures upon. 







TURKEY 


CHICKEN 


w* 

DUCK 


PIGEON 


GOAT 


CATTLE 


REINDEER 


RABBIT 





I 




EUROPEAN DEER 


BEAR 


Sacked irWUheka i 7 t< Co.Kaw&rk. 


WILD AND DOMESTIC FOOD ANIMALS 


COPYRIGHT 1899 f.t WRIGHT. 

















ANIM 


A 


** T should not animadvert on him, who was otherwise a painful 
observer of the decorum of the stage, if he had not used extreme 
severity iu his judgment of the incomparable Shakspeare." — 
Dryden. 

Aniniadvert'er, n. One who animadverts or passes j 
censure. 

An imal, n. [Lat., Fr.. Sp., animal; from Lat. anima, 
breath, life.] A being which lives, moves, and feels. It is 
very difficult to define properly what an animal is, as 
the ordinary characters of animal life seem to he pos¬ 
sessed by vegetables also, and thus it becomes almost 
impossible to say when animal life ceases and vegetable 
life begins. It is very easy for any person to tell the dif¬ 
ference between a linn and an nak, and to refer them to 
their proper kingdoms in nature; but when we desr»-r ' 
to the minute forms of each kingdom, it 
ceedingly difficult to assert which is an 
which is a plant. Many minute for 
cupied the attention of microscc- 
fbr a length of time have - 
are now proved to >••• 
many which ' 
time be” 
ter 


Animaliza'tion 

annualizing. — TLr 
of digestion. 
An'imalize, v. 
life to; to endo' 
assimilate or r 
of digestion. 
An'imaln' 
Animas 
aht. ‘.Ud 
An'inir 
alive: 
mar 





ANNE 


ge of De Kail, co 
* e "nd township of 
* Island Kailroad, 
K b >’ S. of Kock 

61. The second 
« Anne Hyde. 
tniark, and 
Uiam Ilf. 
vere the 
enients 
v >rJ- 


J; s»„,|, „J 5„„ !r ; ; WwM. part i, 

‘'<a , or Maryland it d Annapolil 

b«!£;.“ ..•— 

A».,e, St.’^ n^tZ S \ See . 8r - Anne. 

A ” , '. e - Sf ' a river of pmv n of'o Se | SANTA Anna. 
r' flow of abt. 120 m 1 effect! u Q ' iebec .' which after a 
• " rence on its N. side, 5o m W S W r n ith tlle St - 
'chore it is 1..00 ft. broad" !!'■" Quebec. At 
to its numerous shoal’s and p Sca . r . ue ^ ,iav ' 
■’«of M ^X‘,Z\ r ‘A w „. 



NJO 


ANKL 


111 


- .Hi 
Quines ex- 
t animal ami 
.'ins, which have oc- 
jpic observers, and which 
passed undisputed for animals, 
oe vegetables; and there are still 
the zoologist and botanist must, for the 
ijg, accept as common property. In general 
■»s, however, an animal may be defined as a being 
which is capable of nourishing itself and of reproducing 
its species, which has sensation, and is endowed with 
the power of voluntary motion 
—a. Pertaining to animals. — Generally used in contra¬ 
distinction of rational , spirit ual, intellectual, or vegetable. 

Animal Kingdom .—There are three great divisions 
of natural objects called kingdoms of nature, — the min¬ 
eral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms. The animal king¬ 
dom embraces all living creatures defined to be animals, 
and it is the province of the zoo.ogist to arrange this 
into classes, orders, families, and genera, according to 
their natural affinities. Zoology being the department 
of Natural History which treats of animals, it is under 
this name that an account will be given of the different 
systems adopted by the masters of the science, such as 
Linnteus, Cuvier. Geoffrey St. Hilaire, and Agassiz. 
Animal'ciilar, AnimaTctiIine,a. Belonging to, 
or looking as animalcules. 

Animal'dile, n. [Fr., from Lat. animalculum, a little 
animal.] ( Zml ) The name commonly given to those 
minute forms of animal life only visible by means of 
magnifying-gl isses.—Nothing can be more vague or in¬ 
appropriate than this name, since it only expresses the 
sm ill dimensions of the beings to which it is applied, 
and does not indicate any of their characteristic peculi¬ 
arities. In the infancy of microscopic knowledge, it was 
natural to associate together all those creatures whose 
internal structure could not be clearly made out with 
the instruments then in use; and thus the most hetero¬ 
geneous assemblage of plants, zoophytes, minute crusta¬ 
ceans, Ac., came to be aggregated with the true animal¬ 
cules under this head. The ( lass was being gradually 
limited by the removal of all such forms as could be 
referred toothers: but still very little was known of the 
real nature of those that remained in it until the study 
was taken up by Prof. Ehrenberg, with the advantage 
of instruments which had derived new and vastly im¬ 
proved capabilities from the application of the principle 
of Achromatism. The most important result of his 
study was the separation of the entire assemblage into 
two distinct groups, one, the Infusoria, being of very 
low, and the other, the Polygastrica, of comparatively 
high organization. Lately the name RutiJ'era, or liotu- 



c. contractile vesicle. 

8. JtoTiPB(... ( TriopkVi'ilrnus dorsualis), 300 times its size. 

toria, has been substituted for Polygastrica, and a group 
has been separated from the Infusoria to form the lowest 
order of the Protozoa under the name of lthizopoda.— 
See Infusoria, Rotifkra, and Riiizopoda. See also 
Protozoa. 

Aliimal'ciJlist, n. A person versed in the knowledge 
of animalcules. 

Aaimal'eulaiii, w; pL Animalcula. [Lat.] An ani¬ 
malcule. 

A ii'imal-FIow'er. n. (Zolil.) The popular name of 
some species of the AcTrNRE, q v. 

An'imalisfl, a. Like an animal. 

Aii'iiiialison, n - [Fr. animalisms.] Tb" -‘ate of a be¬ 
ing only actuated by sensual appetite:., animal nature; 
sensuality. 

Animal ity, n. [Fr. animalite.] The state of animal 
existence or nature. 


, , n. [Fr. animalisation .] The act of 
, e assimilation of food by the process 

a. [Fr. animaliser ] To give animal 
A’ with the properties of an animal. —To 
-ouvert into animal matter by the process 

«. The same as Animality, (o.) 

City, in < 'oh/ratio, a village of Conejos co., 
m. S.W ol Denver. 

ite, v. a. [Lat. animare,] To quicken; to make 
to give life to; as, the soul animates the body; 
j must have been animated by a higher power. — To 
give powers to; to heighten the powers or effect of any 
thing. 

41 But none, ah ! none can animate the lyre, 

And the mute strings with vocal souls inspire." — Dryden. 

—To encourage: to incite; to give spirit to. 

‘The more to animate the people, he stood on high .... and cried 
unto them with a loud voice." — Knoltes. 

Animate, a. Alive; possessing animal life. 

44 The admirable nature of animate bodies." — Bentley. 

Animated, v. a. Lively; vigorous; full of life or spirit. 

44 Warriors she fires with animated sounds. 

Pours balm into the bleeding lover’s wounds. 44 — Pope. 

An'iniater, n. One who animates; an animator. 

An'imating, p. a. Giving life; enlivening; quickening. 

Animation, n. [Fr., front Lat. aoimatio.] The act of 
animating, or the state of being animated. — Life; live¬ 
liness; vivacity; cheerfulness; briskness; alacrity; 
activity; alertness. 

An'imative, a. That which has the power of giving 
life, or animating. 

An imator, n. [Lat.] That which animates or gives life. 

An'irne, n. [Fr. animi, living.] (Com.) .A resin exuding 
front the stem of the Hymenaa courbarii, and containing 
insects entrapped in it, whence its name. It is distin¬ 
guished from ci pal by its ready solubility in alcohol. It 
is used by varnish-makers, and for scenting pastilles. 

An'imo, a. [Fr., living.] (Her.) Applied to the eves 
of a rapacious animal when borne of adifferent. tincture 
from the creature itself. 

An'imine, n. (Chem.) An oily base, with a peculiar 
smell, soluble in 20 parts cold water, very soluble in 
alcohol; obtained from rectified oil of Dippel by saturat¬ 
ing with ammonia, and distilling. It changes reddened 
litmus to a violet blue. 

Animism, n. [Fr., from Lat. animus, the soul.] (Philos.) 
The doctrine of the anima niuncli, as held by Stahl ; the 
doctrine that all the phenomena of animal economy are 
produced by the agency of the soul, or by a vital princi¬ 
ple, distinct from the substance of the body. 

An'imist, n. An adherent to the doctrine of animism. 

Animose', a. [Lat. animoms.] Full of spirit; hot; 
vehement. 

Ailimos'ity. n. [Fr. animositt, from Lat. animositas .] 
Vehemence of hatred; passionate malignity. It implies 
rather the disposition to break out into outrages than 
the outrage itself. 

An 'ion, n [Gr. ano, upwards, and io, I go.] ( Chem.) ] 

W non *i unliutiin 4. • d n v, 3 T.., *■ 1. . 1 I aa 


diers were butchered by the Sicilians in Palermo, u the 
Easter Monday of 1282. lie had laid siege to Messina, 
where his fleet was captured by the admiral of Peter of 
Aragon, who had assumed the title of king of Sicily 
This event filled him with fury, and he sent a challenge 
to Peter to meet him in single combat. In order to gain 
time, the challenge was accepted, though subsequently 
declined; short y after which Charles died, in his 75th 
year, 1285.— He was by far the most distinguished of 
his house. 

An'ise, n. [Fr. an is: Lat. anisum ; Gr . anisnn.] (Bot) 
The common name of the Pimj.inella anisum, gen. Pirn* 
pinella, q.v. — The A. seed imported from Spain aid 
Italy is used as a condiment, and in the preparation 
of liquors; also in medicine, as a stimulant stomachic 



Fig. 132. — anise (Pimpinella anisum). 
to relieve flatulence, &c., particularly in infants. It ha* 
an aromatic, agreeable smell, and a warm, sweetish 
taste. It contains a volatile oil. which is nearly color¬ 
less, lias the odor and taste of the seed, and is employed 
for similar purposes. Sp. gruv. -9867. It is soluble in 
alcohol. 


When a substance is decomposed by the galvanic battery, Ail jou, Francis, Duke of, b. 1554. and created at his 


the elements into which it is resolved are termed ions; 
the element going to the anode, is an electro-negative 
body, or an-vm, while the element which proceeds to 
the cathode, is an electropositive, or cat-ion. When 
water is decomposed, oxygen is attracted by the positive 
plus, or zinc pole, or anode, and is therefore the anion, 
or electro-negative body; while hydrogen, going to the 
cathode minus, or negative pole, is the cation. 

An'isamide, n. (Chem.) An amid obtained by acting 
on chloride of anisyle with ammonia. 

Anisan'iline, n. (Chem.) White brilliant subliming 
needle3. formed by the action of aniline on chloride of 
anisyle. Form. C&iilKjVO.,. 

An'ise Stearoptene, Anise Camphor. (Chem.) Form. 
CjoHeO. Crystalline plates obtained from anise oil. 
Identical with the stenroptene of fennel. 

Anisette', n. [Fr.] A liquor obtained by distilling anise, 
fennel, and coriander-seed with brandy, and sweetening 
the product. The A. of Bordeaux, when genuine, is a 
delicious and very stomachic drink. 

An'isic Acid. Draconic Acid. (Chem.) Colorless bril¬ 
liant needles, very soluble in alcohol, obtained by the 
action of nitric acid on anise or estragon stearoptene. 
Form. CjqIIjOjHO. 

Anisonier'ic, a. [Gr. a, priv., and merns, parts.] Hav¬ 
ing not similar or symmetrical parts. 

All'jar, a British town of Ilindostan, prov. Cutch, near 
the N E. shore of the Gulf; Lat. 23° 3' N.; Lon. 70° 11' 
E. Fop. about 10,000. 

Anjen'sfO, a seaport town of S. Ilindostan, prov. of 
Travancore, 18 m. N.N.W. of Cape Comorin; Lat. 8 ° 37' 
N.: Lon. 7(5° 53' E. 

Anjou, an ancient prov. of France, now distributed 
among the deps. of Maine et Loire. Loire-inferieure, 
Vendee, Indre et Loire, Sarthe, lie et Yiiaiue, Mayenne, 
and Deux-Sevres. 

Anjou, Counts, afterwards Di kes 0 F,a powerful French 
family, closely connected with the royal house of Valois, 
who maintained a considerable share of independence 
until the reign of Louis XI The most ancient branch of 
these princes derives its origin from Ingelbert.a favorite 
of Charles the Bald, a. d 870. In the 13th century, 
Charles, fourth son of Louis VIII., began the second 
branch of the house of Anjou, and became the head of 
the Gnelphic party in Italy. He endeavored by crush¬ 
ing the Ghibelins to found an empire in Italy, but was 
unsuccessful. Whilst engaged in this work, the cele¬ 
brated massacre historicHlIv known as the “Sicilian 
Vespers,” took placo, in which 4,000 of his French sol-. 


birth, Duke of Alen^on. He was the youngest son of 
Henry II. of France, by his queen Catharine de Medicis. 
In 1573 he was present at the siege of La Rochelle. 
On the death of his brother Charles IX., a plot was 
formed to place A. on the throne; on the failure of 
which, he, along with his brother-in-law Henry, king 
of Navarre, was imprisoned. Afterwards, being recon¬ 
ciled with the king, Henry III., he re eived the dukedom 
of Anjou. In 1576 he headed the Catholic party, and 
in ttie next year assisted the F'lemings, then at war 
with the Spanish power. In 1681 he was chosen sover¬ 
eign of the Netherlands; but his despotic mode of gov¬ 
ernment made the people revolt, and he was finally 
expelled from the country. I), in France, 1584. 

An ker, n. [Dut. ancker.) (Com.) An old Dutch measure 
of capacity still used in Russia, and equal to 9% wine 
gallons. 

An'kerite, n. (Min.) A rliombohedral mineral; white 
with tints of gray, red, and brotvn ; foliated, slightly 
translucent, brittle, lustre pearly, b.b. it becomes b.ack 
magnetic. Spec. grav. 3‘08U: comp, as a dole uite in 
which the magnesia is more or less replaced by protox¬ 
ide of iron. 

Ank'lam, a town of Prussia, prov. of Pomerania, on 
the Peene, 47 m. N.W. of Stettin. It carries on a con¬ 
siderable trade in shipbuilding and shipping. Fop. 10,000. 

An'kle, n. [A. S. ancleow; Ger. and D. anker.] (Anat.) 
The joint which connects the foot to the leg. 

An'kie-bone, n. The bone of the ankle; the astra¬ 
galus. 

An'kled, a. Having, or relating to ankles; as, a well- 
ankled foot. 

Ank'let, n. An ornament that women fastened to the 
ankle-band of each leg, mentioned in 
the Bible (Is. iii. 18., 44 tinkling orna¬ 
ments about their feet.”) They were 
as common as bracelets and armlets, 
and made of much the same mate¬ 
rials. They are still worn in the 
East, and Lane (Mod. Egypt) quotes 
from a song, in allusion to the 
pleasure caused by their sound, 

44 the ringing of thine anklets has 
deprived meof-eason.” Hence, Mo¬ 
hammed forbade them in public; 

44 let them not make a noise with 
their feet, that their ornaments 
which hide may (thereby) be dis- Fig. 133.—ANK 1 ET& 
covered-” (Koran, xxiv. 31.) 

























112 


ANNA 


AN 


Anko'bnr, an Abyssinian town in the State of Shoa, 
built on a mountain 8,198 feet above the level of the sea. 
Pop. between 12,090 and 15,0o0, living in thatched houses 
shaded with trees. 

Anlt'oi, or Andkho, a town of Bokhara, Asia. 75 in. W. 
of Balkh; Lat. 36° 48'; bon. 66° E.; pup. about 25,000. 

Ankylo sis, n. See Anchylosis. 

An'lace, n. See Anelack. 

Ami, St., the mother of the Blessed Virgin, and the 
wife of Joachim. 

Ann, or Anne, St., in British N. America, a lakesitu- 
ated 30 m. N. of Lake Superior, into which by a small 
river it empties itself. 

Ann, St., in British N. America, a seaport on the E. 
side of (Jape Breton. 

Ann, St. See Fredericton. 

Ann, St., in Jamaica, a village and parish in Middlesex 
co., on the N. coast, 20 m. W. of Port Maria. 

An na. [Or.. Lat., and Hind.; Heb. Hannah.'] The sis¬ 
ter of Dido (Virgil, JEne.id, iv.) — The wife of Tobit, and 
his support in poverty'.—The daughter of Phanuel, and 
a prophetess. 

An' nil, n. (Com.) In the E. Indies, a coin of 12 pie, or 
the lbth part of a rupee, worth about $0.03. 

An na, in Illinois, a city, in township of same name, of 
U nion co. Pop. 2,295. 

Anna Comnena, a daughter of the Byzantine em¬ 
peror Alexius Coinnenn8 I.; conspired at his death to 
give the crown to her husband Nicephorus Breunius, 
but in vain. She had considerable literary taste, and 
wrote the Alexiad , a history of her father’s reign. D. 1148. 

Anna Ivanowna, empress of all the Hussias. B. 
1094. She was the daughter of the Czar Ivan Alexio- 
witch, married the Duke of Courland in 1710, and suc¬ 
ceeded to the throne on the death of Peter 11., in 1730. 
She invested her favorite Biron with almost absolute 
power, and he governed the empire with intolerable 
tyranny. During -4.’s reign, Russia was at peace with her 
neighbors, excepting only the war in which she engaged 
to place Augustus III. on the throne of Poland; and 
that with the Turks in 1736, terminated by the peace 
of Belgrade in 1734. D. 1740. She was succeeded by 
her grand nephew Ivan 

An'naberg, (St.,) a mining town of Saxony, in the 
circle of the Erzgebirge, 8 m. S.W. of Marienburg. Its 
inhabitants are principally occupied in its mines, which 
produce tin, silver, and cobalt. Pp. about 10,500. 

An'naberg'ite, n. (Min.) A synonym of arseniate 
of nickel. —See Nickel. 

Ann'ag'lxlowii, a parish of Connaught, Ireland, 7 m. 
from Galway; pop. 4,500. 

Ail'nalist, n. A writer of annals. 

Aii'nalize, v. a. To record in annals. 

An'nals, n. pi. [Fr. annales, from Lat. annalis .] A spe¬ 
cies of history, in which events are related in the exact 
order of chronology. They differ from perfect history 
in this, that annals are a bare relation of what passes 
every year, as a journal is of what passes every day; 
whereas, history relates not only the transactions them¬ 
selves, but also the causes, motives, and springs of ac¬ 
tion. The name comes from the first annual records of 
the Romans, which were called Annales Pontificum, or 
Annales Maximi. —The word A. is also applied to period¬ 
icals containing the transactions of societies, &c. 

Annum. See Cochin-China. 

An'namboe. or Annamabie, one of the several strong 
torts occupied by Britain on the Gold Coast of Africa, 
11 miles E. N. E. of Coast Castle. 

Annamooka, or Rotterdam, one of the Friendly Is¬ 
lands, about 10 m. in circuit. 

Ann an, a seaport-town of Scotland, co. of Dumfries, 
on a small river of the same name; pop. of borough, 
3,173. 

An nandale, in Scotland, the name given to the val¬ 
ley traversed lengthwise by the river Annum It con¬ 
tains many Roman antiquities. 

Annap'olis. [“ The city of Anne.”] A town of Nova 
Scotia, on the river of the same name, and on the S.W- 
siile of the Bay of Fundy; Lat. 40° 47' N.; Lon. 65° 50' VV. 
Although the first European settlement in N. America, 
having been founded in 1604, it has never flourished. It 
was i ailed Fort Royal by the French. Pop. of town and 
count ' of the same name, 18,121 

Annap'olis, in Maryland, a city and port of entry, 
cap. of the State and of the co. of Anne Arundel, ou the 
S.W. side of the Severn, 2 in. from its mouth, 44 m. E.N. 
E. of Washington. A. was at first Settled in li 44, under 
the name of Providence, afterward changed to Anne 
Arundeltown, and finally named A., in honor of Queen 
Anne. It is the seat of St. John’s College, incorporated 
in 1787. and of the U. S. Naval Academy. Pop. 7.604. 

Annap'olis, in Illinois, a post-office of Crawford co. 

Annap'olis. in Indiana, a post-village of Parke co., 
75 m. W. of Indianapolis. 

A it iiitp'olis, in Ohio, a village of Crawford co., 70 m 
N. of Columbus. 

—A post-vill. of Jefferson co , 15 m. W. of Steubenville. 

Annap'olis JiiiicJ ion, in Maryland, a post-office 
of Howard co. 

Ann Ar'bor, in APichigon, a flourishing city, cap. of 
Washtenaw co., on the river Huron, 38 n>. W of De¬ 
troit. The State Univereity, established here in 1837. 
possesses an extensive library, an astronomical obser¬ 
vatory, and a well appointed chemical laboratory; its 
fine buildings, pleasantly situated, constitute one of the 
attractions of the town.— Manf. Wool, iron, agricultural 
implements and flour. Pop. (1898) 13,100. 

An'nates, n. pi. [From Lat. atitws.] (Eecl. Jlist.) A 
year’s income due to the Pope, on the death of any 
bishop, abbot, or parish-priest, to be paid by his succes¬ 
sor. In 1789, they were finally abolished in Fiance. 


] An'naton, in Wisconsin, a post-o: 

[ Annawai'ka, in Alabama, a vill: i 
An'nawan, in Illinois, a post-villa; 

Henry co., on the Chicago and Roc 
146 m W.S.W. of Chicago, and 36 w . 1 
Island. \ 

Anne, (ann,) Queen ofGreat Britain, b. lA 
daughter of King James II. by his first win 
She married, in 1683, Prince George of De 
succeeded to the crown upon the death of W 
in 1702. The principal events in her reign 
war of the Spanish succession ; the great acliie 
of the English troops under the celebrated Duke ot~!b»_. 
borough (q.v.) in Flanders and Germany, by which the 
military supremacy of France was shattered; the estab¬ 
lishment of the union of the until then separate king¬ 
doms of England and Scotland in 1705 ; and the dash¬ 
ing successes of the Earl of Peterborough in Spain. 
During the reign of A., the rivalry of the two great po¬ 
litical parties, the Whigs and the Tories, rose to extreme 
violence; the latter, or Jacobite faction, looking upon 
the queen as secretly favoring the views of her brother, 
the exiled Pretender, to the succession.— A. was of an 
easy and placable disposition, and during the greater 
part of her life was entirely under the control of her 
imperious friend and confidante, Sarah, Duchess of 
Marlborough. She, however, at last fell into disgrace, 
and was succeeded in the post of favorite by Mrs. Mash- 
am, one of her attendants, a woman of obscure birth 
and mediocre character. Her reign is especially cele¬ 
brated as a literary sera, from the number of great 
writers who then flourished, the munificent patronage 
bestowed upon them, and the high esteem in which the 
world of letters was generally held. Among the illus¬ 
trious literati of this period are found the names of 
Pope, Swift, Bolingbroko, Newton, &c. D. 1712. 

Anne of Austria, Queen of France, b. 1604, was the eldest 
daughter of Philip IF. of Spain, and married King Louis 
XIII. in 1615. Daring the lifetime of her husband she 
was constantly at variance with his great minister, Car¬ 
dinal Richelieu. The Duke of Buckingham was deeply 
attached to Anne, and made open love to her. She rep¬ 
rimanded him so gently that it was thought she re¬ 
turned his affection. When Louis XIII. died, in 1643. 
Anne, as mother of the infant monarch, was appointed 
regent, and displayed no ordinary political tact in mak¬ 
ing Cardinal Mazarin her minister. The Parisians, 
however, were uneasy; Mazarin was a foreigner, his 
financial policy was unpopular, and an insurrection arose 
which might have assumed fearful dimensions. It is 
known in French history as tiie war of the Fronde, q. v. 
Tlie queen, the cardinal, and their partisans were opposed 
to the nobility of the kingdom and the citizens of the 
capital. Tiie former finally prevailed. She died at the 
age of sixty-four in 1666. She was beautiful in person, 
had much of German phlegm and Austrian pride, yet she 
was amiable and forgiving. 

Anne de Beaujeu. the eldest daughter of Louis XI. of 
France, b. 1462. Her father, jealous of her talents, mar¬ 
ried her to Pierre de Bourbon, Sire de Beaujeu. a prince 
of dull understanding. Ou the death of Louis XI. she was 
acknowledged governess of the kingdom, during the 
minority of her brother, Charles VIII. The Duke of 
Orleans having insulted Anne, she ordered him to be 
urrcsted, when he speedily fled, and sought refuge in 
Brittany. Anneattaeked theBretons and routed them, 
took the Duke, their leader, prisoner; and by the politic 
marriage of the young king of France to her namesake, 
the youthful duchess of Brittany, that country was an¬ 
nexed to the French crown. She retained her rank and 
influence after Charles VIII. had ascended the throne; 
and when, dying childless in 1498, he was succeeded by 
the Duke of Orleans, that prince respected her claims 
and position, and said, “ that it did not become the king 
of France to avenge the feuds of the Duke of Orleans.” 
D. 1522. 


Anne of Bohemia, b. 1367, was the eldest daughter of the 
Emperor Charles IV., and married Richard II., king of 
England, in 1380. She may justly be regarded as one of 
the nursing-mothers of the Reformation, for she protected 
Wickliffe towards the close of his life, when threatened 
by the Council of Lambeth in 1382. It was she who ob¬ 
tained an amnesty for the multitude who had become 
involved in the insurrection headed by Wat Tyler. This 
mediation, and her conspicuous virtues, acquired for 
her tiie title of the ‘"Good Queen Anne.” D. without 
issue, 1394. 

Anne Iiole.yn. See Boleyn. 

Anne de Bretagne, of of Brittany, b. at Nantes. 1476, 
was the only daughter of Francis II., duke of Brittany. 
Louis of Orleans, heir-presumptive to the French throne, 
when lie fled to Brittany (see Anne de Beaujeu), be¬ 
came deeply enamored of her; and Anne, not yet fif¬ 
teen, gave him it) return her first love. Compelled to 
marry the young King Charles VIII.. she acted with 
fidelity and discretion, and at his death displayed deep 
grief. But her old lover, now Louis XII., divorced the 
deformed lady he had been compelled to espouse, and 
soon persuaded Anne to forget her sorrow by marrying 
him at Nantes. It is said that as queen of France she 
exercised unbounded influence over her husband, and 
her detractors affirm that she sacrificed France to the 
petty intrigues of Brittany. D. 1514. 

Anne of Cleves, daughter of John. 3d duke ofCleves, 
b. 1515. She married in 1540, Henry VIII., king of Eng¬ 
land, and became his fourth wife. She was divorced 
from him in a few months afterward, and lived in pri¬ 
vacy until her death in 1557. 

Anne Ar'undel, in Maryland, a county situated in 
the central part of the State, on the W. shore of Chesa¬ 
peake Bay, about 5 m. S.of Baltimore. Ai m, 750 sq. m. 


'•is.... _ 
its Ptnburn. 
gable, nwitij>x. 

Anne. SI., a sea*. 

India islands. 

Anne. SI., in prov. of Quo. 

of the river St. Lawrence. Lat. at 
Anne, Ste., in Guadaioupe, a village oi o 
the S. coast, about 12 m. E.S.E. of Point-a-I. 
Anneal', v. a. [A S. ancelan, to kindle.] To soften 
temper glass, iron, Ac., by heating and gradually cooling. 
Anneal ing.ti. ( Cbem.) A proc ess applied in the manu¬ 
facture of glass or some metals, to prevent the particles 
arranging themselves in that condition which produces 
a brittle quality. When glass and metals, more partic¬ 
ularly iron or steel, have been heated to a red heat, 
they are very brittle. Glass drops, for example, madj 
in the form of what are termed Prince Rupert’s drops, 
are so brittle, that when touched sharply with a stone, 
or when a portion is broken off, they fly into a thousand 
fragments ; glass requires, therefore, to be annealed—a 
process consisting in placing it into a furnace for many 
hours, and gradually drawing it to a cooler part of the 
oven. Malleable iron, when it is to be subjected to prea 
sure, requires annealing. Thus, boiler-plates, which are 
drawn out by rollers, are placed for some time in an an¬ 
nealing furnace. Tempering of steel is an analogous 
process, and consists in beating the metal at various 
temperatures. The explanation of the process of an¬ 
nealing depends upon the theory of heat which may be 
adopted. According to the immaterial theory, the par- 
tides of iron and glass are placed by the high temper¬ 
atures of preparation in a peculiar condition, opposed 
to the attraction of cohesion; the cohesive force being 
restored by the modified application of heat in the an¬ 
nealing and tempering process. 

Annec'tant, a. Annexing. 

Annecy', a town of France, dep. of Ilaute-Savoie, 22 m. 
S. of Geneva; pop. 10,737.—The town is situated on the 
N. side of the lake of the same name, 9 m. long, and be¬ 
tween 1 and 2 ni. broad ; '1.426 ft. above the sea-level. 
Anne-<le-Ia-Pcrailc. Ste., in prov. of Quebec, a 
post-village of Port Neuf co., on St. Anne river. 57 m. 
vV. by N. of Quebec. 

Auine-ile-la-Pocatiere, Ste., in prov. of Quebec, 

a post-village and parish in Kamouraska co., on the S. 
bank of the St. Lawrence, 75 m. below Quebec Tt is a 
considerable place, and possesses a well-atteuied col¬ 
lege. Pop. of parish about 2,850. 

Anne-«les-Plaines. Ste.. in prov.of Quebec,a par¬ 
ish and village in Terrebonne co., 20 m. N.W. of lion- 
treat; pup. about 1 . 620 . 

Anne-du-HIactiictie, Ste.. in prov. of Quebec, a 

post-village and parish in St. Maurice co., on a river ot 
the same name, 75 in. N.E. of Montreal. Pip. abt. 2,020. 
Anne-dn-Noril, Ste,, in prov. of Quebec, a village 
and parish of Montmorenci co.. on the N. bank of the 
St. Lawrence, 18 m. from Quebec. Pip. about 910. 
Annel'iiles. Annelida, or Annelids, n. pi. [From Lat. 
annulus, a little ring.] (Xool.) An order of Annulosa^ 
including all the higher kinds of worm-like animals, 
often called red-blooded worms, the greatest part of 
which are marine, though there are several species 
which inhabit fresh water, and some which live on land. 
Their body is usually very long, divided into numerous 
segments similar and equal to each other, except at the 
two extremities; hut in the lower forms, such as the 
Leech, the segmentary 
division is very indis¬ 
tinctly seen, on account 
of the general softness 
of the integument. A 
large portion of the ma¬ 
rine annelids have spe¬ 
cial respiratory appen¬ 
dages, into which the 
fluids of the body are 
sent for aeration, and 
these are situated upon 
the head (Fig. 134) in 
those species which (like 
the Serputa, Ferebella, 

Sabellaria, Ac.) have 
their bodies enclosed by 
tubes, either formed by 
a shelly substance pro¬ 
duced from their own 
substance, or built up 
by the agglutination of 
grains of sand, frag¬ 
ments of shell, Ac.; 
whilst they are distrib¬ 
uted along the two sides 
of the body in such as 
swim freely through the Fig. 134.— •brpula lactata 
water, or crawl over the 

surface of rocks, as is the case with the Nereid <r ; c 
simply bury themselves in the sand, as the Arenicol 







ANNO 


ANNU 


ANOK 


US 


or “Lob-worm.” In these respiratory appendages the 
circulation of the fluids may be distinctly -een bv mi¬ 
croscopic examination. These fluids are of two kinds, 
the one colorless, and the other usually red. Authors 
are divided on the question of which of these two fluids 
represents the blood of other articulated animals. 

dunella'ta, n. pi. See Annulosa. 

4nn§'burg, in Maine , a township of Washington co., 
45 tn. E. by S. of Bangor. 

Anne's, St., in prov. of Quebec, a post-vill., parish of 
St. A. Bout de i'lsle, distant from Montreal -4 m.: pop. 
abt. 320. 

Anne's, St., in prov. of Ontario, a vill. of Kelson town¬ 
ship, Ilalton co.; pop. 300. 

Ann'et, one of the Scilly islands, near that of St 
Agnes. 

Annex', v. a. [Fr. annexer, from Lat. annectere .] To 
unite at the end: to affix; as, he annexed a codicil to 
his will. — To unite, as a smaller thing to a greater; as. 
he annexed a province to his kingdom. —To unite d pos¬ 
teriori; annexation always presupposing something. 
Thus we may say, punishment is annexed to guilt, but 
not guilt to punishment. 

— v. n. To join; to be united. 

— n. The thing annexed. 

Annexation, anil Annexion, n. The act of annexing; 
conjunction; addition: union; as, the annexation of 
Texas to the 0. States. 

Annex'ion, n. The act of annexing, 'r.) 

Annex'inent, n. The act of annexing, or the thing 
annexed. (R.) 

Anni'ltilable, a. [Fr.] That which may he annihi¬ 
lated. 

Anni'hilate, v. a. [Fr. annihilrr. | To reduce to no¬ 
thing; to put out of existence. — To destroy, so as to 
make the thing otherwise than it was. — To annul; to 
destroy the agency of anything. 

Anniiiila'tion, n. The act of rednelng to nothing; 
the state of being reduced to nothing. 

Aimi'liilator, n. The person who, or the thing which, 
annihilates. 

Aiini'llilatory, a. Tending to annihilate 

An nin Creek, in Pennsylvania, a township of Mc¬ 
Kean co.; pop. 760. 

An'nisq iiam . in Massachusetts, a post-office of Essex co. 

Anniver'sarily, adr. Annually, (o.) 

A n ill ver sary, a [Fr. anniversaire, from Lat. anni- 
versarius. ] Keturuiug with the revolution of the year; 
annual: yearly. 

■— n. A day celebrated as it returns in the course of the 
year — The act of celebration, or perlormauce, in honor 
of the anniversary day. 

An 'no Uorn'ini. [Lat.] Abbreviated a. d., the year 
of our Lord; the computation of time from our Saviour’s 
incarnation It is used in America for all public deeds 
and writings, on which account it is called the “Vulgar 
era.” 

Annomina'tion, n. [Lat. annominatio. ] Allitera¬ 
tion; agnomination, (r.) 

An no Llnn'di. [Lat.] Abbreviated a. m.. in the year 
of the world; the computation of time from the creation 
of the world. 

Anno'n:*, n. [Lat., from annus, a year.] A name for¬ 
merly given to the allowance of oil, salt, bread, flesh, 
corn, wine, hay, and straw, which was annually pro¬ 
vided by contractors for the maintenance of an army. 
It was also applied, in English law, to denote anything 
contributed by one person towards the support of an¬ 
other. 

Ann'onay, a town of France, dep. of the Ardeche, 7 m. 
from the Rhone. It is principally distinguished by its 
manufactures of paper, long reckoned the best iu 
France. Pop. 16,271. 

An notate, v. a. [Fr. annoter, from Lat. annotare.] 
To make annotations. 

Annotation, n. [Fr.] Explications or remarks writ¬ 
ten upon books; notes; — ordinarily used in the plural. 

“ It might appear very improper to publish annotations, with¬ 
out the text itself whereuuto they relate.” — Boyle. 

An notator, and Annota'tionist, n. [Fr. anno- 
tateur.} A writer of notes, or annotatious; a scholiast; 
a commentator. 

Anno'tatory, a. That contains annotations. 

Annot'to, Annatfo, Arnot.to, Onotj, n. (Chem.) 

Brown cakes, being the pulp of the seeds of the Hixa 
orellana, a shrub of S. America. It has no taste, but a 
smell of urine, which is said to be added to it; soluble 
in water, slightly in alcohol and ether with orange color, 
and in caustic potash with a red color. Sulphuric acid 
makes it indigo-blue: nitric acid makes it green; it 
contains a yellow and red-coloring matter. A. is some¬ 
times employed for dyeing silk of an orange color, by 
immersing the goods in a solution of ttio dye in potash, 
or soda, and brightening by means of alum, vinegar, or 
liinejuice. It is extensively used lor dyeing cheese and 
butter. 

Announce', v. a. [Fr. annoncer, from Lat anvunciare .] 
To publish; to proclaim; to make known —To pro¬ 
nounce ; to declare by a general sentence. 

Aunmince'inent, n. The act of announcing; pro¬ 
claiming, or making known by public notice. 

Annoiiii'cer, n. The person who announces. 

Aunoy', v. a. [Fr ennuye.r.] To incommode; to vex; to 
tease; to molest. 

“ Woe to poor man : each outward thing annoys him; 

He heaps in inward grief, that most destroys him.”— Sidney. 

•—n. [Fr. ennui.] Injury: molestation; trouble. 

“ What then remains, hut, after past annoy. 

To take the good vicissitude of joy."— Dryden. 

Annoy'ance. n. [0. Fr. annoianee.] That which an¬ 
noys ;*the state’ of being annoyed; or the act of annoying. 


Annoy'cr. n. The person who annoys. 

Annoy'ing,;. u. Incommoding; vexing; teasing; mo¬ 
lesting. 

Anns'ville, in New York, a township of Oneida co., 40 
m. N.E of Syracuse. 

—A small but ancient settlement in Cortland township, 
Westchester co., 2 in from l’eekskill village, on a large 
creek, to which it gives its name. It was formerly called 
Ampersand. 

Anns'ville, in Virginia, a village Of Dinwiddie co., 75 
m. N.W. by \V. of Norfolk. 

Annual, a. [FT, annuel, from Lat. annual is.] That 
which comes yearly. 

“ Annual for me. the grape, the rose, renew. 

The juice nectareous and the balmy dew."— Pope. 

—That which is reckoned by the year, or performed in a 
year; as, an annual support; the annual motion of the 
earth.—That which lasts only a year, as, an ann ual plant. 

— Annual is sometimes used as a noun; specially applied 
to a plant that lasts hut one season, or to a book pub¬ 
lished once a year. 

An nually, adv. Yearly: every year ; once a year. 

Aniin'itant, n. One who receives or possesses an 
annuity. 

Annuity, ti. [Fr. annuiU, from Lat. annuifas.] The 
periodical payment of money, either yearly, half-yearly, 
or quarterly; for a determinate period, as ten, fifty, or a 
hundred years; or for an indeterminate period, depen¬ 
dant on a certain contingency, as the death of a person; 
or for an indefinite term, iu which latter case they are 
called perpetual annuities. As the probability of the 
duration of life at every age is known, so annuities may 
be purchased for fixed sums during the life of the party. 
—See Insurance (Life), and M'irtai.ity (Laws of). 

Annul', v.a. [Fr. annuller, from Lat. ad, to, and nul¬ 
lum, nothing ] To make so that none shall be affected: 
said peculiarly of laws, edicts, rights, and customs. To 
cancel; to obliterate; to abrogate; to abolish; to ex¬ 
tinguish. 

An'nular. a. [Fr. annulaire, from Lat. annulus, a ring.] 
Anything in the form of, or resembling a ring. 

( Anat .) An appellation given toseveral parts of the 
body; thus, the A. cartilage is the second cartilage of 
the larynx; the A. ligament isa strong ligament encom¬ 
passing the wrist, after the manner of a bracelet; and 
the A. process is that which surrounds the medulla 
oblongata. 

(Astro//.) A. Eclipse. See Eclipse. 

(Mcch.) A. Advance. The angle which the eccentric 
forms with its position at half-stroke, when the piston is 
at the commencement of its stroke. 

An'nularis, n. [Lat ] The ring-finger; the one be¬ 
tween the little and middle fingers. 

An'nularly, adv. In the manner of a ring. 

An'nnlary, a. Having the form of a ring. 

An'nulata, n. pi. See Annulosa. 

An nulate, An'nulated, a. [Lat annulatus.] (Bot .) 
Ringed; exhibiting circular prominences. 

Annula'tion, n. (Bot.) A circular prominence to a 
stem. 

An nulet, n. A little 
ring. 

(Arch.) A small fiat 
fillet encircling a col¬ 
umn, used either by it¬ 
self or in connection 
with other mouldings. 

It is used several times 
repeated under the ovnlo 
or echinus of the Doric 
capital. The capital in 
Fig. 135. which is of the 
dentilated Doric order, is 
ornamented with only 
three annulets. 

(Her.) A little circle, 
borne as a charge in 
coats-of-arnis,intendedto 
denote strength and eter¬ 
nity. It is also added to 
them as a difference, and 
borne by the 5th brother 
of a tamily. 

Annul inODit, n. [From Fr. annuller. to annul.] The 
act of annulling; cancellation; nullification. 

Aiintilo'sa, n. pi. [From Lat. annulus, a ring.] (Zoiil.) 
The annulnse animals or worms, a class including all 
that lower portion of the great articulated sub-kingdom, 
in which the division of ttie body into longitudinally- 
arranged segments is not distinctly marked out. and in 
which there is an absence of those articulated or jointed 
limbs that constitute so distinct a figure of insects and 
their allies. This class is divided into the three orders, 
Annelides. Nematoids, and Frematods. 

Annulose', a. That has rings, or is annulated; as the 
worms. 

Anau'merate, v. a. [Lat. annu/nern.] To make an 
addition to a former number, (r ) 

Annuiiiera'tion, n. An addition made to a former 
number. (R.) 

Annunciata. See Annunciation. 

AnnHii'riale.r a. [Lat. annuncio.] To give notice oi ; 
to proclaim; to report; to announce. 

Annuncia'tion. n. The act of announcing. The 
declaration of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary of 
the incarnation of Christ in her womb. 

(Eccl. Hist.) A Catholic feast in honor of the annun¬ 
ciation, instituted in the 7th century, as it is generally 
believed, and celebrated March 25. 

Order of the A. —An order of knights instituted in j 
1360, by Amadeus VI., Duke of Savoy, uuder the name] 


of Order of the Neck-chain or Collar; raised in 1720 by 
Victor Amadeus to be the first order of the kingdom of 
Savoy, under the name of Online suprema dell’ annun¬ 
ciata. The present king of Italy, Victor Emmanuel is 
grand-master of the order. The decoration is a gold 
medal, worn suspended by a gold chain on which is 
represented the Annunciation, surrounded by love-knots. 
The knights wear also on the left breast a star em¬ 
broidered in guld. They are not limited in number, but 
must he of high rank, and already admitted to the orders 
of St Maurice and St. Lazarus. 

Annnn'ciator, n. One who announces. 

Anniin'ciatory, a. Making known publicly. 

Ann'vllle, in Pennsylvania, a village ol Lebanon 
co., 0 in. Vi. of Lebanon, and 20 from Harrisburg. 

Ano'a Depkessicornis, n. (ZoSl.) A ruminating animal 
of Sumatra, by some considered a small species of wild 
buffalo, and by others a kind of antelope. The horns 
are wrinkled, but perfectly erect and straight, aud the 
head is long and narrow. 

Ano'bium. n. (Zool.) A genus of coleopterous insects, 
some of which inhabit the interior oi our houses, where 
they do much injury in their larval state by gnawing 
furniture, books, Su \, which they pierce with little round 
holes. Others feed upon wafers, preserved specimens 
of natural history, Ac.— One species, the A. tesselalum, 
popularly the Death-watch, or tick, is remarkable for 
the superstitious feeling connected with it. This little 
timber-boring insect is about a quarter of an inch long, 
and the popular superstition alluded to is, that when its 
beating is heard, it is a sign that some one in the house 
will die before the end of the year. It is chiefly iu the 
advanced state of spring that this little creature com¬ 
mences its sound, which is no other than the call or 
signal by which the male and female are led to each 
other, and which may be considered as analogous to the 
call of birds, though not owing to the voice of the 
insect, but to its beating on, or striking any hard sub¬ 
stance with the shield or fore part of its head. The 
prevailing number of distinct strokes which it beats is 
from seven to nine or eleven; aud this very circum¬ 
stance may perhaps still add to the ominous character 
which it hears among the vulgar. These sounds or 
beats are given in pretty quick succession, aud are re¬ 
peated at uncertain intervals ; and in old houses, where 
the insects are numerous, may be heard at almost any 
hour of the day, especially if the weather he warm. 
The sound exactly resembles that which may be made 
by tapping moderately hard with the finger-nail on e 
table. The insect is of a color so nearly resembling tiiat 
of decayed wood, viz., an obscure grayish-brown, that it 
may for a considerable time elude the search of the 
inquirer. It is singular that this insect may so far be 
familiarized as to be made to beat occasionally, by taking 
it out of its confinement and beating on a table or 
board, when it will readily answer the none, and will 
continue to beat as often as required. 

An'ocle, n. [Gr. ano, upwards, and ados, a way—the 
way that the sun rises.] (Chem.) 'i hat surface of which 
the electric current enters, being the negative extremity 
of the decomposing body, by the agency of a galvanic 
battery, and is where oxygen, chlorine, acids, Ac. are 
evolved. The term is founded on the view that in any 
case of electric decomposition, the decomposing body is 
considered as placed so that the current passing through 
it shall be in the same direction, and parallel to that 
supposed to exist in the eartli from east to west, then 
the surfaces at which the electricity is passing into and 
out of the substance,would have an invariable reference; 
that toward the east is the anode, and that toward the 
west the cathode. 

Anodon'ta, n. [Gr. a, priv.,and oitontos, tooth. ] (Znol.) 
A fresh-water molluscous animal, inhabiting a thin, in' 
equivalve shell; hinge straight, witli either no teeth or 
mere rudiments. The valves are thin, large, and pearly; 
and from their shape and lightness they are used in 
France for skimming milk. The A. is found in every 
quarter of the world. 

An'odyne, n. [Gr. a, priv., and odyne, pain.] (Med.) A 
medicine which eases pain and procures sleep. 

— a. Assuaging pain; as, an anodyne potion. 

An'odynous, a. That has the power of assuaging 
pain, as an anodyne. 

Anoint', v. a. [From Fr. aindre ; pp. oitil.] To rub 
over with an unctuous matter. — To consecrate by uuc- 
tion. 

Anoint'er, n. The person who anoints. 

Anoint'ment, Anoint'ing. n. The act of anoint¬ 
ing. or the state of being anointed. 

(Hist.) Anointing the body or head with oil was a 
common practice with tiie Jews, and with other Oriental 
nations. Abstinence from it was a sign of mourning. 
Anointing the head witli oil or ointment seems also to 
have been a mark of respect sometimes paid by a host to 
his guests, and was an ancient Egyptian custom at feasts. 
The Jewish priests and kings were anointed when induct¬ 
ed into office, and were called t lie annul tot of the lend, 
to show that their persons were sacred, and their office 
from God. In the Old Testament, also, the prophecies 
respecting the Redeemer, style him, on account of his 
royal descent anil his dignity, Messias, that is, the 
A/winted. The custom of anointing priests still exists 
in the Roman Catholic Church, and that of anointing 
kings in some of the Christian monarchies. The Greeks 
and Romans, particularly the former, anointed them¬ 
selves after the bath,and thus gave a yellow color to the 
body. Athletes anointed themselves order to render 
it more difficult for their antagonists to. t hold of them. 

Ano'ka. in Indiana, a post-vi. ><re of . 3S co., on tht 
Chicago and Great Eastern Railroad, ' m. S.E. of let 
gausport. 



Fig. 135. 







































114 


AIM O.N 


ANSE 


AJNfSE 


jlno'ka, in Minnesota, an E. county, bounded on the 
S.W. by the Mississippi river, and intersected by Rum 
river. It contains a number of small lakes, is well 
wooded, and among the forest-trees the sugar maple is 
found. Surface, diversified; and soil, fertile. Pop. 
in 1880, 7,108; in 1890, 9,884. 

—A thriving city, the capital of the above county, on the 
left bank of the Mississippi, at the junction of Rum l iver. 
A. is 27 m. N. of St. Paul. Was visited by an exten¬ 
sive fire in 1884. Pop. .(1890), 4,252; in 1897 ab. 5,500. 

Ano'lis, ra. ( Zool .) A genus of reptiles peculiar to 
America, belonging to the family Iguanidce, and supply¬ 
ing the place that is occupied by the chameleons in the 
old world. They are distinguished by their having teeth 
in the paiate of the mouth as well as in the maxillary 
bones. The Anolis is a small, slender, active animal, 
frequenting woods and rocky places, and running, leap¬ 
ing, and climbing with singular agility. It is furnished 
with a loose skin or bag beneath its throat, which, when 
inflated,frequently changes its color: in short, whenever 
these creatures are under the excitement of fear, anger, 
or love, the skin assumes an endless succession of vary¬ 
ing hues. They are of more slender proportions than 
the chameleon, and more agile in their movements; they 
feed chiefly upon flies and other insects, and inhabit the 
neighborhood of marshes and other moist places where 



Fig. 136. — anolis. 

insects mostly abound. The head is long, straight, and 
flattened; the body and tail are long and slender, both 
being covered with small, round scales, which givo the 
skin the appearance of fine shagreen. The hind legs arc 
rather longer than the fore ones, and each foot has fivo 
toes. Several species of this genus inhabit the West 
India Islands, the largest of them not being more than 
a foot long. 

An'omal, n. (Gram.) An irregular word. — See Anomaly 

Anom'alisni, n. The same as anomaly, q. v. 

Anomalis'tif. Anomalistical, a. Irregular; 
contrary to established rule or order. 

Anomalistic Year. See Year. 

Anomalis'tically, Anom alously, adv. Irreg 
ularly. 

Anom'alite, n. [From Gr. anomalos, irregular, and 
lithos, stone.]( Min.) An irregular mineral. 

Anoin'alotis, a. Irregular. 

(Med.) A disease is said to be anomalous when the 
symptoms are so varied as not to bring it under the de¬ 
scription of any known affection. 

Anom aly, n. [Gr. anomalos , irregular.] Contrariety 
to, or deviation from established rule or order. 

(Astron.) The deviation of the planets from the peri¬ 
helion, which is owing to their unequal velocity. It is 
so called because it was in it that the first irregularities 
of planetary motion were discovered. 

Ano'mist, n. [Gr. a, neg., and nnmos, law.] (Zool.) A gen. 
of marine Mollusca, allied to the oyster, and remarkable 
for the perforation of one of its valves by a large aper¬ 
ture, through which a strong tendinous ligature passes, 
to be inserted into a third plate, by which the animal 
adheres to foreign bodies. They are usually found at¬ 
tached to oyster and other shells. This family has long 
been known in a fossil state, and contains many species, 
distributed over America, Europe, and Asia. 

Anomorliom boid, n. [Gr. anomos, without law, 
and Eng. rhomboid.] (Min.) An irregular spar or 
crystal. 

Ano'monra, or Anomura, n. [From Gr. anomoios , 
dissimilar, oura, a tail.] (Zool.) A section of decapod 
crustaceans, consisting of many genera; the habits of 
some of which, as the Hermit or Soldier-crab (the type 
of the genus Pagurus) are highly curious and interesting. 
See IIermit-Crab. 

Anon', ado. [A.S. on, an. in one.] In one moment; im¬ 
mediately; quickly; forthwith; soon after; at times; 
now and then. 

Ever and anon; now and then; frequently. 

“ And 'twixt Ids finger and his thumb he held 
A pouucet-box. which ever and anon 
He gave his nose.”— Shuks. 

Anona'ceae, Anonads, n. pi. (Bat.) An ord. of plants, 
alii. Panales. Dug.: Distinct carpels, no stipules, a val- 
vate corolla, and ruminate albumen. They are trees or 
shrubs, chiefly native within the tropics. Leaves alter¬ 
nate, simple, entire, without stipules; flowers usually 
green or brown, axillary, large, shorter than the leaves, 
3 to 4 sepals, persistent. 6 petals in two rows, hypoge- 
nous, aestivation valvate; fruit dry or succulent. They 
are characterized by having a powerful aromatic taste 
and smell in all the parts. 

Aiio'neie, n. pi. (Bot.) A tribe of plants, ord. Ano- 

nace.ce. 

Ano'na, Asimina, Uvaria, n. (Bot) A gen. of plants, 
ord. Anonacexe. The A. sylvatica , called Araticn do 
Mato, in Bra">l, has a light white wood, very fit for the 
use of turne ’ r he wood of the root of A. palustris is 
employed i' Jr. corks.—The A. triloba is a small 

and beautifi Tee. to to 2o ft. high, found on the banks of 
Streams in S. and W. of the U. States. It flowers in 


March, and gives a fruit 1 to 3 inches long; yellowish, 
fragrant, eatable, and ripe in October. 



Fig. 137. — AN0NA TRILOBA. 


Anon'ymons, a. and n. [Gr. a, priv., and onoma, a 
name.] Nameless; unattested; unauthenticated; un¬ 
identified. A term usually applied to an author who 
keeps his name a secret, or to a book whose author is 
unknown. W hen an assumed name is given, the term 
Pseudonymous is used. 

Anon'yniously, adv. Without a name. 

Anoop'slietir, a town of llindostan, prov.of Agra, on 
the Ganges, 68 m. E.S.E. of Delhi. Lat. 28° 23' N.; Lon. 
78° 8'E. Pop. 8,900. 

Anoplottae'i'ium, n. [From Gr. a, priv., oplon, a 
weapon, and therion, a wild beast.] (Pal.) A genus of 
extinct quadrupeds, found in a fossil state, and which 
seem to range between the Pachydermata and the Rumi- 
nantia. They had six incisor, four canine, and four molar 
teeth, in each jaw, forming a continued line; and the 
feet had only two toes, sheathed by separate hoofs. The 
skull partook of the form of that of the horse and the 
camel, not having a prolonged snout. It seems fully 
demonstrated that these animals were all herbivorous, 
differing but little in this respect from the Tapirs and 
Rhinoceroses At present existing. 

Anoplii'ra. n. (Zool.) An order of parasitic insects, in¬ 
cluding the Louse and its allies, Pediculidie, whose pres¬ 
ence on the human body is usually regarded as an indi¬ 
cation of habitual filthiness. It is to bo observed, how¬ 
ever, that the inferior animals are subject to them, and 
that almost every quadruped and bird is infested with 
some one or other of these parasitic insects. Upward of 
500 species have been described, and as they are so uni¬ 
versally diffused, they no doubt serve an important pur¬ 
pose in creation. Three species iufest the human race: 
Pediculus humanus. or body-louse; Pediculuscervicalis. 
or P. humanus capitis , which inhabits the head, partic¬ 
ularly of children, and Pediculus pubis, or Morphio, the 
crab-louse, which inhabits the hair of the pubis. Their 
superabundance upon a person is eittier the cause of, 
or is iunmateiy connected with grave diseases; and 
many cases have been related of persons having died 
from this cause. 

An'oj»sy, n. [Gr. a. priv., opsis, sight.] (Anal.) A con¬ 
dition of monstrosity in which the eye and orbit are 
wanting. 

Aii orexy. n. [Gr. a, priv., and orexis, appetite.] (Med.) 
A want of appetite, without loathing of food. 

Anor'inal, «. Irregular; abnormal.—See Abnormal. 

Anor'thite, Indiamtk,Christianite, n. (Mm.) A tri- 
clinic mineral, of the Felspar group; color white; lustre 
vitreous; b.b. it fuses on the edges with great difficulty. 
Sp. grav. 2-762 to 2-656.— Comp, silica 43-1, alumina36-9, 
lime 20 0 = 100. It occurs in Mount Vesuvius. 

Aiios inia. n. [FromGr. a. priv.,and osme, smell.] (Med.) 
A loss of the sense of smelling. 

Anoth'er, a [An or one and other.] One more; not the 
same; different; any other; any one else. 

“ I would not spend another such a night."— Shahs. 

“ Discover not a secret to another."—Pros. xxv. 9. 

An'oxidic Bodies. (Chem.) Those bodies whose car¬ 
bon, when they are charred, yields nothing to solveuts, 
as in blood. ’ 

Louis Pierre, a French historian, b. at Paris. 
1723, n. 1808. His Histoire de France acquired con¬ 
siderable celebrity, and has enjoyed a long popularity. 
Among his other works are: Pricis de VHistoire Vni- 
verseUe, 9_vols.: and L'Esprit de la Ligue 

An'quetil du Perron, Abraham IIyacinthe, bro¬ 
ther of the preceding, b. 1731. To gratify his taste for 
Oriental literature, he joined the expedition to India in 
1754 as a private soldier, and there employed all his 
leisure in studying the Sanscrit. He subsequently re¬ 
turned to Europe, visited London and Oxford, and con¬ 
veyed his collection of MSS. to Paris. He was then ap¬ 
pointed Oriental interpreter to the royal library and 
devoted himself to the publication of the knowledge he 
had acquired. His principal work was the translation 
of the Zendavesta, in 1771. D. 1805. 

An'selm, St., Archbishop of Canterbury in the reigns 
of William Rufus and Henry I. of England, b in Pied¬ 
mont. 1033. He was at first a monk, and afterward 
superior of the abbey of Bee, in Normandy. In 1093 he 
was appointed to the English primacy; but, differences 
arising in respect of the temporalities of his See, he quit¬ 
ted that kingdom. He was recalled by Henry I and 
well received, when difficulties again arose, which were 
referred to the Pope, who decided in favor of A. Conces¬ 
sions were made ultimately, which led to ins reinstation. 


D. 1109, and was canonized during the reign of Henry 
VII. A. was a man of great piety and understanding, 
and is accounted as being the first of the long line of 
scholastic metaphysicians. 

An'selm, in Ohio, a post-office of Gallia co. 

An'selme, in prov. of Quebec, a post-village ol 

Bellechasse co., 18 m. E. of Quebec. 

An'seres. n. pi. [Lat. anser. a goose.] The third ordef 
of tiie Linnsean class A ties, corresponding to the order 
Natntores. This order is thus characterized: A smooth 
beak covered with skin, gibbous at the base, and 
broader at the point; feet firmed for swimming, having 
palmated toes connected by a membrane; the legs thick 
and short, and the body bulky, plump, and downy;food, 
fisbes, frogs, aquatic plants, and worms. The ord. A.,of 
which the goose furnishes a ready example, includes tho 
fam. Anatidoe, Volymbidw, Alctdce, Pr ocellar idee, Larida, 
and Pdicanidce. 

An'ser ot Viilpee'ula. n. [Lat, the fox and goose.] 
(Astron.) A modern constellation, situated between tho 
Swan on the N., and the Arrow, or tin- Dolphin and Eagle 
on the S. It is composed of some 30 stars, the largest 
of which is of the 3d magnitude. 

An'serated, a. (Her.) Applied to a cross whose ex¬ 
tremities are formed into the shape of the heads of 
lions, eagles, &c. 

Anseri'me, n.pl. (Zool.) A sub-fam. of birds, of the fam. 
Anatida•; the geese. The species are numerous, and they 
are found in various parts of the world during their 
periodical flights. Their food consists of grain ami grass, 
and, during summer, they inhabit marshy districts. The 
common wild goose (anser ferus), measuring 5 ft in ex¬ 
tent of wings, is widely and numerously spread over all 
the more northerly parts of the globe, whence some 
flocks of them migrate a long way southward in the 
winter. These birds are oiten seen in flocks of 50 or 100, 
flying at very great heights, and preserving a perfect 
regularity in their motions; sometimes forming a 
straight line, and at others assuming the shape of a 
wedge, which is supposed to facilitate their progress. 
Their cry is frequently heard when they are at an im¬ 
perceptible distance above us. When on the ground, 
they range themselves ill a line after the manner of 
cranes, and seem to have descended rather lor the sake 
of rest than for any other refreshment. Having con¬ 
tinued in this situation for an hour or two,one ol them, 
with a long loud note, sounds a kind of sigual, to which 
the rest punctually attend, and risiug in a group, they 
pursue their journey with renewed alacrity. Their 
flight is conducted with singular regularity; they 
always proceed either in a line abreast, or in two lines 
joining in an angle at the middle, like the letter V. In 
this order they generally take the lend by turns, the 
foremost falling back in the rear when tired, and the 
next in station succeeding to bis duty, l’beir track is 
generally so high that it is almost impossible to reach 
them from a fowling-piece; and even when this can be 
done, they file so equally, that one discharge seldom 
kills more than a single bird. They are very destructive 
to the growing corn in the fields where they happen to 
alight in their migrations. In some countries they are 
caught at such times in long nets, to which they are de¬ 
coyed by tame geese placed there for that purpose. 
Other schemes are contrived to take them; but as they 
are very vigilant, feed only in the daytime, and betake 
themselves to the water at night, the fowler must exert 
the utmost care and ingenuity in order to accomplish 
his ends; all must be planned in the dark, and every 
trace of suspicion removed : for nothing can exceed tha 
wary circumspection and acute ear of the sentinel, who. 



Fig. 138. — anser ferus, ( Wild goose.) 

placed on some eminence, with outstretched neck, sur- 
veys everything that moves within the circle of his ob¬ 
servation, and the instant lie sounds the alarm, the 
whole flock betake themselves to flight. This wild 
species is the original of the domesticated goose, a bird 
of great value, both as an article of food and as furnish¬ 
ing very fine down and feathers. The tame goose lays 
lrom seven to twelve eggs, and sometimes more; these 
are carefully divided among the brood-geese when they 
begin to sit: those which lay a 6econd time in the course 
of the summer are seldom, if ever, permitted to have 
a second hatching; but the eggs are used for household 
purposes. It is universally believed that the goose lives 
to a great age, and particular instances are recorded 
by ornithologists which confirm the fact—some ev-n 
emulating the human period of “ threescore years and 
ten.” It has been remarked that none of our domestic 
birds are so apt to bring forth monstrous productions as 
geese —a circumstance which has been attributed to 
the excessive fatness to which they are liable. The liver 
of a lat goose is often larger than all the other viscera, 
and was a dish in such great reputation among 
Roman epicures, that Pliny thought it deserved a 
serious discussion, to whom the honor of invent- 
. so exc P 1,ent a dish was due. In our days, tha 
Pdles de foie gras de Strasbourg, made of the liver of 






A NSW 


ANTA 


ANTE 


115 



geese, hare inherited the reputation of the Roman dish. 
■—The Sn-><v Goose, A user hyperboreus, is two feet eight 
inches in length, and its extended wings are five feet. 
The hill of this bird is very curious, the edges having 
each twenty-three indentations or strong teeth, on each 
side. The head, neck, and body are pure white; the 
quills are white for half their length, the rest black; the 
legs are of a very deep-red. These birds inhabit the 
regions of the arctic circle, occasionally migrating to 
the more temperate climates of Prussia, Austria, Hud¬ 
son’s Bay, and the United States of America. They ar¬ 
rive in the river Delaware from the north early in 
November, sometimes in considerable flocks, and are 
very noisy; their notp is more shrill than that of the 
Canada Goose. — The Canada Goose, or Cravat Goose, 
Bernicla Canadensis, is the common Wild Goose of the 
United States, and is known iu every part of the country. 
It usually weighs about 
ten pounds. The general 
color is a dark ash : head, 
neck, and tail black; 
cheeks and throat white; 
bill and feet black. In 
their annual migrations 
to the North, it is the 
general opinion that they 
are on their way to the 
lakes to breed ; but it is 
highly probable that they 
extend to the utmost 
polar point, amid the _. 

silent desolation of un- 130. bernicla canadensis, 
known countries, shut (.Canada Goose.) 

out from the prying eye of man by everlasting and in¬ 
superable barriers of ice. After having fulfilled the great 
law of nature, the approaching rigors of that dreary 
climate oblige them to return toward the more genial 
regions of the South; and no sooner do they arrive among 
men, than an indiscriminate slaughter of them com¬ 
mences. The people at Hudson’s Bay greatly depend 
on these birds, and in favorable seasons kill three or 
four thousand, which are packed up for future use. The 
autumnal flight lasts from the middle of August to 
November; the vernal, from the middle of April to the 
middle of May. 

An 'serine, n. (Chern.) A yellow oil, liquid at common 
temperature, but becoming a tallow at 45it is the 
pigment of the feet and bill of the goose, pigeon's foot, 
Ac. Form. CioilgOs- 

—a. Relating to, or resembling a goose. 

Ans'gar,(St.,) in lewi. See Saint An so ar. 

An son. Geirok, Lord, a celebrated English navigator 
and naval commander, b. 1697. He entered the navy 
early in life, and rose rapidly to post-rank. Being or¬ 
dered to the station of North Carolina, he there pur- 
chiised land, and built a town, which bears his name. 
In 1739 he commanded an expedition against the Span¬ 
ish settlements in the Pacific Ocean: thence sailed for 
China, and on his return captured a Spanish galleon. 
In 1747 he commanded the channel fleet, and achieved 
brilliant successes against the French. He was subse¬ 
quently ennobled, and afterwards made admiral, and 
placed at the head of the admiralty. D. 1762. 

An 'son, in ,V. Carolina, a county bordering on S. Caro¬ 
lina, named in honor of Admiral Lord Anson, q. a. Area, 
650 sq. m. It is watered by Rocky river on the N., and 
Yadkin or Pedee river on the E. The surface is undu¬ 
lating and hilly; soil fertile. Cotton is the staple pro¬ 
duce. Cap. Wadesborough. 

An'soil, in Maine, a post-township of Somerset co., on 
the west side of the Kennebec, 40 miles N. by W. of 
Augusta. 

An'son, in Wisconsin, a township of Chippewa coun- 


ty. 

An son, Bay of, in the Canton river, China, situate be¬ 
tween the headlands Chuenpe and Amunghey, where the 
Chinese fleet was destroyed by the British in 1841. 

—Another bay of the same name, in the N.W. coast of 
Australia. Lat. 13° 30' S.; Lon. 130° E. 

Aiiso'ma, iu Connecticut, a manf. town of Derby town¬ 
ship, New Haven co., on the Naugatuck river, 16 m. N. 
of Bridgeport. of twp. (1890) 10,342. 

Anso iiia, in Ohio, a post-village of Darke co., on the 
Bellefontaine Railroad, about 50 m. W. by S. of Belle- 
fontaine. 

An'son's or Boukii Island, ir.the S. Pacific Ocean. 
Lat. 5° S.; Lon. 154°34 r E. 

Anson'ville, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Clear¬ 
field co., about 16 in. S.S W. of Clearfield. 

Ans'paoh, or Ansbach, a fortified town of Bavaria, on 
the Rezat, 24 m. S.W. by YV. of Nuremberg. — Manvf. 
Woollen and ce- ton stuffs, white lead,and playing-cards. 
Pop. 16,500. 

Answer, (an'stir,) v.a. [A S. onsroarum;from and, against, 
in opposition to, and swaran,to swear, anciently to speak.J 
To speak in return or in opposition to: to reply to; as, 
to answer a question. — To be equivalent or adequate 
to; as, money answers all things. — To satisfy; to serve. 
— To correspond to; as, that business does not answer 
our expectation. — To return; to accomplish; to solve; 
to obey. 

—v. n. To speak in return to a question. Ac.; to reply.— 
To be accountable; to correspond with; to return; to 
succeed; to be suitable; to have a good effect. 

— n. That which is said in return; a reply; a response. 
A rejoinder: a computation: a return; a solution. 

An'sWerable, a. Liable to give answer in the sense 
of account, and also having suitableness or correspon¬ 
dence: liable; amenable; accountable; responsible; 
agreeing. 

Aii'^werableness, n. Quality of being answerable. 


An'swerably, adv. In due proportion, correspon¬ 
dence, or conformity; suitably. 

An'swerer, n. One who answers. 

Au'swering', p. a. Replying; corresponding to; fulfil¬ 
ling; solving; succeeding; confuting. 

An’t, a vulgar colloquial contraction of am not, are not, 
and sometimes is not', as iu the phrases I an’t, we an’t, 
you an’t, Ac. 

Ant, n. [A.S. cemete.] (Zool.) The common name of the 
insect Formica. — See Formicid.e. 

An ia. n .; pi. Ani.e. [Lat., from ante, before] (Arch.) 
A square pillar terminating the side-wall of a building. 
The antse were placed on each side of the door, so as to 
assist in forming the portico. The temple in antis was 
one of the simplest kind. It had in front, untie attached 
to the walls which enclosed the cella; and iu the middle, 
between the an tte, two columns supporting the architrave. 

Antac'ul, n. [From Gr. anti, against, and Eng. acid.] 
(Med.) That which destroys acidity. The action of ant¬ 
acids in the human stomach is purely chemical, as 
they merely combine wita the acid present, and neu¬ 
tralize it. They are only palliatives, the generation of 
acidity having to be prevented by restoring the tone of 
the stomach and its vessels. Dyspepsia and diarrhoea 
are the diseases in which they are employed. The prin¬ 
cipal antacids in use are the alkalies. 

Antse'us. (Myth ) The son of Neptune and Terra, a 
famous giant killed by Hercules. 

Antagonism, n. [Fr. antagnnisme from Gr. anti. 
against, and agomzomai, to struggle, to contend; from 
agon, a struggle; from ago, to drive.] A contending or 
struggling against: opposition to action; con f est. 

Antagonist, n. [Fr. antagonists.] One who contends 
or struggles with another in combat; an adversary; an 
opponent; that which acts in opposition. 

(Anal.) A term applied to those muscles which have 
opposite functions. Such are me flexor anti extensor of 
any limb, the one of which contracts it, whilst the other 
stretches it out; and also the abductors and adductors. 
Solitary muscles are those without any antagonist, as 
the heart, Ac. 

— a. Counteracting; opposing; acting in opposition. 

Antagonistic, AtiJagonist'ical, a. Opposing 
iu combat; contending against 

“ Their valors are not yet co combatant. 

Or truly antagonistic, as to fight.” — B. Jonson. 

Antag'on ize. r. a. To contend against another, (r.) 

Anta'kia. The modern name of Antioch, q. v. 

Antal'g'ic, «. and a. [From Gr. anti, against, and al¬ 
gos, pain.] (Med.) That which relieves pain. 

Antal'kali. n. [From Gr. anti, against, and Eng. 
alkali.] ( Chem.) That which possesses the power of 
neutralizing alkalies. All the acids are of this class. 

Aiital'kaline, a. Having the power to counteract al¬ 
kalies. 

Anlanacla'sis, n. [From Gr. anti, against, undanaklao, 
to bend back.] (Hliet.) The repetition of a word iu a 
different meaning, or as a different part of speech, which 
attracts attention, and gives expressiveness to the 
phrase; e.g., “ Let the dead bury their dead;” or, “ Live 
while you live.” The returning to a subject after a long 
parenthesis is also called antanaclasis. 

Antaiiag-0'ge. n. [From Gr. anti, against, and anagoge, 
a leading up.] (Rhet.) Recrimination; an answer to a 
charge by a counter-charge. 

Antaphrodt'siac, Antaptirodit'ic, a. and n. 

[From Gr. anti, against, and Aphrodite, Venus.] (Med.) 
Anti-venereal, or whatever extinguishes amorous desires. 

Ail'tar, or Anta'ra, a celebrated Arabian prince in the 
middle of the 6th century, and one of the 7 poets whose 
successful verses, embroidered with gold upon silk, were 
huug up at the door of the Caaba. He describes in his 
MoaUalca his warlike deeds, and his loTe for Abla. The 
most complete edition is that of Meuil (Leyden, 1816,4to.) 
In the Arabian romance Antar, the author, Astnai, a 
renowned grammarian and theologian at the court of 
Haroim A1 Raschid, in the beginning of the 9th century, 
who first collected the old Arabian traditions, has added 
to the name and the heroic adventures of Antar, the 
other most famous chivalrous deeds of the Arabians. 
This romance gives the most complete idea of the man¬ 
ners and life; of ihe way of thinking; and of the opinions 
and tiie superstitions of the early Arabians, before the 
time of the prophet; and the fidelity of the picture is 
even now to he recognized in many features of the mod¬ 
ern Bedouins. It is written in the purest Arabic, and 
ranked among the classics of Arabian literature. It is 
so attractive that critics prefer it to the Arabian Nights. 
Hamilton, secretary of the British embassy in Constan¬ 
tinople. lias translated it into English; London, 1819, 4 
vols. A French translation lias since appeared at Paris. 

A lit arc'! if, a. [Fr., from Gr. anti, against, and arktos, 
the Great Bear, a northern constellation.] Opposite to 
the Arctic or northern pole. 

A. Circle. One of tiie lesser circles of the sphere, distant 
only 23° 30' from the South Pole. —A. Foie, being oppo¬ 
site to the Arctic Pole, denotes the opposite end of the 
earth’s axis, or the South Pole. 

Antarctic Sea. That vast portion of the great ocean 
extending from the A. circle. Lat. 66° 30' S., to the South 
Pole. It was long considered impassable for ships, on 
account of the ice; hut of late years many discoveries 
have been made, chiefly liy English, American, and 
French explorers. Various tracts of barren land have 
been observed, to which the names of Adelie, Balleny, 
Enderby, Sabrina, and Victoria have been given. Sir 
James Ross, in 1841, reached Lat. 78° 4', tiie highest S. 
latitude yet penetrated,—The features of tiie A. sea 
may lie briefly stated to be constant fogs, battling cur¬ 
rents, innumerable icebergs, and magnificent manifes¬ 
tations of the Aurora Australis. 


Anta'res, n. (Astron.) The principal star in the cost 
stellatiou Scorpio. It is situated in the heart of the 
Scorpion, about 19° E. of Zubenelgubi. A. is the most 
brilliant star in that region of the skies, and may be 
otherwise distinguished by its remarkably red appear* 
ance. Its declination is about 2b° S. It comes to the 
meridian 50 minutes after Corona Borealis, on the lotn 
of July. It is oue of the stars from which the moon’s 
distance is reckoned for computing the longitude at sea 

Antart hrit'ic, a. and n [From Gr. anti, against, and 
arthritis, gout.] (Med.) That which is good against the 
gout. 

Antastlimat'ic, a. and n. [From Gr. anti, against, 
and asthma, a panting.] (Med.) That which is good 
against the asthma. 

A ii tat ropli ic, n. [From Gr. anti, against, and atro¬ 
phia, a wasting away.] (Med.) A medicine to cure 
atrophy. 

An'tavares, a seafaring and warlike people inhabiting 
the eastern water-shed of the island ol Madagascar. 
Their chief resides at Tintingue, an ancient French set-> 
tlement, abandoned in 1831. 

Ant'-Bear, ». (Zodl.) The great ant-eater, Myrmecnph « 
agajubata. See Myrmec ophaga. 

Ant'-C’atcher, n. (Zool.) A gen. of birds, family Tur- 
didee. See Thrush. 

Ail'te. [Lat.] A Latin prep, signifying before, used as a 
prefix to many English words. 

An'teal, a. That is before or in front. 

Ant-Eater, n. (Zool.) The common name of the 
Myrmecophaga, q . v . 

Ante-Bellum. [Lat.] Before the war. 

Antece'tlenee, Antecedency, n. [Lat. aniece- 
dens, from cedo, to go.J Act or state of going before in 
time; precedence. 

(Astron.) An apparent motion of a planet toward 
the west, or contrary to tiie order of the signs, viz., 
from Taurus toward Aries, Ac. 

Anteee'dent, a. Going before; prior; anterior; fore¬ 
going;— opposed to subsequent. 

— n. That which goes before or precedes. — pi. A man’s 
previous history and fortune; as, “The antecedents of 
that man are very bad.” 

(Grain.) The word to which a relative refers; thus, in 
“God whom we adore,” the word God is the antecedent 
to the relative whom. 

(Logic.) The first of the two propositions in an 
enthymema. 

(Math.) The first of two terms of a ratio, or that 
which is compared with the other, as in the ratio of 2 
to 3, or a to c, 2 and a are each antecedents. 

Antecedently, adv. Previously; at a time preceding. 

Anteces'sor. n. One who goes before, or takes the 
lead of another; a predecessor. “The successor seldom 
prosecuting his antecessor’s devices.” 

An'te-eliam'ber, written also, but incorrectly, anti¬ 
chamber, w. [Fr . antichumbre.] The chamber or room 
before tiie chief apartment to which it leads. 

Ante'cians, n. pi. See Ant(eci. 

Anteeee'nium. (Hist.) In ancient Greece ami Rome, 
the first course at supper, consisting of eggs, herbs, Ac. 

Anle-eur'sor, n. [Lat.] A precursor; a harbinger. 

Antedate, v. a. [Lat. ante, before, and Eng. date.] To 
date before the true time; to anticipate; to give by an¬ 
ticipation. 

— n. An anticipation; a spurious, :>r false date, prior to 
the true date of a bond, bill, Ac. 

An'tedated, p. a. Dated before the true time. 

Antediluvian, a. [Lat. ante, and diluvium, a flood, 
or deluge.] Existing before the deluge. In theological 
language, the A. ages are those which elapsed before the 
flood. In Geology, the A.period has no reference to the 
deluge recorded in the Mosaic narrative, but only to the 
final transformation of the earth by means of water. 

— n. One who lived belore the deluge; thus, tiie inhabi¬ 
tants of the earth from Adam to Noah, are called the 
antediluvians. 

An'tefixa, n.; pi. Antefixa. [Lat. ante, before, and 
Jixus, fixed.] (Arch.) Or¬ 
naments used by the Ro¬ 
mans. sometimes also by 
the Greeks, to cover the 
frieze of the entablature 
of a temple or other build¬ 
ing. These decorations, 
at first in terra-cotta, 
afterward in marble or 
brass, are very ornamen¬ 
tal, and are still a char¬ 
acteristic of the mod¬ 
ern Italian architecture. 

Fig. 140 is an antefixa, 
from the temple of Diana, 
at .'Egina. 

An'telope, or Antilope, 
n. (Zool.) See Antelopes. 

An'telope, in Califor ¬ 
nia , a township of Te¬ 
hama co. 

—a village of Yolo co. 

An'telopete, Antilo- 
pin:e, or AntilopidjE, Fig. 140. — antefixa. 
n. pi. [Gr. anthos, a flower 

or ornament, and ops, the eye. in allusion to their beauti¬ 
ful eyes.] (Zool.) The Antelopes, a division of the large 
fam. Cavicomia or holiow-horned Ruminants, of which 
there are many species, each differing from tin Ether Lj 
some important points, but agreeing in the great leading 
characteristics. They are cf graceful and symmetrica! 
proportions; of a rest less and timid disposition, extremely 
watchful, of gr-x-u vivacity, remarkably swift and agh’.\ 



































116 


ANTE 


ANTH 


A NTH 


and most of their bounding* are inconceivably light and 
elastic. Their horns, whatever shape they assume, are 
round and aunulated—in some species straight, in others 
curved and spiral; in some, the females have no horns, 
in others, they are common to both sexes. They all 
possess a most delicate sense of smell, and their eyes are 
proverbially bright and beaming. Their hair is generally 
short and smooth. The ears are long and pointed; tails 
short, and tufted at the extremity. For the most part, 
yi. are gregarious, but some species keep in pairs. They 
often browse like the goat, and feed on the tender shoots 
of trees. Their flesh is usually of excellent flavor.—The 
A. seems to be a connecting link between the goat and 
the deer. The hind legs, like those of the hare, being 
longer than the fore ones, not only give additional 
swiftness, but greater security in ascending and descend¬ 
ing precipices, a practice in which the A. greatly delights. 
The horns are perennial. They mostly inhabit the tor¬ 
rid regions, or such parts of the temperate zone as are 
nearly contiguous, frequenting the cliffs and ledges of 
rocks, or traversing vast untrodden wildernesses. Africa 
appears to be their great nursery, but many kinds are 
natives of Asia; very few are met with in Europe; and 
It is remarkable that, notwithstanding the warmth of 
South America is well suited to their nature, only a 
single species of Antelope is to be found in any part of 
the New World. It has been customary to class them 
as follows:—1. True Antelopes; 2. Bush Antelopes; 3. 
Capriform (or goat-like) Antelopes; and 4. Bovine (or 
ox-like) Antelopes. But some late writers on zoology 
have rendered the sub-division infinitely more minute; 
the species in many instances closely bordering on each 
other, while there are others in which scarcely any cor¬ 
responding features can be distinctly traced. Thus, as 
an eminent naturalist has remarked, “the genus Ante¬ 
lope Inis become a kind of zoological refuge for the desti¬ 
tute, and forms an incongruous assemblage of all the 
hollow-horned ruminants together. So diversified are 
Its forms, and so incongruous its materials, that it pre¬ 
sents nut a single character which will either apply to 
all its species, or suffice to differentiate it from conter¬ 
minous genera.” The common Antelope, or Sasin, A. 
cermcapra, the most elegant specimen of the tribe, is a I 
native of many parts of Africa, and also of India. It is 
remarkable for the peculiar beauty of its long spiral 
horns, which are distinctly marked by numerous promi¬ 
nent rings. The Prong-horn Antelope, A. Americana, 
inhabits the plains W. of the Missouri river, from the 
lower Bio Grande to the Saskatchewan, and westward 
to the Cascade and coast range of the Pacific slope. 
About half-way up the horns there is a branch or prong, 
whence its popular name. Its color above is yellowish- 
brown, the under parts being white; the horns, hoofe, 
and naked parts of the nose black. 



Fig. 141.— prong-horn antelope, (A. Americana.) 


An'telope Creek, in California, Tehama co.; flows 
S.W. and enters the Sacramento river. 

Antelu'can, a. [From Lat. ante, before, and lux, lucis, 
light.] Before daybreak, or daylight. 

Antemeridian, n. [Lat. ante, before, and meridies, 
midday.] ( Astron .) Being before midday or noon : per¬ 
taining to the forenoon, abbreviated A.M. 

Antemet'ie, a. See Antiemetic. 

Antemun dane, a. [From Lat. ante, before, and 
mun lus, the world.] Being before the world, or the 
creation of the world. 

“Great antemundane fritter I ”— Young . 

Ante-mu'ral, n. [From Lat. ante, before, and murus, 
a wall.] (Fart.) An outwork. 

Antenna, n.; pi. Antennae [Lat.. a sail; Gr .ceraia; 
Fr. antenne.] (Mar.) The ships of the Ancients had a 
single mast in the middle; and a square sail, to raise and 
support with a transverse pole, or yard, named antenna, 
was extended across the mast, not far from the top. To 
the two extremities of the yard (cornua). ropes (Junes) 
were attached, which passed over the top of the mast, 
and thus supported the yard, as in Fig. 142, which is 
copied from the famous gem representing the port of 


Alexandria. The name A. is still given on the Mediter¬ 
ranean Sea to the pole supporting the lateen sail; q.v. 



Fig. 142. 


( Entom.) The antennae are movable-jointed, horn-like 
members placed on the heads of insects and Crustacea, J 
but not connected with the mouth. See Fig. 16, p. 20, 
22, p. 24, and 27, p. 26. They are tubular and perforated 
throughout their whole length, the internal cavity con¬ 
taining a soft or membranous substance, and receiving 
the last branches of the nerves and tracheae of the an¬ 
terior extremity of the body. They differ in size and 
form in the different sexes. The use of these organs has 
been a subject of much discussion, and is still involved 
in doubt. Some naturalists affirm that they are the organ 
of smell; others assert that they are the organ of touch. 

Antenna'ria, n. (Bat.) A gen. of plants, tribe An- 
tennarice. The species A. Margaritacea, the common 
Life-everlasting, so named for its dry, imperishable, 
pearl-white flower-scales, is found in the U. States, in 
fields and pastures. 

Antenna'ria;, n. pi. (Bat.) A tribe of plants, ord. As¬ 
tern cece. 

Antennif'erous, a. That has antenna; 

Anten'niform, a. Shaped as an antenna. 

Ante'nor. a Trojan prince, who urged the Greeks to 
make the wooden horse, which, through his influence, 
was taken within the walls of Troy. 

Aiitemiin'ker, n. A number preceding another. 

Antennp'tial, a. [From Lat. ante, before, and nupli- 
alis, a wedding.] Being before nuptials or marriage. 

Antepas'clial, a. [From Lat. ante, before, and Pas¬ 
chal, q. v.] Pertaining to the time before Faster. 

An'tepast, a. [From Lat. ante, before, and paslus, a 
feeding.] A foretaste; anticipation. 

AIltepemlllt , , AntepenuTtima, and Antepexul'- 
timate, n. [From Lat. ante , before, pene, almost, and ul- 
timus, the last.] (Pros.) Being bpfore the penult or pe¬ 
nultimate; the last syllable of a word except two. 

Antepenill'timate, a. Pertaining to the antepenult, 
or last syllable but two. 

An'teport, n. [Lat. ante, before, and porta, a door.] 
An outer post, gate, or door. 

Anteposi'tion, n. (Gram.) The placing of a word be¬ 
fore another word, which, by common rule, ought to pre¬ 
cede it. 

Anteque'ra, a town of Spain, in Andalusia, 30 m. N. 
N.W. of Malaga. It has a Moorish castle. — Manuf. 
Cotton and silk spiuning, paper, Morocco leather, and 
soap. Pop. 30,922. 

Ante'rior, a. [The Latin comparative of ante, before.] 
Going before either with regard to time or place; as “it 
was in a time anterior to your birth; ” “ the anterior 
part of the mouth.” 

Anteriority, n. [Fr. anterinriti.] Priority; the state 
of being before, either in time or situation. 

Ante'riorly, atlv. In an anterior manner; before. 

An'te-room, n. [From ante aud room.] A room that is 
before another. 

Anter'os. (Myth.) One of the names of Cupid. 

An'tes, n. pi. (Arch.) See Anta. 

Allies, in Pennsylvania, a township in the N.W. part of 
Blair co. 

All'testown, or Antistown, in Pennsylvania, a post¬ 
village in the above township. 

Antheiion, pi. Anthelia. [From Gr. anti, op¬ 
posite, and helios, the sun.] (Optics.) The name given 
to luminous rings, or glories, seen by an observer on a 
cloud or fog which lies opposite to the sun. They occur 
chiefly in Alpine regions and in the Polar seas, and are 
only seen when sunshine and cloud, or fog, occur at the 
same time. The occurrence of Anthelia is generally at¬ 
tributed to the diffraction of light. — See Piffractiov 

Ant'helix, n. See Antihelix. 

Anthelmin'tic, a. and n. [Gr. anti, against, and el- 
mins, a worm.] (jl led.) Whatever procures the evacua¬ 
tion of worms from the stomach and intestines. 

An'them, n. (Mm.) See Antiphony. 

Anthemi'dese, n. pi. (Bot.) A tribe of plants, ord. 
Asteraceat. 

Ant lie'inis. n. (Bot.) A gen. of herbaceous plants, 
tribe Anthemidece. A. nobilis, the chamomile, is culti¬ 
vated in gardens, and occasionally found wild in fields. 
Stem prostrate, branching from the base, woolly, 8 to 15 
ft. high; leaves decompound-pinnatified, segments linear, 
subulate; heads large, solitary on the leafless; disc 
yellow; flowering in July —The strong and agreeable 
scent of this plant is well known; also its tonic and 
anodyne qualities, which chiefly reside in the flowers. 

Antlie'mius, a native of Lydia, eminent as an archi¬ 
tect, sculptor, and mathematician, employed by the em¬ 
peror Justinian. A. is chiefly celebrated as having been 
the architect of the famous church of St. Sophia at Con¬ 


stantinople, which was completed from his design by 
Isidorus of Miletus. 1). 534. 

An'ther, n. [Gr. antherus, flowery, blooming.] ( But ./ 
The essential part of the male or fertilizing organ of 
flowering plants, at the top of the filament. It contains 
the pollen-cells which are considered necessary lor im 
prognating the female.— See Stamen. 

All'theral, a. That relates to anthers. 

Autheri'oese. n. pi. (Bot.) The Asphodels, a tribe of 
plants, ord. Liliaceee. They have tubers or fleshy fasci¬ 
cled roots, and no bulbs, but their ovary is free. Leaves 
never coriaceous nor permanent. 

Antlieri tlia, m. (Physiol.) The name applied to all the 
various structures in which the fertilizing function of 
reproduction resides in flowerless or cryptugamic plants, 
aud which consequently correspond physiologically 
with the anthers of the flowering plants. In the cells 
ot which they are composed there are extremely minute 
bodies, which are endowed with spontaneous motion 
when placed in water. This motion is owing to the 
presence of cilia upon them These moving bodies are 
known by the name of Spermatozoa, q. v. 

Antherif'erous, a. [From Fng. anther, and Lat .fero. 
1 bear.] (Bot.) Applied to the male part of flowers; 
bearing anthers. 

An'theroid, a. [From Eng. anther, and Gr. eidos, form.] 
(Bot.) Resembling an anther. 

Antlie'sis, n. [Gr., a blossom.] (Bot) Efflorescence, or 
that state of vegetationin which the floweriscompletely 
developed. 

Antlieste'ria, n. pi. [Gr.] In Grecian antiquity, festi¬ 
vals celebrated in the spring by the Athenians, in honor 
of Bacchus, during which the masters feasted their slaves, 
as the Romans did in the time of the Saturnalia.—From 
those festivals, the 8th month of the Attic year, answer¬ 
ing to the end of February and beginning ol March, was 
named Anthesterion. 

Anthi'arine, n. (Chem.) The peculiar poison of the 
upas antluar said to consist of Cj 4 ll 16 0 6 . It exists in the 
resin to the extent of 3-56 per cent. 

Anthic'idse, n.pl. (Zool.) A 
tribe of coleopterous insects, 
possessing simple, or but slight¬ 
ly serrated and filiform anten¬ 
na;. Some species are found 
upon plants, but the majority 
live on the ground, and run 
with great quickness. 

Anthid'iuin, n. (Zool.) The 
carding-bees, a gen. of liymen- 
opterous insects belonging to 
the fam. Apidot. The female 
detaches with her mandibles 
the cottony down on tlie Stachys germanica, and forma 
it into small pellets,which she carries with herfeetinto 
holes in walls or trees, which she selects for the cradle 
of her family. She deposits this cottony down in the 
nest along with her eggs, which she covers witli the 
same downy substance. 

Ant-liill, and Ant-liil'lock, n. A hillock formed by 

ants.—See Formicidae. 

Antlioear'pous, «.[Gr. 

unlhos, a blossom, andfcar- 
pos, fruit.] (B' t.) A name 
applied to those fruits of 
which the most conspic¬ 
uous portion, although 
often appearing like a peri¬ 
carp, neither belongs to 
the pistil nor is originally 
united with it. The ap¬ 
parent berry of Ganlthena 
(Fig. 144), in which a 
succulent free calyx in¬ 
vests a dry pod, and appears 
to form the real fruit, is 
an A. fruit. 

Anthoclue'ra, n. (Zool.) 

The Wattle-bird, a gen. of the family Meliphagidce. oi 
lioney-eaters, several species of which are found in New 
Holland. It is bold and spirited, fearlessly attacking 
and driving away all other birds from tbe part of the 
tree on which it is feeding. In spring and summer the 
male perches on some elevated branch, and screams 
forth his harsh and peculiar notes,—like a person vomit¬ 
ing,—whence its local name Gon-gwar-ruck, in which 
the natives have tried to imitate it. They feed on honey 
and insects which they extract from the blossoms of tbe 
trees called Banksins. As the banksias are not a sign 
of good land, the garrulous note of the wattle-bird 



Fig. 145.— brush wattle-bird. 

(Jlnthochara mellivora .) 

may be taken by the settler as an indication of the 
sterile and unprofitable nature of the. soil. 
Antho'cyane, n. (Chem.) The blue color of flowers 
soluble in alcohol. 



Fig. 143.— anthicus 

LATEKI PUNCTATATUS. 



Fig. 144.— GAULTHERIA PRO- 
CUMBENS. 

1 calyx, 2 fruit, (natural size.) 




























ANTH 


ANTI 


ANTI 


117 


Antho'dinm. n. [Gr. anthodes, like flowers.] (Bot.) A 
technical name for the capitulum or head of flowers of 
a plant of the ord. Asterace.se. 

Anthologr'ical, a. Pertaining to anthology. 

AII t liol'ogy, n. [From Gr. anthos. a flower, and lego, to 
gather ] A collection of choice poems, particularly a col¬ 
lection of Greek epigrams so called The word in its 
original seuse simply means a collection of flowers. 

An l hol'ysis. n [Gr. antlins. a flower, and lysis, a set¬ 
ting free.] (Hot.) The retrograde metamorphosis of a 
flower, or its change to a leal] branch. Ac. 

Antlioma'uia, n. [Gr. anthos, a flow, r, and mama, 
madness.] An exaggerated fondness for flowers. 

Antlioii, Charles, LL.D., a distinguished American 
author, B. 1797. In 1811 he entered Columbia College, 
and was admitted to the bar in 1819. lie became Pro¬ 
fessor of Greek and Latin in the above college, 1826 to 
1830; and Jay Professor of Greek Language and Litera¬ 
ture 1857 to 1868. He published a classical dictionary, 
one of antiquities, and a complete series of school clas¬ 
sics. As a teacher, he was thorough; as a scholar, 
accurate; as a disciplinarian, severe. I>. 1868. 

Anthony, in Indiana, a township of Delaware co. 

Anthony, in New Jersey a post-office of Hunterdon 
co., about .0 in. X. of Flemington. 

An thony, in Pennsylvania, a township of Montour 
co. 

— a township of Lycoming co. 

An'thony, in Rhode Island, a post-office of Kent co. 

An'tliony. (St.,) one of the Christian Fathers, b. in 
Egypt, 251. Disposing of his property and giving the pro¬ 
ceeds to the poor, he retired to the desert, and attracted, 
owing to his reputed sanctity, many disciples; he thus 
formed the first monastic community. He afterwards, at 
Alexandria, sought martyrdom amid the persecutions of 
the Christians there prevailing, but his life being spared, 
he returned to the desert, where he died at the age of 105. 
All his conduct indicates a fervent and melancholy im¬ 
agination. That he used no garments but a shirt made I 
of hair and a sheep’s-skin, and never washed his body, is 
more credible than the strange stories of his contests 
with devils, and the wonders related in his life by St. 
Athanasius. 

An thony of Pailua, St., a learned Franciscan 
monk. it. at Lisbon, 1105. He was one of the most re¬ 
nowned disciples of St. Francis of Assisi. Shipwrecked 
on the coast of Italy in a voyage to Africa, which he had 
undertaken with a view of becoming a martyr to the 
Christian faith, he preached with great applause in Bo¬ 
logna and Padua, where he died, June 13, 1231. His 
legends are full of prodigies ; but all agree in extolling 
his talents as a preacher. He was canonized by Gregory 
IX., and the Catholic Church honors him as one of its 
most eminent saints. At Padua, a church containing 
his sepulchre is consecrated to him, which is a master¬ 
piece of architecture. 

An'thony, St., a cape on the coast of S. America, Ar¬ 
gentine Rep., being the S. extremity of the estuary of 
the La Plata. Lat. 36° 15' 19" S.; Lon. 56° 37' IV. 

An thony. St., in U. States. See Saint Anthony. 

An thony’s Creek, in Virginia, a village of Green¬ 
brier co. 

Anthony’s (or St. Anthony’s) Xose, in New 

York, the extremity of a mountain called the “ Klips,” 
on the N. bank of the Mohawk, resembling a nose, 300 
to 400 ft. long. 

—In I'utnam co., a bold promontory on the E side of the 
river Hudson, projecting from the S side of Breakneck 
Hill, at the X. entrance to the Highlands, 57 m. from 
New York. 

An'thony’s Shoals, in Georgia, a post-office of El¬ 
bert co. 

Anthopliyl'lite, n. [From Gr. anthos, a flower, and 
phyllnn, aleaf.] (Min.) An orthorhombic mineral, occur¬ 
ring in mica slate, in yellow-gray crystals or crystalline 
fibres, often radiating; fracture uneven, lustre pearly: 
translucent. Sp. grav 2-94 to 3T558. Comp, silica, 55-5, 
magnesia 27'8, protoxide of iron 16'7 —100. 

An'thorism. n. [Gr. anthorismns, a conn ter deficit ion.] 
(Rhet.) A definition or description contrary to that of 
an opponent. 

Anthoslcl'erite, n. (Min.) An hydrous tersilicate of 
iron, occurring in Brazil. 

Anthosper'midtc, n. pi. (Bot.) A tribe of plants, 
ord. Cinchonacea;. 

Anthosper'mnm, n. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, tribe 
A nlhospermidee. The species named Amber-tree is a shrub 
having small evergreen leaves, which emit, when bruised, 
a very fragrant odor. 

Antboxan'tine, n. (Chem.) The yellow color of 
flowers. 

Anthoxan'thnm, n. [Gr. anthos, a flower, xantos, 
yellow'.] ( Bot t A gen. of plants, ord. Graminaceie. Thej 
A. odoratum, or sweet-scented Vernal Grass, is an early-j 
flowering, deliciously fragrant grass. 10-18 inches high, 
flowering in May Found in the U. States and Canada. I 

An th racite, n. [From Gr. anthrax, charcoal.] (Min.) I 
A variety of mineral coal. It is distinguished by its 
higher specific gravity, its semi-metallic lustre, and by 
its burning w thout emitting smoke. The A. of Penn-| 
syl vania contains ordinarily 85 to 93 per cent, of carbon; ! 
those of S. Wales, 88 b > 95; of France, 80 to 83; of Saxony, 
81. Spec grav. (Pennsylvania), T32-17 ; (Rhode Island), 
1-81.—It occurs in the greatest abundance in the U. States, 
and is used not only in the hot-blast process for iron, 
but its cheapness, the intensity and equability of heat it 
produces, together with its perfect safety, and freedom 
from all disagreeable smoke and smell, give it a great 
superiority over other species of fuel. For distribution 
and production in the United States, see Mineral Coal, 
coal Period, Anthracite. 


Anthozo'a, n. [Gr. anthos, a flower, zodn. an animal.]! 
(Zodl.) A name given by Dr. Gray to a class of animals 
generally arranged among the Zoophytes, and embracing 
those species which are referable to the radiated type of 
the animal kingdom. The A. are divided into three ord. 
1. I be hydroid polypes, A. hydroida, which have the 
polypidom horny, fistular, external, plant-like. 2. The 
asteroid polypes, A. asteroida, which have the polypidom 
either free or attached, of a fleshy consistence, strength¬ 
ened with a horny or calcareous axis, enveloped in a 
gelatinous crust, in which the polypes are immersed. 3. 
The zoanthoid polypes, A. heJianlhoidra, which have the 
polypes single, free, or permanently fixed fleshy, either 
naked or incrusted with a calcareous polypidom, the 
upper surface crossed with radiating lamellae. 



Fig. 146. — RENTLLA-DANi, (class Anthozoa). 

Anthracitic, a. Containing anthracite, or relating 
to it. 

Autliracothe'riiim. n. [Gr. anthrax, coal; therion, 
neast.] (Pal.\ A gen of fossil mammalia, belonging to 
the ord. Pachydermota. Five species have been described. 
They are found in the lignites and coals of Cadibara. 

Anthracoin'eter. n.fFrom Gr. anthrax, carbon, and 
metron, measure.] (Chem.) An instrument used for 
measuring the carbonic acid of the air. 

Anthranil'ic Acid. (Chem.) Yellowish translucent 
regular plates, with a fine lustre, soluble in alcohol, and 
having then the taste of benzoic acid. Form. C^lIjNOjHO. 

An'thrax, n [Gr., charcoal.] (Med.) A hard and circum¬ 
scribed inflammatory tubercle like a boil, which some¬ 
times forms on the cheek. neck, or back, and in a few days 
becomes highly gangrenous. It then discharges an ex¬ 
tremely fetid sanies from under the black core, which, 
like a burning coal, continues destroying the surround¬ 
ing parts. It is supposed to arise from a peculiar miasma, 
is most common in warm climates, and often attends 
the plague. (Fur.) See splen to Apoplexy. 

Anthren'idte. n. pi. (Zobt.) The beetles in Dr. Gray’s 
arrangement. — See Coleoptera. 

Anthropog raphy, n. [From Gr. anlhropos, man, 
and gra/ih", to describe.] (Geog.) That part of science 
relating to the physical characteristics and distribution 
of the different races or families of men. 

Anthrop'olite, n. [Gr. anthropas, man, and lithos. 
stone] (Phi.) A name given to fossil human remains. 
Almost all the instances which have been brought for¬ 
ward to show the existence of human bones being fos¬ 
silized, have been demonstrated by recent researches to 
have been incorrect. — See Man. 

Anthropological, a. Pertaining or relating to 
anthropology. 

Anthropologist,!!. A person versedin anthropology. 

Anthropol ogy, n. [Gr. anthrnpos, man, and logos, 
a discourse.] The science which treats of human nature, 
either in a physical or an intellectual point of view. It is 
frequently used to denote the science of anatomy. In 
theology it denotes a way of speaking of God after the 
manner of men, by attributing to him human passions 
and affections. 

Anthropom'etry, n [Gr. anthrrpos, man, and me¬ 
tron, a measure.] The measurement of the human body. 

Anthropomor'phites, n. pi. (Bed. Hist.) The ad¬ 
herents of Audius. or Audans, a teacher in Syria, who 
died about A. D. 370. They were excommunicated by 
the orthodox church, rather on account of their perse¬ 
vering in the old way of celebrating Easter, at the same 
time with the Jewish Passover, their deviation from the 
usual penances, and their zeal against unworthy priests, 
than on account of their representation of God in a 
human >hape. Toward the close of the 4th century they 
still existed, as schismatics of severe morals, in small 
bodies in Syria; in the 5th century they were extinct. 

Anthropomor phous, a. Resembling the human 
form. 

Anthropop'athy, Anthropopathisni.n.[Gr. 

anthropos, man, and pathos, affection.j Human affections, 
or passions applied to the Supreme Bring. 

Anthropoph'agi, v. pi. |Gr. anthrnpos, man, and 
phago, to eat.] Man-eaters; cannibals. 

Anthropoph'agous, a. Feeding on human flesh. 

Anthropoph agy, n. The practice of eating human 
flesh. — See Cannibalism. 

An thos, . [Let., the bunting.](Zo5/.) The Tit-lark-, 
or Pipits, a g -n. o, birds belonging to the fam. Sylricoli- 
dre or Warfders, and very much resembling the larks. 
They inhabit meadows and low marshy grounds, and 
have a remarkably fine note, singing perched on trees, 
seated on the ground, or flying in the air. The A. 
lodoricianus, 6 to 7 inches long, is common in X. America. 

All'ti. [Gr.] A Greek particle, which enters into the 
composition of several words, both Latin. French, and 
English, and signifies opposite or contrary to. as in anti¬ 
scorbutic, against the scurvy or scorbute — As almost 


all these compound words explain themselves, we will 
give but the principal of them. 

An'ti-aboli tionist, n. One opposed to the aboli¬ 
tion of slavery. 

Anti'arine, n. A poisonous principle contained in the 
milky juice of the Antiaris toxicana or upas-tree. 

Anti'aris. n. (Bot.) The Upas-tree. See Artocarpus. 

An'tias. n. i Myth.) The goddess of fortune. 

Antihareliills. «. [Lat., from Gr. antibakchrios 1 
(Pros.) A poetical foot of three syllables, the first two 
long, and tlielast one short:—the reverse of the bacchiu *. 

Antibes, (an-teeb’,) a fortified seaport town of Frame, 
dep. of the Yar, on the Mediterranean, with a commo¬ 
dious harbor, 10 m. S. of Grasse. It was founded by the 
Massilians 340 b c., and named Anfipolis. It is an im¬ 
portant barrier on the side of Italy, and was. in 1747, be¬ 
sieged without effect by the Austrians and English. Fop. 
6,829. 

Antibra'chial, Antebrachial, a. [Gr anti, and 
brachibn, the arm.] (A nal.) Belonging or relating to the 
fore-arm. 

An'tic. a. [Fr. antique, from Lat. antiquus.~\ Odd;ridio 
ulously wild; resembling a buffoon. 

“ What! dares the slave 

Come hither, covered with ao antick face .. . ?”— Shaks. 

An't it*, n. One that uses odd gesticulation; a buffoon 
or merry-andrew. 

“ Fear not. my lord, we can contain ourselves. 

Were he the' veriest antick in the world."— Shaks. 

— Odd appearance; fantastic figures. 

“ A work of rich entail, and carious mold. 

Woven with anticks. and wild imagery "— Falrie Queen. 

(Arch.) Figures of men and beasts used as ornaments 
to buildings. 

An'ti-cliamber, n. The true spelling is Antecham¬ 
ber, q . V . 

A ii t id lirisl. n. [Fr.. from Gr. anti, against, and Christ.’] 
(Ecd.Hi. l.) Although this term is employed only'by 
the Apostle John in the 2d and 3d Epistles, it has been 
applied, by almost universal consent, to the Man of 
Sin in 2d Thessalonians, to the Little Horn, and to the 
fierce-countenanced King of Daniel, and to the two 
Beasts of Revelation, as well as tothe false Christ spoken 
of in Matt. xxiv. The books of the New Testament men¬ 
tion the A. as one or several false prophets, who would 
pretend to be tlie true Christ, and would deceive the 
world. In the Apocalypse alone, he is represented as a 
powerful ruler opposed to Christianity. The Christians, 
in the first centuries, retained the idea of such a power¬ 
ful enemy of the Church, whose appearauce, announced 
by their ow n persecutions, w ould precede the reappear¬ 
ance of Christ, which was then commanly expected. 
With the belief of the millennium, which was to succeed 
the vexations of the church by the Antichrist, the idea 
of such a being continued under various forms, and w as 
heightened by the most lively descriptions on the part 
of the Christian fathers, until the year 1000 had elapsed 
without the fulfilment of these prophecies, and the mil¬ 
lennial enthusiasm itself was cooled. The lathers have 
generally agreed that the Antichrist will appear at the 
approach of the last day, in a bodily shape; but as to 
his origin, and time and place of appearing, their opin¬ 
ions differ. Some believe that be will be a mere man — 
‘‘the man of sin, the son of perdition,” spoken of by St. 
Paul; and others, that lie will be an incarnation of the 
devil. The Church of Rome has never pronounced any 
decision with regard to the various notions its members 
have entertained on this subject. — In the last centuries 
before Christ, the Jews connected with their idea of the 
Messiah the notion of an Anti-Messiah, or an enemy to the 
attempts of the Messiah to promote the good of their 
nation. They preserve, since the destruction of Jerusa¬ 
lem by Titus, the wonderful prophecy of a contest in 
which an A., by name ArmiUus, will be vanquished by 
the true Messiah, after a severe oppression of the Jews. 

Antichristian, a. and n. Opposite to, or opposing 
the Christian religion. 

Antich'roilism. n. [Gr. anti, and kronos, time.] An 
anachronism, (r.) See Anachronism. 

Antich'ton, n [Gr anti, and chlhon, the earth.] An 
opposite land. —See Antipodes. 

Anticipant, a. That anticipates. 

Antic ipate, v. a. [Fr. anticipa-; Lat. anticipo, from 
unto, before, and capio, to take.] To take in the mind 
before the right time, which is to treat prematurely;—' 
to take it in reference to its appointed time of coming, 
which is to expect:—also to take thought beforehand, for 
tiie purpose of prevention. — To foretell; to expect; to 
apprehend ; to prepare; to pre-arrange; to meet; to pre¬ 
vent; to obviate; to intercept. 

Anticipated, p. a. Taken beforehand; foretasted; 
foreseen; prevented; preconception; previous notion 
expectation. 

Anticipa'tion, n. Act of anticipating; foretaste 

Antic'ipative, a. That anticipates. (R.) 

Anticli nal, a. [Gr. anti, and klino, to incline.] Mark¬ 
ing inclination in an opposite direction. 

(Genl.) The A. line (Fig. 147) is the point a from 
which the strata diverge in opposite directions; as op- 


“ a 



Fig. 147. 


posed to the synclinal line b, where they converge io> 
wards each other. 



















118 


ANTI 


ANTI 


ANTi 


Antic'ipator. n. One who anticipates. 

Antic'ipatory, a. That takes before the time; that 
anticipates. 

Anti-cli'inax, n. [Or. anti, against, and climax, a lad¬ 
der.] ( Rhei.) A sentence in which ihe ideas full or be¬ 
come less important and striking at the close. 

Ail'ticly, ac/v. In an antic manner. 

An'ticness, n. I he state or quality of lieing antic. 

Anti-constitu'tional, a. Opposed to, or against the 
constitution. 

All'ticor, n. [Or. anti, against, and Lat. car, the heart.] 
(Farrier//.) A sort of quinsy, or preternatural swelling, 
of a round figure, on a horse’s breast, opposite to his 
heart. 

Antieoa'ti, a large island at the mouth of the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence, between 49° and 50° N. Lat., and 01° 4b' 
and 64° 37' \V. Lon. It has an unfavorable soil, not a 
single good harbor, and is uninhabited. — Discovered in 
1535 bv „acques Cartier. 

An'ticous, a. [Lat. anlicus, in front.] (Bot.) An¬ 
terior, or facing forward. 

A n t idac ly l. n. [Gr. anti, and daktylos, a dactyl.] (Pros.) 
A kind of metrical foot that is the contrary of the dac¬ 
tyl, its first two syllables being short and the last long. 

A nt iGot a I. n. (Med.) Acting as an antidote; counter¬ 
acting poison, or anything noxious. 

Ant idotally, An'tulotary, adv. As an antidote. 

Ant idote, n. [Gr. antidotos, from anti, against, and di- 
dnmi, to give.] That whicli is given against something 
evil. A remedy for poison or any evil. That which 
counteracts or prevents any evil effect. 

Antidot'ic, a. The same as Antidotal, q. v. 

Anti-ennealie'dral, a. [Gr. an'i, opposite, ennea, 
nine, hedra. a seat.] (Mm.) Applied to crystals having 
nine faces on tvvo opposite parts. 

An'tient, a . See Ancient, (r.) 

Antietam', in Maryland, a creek which, from the S 
part of Pennsylvania, where it rises, flows into Maryland 
and empties into the river Potomac. 

Battle op A. —The above creek has given its name to 
a memorable and bloody battle fought on the 17th Sept., 
1862, between the Union army and the Confederates. 
The Union troops numbered 82,844 men, including the 
corps of Generals Hooker, Sumner, Porter, Franklin, 
Burnside, and Mansfield, under the command of Gen. 
McClellan; but of this force, only 57,bl4 men appeared 
in the field; the corps of General Porter, numbering 
25,230, not being engaged in the battle. The Confed¬ 
erate army, led by General Lee, included the divisions of 
Generals Lon ^street, Jackson, Walker, McLaws, Ander¬ 
son, D. li. Hill, and A. P. Hill, the entire force number¬ 
ing 40,000 men, of which 38,000 were engaged. The ap¬ 
proach of darkness only put an end to the dreadful 
struggle. The Union loss was returned as being 11,426 
men killed and wounded ; that of the Confederates about 
10,000. The action of A. was in all respects a drawn 
battle. The Confederates had inflictod a greater abso¬ 
lute loss than they had suffered; but they had lost in 
proportion to their strength far moro than that of the loss 
sustained by their opponents. At the close of the fight 
the positions of both armies were nearly the same as at 
its commencement, and General Lee crossed the Poto¬ 
mac without hindrance. But the moral effect of the 
battle was great. It aroused the confidence of the na¬ 
tion, who saw in it a sure presage of the speedy over¬ 
throw of the insurrection; and, what was more, it em¬ 
boldened President Lincoln to issue his warning procla¬ 
mation for the abolition of slavery. — A. Guernsey and 
H. M Alden. 

Aiiti-evang'el'ical, a. Opposed to what is evangeli- 
Oid; contrary to orthodoxy, or the genuine sense of the 
gospel. 

Ail'tiface. n. An opposite face. 

Anti-galac'tic,u. [I l r. anti, and gal aklos, milk.] (Med.) 
Avoiding the secretion of milk. 

Aiiti-<«iil'iicnn. a. [Gr. anti, and Lat. Gallia, Gaul or 
France.] That is hostile to France or to the French. 

Aiitig'eue, the fruit of the incestuous marriage of 
lE lipus and Jocasta. Though innocent, she bore the 
curse of her father’s house. Sophocles has immortalized 
her in a tragedy. 

Antig'oniiM, surnamed the One-eyed; one of the most 
remarkable generals of Alexander the Great, who in¬ 
trusted to him the governments of Lydia and Phrygia. 
When, after the death of Alexander, his generals divided 
his conquests among themselves, he obtained the Greater 
Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia; after which his ambition 
led him to enlarge his territories. He finally conquered 
Asia, b. c. 311. He assumed then the title of king, and 
invaded Egypt, but tailed; and having excited the 
jealousy of his rivals, they, combining, defeated him at 
the battle of Ipsus, in which he was slain, b.c. 301. 

Anti&r'ouns Gonatas, a king of Macedon, was a son of 
Demetrius Poliorcetes and grandson of the preceding b. 
319 b. c. His kingdom was twice taken: first, by Pyr¬ 
rhus king of Epirus, and secondly, by Alexander, son’of 
the latter. He subsequently was involved in difficulties 
with the Achaian League D. abt. 240 b. c. 

Antig'onus Doson, a king of Macedon, and grand¬ 
son of Demetrius Poliorcetes. On the death of Deme- 
triujj. II., b.c. 229. he was appointed to the guardianship 
of Philip, son of the latter; assumed the governing 
power, and married the queen-mother. He co-operated 
with A rat us and the Achaian league against Cleomenes, 
king of Spavta, invaded Laconia in 221, and gaining the 
battle of Sellasia, conquered Sparta. He was engaged 
in the work of re-establishing the old institutions of 
Sparta, when an invasion of the Illyrians called him to 
Macedonia. He defeated them, and died shortly after, 
b.o. 220. He acquired the surname Doson (about to give), 
from his readiness to promise, and tardiness to perform. 


Antig'omis Socilecs. the founder of the Jewish sect 
of the Sadducees, abt. 300 years B.C. 

An'tigrapli, n. [Gr. anti, against, and grapho , to 
write.] A copy; a transcript. 

Antigua, one of the Leeward Islands, in the W. Indies, 
belonging to Great Britain ; Lat. 17° 8 ' N.: Lon. 61° 52' 
IV; 2_ m. S. of Barbuda, and 50 m. N. of Guadaloupe. 
Arm, 110 sq. m. Its coast aspect is hilly, and much in¬ 
dented by the sea. The surface of the interior has a 
rich’soil, and much diversified scenery.— dim. Dry and 
hot.— Prod. The principal staple is that of sugar, of 
which this island exports large quantities. Molasses 
and rum are also exported. The exports in 1883 reached 
$1.500.000.— Gov. Its legislature consists of a Governor, 
a Council of 12, and an Assembly of 25 members. This 
island was settled by the English in 1632. —Chief Towns. 
St.John’s, the cap.. Falmouth and Parham. Pop. 37,125. 

Antilhe'lix, rc. [From Gr. anti, against, and helix, the 
helix.] (Anot.) The inner circle of the external car, so 
called from its opposition to the helix or outer circuit. 

Anti-I.itmiius. See Lebanum. 

Antilles, a cluster of the West India islands, forming 
a semi-circular chain, running from the Gulf of Mara¬ 
caibo to the Channel of Yucatan. They are about 360 
in number; generally very fertile, but subject to terrific 
hurricanes; their climate is very hot; almost all of 
them are of volcanic origin; their mountains are bare 
and arid, their valleys deep and picturesque. Their 
chief products are sugar, coffee, tobacco, cocoa, and 
cotton. Discovered by Columbus, they were afterwards 
the centre of the trade of Europe with the New World. 
They are divided into the Windward islands, Leeward 
Islands, and Great Antilles. Among them we notice: 1. In 
the Windward /., Curasao, New Sparta, Trinidad, Gre¬ 
nada, the Grenadines, St. Vincent, Barbadoos, Santa Lucia, 
Martinique; 2. In the Lee ward I., Dominica, Marie Ga- 
lande, Les Saintes, Guadaloupe, La Desiderada, Antigua. 
Montserrat, Nevis, St. Kitt’s, Barbuda, St. Eustatius, 
Saba, St. Bartholomew, St. Martin, the group of the 
Virgin, St. Thomas, St. John, Santa Cruz. 3. Grandes 
Antilles, Puerto Rico, Hayti, Jamaica and Cuba, which 
is often termed Queen of the Antilles. —See West Indies. 

Ant i-log'ai-it Inn, n. (Math.) A counter-logarithm; 
the complement of a logarithm: — or, more generally, 
the number which a logarithm represents. So, 2 being 
tlie logarithm of 100,100 is the anti-logarithm of 2 . 

Ail'tilope, n. See Antelope. 

Anti-mask. n. A lesser or subordinate mask;—in 
opposition to the principal mask. 

“ I.et antimasks not be long; they have been commonly of fools, 
satyrs, baboons, wild men, antics, beasts, &c .”— Bacon . 

Anti-matrimonial, a. Opposed to marriage. 

Antimetato'ole, n. [Gr. anti, against, and metabole, a 
change.] (Rhet.) A setting of two things in opposition 
to each other; as, “A poem is a speaking picture; a 
picture is a mute poem.” 

Antim'eter, n. ( Opt.) An instrument for measuring 
angles with precision. 

Anti-ministe'rial, a. Opposed to the ministry, or 
administration of government. 

Anti-monarcli'ial, Auti-monarcli'ie, An- 
ti-monarcii'ical, a. Opposed to monarchy. 

A lit i.nioii areh ist. n. One opposed to monarchy. 

Antimo'nial, a. Pertaining to antimony. 

— n. A medicinal preparation of antimony. 

Antimo'niate, n. (Chem.) A salt composed of anti- 
monic acid and a salt. The A. are colorless salts; decom¬ 
posed by feebler acids. Potassium uietantimonate is a 
valuable agent for detecting soda. 

Antimon'ic Acid. (Chem.) A straw-yeilow powder, 
tasteless, and insoluble in water. Sp. gr. 6-525. 

Antimo'nious Acid. (Chem.) A fine white powder, 
becoming yellow when heated, not decomposed by igni¬ 
tion, but volatilized b.b. Sp. gr. 6‘695. 

An'timonite, n. (Chem.) A salt composed of antimo- 
nious acid and a base. All the A. are colorless, and are 
decomposed by nitric acid. 

An'timony, n. [From Gr. anti, against, and monos, 
alone; so named from being seldom found alone.] (Min.) 
and Chem.) A metal of a silver-white color, with a good 
deal of lustre, found as native antimony, but chiefly in 
combination with arsenic, nickel, and silver; also iu 
combination with oxygen as the trioxide, or valeutinite 
or white antimony; with sulphur as stibuite or grey 
antimony, and with sulphur and oxygen, as kermisite 
or red antimony. The principal commercial source is 
the trisulphide or stibnite, from which the metal is ob¬ 
tained by roasting to convert it into the oxide, and then 
reducing by carbon. It fuses at 810°, or just at red heat. 
Its texture is fibrous or foliated; it is brittle and easily 
pulverized. When heated white hot by the blow-pipe, 
and thrown on the table, it burns and smokes, yielding 
an oxide. The principal properties of this metal were 
first discovered by Basil Valentine towards the end of 
the 13th century. There are three oxides of antimony. 
The trioxide Sb2°3, is a grayish-white powder, emi¬ 
nently purgative, sudorific, and emetic, and as such of 
much importance in medicine. It is the active base of 
emetic tartar and of James’ Powder. The other oxides 
of antimony are the tetroxide, St>2°4, and the pent- 
oxide, Sb2°5, commonly called antimonic acid. The 
combination of chlorine and antimony was known to 
the chemists under the name of Butter of Antimony. 
The principal ore of antimony is the sulphide; it is met 
with in commerce, melted into conical ingots, under the 
name of crude antimony. It is of a bluish-gray color, 
metallic lustre, and a striated texture; sp. grav. 4-62. 

It is much more easily fusible than the pure metal.— 
A. forms brittle alloys with some of the most malleable 
metals. When gold is alloyed with a 200th part of anti¬ 
mony, the compound is brittle; and even the fumes of 


antimony in the vicinity of melted gold are sufficient 
to render it orittle. Alloyed with lead and tin and a 
einsill addition of copper, it forms type metal; with lead 
only a white and rather brittle compound is formed, 
used for engraving plates of music. With tin and zinc, 
and sometimes copper, it forms the alloys of Britannia 
metal and pewter. With iron it form a hard whitish 
alloy formerly called martial regains. A. is the Stimuli, 
or Stibium, of tlie old chemists. Until about 1882, the 
entire supply of antimony used in the United States was 
imported from Europe or from Germany; but its sul¬ 
phide, known as stibuite, is now found here in veiy 
console 'able quantities. 

An t mom ian. n. One who adheres to antinomianism. 

Antinw'mianism, n. [Gr. anti, against, and nonius, a. 
law.] (heel. Mist.) The name given by the reformers 
Wittenberg to tlie disparagement of the moral law, par. 
ticularly the law of Moses, by certain Protestants, who 
aimed thereby to exalt tlie efficacy of faith in tlie salva 
tion of man. John Agricola was the most conspicuous 
member of this partj, and, in 1537, violently attacked 
Luther and Melancthon on this ground, in a public dis¬ 
sertation, in Wittenberg. But in 1.'39 he recanted, and 
published a renunciation of his errors in 1540, aj Berlin- 

Antin'omy, or An'tinomv, n. [Gr. anti, and nomos, 
law.] A contradiction, real or apparent, between two 
laws, or two articles of the same law. 

Antin'ous. a Bithynian youth, whom the extravagant 
love of the Emperor Adrian has immortalized. Whether 
he threw himself into the Nile (132 a. d.) with the inten¬ 
tion of preserving the life of Adrian, whom lie accom. 
panied on liis travels, or because weary of his own life, is 
not decided. Adrian set no bounds to his grief for his 
loss. Not satisfied with giving the name of his favorite 
to a newly discovered star in the galaxy, (whicli appel¬ 
lation is still preserved ) he erected temples in his honor, 
called cities after him, and caused him to be adored as a 
god throughout the empire. Ilis image was, therefore, 
represented by the arts in every way. Several of these 
figures belong to the finest remains of antiquity, par¬ 
ticularly tlie statue called the A. Belvidere, in tiie Vat¬ 
ican, found in the Baths of Adrian: and the A. of the 
Capitol, found in the villa Adrian at Tivoli. “In all the 
figures of A.,” says Winckelmann, “ his countenance lias 
something melancholy; his eyes are always large, with 
good outlines; his profile gently descending; and in his 
month and chin there is something expressed which is 
truly beautiful.” 

(Aslron.) See Aquila. 

An'tio<-li. Antiochia, Epipiiane, Antigonia. Peopolis, 
Seleucis, now Antakia or Ridlath, a city of Syria, on 
tlie S. bank of tlie river Aaszy (Orontes), 57 m. W.of 
Aleppo. It is surrounded by walls, enclosing a space of 
several miles in circumference, now mostly occupied us 
gardens. Tlie houses are built of stone, and have slop¬ 
ing roofs, a circumstance unusual in the East. On the 
whole, the general appearance of tlie place is dull and 
monotonous. Although there are upwards of a dozen 
mosques, it is said that there is not a single Christian 
church. The manufacture of silk is the principal branch 
of industry. A. was founded by Antigonus, and captured 
by Seleucus, who changed its situation, and called it 
Antioch, from his father, Antiochus. Long celebrated as 
one of tlie first citiesof the East, it was the residence of 
tlie Macedonian kings of Syria, and of the Roman gov. 



Fig. 148. — the modern antioch. 


(Antakia.) 

ernors. It is frequently mentioned in the New Testa¬ 
ment. and tlie name Christians was first given to the 
disciples of Christ in this city (Acts xi. 26). In the 7th 
century it was taken by the Saracens, and in tlie 11th 
by the Crusaders, who established a principality by its 
name, 1008. Once richer and grander than Rome itself, 
but often ruined by earthquakes, and finally razed by the 
Mamelukes, 1269, the Queen of {he East is now only a 
small town in the paslialic of Aleppo. Pop. abt. 18,000. 

An'tiocti in Pisidia. (Anc. Geo/i. ) A city situate on a 
ridge of the Taurus. It was visited by St, Paul, and ia 
now called Yalobatch. 

All'tioch. in California, a post-village of Contra Costa 
co., at the mouth of San Joachim river, and at the E eno 


























ANTI 


ANTI 


ANTI 


m 


of Saisun Bay, abt. 40 in. E.N.E. of Pan Francisco. There 
are large copper smelting-works, and mines of stone-coal 
in the neighborhood. Pop. abt. 600 
An"*' ----- - 


m lioi li, in X. Carolina, a post-village of Kershaw co. 
kn'tiocli, in Georgia, a post-village of Troup co., abt. 
12 m. W. N. W. of La Grange. 

An't iocli, in Illinois, a post-village and township of 
bake co., abt. 50 m. N. W. by W. of Chicago. 

An't inch, in Indiana , a post-village of Switzerland co., 
on the Wabash river and canal. 

All'tioch, in Ohio, a post-village of Monroe co., 128 m. 
E. of Columbus. 

All'tiocll, iu Tennessee, a post-village of Davidson co., 
on the Nashville and Chattanooga Kailroad, 9 m. S. E. of 
Nashville. 

All'tiocll, in Texas , a village of Lavaca co. 

—a post-village of Houston co. 

Aii't iocll. Bay or, in the Mediterranean, commanded 
by mountains 5,000 ft. high; Lat. between 35° and 36° 
N.; Lon. 36° E Some ruins situated on the N. side are 
probably those of the ancient port of Antioch, Srleucia 
Pieria. 

Aiiti'ochns I., Kino, or Syria, was the father of the 
famous Seleucus, q v , by his wife Laodice 

Antioch us II.. Soter, carried on many unsuccessful wars, 
and is chiefly known for his love of his stepmother, 
Stratonice. Though he endeavored to subdue his pas¬ 
sion, it threw him into a lingering sickness; which con¬ 
tinued till the king’s physician, Erasistratus, perceived 
the cause, and disclosed it to his father, who, thereupon, 
from love to his only son, gave him his young and beau¬ 
tiful bride in marriage. 

AntiochusIII., the Great, 
son of Seleucus Callini- 
ctts, b. 238 b c. Ho suc¬ 
ceeded his brother. Se¬ 
leucus Cerannus, as king 
of Syria in 223. After 
successful wars against 
Ptolemy Philoputer and 
the Parthians, he en¬ 
gaged in a contest with 
the Romans, for which, 
with the aid of Hannibal, 
he made great prepara¬ 
tions. He did not, how¬ 
ever, enter fully into the 
plans of this general, and 
sent only one army to 
Greece, which remained 
inactive, and was defeat¬ 
ed first at Thermopylaa, 
and several times by sea, 
till at length he became 
so disheartened that he 
did not even contest with 
the Romans the passage 
into Asia Minor, where 
they gained a victory at 
Magnesia, and obliged 
him to contract a dis¬ 
graceful peace. After- To¬ 
wards, attempting to 
take away the treasures 
from the temple of Jupi- Obverse: Head of the king. 

Klvmais he Basileds Antioohou — two 

v. w . monograms in held,— aud Apollo 
seated on Cortina. 



149. — tetradrachm, or 

ATTIC TALENT OF ANTIOCHUS III. 


he was 

slain, with all his fol¬ 
lowers ; B. C. 187. 

Antiochus iv., Epiphanes, son of the preceding, after 
a captivity of many years at home, succeeded his 
brother Seleucus Philopater on'the throne of Syria, b.c. 
165. The principal events of his reign were a war with 
Egypt for the repossession of the provinces lost by his 
father, and his persecution of the Jews, which occasioned 
the insurrection of the Maccabees. For his cruelty and 
vices he received the name of Epi manes , or the “ Madman .” 
D. B.c. 165.—Many other kings, under the name of A., 
with various surnames, succeeded, till at last, A. Asiati- 
cus was expelled from his dominions by Pompey, b. c. 65, 
and Syria became a Roman province. 

Anti'ooo, a fertile island lying to the S.W. of Sardinia, 
in the Mediterranean, 8 m. long and 3 broad. Pop. 2,300. 

Ailtioclontal'sfic. n. [Gr. anti, against, and odontal¬ 
gia, the toothache.] (Med.) A remedy against the tooth¬ 
ache. 

Anti'ope. (Myth.) Daughter of Nycteus, king of Thebes 
(according to Homer, of the river Asopus), renowned 
through all Greece for her uncommon beauty. Epopeus, 
king of-Sicyon, carried her off, and married her: hut 
Lycus, the successor of Nycteus, who had promised him 
to punish his daughter, slew Epopeus, and carried .4. 
prisoner to Thebes, where he delivered her to his wife, 
Dirce, by whom she was treated with the greatest cruelty. 
She was fortunate enough to escape, and was avenged 
by Zethus and Amphion, her sons, whom she boasted to 
have conceived in the embraces of Jupiter.—The rest of 
her history is told in a variety of ways. 

Antioqui'a, Santa Fe <l<*. a town of Colombia, 
S. America. It is tne principal town of a district trading 
in sugar and maize. Pop. (1895) 8,640. 

AntipJBClobap'tist, n. [Gr. anti, against, and Eng. 
predo-ba] tist. | A Baptist. 

Antipar'allels, »• pi- ( Genm.) The name given to 
straight lines which, by cutting two given straight 
lines, make with them equal angles, though in a contrary 
order. 

Antip'aros, an island in the Grecian archipelago, be¬ 
tween Paros and Siphanto, 16 m. in circuit. Lat. 36° 59' 
40" Lon. 25° 3' 27" E. 

Antip'ater, the Macedonian, pupil of Aristotle, and 
the faithful minister of Philip and Alexander. While 
8 


Alexander was abroad, he left Antipater in the govern¬ 
ment of Macedon ; and by his prudent management lie 
preserved Greece tranquil. On the death of his master, 
Antipater obtained the European provinces. Not long 
after, the confederate states of Greece attacked him 
but he subdued them, aud subverted their democratic 
forms of government; on whicli he was called the “ father 
of Greece.” His last advice to his successor was “ never 
to admit a woman to nieddlu in state affairs.” D. 319 
B- c.—There were two other kings of this name. 
Antipatliet'ic, Antipathet ical, a. Having a 
natural contrariety or constitutional aversion to a per¬ 
son or thing. 

Antipath'ic, a. Having opposite affections. 
Antip'atliist, n. That whicli has antipathy. 
Antip'athy, n. [Fr. antipatie, from Gr. anti, against, 
and pathos, feeling.] A feeling against; a natural enmity 
or aversion of one thing toward another. In a more re¬ 
stricted sense, A. denotes the natural aversion which an 
animated and sensitive being feels toward some object 
presented to it, either in reality or imagination; the 
cause of which is often mysterious and inexplicable. Such 
is the aversion of which some persons are conscious 
under the apprehension or at tho eight of particular 
objects, as cats, mice, spiders, serpents, &c. The greater 
part of antipathies arise from prejudice; many from 
terrors inspired in infancy; and, in most cases, reflection 
and a gradual accustoming of ourselves to the objects 
of our dislike will weaken or remove the feeling of 
aversion; yet there are instances of incurable A., which 
seems to have its seat in the nervous system. 
Antiperis'tasis, n. [Gr. from anti, against, and 
peristasis, circumstance.] The antagonism of an opposite 
or antithetical quality, owing to which the quality so 
opposed gains additional force or strength. 

( Rhet .) A figure of speech, which, while admitting 
an opponent's assertion, rejects the inference it seeks to 
convey. 

Antiptilog’is'tic, a. and n. [From Gr. anti, against, 
and phlogizo, to burn.] (Med.) That counteracts burnin: 
heat, or inflammation. 

A. Theory. (Cheat.) The phlogistic theory of Stahl 
considered oxides of metals as simple bodies, and the 
metals as compounds of the oxide with an hypothetical 
substance, phlogiston. Lavoisier started the antiphlo¬ 
gistic theory now in use, which considers the metals as 
simple, and the oxides compounds of metals and oxygen 
An'tiphon, the Rhamnusian, an Athenian orator, 
and the first to lay down rules of oratory, lived in the 
5th century B.c.—There are 16 orations under his name, 
in the collection of ancient orators. 

Antipti'onal, Ant iplionical, a. Pertaining to 
antiphony. 

Antiph'onary. Antiph'onal, Antiph'onar, n. A book 
of antiphonies or anthems. 

Ailtipli'oiiy, or Antiphon, n. [From Gr. anti, against, 
and phone, voice, sound.] (Mus.) Opposition or alter¬ 
nation in sound; the answer of one choir to another, 
when au anthem or psalm is sung alternately by two 
choirs; alternate singing. 

Autiptl'casis, n. [Gr. from anti, and phrazo, to speak.] 
(Rhet.) The use of words in a sense opposite to their 
proper meaning, or the affirmation of a thing by denying 
it to be the contrary; as. He is no fool. 
Antiphras'tlc, Antipliras'tical, a. Relating 
to, or containing, antiphrasis. 

Antiphras'tically, adv. By way of antiphrasis. 
Antipode (an'ti-pba), also Antipodes ( an-tip’o-deez) n. 
[From Gr. anti, opposite, and paus, poaos, a foot.] 
The name given to those inhabitants of the earth who 
are diametrically opposite to each other, and, of course, 
turn their feet toward each other. The zenith of the 
one is the nadir of the other. The antipodes live in 
similar hut opposite latitudes,and their longitudes differ 
180 degrees. Hence the difference in their days is about 
12 hours, and their seasons are reversed. The spiierical 
form of the eartli naturally leads us to the idea of the 
antipodes, of whose existence some idea was entertained 
even before the age of Cicero. 

Antip'odal, a. Relating to the antipodes. 
An'ti-pope, n. (Eccl. Hist.) The name given to those 
who, at different periods, have produced a schism in the 
Roman Catholic Church, by opposing the authority of 
the pope, under the pretence that they were themselves 
popes. In many cases both competitors for the papal 
chair (sometimes there were even three) were equally 
anti-popes; that is to say, the claims of all were equally 
good. Each was frequently supported by whole nations, 
and the schism was nothing but a struggle of political 
interests, whicli induced particular governments to sup¬ 
port a pope against the pope supported by other govern¬ 
ments. Those were the most unhappy periods of the 
Roman Church, when to many other evils were added 
violent contests between rival candidates for the papal 
chair; and the ci .isciences of the honest believers were 
offended ami perplexed by the excommunications which 
the adversaries thundered against each other.—Amadeus 
VIIL, duke of Savoy, was the last anti-pope, lie was 
elected by the council of Basle, in 1439. in opposition to 
Eugenius IV. and Nicholas V. But ho renounced his 
title in favor of the latter in 1449. 

Antipto'sis. n. [Gr. anti, against, and ptosis, a falling.] 
(Gram.) A figure by which one case is put for another 
Antiqiia'rian. a. [From Lat, antiquus, ancient.] Per¬ 
taining to antiquaries or to antiquity. 

— n. One versed in antiquities ; an antiquary. 
Aiitiqua'riaiiiam, n. Love or knowledge of anti 
quities. 

Ail'tiqnary, n A person who searches after and studies 
the monuments and remains of antiquity. 

A n'liquate, v. a. [Lat. antiquo, from antiquus, old, 


ancient.] To make old or obsolete, (o.) To make vote 
or abrogate. 

An'tiquateil, p. a. Grown old; obsolete; out of use 
Antique, a. [Fr. from Lat. antiquus.] Ancient; old. 
not modern. 

“ Now, good Cesario, but that piece of song, 

That old aud antique song we heard last night.”— .Shake 

—Of genuine antiquity. 

" My copper lamps, at any rate, 

For being true antique I bought.”— Prior . 

—Of old fashion. 

“ Forth came that ancient lord and aged queen. 

Array'd iu antique robes down to the ground.”— Faerie Queen * 
—Odd; wild; antic. 

Antique or Ancient Art. See Fine Arts. 

Antique', n. Anything very old; the remains or relics 
of ancient times.—Generally applied to busts, statues, 
paintings, and vases, the works of Grecian and Roman 
antiquity.—According to the McKinley tariff, any object 
made before 1700 is an “antique” (and not dutiable). 
Antique'ly, adv. In an antique manner. 

4utique'ness, n. Quality of being antique. 
An'tiquist, n. An antiquary, (r.) 

Antiq uity, n. [Fr. antiquite, from Lat. antiquitas.] 
Ancient times; former ages; people of ancient times; 
great age; quality of being ancient. — See Ancient. 

Antiquities, pi, of Antiquity, is used to signify all 
that belongs to a knowledge of the politics, manners, 
religion, literature, and arts of the nations of antiquity; 
or, of tho modern nations until the existing order of 
things commenced. Since the beginning of the 18th 
century, the arts have been made a separate branch 
of antiquarian research. 

Antirrliin'ese, n.pl. (. Bot.) A tribe of plants, sub- 
ord. Antirrhinidere. 

Antirrliin'idete, n. pi. (Bot.) A sub-order of plants, 
ord .Scrophulariacece. Diva.: Inflorescence entirely cen¬ 
tripetal or compound. /Estivation of tho corolla bilabi¬ 
ate I y imbricated, the two upper segments being external. 
Antir'rliinnin, n. [Gr. anti, like, rin, nose; from 
the resemblance of the flowers to the snout of some 
animal.] (Bot.) A gen. of plants, tribe Antirrhineoe. 
The species A. majus or great snapdragon, is a showy 
garden plant, 1 to 2 ft. high. Flowers large, pink-colored, 
the lower lip white, and the mouth yellow, with a gib¬ 
bous prominence at the base beneath. There are varieties 
with scarlet, scarlet and white, and double flowers. 
Antisa'na. ahamlet in the Andes ofQuito. rep ofEcna- 
dor, 13,500 ft. above the sea, 35 m. S.E. ofQuito. It is 
probably the highest inhabited place on the surface of 
the globe. The mountain of A. is 19,132 feet high. 
Anti'scians, and Anti'scii, n.pl. [From Gr. anti, 
opposite, and scia, a shadow.] ( Geog.) The people who 
live on different sides of the equator, whose shadows at 
noon are cast in contrary directions. 

Antisep'tie, a. [From Gr. anti, against, and septos, 
putrid.] (Med.) Preventing or obviating putrefaction. 
— n. (Med.) Substances which prevent animal substances 
from passing into a, state of putrefaction, or obviate 
putrefaction when already begun ; us, cinchona, &c. 
Antiso'cial, a. Hostile or averse to civil society. 

Ant ispasiiiml'iu, a. and n. [From Gr. anti, against, 
and s/iasmos, a spasm.] (Med.) Possessing the power 
of allaying or removing inordinate motions in the sys¬ 
tem, particularly those involuntary contractions wliich 
take place in muscles naturally subject to the command 
of the will. Spasm n ay arise from various causes. 
One of the most frequent is a strong continuous irri¬ 
tation, such as dentition, or worms. In these cases, 
narcotics provo useful by diminishing irritability and 
sensibility. Sometimes spasm arises from mere de¬ 
bility, and the obvious means of removing this is by the 
use of tonics. The narcotics used as A. are ether, opium, 
camphor. The principal tonics are cuprum, zincum, 
hydrargyrum, cinchona. 

A n t ispast. Antispas'tus. n. [Gr. anti, and spao, to 
draw forth ] (Pros ) A tetrasyllable foot composed of 
an iambus and a trochee. 

Antis'tasis, n. [Gr. from anti, and stasis, a standing.] 
(Rhet.) The justification of an action by showiug the 
expediency of having done it. 

Antis'tlienes, a Greek philosopher, and founder of the 
school of Cynics. He was a native of Athens, and disciple 
of Socrates. He made virtue to consist in voluntary 
abstinence, and independence of exterior circumstances. 
Diogenes was his most distinguished scholar. His nu¬ 
merous works are all lost. Lived, 400 B. c. 

Ant is'troption, n. [Qr.antistreplnmai, to turn back.] 
(Rhet.) An argument which maybe retorted. 
Aiitis'troplic, n. [From Gr. anti, and strepho, to turn.J 
(Poet.) The alternate verse in ancient poetry, which 
was divided into strophe and antistrophe. In reciting 
their odes, the chorus turned from the left to the right 
at the A .. and vice versd. 

(Rhet.) An alternate conversion of the same words 
into different sentences; as, “Your servant, sir; — sir, 
your servant.” 

Ailtistropli'ic, a. Belonging to antistrophe. 
Anti-Tau'rus, an extensive chain of mountains in 
Turkey-in-Asia. forming one of the most considerable 
ramifications of Mount Taurus, with wliich n connects 
near the sources of the Kizil-lrmak in Caramariia. 
Commencing to the N.E. of the Cilician pass, it runs E. 
and N.E. separates the plain of El-Bostan from that 
of Csesarea-Mazaca, and extending N.E. to the source of 
the Northern Halys, E. of Sivas, from thence runs E. to 
the Euphrates. The two parallel ranges of the A. and 
the Paryadres, on the S. and X. respectively, form the 
upper valley of tb» Northern Halys, the apex of which 
is found at their junction. The A. may be most prop 










120 


ANTO 


A A TO 


ANTW 


erly denominated the Northern Taurus, as it crosses the 
Euphrates, and, running E. through Armenia, separates 
the valley of the Morad, or southern arm of the Euphra¬ 
tes, from that of its northern, the Karasu. 

Int ith'esiH, n. [Gr. from anti, and titliemi, to place.] 
(Mitt.) A figure of speech by which two things are 
attempted to be made more striking, by being set in 
opposition to each other. “Antitheses, well managed,” 
says Bohours, “give infinite pleasure in the perusal of 
works of genius; they have nearly the same effect in 
language as lights and shadows in painting, which a 
good artist distributes with propriety; or the flats and 
sharps in music, which are mingled by a skilful master.” 
The beautiful antithesis of Cicero, in his second Catili- 
narian. may serve as an example: “On the one side 
stands modesty, on the other impudence; on the one 
fidelity,on the other deceit; here piety, there sacrilege; 
here continency, there lust,” &c. By too frequent use, 
A. becomes tedious; as such, it is too often observable 
in the best works of one of the most eminent modern 
writers, Victor Hugo. 

Antitliet'ic, Antithet'ical, a. Pertaining or re¬ 
lating to antithesis. 

An t i thet'ieally, wlv. In an antithetic manner. 

Antitra'g'icns, a. [From Antitragus J (Ana/.) One 
of the proper muscles of the ear, the use of which is to 
turn up the tip of the antitragus a little outward, and 
to depress the extremity of the antihelix toward it. 

4.nt it'rrt^ns, n. [Gr. anti, and bat. tragus, q. v.] (Anal.) 
An eminence of the outer ear, opposite to the tragus. 

Anti-trinita'rians, n. pi. (Bed. Hist.) The name 
given to all who do not receive the doctrine of the divine 
Trinity, as it is represented by the Nicene and Athana- 
sian creeds, and either put the Son and the Holy Spirit in 
the Godhead below the Father, orconsider Christ merely 
a man, and the Holy Spirit an arbitrary personification 
of the divine mind. In the early period of the Chris¬ 
tian church, parties maintaining these sentiments were 
very numerous, especially the Arlans, Sabellians, and 
Pueumatomachists. The name Anti-Trinitarian first 
arose in the 16th century, and was applied to Socinians, 
or Unitarians, who remonstrated against the system of 
Episeopius, who died in 1643, and to a great number of 
theologians, who ventured in their writings to maintain 
the preceding opinion. Many were unwilling to ac¬ 
knowledge Anti-trinitarians as Christians, esteeming 
them enemies to the fundamental doctrines of Christi¬ 
anity; or even to tolerate them in Christian States. The 
Spanish Protestant, Michael Servotus, was burned at Ge¬ 
neva, in 1553, at the instigation of Calvin, on account of 
this heresy, and the severest edicts were once issued 
against them in England. An English clergyman, how¬ 
ever, Theophilus Lindsay, at Loudon, in 177-4, and a 
merchant, William Christie, at Montrose, in Scotland, 
formed Unitarian congregations, who separated them¬ 
selves from the established Church, since which time 
they have become numerous, both in England and Amer¬ 
ica.— See Unitarians. 

Antit'ropous, and Antit'ropal. a. [Gr. anti, op¬ 
posite. and Irepn, to turn.] (Bat.) Applied to the em¬ 
bryo which has the radicle pointing away from the hilum. 

An titype, n. [Gr. anti, and typos, a type.] (Thenl.) 
That which answers to, or is shadowed out by a type or 
emblem: that of which the type is the pattern or pre¬ 
figuration;— so, the Paschal Lamb was a type, to which 
our Saviour, the Lamb of God, was the antitype. 

Antityp'icilrl, a. Pertaining to an antitype; explain¬ 
ing the type. 

Antityp'ically, adv. By way of antitype. 

An'tium, a maritime town of Italy, built upon a prom¬ 
ontory, 32 miles from Ostium. It was the capital of the 
Volscii. Camillas took it. and carried all the beaks of 
its ships to Rome, and placed them in the Forum on a 
tribunal, which thence was called Rostrum* The Em¬ 
peror Nero was born here. 

Antivn'ri, a town of Turkey-in-Europe, 19 m. W. of 
Scutari; annexed to 
Montenegro in 1878. 

Papulation about 
4,0JJ. 

Ant'ler,n. [0. Fr .en- 
toillier; Fr. andouilr 
Ur , probably from 
Lat. ante, before.] 

That which projects 
over the forehead; 
a start or branch of 
a stag's horn. In fig. 

150, a is the brow 
antler, 6 the bezant- 
ler, c the royal ant¬ 
ler, d the sur-royal or 
crown antler. 

Ant lered, a. Furnished with antlers. 

Ant liii, n. (Physiol.) The proboscis or long spiral tongue 
of the insects belonging to the ord. Lepidoptera. When 
this organ in a butterfly is extended, it forms a long suc¬ 
torial tube, and when coiled up represents a flat spiral, 
like the mainspring of a watch. 

Ant'-like, a. Having the habits of ants; industrious; 
provident. 

Ant'-lion, n. (Zool ) The common name of the Myr- 
neleon, q. v. 

Antce'ci- or Ante'cians, n. pi. [From Gr. anti , and oikeo, 
to d veil.] (Geog.) Those inhabitants of the earth who 
live under the same meridian, but on different sides of 
the equator, and at equal distances from it. 

Antoine', in Arkansas, a twp. of Clarke co.; 

Antoine', (St.,) in Lmver Canada, a village of Ver- 
cheres co., about 35 m. from Montreal. 

Antoine' tie la Baie, (St.) See La Baie de Febore. 



| Antoine'-cle-Tilly,i'St.,)in Lower Canada, a village 
and parish of Lotbiniere co.. 24 m. S.W. of Montreal, on 
the S. side of the river St. Lawrence. 

An'toinette. See Marie Antoinette. 

Antoinniar'clii, Francesco, a distinguished French 
anatomist, u. in Corsica; was physician to Napoleon I. 
at St Helena. D. at St. Antonio, Cuba. 1S44. 

Antonel'li, Giacomo, Cardinal, prime-minister of Pope 
Pius IX.. b. 2d April, 1806. His father was a woodcutter 
near Terracina, in Italy. Educated at the Seminario 
Romano, A. was, in 1841, appointed under-secretary to 
the Ministerof the Interior, and in 1845, Grand Treasurer 
to the Apostolic Chamber, and Minister of Finance. He, 
as a politician of liberal views, at this time enjoyed the 
favor of the pope. In 1847 he received a cardinal’s hat. 
As Minister of Finance, A. was a member of the Council 
established by the pope, and also president of the council- 
extraordinary, instituted by the government to inquire 
into the reforms thought necessary. Taking alarm, how¬ 
ever, at the progress of revolutionary principles, which 
he considered was to a great degree owing to his hitherto 
liberal policy, A. resigned office, and was succeeded by 
Mamiaui and Rossi. When Pius IX. fled to Gaeta, he 
made A. his chief secretary, and the head of a special 
commission to reform the administration of the States 
of the Church. The Pope, on his return to Rome in 1850, 
appointed A. Minister of Foreign Affairs, and head of 
the government, which authority he held for years. 
Bland and suave in manner, yet inscrutable in his de¬ 
signs, A. was thought by many to be more liberal in his 
political views than either the pontiff or his own col¬ 
leagues; while, by others, he has been charged with 
having precipitated the fall of the Papal Temporal 
Power bv his persistent reactionary policy, and his op¬ 
position to reform. D. at Rome, Nov. 6th, 1876. 

Antonel'lo, or Antonio da Messina, the first Italian 
who painted in oil, which art be learned of John Van 
Eyck, in Flanders. In Italy, he imparted the secret to 
Bellini and Dominico. The latter communicated it to 
Andrea del Casiagno, who. from the desire of gain, basely 
assassinated him. Thus, by these incidents, oil-painting 
soon spread over Italy. Antonio flourished about 145U. 
B. at Messina, about 1413; D. at Venice, 1493. 

Anto'nia. the name of some eminent Roman ladies, the 
most remarkable of whom was the wife of Drusus, the 
sou of Livia, and brother of Tiberius. She became 
mother of three children, Germanicus, Caligula's father; 
Claudius the emperor, and the debauched Livia. Lived 
a. d. 38. 

Anto'nin, St., a town of France, dep. of Tarn-et-Ga- 
ronne, at the confluence of the Aveyrouand the Bonnette, 
22 m. E.N.E. of Montaubau.— Alan/. Serges and paper. 
Pop. 5,152. 

Antoninus, the philosopher. See Marcus Aurelius. 

A nt oniit i:s Pi us. Th us Aurelius Fulvius, a Roman 
emperor, b. at Lanuvium, a.d. 86. Born of a wealthy 
family, he successively attained the dignities of quseslor, 
praetor, and consul; became pro-consul of Asia, and, re¬ 
turning to Rome, obtained the favor of the emperor 
Adrian, who, in 138, adopted him as his successor. He 
succeeded to the throne the same year. His reign was 
peaceful and prosperous, but without historical events of 
importance. Temperate and simple in his private life, 
ever ready to assist the necessitous, ami an admirer of 
virtue and wisdom, he was truly the lather of his people. 
He often repeated those beautiful words of Scipio: “1 
had rather preserve the life of a citizen than destroy a 
thousand enemies.” His wise frugality enabled him to 
diminish the taxes. The persecutions of the Christians 
he speedily abolished. The senate gave him the sur¬ 
name Pius, because, in gratitude to the memory of 
Adrian, his second father, be had built a temple in honor 
of him. A. has been called, from his amiable character 
and wise rule, the second N lima. Both his wife Faustina, 
and his daughter, the wife of Marcus Aurelius, were 
notorious for their depravity of life. He died a. d. 161, 
74 years old, having reigned 23 years. The whole king¬ 
dom lamented liiin.audthe following emperors assumed 
his name as an honor. 

Anton i ns. Marcus, a Roman consul, and once governor 
of Cilicia, lie subsequently became censor, and one of 
the most eminent Roman orators. Cicero considers that 
it was he who established Rome as a rival in eloquence 
to Greece. A. was killed in the civil war of Marius and 
Sylla, b. c. S7. 

Antonins. Marcus, the great triumvir, grandson of 
the preceding, was b. 85 b. c.— After a profligate youth, 
he earned distinction as a soldier both in Syria and 
Egypt; joined Julius Caesar in Gaul, and became his 
staunch adherent. Made quiestor, augur, and tribune, 
he participated in the great victory of 1’harsalia, was 
made consul along with Cajsar, B.c 44, and offered him 
the royal title. After the death of Caesar, A. was op¬ 
posed by Octavius (Augustus), who defeated him at 
Mutina. The two, however becoming reconciled, were 
joined with Lepidus in the formation of the first trium¬ 
virate. Cicero was a victim to the hatred of A. in the 
proscription which afterward took place. At Philippi 
the republican army of Brutus and Cassius experienced 
defeat, and the loss of its leaders. — A., later, visited 
Greece and Asia, and met the famous Cleopatra, queen 
of Egypt, to whose beauty and fascinations hesuccumbed, 
and witli whom he made a long stay. On the death ol 
his wife Fulvia, he had married, in 40 B.c., Octavia, sister 
of Augustus, whom in a few years he divorced through 
his infatuation for Cleopatra. The triumvirate was re-es¬ 
tablished in 37. After his invasion of Parthia and Arme¬ 
nia, A. assumed despotic power, which caused the war, 
ending with his total overthrow at the battle of Actium, 
and the triumph of Augustus, b. c. 31. A. retired to 
Egypt, and there destroyed himself, b. c. 30. 


Antonoma'sia, «. [Gr., from anti, instead of, and 
onoma, a name.] (Rhet.) A mode of speaking in which a 
person is addressed or described by Rome general term in 
place of his proper name; as, a Cicero lor an orator; a 
Nero for a tyrant, Ac. 

Antonoinas'tically, adv. By way of antonomasia. 

An trim, a county of Ireland, prov. of Ulster, bounded 
N. and E. by the sea, S. by Lough Neagh and the county 
of Down, and W. by the county of Londonderry. Area, 
1,164 sq. m. — Peso. Mountainous near the coast, and 
the S.W. abounds with bogs A stupendous assemblage 
of basaltic columns, the Giant’s Causeway, is seen on the 
maritime confines of A., as also Fair Head, and other 
lofty capes and promontories. — Rivers. The principal 
are the Bann, and the Laggan. — Atanuf. Linen yarn, 
wool, canvas, paper, &c. Considerable fisheries are car¬ 
ried on.— Towns. Hie chief are Antrim, Belfast, Car- 
rickfergus, and Lisburn. Pop. (1895), 404,015. 

Antrim, a town ami parish in the above county, situate 
at the north end of Lough Neagh. Pop., including 
Massarene, 2,000. 

An'trim. in Michigan, a county in the N.W. part of the 
lower peninsula, bordering on Grand Traverse Bay, Lake 
Michigan. Area, 538 sq. in. Pop. (1895), 10,413. 

—a post-township of Shiawassee co., about 60 m. N. W. 
of Detroit. 

An'trim. in Minnesota, a twp. of Watonwan co. Pop., 322. 

An'trim, in New Hampshire, a post-townsliip ol Hills¬ 
borough co.. 25 m. S.W. of Concord, and lying on the 
Contoocook river. 

An'trini, inO//iV>, a post-village of Madison township, 
in Guernsey co., 91 m. E by N. of Columbus. 

—a township of Wyandot co., abt. 58 m. N.W. of Colum¬ 
bus. 

An'trim, in Pennsylvania, a township of Franklin 
county. 

An t rim City, in Michigan, a post-vill. of Antrim co. 

Antuo'eo. a volcanic mountain in the Andes of Chili, 
Lat. 36°50' S.; Lon. 70° 30' W. Its altitude, recently 
corrected, is 9,051 ft. The summit is steep on all 
sides, but nearly perpendicular towards the N. After 
the peaks of Teneriffe and Cotopaxi, it is probably the 
most pointed mountain known. 

Ant'weri*, [Fr. Anvers,] a prov. of Belgium, situated 
between Lat. 51° and 51° 30 7 N„ and Lon. 4° 10' and 5° 
10' E.: bounded on the N. and N.E. by tlie Dutch prov. 
of N. Brabant; on the S.E. by the prov. of Limburg; on 
the S by S. Brabant; on the W. it is separated from E. 
Flanders by tlie Scheldt.-— Area, 1,094 sq. m.— Rivers, 
the Scheldt, the Great and Little Nethe, which unite 
and form the Ruppel, the Dyle, and the Senne.— Desc. 
Tlie surface is a perfect level, and so low that water 
may always be found at a depth of 8 to 10 inches. In 
the N. and E. districts are extensive moorlands, present¬ 
ing numerous lakes and moiasses. The best agricultu¬ 
ral soil is in the arrond. of Mechlin — Prod. Corn in great 
supply, madder, hops, tobacco, rapeseed, and lint.— 
Man/. Lace, silk, printed calicoes, linen and cotton fab¬ 
rics, straw hats, wax cloth, tobacco, and salt. Sugar- 
refineries, distilleries of vinegar, breweries, soap-works, 
and tanneries are numerous.— Hist. Before Caesar's con¬ 
quest it was inhabited by the Ambivarites. The marquis- 
att^of A. first appears in history in tlie year 1080. By the 
marriage of the Archduke Maximilian with Mary of 
Burgundy, it came into the possession of the house of 
Austria; in 1795 it formed the French dep. of Deux- 
Nethes: in 1814 it was made a part of the kingdom of 
the Netherlands, and in 1830 it became a province of 
Belgium. 

Ant'wf.rp, cap. of the above prov. and the principal sea¬ 
port of Belgium, is situated on the right bank of the 
Scheldt, 45 m. above Flushing, at the mouth of the 
river, 75 m. S. of Amsterdam, and 27 m. N. of Brussels. 
It contains 11 canals, which penetrate to the interior of 



the town, and connect its poit with Mechlin, Louvain, 
and Brussels. The Exchange, burned in 1858, was tht 




































ANY 


APAR, 


APEN 


121 


finest in Europe. The Cathedral Is one of the finest 
specimens of Gothic architecture. It has 66 chapels; 
and the paintings above the altars are by Rubens, who 
is buried here in the church of St. James; the most cele¬ 
brated of these productions, The Descent f rom the Cross, is 
geuerally considered his chief work. The church is 500 ft. 
long, 230 wide, and 360 high ; the spire is 403 ft. high, 
and ascended by 620 steps. The Museum of A. contains 
127 chet-d’oeuvres of the Flemish school. There are also 
a royal academy of arts, a public library, a botanical 
garden, a medical school, and a great military arsenal. 
The city is environed with a high wall, and is also de¬ 
fended by a large, strong, aud regular citadel, erected 
by the duke of Alva in 1568. This celebrated citadel 
sustained sundry blockades and sieges in 1576, 1583, 
1585, 1706, 1748, 1789, 1792, 1796, 1814, and 1832. No 
expense was spared by Napoleon I. to deepen the river, 
enlarge the harbor, and strengthen the fortifications of 
A., which he intended to make one of his principal naval 
stations.—The commerce of A., relatively below what 
it was in the loth and 10th cent., has become one of 
the leading ports of Europe. The new line of quays, 
opened in 1885, extend over 2 miles and cost over $20, 
000,000. The Flemish is the language of the majority 
of the people, but French is generally in use among the 
higher classes.— Hist. This celebrated city boasts of 
great antiquity. Ravaged by the Normans in 836 or 
837, it attained the acm(j of its splendor in the begin¬ 
ning of the 16th century. In 1500, A. contained more 
than 200,000 inhabitants. In 1576 it was plundered by 
the Spaniards ; it surrendered to Marlborough in 1700; 
the French took it in 1746, but restored it at the treaty 
of Aix-la-Chapeile ; it was again taken by the French 
in 1794, and occupied for 20 years. A. was the birth¬ 
place of the painters Teniers, Vandyke, and Jordaens. 
Pop. (1891), 232,723. 

Ant'werp, in Michigan, a township of Van Buren 
county. 

Aiit'werp, in New York, a thriving post-township of 
Jefferson county, possessing also a village of the same 
name. 

Ant'werp, in Ohio, a post-vill. of Paulding co., on the 
Maumee river, abt. 20 m. E.N.E.of Fort Wayne. 

Alin'bis, {Myth.,) one of the most distinguished deities 
of the Egyptians. At first, he was worshipped under 
the form of a dog; afterwards, under that of a man with 
a dog’s head; hence he was termed Cynocephalus. Tra¬ 
dition calls him a son of Osiris by Nephthys, whom he 
mistook for Isis. When Isis was convinced of this by 
the lotus wreath left with Nephthys by Osiris, she sought 
out the child, exposed by his mother for fear of Typhon. 
discovered him with the help of a dog, educated him. 
and found in him a faithful guard aud attendant. A. 
guards the gods as the dog guards men. According to 
the astronomical theology of the Egyptians, he was the 
7th among the 8 gods of the first class, and designated 
the planet Mercury, as did also Plenties, the more com¬ 
mon name of the planet. He was, consequently, lord 
of the ascendant for an hour of the day, and genius of 
wisdom. His original form was derived, probably, from 
the worship of the dog among the Egyptians, who re¬ 
garded him as the god of hunting; then he became, ac¬ 
cording to Zoega, a guardian spirit in general, a protector 
of the gods. The Greeks recognized in him their llormes, 
with whom, therefore, he became confounded. 

A'nus, n. [Eat.] {Anat.) The fundament; the lower ex¬ 
tremity of the great intestine, named the rectum. Its 
office is to form an outlet for the faeces. The anus is fur¬ 
nished with muscles which are peculiar to it, viz., the 
sphincter, which forms a broad circular band of fibres, 
and keeps it habitually closed, and the levatores ani, 
which serve to dilate and draw it up to its natural situ¬ 
ation, after the expulsion of the faeces. It is subject to 
various diseases, especially piles, ulceration, abscesses, 
excrescences, prolapsus, and imperforation in new-born 
infants. — The term A. is also applied to a small open¬ 
ing of the 3d ventricle of the brain, which leads into the 
4th. 

An'vil, n. [A.S. an/Uf, cenfilt.'] An iron block on which 
smiths hammer and shape their work. 

“I saw a smith stand, with his hammer, thus, 

The whilst his iron did on his anvil cool." — Shaks. 

— v. n. To shape or form on the anvil. 

An'vil, in Arkansas, a post-office of Stone co. 

An'ville, Jean Baptiste d’, a French geographer, B. in 
Paris, 1697. He has published 211 maps and plans, and 
78 treatises. His Atlas of A ncient Egypt is the most de¬ 
serving. D. 1782. 

Ail vi'ety. n. [Fr. anxieti, from Lat. anxietas .] A weari¬ 
some anticipation of things to come, or the issues of 
present tilings; care; trouble; eagerness; apprehen¬ 
sion; diffidence; solicitude; carefulness. 

Anx'ious, n. [Lat. anxias, from ango, anxi, to bind, 
draw, or press together.] Suffering mental pressure; 
straitened; perplexed; solicitous; greatly concerned; 
careful; uneasy; unquiet; restless. 

Anx'iously, adv. In an anxious manner. 

Anx'iousness, n. Quality or state of being anxious. 

An'y, a. [A.S. anig, anig .] Every; whoever he be; what¬ 
ever it be. It is, in all its senses, applied indifferently 
to persons or things. 

“ You contented yourself with being capable, as much as any 
whosoever, of defending your country." — Dryden. 

—Whosoever; whatsoever; as distinguished from some 
other. 

** Wbat warmth is there in your affection towards any of these 
princely suitors that are already come ? " — Shaks. 

—Some; an indefinite quantity or number. 

v Who will show us any good ?’* — Ps. iv. 6. 

—adv. At all, in any degree; as, “ Are you any better ? ” 


An'yhow, adv. In any way ; in any circumstance; in 

any case. 

An'y where, adv. In any place. 

An'y wise, adv. In any manner. 

An'zin. a town of France, dep. of the Nord, 3 m. W. of 
Valenciennes. In the neighborhood are the richest coal 
mines in France. They have been worked since 1734, and 
some of the pits are as much as 1,500 ft. in depth. Pop. 
(1895), 11,538. 

Ao'nia. (Attc. Geog.) A name sometimes given to a 
part of Beeotia. — The Parnassus was named Aonian 
Mount, as being the residence of the Muses, or Aonides. 
— A fountain sacred to the Muses, near Mount Helicon, 
was also named Aonia. 

Ao'nia, in Getrrgia, a post-office of Wilkes co., 44 m. W. 
by N. of Augusta. 

A'orist, n. [Gr. aoristos. from a, priv., and horos, bound, 
limit.] (Gram.) An indefinite past tense in the Greek verb. 

Aoris'tie, a. Pertaining to an aorist, or indefinite past 
tense; indefinite. 

Aor'ta, n. [Gr. aorte, from aeiro, to raise up.] {Anat.) 
The great artery of the body (see Fig. 120) which arises 
from the upper and back part of the left ventricle of the 
heart, forms a curvature in the chest, and descends into 
the abdomen.—See Artery, and Circulation. 

Aor'tal, Aor'tic, a. Pertaining to the aorta. 

Aos'ta. a prov. of Italy, in Piedmont, 55 m. in length 
and 40 in breadth; bounded on the N. by Switzerland, 
and separated on the W. from Savoy by the Alps. 
Mountains surround it on the N. and S., and at its W. 
corner is Mont Blanc. It forms one long and fertile 
valley, through which runs the Doire. — Goitre is com¬ 
mon among the inhabitants, who are accounted squalid 
and filthy to an extreme. A. gave the title of duke to 
the second son of king Victor Emmanuel, once king of 
Spain. Pop. abt. 115,000. 

Aos'ta, capital of the above prov., is situated at the foot of 
the Alps, at an elevation of 1,940 ft. above sea-level, and 
49 m. N.N.W. of Turin. Pop. 7,525. 

Aos'ta, a town in Syria, 35 m. S. of Tripoli. It is the 
residence of a Maronite patriarch. 

Apace', adv. [From a, and pace; that is, with a great 
pace.] Quick; speedily; used of things in motion. 

" Is not he imprudent, who, seeing the tide making haste towards 
him apace, will sleep till the sea overwhelm him?" — Tillotson. 

—With haste; applied to some action. 

“ The baron now his diamonds pours apace.** — Pope. 

—Hastily; with speed; spoken of any kind of progression 
from one state to another. 

“ If sensible pleasure or real grandeur be our end, we shall pro¬ 
ceed apace to real misery." — Watts. 

Apache Pass, in Arizona, a twp. of Pima co. 

Apa'ches, a race of N. American Indians, divided into 
several tribes, and residing between 30° and 34° N. Lat., 
from the Rio Colorado on the W., to the Rio Colorado of 
Texas on the E. Once exercising dominant power over 
the whole of this immense territory, they waged per¬ 
petual war with the Spaniards of Mexico. Later, when 
greatly reduced in numbers, they roamed in small parties 
over Arizona, part of New Mexico and Northern Mexico, 
living by hunting aud robbery, aud proving themselves 
perhaps the most treacherous, blood-thirsty and averse 
to civilization of all the North American Indians. They 
had no ruling chief, but, by an ingenious system of 
mountain signals, were able to concentrate at once large 
bodies for attack and defence. The arid nature of their 
country, their powers of endurance and keenness of 
stratagem, rendered it very difficult to subdue the A., 
but most of them are now under government control 
at various agencies in the West, aud are making fair 
progress in agriculture. A few small bands still roam 
the wilds of northwestern Mexico. 

ApaSfOg'ical, a. [From Gr .apagnge; compounded of 
apo, from, and agein , to bring or draw.] (Logic.) An A. 
demonstration is such as does not prove the thing di¬ 
rectly, but shows the impossibility, or absurdity, which 
arises from denying it; aud is also called reducttoad im- 
possibile, or absurdum. 

Apag'ynous, a. (Bot.) Same as Monocarpous, q. v. 

Apala'ehee, a river of Georgia, taking its rise in 
Gwinnett co. After a S.E. course it empties into the 
Oconee, a few miles S.W. of Greensborough. 

Apalacliico'la, a river in Florida, emptying itself 
into a bay of the same name, in the Gulf of Mexico. 
This river has a S. course of nearly 100 m., and receives 
the Flint and Chattahoochee rivers. It is navigable 
throughout. There is a fixed light on St. George's Is¬ 
land in the Bay of A. 

—a post-town, and cap. of Franklin co., 135 m. S.W. of 
Tallahassee. It lies on the above river, has a convenient 
harbor, and is an important port for the shipment of 
cotton. 

Apala'cliin, or Appalachin, in New York, a post- 
office of Tioga co. 

Apain', a territory on the Gold Coast, Africa. It belongs 
to England. The chief place is the fort of Lydzaamheit, 
in Lat. 6° 12' 30" N.; Lon. 0°41' 30" W. Pop. very small. 

Apama'ma, an island in the North Pacific Ocean, 
forming one of the Kingsmill group, or Gilbert Isles, 
Lat. 0° 30' S.; Lon. 173° 54' W. 

Ap'anage, n. (Hist.) A provision of land once assigned 
by the kings of France for the maintenance of their 
younger sons, and also the allowance assigned to the 
prince of a reigning house for a proper maintenance out 
of the public chest. 

Apanor'inia, or Aponormeria, a seaport of the island 
of Santorin, in the Grecian Archipelago. It is situate 
on the N.W. coast. Lat 36° 38' N.; Lon. 25° 28' E. 

Apa'ri. a town of Luzon, one of the Philippine islands, 
on the N. part of the coast. 


Apart', adv. Separately from the rest in place. 

“I walk aside, and in a way apart from the multitude."— Raleigh 

—In a state of distinction; as, to sot apart for any use. 

—Distinctly. 

“ Moses first comprehended waters in the word earth; but after¬ 
wards he nameth them apart." — Raleigh. 

—At a distance; retired from the other company 
“Soplease you, madam, 

To put apart these your attendants, 

I shall bring Emilia forth.”— Shaks. 

Apart'nient, n. [Fr. appartement, from Apart, separate.] 
A part of a house or building separated from other parts 
by partitions; a room. 

—pi A suite of rooms; lodgings. 

Apat'elite, n. (Min.) A persulphate of iron, resembling 
copiapite. 

Apathet'ic, Apathet'ical, Apathis'tical, a. Having 
or showing apathy; void of feeling; free from passion; 
insensible; indifferent. 

Ap'atllist, n. One without feeling. 

Ap'atliy, n. [Fr. apathie, from Gr. a, priv.. and pathos, 
feeling, passion.—Want of feeling or passion; insensibil¬ 
ity ; indifference; stoicism; unconcern. 

“ In lazy apathy let Stoics boast 
Their virtue fixed."— Pope. 

Ap'atin, in Hungary, a town of Bacs co., situated o» 
the left side of the Danube, S. of Baja. It has a tradt 
in hemp, silk, and madder. Pop. 7,886. 

Ap'atite, n. (Min.) See Limb, Phosphate of. 

Ape, n. [A.S. apa.] (ZnSl.) See Simiadal 

—A servile imitator; a simpleton. 

“ My lady's ape, that imitated all her fashions...." —Naibhes. 

— v. a. To imitate servilely; to mimic, as an ape. 

Apeak', adv. On the peak, or point; in a posture tc 
pierce. 

(Naut.) Perpendicular. An anchor is said to be apeak, 
when the cable is hove so taut as to bring the ship 
directly over it. 

Apel'les, the most celebrated of the Greek painters; 
he flourished B.c. 340-323, and was the friend of Alex¬ 
ander the Great, whose portrait he himself alone was suf¬ 
fered to paint. His works were particularly noted for 
their exquisite representation of feminine beauty. His 
masterpiece, “ Venus rising from the Sea," was conveyed 
to Rome by the emperor Augustus. According to Pliny, 
A. generally painted with four colors only, which he 
made to harmonize by means of the varnish which he 
himself had invented. 

Apel'lous, a. [From Gr. a, priv., and Lat. pellis, skin.] 
Having no skin. 

Ap'ennine, a. Relating to the Apennines Mountains. 

Ap'enuines. A chain of mountains in Italy, which 
begins at the end of the Maritime Alps, atabout90° Lon. 
E., in the territory of Genoa. They are divided into 
three parts: Northern A., as far as the sources of the 
Ronco; Central A., as far as the sources of the Sangro; 
and Southern A., reaching to the extreme cape of the 
peninsula. At first, they run from W. to E., skirting the 
Gulf of Genoa; they then turn to the S E. and enter 
the peninsula through the middle, the entire length of 
which they penetrate. They are mountains of the 
secondary class, their mean height being 5,000 ft., and 
display neither the pyramidal summits of the Alps, nor 
the lofty and abrupt peaks of the Pyrenees; though 
smooth in form, they present but a melancholy aspect, 
owing to the nakedness of tlieir flanks. The entire 
length of the A. is about 800 m.. and their highest point, 
Monte Corno in the Abruzzi, 10,206ft. above the level of 
the sea. The Southern A. are partly in a volcanic state, 
but the only active crater is Mount Vesuvius. The A. 



Fig. 152.— Vesuvius and the Apennines. 

(View from the Bay of Naples.) 

are not rich in minerals; the marbles of Carrara, Ser, 
ravezza, and Siena forming their principal wealth. Kor 
are there extensive forests attaching to them, although 
up to 3.000 ft. the principal chain is covered with a 
varied vegetation; the olive, the palm, the citron, and 
the orange forming the lower belt. Above this limit 
these mountains are generally arid, and destitute of 
vegetation. 


































122 


A PHI 


APIA 


APIS 



APEX WORN BY THE SALII. 


Apep'sy, n. (F d .) See Dyspepsia. 

A'per, «. One who apes; a servile imitator. 

Ape rient, n. [Lat. aperient, from lapetrio, to open.] 
(Med.) Opening; gently purgative. 

— n. A laxative; a mild purgative; deobstruent. 

Aper'itive, «• ( Med.) Aperient. 

Ap'crture, «. [Lat. apertara, from aperin, apertus y to 
open.] A setting open; an opening; an orifice; a hole; 
a passage; a gap. 

(Geoin.) The openiug or angle formed by the meet¬ 
ing of two right lines. 

A'pcry, ». An affected imitation. 

Apet'alie, n. pi. [From Gr. a, priv., and petalnn, flower- 
leaf. 1 ( Bit.) Plants whose flowers have no petals; those 
dicotyledonous plants which have a calyx but no corolla. 
They are also named Monochlamydeous plants. In the 
system of Bentley, they form the 3d division of the class 
Angiosperms. In Lituiley’s arrangement, they form the 
alliance Asarales, q. v. 

Appt'alous, a. (Bit) Without petals or corolla 

Apex, n.\ pi. Apexes. [Lat. apex , pi. apices, from apis- 
cor, to reach after something.] The extreme end of a 
thing; the tip or summit of anything. 

(Antiq.) An A. was a cap worn by the Flamines 
and Salii at Romo. The 
essential part of the apex, 
to which alone the name 
prop rly belonged, was a 
pointed piece of olive- 
wood, the base of which 
was surrounded with a 
lock of wool. This was 
worn on the top of the 
head, and was hold there 
either by fillets only, or 
by the aid of a cap which 
fitted the head. 

Apex of the Sun's Way. 

( Astron.) The point on 

the celestial sphere toward 
which the sun and the en¬ 
tile solar system is moving 
at the rate ot from 9 to 12 
miles a second. The pre¬ 
cise point is not yet very accurately ascertained, but all 
agree in locating it between the constellations of The 
Lyre and Hercules. 

Aphanip'tera, «■ pi. [Gr. aphanes , obscure, and 
vteron, a wing.J (Zool.) A Linnuan order of Apterous 
naustellate insects, having rudimental elytra or wings 
in the perfect state. It is composed entirely of the dif¬ 
ferent species of Fleas, forming the family Pulicidte; 
the common Flea (Pulex irritins) being the type of the 
order. The female flea deposits a dozen eggs, of a white 
color and rather viscous texture, from which are hatched 
long, worm-like grubs, destitute of feet, which are very 
active in their motions, winding themselves in a serpen¬ 
tine manner through the substance in which they may 
be deposited. When full-grown, the larvae enclose 
themselves in a small cocoon of silk. In this they pass 
into a pupa state, and in about 12 days emerge a per¬ 
fect flea.—In hot countries these insects are exceedingly 
troublesome: hut in the West Indies and S. America 
there is an insect belonging to the family, which is even 
more obnoxious; this is the Chigoe, Ihilex penetrans, 
which lives in the open country, and attacks the naked 
feet both of men and dogs. 

ApUe'lion, n.\ pi. Ap ielia. [Gr. apn, away from, and 
helins. the sun.] (Astron.) That point at which the earth, 
or any planet, is at the greatest distance from the sun.— 
See Perihelion. 

Aplier'esis, n. [Gr. apo, from, and haireo, to take or 
seize.] (Gram.) The taking away of a letter or syllable 
from the beginning of a word. 

Aphilan'tliropy, «• [Gr. a, priv., phileo, to love, 
and anlhropns, man.) The want of love to mankind. 

A'phis? «•; pi. Aph'itlae or Aphides. (ZoSl.) A gen. 
and family of homopterous insects, comprising the very 
numerous and obnoxious species of Plant-lice, Pucerons. 
and Vme-fritters, a tribe of insects analogous, in regard 
to the vegetable world, to the animal parasites of the 
order AnopLura, or lice. The antennae are of great 
length; the ocelli, three in number, form a large trian¬ 
gle; the eyes are entire, prominent, and semi-globose; 
the abdomen is short and convex, generally furnished 
with a tubercle on each side near the extremity. Some 
are winged, and some are wing’ess, without distinction 
of sex; the legs are very long and slender, formed only 
for crawling The species reside in great societies upon 
almost every species of plant, of which they suck the 
young shoots, leaves, and stems, by the assistance of 
their proboscis, producing disease in the plant either by 
greatly weakening it, or by raising vesicles, or other 
gall-like excrescences, in which whole generations of 
Aphides reside. In autumn, the mother A. deposits her 
eggs in some place she selects as suitable for her pur¬ 
pose. In winter the parents die, lint the eggs remain 
unhurt, and in spring they are hatched. The young 
thus ushered into the world are all females, and, not¬ 
withstanding the absence of males, they are all fertile, 
and being viviparous at this seas m, soon bring forth a 
progeny of females like themselves. During the sum¬ 
mer. 10 or 11 generations are thus produced successively 
from each fern de, every one so born being the mother 
of a fresh brood, so that at the end of the season the 
mother of the first brood may he the progenitor of 
10,000 million millions! In autumn males are born. 
These impregnate the last generation, which are ovipa¬ 
rous, and lay fecundated eggs, the young from which do 
not require fresh impregnation. The A. are remarkable 
Cor secreting a sweet, viscid fluid, known by the name 


of honey-detv, which ants and bees are very fond of. The 
ravanes of the A. are sometimes terrible. f lhe A. ot 
the rose, A. msce, is well knowu to every one familiar 
with a garden. Apple and pear trees are subject to the 
same pest; the hop and the vine also are frequently in¬ 
jured by their attacks. The larva} ot the Coccinelhe, or 
lady-birds, Several ichneumon idle. & c., devour great 
numbers. The best metnod of destroying them, how¬ 
ever, is to water the plants with an infusion of tobacco 
in water. , 

Aphlog-is'tic, a. [From Gr. a, priv., and phlogizo, to 
burn.] Flameless. 

A. Lamp. See Davy Safety-Lamp 

Aplio'dilhe. or Aphodiad^, n. pi, (Zool.) A fam. of 
minute Lamellicoru beetles extremely abundant in tem¬ 
perate countries during the spring months, swarming in 
the dung of the larger herbivorous animals. They are 
nearly allied to the Scarabacidae, but the body is more 
elongated. . 

Apli'onous, a. [Gr. a, priv., and phone, voice.] De¬ 
prived of voice. 

Apil'ony, n. (Med.) A suppression of the voice, with¬ 
out either syncope or coma. It takes place from a tumor 
of the fauces, or about the glottis; from disease of the 
trachea; or from paralysis. See Aphonia. 

Aphorism, n. [Gr. aphorismos.] That which sepa¬ 
rates, bounds, or defines; a precise and pithy saying ex¬ 
pressed in few words; a sharply defining sentence or 
proverb of law or morals, not of physics or mathe¬ 
matics; a maxim; a proverb; a precept. 

Aphorismat'ic, Aphoris'mic. Apiioris'tic, Aphoris'- 
tical, a. In the form of an aphorism, or relating to 
aphorisms. 

Apii'orist, n. A writer of aphorisms. 

Aphoris'tically, adv. In the form or manner of 

aphorisms. 

Aphrac'tns, n. [Lat.] (Antiq.) A ship, called also 
navis aperla, which had no deck, but was merely cov¬ 
ered with planks in the front and hinder part. The 
ships which had decks were called cataphracli, and tac¬ 
tic or stratse. At the time of the Trojan war the Greek 
6hips had no decks, but were only covered over in the 
prow and stern,which covering Homer calls the ikrianeos. 

Aph'rite, n. [Gr. aphms, froth.] (Mm.) A soft, friable 
carbonate f lime, found in the primary mountains, in 
layers. This mineral must not be confounded with 
meerschaum (sea-scum), which is an amorphous carbon¬ 
ate of magnesia. 

Aphrotii'sia. n. [Gr.] (Antiq.) This name was given 
to festivals celebrated in honor of Aphrodite (Venus), 
in a great number of towns in Greece, but particularly 
in the island of Paphos. Iler most ancient temple was 
at Paphos. No bloody sacrifices were allowed to be 
offered to her, but only pure fire, flowers, and incense. 
See Venus. 

Aphrodi siac, n. [Fr. aphrndisiaque; Gr. aphrodisia- 
kos, from Aphrodite, Venus.] (Med.) That which excites a 
desire for venery. 

Aphrotli'siae, Aphrodisi'acal, a. Exciting a desire 
for venery. 

Aphrocli'te. [Gr. Aphrodite, synonymous with Aphro- 
geneia, born of the foam of the sea.] (Myth.) The god¬ 
dess of love among the Greeks. — See Venus. 

(Min.) A soft, earthy, milk-white silicate of magnesia. 

(Zool.) A , or Aphrodita, a genus of small marine an- 
nelidie, including the sea-mouse. Their figure is oval 
and aculeated; and they are covered with a large quan¬ 
tity of silky hair of a very bright metallic lustre, the 
colors of which vary with the play of the light. 

Aphroplio'ra, n. (Zool.) A gen. of Homoplerous in¬ 
sects which in the larva state live on plants enveloped 
in a saliva-like mass; whence their popular name of 
cuckoo-spits. The insects in their perfect slate are named, 
from their leaping powers .frog-hoppers. See Cercopid.®. 

Aph'thte. n. pi. [Gr. aphlhai, from aptu, to inflame.] 
(Med.) The Thrush, q. v. 

Aphttli'talite, Arcanite, Aphthalose, n. (Min.) The 
sulphate of potash.— See Potash. 

Apti'thong, n. [Gr. a, priv., and phthoggns, the voice.] 
(Grani.) A letter or combination of letters, wdiich have 
no sound. 

Aph'tlionite, n. (Min.) A variety of Tetraliedrite q.v. 

Ap3i y 1 foils, a. [Gr. a, priv., and phyllnn, a leaf.] 
(Bot.) Destitute of leaves, at least in the form of foliage. 

Apia'cese, Umbrllifers, n. pi. ( But.) An ord. of plants, 
all. Umbdlales. — Diag. Didymous fruit, and a double 
epigynous disc. They are herbaceous plants, often milky, 
with solid or fistular furrowed stems. Leaves usually 
divided. Flowers in umbels, white, pink, yellow, or 
blue, generally surrounded by an involucre. Calyx su¬ 
perior. Petals 5, inserted on the outside of a fleshy epi¬ 
gynous disc: aestivation imbricate, rarely valvate. Sta¬ 
mens 5, alternate with the petals. Ovary inferior, 2- 
celled; styles 2, distinct. Fruit consisting of two car¬ 
pels. separable from a common axis. Seed pendulous, 
usually adhering inseparably to the pericarp, rarely 
loose; embryo minute, at the base of abundant horny 
albumen. — The Umbellifers are common in ill northern 
countries, inhabiting groves, thickets, plains, marshes, 
and waste lands. This large order is one of those in 
which plants occur with extremely different secretions. 
They all appear to form three different principles: The 
1st, a watery acrid matter; the 2d. a gum-resinous 
milky substance; and the 3d, an aromatic oily secretion. 
When the 1st of these predominates they are poisonous, 
as Ait.husa cynapium and Cicala maculata. The 2d in 
excess converts them into stimulants, as the Assafce- 
tida. The absence of the two renders them useful as es¬ 
culents, as t'elery. Parsley, Ac. The 3d causes them to 
be carminatives and pleasant condiments, as Pimpinella, 
Anisum, and Coriandum sativum. 


Apia'rian, a. Relating or pertaining to bees. 

A piarist, n. One who keeps an apiary. 

Apiary, n. [Lat. apiarius, from apis, a bee.] Th* 
place where bees are kept. 

Ap'ical, a. Relating to the apex or top. 

Ap'ices, Ap'exes. See Apex. 

Api'cian, n. One who loves good eating; a gourmand. 

Api'cius, the name of three celebrated lioman gluttons. 
The first lived under Sylla, the second under Augustin 
and Tiberius, and the third under Trajan. The second 
expeuded immense sums in gluttony, and was the in¬ 
ventor of several sorts of cakes. Finding his wealth re* 
dueed to a sum of $*50,000, he, thinking he must starve, 
poisoned himself. 

Apic'ulate, Apic'ulated. a. [From Lat. apex, a 
point.] Terminating in an abrupt short point or tip. 

A'phlsc, n. pi. (Zool.) The bees, an extensive family of 
insects, belonging to the ord. Hymenoplera. The spo- 
cies are numerous, and they possess a long proboscis 
which distinguishes them from tlie Andremdir. They 
are divided into several large groups, as the ParnirgkLe, 
solitary bees, which resemble the Andrenidse, and of 
whose habits little is known correctly. The Melectidee, 
or cuckoo-bees, which are parasitic, making use, as the 
cuckoo does, of the nests of other species. The Mega - 
chilidtr, containing a number of species, which, from their 
respective economy, are called mason-bees, and uphol¬ 
sterer-bees. Tiie species of the gen. Osmia construct 
their nests of minute grains of sand, cemented together 
with a glutinous secretion. The gen. Anthocopa is 
called the tapestry-bee, from its using portions of the 
wild scarlet poppy to form.its nests. The species of the 
gen. Megachile, on the other hand, form their nests in 
the trunks of decayed trees, and line them with pieces 
of leaves of a circular form, so admirably adjusted, that, 
although not covered with any coating of gum, they are 
honey-tight. The gen. Aiitlddium belongs to this group. 
The Scopulipedrs are named from the females having a 
very thick coating of hair upon their hind-legs. They 
make a loud humming noise when they fly. Among 
them are the carpenter-bees, A’ylocopa, which tunnel 
into wooden posts, palings, Ac., forming burrows to the 
length of 12 to 15 inches, and in. in diam. (See Fig. 944.) 
These lour groups are all solitary bees ; differing in this 
respect from the succeeding, called Sociales, which con¬ 
tains those species living in communities or societies. 
Among these is the gen. Bombus, or humble-bee, which 
forms its nests underground in meadows, Ac., and lives 
in societies consisting of 50 to 100 individuals. But the 
most important species of this group, and of the whole 
family, is the hive-bee, Apis melltfica, which, consider¬ 
ing its domestic importance, will he separately examined 
under the common name Bee. 



1. Osmia; 2. Anthidium; 3. Panurgus ; 4. Megachile. 

Apiece', adv. [ From a for each, and piece. .] To the par* 
or share of each. 

“ One copy of this paper may serve a dozen of you, which will 
be less than a farthing apiece.” 

— Eacli by itself; for one; as, they cost one dollar apiece, 

A'piine. n. [Lat. apium, parsley.] (Chem.) An uncrya* 
tallizable alkaloid from common parsley (apium pelrosev 
linum). Form. C 24 II 14 0i 3 . 

Apioeri'nus, n. (Pal.) A gen. of fossil Crinoidea be¬ 
longing to the oolitic formation. 

A'pion, n. (Zool.) A gen. of insects, family Curculitp 

nidat, q. v. 

A'pios, n. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, tribe Phaseolexe. The 
A.tuberosa, or ground-nut, is found in thickets and shady 
woods of the U. States, twining among other plants. 
Stem round. 2-4 ft. high; flowers dark purple. To the 
root are appended oval, fleshy tubercles, which are very 
nutritious. 

A'pis, n. [Lat.] (Zool.) A bee; a member of the fam- 
Apidce, q. v. 

(Myth.) A bull to which divine honors were paid by 
the Egyptians, chiefly at Memphis, where he had a tem¬ 
ple. According to the belief of the people, a cow became 
pregnant of him by a beam of light from heaven, com¬ 
ing particularly from the moon. It was necessary that 
he should be black, witli a triangle of white on the fore* 
head, a white spot, in the form of a crescent, on the right 

I side, and a sort of knot, like a beetle, under his tongua 





APOG 


APOL 


APOP 


123 


The death of Apis excited universal mourning, which 
continued till the priests had found a successor to him. 
As tt was extremely dftficult to find one with all the 
anove distinctions, fraud was often practised by the 
priests. 

ll>' isll, a. [From ope.] Having the qualities of an 
ape; imitative.— Silly; trifling; iusiguificant. — Fop¬ 
pish ; affected. 

“ Because I cannot flatter, and look fair, 

Duck with French nods and apish courtesy.”— Shaks. 

Ap'isllly, adv. In an apish manner; foppishly; con¬ 
ceitedly 

Apishness, n. Mimicry; foppery; insignificance; 
playfulness. 

Apisli'pa, in Colorado, a twp. of Los Animas co.-.pop. 893. 
Apis'tes, re. [From Ur. apistns, treacherous.] (Zoiil.) 
A gen. of acanthopterygious fishes belonging to the fain. 
Scorpionidrr. The species live in the Indian seas, and 
are characterized by their suborbital plates being armed 
with a long, sharp, very movable spine, which the fish 
can project from its cheek at pleasure, and of which it 
can make an offensive weapon. In a state of repose 
this spine is concealed 
A-pit'-pat, ailv. See Pit-a-pat. 

A |3imn. re. [A S. upon, water.] (Bot.) A gen. of plants, 
ord. Apiaceir. The stems of the species A. graveolens, 
the Celery, when blanched by being buried, are sweet, 
crisp, and spicy in flavor, and used as salad. See Celery. 
Aplanat'ic. a. [Gr. a, priv., and plan?, a wandering.] 
(Opt.) Applied to reflectors which deviate light without 
spherical aberration. 

Aplec'trnm, n. [Gr. a , priv., and plektron, a spur.] 
(Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Orchida- 
cece. — See Adam and Eve. 

Ap'lington, in Iowa, a post-office of 
Butter co. 

Aplus'tre,re. [Lat fromGr .aphlaston.] 

An ornament of wooden planks, which 
constituted the highest part of the poop 
of ancient ships. 

Apoc'alypse, n. [Gr. from apokalyp- 
to, I reveal.] ( Eccl. Hist.) The name of 
the last book of the New Testament, 
containing an account of the visions of 
St. John the Evangelist. It is generally 
believed, that the Apocalypse was writ¬ 
ten by John in his old age, at the end 
of the 1st century, in the isle of Patinos, whither he had 
been banished by the Roman emperorDomitian. Though 
the book was commonly regarded as genuine in the first 
Centuries of Christianity, critics have not been wanting 
who have doubted the evidence of its being the work of 
St. John. The A., on account of its metaphorical lan¬ 
guage, has been explained differently by almost every 
writer who has ventured to interpret it; and for the 
same reason, it is one of those parts of the Bible which 
has furnished all sorts of sects and fanatics with quota¬ 
tions to support their creeds or pretensions. — The A. 
contains 22 chapters, which may be divided into two 
principal parts. The first, after the title of the book 
(ch. i. 1-3), comprises “ the things which are,” that is, 
the then present state of the Christian Church, including 
the epistolary instructions and admonitions to the an¬ 
gels or bishops of the 7 churches of Ephesus, Smyrna, 
Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea, 
of Asia Minor. The second part comprises a prediction of 
“ the things which shall be hereafter,” referring either 
to the future state of the Church through succeeding 
ages, from the time when the apostle beheld the apoca¬ 
lyptic visions, to the grand consummation of all things, 
or the state of the souls of men after the great resur¬ 
rection of the dead. 

Apoe'alypt, n. A name applied to St. John, the author 
of the Apocalypse. 

Apot-aly p'tic, a. Containing or pertaining to reve¬ 
lation; disclosing; pertaining to the Apocalypse. 

— re. An apocalyptical writer. 

Apocalyp'lical, a. The same as apocalyptic. 
Apocar pous, a. [Gr. apo, and lcarpos, fruit.] (Bot.) 

Applied to pistils distinct from each other. See Carpel. 
Apo'cinuin,n. [Gr. apo, away; kyon, adog. Pliny says 
this plant is fatal to dogs.] (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. 
Apocynacece. — The dog's-bane, A. androseemifolium, is 
a smooth, elegant plant, with a stem reddened by the 
sun, 3 ft. high; corolla bell-shaped, white, striped with 
red. It is a medicinal plant, found in the U. States, in 
hedges and borders of fields. 

Apoo'opate, v. a. [From Apocope.] To take away the 
last letter or syllable of a word. 

Apoc'ope, re. [Lat. and Gr., from Gr. apo, from, and 
icoptein, to cut.] (Gram.) The taking away of the last 
letter or syllable of a word ; as inyeni for ingenii. 
Apoc'rypha, n. pi. [Lat. from Gr. apokrypto, to hide 
or conceal.] Literally, that which is hidden from: things 
not published. Generally applied to certain books not 
admitted into the canon of Scripture; being either 
spurious, or not acknowledged as of divine origin. They 
are opposed to the canonical writings, i. e. those which 
are considered as affording rules of faith and conduct, 
because a divine origin is attributed to them. 
Apoc'ryphal, a. Pertaining to the Apocrypha; not 
canonical; of uncertain authority or credit. 

** To speak of her in the words of the apocryphal writers, wisdom 
is glorious, and never fadeth away."— Addison. 

Apot^yphalist, re. An advocate for the Apocrypha. 
Apoc'ry plially, adv. In an apocryphal manner; with 
uncertainty. 

Apoc'ryphalnesi*, n. State or quality of being apoc¬ 
ryphal. 


Apocynacese, Dogbanes, n. pi. (Bot.) An ord. of 
plants, alliance Gentianales. Diag. No stipules and the 
stigmas collected into a massive head, expanded at the 
base in the form of a ring or membrane, and contracted 
in the middle. They are trees, shrubs, and herbs with a 
milky juice: leaves opposite, entire; calyx free, 5-parted, 
persistent; corolla 5-lobed. regular, twisted in aestiva¬ 
tion, deciduous; stamens 5, arising from the corolla; 
anthers adhering firmly to the stigma; ovaries 2, dis¬ 
tinct or rarely united; seeds numerous, pendulous; em¬ 
bryo foliaceous.—100 genera, 500 species, chiefly natives 
of the torrid zone.—These plants possess active and of¬ 
ten suspicious qualities residing in the white juice with 
which the order is pervaded, and in the seeds which are 
often deadly poisons. 

Ap odal, a. [Gr. a priv., and pous,podos, a foot.] (Zoiil.) 
Without feet, or destitute ofveutr.il fins. 

Apodic tic. A podie't ical. a. [Gr. apodeixis, a 
demonstration.] That is evident beyond contradiction. 
(r.) 

Ap'odon, n.; pi. Ap'oda. [See Apodal.] (Zoiil.) An ani¬ 
mal withoutfeet.—Also, an order of fishes characterized 
by Linnaeus as being composed of all those which are 
destitute of ventral fins. According to Cuvier's system, 
however, they must not only want ventral fins, but be 
likewise malacopterygious. Of this kind a good and 
familiar example is seen in the common eel. 

Apo<l'osis, re. [Gr. apodidomi, to give back.] (Gram.) 
A giving back ; a restitution ; a subsequent proposition 
or clause, which explains or gives back meaning to a 
preceding one, called the protasis. 

Ap ogee, v. [Gr. apo, away from, and ye, the earth.] 
(Astron.) The point in the moon’s orbit most remote 
from the earth.—.See Apsis. 

Ap'ograpJi, re. [Gr. apographonl] A copy or transcript 
of some book or writing,—in opposition to autograph. 

Apollinari* Water, an alkali water, containing 
carbonate of soda, from springs in the Rhine provinces. 

Apol'tla, a town of Saxony, 4 m. from Jena. It has 
thermal springs, and is a station on the railway from 
Berlin to Weimar. 

Apollina'ritis. the Younger, who flourished in the 
time of the emp. Julian, and d. about 382. Ileearly wrote 
and preached the orthodox faith, but he severed from it 
and was deemed a heretic; he thus became the founder 
of a sect called th e Apollinarians. This sect denied the 
proper humanity of Christ, and maintained that the 
body which lie assumed was endowed with a sensitive, 
but not a rational soul, and that the divine nature sup¬ 
plied the place of the intellectual principle in man. 
Their doctrines were first condemned at Alexandria in 
362, and afterwards more formally, by a council at Con¬ 
stantinople in 381, which deposed A. from his bishopric 
of Laodicea in Syria. He is said to have held the doc¬ 
trine of the Millennium, or the personal reign ofChrist 
on earth for 1,000 years. 

ApoI'Io, (Myth.) the son of Jupiter and Latona, called 
also Phoebus, is often confounded with the sun. Ac¬ 
cording to Cicero, there were four persons of this name 
To the son of Jupiter and Latona, however, all the 
actions of the others seem to have been attributed. As 
soon as he was born, Apollo destroyed with arrows the 
serpent Python, which Juno tiad sent to persecute La¬ 
tona. Apollo was the god of the fine arts, of medicine, 
music, poetry, and eloquence; of all these he was deemed 
the inventor. He had received from Jupiter the power 
of knowing futurity, and he was the only one of the 
gods whose oracles were in general repute over the 



Fig. 157. — apollo bei.videre. 
world. He is generally represented with long hair, tall, 
beardless, with a handsome shape, holding in his hand 
a bow, and sometimes a lyre. He had temples and 
statues in every country, particularly in Egypt, Greece, 


and Italy. The cock, the grasshopper, the wolf, the 
crow, the swan, the hawk, the olive, the laurel, the 
palm-tree, &c„ were sacred to him; and in his sacrifices, 
wolves and hawks were offered, as they were the natural 
enemies of the flocks over which he presided. Bullocks 
and lambs were also immolated to him. As he pre¬ 
sided over poetry, he was often seen on Mount Parnas¬ 
sus with the nine Muses, liis most famous oracles were 
at. Delphi, Delos, Claros, Tenedos, Cyrrha, and Patara. 
His most splendid temple was at Delphi, to which every 
nation and individual brought considerable presents 
when they consulted the oracle. He had a famous Co¬ 
lossus in Rhodes, which was one of the seven wonders of 
the world. Among the ancient statues of A. that have 
come down to us, the most remarkable is the one called 
Apollo Belvidere, (see Fig 157,) from the pavilion of 
Belvidere in the Vatican, at Rome; also called Pythian 
Apollo, because it is supposed that the artist has repre¬ 
sented the god as conqueror of the serpent Python. This 
statue, the best and most perfect that art has produced, 
was found in the ruins of Antium.at the end of the 15th 
century, and purchased by Pope Julius II. In 1797, it 
was carried to Paris, with o'her treasures of art, aud 
finally restored to Rome, 1815. 

A polio, in Pennsylvania, a post-village oi Armstrong 
co.. 42 m. N.E. of Pittsburg, on the river Kiskimiuetar 
and the Pennsylvania Canal. 

Apollotlo'rus, a famous Athenian painter,about b. c. 
408. Pliny records two of his pictures; one of a priest 
of Apollo at the altar, and the other representing the 
shipwreck of Ajax. 

Apollodo'rtis, b. at Damascus, and lived in the reigns 
of Trajan and Hadrian. Ilis fame as an architect caused 
the former to employ him in building a great stone bridge 
over the Danube, and other works. A. subsequently 
falling into disgrace with the emperor Hadrian, was put 
to death by his command. 

Apollo'nfus, of Perga, lived about B. c. 240. He was 
a mathematician at Alexandria, and wrote a work on 
conic sections which still survives. 

Apollo'nius Rfiodius, a Greek poet, b. in Egypt, 
but long residing at Rhodes, where he founded a school 
of rhetoric. He afterwards became keeper of the famous 
library of Alexandria, B. c. 149 lie wrote a poem, called 
Arg‘ naulica. which is still extant. 

Apollo'nius, a Pythagorean philosopher, b. at Tyana, 
about the beginning of the Christian aera. Applying 
himself to philosophic studies, he adopted the system 
introduced by Pythagoras, and travelled through the 
East, professing miraculous powers; inducing some to 
consider him as a rival to the founder of Christianity. His 
asceticism of life, the miracles and prophecies attributed 
to him, and the wisdom exhibited in his discourses, 
brought to him many followers, who erected statues and 
temples in his honor. D. at Ephesus, about A. D. 97. 
His life has been written by Philostratus. 

Apol'lyon, re. [Gr. apollyon, from upollyo, to destroy.] 
The same as Abaddon, q. v. 

Apologet'ic, Apologei'ieal, a. [Gr. apologelikos, 
iron) apo, from, and legein, to say.] That which is said 
in defence of any thing or person; as, an apologetic essay. 

Apolog-et'ically, adv. In the way of defence or 

excuse. 

Apologet'ics, n. pi. ( Theol .) That branch of theol¬ 
ogy which defends the holy Scriptures, and sets forth 
the evidence of their divine authority. 

Apol'ogist, n. One who makes an apology; one who 
speaks or writes in defence of another, or of something. 

Apologize, v. n. To make an apology; to speak in 
extenuation of; to write or speak in favor of, or to make 
excuse for. 

‘‘ I ought to apologize for my indiscretion."— Wake. 

Apol'ogizer, n. One who makes an apology; a de¬ 
fender. 

Ap'olog-ue, n. [Gr. apologos, from apo, from, away from, 
and logos, speech.] A poetical fiction, the purpose of 
which is the improvement of morals.—It is the Greek 
word for the Latin Fable, q.v. 

Apol'ogy, n. [Fr. apologie. Seo Apologetic.] Defence; 
excuse.— A. generally signifies rather excuse than vin¬ 
dication ; and tends rather to extenuate the fault, than 
prove innocence.—This is, however, sometimes disre¬ 
garded by authors. 

It is not my intention to make an apology for my poems.”— 

Lryden. 

Apomecom'etry, n. [From Gr. apo, from, mekos, 
length, and metran, measure.] The art of measuring 
things at a distance. 

A pollen ro sis, n. [From Gr. apo, from, and neuron, 
it nerve.] (Med.) A tendinous expansion. 

Apoph asis, re; pi. Apoph'ases. [Gr.,a denial.] (Rhet.) 
A figureof speech in which the orator briefly alludes to, 
or seems to decline stating, that which he wishes to in¬ 
sinuate. 

Apopltleg-'matic, re. and a. [From Gr. apo, from, and 
phlegma, phlegm.] (Med.) A medicine, or applied to a 
medicine which excites the secretion of mucus from the 
mouth and nose 

Ap'ophtheg-in. Ap'othegm, n. [Gr. apophthegina, a 
curt saying.] Literally, that which is spoken out or 
uttered plainly;—a terse, pointed saying; a short, sen¬ 
tentious, pregnant remark. — See Apothegmatic. 

Apophyge, re. [Gr. apo, from, and phyge, flight.] 
[Arch.) The scape or spring of a column. 

Apopliyl lite, re. [Or. apo, from, phyllon, a leaf, and 
lilhos, a stone.] (Min.) A tetragonal mineral, of a white 
pearly lustre; brittle; found in trap rocks. Spec, 
grav.. 2 335 to 2-359. Comp. Silica 55-5, lime 23-0, pot¬ 
ash 4 8, water 16-7 = 100. It exfoliates u.il, whence its 
name. 



Fig. 156. 

APLUSTllE. 

















124 


APOS 


APOS 


APPA 


Apoph ysis, n. [Gr. apo, from, and physis, birth.] 
(Anal.) A process, projection, or protuberance of a bone 
beyond a plain surface; as the nasal A. of the frontal 
bone. 

(Hot.) The fleshy tubercle under the basis of the 
capsule or dry fruit adhering to some mosses. 

Apoplec'tic, A poplec'tic.il, a. Pertaining to, or 
consisting of apoplexy. 

Ap'oplexed, a. Seized with an apoplexy. 

.Apoplexy, n. [Gr. apoplexia, from apo, from, and 
plesso, plexo, to strike; because persons, when seized 
with this disease, fall down suddenly ] (Med.) A disorder 
in which the patient is suddenly deprived of the exer¬ 
cise of all the senses, and of voluntary motion; while a 
strong pulse rent lins with a deep respiratiou, attended 
with stertor, and the appearance of profound sleep. 
A. makes its attack chiefly at an advanced period of life; 
and most usually on those who are of a corpulent habit, 
with a short neck, and large head; and who lead an in¬ 
active life, make use of a full diet, or drink to excess. 
The immediate cause of A. is a compression of the brain, 
produced either by an accumulation of blood in the 
vessels of -he head, and distending them to such a degree 
as to com oress the medullary portion of the brain; or 
by an effusion of blood from the red vessels, or of serum 
from the exhalants; which fluids are accumulated in 
such a quantity as to occasion compression. This 
state may be brought on by whatever increases the 
afflux and impetus of the blood in the arteries of the 
head; such as violent fits of passion, great exertions of 
muscular strength, severe exercise, excess in venery, 
stooping down for any ltngth of time, wearing any thing 
too tight about the neck, over-loading the stomach, long 
exposure to excessive cold or a vortical sun, the sudden 
suppression of any long-accustomed evacuation, the ap¬ 
plication of the fumes of certain narcotic and metallic 
substances, such as opium, alcohol, charcoal, mercury, 
&c., and by blows, wounds, and other external injuries; 
in short, apoplexy may be produced by whatever deter¬ 
mines too great a flow of blood to the brain, or prevents 
its free return from that organ.—.4. is sometimes pre- 
ce lod by headache, giddiness, dimness of sight, loss of 
memory, faltering of the tongue in speaking, numbness 
in the extremities, drowsiness, stupor, and night-mare, 
all denoting an affection of the brain; but it more 
usually happens that, without much previous indispo¬ 
sition, the person falls down suddenly, the countenance 
becomes florid, the face appears swelled and puffed up, 
the vessels of the head, particularly of the ueck and 
temples, seem turgid and distended with blood; the eyes 
are prominent and fixed, the breathing is difficult and 
performed with a snorting noise, and the pulse is strong 
and full. Although the whole body is affected with the 
loss of sense and motion, it nevertheless takes place 
often more upon one side than the other, which is called 
hemiplegia, and in this case the side least affected with 
palsy is sometimes convulsed.—If the fit is of long du¬ 
ration, the respiration laborious and stertorous, and the 
person much advanced in years, the disease, in all prob¬ 
ability, will terminate fatally. In soma cases, it goes 
off entirely; but it more frequently loaves a state of 
mental imbecility behind it, or terminates in a hemiple¬ 
gia, or in death. Even when an attack is recovered 
from, it most frequently returns again, after a short 
period of time, and in the end proves fatal. Although 
an attack of A. comes on, for the most part, suddenly 
and unexpectedly, yet it is often preceded by appear¬ 
ances which give warning of its approach. These are a 
high color of the whole face, giddiness or vertigo, sparks 
or flashes of light before the eyes, noises in the ears, 
bleeding at the nose, and pain in the head. The danger, 
in such cases, may most commonly be averted by bleed¬ 
ing, and abstemious diet, to be continued till these symp¬ 
toms are removed. When a person is unfortunately 
attacked by A., the first step should be to open the 
cravat and collar, so as to leave the neck free; if it be a 
short time after a meal, or if the last meal has been of 
an indigestible character, the stomach should be emptied 
by an emetic, or by tickling the throat with the finger, 
without waiting for a physician, and, at, the same time, 
a vein or two should be opened, so as to produce a free 
flow of blood, which should be continued, if the face is 
flushed and red, till relief is obtained. Subsequent treat¬ 
ment will of course be directed by a medical attendant. 

Apa'ria, n. [Gr.] (-ff/tsf.i A figure by which the speaker 
intimates that he is in doubt what to do, or where to 
begin. 

Apasiope'sis, n. [Gr.] A form of speech by which the 
speaker, from strong feeling, breaks off suddenly, sup¬ 
pressing a part of his speecu to be meutally supplied 
by his hearers. 

Apos'tasy, n. [Gr. apostasis, from, apo, from, and his- 
temi, to stand.] The abandonment of any system of 
thinking or acting, good or bad: but the word is gen¬ 
erally used in a reproachful sense, of one who has 
changed his religious opinions.—What one party calls 
apostasy is termed by the other conversion. 

(Hist.) History mentions three eminent apostates; 
Julian the apostate, who had never been a Christian ex¬ 
cept nominally and by compulsion; Henry IV., king of 
France, who thought that “Paris vaut bint une messe 
and William of Nassau, the Stadtholder, who separated 
himself from the Catholic church, and became a Prot¬ 
estant. 

Apos'tate, n. [Gr. apostates; Fr. apostat.] One who 
stands aloof; one who renounces his religion or professed 
principles, or his party; a renegade. 

— a. False; traitorous. 

Apos tat ize, v. n. [Fr. apostasier.] To stand away or 
depart from; to abandon one's religion, principles, 
church, or party. 


A posterio'ri. [Eat., from the latter.] {Logic.) A 

mode of reasoning from the effect to the cause;—opposed 
to a priori. 

Apos'til, n. [Fr. apostille.] A marginal note to a book. 

Apostle, n. [Fr. apulre; Lat. apostolus; Gr .apostolus, 
from apo-stello, to send off or away from.] One who is 
sent off or away from; one sent on some important 
mission; a messenger; amissionary. 

( Eccl. Hist.) The name given, in the Christian church, 
to the 12 men whom Jesus selected from his disciples as 
the best instructed in bis doctrines, and the fittest in¬ 
struments for the propagation of his religion. Their 
names were as follows: Simon Peter (Greek lor Caiaphus, 
the rock), and Andrew bis brother; James the greater, 
and John his brother, who were sons of Zebedee; Philip 
of Bethsaida, Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew; James 
the son of Alpheus, commonly called James the less; 
Lebbeus, his brother, who was surnamed Thaddeus, and 
was called Judas, or Jude; Simon the Canaanite, and 
Judas Iscariot. Of this number, Simon Peter, John, 
James the greater, and Andrew were fishermen; and 
Matthew, a publican or tax-gatherer. When the apos¬ 
tles were reduced to 11 by the suicide of Judas, who had 
betrayed Christ, they chose Matthias by lot, on the prop¬ 
osition of St. Peter. Soon after, their number became 
13, by the miraculous vocation of Saul, who, under the 
name of Paul, became one of the most zealous propaga¬ 
tors of the Christian faith. The Bible gives the name 
of apostle to Barnabas also, who accompanied Paul on 



(Copied from a picture of the Kith century, by Fra Bartolomeo, 
Gallery of the Pitti Palace, Florence.) 

his missions (Acts of the Ap. ch. xiv. ver. 13), and Paul 
bestows it also on Andronicus and Junia, his relations, 
and companions in prison. Generally, however, the 
name is used, in a narrower sense, to designate those 
whom Christ selected himself while on ea-th, and Paul, 
whom he afterwards called. In a still wider sense, 
preachers who first taught Christianity in heathen coun¬ 
tries, are sometimes termed apostles; e. g., St. Denis, the 
A. of the Gauls ; St. Boniface, the A. of Germany; the 
monk Augustine, the A. of England; the Jesuit Francis 
Xavier, the A. of the Indies; Adalbert of Prague, A. of 
Prussia Proper. — Paul was the only A. who had received 
a scientific education; the others were mechanics. Peter, 
Andrew, and John are called in the Scriptures (Acfs ch. 
iv. ver. 13), homines sine Uteris, idiotic. Peter employed 
his disciple St. Mark in writing the Gospel which bears 
his name. During the life of the Saviour, the A. more 
than once showed a misunderstanding of the object of 
his mission; and, during his sufferings, evinced little 
courage and firmness of friendship for their great and 
benevolent teacher. After his death, they received the 
Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost, that they might be 
enabled to fulfil the important duties for which they 
had been chosen. Of their subsequent lives, all that 
we know will be found under their respective names. 

Apos't or Apostoles Islands, in the Strait of 
Magellan, at its entrance into tiie Pacific, near Cape 
Deseada; Lon. 75° 6' W.; Lat. 54° 34' S. They are 12 
in number, which circumstance gave them their name. 
All are small, barren, and deserted. 

Apos'tleship, n. The office of an apostle. 

Apos'tolate, n. A mission; the dignity or office of an 
apostle. 

Apostol'ic, Aposfol'ical, a. Pertaining or relating 
to the apostles, or in accordance with their doctrines. 

(Eccl. Hist.) The earlier Christian Church was called 
the A. Church, because the apostles at first conducted it. 
So, also, the Papal See is called the A. See. because it is 
supposed to have been founded by the apostle Peter.— 
The A. symbol is a short summary of the Christian 
faith, and bears this name because it contains, in three 
articles, the doctrines of the apostles. This apostolical 
symbol is found even in the writings of Ambrose, who 
lived in the beginning of the 4th century. Peter Gna- 
pheus,in the 5th century, ordered the constant repetition 
of the same in the church-service. 

Apostol'ically, ado. In the manner of the apostles. 


Apostol'icalness. Apostol'icism. Apostoi 

iie'ity, n. The quality of being apostolic. 

Apostol'ics, n. pi. (Eccl. Hist.) The name of thre< 
sects who professed to imitate the manners and practice 
of the apostles. The first flourished at the close of the 
2d century, and the second existed in the 12th century. 
Little is known of them. The third was founded about 
1260, by Gerhard Sagarelli, who was burnt as a heretic 
A. d. 1300, and was succeeded as chief apostle by Dolcino, 
a learned man of Milan, who was also burnt at Vercelli, 
a. d. 1307. 

Apos'trophe, n. [Gr. from apo-strepho. to turn away 
trom.] (Rhet.) A figure of speed) by which an orator 
turns from his subject to address a person either absent 
or dead, as if he was present. 

(Cram.) A mark (’) indicating that a word is con¬ 
tracted; as, lov’d for loved. — Also, the sign of the pos¬ 
sessive case; as, “Peter’s book.” 

Apostroph'ic, a. Pertaining to an apostrophe. 

Apostrophize, v. a. To address by apostiophe. 

Apotlie'ea, n. [Lat., from Gr. apothelt. J (Antiq.) A 
place in the upper part of the house, where the Romans 
frequently placed the earthen amphora* in which their 
wines were deposited. — See Piiahmacy. 

— An apothecary’s shop. 

Apoth'eeary, n. [Lat .apotheca; Gr . opothiki — ap<\ 
and Ihtke, a chest, a case to put anything in, from tithemy 
to put or place.] One who prepares and sells drugs ot 
medicines. 

Apotlic'cilllll, ft.; pi. Apothfcia. [N. Lat.] (Bot.) Tht 
shield or shield-shaped fructification of most lichens. 

Ap'otheg'in, n. See apophtiiigm. 

Apothegmat'ic, Apolliegniat'ical, a. In tla. 

manner of an apothegm, or apophthegm. 

Apotheg'niatist, n. A collector or maker of apo¬ 
thegms or apophthegms. 

Apotheg'inatize, v. n. To utter apothegms or apoph¬ 
thegms. 

Apotheo'sis, n. [Fr. apotheose; Gr. apotheosis, from 
apo, from, and Theos, God.] A deification; the placing 
of a prince or other distinguished person among the 
heathen deities. 

(Hist.) It was one of the doctrines of Pythagoras, 
which he had borrowed from the Chaldees, that virtuous 
persons, after their death, were raised into the order of 
the gods. And hence the ancients deified all the inventors 
of tilings useful to mankind, and w ho had done any im¬ 
portant service to tiie commonwealth. ’I he Romans, for 
several centuries, deified none but Romulus, and first 
initiated the Greeks in the fashion of frequent A. after 
tiie time of Augustus Caesar. From this period, A. was 
regulated by the decrees of the senate, and accompanied 
with great solemnities. It became at last so frequent 
as to be an object of contempt. Tiie period of tiie Ro¬ 
man emperors, so rich in crime and folly, otters the most 
infamous instances of A. After Ctesar, the greater part 
of tiie Roman emperors were deified. Tiie same hand 
which had murdered a predecessor often placed him 
among the gods. The savage Nero deified the beautiful 
Poppsea, after having killed her by a kick when she 
was pregnant. Constantinns had tiie double advantage 
of being deified by tiie religion which he had persecute? 
and canonized by that which he supported. 

Apothe'osize. v. a. To deify, (it.) 

Apoth'esis, n. [Gr. from apo, from, and tithemi, to 
replace] ( Surg ) The reduction of a dislocated bone, ac¬ 
cording to Hippocrates. 

Apot'oine, n. [Gr. apntemeo, to cut off.] ( Mus .) The 
difference between the greater and the lesser semitone, 
being expressed by the ratio of 128 to 125. 

(Geom.) Tiie difference between two incommensurable 
lines or quantities. Tims the difference between the 
side of a square and its diagonal is the apotome, and ig 
represented numerically by the expression p2—1.-, 
Brande. 

Ap'ozein. n. [Gr. apozema, from apo, from, and zto, t# 
boil.] I Med.) A decoction. 

Apozem'ical, a. Like a decoction. 

Appal', v. a.; pp. Appalling, Appalled. [Lat. palleo, 
to grow pale.] To cause to grow pale or turn pale; to 
take away or deaden vital energy or power; to depress 
with fear: to terrify; to dismay; to discourage. — Some¬ 
times also written appall. 

— v. n. To grow faint; to be dismayed, (o.) 

Appala chian, or Alleghany Mountains, in the U. 
States, a great mountain-system extending in a general 
direction from S.W. to N.E., from the northern confines 
of Georgia and Alabama, in Lat. 34° N., and terminating 
in a series of mountain-ranges of granite formation on 
the S. shores of the St. Lawrence; its total length is 
1,200 m ,with a breadth varying from 90 to 150. Alle¬ 
ghany is the name given to it N. of the Potomac; S. of 
this river it is called Appalachian. This chain con¬ 
sists of a succession of nearly parallel ridges having dif¬ 
ferent names, and running in their greater extent nearly 
parallel to tiie coast of tiie Atlantic Ocean, at a distance 
from it of from 50 to 130 m. These, retiring more into the 
interior as they proceed S., are now and again intersected 
by rivers, and separated by generally narrow valleys; and 
are divided into two principal ranges, the Alleghany 
Mountains proper, and the Bine Mountains. The former, 
the more westerly of the two, maintains throughout its 
entire length, a distance of from 240 to 300 m. from 
the Atlantic, an almost uniform elevation of 3,000 ft. 
above the level of the sea. It rises near the great bend 
of the river Tennessee, in the S. part of Alabama, and 
from thence runs N.E. till it reaches the northern fron¬ 
tier of Virginia, where it trends toward the N.W. In 
Pennsylvania, it again takes a course N.E., and ramifies 
over all the central parts of that State. ‘Near the source 
of the S. branch of the Susquehanna, it divides into two 






























APPA 


APPE 


APP1 


125 


branches, the principal of which forms an easterly bend, 
and after passing the Susquehanna, terminates in the 
Catskill mountains, one of the highest elevations of the 
N. Alleghany range. The principal rivers debouching 
from this mountain-chain, are the Alleghany, the Mu- 
nongahela, the Greenbrier, Kanawha, and Cumberland, 
on the W.; and the Delaware, Susquehanua, Potomac, 
and James river on the E. These, at their upper ex¬ 
tremities but inconsiderable mountain-streams, after 
many and devious windings, unfold themselves into 
rivers of magnitude.—The E. chain, known as the Blue 
Ridge, or Blue. Mountains, is much narrower than the 
Alleghany, but runs generally parallel with it. Fromits 
culminating point. Mount Mitchell in North Carolina, 
6,775 ft. above sea-level, it reaches into Virginia, and 
there bisects into two distinct wings, one trending 
through the N.E. States into Canada as far as Quebec, 
the other keeping a course W. to Kingston, in the upper 
division of that country. The basin between these two 
branches is called the Appalachian valleg, and is of the 
earlier limestone formation. From Upper Canada, the W. 
bifurcation turns to the N.W. and effects a junction with 
the Rocky Mountains. The Blue Mountains average in 
height a mean of about 1,500 ft., and at their base are 
about 9 m. in breadth. Their highest summits are 
White-top, said to possess an altitude of 6,000 ft.; and 
Powell’s, in the ridge farthest W., which reaches 4,500 
ft. From the Blue Mountains flow the rivers Roanoke, 
Pedee, Santee, Savannah, and Altamaha on the E.; the 
Alabama and the Mobile on the S.; and the Tennessee 
on the W. The N. and S. mountains of Virginia are 
ramifications of the A. chain, extending into the l'er- 



Fig. 159.— VIEW OF otter PEAKS (Virginia). 


tile valley which lies between its two great divisions. 
On the W. of the Alleghany lie the Laurel Moun¬ 
tains, which run in a parallel course with that range. 
To the E. of the Hudson river are the Green Mountains, 
with their adjuncts the Taghconnne, and Mount Tom, 
both rising in Connecticut near New Haven. The former, 
after intersecting Vermont, throws out a succession of 
detached summits as far as Cape Gaspe; while the latter 
takes a line through New Hampshire into Lower Can¬ 
ada. E. of Mount Tom are found the White Mountains, 
a group of dome-shaped configuration, the highest sum¬ 
mit of which is Mount Washington, at an altitude of 
6,234 ft. above sea-level, and the most elevated point 
in New England. All of these out-lying ranges are 
distinguished from those of the A. properly so called, 
lying to S. and W. of the Hudson, by their line of exten¬ 
sion forming a parallel to that of the principal rivers, 
and perpendicular to the sea-coast. Naked summits are 
the exception in these mountains, which are for the 
most part wooded to the very top. Their strata consists 
of granite, gneiss, mica, and clay slate, and the primitive 
limestone. In the N., the more elevated portions are 
chiefly composed of primary rocks, in which are em¬ 
bedded vast deposits of coal and iron of immense value. 
(See Mineral Coal.) Marble, slate, copper, zinc, chrome, 
&c., are also abundant in different parts of the A. range. 

Appallachee'. See Apalachee. 

Appallachico'Ia. See Apalachicola. 

Appall', v. a. See Appal. 

Appall'ing', a. Tending to depress courage. 

Appallingly, adv. In an appalling manner. 

Appal'ment, n. Depression from fear; discouragement. 

Ap panage, n. See Apanage. 

Appanoose', in Iowa, a S. county, bordering on Mis¬ 
souri, and watered by Chariton river, and by Walnut 
and Cooper creeks. Area, 492 sq. m.; surface level; soil 
fertile; capital Centreville. 

Appanoose', in Illinois, a post-village and township 
of Hancock co., abt. 6 m. N.E. of Nativoo. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 800. 

Apparatus, n.; ^.Apparatus or Apparatuses. [Lat. 
from ad, and paro, to prepare, to provide.] A prepara¬ 
tion ; things provided; furniture; instruments; tools; 
equipage; a complete set of instruments or utensils for 
performing any operation or experiment. 

(Phys .) Applied to the series of organs concurring in 
the performance of any function of the animal economy. 

Appar'el, n. [Fr. appareil, from purer, to dress or set 
off] Suitable covering or clothing fitting to the person. 
Equipment; clothes; robes; vesture; vestments; rai¬ 


ment ; garniture; trappings ; housings; caparison; deco- ] 
rations; furniture of a ship. 

— v. a. To prepare or provide; to clothe: to dress; to array; 
to adorn; to deck. 

■* She did apparel her apparel, and with the preciousneas of her 
body made it more sumptuous."— Sidney, 

Appar'eilt, a. [Fr.; Lat. apparens, from apparen. See 
Appear.] Appearing plainly, or appearing probably. In 
usage it is equally divided between the palpable and the 
questionable.—Obvious ; plain; conspicuous ; unmistak¬ 
able; clear; probable: seeming: presumable; likely. 

(Math., Astron., and Opt.) It denotes things as they ap¬ 
pear to us, in contradistinction from what they really 
are; thus we say, the apparent diameter, distance, mag¬ 
nitude, place, figure, &c. of bodies.— A. conjunction of 
the. planets is, when a right line, supposed to be drawn 
through their centres, passes through the centre of the 
earth. And, in general, the A. conjunction of any objects 
is, when they appear, or are placed in the same right line 
with the eye. 

Apparently, adv. Openly; evidently; seemingly; in 
appearance.—It admits the sense of questionableness yet 
more strongly than the adjective.— See Apparent. 

Apparent ness, n. Quality of being apparent. 

Appari'tion, n. [Fr., from Lat. apparitio.] An ap¬ 
pearance; the thing appearing; a visible object. 

“ The heavenly Janas 
Down from a sky of jasper lighted now 
In Paradise, and in a hill made halt; 

A glorious apparition — Milton . 

— A. is also the term used for an effect by which the mind 
operates on the sense, instead of the sense on the mi nd; 
or when the sense is diseased and transmits false ideas 
to the mind; two causes which have been the fruitful 
source of numberless superstitions and tales among the 
credulous and ignorant. Hence the idea of ghosts, 
spectres, phantoms, and supernatural visions. 

(Astron.) It signifies a star or other luminary's becom¬ 
ing visible, which before was hid. It stands opposed to 
occultation. The circleof A. is an imaginary line, within 
which the stars are always visible in any given latitude. 

Appar'itor, n. [Lat.] Among the Romans, a general 
term to comprehend all attendants of judges and magis¬ 
trates, appointed to receive and execute their orders. 

Appeal', v. n. [Fr. appeler; from Lat. appello — ad, and 
obsol. pello, to speak.] To call to or upon; to call by 
name.—To refer to a superior judge or court.—To refer 
to another as judge or umpire; to address one’s self to 
the feelings, &c. of an audience; to speak in terms of 
request or entreaty to another, used with to, as invoking 
aid or interference. 

— v. a. To call or remove a cause from a lower to a supe¬ 
rior judge or court; to accuse, (o.) 

— n. A reference to another; an address to the judgment 
or feelings of an audience; accusation; summons; re¬ 
course ; resort. 

(Law.) Act of appealing; the removal of a cause from 
an inferior to a superior court, tbrtlie purpose of testing 
the soundness of the decision of the inferior court. In 
an appeal, the whole matter is heard as if there had 
been no previous trial.—Iu English criminal law, an A. 
was au accusation by a private person against another 
for some heinous crime, demanding punishment on ac¬ 
count of the particular injury suffered, rather than for 
the offence against the public. 

(Legisl.) The act by which a member of a legislative 
body, who questions the correctness of a decision of the 
presiding officer, or chairman, procures a vote of the 
body upon the decision. In the House of Representatives 
of the United States the question of an A. is put to the 
House in this form: “ Shall the decision of the chair 
stand as the judgment of the House?”—If the A. relates 
to an alleged breach of decorum, or transgression of the 
rules of order, the question is taken without debate. If 
it relates to the admissibility or relevancy of a proposi¬ 
tion, debate is permitted, except when a motion for the 
previous question is pending. 

Appeal'able, a. That may be appealed. 

Vppeal'er, n. One who appeals. 

Appear', V. n. [Lat. appareo — ad, and pareo, to appear; 
Fr. apporaitre.] To come to some thing or place so as 
to be visible; to come or be in sight.—To become visible. 

“ In that night did God appear unto Solomon.”—2 Chron. i. 7. 

— To come before another to give account or receive 
judgment. — To be obvious. 

” Let thy work appear unto thy servants.”— Ps. cx. 16. 

— To be clear; to seem: to look. 

Appear'ance, «. The act of appearing or of coming 
into sight. The presentation of an object to the eye: 
the object so represented; its general character, and the 
ideas or indications wiiich it may suggest, as in the 
phrases, “ he made his appearance ,” ” his personal aji- 
jMarance,'” “an ugly appearance,” “to all appearance.” 
Advent: apparition; manifestation; probability; aspect: 
likelihood: evanition. 

(Law.) Personal presence; a being present in court, 
whether as plaintiff or defendant. A time is generally 
fixed within which the defendant must enter liis A.— 
A failure to appear generally entitles the plaintiff to 
judgment by default against the defendant. 

Appear'er, n. One who appears. 

Appearing, n. The act of appearing. 

Appear'ingly, adv. Seemingly; apparently. 

Appeas'able, a. That may he appeased. 

Appeas'ableness, n. The quality of being easily 
appeased. 

Appease', v. a. [Fr. appaiser, from Lat. pax, pads, 
peace.] It is applied to the abatement of the wants or 
passions of men. To pacify: to assuage; to mitigate; 
to moderate; to satisfy; to stay; to allay; to soften. 


Appease'ment, n. Act of appeasing. 

Appeas'er, n. One who pacifies, appeases, or calms. 

Appeas'ive. Having the power of appeasing. 

Appel'lant, n. (Law.) The party who makes or bringl 
an appeal from one jurisdiction to another. The party 
resisting the appeal is called respondent or appellee. 

Appella'tion, n. [Fr., from Lat. appettatio.] Th« 
word by which a person or thing is called; name; title 
term; denomination. 

Appellative, a. (Gram.) Pertaining to an appelia 
tiou, or a common name; common to many; general. 

— n. An appellation; a common name: a name whick 
stands for a whole class, genus, or species of beings, o» 
for universal ideas; as, a man, a horse. 

Appel'latively, adv. As an appellative. 

Appel'la ti veil ess, re. State or quality of being ap 
pellative. 

Appel'latory, a. Containing an appeal. 

Appellee', n. (Law.) The party resisting an appeal 
See Appil ant. 

Appellor', n. (Law.) A criminal who accuses his 
accomplices; one who challenges a jury, &c. 

Append', v. a. [Fr. appendre, from Lat. ad, and pend'. 
to cause to hang down.] To hang one tiling on to an 
other, as a seal to a record. — To fasten, as by a string, 
hence, to add as an appendage, as a supplement or index 
to a book. — To affix; to supplement; to subjoin. 

Append'age, n. Something appended or added: at 
adjunct; a concomitant; a subordinate part; as, “Mod¬ 
esty is the appendage of sobriety.” 

Appeml'ailt, a. Hanging to; annexed: attached. 

(Law.) A thing of inheritance belonging bi auothei 
inheritance which is worthier. 

—re. That which hangs to, or belongs to another thing 
as incidental or subordinate to it. 

Appen'tlicle, re. A small appendage. 

Appenilic'ulate, a. ( Bot .) Having an appendice, 
as Petiolus uppendiculatus, a petiol that lias a small 
leaf or leaves at the base. 

Appen'dix, re.: pi. Appendixes or Appendices, lL at, 
from ad, and pendo, to cause to hang down; the Lat. plu¬ 
ral is appendices.] Something appended ; an appendage; 
a supplement. See Appendicitis, in Section II. 

(Liter.) A treatise or supplement added to the end 
of a work, to render it more complete. 

Appense', a. [Lat. appendo, to attach to.] (Bot.) Hang¬ 
ing from above. 

Appenzell', a canton of Switzerland, consisting of 
two independent republics: A.-Ausser-rhoden, or A 
Exterior, and A.-Inner-rhoden, or A. Interior. Both 
divisions are entirely enclosed within the canton of St. 
Gall, and unitedly present an area of 152 sq. in. — Dose. 
Mountainous, particularly iu the S , where Mont Sentis 
rises to 8,232 feet, and forms an extensive glacier. It is 
divided into what are called the outer and inner Rhodes, 
the latter of which is an agricultural district, and the 
former manufacturing. Man/. Linen and cotton goods, 
dyeing, embroider} - . and various other brandies of indus¬ 
try.— Fivers. The Sittern is the principal.— Towns. Ap¬ 
penzell and Trugen, Gais and Herisau. Pop. 1890, 
66,000. A. is a corruption of Latin. Abbatis Celia, Ab 
tenzelle. Abbots’ Cell, or Church. 

Appenzell', the capital of Inner-rhoden, in the above can 
ton, 2,538 ft. above sea-level, 6 m. S.W. of Trogen, 7 m 
S. of St. Gall; Lat. 47° 30' N.; Lon. 9° 24' E. Pop. 3,463 

Appenzel'ler, re. An inhabitant of the canton of 
Appenzell. 

Appercep'tion,re. ( Mctaph.) Self-consciousness; con¬ 
sciousness. 

Ap'person's, in Virginia, a village of Charles City co. 

Appertain', v. n. [Fr. uppartenir ; Lat. ad, and per- 
tineo, to pertain; from per, and tenr.o, to hold.] To per 
tain to; to belong to; to relate to; to concern. 

Apper tenanee, re. Same as Appurtenance. 

Appete', v. a. [Lat. appetn, to seek after.] To desire. 

Ap'petenee, Ap'petency, re. [Lat. appetentia , 
from ad, and peto, to seek.] A seeking, striving, or long¬ 
ing after; desire; sensual appetite; instinctive propen¬ 
sity ; tendency; attraction. 

Ap'petent, a. [Lat . appetens.] Very desirous. 

Ap petite, re. [Fr. appetit, from Lat appelitus, natural 
desire.] A longing after anything; propensity of nature, 
eagerness or longing for sensual gratifications. 

“ Who is there that has not instigated his appetites by indu# 
gence ? ”— Johnson. 

—A craving or relish for food; hunger.—See Hunger. 

Ap'petitive, a. That desires; as, the appetitive part of 
our nature. 

Ap'petize, v. a. To create an appetite. 

Ap petizer, n. That which appetizes. 

Ap'piail, of Alexandria, manager of the Imperial rev¬ 
enues uuder Adrian. Trajan, and Antoninus Pius, in 
Rome. He wrote a Roman history, from the earliest 
times to those of Augustus, in 24 books, of which only 12 
have come down to us. 

Ap'pian Way, or Via Appia. Was constructed by 
Appius Claudius Cajcus, abt. 300 u. C., to extend from 
Rome to Capua, 125 m. It is tlie most celebrated of the 
old Roman roads. See also Rome. 

Appia'ni, Andrea, a distinguished painter in lresco, B. 
at Milan, Italy, 1750. On the occupation of Lombardy 
by the French, A. was sought out by them and sent to 
Paris to assist at the coronation of Napoleon. He be¬ 
came first painter to the Imperial court, and a member 
of the principal European academies. The series of 
frescos painted by order of Napoleon for the royal 
palace at Milan is his greatest work. D. 1818. 

Ap'pii), in Scotland, a district of Argyleshire, in the 
Highlands, formerly the country of the Stuarts. 

Appius, Claudius Crassinus, a Roman decemvir, (4f.j 
to 449 b. C.) Being passionately in love with Virginia 
















326 


APPL 


APPL 


APPO 


daughter of Virgin ins a respectable plebeian absent with 
the army, he persuaded M. Claudius, his client, to gain 
possession of her, under the pretence that she was the 
daughter of one of his slaves. The people compelled him 
to set her at liberty; but Claudius summoned tier before 
the tribunal of A., who decided that the pretended slave 
sliould be given up to her master. Afoartul disturbance 
arose, and the decemvir was compelled to leave Virginia 
in the hands of her family; but he declared that lie 
would pronounce his decision the next day. Virginius, 
hurriedly recalled from the army by his friends, appeared 
and claimed his daughter; but, after another mock trial, 
she was again adjudged to be the property of Marcus 
Claudius. To save his daughter from dishonor, the un¬ 
happy father seized a knife and slew her. The popular 
indignation excited by the case was headed by the sena¬ 
tors Valerius and Horatius, who hated the decemvirate. 
The army returned to Rome with Virginius, who had 
carried the news to them, and the decemviri were deposed. 
A. C. died in prison, by his own hand (as Livy states), 
or was strangled by order of the tribunes.—Alfieri has 
written a tragedy on the death of Virginia. 

Applaud', v. a. [Lat. applaudo , from ad, and plaudere, to 
clap the hands; F'r. aplaudir.] To clap with the hands at; 
to praise by clapping the hands, beating with the feet, 
&c.—To praise, but on the pure ground of approval. So, 
we applaud acts, words, sentiments, performances, mo¬ 
tives—in short, things good; not the aristocratic, the 
powerful, or the beautiful.—To laud; to approve; to en¬ 
courage : to cheer. 

Applautl'er, n. One who applauds. 

Applause', n. [Lat. applaasux; see Applaud.] Appro¬ 
bation and praise expressed by clapping the hands; ac¬ 
clamations or huzzas; plaudits; commendation; appro¬ 
bation. 

Applau'si ve, a. Applauding; containing applause. 

Ap'ple, n. [A. S. (E pi, apel, appel ; tier, a/fel.} The fruit 
of the Pyrus malus, a species of the genus Pyrus, q. v. 
All the different kinds of apple-trees now in cultivation 
are usuaily regarded as mere varieties of the one species 
which in its wild state is known as the crab-tree, Pyrus 
acerba, Fig. 160. This plant is found in woods and waysides 
in most of the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere. 
Its fruit is austere and unpalatable, but is sometimes 
gathered for the sake of its acid juice, which, when fer¬ 
mented, forms the liquid called verjuice, used in cookery 
and for purifying wax. The Romans are said to have had 
22 varieties of the Pyrus mains, or cultivated A .-tree. At 
the present time it is, perhaps, the most widely-diffused 
and valuable of all fruit-trees; and the varieties, which 
are adapted to almost every soil, situation, ami climate 
in the temperate zone, have become exceedingly numer¬ 
ous. About 1,000 varieties are cultivated in the U. 
States. The apple-tree seldom reaches a greater height 
than 30 ft., but its large round head makes up for the 
want of height; and, altogether, it is a noble-looking 
tree, especially when in full blossom. The flowers grow 
In bunches, and have a very fragrant odor. They are 



Fig. 160.— CRAB-TREE, OR S0UR-FRCITED APPLE-TREE. 
(Pyrus acerba.) 

Flower and fruit; natural size. 


white inside, anil have a delicate tinge of pink exter¬ 
nally. The tree is not always allowed to ramify in 
a natural manner, but is sometimes trained as an es¬ 
palier, or as a wall-tree. New varieties are being continu¬ 
ally developed; and as they are generally propagated by 
grafting, the old ones gradually die out. The variety 
that produced the costard, or custard, which was at one 
time a favorite kind of apple, does not now exist, though 
Ac name of costermongers ( costard-mongers ) is still re¬ 
tained for itinerant venders of apples. The apple is 
usually grafted on apple or cvab-stocks ; but sometimes 
hawthorn stocks are used. For producing dwarf-trees, 
stocks of the paradise-apple, a very diminutive variety, 
are usually employed. The apple (alluding now to the 
fruit, and not to the tree producing it) varies greatly in 
form size, and color. It is regarded by botanists as the 


type of the kind of fruit to which they have applied the 
term pome, q. v. The eatable part has a more or less 
aromatic, sweet, or sub-acid taste, and contains starch, 
grape-sugar, and malic acid. Apples are commonly 
divided into dessert, baking, and cider-making fruits; 
the first being highly flavored, the second such as become 
soft in baking or boiling, and the third those which are 
hard and austere. Apples are also classed under the 
general names of Pippins, Pearmains, Rennets, Colvilies, 
Russets, Codlins, Ac. The uses of the apple for culinary 
and conserving processes are sufficiently well known. 
Cider, the fermented juice of the apple, is a favorite 
drink in many parts of England and France, and 
in some places of the United States. Malic acid, ex¬ 
tracted from the apple, has long been used in medi¬ 
cine, and has latterly been largely employed as a mor¬ 
dant in dyeing. — See Cider, Malic Acid, and Pyrus for 
the scientific character of the genus. 

Apple of the eye, the pupil of the eye. 

Ap'plebaehsville, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Bucks co. 

Ap'ple-berry. See Billardiera. 

Ap'ple-blight, n. (Zool.) The aphis of the apple-tree. 
See Aphis. 

Apple-bran'dy, Apple-jack', n. A liquor dis¬ 
tilled from cider; cider-brandy. 

Ap'pleby, in England, a borough and chief town of 
the county of Westmoreland, on the Eden. It possesses 
an ancient castle, which during the civil war was gar¬ 
risoned by the heroic Countess of Pembroke against the 
Parliamentary forces. Pp. 3,565. 

Apple Creek, in Illinois, falling into the river Illinois 
in Greene co 

Apple Creek, in Missouri, a village of Cape Girardeau 
co., about 170 m. S E. of Jefferson city. 

—A stream in Henry co., falling into Grand river. 

Apple Creek, in Ohio, a post-office of Wayne co. 

Ap'pledore, a small seaport of England, in the co. of 
Devon, on Barnstaple Bay. It is a bathing resort during 
the summer months. 

Ap'plegatc, in Oregon, a post-village and township of 
Jackson co. 

Ap'ple Grove, in Alabama, a township of Morgan 
co. 

Ap'ple Grove, in Ohio, a post-office of Meigs co. 

Ap'ple Grove, in Pennsylvania, a village of York co. 

Ap'ple- John, n. A variety of apple. 

Ap'ple of Discord. See Discord. 

Ap'ple of Peru. See Micandra. 

Ap'ple of Sodom. See Solanum. 

Ap'ple-pie order, a colloquial expression denoting 
perfect order. 

Ap'ple River, in Illinois, a river which rises in Jo 
Daviess co., and takes a S. course toward the Mississippi, 
which it enters in Carroll co. 

—A post-township of Jo Daviess co. 

Ap'ple River, in Wisconsin, is a small stream in 
Dallas co., flowing S.W. until it enters the St. Croix 
river about 6 m. above Stillwater. 

Ap'ple-snail, n. A name given to the shells of the 
genus Ampullaria. 

Ap'pleton, in Illinois, a village of Knox co. 

Ap'pleton, in Kansas, a village of Bourbon co. 

Ap'pleton, in Maine, a post-township of Knox co., 25 
m. E. by S. of Augusta, 

Ap'pleton, in Missouri, a post-office of Cape Girardeau 
county. 

Ap'pleton, in Ohio, a village and township of Lick¬ 
ing county. 

Ap'pleton, in Tennessee, a post-office of Lawrence co. 

Ap'pleton, in Wisconsin, a thriving city, the cap. of 
Outagamie co., on Fox River, near the Grand Chute 
Rapids. Seat of Lawrence University. Manf. of paper, 
wood-pulp, flour, woodenware, implements, &c. Pop. 
(1890) 11,869; now (1897) est. 15,500. 

Appli'anee, Appli'ancy, n. [See Apply.] The act 
of applying, or the thing applied; aid; furtherance. 

Applicabil ity, Ap'plicableness, n. Quality of 
being applicable. 

Ap'plicable, a. That may be applied; suitable. 

Ap'plicably, adv. In such a manner t(jat it may be 
properly applied. 

Ap'plicancy, n. The state or quality of being an ap¬ 
plicant. 

Ap'plicant, n. A person who applies; a petitioner. 

Ap'plicate, n. [Lat .applicata, from applicare.] (Math.) 
A right line drawn across a curve so as to bisect the 
diameter thereof; an ordinate. 

Application, n. [Sr. from Lat. applicatio.] The act 
of applying any thing to another; as, he mitigated his 
pain by the application of emollients.—The thing 
applied; as, he invented a new application by which 
blood might be stanched.—The act of applying to any 
person, as a solicitor or petitioner. 

“A patent passed upon the application of a poor mechanick.”— Swift.. 

—The employment of any means for a certain end. 

“ If a right course be taken with children, there will not be much 
need of the application of the common punishments." 

—Intensity of thought; close study. 

“ Had his application been equal to his talents, his progress 
might have been better." 

—Attention to some particular affair; with the particle to. 

" His continued application to public affairs."— Addison. 

—The condition of being used as means to an end. 

“ This principle acts with the greatest force in the wo-st appli¬ 
cation : and the familiarity of wicked men more successfully de¬ 
bauches, than that of good men reforms."— Rogers. 

(Law) A written request.—The use or disposition 
made of a thing. 

(Insurance.) The preliminary statement made by a 


party applying for an insurance on life, or against firet 
It usually consists of written answers to interrogation* 
instituted by the company applied to, respecting tbs 
proposed subject. It is usually referred to expressly in 
the policy as being the basis or a pari of the contract, 
and this reference is, in effect, a warranty of the trutli of 
the statements. An oral misrepresentation of a material 
fact will defeat a policy on the ground of fraud. 

Ap'plicative, a. That applies. 

Ap'plicatory, a. That has an application. 

— n. That which applies. 

Appli' er, n. A person who applies; an applicant. 

Ap'pling', in Georgia, a county bordering N. and N.K. 
on the Altamahariver. Area 1,060 sq. in.; suriace level; 
soil sandy; capital Baxley. 

—A post-village, cap. of Columbia co. 

Ap pling;, in New York, a village of Jefferson co. 

Apply', a. v. [f. Applied; pp. Applying, Applied.] [O. 
Fr. applier; Fr. appliquer ; from Gr. pleko.] To Ibid upon. 
To put, or place upon ; as, “to apply a remedy.”— Shales. 
To adduce, in the most broad and generic sense, with a 
purely physical or moral object: as. to apply a blister, 
or a sum of money to a charitable purpose, or evidence 
to a case, or one's self to study. It is used also intransi¬ 
tively, as in the sense of making application, or showing 
it in the sense of diligence. — To adduce; to use; to 
employ; to devote; to exercise; to apportion; to direct. 

— v. n. To be suitable.—To have recourse by petitiou or 
request. 

Appogiatu'ra, n. [It., from appnggiare, to lean -- 

upon.] (Mas.) A small additional note of embel- -Pj#- 

lishment preceding the note to which it is attach- ,]- 

ed, and taking away from- the principal note a ~ 
portion of its time. It should always be given . 
with considerable expression. 

Appoint', v. a. • [Fr. appointer, from Lat. ad, to, and 
punctum, a point. Ad punctum ducere, to bring to a 
point.] A point of order, so to establish; of office, so to 
install; of agreement, so to fix ; of use or preparation, 
so to furnish.—To fix; to determine: to install; to insti¬ 
tute; to apportion; to apply ; to employ; to designate; 
to assign; to intrust; to invest; to ordain; to arrange. 

— v. n. To decree; to resolve. 

" For the Lord had appointed to defeat the good counsel of Ahi« 
thophel."—2 Sam. xvil. 14. 

Appoint'able, a. Able to be appointed. 

Appoint'ed, p. a. Settled; established; equipped; 
supplied. 

Appointee', n. [Fr. appointe.] A person who is ap¬ 
pointed. 

(Mil.) A foot-soldier who, for long services, or for a spe¬ 
cial deed, receives greater pay than other privates. 

(Law.) A person selected for a particular purpose; 
also the person iu whose favor a power of appointment 
is executed. 

Appoint'er, n. Oue that settles or fixes any thing or 
place. 

Appointment, n. [Fr. appnmtement.] Stipulation; 
the act of fixing something in which two or more are 
concerned. 

“ They had made an appointment together, to come to mourn 
with him." — Job ii. 11. 

—Decree; establishment. 

“ The wages of death he only in his hands, who alone hath 
power over all flesh, aud unto whose appointment we ought to sub¬ 
mit ourselves." — Hooker, b. v. 

—Decision; order. 

“ That good fellow. 

If I command him, follows my appointment." — Shake. 

—Equipment; furniture. 

“ Here art thou iu appointment, fresh and fair, 

Anticipating time with starting courage." — Shake. 

—An allowance paid to any man; commonly used as allow¬ 
ances to public officers. 

(Law.) In chancery practice, the exercise of a right 
to designate the person or persons who are to take the 
use of real estate. 

Appoint'or, n. ( Law.) One authorized by the donor, 
under the statute of use. to execute a power. 

Appomat'tox, a river in Virginia, risingin the county 
of the same name, and flowing E., empties into the 
James river at City Point. It is navigable for large ves¬ 
sels as far as Petersburg, 20 m. from its entrance. Esti¬ 
mated length, 120 m. 

—a county which takes its name from the above river 
It is situated in the S.E. central part of the State, and 
has an area of 260 sq. m. The surface is generally m’oun- 
taiuous and woody. Cap. Appomattox Court House. 

Appomat'tox Court-House, in Virginia, a post- 
office of Appomattox co. Here, on the 9th of April 
1865, was discussed, settled, and signed, between Gen¬ 
eral Grant and General Lee, the capitulation bv which 
the latter surrendered the Confederate army of Northern 
Virginia; an event which put an end to the civil war. 

Appoquin'nimink, in Delaware, a small creek, 
flowing into Delaware Bay. 

—A hundred of Newcastle co. 

Appor'tion, v. a. [0. Fr. apporlinner, from Lat. ad, 
and pnrt.io.) To set out in just proportion; to distribute 
among two or more persons. 

"An office cannot be apportioned out like a common, and shared 
among distinct proprietors.”— Collier on Envy. 

Appor'tioner, n. One who apportions. 

Apportionment, n. The act of apportioning; tbs 
division or distribution of a subject-matter iu propor¬ 
tionate parts. 

Appos'er, n. The name given in England to an officer 
of the Exchequer, whose duty it was to examine tno 
sheriffs in regard to their accounts handed in to the IS* 
chequer. 








APPR 


APPR 


APRI 


127 


4.p'j>»sl(<>, a. [Lut. appositus. from ad, and ponere, to 
hut ur place.] Proper; tit; well adapted to time, place, 
or circumstances. 

A.l>'l»ositely, ado. Properly; fitly; suitably. 

“ We may appositely compare this disease to a decaying house." 

Harvey. 

A|»l»ositeness, n. Fitness; propriety; suitableness. 

Apposi tion, n. [Fr., from Lat. a/ipi^i/v>.\ The addi¬ 
tion of a new matter, so that it may touch the first 
mass. 

(drum.) The placing two or more substantives to¬ 
gether, without any copulative between them; as, Wash¬ 
ington, the legislator. 

Appos'itive, a. (Gram.) That is placed in apposition. 

Appraise', r. a. [Lat . appretiare, from ad, and pretiare, 
to prize J To set a price upon anything, in order to make 
a sale 

—v. n. To praise; to commend. 

Appraise'nteni, n. The act of setting a price; a 
valuation. 

Apprais'er, n. One who appraises ; a person appointed 
and sworn to set a value upon tilings to be sold. 

Appreciable, a. That may be appreciated or valued. 

Appreciate, v. a. [Fr. apprecier .— See Appruse.J 
To set such a value as one is bound in reason to recog¬ 
nize; to esteem; to recognize; to acknowledge; to 
respect to value.— r.i. To increase in value. 

Appreciation, n. The act of appreciating: estimation. 

Appreciative, a. That appreciates, or is capable of 
appreciating. 

Appre'ciatory, a. That appreciates. 

Apprehend', v. a. [Fr. apprehender, from Lat. ad, and 
prehendo, I grasp in the hands. J To grasp in the hands; in 
this sense it is now confined to the legal arrest of persons. 
To grasp with the mind, as a matter of understanding, 
belief, or anticipation, and especially of coming danger. 
To comprehend; to understand; to expect: to fear; to 
conceive; to anticipate; to presume; to conjecture. 

—». n. To conceive, presume, or conjecture. 

Apprehen'sion, n. Distrust; fear; suspicion — Con¬ 
ception; sentiment; belief. 

“ The expressions of Scripture are commonly suited, in those 
matters, to the vulgar apprehensions." — Locke. 

(Logic.) The first or most simple act of the mind 
whereby it perceives, or is conscious of some idea: it is 
more usually called perception. 

( Law.) The capture of a person upon a criminal 
charge. The term arrest is applied to civil cases; as, a 
person having authority may arrest on civil process, and 
apprehend on a criminal warrant. 

A pp re lien si ve. a. Ready to understand. — Fearful; 
distrustful; as, apprehensive of a coming danger. 

Apprehen'stvely, adv. In an apprehensive manner. 

A pp re lie n Si veil ess, n. State or quality of being 
apprehensive. 

Apprentice, n. [Fr. apprenti, from apprendre, to 
learn.] A person bound by indenture or articles of 
agreement, to a master, to serve him during a certain 
time, and learn from him his art, trade, or business. 

—v. a. To bind as an apprentice. 

Appren'tice-fee, n. A sum of money sometimes 
paid to the master of an apprentice, usually called a 
premium. 

Apprenticeship, n. (Law.) A contract by which 
a person who understands some art, trade, or business, 
and called master , undertakes to teacli the same to 
another person, commonly a minor, and called the 
apprentice, who, on his part, is bound to serve the mas¬ 
ter. during a definite period of time, in such art, trade, 
or business. — At common law, an infant may bind him¬ 
self apprentice by indenture, because it is for his bene¬ 
fit. But this contract, on account of its liability to 
abuse, has been regulated by statute in the United States, 
and is not binding upon the infant unless entered into 
by him with the consent of the parent or guardian, or 
by the parent or guardian for him, with his consent. 
The contract need not specify the particular trade to lie 
taught, but is sufficient if it be a contract to teach such 
manual occupation or branch of business as shall lie 
found best suited to the genius or capacity of the ap¬ 
prentice. This contract must generally be entered into 
by indenture or deed. —The duties of the master are, to 
instruct the apprentice by teaching him the knowledge 
of the art which he had undertaken to teach him, though 
he will be excused for not making a good workman, if 
the apprentice is incapable of learning the trade, the 
burden of proving which is on the m ister. He must 
not abuse his authority, either by bad treatment, or by 
subjecting bis apprentice to menial employments uncon¬ 
nected with the business he has to learn; but he may 
correct him with moderation for negligence and misbe¬ 
havior. He cannot dismiss his apprentice except by 
consent of- all the parties to tlio indenture. He cannot 
remove the apprentice out of the State under the laws 
of which lie was apprenticed, unless such removal is 
provided for in the contract, or may lie implied in its 
nature: and if he do so remove him, the contract ceases 
to be obligatory. An infant apprentice is not capable 
in law of consenting to his own discharge. After the A. 
is at an end, the master cannot retain the apprentice on 
tiie ground that he lias not fulfilled his contract, unless 
specially authorized by statute. — An apprentice is 
bound to obey iiis master in all his lawful commands, 
take care of iiis property, and promote his interests, en¬ 
deavor to learn his trade or business, and perform all tiie 
covenants in his indenture not contrary to law. He 
must not leave his master’s service during the term of 
the A. 

A f» pressed', Appress'. a. [Lat. apprimo, to press 
to. | (Bot.) Lyingnat against.orclose pressed together, as 
loaves or peduncles to the stem. 


Apprise', t>. a. [Fr. apprendre, pp. appris .] To cause 
another to know a tiling; to inform: to advise; to ad¬ 
vertise; to acquaint; to enlighten; — followed by of. 
Apprize', v. a. The same as Appraise, q. v. — Allhough 
apprize be correct, it is preferable to use appraise, to 
avoid confusion with another word of different derivation 
and meaning, to apprise. 

Apprize'ment, «. See Appraisement. 

Appriz'er, n. See Appraiser. 

Approach', v. v. [ Vr.approcher , from Lat. ad, to, and 
pruximus, next.] To draw or come near iu space or time; 
to approximate. 

— v. a. To come near by affinity or resemblance; as, “tbe 
cat approaches the tiger.” — To cause to be near, (r.) 
Approach', tt. The state, the act, or the way of ap¬ 
proaching; as, tiie approach of the New Year; the ap¬ 
proach of au army; the approach to kings. 

( Internal. Law.) The right of visit, or visitation to de¬ 
termine the national character of the ships approached 
for that purpose only. 

(Fort.) Approaches are works thrown up by the be¬ 
siegers, in order to get nearer a fortress without being 
exposed to the enemy’s fire. The camp of the besiegers 
being generally far from the besieged fortress or city, the 
soldiers would be exposed to imminent danger while 
hastening across a beit of open country to enter any 
breaches made by the large siege-guns, were it not that 
sunken trenches or excavated roads are first constructed 
along which they may approach. In some cases, the 
A. are merely paths shielded by a piled-up wall of sand¬ 
bags, fascines, gabions, wool-packs, or cotton-bales.— 
Counter-approaches are works carried on by the besieged 
against those of the besiegers. 

Approach'alilc, a. That is accessible. 
Approach'er, n. A person who approaches. 
Approaching, p. a. Coming near in space or time; 
approximating. 

— n. (Gardening.) See Inarching. 

Approach'Iess, n. Inaccessible. 

Ap probate, v. a. [Lat. approbo.] Literally, to approve: 
but only used as a technical term by the American 
clergy, with the meaning of to give license or approbation 
to preach. 

Approbate and reprobate. (Scottish Law.) To approve 
and reject. It is the English doctrine of election. A 
party cannot both approbate and reprobate tiie same deed. 
Approba lion, n. [Fr., from Lat. approbation] The act 
of approving; approval; praise; satisfaction; encour¬ 
agement; confirmation; acceptance. 

—Probation; trial, (o.) • 

Ap'probative, a. [Fr . approbatif.] Approving; com¬ 
mending. 

Ap'probator, n. A person who approves, (r.) 
Ap'probatory, a. Approving. 

Appropinque', v. a. [Lat. appropinquo .] To ap¬ 
proach;— used ludicrously. 

Appropriable, a. That may be appropriated. 
Appropriate, v. a. [Fr. approprier ; from Lat. ad, to, 
and proprius, one’s own.] To take to one’s self as one's 
own; to take, claim or use, as by exclusive right: to as¬ 
sume; to set apart for, or assign to a particular use; to 
alienate, as a benefice. 

(Law.) See Appropriation. 

— a. Set apart for a particular use or person; suitable; fit 
or proper; adapted. 

Appropriated, p. a. Assigned to a particular use; 
claimed or used exclusively. 

Appropriately, adv. In an appropriate manner; 
fitly; properly; suitably. 

Appropriateness, n. Quality of being appropriate. 
Appropria tion, n. [Fr., from Lat. appropriation 
The application of money or any other thing to a par¬ 
ticular purpose. 

" The mind should have distinct ideas of the things, and retain 
the particular name, with its peculiar appropriation to that 
idea." — Locke. 

—Tiie fixing a particular signification to a word. 

" The name of faculty may, by an approDriation that disguises 
its true seuse, palliate the absurdity." — Locke. 

(Law.) The application of a payment made to a cred¬ 
itor by his debtor, to one or more of several debts. 

(Governm. Law.) In the U. states no money can be 
drawn from the Treasury, but in consequence of appro¬ 
priations made by law (Cmst. Art. I, s. g ). Under this 
clause it is necessary for Congress to appropriate money 
for the support of the Federal government, anii in pay 
ment of claims against it; and this is done annually by 
acts of .4., some of which are for the general purposes 
of government; and others, special and private in their 
nature. These general A. bills extend to the 30th of 
June in tiie following year, and usually originate in the 
Hi nise of Representatives, being prepared ivy the Com¬ 
mit tee of Ways and Means; but they are distinct from 
the hills for raising revenue, which the Constitution de¬ 
clares shall originate in the House of liepresentatives. 

A rule of tiie House gives A. bills precedence over all 
other business, and requires them to be first discussed 
in committee of tiie whole 

Appro'priative, a. Which makes appropriation. 
Appro'priator, w. One who appropriates. 
Approv'able, a. [See Approve.] That may be ap¬ 
proved. 

Approv'ableness, n. The state or quality of being 
approvable. 

Appro v'al, n. Approbation; commendation. 

“ A censor of Justice, without whose approval no capital sen¬ 
tences are to be executed.”— Temple. 

Approve', ti. a. [Fr. approurer ; Lat. approbo — ad, and 
prohn, from pr dms. good, proper.] To deem good ; to 
pronounce to be good; to find to be good; to like; to 


be pleased with; to commend; to prove; to justify: to 
sanction. — To make worthy of approbation. 

•• Study to show thyself approved unto God." - 2 Tim. ii. io. 

(Law.) To augment a tiling to tiie utmost; to vouch, 
to appropriate; to improve. 

Approved', p.u. Liked; commended; proved; judged 
favorably; justified; sanctioned. 

— Approved Endorsed JVotes. (Com.) Notes indorsed by a per¬ 
son other than the giver, for additional security. 
Approve'ment, n. Approbation, (o.) 

Approv'er, n. One who approves. 

Approving - , p. a. Yielding approbation. 

Approv ingly, ado. By approbation. 
Approximate, a. [Lat. ad, and praximus, nearest, 
next.] Nearest to; next; approaching to; nearly true 
or accurate; ns, an approximate number. 

(Zool.) An epithet applied to teeth, when, the one 
passes on the side of the next, without any intervening 
vacancy. 

Approximate, v. a. To carry, or advance near to ; 

to cause to approach. 

—To come near; to approach. 

App •ox'imately, adv. By approximation. 
Approximation, n. [Fr.] Act of approximating; 
approach; a drawing, moving, or advancing near. 

(Math.) A continual approach to a root or quantity 
sought, but not expected to be found. 

Approx imative, a. Approaching to; near to; ap¬ 
proaching. 

Approx'imatively, adv. By approximation; ap¬ 
proximately. 

Appni, (ctp'prvee), n. [Fr., a support.J A stay or support 
(Milit.) In the tactics of modern warfare on land, 
points d’appui are those strategical points in tiie plan 
of a battle as are best adapted to afford protection or 
yield assistance. Tbe wings of an army, when in line 
of battle, being the most open and vulnerable to attack, 
are those parts which require the greatest covering and 
support, and are accordingly placed in positions where 
such natural safeguards as the surface of the country 
will allow of, as rivers, streams, forests, and steep or 
hilly grounds, will conduce to the above requirements. 
Any, or all of these, will therefore, be points d’appui. 

(Manege.) The sense of action of the bridle in the 
horseman's hand. Thus, a man has no appui, when lie 
cannot suffer the Lit to bear even slightly upon the 
parts of the month; or too much appui, when he bears 
too heavily upon the bit, &c. 

Appulse', n. [Lat. appulsus, from appelln — ad, to, and 
petto, to drive.] Act of driving or striking against; as, 
“ tiie appulse of the waters to the shores.”—Approach; 
arrival. 

(Astron.) The approach of a planet towards a con¬ 
junction with the sun or any of the fixed stars. 
Appul'sion, n. The act of striking against. 
Appul'sive, a. Striking against; driving towards. 
Appul'sively, adv. In an apptilsive manner. 
Appur'tenance, n [Fr. appurtenance, from appar* 
tenir, to belong to; from Lat.ad, to, and pertineo, to per¬ 
tain.] That which belongs or pertains to something 
else; an adjunct; an appendage. 

(Law.) Things belonging to another tiling as princi¬ 
pal, and which pass as incidental t-> tiie principal thing. 
Thus, if a house and land be conveyed, everything 
passes which is necessary to the full enjoyment thereof, 
and which is in use as incident or appurtenant thereto. 
Appurtenances of a ship include whatever is on board 
a ship, excepting cargo, lor tiie objects of the voyage 
and adventure in whieli she is engaged, belonging to 
her owner. 

Appur'tenant, a. [Fr. appartenant .] (Law.) Belong¬ 
ing to; pertaining to of right. The thing appurtenant 
must be of an inferior nature to the thing to which it 
is appurtenant. 

Aprax'in. Feodor Mateievitch, a distinguished Rus¬ 
sian admiral, b. 1671. He may be considered as the 
creator of the Russian navy, and was the most powerful 
and influential person at the court of Peter the Great, 
who made him chief-admiral. In 1708, he defeated tiie 
Swedish general, LUbecker, in Ingermannland. and 
saved the newly built city of St. Petersburg from de¬ 
struction. In 1713, lie took Helsingfors and Borgo. and 
defeated the Swedisli fleet, lie was twice charged with 
embezzlement, tried, and condemned to pay a fine; but 
being too useful to be dispensed with, Peter, in botli in¬ 
stances, neutralized the effects of the condemnation, by 
conferring upon Him additional riches and dignities. 
D. 1724. 

A'pricot, n. [Fr. abricot ; Lat. prcecnria, from praicax , 
early ripe.] A delicious kind of fruit produced by the 
Prunus Armeniaca, a species of the genus Frunus, q. v. 
A'pril, n. [Lat. Aprilis. probably contracted from aper- 
iiis, from aperio, to open, as being tiie mouth in which 
tiie earth opens to tiring forth buds, &c .; Fr. Avril.] The 
fourth month of tiie year. — It was called Ouster, or 
Easter-month by tbe Anglo-Saxons, and Grass-month by 
tiie Dutch. 

April-fools’ Day. —The first day of April, so called from 
the old custom of sending any one on this day upon a 
bootless errand. This strange custom of April-fools’ 
day exists throughout Europe, and in those parts of 
America where the traditions of the mother-country 
prevail. One of the explanations of the custom is 
as follows: — In the middle ages, scenes from biblical 
history were often represented by way of diversion, with¬ 
out any feeling of impropriety. The scene in the life of 
Jesus, where he is sent from Pilate to Herod, and back 
again from Herod to Pilate, was represented in April, 
and may have given occasion to the custom of sending 
on fruitless errands, and other tricks practised at this 
a.Maun. The phrase of “ sending a man Irom Pilate to 









128 


APSL 


APUS 


AQUA 


Herod” is common in Germany, to signify sending about 
unnecessarily. The reason of choosing the first of April 
tor tlie exhibition of tin's scene was, that the feast of 
faster frequently falls in this month, and the events 
connected with this period of the life of Jesus would 
naturally afford subjects for the spectacles of the season. 
The tricks of the fiist of April may, however, he the 
remains of some Roman custom derived irom the East, 
and spread over Europe, like so many other customs, by 
these conquerors. It is certain that the Hindoos practise 
precisely similar artifices at the time of the Iluli feast, 
on the 31st of March.—One of the best tricks of this 
description is that of Rabelais, who, being at Marseilles 
without money, and desirous of going to Paris, filled 
some phials with brick-dust or ashes, labelled them as 
containing poison for the royal family ot France, and 
put them where he knew they would be discovered. The 
bait took, and he was conveyed as a traitor to the capital, 
where the discovery of the jest occasioned universal 
mirth. In France, the unlucky party who may be fooled 
is called un pnsson (fish) d’Avril; in Scotland, a gowk 
(cuckoo); in England and America, an April-foul. 

A prio ri. [Lat., from the former.] (Log ) A term ap¬ 
plied to any argument in which a consequent conclusion 
is drawn from an antecedent fact, whether the conse¬ 
quence be in the order of time, or in the necessary re¬ 
lation of cause and effect : — e.g., “The mercury sinks, 
therefore it will rain.” This is an argument drawn from 
an antecedent in time, not from a cause to an effect. A 
murder has been committed; a party falls under sus¬ 
picion as having had an interest in the death of the 
deceased, or a quarrel with him; this suspicion is founded 
on the argument d priori , from cause to effect; because 
the fact of his enmity or interest would afford a cause 
for his committing the murder. On the other hand, 
another party falls under suspicion as having been seen 
to quit the house at a particular time, having marks of 
blood on his clothes: these are arguments a posteriori, 
in which we reason either from consequent in the order 
of time to antecedent, or from effect to antecedent cause. 

A'pron, n. [Fr. aprun, probably from 0. Fr. naperon, 
diminutive of nappe, a table-cloth.] A cloth worn on 
the fore part of the body, as a protection to the clothes. 
A piece of leather spreadovera person’s legs when in a gig. 
The fat skin over the belly of a goose.—A cover for the 
vent of a cannon, &c.—The name is applied to various 
other things, from a supposed resemblance. 

(Arch.) The platform raised at the entrance of a dock, 
a little higher than the bottom, to form an abutment 
against which the gates may shut.—Also thesill or lower 
part of a window. 

( Ship-building .)—A piece of curved timber fixed behind 
the lower part of the stem, immediately above the fore¬ 
most end of the keel. 

A'pronetl, a. Wearing an apron. 

Apropos', adv. [Fr. from d, to the, and prnpos, purpose.] 
To the purpose; opportunely; by the way. 

Ap'slieron, or Apcheron, a peninsula of Asia, running 
for 40 m. into the Caspian Sea, and terminating in Cape 
A., which forms the E. part of the Caucasian chain. 
This place is famous as being the spot of the sacred 
flame, whence the fire-worshippers of Asia drew their 
religious veneration. Sulphur and inflammable gases 
so impregnate the soil that immense quantities of black 
and white naphtha are annually taken from it. Saffron, 
salt, and madderare also produced. On its S. coast is the 
port of Bakou; Lat. of Cape A. 40° 12' N.; Lon. 50° 20' E. 

Ap'sitlal, a. Pertaining to the apsides. 

Ap'sis, n. ; pi. Apsides, sometimes improperly written 
Apses. [Gr. hapsis, from hapto, hapso, to connect.] 
(Astron.) The two points of the orbit of a planet or sat¬ 
ellite, at which it is moving at right angles to the straight 
line joining it with the 
primary. These two 
points of the orbit are 
the,two extremities of 
the major axis, or the 
points at which a planet 
is at its greatest and 
least distance from the 
sun. The point at the 
greatest distance is call¬ 
ed the higher apsis; that 
at the least is called 
the lower apsis; con¬ 
sequently, the higher ap¬ 
sis corresponds with the 
aphelion, and the lower 
apsis with the perihelion. 

The line joining these 
two points, which is the 
transverse axis of the 
orbit, is called the line 
of the apsides. It has a slow angular motion in the 
plane of the planet’s orbit; and the time which the 
planet employs in completing a revolution with regard 
to its apsides is called the anomalistic period. 

(Arch.) That part of the church wherein the clergy 
were seated, or the altar placed. It, was so called from 
being usually domed or vaulted. The apsis was either 
circular or polygonal, and domed over: it consisted of 
two parts, the altar, and the presbytery or sanctuary ; at 
the middle of the semi-circle was the throne of the 
bishop, and at the centre of the diameter was placed the 
altar. The bishop’s throne having been anciently called 
by this name, some have thought that therefrom this 
part of the edifice derived its name; but the converse 
is the fact. 

Aps'ley, a river of Australia, in the N. division of New 
South Wales. It flows into the Pacific about 40 m. N.E. of 
Port Macquarrie, where it assumes the name ofMcLeay. 


HIGHER APSIS, OR APHELION. 



LOWER APSIS, OR PERIHELION. 
Fig. 161. 


Aps'ley Strait, a channel between Melville and Bath¬ 
urst islands, off the N. coast of New Holland; from 1% 
to 4 m. in breadth, and 46 in length. Shores on both 
sides are low, and bordered by mangroves. A British 
settlement, now abandoned, was made at Fort Douglass, 
on the Strait, ill 1624. 

Apt, a. [fr. apte; Lat. aptus, from apn, to fasten, join, 
or tie, from the root up, whence apto; Gr. hapto, to join, 
to tie.] lit by nature or contrivance; suitable: pre¬ 
pared ; inclined; liable. 

“ All that were strong and apt for war."—2 Kings xxb. 16. 

—Having a tendency to; ready; quick; dexterous. 

Apt, a town of France, in the dep. of Vancluse, 29 in. 
E.S.E. of Avignon. It possesses many ancient remains: 
is the '■•Julia'’ of antiquity, and was greatly embellished 
by Caesar. 

Aptenody'tes, n. ( Zool .) A name given to the pen¬ 
guins.—See Spiieniscinaj. 

Ap tera .n.pl. [Gr. a priv., pteryx, a wing.] (Zool.) An 
order ot the Linuaeau class Insectai; characterized, as the 
term implies, by having no wings in either sex. It in¬ 
cludes the modern orders Crustacea, Arachnida, and My- 
riapnda. 

Ap 'teral, a. (Arch.) Applied to a temple without col¬ 
umns at the sides. 

Ap 'terous, a. (Zool.) Belonging or relating to the 
aptera. 

(Bot.) It denotes any part of a plant which is destitute 
of membranous expansion. The term is usually em¬ 
ployed in distinction to alate, or winged. 

Ap'teryx. «. [Gr. a, priv, and pteryx , a wing.] (Zool.) 
A family of birds, allied to the Struthionidse, and till 
now represented by species only. A. Australis in form 
somewhat resembles a Penguin, and stands about two 
feet in height. The beak is very long, slender, marked 
on each side with a longitudinal groove, and furnished 
with a membrane at its base. Its wings are simple ru¬ 
diments. The feathers have no accessory plume, but 
fall loosely, like those of the emu, and their shafts are 
prolonged considerably beyond the base. The feet have 
a short and elevated hind-toe, the claw of which is alone 
externally visible. The eye is small, and a number of 
bristle-like hairs surround the mouth. Its color is deep- 
brown; its time of action nocturnal; and it subsists on 
insects. It runs with rapidity, the limbs are extremely 
powerful, and it defends itself vigorously with its feet. 
This bird is chiefly met with in the southern parts of 
the interior of New Zealand. The natives value itgreatly 
for the sake of its skin, t which, prepared with the feathers 
on, they make into dresses, ihe name given to this bird 
by the New-Zealanders is Kiwi. 

Aptitude, n. [Fr., from Lat. a plus, from apo, to fasten, 
join, or tie.] Fitness; tendency; disposition; suitable¬ 
ness; readiness. 

Aptly, adv. In an apt or suitable manner. 

Apt'ness, n. Aptitude; fitness ; suitableness; tendency ; 
propensity; readiness. 

Ap'tote, n. [Gr. a priv., and ptotos, that can, or is wont 
to fall, from, pripto,pepioka, to fall.] (Grain.) A noun 
without a case or cases; an indeclinable name. 

Aptlle'ius, Lucius, b. at Madaura, Africa, and lived in 
the 2d century. He was educated at Carthage and Ath¬ 
ens, and imbibed the Platonic philosophy. His most 
celebrated work is that entitled “ Metamorphoses ; or, the 
Golden Ass,” which has been translated into almost all 
European languages of modern date. This book pur¬ 
ports to be a satire on the professors and principles of 
priestcraft and magic. By some it is held to have been 
designed as a pagan diatribe against Christianity. Be 
this as it may, we must admit that the story of Psyche 
contained in it possesses a singular charm. 

A pu l i;«. ( Anc. Geug.) was a part of Sapygia, (so called 
from Sapyx, son of Daedalus,) including the modern S.E. 
provinces ofCapitanata, Terra di Bari, Terra d’Otrnnto,&c. 
In the most ancient times, three distinct nations dwelt 
here—the Messapians, or Sallentines, the Peucetians, 
and the Dauni, or Apulians. The Peucetians were in 
the southern part, as far as the Aufidus; the Dauni in 
the northern, as far as mount Garganus. According 
to the tradition which conducts the wandering heroes 
of the Trojan war to Italy, Diomed settled in A., was 
supported by Daunus in a war with the Messapians, 
whom he subdued, and was afterwards treacherously 
killed by his ally, who desired to monopolize the fruits 
of the victory. Roman history mentions Arpi, Luceria, 
and Canusium as important cities. Aufidus, a river of 
Apulia, lias been celebrated by Horace, who was born 
at Venusia, in this territory. The second Punic war was 
carried on for years in Apulia. Canute, famous for 
the defeat of the Romans, is in this region. Puglia, the 
modern name, is only a melancholy relic of the ancient 
splendor which poets and historians have celebrated. It 
now supports more sheep than men, and has no political 
meaning, being merely the name of a geographical 
district. 

Apu'lia, in New Torlc, a post-office of Onondaga co., 
124 m. W. of Albany. 

Apu're, a river of S. America, in Venezuela. It rises in 
the Andes of New Granada, and after an E. course of 
about 500 m , receiving numerous tributaries, falls into 
the Orinoco in Lat. 7° 40' N., and Lon. 66° 45' W. On 
its banks are the towns of San Fernando, and Nutrias. 

Apu'rimao, a river of S. America, in Lat. 15° 38' S , 
Lon. 76° 25'W., rises in the savannah of Condoroma. 
and flowing N., joins the Ucayale one of the chief afflu¬ 
ents of the Amazons. 

A'pus. n. (Zool.) A gen. of small crustareous animals, 
ord. Phyllnpoda. They inhabit ditches, lakes, and stand¬ 
ing waters, generally in innumerable quantities. They 
swim well on their back, and when they burrow in the 


sand at the bottom of the streams, they raise their tall* 
in the water. Their food principally consists of tadpolea 
When first hatched they have only one eye, four oai* 
like legs, with whorls of hair, the second pair being 
the largest; the body has then no tail, and the shell 
only covers the front half of the body; the other organs 
are gradually developed during succeeding moultinga 
These creatures are the common food of the Wagtails. 

Apyret'ic, a. [Gr. a, priv., and pyretos, fever.] (Med.) 
Without fever. 

Apyrex'ia, n. (Med.) The intermission of feverish dis¬ 
orders. 

Aqua, n. [Lat.] Water. It is used as a prefix in words 
taken from the Latin, and relating to water. 

( C’hem .) The formulae of water are A q. and IIO, the 
latter being often used for basic, and the former for 
crystalline waters. A body containing water is said to 
be hydrous, and the compound with water is called a 
hydrate. 

Aquack'anock, in Neiv Jersey. See Acquackanoncr. 

A qua-lor't is, n. [Lat., strong water.] (Chem.) The 
commercial name of Nitric acid. 

A'qua-mari'na, v. (Min.) A sea-green variety of 
emerald or beryl, much used in brooches. 

Aquam'bo, or Aquamike, a kingdom in the interior 
of the Gold Coast of Africa, reaching 20 m. along the 
river Volta, and 100 inland. It lias a town of the same 
name. 

Aquapim', a country on the W. coast of Africa, on 
the Gulf of Guinea. It is mostly uncultivated, but dues 
a trade in gold-dust and palm-oil. Lat. about 6° N.; 
Lon. 0°. 

A'qtia Reg'inae, n. [Lat, Queen's water.] (Chem.) A 
mixture of nitric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid, 
or oil of vitriol, with % to of its weight of nitre. 

A'qua Re'g’is, Regia, or Reg aus,«. [Lat., royal water.] 
(Chem.) A mixture of 1 part nitric acid, and 3 to 4 
parts chlorohydric acid; used for dissolving gold. It is 
so culled from its power of dissolving gold, the king of 
metals. The scientific name is mtro-chlorohydric acid, 
or nitm-muriatic acid. 

Aqua'ritiin, n. [From Lat. aqua.] A small pond 
placed in gardens, in which only aquatic plants are 
grown. It is generally a small pool or cistern, con¬ 
taining shelves or benches at different depths from the 
surface, on which pots are placed containing the plants. 
— Also, a tank or vessel containing either salt or fresh 
water, and in which either marine or fresh-water plants 
and animals are kept in a living state. In this form, 
the A. is not only an aid to scientific study, but also a 
fine ornament of drawing-rooms, and a souice of ra¬ 
tional amusement. To Mr. Warrington must be award¬ 
ed the thanks of all lovers of nature, for having first 
produced a perfect aquarium. In 1850 this gentleman 
communicated to the Chemical Society of London the 
result of a year’s experiments “on the adjustment of 
the relations between the animal and vegetable king¬ 
doms, by which the vital functions of both are perma¬ 
nently maintained.” To illustrate this adjustment, Mr 
Warrington kept for many mouths, in a vase of un¬ 
changed water, two small goldfish and a plant of Valis- 
neria spiralis ; and afterward he made a similar experi¬ 
ment with sea-water, weeds, and anemones, which was 
equally successful. Before this, several attempts hai 
been made to preserve fresh-water and marine organ¬ 
isms by naturalists. Mr. Ward, whose ingenious discov¬ 
ery of the method of growing ferns and other delicate 
plants in closed cases had already earned for him a 
world-wide reputation, stated, in 1849, that he had suc¬ 
ceeded not only in growing seaweeds in sea-water, but 
in sea-water artificially made; and seven years earlier, 
Dr. Johnston succeeded in preserving the delicate 
pink coralline in a living state for eight years in un¬ 
changed sea-water. If an A. is provided with plants and 
animals in proper proportion, both will be easily kept 



Fig. 162. — aquarium. 


healthy; the plants, under the action of light, consunx 
ing the carbonic acid gas given forth by the animal^ 
and consequently restoring to the air, or water, in which 
they live, the oxygen necessary for the maintenance ol 
animal life. It is, nevertheless, necessary to frequently 
aerate the water by taking out portions of it, and then 
pouring them in again from a small height. Some mol¬ 
luscous animals, such as the common periwinkle in salt 
water, or species of Planorbis in fresh water, are also 
necessary for the consumption of the vegetable matter 
continually thrown off by the growing plants, which 
otherwise would soon render the water greenish and 
untransparent. If the A. is intended for marine plants 
and animals, and sea-water cannot be procured, a sub¬ 
stitute for it may be made by mixing 4 quarts of spring 
water with '■'>]/, ounces of common table-salt, ounce 
of Epsom salts, 200 grains troy of chloride of magne 
sium. and 40 grains troy of chloride of potassium. Wit) 
due care, any species of aquatic plants or animals may 
be kept, and will grow in an A.; but the animals most 


















AQUE 


AQUI 


AQUI 


129 


easily kept in good health are, in sea-water, the blen- 
nies, gobies, aud gray mullets, and in fresh-water, the 
gold-fishes, &c. See Aquaria, in Section II. 

Aqua'rius, n. (Astron.) The Water-bearer, a constel¬ 
lation represented by the figure of a man pouring out 
water from an urn. supposed to be Ganymede, or Deucal¬ 
ion, q. v. — A. is situated in the Zodiac, where it is the 
11th in order, or last but one of the zodiacal constella¬ 
tion ; and is also the name of the lith sign in the ecliptic. 
Its mean declination is 14° S., and its mean right ascen¬ 
sion 335°, or 12 hours, 20 min.; it being 1 h. 40 min. W. 
of the equinoctial colure; its centre is, therefore, on the 
meridian on the 15th of October. It contains 108 stars, 
of which the four largest are of the 3d magnitude. — The 
ancient Egyptians supposed the setting or disappearance 
of .4. caused the Nile to rise by the sinking of his urn 
in the water. In the zodiac of the Hebrews, A. repre¬ 
sents the tribe of Reuben. 

4q lias'co, in Maryland , a township of Prince George’s 
co. 

Aquastl'ioola, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Car¬ 
bon co. 

Aquat'ic, a. [Fr. aquatique ; Lat. aquaticus, from aqua. 1 
Pertaining to water; watery. — A term loosely applied 
to animals which live in water, as fishes, and to plants 
which grow in water, either running or stagnant. In 
the former case they are called river plants; in the lat¬ 
ter, pond plants. Such as grow in the sea are called 
marine plants. All are included under the generic name 
of Water-plants, q. v. 

— n. (But.) A water-plant. 

Aquat'ical, a. The same as Aquatic. 

Aquat'ics, n. pi. (Sport.) The term generically given 
to all sports having connection with water; as, yachting, 
boat-racing, rowing, swimming, duck-hunting, &(;. 

A'qiiatint, Aquatin'ta, n. [From Lat, aqua, and It. 
tinta, tint.] (Enqrar.) A style of engraving, or rather 
etching on copper, by which an effect is produced similar 
to that of a drawing in Indian ink. It is now almost 
out of use. 

A'qua Tofa'iia, or Aquetta. (Hist.) A poisonous liquid 
which excited extraordinary attention at Naples, at the 
end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries. 
Tofana, a Sicilian woman, was strangled after having 
murdered with it many hundreds of men. The strangest 
stories, with regard to its composition, have gone abroad. 
The drink is described as transparent, tasteless water, 
of which five or six drops are fatal, producing death 
slowly,without pain, inflammation, convulsions, or fever. 
Gradual decay of strength, disgust of life, want of appe¬ 
tite, and constant thirst, were its more immediate effects, 
speedily causing entire and rapid consumption. We 
believe it to be useless to give the different formulae 
which have been suggested for the composition of this 
substance. It was probably the same poison as that 
notoriously used in Italy during the 15th and 16th cen¬ 
turies, of which Pope Alexander VI. died in 1503, and 
so fearfully celebrated in history as the Wine of the 
Borqias. 

A'qua vi'tse, n. [Lat.. water of life.] A name some¬ 
times given to brandy. The French term Eau de vie, the 
representative of brandy, is the literal translation of 
Aqua viler. 

Aq ueduct, n. (Arch.) An artificial channel constructed 
on arches for the conveyance of water from one place to 
another; more particularly applied to structures erected 
for the purpose of conveying the water of distant springs 
across valleys for the supply of large cities. Although 
not unknown to the Greeks, the A. may be considered as 
a design of Roman origin, conceived to meet the exigen¬ 
cies of a sufficient water-supply for their metropolis. 
Where springs and streams were found, rocks were pen¬ 
etrated and subterranean passages excavated to give 
them outlets from the hills, while galleries raised on 
high solid arches conducted them across the plain to 
their destination, which in many cases was a distance 
of 40 and 50 m. from the source of supply. These mag¬ 
nificent monuments, with their towering arches, must 
have produced a grand effect, striding, in gigantic form, 
in various directions toward the distant hills. They 
were from 50 to 60 ft. high, and of two stories, conveying 
distinctly separate streams. Wherever they crossed 
the public ways, they were decorated in the form of 
triumphal arches, with dedicatory inscriptions in honor 
of their founder. Three of these alone survive to supply 
the modern Rome, while the ruins of the others rise up, 
hero and there, in melancholy grandeur, to tell of days 
of past Roman splendor. The first aqueduct was erected 
by Appius Claudius, n. c. 313: 39 years afterwards, 
Marcus Curius Dentatus applied the spoils of the Pyrrhic 



Fig. 163 — roman aqueduct, (Pnnt-du-Gard.) 


war to the raising of additional ones. Under the Em¬ 
perors they had so much increased in number and use¬ 
fulness, that Rome in 24 hours could be supplied with 
500,000 hhds. of water. —One of the most magnificent 
A. bequeathed to posterity by the Romans is that of 


Nimes in France, the construction of which is attrib¬ 
uted to Vipsanius Agrippa. son-in-law of Augustus Caesar.' 
This A. was 25 m. in length. The most remarkable 
portion of it is, undoubtedly, the Pmt-du-Gard, (see Fig. 
163,) crossing a deep valley, at the bottom of which flows 
tiie Gardon. The entire structure was about 160 ft. in 
height. This work was altogether constructed with 
large stones without cement. The uppermost gallery 
foruied the canal by which the water was conveyed.— 
The science of hydraulics, among the moderns, has 
rendered the general use of such expensive A. unneces¬ 
sary; and they are now only applied in cases of emer¬ 
gency ; such as conducting a river or canal over a valley, 
or across another body of water, &c. 

Aque'laon, one of the Laccadive islands, in N. Lat. 10° 
40'; E. Lon. 73° 56'. 

A'queous, a. Watery; of the nature of water, or pro¬ 
duced by it. 

A. Son.. (Agric.) Soil naturally abounding in water, 
the fluid being supplied by springs in the sub-soil. 

A. Humor. (Anat.) The very limpid watery fluid 
which fills both chambers of the eye. 

A'queousness, n. Quality of being aqueous. 

Aq tiet'ta, n. [It., little water.] See Aqua Tofana. 

A'quia, in Virginia, a township of Stafford co. 

A'quia Creels, in the E. part of Virginia, in Stafford 
co., empties into the Potomac. It is navigable for small 
craft for some distance from its mouth. 

A'quiavil'co, a river of Mexico, in the prov. of Vera 
Cruz, falling into the Mexican Gulf; Lat. 18° 30' N. 

Aquifoliaceie, Holly-worts, n. pi. (But.) An order 
of plants, of the alliance Gentianales .— Diag. No stip¬ 
ules, simple stigmas at the end of a manifest style, axile 
placentae, definite pendulous seeds, and an umbricated 
corolla. — They are evergreen trees or shrubs, whose 
branches are often angular. Leaves alternate or oppo¬ 
site, simple, leathery, without stipules. Flowers small, 
white or greenish, axillary, solitary or clustered, some¬ 
times dioecious; sepals 4 to 6. imbricated in aestivation; 
corolla 4 to 6 parted, hypoginous, imbricated in aestiva¬ 
tion; stamens inserted into the corolla, alternate with 
its segments; filaments erect; anthers adnate; ovary 
fleshy; stigma subsessile: fruit fleshy, inberiscent; 
albumen large, fleshy. —The gen. Ilex is the type of 
this order, which includes 11 genera and 110 species, 
natives of America and S. Africa; only one, Ilex aquifo- 
lium, being found in Europe. 



Fig. 164. — AMERICAN HOLLY, (Ilex opaca.) 
1, 2, 3, leaves, flower, and fruit; natural size. 


Aqui'la, n. [Lat., from Gr. angkylns, curved.] (ZoiJl.) 
The true Eagles, forming the typical genus of the sub¬ 
family Aquilinse, q. v. 

Aqui'la. a strong city of S. Italy, cap. of the Abruzzo- 
Ultra, 58 m. N.E. of Rome. Situate on the Aterno,it is 
one of the finest and busiest cities in S. Italy, and has 
manufactures of linens. It was formerly much injured 
by earthquakes. A. is the site of Amite-mum the birth¬ 
place of Sallust. Pop. 16,582. 

Aqui'la, in Georgia, a village of Franklin co. 

Aqui'la et A nt inous. (Astron.) The Eagle and An- 
tinous, a double constellation situated directly S. of the 
Anser et Vulpecula, and between Taurus Poniatnwskii 
on the W. and Delphinus on the E. It contains 71 stars, 
including one of 1st magnitude (Altair), 9 of the 3d, and 
7 of the 4th. It may be readily distinguished by tlue 
position and superior brilliancy of its principal star. See 
Altair. 

Aquile'ia, a seaport of N. Italy, in the gov. of Trieste, 
at the extremity of the Adriatic. This place in the time 
of the Romans was the entrepot of commerce between N. 
and S. Europe, and had. before its destruction by Attila, 
a population of some 10,000. It was called the second 
Bo me, and was the frequent residence of the Emperor 
Augustus. It still retains many traces of its former 
importance. 22 m. N.W. of Trieste. Pop. abt. 1,800. 

Aquile gin. ». [From Lat. aquila, the eagle.] A gen. 
of plants, ord. Eanunculacem. The wild columbine, A. 
Canadensis, grows wild in the U. States, in dry soil, 
generally on the sunny side of rocks. It is a beautiful 
plant, with a stem branching a foot high, and ternate, 


lobed leaves. Flowers terminal, scarlet without, and 
yellow within; pendulous, with numerous descending 
yellow stamens and styles; flowers in May. 



Fig. 165. — aquileoia canadensis, (Wild Columbine!) 

1. Torus, with the stamens and pistils, and a petal detached. 

2. Follicle. 


Aquili'nse, n. pi. ( ZoOl.) The Eagles; a sub-fam. of 
birds, fam. Falamidce. Pre-eminent for courage, strength, 
and boldness among predatory birds, is the daring and 
majestic eagle. This time-honored monarch of the 
feathered tribes, which in the mythology of Greece and 
Rome was deemed worthy to rank as the chosen associ¬ 
ate of Jupiter, was ever regarded as an emblem of dignity 
and might, and still has the reputation of being equally 
magnanimous, fierce, and voracious. What the lion is 
among quadrupeds, that the eagle is presumed to be 
among birds: one who disdains all petty game, and pur¬ 
sues only such prey as would seem to be worthy of con¬ 
quest. This laudatory character of the king of birds, 
however, though true in the main, and generally acqui¬ 
esced in, is, it must be confessed, more poetically de¬ 
scriptive than logically accurate: but while, in our zo¬ 
ological character, we are bound to make this admission, 
far be it from us to disparage the “ bird of Ji/ve,” or to 
pluck a single plume from his upsoaring wing. Eagles 
are distinguished by the feathering of the tarsi down to 



Fig. 166. — the royal eagle, (A. regalis.) 


the very base of the claws. Of all the feathered tribe 
the E. soars the highest; and of all others also it has the 
strongest and most piercing sight. Though extremely 
powerful when on the wing, the joints of its legs being 
rather stiff, it finds some difficulty in rising again after 
a descent; yet, if not instantly pursued, it will easily 
carry off a goose, or any other bird equally large. The 
wonderfully acute sight of the E. enables him to dis¬ 
cern his prey at an immense distance; and having per¬ 
ceived it. he darts down upon it with a swoop which 
there is no resisting. It is well understood that the 
E. is able to look steadfastly at the sun; which alone 
must give him a decided superiority over every other 
denizen of the air; this is accounted for by his being 
furnished with double eyelids, one of which is closed 
while the other is open, so that the glaring light of any 
dazzling object may be rendered more easily support¬ 
able. The nest is composed of sticks, twigs, rushes, 
heath, &c., and is generally placed upon the jutting 
ledge of some inaccessible precipice, or in forests, near 
some lofty tree. They' do not lay more than two or 
three eggs. The species of E. are many. The largest is 
the Imperial E. (A. imperialis), native of S. America. 
It measures 3]4 ft. from the tip of the bill to the end of 
the tail. The Golden E. (A. chrysa'eta), nearly the same 
in Asia, Europe, and N. America, measures 3 ft. 3 in. 
The royal E. (A. regalis). particularly common in Brazil, 
is a bird of great beauty (Fig. 168), although not quite 
so large as the two preceding. It flies with majestic 
rapidity, and such is the expanse of its wings that it 
sometimes strikes and kills its prey with them before 
touching it with its claws. Its strength is such as to 
enable it to tear into pieces in an instant the largest 
sheep; and it pursues wild animals almost indiscrimi¬ 
nately. 



























130 


ARAB 


ARAB 


ARAB 


Aq'niline, a. [Fr. aquilin; Lat. aquilinus, from aquila.] 
Belonging to the eagle; curved and hooked like the beak 
of an eagle. 

Aquilon, n. [Lat. aquilo, the north-wind, from aqui¬ 
la .] The north-west wind; so called from its rapidity 
and vehemence, resembling the flight of an eagle. 

Aquilo'tes, a tribe of S. American Indians, formerly 
belonging to the Gran-Cliaco. They are believed to be 
now extinct, or incorporated with other tribes. 

Aquin', a town of the island of St. Domingo, on its S. 

i coast, 46 m. \V. of Jacmel. 

Aqui nas, Sr. Thomas, surnamed the “ Angel of the 
Schools .” Oue of the most eminent scholastic philoso¬ 
phers; B. 1227, in Italy. After the completion of his 
studies at the University of Naples, he assumed the 
Dominican robe, notwithstanding the repugnance 
evinced by his family. Going to Cologne, lie there en¬ 
tered on a course of study under Albertus Magnus, and 
accompanied him to Paris. lie successfully espoused the 
cause of the monks before Pope Alexander IV. in 1253; 
and soon after became doctor of theology at Paris. Re¬ 
jecting dignities, he confined his ambition to preaching 
and expounding, and this in an unassuming manner. 
In 1272, A. was called to Naples to teach in the schools, 
and was afterward invited to partake of the delibera¬ 
tions of the council of Lyons, but was seized with illness 
on his way thither, and died in a monastery, in 1274. 
In 1323, John XXII. canonized him, and he was declared 
a Doctor of theChurch by Pius V. in 1567. A. combined, 
with great learning and a vigorous understanding, the 
gifts of fervent piety, and toleration in controversy, lie 
sought chiefly to demonstrate the sympathy existing 
between reason and the doctrines of Christianity. His 
greatest work, the “ Summa Theologw,” is an enduring 
triumph of human intellect in the middle ages. A. laid 
down, and his disciples, the TUomists, after him, the doc¬ 
trines of grace and predestination, which, however, were 
controverted by Duns Scotus, and the Scotists. The 
best edition of the works of A. is that published at 
Rome, 1570, in 17 vols., folio. 

Aqui'no, an episcopal town of S. Italy, in the prov. of 
Terra di Lavaro. It is noted as the native place of Ju¬ 
venal and St. Thomas Aquinas. Situate5 m. N.E.of Pon- 
tecorvo. 

Aqui'ras, a district and settlement of Brazil, in the 
prov. of Ceara, between the lake of the same name and 
the Atlantic. Pop. abt. 5,200. 

Aquire',a river of Guiana, which after a course W.N.W. 
to E.N.E. for 100 m. enters the Orinoco near its mouth. 
It is only navigable for canoes. 

Aquitaine', the ancient name of Guienne, a ci-devant 
prov. of France, now forming the dep. of the Gironde 
and Lot-et-Garonne. It was one of the four great divi¬ 
sions of Gaul known to the Romans. 

Aquo'kee River, See Tocoa. 

Aquo'ne, in North Carolina, a post-office of Macon co. 

A'ra, the name of two rivers of Spain, one in Catalonia, 
a branch of the Segri; the other in Aragon, a branch of 
the Cinca. 

A'ra, n. ( Zobl .) The macaw, a bird of the sub-fam. Ara- 
inte, q. v. 

Araaso'java, in Brazil. See Gcarosojava. 

Ar'afo, or Ara'bian, n. A native of Arabia. — See 
Arabian. 

Ar'aba, a river of Persia, falling into the Arabian gulf, 
in Lat. 25° 30' N.; Lon. 65° 49' E. 

Ar'abah, a desert of Arabia. 

Ar'aban, a town of Turkey-in-Asia on the Khabur, 76 
m. S.E. of Orfa; Lat. 36° 20' N.; Lon. 40° E. 

Araban'ate, a large lake of Peru, in the prov. of Mai- 
nas, which communicates with the Guallaga. It abounds 
with turtle. 

Ar'abat, a fortress of Russia, on the Sea of Azov, 70 m. 
from Simpheropol in the Crimea. It formerly belonged 
to the Turks. 

Ar'abat, Tongue of, in the Crimea, a narrow slip of sandy 
land, 70 m. long, and 1,600 to 2,000 ft. wide, which di¬ 
vides the Sivash or Stagnant sea from the Sea of Azov. 

Arab'azari, a town of Karamania, 16 m. N.E. of Ala- 
mek. 

Arabella Stuart, commonly called the Lady Ara¬ 
bella, was the only child of Charles Stuart, Earl of Len¬ 
nox, younger brother to Henry Lord Darnley, the hus¬ 
band of Mary Queen of Scots. She was therefore cousin- 
german to James I., to whom, previously to his having 
issue, she was next in the line of succession to the crown 
of England, being the grand-daughter of Henry VII., by 
the second marriage of his eldest daughter Margaret. 
Her proximity to the throne was the source of her 
misfortune. Elizabeth, for some time before her de¬ 
cease, held the Lady A. under restraint, and refused the 
request of the king of Scotland to give her in marriage 
to the Duke of Lennox, with a view to remove her from 
England. The detection of a plot of some English no¬ 
bles to set aside James in favor of A., of which she was 
altogether innocent, ultimately proved her destruction ; 
for, although left at liberty for a time, when it was 
afterward discovered that she was secretly married to 
the grandson of the Earl of Hertford, both husband and 
wife were committed to the Tower. After a year’s im¬ 
prisonment, they contrived to escape, but the unhappy 
lady was retaken. Remanded to the Tower, the remain¬ 
der of her life was spent in close confinement. D. 1615, 
aged 38 years. 

Ar'abesque, or Moresque, a. [Fr.J After the manner 
of the Arabian architecture, sculpture, &c. 

—n. (Sculp, and Paint.) A term applied to a species of 
capricious ornament, consisting of intricate, rectilinear 
and curvilinear lines, fruits, flowers, and other objects, 
to the exclusion, in pure arabesques, of the figures of 
animals, which the religion of Islam forbade. It is not 


to the Arabs, however, that the invention of this ornar 
mental system ought to be attributed. It was known 
to the ancients, and the friezes of their monuments 
are frequently decorated with foliage and various in¬ 
scriptive ornaments: an elegant illustration ot this line 
of decoration may be seen on the parade of the baths ol 
Titus at Pompeii, and on a great number of Greek ves¬ 
sels found at Herculaneum. The Arabs, whose religion 
prohibited any representation of animated beings, made 
naturally a great use of this kind of architectural em¬ 
bellishment ; and hence, it is probable, was given to it 
the name under which it is known. It was principally 
during the period of the Renaissance that it became 
generally employed in Europe : anything more grace¬ 
ful and airily delicate than the works of A. executed 
iu that epoch it is hardly possible to conceive. Never¬ 
theless, it was reserved for the celebrated painter Ra¬ 
phael to bring this style of ornament to a point of per¬ 
fection which has not been surpassed. Nothing can 
compare with the richness and beauty of the A. executed 
after his designs, in the Loggia of the Vatican, at Rome. 
See Arabian Architecture. 

Ar'abesqued, p. a. Ornamented with arabesques, (r.) 

Ara bia, an extensive region of Asia in its N.VV. quar¬ 
ter; which forms almost a peninsula of an irregular 
quadrangular form, and is so peculiarly connected with 
Africa by the narrow isthmus of Suez, that with equal 
justice it might also be said, geographically speaking, to 
be a peninsular offshoot of the latter continent. This 
country is bounded on the N. by Syria and the Eu¬ 
phrates; on the E. by the Persian gulf; on the S. by the 
Indian ocean and the straits of Bab-el-mandeb ; and on 
the W. by the Red sea, and the isthmus of Suez, which 
divides it from Egypt. Lat. between 12° and 34° N.; 
Lon. between 32° 30'and 60° E.— Ext. A greatest length 
on a line drawn W.N.W. from Ras-el-liad, on the sea of 
Oman, to Suez, may be computed at about 1,500 m.; its 
average breadth at about 800.— Area, as measured on 
D’Anville’s map, about 1,200,000 sq. m.— Divisions. A., 
according to the ancients, was divided into three parts: 
1. A. Felix, or the “Happy,” bordering on the Persian 
gulf, the Indian ocean, and the S. extremity of the Red 
sea; 2. A. Petrcea, or the “Stony,” lying along the 
Red sea to the N. of A. Felix; and 3. A. Deserta, or 
the “Desert,” forming the interior portion N. of the 
tropic of Cancer, and extending to the borders of Syria. 
Under these names, however, these divisions are not 
known to the Arabians. Their nomenclature may thus 
be defined: that division called A. Desert a contains the 
countries denominated _A ejd and the Djmvf; A. Petrsea 
forms FI Hejaz ; while A. Felix comprises the modern 
provinces called Yemen, Hadramaut, Oman, and Ft 
Achsa. — Desc. The greater part of A. presents the ap¬ 
pearance of a vast and sterile desert, more especially as 
regards the interior; though even there may be found 
a few fertile spots or oases, some mountains of consider¬ 
able height, and luxuriant valleys. Along the sea-board, 
from Suez to the head of the Persian gulf, a belt of low, 
and, for the greater part, fertile land, impinges upon 
the desert, varying in breadth from two days’ journey 
to a single mile. This tract is called “Tehama,” or the 
Low Land. The extreme S. provinces of A., as, for in¬ 
stance, Hadramaut and Yemen, are more particularly 
distinguished for fertility of soil and rich vegetation; 
and to these parts, it is supposed, has been applied the 
poetic simile of “ Araby the Blest.” In all parts of this 
country, however, there prevails a scarcity of water.— 
Mountains. A range called Jebel-el-Akabah, a S. ramifi¬ 
cation of the Lebanon chain, runs S. by W. as far as the 
gulf of Akabali, where it is joined on the N.E. by Mount 
Tor, the “Sinai,” and “ Horeb,” of Scripture. Extending 
from the latter to the straits of Bab-el-mandeb, are a 
series of mountains, w hich in parts of the Hejaz exhibit 
peaked tops of from 5,000 to 8,000 ft. In the interior 
lies Jebel-Shemmar, on the caravan route from Bagdad 
to Medina, which is said to compare with Mount Leba¬ 
non both as to elevation and extent, and also for the 
forest-embowered villages surrounding it. The Torik, 
Jebel-Kur, and El-Arad, are other mountains of A., and 
comparatively but little known.— Fivers. A. has no con¬ 
siderable river, those known being only small streams, 
sometimes rising into torrents after heavy rains. The 
most noticeable are the Aftau, Ober, Keber, Ac.— Lakes. 
None known, though it is believed that, in the Nejd, and 
far interior, some may be found.— Climate. The climate 
of A. is perhaps the driest in the world, and almost in- 
supportably hot, the tropic of Cancer passing, as it does, 
through the heart of the country. This intense heat is 
aggravated by the mephitic wind's, called simooms, which 
are of frequent occurrence in the desert. In the vicinity 
of the mountains a more genial temperature prevails. 
(Zoiil.) In the deserts, the panther, jackal, wolf, and 
hyaena have their habitat; among the mountains roam 
the musk-deer, the wild ass, and the rock-goat; and on 
the more verdant plateaux, the antelope, gazelle, and 
jerboa. The principal and more domesticated animals 
are the horse and the camel; the breed of the first, as 
indigenous to A.,has been famous in all ages; while the 
latter quadruped is aptly named the “ Ship of the des¬ 
ert,” from its indispensable value for purposes of loco¬ 
motion in this land of sandy wastes. Of birds, the eagle, 
the vulture, and varieties of hawks are common; the 
desert is the home of the ostrich; and the pelican stalks 
the shores of the Red sea. Pheasants, fowl, and small 
sorts of game are plentiful in Yemen and those coun¬ 
tries adjoining the Indian ocean. Locusts swarm, and 
are by the natives considered edible. Various kinds of 
fish are abundantly found on the E. coast, which not only 
serve for food, but are used as manure for the soil.-— 
Prod. Dates, dhourra (a kind of millet), wheat, barley, 
tobacco, indigo, coffee, spices, tamarinds, balm, various 


gums, and fruits. Agriculture obtains only in a very 
limited degree.— Geol. In the mountains of A . are por¬ 
phyry, jasper, quartz, freestone, basalt, marble, alabaster, 
and limestone. Among the mineral productions are 
the emerald, onyx, agates, cornelian, gypsum, saltpetre, 
sulphur, naphtha, asphaltum, iron, lead, and copper. In 
Yemen, gold mines were formerly worked, but no pres¬ 
ent indications of the existence of this precious ore are 
found, the development of the mineral resources ot A. 
remaining yet inactive. Rock salt is manufactured about 
Lohein.— Manf. Woollens, linens, and silks; firearms, 
spear-hbads, and other arms; tin and copper utensils, <Sic. 
Com. A. is well situated for trading intercourse with 
other countries. Immense quantities of merchandise 
are yearly transported across the deserts by strings of 
camels, forming what are called in the East, caravans. 
Mocha, Djedda, and Lohein on the Red sea. are the great 
emporiums of the coffee-trade; Muscat is the entrepot 
of traffic with the I email Gulf, and India; and Aden, 
E. of the straits of Bab-el-mandeb, has become of late 
years a busy British settlement, and the connecting 
point of steam-communication between Europe, via 
Suez, and India.— hxp. The principal exports are coffee, 
spices, gums, drugs, and pearls.— lnhab. The aborigines 
of A. are originally of pure Caucasian race They are 
pleasing in their form and physiognomy, though their 
physique and muscular development is on a smaller 
6cale than that of most Europeans. The women are 
generally attractive in appearance, but cannot be called 
strictly.beautiful. The character of the Arab is pecu¬ 
liar. Possessing a passionate temperament, and easily 
irritated, they are as quickly appeased. Candor, hospi¬ 
tality, love of independence: these are among their best 
traits. On the other hand are found the bad qualities of 
intense thirst tor revenge, vanity, superstition, and 
proneness to thievery. The Arab is the most civilized 
and humane of robbers; he plunders a traveller, and 
then offers him hospitality and protection. Abstemious 
to an extreme, these people live on the simplest food, 
drink only water, and occasionally coffee; yet some are 
found who indulge in w ine and ardent liquors, despite 
the inhibition of the Koran. Tobacco-smoking is uni¬ 
versal, and the hasheesh is frequently used as a narcotic. 
The costume of the men usually consists of a turban, or 
caftan, shirt, drawers, and papooshes or slippers. That 
ot the women comprises a robe and immense panta¬ 
loons of various stuffs and colors, a cloak or burnous of 
Indian striped cotton or silk, and half-boots, or slippers 
of yellow leather. On their heads they commonly wear 
a caftan, and when out of doors invariably cover their 
faces with a long linen veil called yashmak. The Arabs 
are bigoted adherents of the faith of Islam; their gys- 



Fig. 167. — ARABIAN LADY, RIDING. 
(Egypt and Arabia ) 


the sole legal code. They lead, for the most part, a wan- 
dering and nomadic life, dwelling in tents, and occupv 
themselves with religious duties and rapine, about 
equally. The most celebrated and peculiar tribe is the 
Bedouins, q. v. A. contains many small states, and a 
great number of independent tribes. Of the former, 
II5jaz and Yemen form the vilayet, or viceroyalty of 
Arabistan, under the rule of the Sultan of Turkey; 
Muscat is governed by its own sovereign, the Imaum’ 
and Mecca, by a potentate bearing the title of Sherif or 
Xerif. The others elect their own chiefs under various 
designations, as Emir, Sheikh, &c.— Hid. See Ara¬ 
bians.—C/ uV/ towns. Mecca, the “Holy City” of the 
Mohammedans; Medina, Aden, Sana, Djedda, Muscat 
Riad (the capital of Nejd), He.vel, and Bereydah — Pen. 

Estimated at 12,000,000, about seven-eighths of which are 
Arabs; the remainder being Jews, Turks. Banians, Eu¬ 
ropeans, &c. The first European who is believed to 
have penetrated and traversed the interior of A. is the 
English traveller Palgrave, whose valuable “ Narrative 
of a l ear s Journey through Central and Eastern Ara¬ 
bia, was published at London, in 1865. 




















ARAB 


ARAB 


ARAB 


131 


Ara'bia. in Ohio, a post-office of Lawrence co. 

Ara'binn, MooR'isn, or Saracen'ic, Arrliitednre. 
Before the birth of Mohammed, the Arabs, a people es¬ 
sentially nomadic, did not possess a distinctive style of 
architecture. They had, it is true, sev*n temples in 
which were enthroned the idols of their worship, but 
these edifices were destroyed by the early Moslems, with 
the exception ot that at Mecca, called the Caaba, from 
the name ot the famous black stone which has always 
been an object of veneration to the followers of Islam- 
ism. This celebrated temple forms a square building of 
about 31 ft. in length, by 31 in width, with a height of 
32 ft. It is lighted by a doorway on its E. side, and by 
a window. Mohammed having consecrated it to the 
worship of the only God, the caliphs, his successors, 
surrounded the shrine with a square yard or enclosure, 
and built porticos and rooms for the use of pilgrims. 
All know how rapid and productive were the conquests 
achieved by the Moslems after the death of the prophet 
Mohammed in A. n. €32 Contact with more civilized 
nations gave rise, in this people, to an active and pas¬ 
sionate love for the arts and sciences. The first mosque 
erected by the Arabs was that of the caliph Omar, 
built on the site of the temple of Jerusalem. His son 
Walid (705-715) erected at Damascus, on the ruins of 
the church of St. John the Baptist, a mosque so magnifi¬ 
cent that its cost was not less than $PO,CkiO,000. It was 
on this mosque that was originally placed the tall spiral 
shaft called the minaret, from the top of which, for the 
first time, the muezzins called the Faithful to prayer. 
Wherever Islainismpenetrated, and predominated, were 
founded buildings consecrated to the new religi n, as 
well as palaces, hospitals, caravanseras, Ac.; but the 
ensemble of these early Arabian structures sufficiently 
demonstrated that their architects were Greek artists. 
It was in Spain that the A. style of architecture exhib¬ 
ited itself in all the originality of which it was suscep¬ 
tible. The great mosque of Cordova was begun by 
Abd-er-rahman-ben-Moawiah in 77u, and finished by his 
son, near the end of the 8th century. But of all the 
Morisco monuments in Spain, the most marvellous and 
world-renowned is. without a doubt, the Alhambra, (see 
Granada.) The Alcazar of Seville, built posterior to the 
Alhambra, enjoys an almost equal celebrity, but in the 
former the A. stylo is only evident in its decadence. 
If the gratification of the eye were the sole aim and 
object of architecture, this would singularly place the 
A. school far above the great architects of other nations. 
It is impossible to imagine anything more aerial, svelte, 
and tender in form and proportion than the Moorish 
type of structure as found in Spain. The system of 
decoration generally seen in these erections, produces 
upon the senses an almost undefinablo impression; the 
multiplicity and minutiae of detail so prominently per¬ 
vading the whole, together with the harmonious contrast 
of the richest colors exhibited throughout, both excite 
and charm the imagination. The sky-opening, of star- 
like form, that the Arabs of Spain employed in the con¬ 
struction of their domes, produces, from the manner in 
which it conveys light into the interior halls, a truly 
magical effect. Notwithstanding all this, the Moorish 
style does not present that aspect of clearness and gran¬ 
deur which is so apparent in the Egyptian, the Greek, 
and the Homan monumental remains. Summarily, the 
A. order of archi'ecture, considered from the point of 
view of construction, and also at the point of sight 
of the general system of decoration, has obtained 
its salient features from the architectural systems of 
other nations, and more especially from the Byzantine. 
Its only, and grand characteristics are, the method by 



Fig. 168.— ARABIAN ARCHWAY, IN TARRAGONA (Spain), 
which the Arabs have combined other styles, the vari¬ 
ety exhibited in the different parts of their construc¬ 
tions, and the extraordinary harmony which, in spite 
of all, is manifest in their architectural conceptions. 
The more distinctive points connected with the A. sys¬ 


tem aro, briefly, as follows. Their columns are remark¬ 
able for extraordinary lightness and variety of form, 
are by no means deficient in beauty, and generally sup¬ 
port low arcades. The shafts are short and slender, 
either plain or ornamented with lineal carving, some¬ 
times grooved perpendicularly', sometimes spirally. The 
capitals are either imitations of the Greek orders, or 
formed of clustered foliage covered with a plain abacus. 
Fuch was the fondness of the Arabians for columnar 
ornamentation, that in all their mosques and palatial 
residences they introduced an infinito concourse of 
them, disposed in clusters or rows. The arches employed 
were of three kinds; the crescent, the circular, and the 
pointed. The crescent (or liorse-shoe arch) is the sym¬ 
bol of the Mohammedan htegira, as the cross is that of 
the Christian crucifixion. It Avas by them called the 
sacred arch, and is invariably found in the doorways and 
domes of their mosques. The round arch they borrowed 
from the Romans. The pointed arch is believed to have 
been of their own invention, suggested by some of the 
forms of Oriental lattice-work. Another favorite style 
of ornament was the intricate arrangement of compart¬ 
ments or panels, in which they excelled. This style was 
afterward imitated in the modern groining of Gothic 
roofs and ceilings. The open fretwork so common to 
A. architecture is decidedly derived from Persia. Corbels 
and machicolated parapets of castles,were also adoptions 
of the A. school. Besides the before-mentioned exam¬ 
ples of A. structures, some of the finest are to be found 
in Hindustan, as the mosques of Benares and Lucknow, 
the mausoleum and palace of the sultan Akbar at Agra. 
(Fig. 56.) and of Shah Jehan, known as the Taj-Mahal 
of the Great Mogul, at Delhi. 

Ara'bian Gulf. See Hen Sea. 

Ara'bian Nights’ Entertainments, or “The 
Thousand and One Nights,” a celebrated collection of 
Oriental tales, which have, since their introduction to 
the civilized world, become the delight of all who peruse 
them. This collection, which had long been famous 
throughout the East, was brought to the notice of Euro¬ 
peans by the translation of Antoine Galland, a great 
French orientalist, in 1704. It speedily became trans¬ 
lated into theother principal European languages, fixed 
popular admiration, and to this day retains its place in 
popular literature. The scheme of its conception is so 
well known that it would be needless here to relate it. 
These tales, though fabulous in substance, possess in the 
most eminent degree the characteristic imagery and 
poetical versatility of the Orientals. Numerous imita¬ 
tions have at times appeared, which but leebly compare 
with the original; perhaps the best of modern para¬ 
phrases is that of Oehlenscliliiger's Aladdin, which is 
ibunded on one of the well-known tales of the original 
series. The best editions of this work which have yet 
appeared are the one edited by Lane, the English 
orientalist, and Burton’s uncompromisingly accurate 
translation from the original (1885-1887). 

Ara'bians, or Ar'abs. —I. History The A. are a 
people of the Caucasian race, who. by Oriental tradition, 
are said to deduce their origin from Joktau, 5th in de¬ 
scent from Shem; and also, from Adrian, in a direct line 
from his progenitor Ishmael, the son of Abraham. The 
posterity of the former are deemed pure, or genuine A.; 
those of the latter, naturalized or adopted A., from their 
having settled in Arabia many centuries after the advent 
of the Joktanides. The A. eventually became an homo¬ 
geneous people, and established governments in Arabia, 
Chaldaea, and Syria; but without attaining decided 
power and pre-eminence until the beginning of the 7th 
century, when Mohammed, or Mahomet, the great apos¬ 
tle and founder of Islainism, consolidated the A. into 
one great nation. The A ., within a century later, carried 
their prowess in arms, and spirit of religious enthusiasm, 
from the Indies to the Atlantic, touched the African 
deserts, penetrated Spain and Southern France, absorbed 
Asia Minor and the countries about the Caspian sea. 
conquered India, Persia, Syria, and Egypt, and finally 
established the great caliphate of the Moslems at Da¬ 
mascus. From a. d. 661 to 750, the ommiades dynasty 
ruled there as caliphs, until the rival power of the Ab- 
bassides overcame them, and founded a new dynasty, the 
S'-at of whose caliphate was transferred to Cufa, and 
ultimately to Bagdad. The latter city continued to be 
the capital of the Moslem empire, and the metropolis of 
the East, until the 13th century. The power of the 
caliphate then sensibly declined, owing to the foundation 
of otherand independent thrones in Egypt and Western 
Africa, and that of tho caliphate of Cordova in Spain, 
established by the last descendant of the Ommiades. 
About the commencement of the 16th century, the 
Turks conquered and abolished the Eastern caliphate, 
which from that period merged into the great Ottoman 
empire. — See Bedouins, Karmathes, and Wahabees. 

II. Language. See Arabic. 

III. Literature. Long before the time of Mohammed, 
the A. excelled in letters, though of its dawn, and first 
cultivation, but little is known. It has been stated that 
the Book of Job, a poem in itself, is of Arabian origin: 
be this, however, as it may, it is certain that the art of 
poetry had highly advanced among the A. long before 
the Christian era. The golden age of A. literature com¬ 
menced with Mohammed, whose writings on religious 
faith and morality, known as the Koran, became after¬ 
wards considered as the sacred book of the A. race. 
Successive ages extended and encouraged the taste of 
this people for literature and science, and this spirit of 
intelligence was fostered by the munificent patronage it 
received from the Abbassides caliphs (a. d. 750), more 
particularly so by the great monarchs Al-Mansur, Ha- 
roun-al-Raschid, who caused the works of tho most 
famous Greek writers to be translated into the Arabic; 


and Al-Mamnm, who surpassed his predecessors, invited 
learned men from all countries to his capital, estab¬ 
lished academies at Bagdad, Bassora, and Bokhara, and 
large libraries at Alexandria, Bagdad, and Cairo. The 
caliph Motassem (a.d. 841) instituted a literary rivalry 
between his dynasty at Bagdad, and that of the Ommi¬ 
ades in Spain. What Bagdad was to Asia, such was Cor¬ 
dova to Europe; where, during the 10th century, the A. 
were the chief pillars of literature. They excelled in 
geography, history, philosophy, medicine, physics, and 
mathematics. The philosophy of the A. was of Greek 
origin, partaking of the school of Aristotle. In poetry, 
excepting the dramatic, they left no style unachieved; 
they invented the ballad, and there can be no doubt 
that they exercised a powerful effect on the poetry of 
the early civilization of that epoch. The romantic ad¬ 
ventures of chivalry, the mythical lore of Faerie-land, 
6orcery, and magic, all this, and more, passed from the 
A. into the poetry of Western Europe, imparting to the 
latter much of the imaginative spirit and refinement of 
character it has since developed.—See Aniar, and Ara¬ 
bian Nights’ Entertainments. 

Ara'bian Sea, a large expanse in the Indian ocean, 
extending from the peninsula of Hindustan on the E., to 
Arabia on the W., a distance probably of 1,500 m. 

Ar'abic, n. Tho language of the Arabs, or people of 
Arabia. This tongue belongs to the so-called Semitic 
dialects, among which it is distinguished for its antiquity, 
richness, and softness. The A. language now forms two 
dialects, the ancient or literate A. of the Koran, and the 
A. vulgar, of which latter the purest is spoken in 
Yemen. The A. spoken at the present day is said to 
differ as much from that of the Koran, as the Italian 
from the Latin; but the well-educated Arabs, like the 
learned of the Turkish empire, still employ it in corre¬ 
spondence and literary composition. The number and 
variety of its grammatical forms is great, but its strong 
gutturals and deep intonation render it harsh to the 
ears of northern people. In harmony and energy, the A. 
is said to excel; ami its richness in respect of words 
surpasses all oilier languages. The Arabs, indeed, rep¬ 
resent it as so copious, that no uninspired man can be¬ 
come a perfect master of it; as, for instance, they allege 
that it has 1,000 terms to express sword, 500 for lion, 
and 200 tor serpent. As the language of Mohammed, 
the A. has been diffused over a greater portion of the 
earth than any other. It is studied, and understood, 
even if not spoken, from the shores of the Atlantic to 
the banks of the Ganges: and from the Tartar steppes to 
the countries on the Niger. In the Sundn, Molucca, and 
Philippine isles.it is generally spoken. Throughout the 
greater part of Spain also, and the whole of Sicily, it 
once prevailed; and on the eastern coast of Africa, as far 
as Madagascar, it is still spoken. This vast extension 
may be one cause of its copiousness, as it doubtless is 
the chief one of its diversity of dialects and pronuncia¬ 
tion. The language of one province is almost unintelli¬ 
gible to the inhabitants of another. The dialect of the 
mountaineers of Yemen,owing to their little intercourse 
with strangers, bears the strongest resemblance to the 
language of the Koran. The Ismaelitic forms of the A. 
prevail in the N. of Arabia, the Himyaritic in the S., and 
the Koraitic in Mecca and the adjacent country. The 
idiom of the Arabs in the NAV . part of Africa is the most 
corrupt of any, excepting that of Malta. We possess 
valuable grammars and lexicons of the A by Erpen, 
Michaelis, Richardson, Juhn, RoseumUller, lie Saey, 
Tychsen. Ewald, Roorda, Meninski, and Freytag. The 
modern, or vulgar, A. has been investigated by Savary, 
Eichhorn, Burckliardt, and others; and of the Algerine 
A. several vocabularies and grammars have been pub¬ 
lished in Paris. 

Arabs-i**', or Arabgheer, a town of Armenia in Asiatic 
Turkey, between Egin and Keban-Maden. — hlanuf. of 
cotton goods. Distant from the Euphrates about 20 m.; 
from Aleppo, 2"0 m. Pop. 20,000. 

Arab-His sar, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Anatolia, 
38 m. N.W.of Mugla. Near itare the ruins of an ancient 
city. 

Arab'ical, a. Arabian ; Arabic. 

Arab'fcally, adv. In the Arabian manner. 

Arabic Figures. See Numerals. 

Arabic Gum. See Gum-arabic. 

Arab'icus Sinus. See Red Sea. 

Ara'birta;, n. pi. (Bot .) A tribe of plants, ord. Brassi- 
cauece. 

Ar'abine, n. (Chen.) That portion of gum-arabic sol¬ 
uble in cold water. It is colorle-s, tasteless, and without 
smell; between 282° and 39 _° softens, and maybe drawn 
into threads; becomes acid in a moist atmosphere; in¬ 
soluble in alcohol, and precipitated from its aqueous 
solution in flakes; converted by boiling with sulphuric 
acid into sugar, but does not ferment. It consists «f 
C 4211, H 6-43, O 51-46. This solution is known by the 
name of mucilage, and is employed in pharmacy to 
make cough mixtures; and in calico printing, to thicken 
colors and mordants. Form. C^HijOij. 

Ar'abis, n. (Sot.) A gen. of plants, tribe Arabida .— Diag. 
Sepals erect; petals unguieulate, entire; silique linear, 
compressed; valves 1-veined in the middle; seeds in a 
single row in each cell. FIs. white.—The Sickle Pod, A. 
Canadensis, found on rocky hills in the W. States, is a 
plant remarkable for its long, drooping pods, which re¬ 
semble a curved sword-blade; stem 2-3 ft. high, slender, 
round, smooth ; small w'hite flowers in June. 

Ar'abis, a river of S. Asia. 

Ar'abism, n. An idiom or phrase of the Arabic lan¬ 
guage. 

Ar'abist, n. One versed in Arabian literature. 

Arabis'tail. a division of the Ottoman empire in Asia, 
forming a vilayet or government; consisting of the prov- 
















































132 


ARAC 


ARAG 


ARAL 


inces or sandjaks of Bagdad, Haleb, and Souristan, in 
Syria, and the Hejaz and Yemen in Arabia. 

Arab'istan, (“ Land of the Arabs.”) A vast extent of 
level country of Persia, in the prov. of Khhzistan, com¬ 
prising tlie districts of Hawiyat, Shushter, and Dizful. 

Ar'able, a. [Fr.; Lat. arabilis, from aro; Gr. aroo, tu 
plough.] Applied to land fit for ploughing, or tillage. 

Ara'ho. See Raab. 

Ar'ahog, in Arabia. See Rabogh. 

Arabo-Tedesco. [It. A mfco, and Gr. Tedesco.] (Arch.) 
A style tonsisting of amixtureof Arabian or low Grecian 
with German-Gothic. It is a term used chiefly by the 
Italians. An example of this style may be shown in 
the Baptistery of Pisa (Fig. 169), erected by Dioti Salvi 



Fig. 169. — baptistery OF PISA, (12ft century.) 


In 1152. It is a circular edifice, with an arcade of the 
2d order, composed of columns with Corinthian capitals 
and plain round arches. Between each arch rises a 
Gothic pinnacle, above which it is finished by sharp pedi¬ 
ments enriched with foliage, terminating in a trefoil. 

Ar'aby, n. Same us Arabia; used chiefly in a poetical 
sense. 

Ar 'acan, or Arracan. formerly an independent king¬ 
dom, conquered by the Burmese in 1784, now a province 
of British Burmah. It is situate on the S. E. coast of 
the Bay of Bengal; is bounded on the E. by Burmali, 
and on the N. by Chittagong in British India. Lat. be¬ 
tween 16° and 22° N.; Long, between 92° and 94° E.; 
area, 18,500 sq.m.— Desc. On its E. border is a lofty range 
of mountains, with but few passes. On the coast are 
innumerable islands. The interior is chiefly covered 
with forests, jungles, lakes, and rivers; the principal 
of which latter are the Aracan and Mayoo, both navig¬ 
able.— Com. A considerable trade is carried on with 
Bengal aud Europe.— Prod. Rice, cotton, indigo, buf¬ 
falo-hides and horns, ivory, tobacco, silk, fruits, aud 
gold and precious stones. Iron aud coal are found.— 
Chief Towns. Aracan and Ak.voh.— Pop. (1895), 488,500. 
—In 1824, this country was conquered by the British. 

Aracan, a city and cap. of the above prov., on a branch of 
the Kuladyne river; Lat. 20° 35' N., Lon. 93° 15' E. It 
is fortified, and possesses pagodas. Pop. (1895), 3,000. 

Ar <can, or Kuladyne, a river of the above prov., rises in 
Burmah, and after a S. course of about 200 m. through 
Aracan, falls into the Bay of Bengal. It is navigable 
for small vessels. 

Araca'ri, n. ( Zodl .) A gen. of birds of the fam. Toucan , 
q. V. 

Ara'cese, Arads, n. pi. (But.) An ord. of plants of the 
alliance Araks. —Diag. Aral endogens, with numerous 
naked flowers on a solitary spadix covered by a simple 
hooded spatha, sessile anthers, loose seeds, and a slit 
axile embryo. They are herbaceous plants, or shrubs, 
often with a fleshy corm: stemless, or arborescent, or 
climbing by means of aerial roots. Leaves sheathing at 
the base, convolute in the bud, usually with branching 
veins. Spadix generally inclosed in a spatlie; flowers 
mostly monoecious and achlamydeous, arranged upon a 
naked spadix; stamens definite or indefinite, hypog- 
ynous, very short; anthers ovate, q^trorse; ovary free, 
l-several-celled; stigma sessile; fruit succulent; seeds 
pulpy. Natives of all tropical countries; rarely of tem¬ 
perate climates. An acrid principle pervades this order, 
and exists in so high a degree in some of them as to 
render them dangerous poisons. (See Dikffenbachia.) 
Genera 26; species 170. The Gen. Arum is the type of 
the order. 

Araeliis, n (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Fabacese. The 
ground-nut, or underground kidney-bean, A. hypogcea, 
is an annual plant, native of tropical America; leaves 
hairy pinnate, with four leaflets; flowers yellow, the 


standard veined with red. After flowering, the flower- 
stalk elongates and bends toward the earth, into which 
the pods penetrate, ripening underground. The pods 
have a lining of a sort of network, containing 2 to 4 
seeds, which are about the size of a hazel-nut, of a sweet 
taste. This plant succeeds in temperate countries when 
sown after all danger of frost is over. The seeds, boiled 
Or roasted, form an article of food in some parts of Africa. 
They contain an oil which is quite equal to olive-oil, 
either for lamps or for the table. This plant delights 
in a light and sandy, but at the same time fertile soil. 
The seeds are dug up as roots or tubers usually are. 

Aracl»'ni«la, n. [Lat. from Gr. aracline , a spider.] 
(Zoot.) A class of articulated animals, including the 
Araneidce or true spiders, the Acarida; or mites, the Pe- 
pipalli or scorpions, the Pseudo-scorpions, and the Pha- 
langita or long-legs, all ranked by Linnseus under in¬ 
sects, but, though having a great analogy with them, 
and being equally fitted to live in the air, are distin¬ 
guished from them by their number of limbs, their in¬ 
ternal structure, and habits. All the A. are destitute 
of antennas, aud have the head united with the thorax; 
they have generally eight legs; they have no wings; 
and in most of them there is a complete circulating 
system. Most of the A. are carnivorous, but in general 
they confine themselves to sucking the juices of insects r 
and in order to enable them to capture and subdue 
animals otherwise capable of effectual resistance, nature 
has furnished them with a poisonous apparatus. 

Arach'nidan, n. (Zoot.) One of the Arachnid®. 

Arach'noid, a. [Gr. aracline, a cobweb, aud eidns. 
form.] (Anut.) A thin membrane of the brain, without 
vessels and nerves, resembling a spider's web, situated 
between the dura and pia mater, and surrounding the 
cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and medulla 
spinalis. Sometimes applied also to the tunic of the crys¬ 
talline lens and vitreous humor of the eye. 

(Bot.) Resembling cobweb in appearance; seeming 
to be covered with cobweb, in consequence of the en¬ 
tanglement of long white hairs. 

Araco'ma, in W. Virginia, a village of Logan co. 

A'rad, an island in the Persian gulf, near that of Bahrein. 

A'rad, Old and New, two cities in the kingdom of Hun¬ 
gary, separated by the Danube. The former is a consid¬ 
erable place, the seat of a bishop and academies of learn¬ 
ing. It holds one of the largest fairs in the kingdom. — 
New A. is principally known as being a fortress of the 
first class in the Austrian empire, and a prison for polit¬ 
ical offenders. Pop. of both towns (1895 ) 52,600. 

Arad'eo, a town of S. Italy in the province of Naples, 
13 m. N.W. of Gallipoli. 

Ar.T'ostyle, n. [Gr. araios, wide, and stylos, column.] 
(Arch.) One of the five proportions used by the ancients 
for regulating the intercolumniations or intervals be¬ 
tween the columns in porticos and colonnades. As 
Vitruvius does not determine precisely its measure in 
terms of the diameter of the column, Perrault proposes 
that the interval be made equal to four diameters, which 
is the interval now usually assigned to it. It is only 
used with the Tuscan order. 

Arseosys'tyle, re. [Gr. araios, wide; syn, with; stylos, 
a column.] A term used by the French architects to de¬ 
note the method of proportioning the intervals between 
columns coupled or ranged in pairs, as introduced by 
Perrault in the principal facade of the Louvre at Paris, 
and by Sir Christopher Wren in the W. front of St. Paul’s 
Cathedral, London. 

Arafat', Mount, or Jebel-el-Orfat, a granitic hill in 
Arabia, 15 m. S.E. of Mecca. It is about 200 ft. high, 
and is one of the holy places of pilgrimage with the 
Mohammedans. On its eastern side are the ruins of a 
mosque where Mohammed was wont to pray. It is an 
nually visited by the pilgrims from Mecca, and the Mo¬ 
hammedans say that at this place Adam met Eve after 
their expulsion from Paradise, and consequent separa¬ 
tion for 120 years. 

Arafu'ras, or Alfu'ras, a savage race of people — the 
Alfoers and Alforese of the early navigators — inhabiting 
the interior of New Guinea, and the Papuan group of 
Islands in the S. Pacific ocean. They seem to resemble 
the natives of Australia in physical character and ap¬ 
pearance. Their color is a deep dirty brown, or black. 
Leyden, in his Asiatic Researches, says they are “indi¬ 
genous in almost all the Eastern isles, and are sometimes 
found on the same island with the Papuans, or Oriental 
Negroes.” 

Ara'go, Fiianqois Jean Dominique, a celebrated French 
astronomer and perpetual secretary of the Academy of 
Sciences of Paris, b. in 1786, at Estagel in the S. of 
France. He was educated at Toulouse, and thence re¬ 
moved to the Polytechnic school of Paris. He entered, 
in 1804, upon scientific study, and rose rapidly to distinc¬ 
tion. Joining the staff of the French Observatory, he 
proceeded to Spain with M. Biot, to take the measure¬ 
ment of an arc of the meridian. On his return to Paris, 
he was elected at the age of 23, a member of the Acad¬ 
emy of Sciences, replacing the great Lalande; and also 
appointed professor of the Ecole Polytechnique. From 
this time, he commenced upon a scientific career of 
the most brilliant character, sustained until his death. 
Without enumerating all his great discoveries, mention 
must be made of his determination of the diameters of 
the planets, afterward followed up by Laplace; the dis¬ 
covery of polarization by colors; and that of rotatory 
magnetism. He was also the inventor of the Polariscope. 
In 1830, he was nominated Director of the Observatory, 
and of the Bureau des Longitudes. The Annuaire des 
longitudes he also directed; and founded, conjointly 
with Gay-Lussac, the “Receuil des Annates de Physique 
et de Cliimie." A., as a politician, was earnest, moderate, 
and consistent. Early imbued with republican princi¬ 


ples, he refused adhesion to the constitution of the First 
Empire. After 1830, he became a member of the Cham¬ 
ber of Deputies; and in 1848, on the downfall of the 
Orleans dynasty, was appointed by the republican gov¬ 
ernment minister of war and marine. In June of that 
year, during the temporary dictatorship of Cavaignac, 
he closed his political career. A. was a member of 
nearly all the learned societies of Europe, and, as an 
astronomer, has achieved a world-wide reputation. D. 
1853.—His son, Emmanuel, b. 1812, took an active part 
in the revolution of 1848; acquired great distinction as 
an advocate; became a member of the provisional gov¬ 
ernment without portfolio in 1870, aud was elected sen¬ 
ator in 1874. D. 1896. 

A., Etienne, brother of the above, b. 1803, well known as 
a popular writer in light literature. He took an emi¬ 
nent part in the revolution of 1848; and also in the 
insurrection of June, which resulted in his being sen¬ 
tenced to exile for life. The amnesty of 1859 enabled 
him lo return to Paris. D. 1892. 

A., Jacques Etienne Victor, another brother of the astron¬ 
omer, b. 1790, was very distinguished as a writer of 
romances and vaudevilles, but is principally known for 
his two interesting books of travel: “Promenade autuur 
die Monde,” and “Souvenirs d’un Aveugle, Voyage autour 
du Monde,” pleasant records of a voyage round the 
world, accomplished in 1817. Although afflicted with 
blindness since 1837, he departed for California in 1849, 
as leader of a company of speculators to search for gold 
on a large scale, but was deserted by his companions in 
Valparaiso. lie has published his misadventures under 
the title “Voyage d'uh Aveugle en Califomie et dans les 
Regions A urifires,” Paris, 1851. D. 1855. 

A., Jean, brother of the three preceding, b. 1789, was gen¬ 
eral of the republican army in Mexico. He has written, 
in Spanish, a good history of Mexico. D. 1836. 

Ara'go, in Oregon, a cape on the Pacific ocean, about 
36 m. N. by E. of Cape Blanco.. 

Ara'go, in Nebraska, a post-village and township of 
Richardson co. 

Ar'agon, commonly called the kingdom of A., a former 
province of Spain, bounded on the N. by the Pyrenees; 
E by Catalonia; S.E. and S. by Valencia; S.W. by 
New Castile; and on the W. by Old Castileand Navarre. 
It lies between 40° and 43° N. Its greatest length from 
N. to S. is 200 m.; aud its average breadth about 130. 
Area, about 17,076 sq. miles.— Desc. This country is gen¬ 
erally mountainous, skirted by the loftiest range of the 
Pyrenees, and by the great Sierras of Moncayo, Morelia, 
Teruel, &c. In the centre is the basin of the Ebro, which 
receives the waters of numerous rivers. The higher 
elevations are cold and sterile, and the valleys warm 
and fertile. The W. wind, called by the natives the 
fagueno, is accompanied by abundant showers, and is 
very favorable to vegetation.— Prod. The principal agri¬ 
cultural resources of A. are wheat, barley, oats, rye, 
maize, flax, hemp, and fruits, inclusive of grapes aud 
olives of the finest quality; barilla, madder, and 
saffron. Excellent timber is plentiful, and the richest 
pastures feed quantities of cattle. Among its minerals, 
copper, lead, aud iron are found in abundance. Cobalt, 
quicksilver, marble, and copperas are also plenty Its 
ancient gold and silver mines attracted the Romans. 
Animals. Wild ones, as the bear, wolf, and lynx, inhabit 
the gorges of the Pyrenees. Sheep of the merino species 
are reared in great numbers, and their wool constitutes 
the main wealth of the prov. — Manf. unimportant. 
This province is now divided into the 3 provs. of Teruel, 
Iluesca, aud Saragossa. Cap. Saragossa. — Hist. A. orig¬ 
inally was the territory of the ancient Celtiberes. In 
470, it passed from the Romans to the Goths. In 714, it 
was conquered by the Moors, REGsubsequently governed 
by its own sovereigns until its fusion with the kingdoms 
of Castile and Leon, by the marriage of Ferdinand and 
Isabella in 1474. Pop. (1895) 928,700. 

Ar agon, a river of Spain, rising in the Pyrenees, and 
joining the Ebro after a course of 80 m S.W. 

Arago'na, a town of Italy, in Sicily, 8 m. N.N.E. of 
Girgenti. The mud volcano of Maccaluba is in its vi¬ 
cinity. Pop. abt. 6,6u0. 

Ar'agonite, n. (Min.) An orthorhombic mineral; 
lustre vitreous; color white, sometimes gray, yellow, 
green, or violet; streak uncolored; transparent; trans¬ 
lucent; brittle.— Comp. Carbonic acid 44, lime 56=100. 
Was discovered in Aragon, in six-sided prisms, with 
gypsum, imbedded in a ferruginous clay. 

Ara'guay, or Araguaya, a large river of Brazil, which 
rises in about 19° S. lat., near the Parana, to about 6° S. 
lat., where it joins the Tocantins. The united stream, 
after a course of 1,000 miles, falls into the delta of the 
Amazon in S. lat. 1° 40'. Many tribes of warlike Indians 
dwell on its banks. 

Araignee, n. [Fr., a spider.] (Fort.) A branch, return, 
or gallery of a mine. 

Arak' Mountains, the W. division of a range of moun¬ 
tains which runs from Tartary, E. and N.E., through 
the N. provinces of China, until it meets the Samen 
mountains separating China from Asiatic Russia. Lat. 
42° N.; Lon. 72° E. 

Arakho'va, in Greece, a village of the Morea, in Ar¬ 
cadia. Mount Parnassus towers above the vineyards of 
A., and the Corycian Cave may be best visited from this 
spot. 

A'ral (Sea or Lake of), next to the Caspian sea, the 
largest inland body of water in Asia, measuring 290 m. 
in its greatest length, and from 100 to 250 m. in breadth. 
Area. It contains a total superficies of about 23,300 sq. 
m. It is situated in the plains of the Turcoman and 
Kirghiz countries, near the S.W. extremity of Indepen¬ 
dent Tartary. Lat. between 43° and 47° N.; Lon. bet. 
58° and 61° 30' & The principal rivers embouching 







































































































































ARAL 


ARAR 


ARAU 


135 





Into this sea are the Sihoun (the ancient Jaxartes), and 
the Jihouii ( Oxus). A. is studded with islands, whence 
its Tartar name Aral dinguiss, i. e. “ Sea of isles.” Its 
waters are salt, and are sometimes frozen in winter; the 
fish it contains are similar to tlio.se of the Caspian. 
Arai'na;, n. pi. (Zoul.) The Macaws, a genus of birds, 

fam. Psilla- 
c idee , or 
parrot tribe. 
These mag- 
nificent 
birds are 
d i stinguish- 
ed by hay¬ 
ing their 
cheeks des¬ 
titute of 
feathers 
and their 
tail-feathers 
long. They 
are all natives of S. America, and 
abound in swampy grounds which 
are covered with palm-trees, the 
fruit of which they are particular¬ 
ly fond of. They generally appear 
in pairs, and are always observed to 
perch on the summits of trees. They 
build their nests in the hollows of de¬ 
cayed trees; and lay twice a year, 
generally two eggs at a time. When 
young they are easily tamed, and 
soon grow familiar with persons they 
are accustomed to see; but, like all 
the parrot tribe, they show an aver¬ 
sion to strangers. In a domesticated 
state they will feed on almost every 
article, more especially sugar, bread, 
and fruits. Like other parrots, they 
use their claws with great dexterity, 
though in climbing they always begin 
by taking hold with their bill, using 
their feet only as a second point of 
their motion. They may be taught to 
speak, but their articulation is hoarse 
and unpleasant. Their general voice 
is a loud and piercing scream. The 
scarlet Ara, or Macrocerus macao, is 
the most splendid with regard to 
color, as well as one of the largest of all the Psillacidse. 
From the tip of the bill to the extremity of the tail,some 
of them measure 36 inches. We have illustrated the A. 
canga, a lovely Brazilian species. 

Ara'les, n. (Bat.) An alliance of plants in which are 
found the lowest structure known among flowering 
plants.— Dug. Unisexual petaloid or naked flowered 
endogens, with a single naked spadix, and an embryo in 
the axis of mealy or fleshy albumen. The Aral alliance 
is divided into the orders Pistiacece, Typliacece, Aracecc, 
and Pendanacece. 

Ara'les* or Aralians, a nation of Independent Tartary, 
inhabiting the S. shores of Lake Aral. They number 
about 100,000, speak the Turkish language, and profess 
Islamism. In summer, they live in tents: in winter, in 
immense camps; and subsist by rearing vast herds of 
cattle. 

Ara'lia, n. ( Bot .) The typical genus of the order 

Pfj / id f*'P rp q y < 

AralIa'cfW, Arali ads, Ivt-worts, an order of plants, 
alliance Umbellate.—D iaq. A 3- or more-celled fruit 


Fig. 170. 

RED AND YELLOW 
MACAW. 

(Ara Canga.) 


Fig. 171. 

1. Hedera Helix ; 2. Flower of Pi morph antes edulis ; 3. Perpen¬ 
dicular section of the ovary: 4. Undivided ovary ^ 5- Ri pe fruit. 
6. Cross section of it; 7. Section of seed of H. Helix. 

without a double epigynons disc, pentamerons flowers, 
a valvate corolla, alternate leaves without stipules, and 
anthers turned inward, opening lengthwise. They are 


trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants, which are in many 
respects much as umbellifers, from which they are dis¬ 
tinguished by their ovary having more cells than 2, and 
by their greater tendency to form a woody stem. The 
ord. is divided into 21 genera and 160 species; uatives of 
northern temperate climes of both hemispheres. Sev¬ 
eral species are well known in medicine, &c., as Sarsapa¬ 
rilla, Spikenard (gen. Aralia ), Ginseng (gen. Parian), 
and Ivy (gen. Hedera). 

Arnnur'a. [From Heb. aram, the highland.] (Anc. 
Grog.) This name was given to the whole of the country 
situated to the N.E. of Palestine, including the countries 
known to the Greeks by the names of Syria, Babylonia, 
and Mesopotamia.—See Aramaic. 

Aramagli'aneh, a fortified town of Persia, in the 
prov. of Azerbijan. 

Arama'kutan, one of the Kurile group of islands in 
the N. Pacific, in N. Lat. 49° 35'. 

Arama'ie, a language branching from the Semitic, and 
probably the root of the whole family of Semitic tongues, 
was spoken in all the countries named Aramaea. It was 
divided into two principal dialects, the Western Aramaic 
or Syriac, and the Eastern Aramaic or Chaldee. Alter 
the Babylonian captivity, the pure Hebrew had grad¬ 
ually given place to the Aramaic, which was generally 
spoken in Palestine in the time of Christ. It is the 
harshest of all the Semitic languages, and has now 
almost entirely died out, giving place to the Arabic, and 
Persian, or Persic. 

Aramay'ona, a valley of Spain in the prov. of Alava, 
famous lor its iron-works. 

A ram i n go, in Pennsylvania, that part of the city of 
Philadelphia situated about m. N. by E. of the city 
hall. It was formerly a district of Philadelphia co. 
Ara'rao, a town of Chili, 30 m. S. of La Concepcion. 
A'ran, a valley of Spain, prov. of Lerida, in the Pyre¬ 
nees, bounded on the N. by the French dep. of Ilaute- 
Garonne and Arriege, on the S.W. by Aragon, and on 
the S. and S.E. by Catalonia. It consists chiefly of 
wood and pastures, with but little arable land. Inhab¬ 
ited principally by herdsmen, woodcutters, and contra- 
bandistos or smugglers. 

Aran'cay, a town of Peru, in the prov. of Truxillo, in 
S. Lat. 9° 20'. 

Aran'da de Due'ro, a town and partidos (district) 
of Spain, in the prov. of Burgos, 90 m. from Madrid; pop. 
4,623. 

Arane'idse, n. pi. (Zobl .) The Spiders, a family of an- 
nulose animals, ord. Arucimulce. —See Spiders. 
Arane'iforni, a. Formed or shaped as a spider. 
Ara'neous, a. Resembling a spider’s web, or cobweb. 
Aran'Ita, two towns in Portugal, one in Estremadura, 
12 m. N.E. of Leiria; the other in the prov. of Alentejo, 
10 m. S.S.W. of Porto Alegre. 

Aranjuez', a town of Spain, in the prov. of New Castile, 
28 m. S.S.E. of Madrid. This place is principally re¬ 
markable as containing a royal palace and fine gardens, 
belonging to the Spanish sovereigns, built in the reign 
of Philip II. 

Aran'sas, in Texas, a small river which passes through 
the N.E. part of Bee co., and runs S.E. until its entry 
into the bay of the same name. 

—A village of Aransas co. 

Aransas Bay, Aransaso or Aransazua, a bay on the 
coast of Texas, N. of Corpus Cliristi bay. 

Arail'tac, a seaport of Peru, 30 m. S.W. of Arequipa, 
in S. Lat. 16° 53'. The harbor is deep, but the narrow 
entrance prevents many vessels from frequenting it. 
Ara'ny, Janos, a distinguished Hungarian poet, b. at 
Nngy-Szalonta, 1819. His principal poems are: Az elves- 
zett alkatmdny (The lost Constitution of the Past); Toldi, 
a Trilogy; Mur any Ostroma (Conquest of Mur&ny); 
and Katulin (Catherine). D. 1882. 

Arap'alioe, in Colorado, an E. county ; County town 
Denver. 

Arapahoe, in Oklahoma, the cap. of “G.” co. Pop. 
(1897) abt. 300. 

Arap'ahoes, a tribe of North American Indians, 
formerly inhabiting the country E. of the Rocky Moun¬ 
tains, now on reservations in Wyoming ar.d Indian 
Territory. They were once numerous and warlike, 
but are now few and inoffensive. 

Arapai'ma, n. ( Zool.) A genus of malacopterygious 
fishes, nearly allied to the Clupeidm, or Herring family, 
and remarkable for the mosaic work of strong, bony, 
compound scales with which the body is covered. The 
A . is the largest known fresh-water fish in the world, 
being sometimes taken 18 ft. in lengthen the Rio Negro, 
South America. 

Arapa'res, a mountain-chain in Brazil, in which the 
rivers Jurneao, Arinos, Paraguay, and Cuyaba take their 
rise. 

Araparip'ncu, a town of Brazil, on a branch of the 
Maranon, 170 m. W.S.W. of Para. 

Arapl'jo, a town of Brazil, in the prov. of Para, 18 m, 
W.S.W. of Gurupa. 

Arap'iles, in Spain. See Salamanca. 

Ar'aqui, a river of Asia, in Georgia, which, rising in the 
Caucasus, joins the Kur, 25 m. above Tiflis. 
Araran'g'ua, a river of Brazil, falling into the sea 
about 50 in. to the S.W. of San Antonio de Laguna, after 
a course of about 60 m., 15 of which are navigable from 
its mouth. 

Ar'aras, Sierra d’, a range of mountains in Brazil, 
forming part of the boundary between the prov. of 
Minas-Geraes and Goyaz. 

Ar'arat, a district of Australia, in the British colony 
of 'Victoria. It is one of the principal gold-mining dis¬ 
tricts, and contains a pop. of about 52,000. 

Ar'arat, a river of N. Carolina, emptying into the 
Yadkin. 


Ar'arat (Mount), a famous mountain of Asia, in 
Armenia, on the confines of the Russian, Turkish, and 
Persian empires: Lat. 39° 42'N.; Lon. 44° 35' E. Its 
base is washed by the Araxes, from whose low plain it 
rises to an immense height, terminating in two conical 
peaks, one much higher than the other. After many 
fruitless attempts to reach its principal summit, or Great 
Ararat, this arduous task was accomplished in 1830, 
by Professor Parrot, who determined its altitude to be 
17,230 ft. above sea-level. The whole of the upper region 
of the mountain, from the height of 12,750 ft., is covered 
with perpetual snow and ice, and is frequently the scene 
of tremendous avalanches. It is believed to" be of vol¬ 
canic origin. A. is said to be the Ararat of Scripture oil 
whose summit the ark rested. (Gen. viii. 4.) 



Ar'arat Mountain, N. Carolina. See Pilot Moun¬ 
tain. 

Ar 'as (the anc. Araxes), a river of Asia, rising in Arme¬ 
nia, and flowing past Mount Ararat to the Kur, which 
it enters after a course of about 420 m. 

Ara'tion, n. [Lat. aratin.) Ploughing; tillage. 

Ara'tor, in Missouri, a village of Pettis co 

Ara'tus, a Greek poet and astronomer, b. in Cilicia; 
flourished about 300 B. c. 

Ara'tus op Sicyon, b. 273 b. c., delivered his native city 
from the tyrant Nicocles, and, with the help of Ptolemams 
Pliiladelphus. restored the republican form of govern¬ 
ment. D. 216 b. c., poisoned by order of Philip, king of 
Macedon. 

Arauca'nia, a large territory of S. America, compris¬ 
ing all the country lying between 37° and 39° 50' S Lat., 
and 76° and 75° 20' W. Lon. On the N it is bounded by 
the river Biobio; S. by the Valdivia; E by the Andes; 
and on the W. by the Pacific ocean. A. was formerly 
divided into 4 tetrarchies, each governed by a togui or 
tetrarch. and subdivided into 9 aUaregues or provinces, 
each of which is presided .over by an apo-ulmen. The 
form of government is an intermixed democracy and 
aristocracy. Tlio natives proper of A. belong to the 
Moluches race f Indians, and derived their name of 
Araucanians or Aucas from the Spaniards. A partial 
agricultural industry prevails, but horses, cattle, gua- 
nacos, and vicunas form the principal wealth of the 
country. The inhabitants have a sort of criminal code, 
and a religion which admits the immortality of the soul. 
They are a warlike people. None of the aborigines of 
S. America have resisted with such obstinate bravery 
the attempts of Europeans to reduce them to subjection, 
and, until recently, they retained their independence. 
They learned from the Spaniards the use of cavalry tac¬ 
tics in warfare, and are now in this respect almost unri¬ 
valled. The gov. of A. was republican until 1859, in 
which year a Frenchman, named M. de Tonneins, who 
had travelled through the country, formed a party of 
adherents, and proclaimed himself sovereign, under the 
title of King Aurelius Antonius I. To get rid of him, 
the opposite party called for the aid of Chili, whose 
troops defeated and made him prisoner in 1862. He 
eventually was liberated, and retired to France. Alter 
having his regal title formally recognized in the course 
of a lawsuit, he returned to A., was again at war with 
Chili in 1869-’70; but in 1871 had to Bail once more for 
France, where he died in poverty. A. was nominally 
annexed to Chili by a law of Oct. 13. 1875. 

Aranea'ria, n. [Front Araucania.] (Bot.) A genus of 
trees, order I'inacne. The Chili pine, A. imbricata, is a 
very remarkable evergreen tree, found in the Cordil¬ 
leras of Chili; height 50 to 100 ft., rarely 150 ft. The 
trunk is quite straight, and without knobs, with a strong 
arrow-like leading shoot, pushing upward. It is cov¬ 
ered with a double bark, the inner part of which, in old 
trees, is from 5 to 6 inches thick, lungous, tenacious, 
porous, and light; and from it, as from almost every 
other part of the tree, resin flows in great abundance. 
The branches are horizontal, inflexed. and ascending at 
the extremities. The leaves are sessile, ovate-lanceolate, 
stiff, straight, verticilate, imbricate, and closely encir¬ 
cling the branches; concave, rigid, glabrous, shining, and 
remaining attached to the tree for several years. The 
male and female catkins are on separate trees. The 
cones, when ripq, are globular, from 3 to 4 in. in diame¬ 
ter, and of a dark brown color. The wood is white, and 

1 toward the centre of the stem bright yellow. It is 






























13G 


ARBI 


ARBO 


ARCA 


hard, and might prove valuable for many uses if the 
places of growth of the tree were less inaccessible. The 
A. imbricata has been introduced into Europe. 



Fig. 173. — araucaria imbricata, (the Chili Pine.) 


Aran'eo, a S. prov. of Chili, created in 1852 from the N. 
part of Araucania. Area, 13,714 sq.m.; pop. 140,896, 
besides 30,000 Indians, who still maintain their inde¬ 
pendence in the interior Cap. Arauco, on a bay of 
same name, 300 m. S. of Valparaiso. 

Arnn'r^, a town oi Venezuela, S. America, 60 m. E N.E. 
of Truxillo ; Lat. 9° 17' N., Lon. 69° 28' W. Pop. 10,000. 

Arhu, a small island of Europe, in the Adriatic gulf, 
separated from Croatia by a narrow channel. Cap. of 
the same name. Pop. abt. 4,000. 

Ar'ba, in Indiana, a post-office of Randolph co. 

Ar'balest, Arcu'bu.est, Ar'balet, Ar'balist, n. [Lat. 
ar'cubalista; Fr. arbateste.] (Mil.) A cross-bow. This 
weapon is supposed to have been introduced into Euro¬ 
pean armies by the crusaders, although used long before 
in the chase. The arrows used with the cross-bow were 
short and thick (quarrels, bolts). The weapon was used 
in the English armies after the reign of Richard I.; but 
the Italians, and especially the Genoese, were most ex¬ 
pert in the use of it at one time. So deadly a weapon 



was it at one time considered, that papal bulls were 
issued in the twelfth century condemning and forbidding 
its use in combats between Christians. It was disused 
in England, as a weapon of war, in the reign of Henry' 
Till. Cross-bows were of several sizes, the large or 
stiiTup cross-bow was bent by the foot —See Archery. 

Arbalesti'na, n. (Mil.) In the fortified castles of the 
middle ages, a small window, through which the arbal- 
isters shot their arrows. 

Ar'balister, n. A cross-bow man. 

Arbe'la, or Erbil, in Turkey in Asia, a town of the 
pashalic of Bagdad, 40 m. E. by S. of Mosul. Lat. 36° 
11' N., Lon. 44° E. This was formerly a large city, and 
is renowned in history as the scene of the great victory 
(b. c. 33l) obtained by Alexander the Great over Darius, 
which caused the complete subversion of the Persian 
empire. Pop. abt. 6,000. 

Arbe'la, in Michigan, a flourishing township of Tus¬ 
cola county. 

Arbe'la, in Missouri, a post-office of Scotland co. 

Ar'biter, n. [Fr. arbitre.} A person appointed or chosen 
by parties engaged in controversy, to examine into and 
decide their differences; an umpire; an arbitrator. One 
who rules or controls. 

— v. a To judge; to arbitrate. 

Arbitrable, a. That depends upon the will. 

Ar'bitrag-e, n. [Fr.] Arbitration, (r.) 

Ar'bitral, a. Which relates to arbitration. 

Arbit'ranient, re. Determination; decision; will. 

(Law.) The award or decision of arbitrators upon a 
matter of dispute which has been submitted to them. 

Arbitrarily, adv. By will only; despotically; abso¬ 
lutely. 

Arbitrariness, re. Quality of being arbitrary. 

Arbitrary, a. [Fr. arbitraire, from Lat. arbitrarius .] 
Depending on will or discretion It is used of a ten¬ 
dency to abuse the possession of power, and be harsh 
and unforbearing. Tyrannical; despotic; harsh; dic¬ 
tatorial ; imperious; selfish: irresponsible. 

Ar bitrate, v. a. and re. [Fr. arbilrer.] To act as an 
arbiter or arbitrator. To be a hearer, beholder, or ob¬ 
server of something; to hear and decide; to decide or 
determine. 


Arbitration, re. (Law.) The investigation and deter¬ 
mination of a matter or matters of difference between 
contending parties, by one or more unofficial persons, 
chosen by the said parties, and called arbitrators or re¬ 
ferees. Any matter may be detezmiiued by A. which 
the parties may adjust by agreement, or which may lie 
the subject of a suit at law. Any person who is capable 
of making a valid and binding coutract with regard to 
the subject may, in general, be a party to Preference or 
arbitration. Every one is so far, and only so far, bound 
by the award as he would be by an agreement of the same 
kind made directly by him. In common law it is en¬ 
tirely voluntary, and depends upon the agreement of the 
parties to waive the right of trial in court by a jury. 
State law sometimes makes A. compulsory, as in the 
case where there is necessary the investigation of a 
long and involved account. An award by arbitrators 
is not, however, equivalent to a legal decision, and if 
resisted the award can only be sustained by an action 
at law. But statutes frequently provide that an award 
may be entered as a judgment upon the records of a 
specified court, in which case it is not subject to re¬ 
view. Ordinarily, however, the decision of arbitrators 
is accepted as binding. In cases ol disputes between 
laborers and employers A. may be either voluntary 
or compulsory. As it is not easy, however, to enforce 
a decision, acceptance is usually voluntary, and in this 
direction A. has proved highly useful. The French 
“courts of conciliation,” dating from 1891, have done 
much to prevent or settle labor troubles, by bringing 
employers and workmen into amicable contact. Similar 
measures have beeu attempted in Great Britain, and 
Boards of A. have been formed here in several States, 
but effective A. is yet largely wanting.—See Arbitra¬ 
tion, International. 

Arbitrator, re. An umpire; an arbiter. — A ruler; a 
governor. 

(Law.) A disinterested person to whose judgment and 
decision matters in dispute are referred. An A. ought 
to be incorrupt and impartial. His powers and duties 
are conferred and imposed by the submission. He is 
bound by the rule of law, and cannot award anything 
contrary thereto. His authority is at an end as soon 
as the award is made. 

Ar'bitratrix, Ar'bitress, re. A female arbiter. 

Arbit'rement, re. Decision; determination. 

(Law.) The award of the arbitrators. — See Arbitra¬ 
ment. 

Ar'bitry, re. [Lat. arbitrium .] Free will. 

Arboe', a parish of Ireland, in the counties of London¬ 
derry and Tyrone. 

Arbo'ga, a town of Sweden, on the navigable river 171- 
visoen; pop. 3,576. 

Arbo'g'astes, a Gaul, who entered the service of the 
Roman emperors Valentinian and Theodosius. On the 
death of the former, he placed upon the throne the rhe¬ 
torician Eugenius, which usurper was defeated by The¬ 
odosius. A. escaped to the mountains, and at last put an 
end to his life, about 395. 

Arbois, (ar-bwaw',) a town of France, dep. of Jura, on 
the Cuisance. It is well built, in a valley encircled by 
hills and vineyards, which produce good white wines. 
Pichegru was born here. 

Arbola-bre'a, re. (Chem.) A greenish-gray resin, from 
the canarium album of Manilla 

Ar'bor, re. [Lat., a tree.) A bower; a place of retire¬ 
ment and shelter in a garden, &c., formed of trees or 
shrubs. 

(Mech.) The principal spindle or axis which commu¬ 
nicates motion to the other parts of a machine. 

Ar'bor Diana:. [Lat., the tree of Diana. The metal 
silver was called Diana by the old alchemists.] (Chem.) 
Metallic silver deposited by the influence of mercury in 
the form of a tree. The experiment is made by dissolv¬ 
ing 15 grains of nitrate of silver in half a wineglassful 
of water, adding a few globules of mercury, and allow¬ 
ing the glass to stand at rest for some hours. 

Ar'borecl, a. Furnished with an arbor. 

Arbo'reous, Ar'borous, a. [Lat. arboreus, from 
arbor, a tree.J Belonging to a tree or trees; — woody, 
or growing in wood. 

(Hot.) Tree-like, in size or appearance. 

Arbores cence, re. [Lat. arborescence, from arboresco, 
from arbor, a tree.] The state of being arborescent; the 
resemblance to a tree. 

Arbores'cent,a. Resembling a tree; becoming woody. 

Ar'boret, re. [It. arboreta.] A small tree or shrub; a 
place planted or overgrown with trees. 

Arbore tum, re.; pi. Arbore'ta. [Lat.] (Hurt.) A 
plantation of trees or shrubs; an arboret. 

Ar'bor Hill, in Iowa, a post-office of Adair co. 

Ar'bor Hill, in Virginia, a post-office of Augusta 
co. 

Arborieult'ural, a. Relating to arboriculture. 

Arboricult'ure, re. [Lat. arbor, and cultura, from 
colo, cultus, to cultivate.] The art of cultivating trees 
and shrubs. —See Plantation. 

Arboriculturist, re. One who practises arbori¬ 
culture. 

Arbor'iform, a. [Lat. arbor, tree, and forma, form.] 
That has the form of a tree. 

Ar'borist, re. One who makes trees his study. 

Arboriza'tion, re. The appearance or figure of a tree 
or plant in minerals or fossils. 

Ar'borous, a. See Arboreous. 

Arbor-Satur'ni.re. [ Lat., Saturn’s tree.] ( Chem.) A sub¬ 
stance formed by hanging a plate of zinc in a solution 
of acetate of lead. 

Ar'bor-vi'tse, re. [Lat., the tree of life.] (Bot.) See 
Thuja. 

( Anat .) The cortical substance of the cerebellum, so 


disposed that when cut transversely it appears ramified 
like a tree, whence its name. 

Arbor'vitue, in Alabama, a post-office of Bullock co. 

Arbroath'. See Aberbrothwick. 

Ar'buelile, in IF. Va., a twp. of Mason co. 

Ar'buscle, re. [Lat. arbuscula.] A little tree or shrub 

Arbus'cular, a. Resembling a shrub. 

Arbus'ti ve, a. That is planted with trees orshrubs. (r.) 

Arbus'tum, re. [Lat.J An orchard, hop-garden, or 
vineyard. 

Arbuth'not, John, an English physician and poet, b. 
1675. He settled in London, and in 1709 was appointed 
physician to Queen Anne, which office he held until his 
death. He was a noted wit, and the companion and 
collaborator of Pope, Swift, and other eminent literati 
of that period ; D. 1735. 

Ar'butine, re. (Chem.) Colorless bitter needles, soluble 
in water; reaction neutral; obtained from the leaves of 
the arctostaphylos uva ursi. Form. C 30 11wOjg. 

Arbu tus, re. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Ericacex. The 
A. unedo bears a red fruit somewhat like a strawberry, 
whence the plant has been familiarly named the Straw¬ 
berry-tree; its bark and leaves are astringent. It is 
found in the greatest luxuriance about the lakes of Kil- 
larney, in Ireland.—See Trailing Arbutus. 

Arc, re. [Fr. from Lat. arcus, a bow, an arch. Etymol. 
uncertain.] (Geom.) A portion of a circle or other curved 
line. The arc of a circle is the measure of the angle 
formed by two straight lines drawn from its extremities 
to the centre of the circle. The straight line joining 
the ends o* an arc is its chord, which is always less than 
the arc itself. In Fig.Hi, dd is the chord of the arc dh d. 

—An arch; a vault. 

Arc, Joan of. See Joan of Arc. 

Ar'ca, re. [Lat.] (Antiq.) A chest, in which the Romans 
were accustomed to place their money; the coffin in 
which persons were buried, or the bier on which the 
corpse was placed previously to burial. 

(ZnSl.) A gen. of bivalve shells, distinguished by their 
great number of teeth, resembling those of a fine saw. 

Ar'catla, or Arcade, in Michigan, a township of Gratiot 
co. 

—A township of Lapeer co. 

Arcade', re. [Fr. from arcus, a bow.] (Arch.) A series 
of arches of any form, supported on pillars, either en¬ 
closing a space before a wall, or any building which is 
covered in and paved; or,when used as an architectural 
feature for ornamenting the towers and walls of churches 
entirely closed up with masonry. The cloisters of the 
old monasteries and religious houses were, strictly 
speaking, arcades. The term is also applied to a covered 
passage having shops on either side of it. Two A. in¬ 
scribed in a greater A. are called gemmnus A. This ar¬ 
rangement, seen for the first time in the Byzantine 
architecture, became common in the Gothic buildings. 
Often in the latter there are three inscribed A., and 



Fig. 175. — gothic arcade. 
Cathedral of Toulouse, (France.) 


that in the middle is sometimes greater than the two 
others. Fig. 175 represents a rarer example of four 
arcades concentred under a common arcade. 

Ar'catle, in Mew York, a township and village of Wyo¬ 
ming co., about 35 m. S.E. of Buffalo. 

Ar'cade, in Wisconsin. See Arkdale. 

Arcad'ed, a. Furnished with an arcade. 

A rest'd in, the classical name of Middle Peloponnesus, 
now forming the modern province of Arl.adia, in the 
Morea. Greece. It occupies a high table-land lying be¬ 
tween Lat. 37° 15'. and neav 38° N.; Lon. 21° 44' to 22° 
35' E., having on the N. Achaia, E. Argolis, W. Elis, and 
on the S. Laconia and Messenia. Area, 1,600 sq. m. It is 
intersected by mountain ranges, some of which are very 
lofty, and contains plains of some extent. Its principal 
river is the Bonfire (Alpheus), the largest in the Morea. 
Lake Stymphalus, of classic mention, is found here. 
From its elevation. A. is much colderand more rigorous 
than the rest of the Morea. The inhabitants still retain 
their primitive mode of lifle as shepherds, living in tents, 
and pursuing a migratory existence. The plane, fir, 
ilex, chestnut, oak, &c., are common, and deer and game 
plentiful. Chief towns. Tripolitza, Londari, Karitena, 
&c. Many interesting ruins are seen here, among them 
the remains of the cities of Phigaleia, Megalopolis, and 
Pallantium. Pop. 113,719. 

( Hist.) Front its first inhabitants, the Pelasgi, the land 
derived the name Pclasgia. In later times, it was divided 
among the 50 sons of Lycaon, into kingdoms, and rty 































































ms0r 




row=heads. 9- s P e j r= Point (\. 

Crsrtvfr- s 


ARCH/EOLOQY OF THE UNITED STATES 

knife (Mass.). 23. Stone gorget. 24. Mortar and pestle (Ma: 
32. Stone idol (Ga.). 33 - Tablet (Ohio). 34. “ Track=rocks ” 0 

of Mound pipe. 41. Common Atlantic coast pipe. 42. Toucai 
(Mo.). 52. Water=jug. 53. Clay pot. 


to, 11. Chisels or celts (N. J.). 
‘tone scraper (N. J.). 20. Bird=sl 

sorget, human figures. 29. Rattl 
pipe=bowl, human face. 38. i 
. bottle. 46. Ceramic buriaUurn 




















































ARCH 


ARCH 


ARCH 


137 


ceived from Areas the name Arcadia. In the course of 
time, the small kingdoms made themselves free, and 
formed a confederacy. The principal were Mantinea, 
where Epaminondas obtained a victory,and a tomb (now 
the village of Mondi), Tegea (now Tripolitza), Orchome- 
nus, I’heneus, Psophis, and Megalopolis Their chief 
deity was Pan; their chief business, breeding of cattle 
and agriculture. This occasioned the pastoral poets to 
select Arcadia for the theatre of their fables. Thus it 
has been made to appear as a paradise, although it was 
far from deserving this character. 

Arcailia, in Illinois, a post-office of Morgan co., 40 in. 
S.W. of Springfield. 

Arca'dia, in Indiana, a post-village of Hamilton co., 
31 m. N. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1898) 750. 

Ar<*si'«lia, in Kansas, a post-office of Crawford co. 

Area'tlia, in Louisiana,& post-village, cap. of Bienville 
parish, about 50 m. E. of Shreveport. Pop. (1898) 1,050. 

Arca'dia, in Missouri, a. post-village and township of 
Iron county, situated four miles South of Pilot 
Knob. 

Arca’dia, in New York, a post-village and township of 
Wayne co., on the Erie Canal, 185 m. W. by N. of Al¬ 
bany. 

Arca'dia, in N. C., a P. 0. of Davidson co. 

Arca'dia, in Ohio, a post-office of Hancock co., abt. 10 
m. N.E. of Findlay. 

Arca'dia, in Rhode Island, a post-office of Washington 
county. 

A rca'dia, in Tennessee, a post-office of Sullivan co. 

A rca'dia, in Wisconsin, a post-village and township of 
Trempeleau county, situated on the Trempeleau 
river. 

Arca'dian, and Arca'dic, a. Pertaining to Arcadia. 

A read ins. Emperor of the East in 395, was the elder 
son of Theodosius the Great. Rufinus (</. i>.,) was mur¬ 
dered by his order. He married Eudoxia, known to pos¬ 
terity as the persecutrix of Chrysostom. B. 383; i>. 408. 

Ar'cady, n. A poetic name of Arcadia. 

Arca'nuni. See next column. 

Ar'cata, in California, a post-village and township of 
Humboldt county, at the head of the Bay of Hum¬ 
boldt. 

Arc'-bontant, n. [Fr.] An arch-formed buttress, much 
employed in sacred edifices built in the pointed style, 
as also in other structures, and commonly called a flying 
buttress, whose object is to counteract the thrust of the 
main vault of the edifice. It is also called arched but¬ 
tress and arched abutment. In the accompanying figure, 
representing the design of a church in the pointed style 
of the 12th century, A A form the arc-boutauts. 



Arccsila'us, a Greek philosopher, n 316; ». 241 B.C. — 
See Academics. 

Arch, n. [Fr. arclie', Lat. arcus. Etymol. uncertain.] A 
bow; any place covered with an arch; a vault; the vault 
of the heavens. 

( Geom.) A portion of the circumference of a circle or 
other curve; an arc. 

(Arch.) A mechanical arrangement of blocks of any 
hard material disposed in the line of some tyirve, and 
supporting one another by their mutual pressure. The 
ends of an arch 
(Fig. 177) are sup¬ 
ported on columns 
or sides of mason¬ 
ry, called abut¬ 
ments or piers (a 

a) , rising perpen¬ 
dicularly from the 
ground; the arch 
is said to spring 
from its piers, and 
the first stones 
restingon the piers 
on either side (b 

b) are sometimes 
called the spring- 
in g-stones. T1 i e u p- 
per part of the arch 
is called the crown 
(cc), and the stone 
in tlie centre (h), 
often in the form 

of a wedge, which p t -,, yj-j 

Vicks or binds the AECH 0F N ave 0P A norman church 
geh together, is Gloucester, England. 

termed the key- ’ 

done. The sides of the arch (dc, cd) between its brown 
And piers, are called its haunches , or Jlanks. The 
9 


stones which compose the arch, all wedge-shaped, 
smaller at the under end than at the upper, are called 
voussoirs, trados, or soffit, and the upper ends the extra- 
dos, or back. The line joining the extremities of the 
arch i d d) is called its span, and one drawn perpendicular 
to the span, from its central point to the centre of the 
bottom of the keystone (g ii), its rise. These lines are 
also called the chord and versed sine of the arch. The 
Egyptians and Assyrians are said to be the first nations I 
who used the arch in their buildings; arches, both of j 
stone and brick, having been found by Belzoni, Wilkin¬ 
son, and Bayard, at Thebes, Gizeh, Nimroud, and Klior- 
sabad. The form of the A. is supposed to have been I 
known to the Greeks, although there is no evidence in 
the remains of their temples to show the truth of the 
supposition. The Romans were fully acquainted with \ 
its constructive value, and were probably the means of 
introducing it. in its most simple and primary form — 
that of a semicircle — into European architecture. The 
only forms used, until the adoption of the pointed arch 
in mediaeval architecture, in the 12th century, were the 
semicircle, segment of a circle, and ellipse. The horse¬ 
shoe form, peculiar to Arabian architecture, was proba¬ 
bly derived from the segment of a circle greater than a 
semicircle. The pointed arch was used by the Arabs as 
early as the 9th century, and is supposed to have been 
introduced into Europe at the close of the first crusade, 
and adopted in varioys forms as a prominent feature in 
Gothic architecture. The mechanical principles of the 
construction of arches will be treated under the head of 
Bridge, q. v. 

Area'mt in, n. [Bat., from arcen, to enclose ] That which 
isenclosed; something hidden ; a secret. Generally used 
in the plural, arcana, secret things, mysteries. This 
term is of frequent application in the writings of the 
alchemists and ancient philosophical writers, and gen¬ 
erally used to designate any substance the mode of pre¬ 
paring which was kept 3ecret. Thus the old chemical 
philosophers called the red oxide of mercury, which was 
produced by the action of nitric acid, arcanum coi-olla- 
num; sulphate of potash was termed, by the same writ¬ 
ers, arcanum diplicatum, &c. 

Arcli. v. a. To cover with an arch, or with arches; to 
form with a curve.—To bend into the form of an arch. 

— v. n. To build arches. 

Arch, a. [Probably from Gr". arg, crafty, roguish, and 
perhaps allied to rogue.] Cunning; sly; roguish; knav¬ 
ish; mischievous; waggish; mirthful; — as, an arch lad. 

Arch. [Gr. archos, chief; arclie, beginning, origin, the 
first place or power.] Chief; of the first class; princi¬ 
pal.— A prefix used in numerous compound words. We 
omit those which are self-explaining. 

Arch (Trill inptiaS), a structure raised by the Romans 
to celebrate a victory, or some great historical event; or 
to add an additional lustre to the commemoration of the 
military exploits of a victorious general. These struc¬ 
tures originated in the custom of adorning with the 
spoils of war the gate by which a successful military 
leader entered Rome on his return from battle. After 
a time those temporary monuments were replaced by 
others of the more endurable nature of stone and 
bronze. The arcus triumphalis, as the Romans styled 
this form of structure, was usually erected in some pub¬ 
lic, thoroughfare. In design they were commonly either 
one large arch, or one large central arch, with one or 
two smaller ones on each side. In every case the fronts 
and sides of the erection were decorated with trophies, 
the entablature being crowned with some piece of sculp¬ 
tural allegory, beneath which was an inscription em¬ 
blazoning the deeds of the hero in whose honor the arch 
was erected. The most remarkable of these edifices still 
existing aro the arch of Augustus at Rimini; that of 
Trajan at Beneventum; at Rome, those of Constantine, 
Severus, Drusus, Gallienus, and Titus. The oldest and 
most admirably proportioned, however, is that of Titus, 
whose conquest of Judaea it was built to celebrate. 
The arch in the highest state of preservation is that of 
Constantine. (See Fig. 178.) Many similar monuments 



Fig. 178. — triumphal arch of coxstantine, (Rome.) 

of departed Roman greatness exist in France, Egypt, 
Spain, and Greece. France possesses of modern A. the 
greatest number. Those of the Porte St. Denis and Porte 
St. Martin, erected in 1673 and 1674 respectively, record 
the victories of Bouis XIV. The splendid Arc du Car¬ 
rousel, forming the western entrance of the Tuileries, 
built in honor of the French armies, was commenced in 
1806, and finished in 1809; in height it is 47 ft., in 
breadth 55. Surmounting it isa great equestrian group, 
composed of a chariot drawn by 4 horses, and guided by 
the atlegorical figures of Peace and Victory. But the 
grandest and most colossal triumphal A. of modern 
construction is that standing at the end of the Avenue 



des Champs Elysees, at Paris. It was erected to cony 
memoraie the victories of Napoleon I. and his armies, 
and, although commenced in 1806, was not completed 
until after the revolution of 1830. It has 3 arches, the 
central one being 95 ft. high. In the interior are graven 
the names of the most eminent of the French generals, 
with that of their leader. Boudon possesses but two 
structures of this kind — the arch at Hyde Park, sup¬ 
porting the equestrian statue of the Duke of Welling¬ 
ton, and the Marble Arch. 

Archseog'rajiliy, n. [Gr. archains, -ancient from 
ar-clie, a beginning, and grapho, to describe.] A treatise 
on antiquity. 

Arclneolo'ja-ian. n. Same as Archaeologist. 

Areliseolog'ic, Archaeological, a. Relating to 

archaeology. 

Archceol'ojfist, n. [Fr. archtologuc.) One versed in 
archaeology, or in antiquity, or ancient learning of art. 

Archceology, (ark-e-ol'n-je,) n. [Fr. arcMologie; Gr. 
archuios, ancient, and logos, discourse.] That science 
which makes us acquainted with the antiquities of 
nations that have lived and died, and the remains of 
various kinds which throw a light upon the history of 
those now existing. Almost every country now boasts 
its national arcliaologicaJ society. The term is capable 
of a very widely extended signification, including every¬ 
thing that is connected with the rise and progress of 
any nation, its history, laws, religious observances, pub¬ 
lic and private buildings, manners and customs of all 
classes of the people, the arts in use among them, and 
the extent of their acquirements and discoveries in 
science. The archaeologist seeks to study and preserve 
any materials which tend to elucidate the objects al¬ 
ready mentioned, and these materials naturally resolve 
themselves into three great divisions, each susceptible 
of further subdivision. The 1st class may be considered 
to consist of all records, written or printed, legal docu¬ 
ments, old chronicles, diaries of a public or private na¬ 
ture, state papers, letters, &c. The 2d may be termed 
oral, or traditional, in contradistinction to the 1 st, 
which may be broadly called tvritlen A., and consists of 
the ballads, legends, and folk-lore of a people, their 
sports, superstitions, and the rise and origin of local 
customs, proverbs, and expressions. The 3d, termed 
monumental A., consists of works of art, paintings, 
sculpture, coins, medals, pottery, glass, wooden and 
metal utensils, tools of all descriptions, armor, weapons, 
carriages, boats, roads, canals, walls, ehcampments, 
burial-grounds, earthen mounds for purposes of defence 
or sepulture, and even human and animal remains. 
Every country owns, in a greater or less degree, relics 
of antiquity, highly interesting to the archmologist. 
From the sculptured stones and obelisks of Egypt and 
Assyria, records have been unravelled by Bayard, Raw- 
linson, and other savaas, that throw great light on the 
early history of those countries, ami offer convincing 
testimony of the indisputable truth of Holy Writ. In 
Mexico and Central America, evidences have been found 
of the existence of a clever and ingenious people who 
had passed from the earth before the discovery of the 
"Western hemisphere by Columbus. 

Arclia'ic, Arclia'ical, a. [Gr. archaikos, ancient.] 
Ancient; old; obsolete. 

Archaioi'ogy, n. Same as archaeology, but not in 
common use. 

Ar'eliaisin, n. [Gr. archaismos, from archaiosi] An 
antiquated word, expression, or phrase. Iu general, the 
use of archaisms is objectionable, but in certain kinds 
of writing, and particularly in poetry, they may even 
be an ornament, as they are often peculiarly forcible. 

Arclian'gel, n. [Gr. arclie, chief, and aggelos, an angel.] 
A chief angel; an angel of the highest order. In Scrip, 
turethe term is only applied to Michael, and is nowhere 
employed in the plural. 

Areliangel. ( ark-ain’jul ,) a govt, of Russia in Europe, 
occupying the entire country from the Ural Moun¬ 
tains on the E. to Finland on the W., and from the 
Vologda and Olonetz on the S. to the Arclie Ocean and 
White sea on the N. Nova Zembla, and some large 
islands of the Arctic Sea, are also included within it. 
Altogether its estimated area is 296,067 sq. in. The 
largest part of this great territory is bleak, sandy, and 
perpetually sterile. Immense plains,lakes, and morasses, 
interspersed with occasional pastures, form the features 
of the country. The principal source of wealth lies in 
the forests, which are almost inexhaustible. Hunting 
and fishing are the principal occupations of the inhab¬ 
itants. The reindeer, among the Baps in the N.W., and 
the Samoyedes in the N.E, is domesticated.— Prod. Hay, 
hemp, cordage, mats, tallow, tar, turpentine, potash, Ac. 
The natives, though of Finnish origin, have now become 
essentially Russian. The Samoyedes, who are in the 
lowest scale of civilization, and spread over a vast tract 
of country, do not exceed iu number 7,000; the Baps, 
not more than 2,000 .—Chief towns. A. the cap., Onega, 
and Dwiua. Pop. in 1897 (est.) 350,000. 

Arcli'angel, or St. Michael, cap. of the above gov., 
and the principal city and seaport of N. Russia, lies on 
the Dwina, about 34 m. from its fall into the White sea. 
Bat. 64° 32' 8 " N.; Bon. 40° 33' E. It is almost wholly 
built of wood, and has been frequently destroyed by fire. 
Its commerce is very extensive. The harbor is situated one 
mile below the town, and vessels drawing nore than 14 
ft. of water have to lighten in the roads before crossing 
the bar. There is a govt, dock-yard, and numerous private 
ship-building concerns. The entrance to the Dwina, ou 
which A. was subsequently built, was discovered by 
Richard Chancellour, an Englishman, in 1554, and was 
for a long time the only port in the empire accessible to 
foreigners. Pop. 20,178. 

Arcliaug-el'ic, a. Belonging to archangels. 





























































































138 


ARCH 


ARCH 


ARCH 


Archangel'lca, n. ( Bot.) A genus of plants, tribe 

Angelicidie. —See Angelica. 

Arcli'bald. in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Lacka¬ 
wanna co., on the Lackawanna river, 10 m. N. E. of 
Scranton, on New York, Ontario & West, and Delaware 
& Hudson E.Ks. Pop. (1898) 4,760. 

Archbisli'op, n. [Gr. arche, chief, and episkopos, 
bishop.] (Eccl. Hist.) The title given to a bishop who, 
besides exercising episcopal authority in his own diocese, 
has an admitted superiority over the bishops in his 
province, who are sometimes called his suffragans. lie 
is also, sometimes, called primate or metropolitan. The 
title was first used in the 4th century. It was at that 
time considered as equivalent to patriarch, or bishop of 
an imperial diocese; as Koine, Constantinople, Antioch, 
Alexandria, Ephesus. England has two A., those of 
Canterbury and York. The former is styled Primate of 
all England, and takes precedence of all under the rank 
of the blood-royal. The election of an A. does not differ 
from that of a bishop; but while tho latter is only 
installed in his office, an A. is enthroned. An A. is 
styled “Grace,” and “Most Reverend Father in God,” 
and subscribes himself “ by Divine Providence.” During 
the vacancy of a see, the A. is guardian of the spiritu¬ 
alities; and he also nominates to the benefices or digni¬ 
ties at the disposal of the bishops in his province, if not 
filled up within six months. 

Arclibisli'opric, n. The jurisdiction, place, or prov¬ 
ince of an archbishop. 

Arch'bolri, in Ohio, a post-village of Fulton co., 41 m. 
W.8.W. of Toledo. 

Arcll-but'tress, n. An arc-boutant. 

Ai'cli-cham'berlain, Arcli-chan'cellor, n. 

The names formerly given, the first in Germany, and the 
second in France, to a great officer of the court. 

Arcluiea'con,n. (Eccl. Hist.) A chief deacon; a church 
dignitary next in rank to a bishop. This office is almost 
wholly abolished in the Catholic church. The Episcopal 
church of England still has A., who are the deputies of 
the bishops to superintend the clergy of each diocese. 

Archdea'conry, n. The office, jurisdiction, or res¬ 
idence of an archdeacon. 

Archtlea'conship, n. The office of an archdeacon. 

Areluli'oeese, n. The diocese of an archbishop. 

Archdivine', n. A principal theologian. 

Arelidu'cai, <x. Pertaining to an archduke. 

Arcliducli'ess, n. A title given to the females of the 
House of Austria, and to the wife of an archduke. 

Arclitlucll'y, n. The territory of an archduke or 
archduchess. 

Archduke', n. A duke whose authority and power is 
superior to that of other dukes. In France, in the reign 
of Dagobert. there was an A. of Austrasia; and at a 
later period, the provinces of Brabant and Lorraine 
were termed archduchies. The dukes of A ustria assumed 
the title of A. in 115 j; but the dignity was not con¬ 
firmed till 1453. In the present day, this title is not 
assumed by any excepting the princes of the imperial 
House of Austria. 

Arcliduke'dom, n. Same as Archduchy. 

ArcUed (drcht), p. a. Made with an arch; covered with 
an arch; in the form of an arch. 

Arcliejjosan'rus, n. [Gr. archegos, leader, and sauros. 
lizard. J (Pal.) A fossil saurian reptile, found by Goldfuss, 
in 1847, in large concretionary modules of clay-ironstone, 
from the coal-field of Saarbriick. Four species have been 
described. Prof. Owen makes it a remarkable connect¬ 
ing link between the reptile and the fish, and on these 
grounds: it is related to the salamandroid-ganoid fishes 
by the conformity of pattern in the plates of the exter¬ 
nal cranial skeleton, and by the persistence of the chorda 
dorsalis, as in the sturgeon, while it is allied to the rep¬ 
tiles by the persistence of tho chorda dorsalis, and the 
branchial arches, and by the absence of the occipital 
condyle, or condyles, as in Lepidosirr.n, and by the pres¬ 
ence of labyrinthic teeth, as in Labyrinthodon, which, 
however, also ally it to the ganoid Lepuiosleus. 

Arcbela'us, a king of Macedon, natural son and suc¬ 
cessor of Perdiccas II. He was a liberal patron of litera¬ 
ture and the arts, and greatly favored, among others, 
Euripides and Zeuxis. D. about 398 b. c. 

Archela'ns, a Greek philosopher, the disciple and suc¬ 
cessor of Anaxagoras. A. is said to have had Socrates 
for his pupil at Athens. Flourished about 449 n. c. 

Arckeln'us, son Herod the Great. His reign is de¬ 
scribed as most tyrannical and bloody. The people at 
length accused him before Augustus, (Judea being then 
dependent upon Home.) The emperor, after hearing his 
defence, banished him to Yienne, in Gaul. To avoid the 
fury of this monster, 7 a. d., Joseph and Mary retired to 
Nazareth. 

A rclicla us, the son of Apollonius, a sculptor. He was 
a native of Ionia, and is thought to have lived under 
Claudius. He executed in marble the apotheosis of 
Homer, which was found, in 1568, at a place called Fra- 
toc.chia belonging to the house of Colonna. 

Ardiel'ogy, n. [Gr. arche, a principle, and logos, a 
discourse.] A treatise on principles. 

Arcliem'ora, n. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Apiacem. 
The waten-dropwort, or cow-bane, A. rigida ; stem 2-1 ft. 
high; leaves pinnately divided; umbels spreading, 
smooth; petals white; is found in swamps from Michi¬ 
gan to Florida. Its fruit, with subequal greenish ribs, 
and large purple vitae filling the intervals, ripe in 
September, is said to be poisonous. 

Ar'clienholz, Johann Wilhelm Von, b. 1743, d. 1812. 
He was a German historian of great industry and re¬ 
search ; wrote a History of the Seven Years' War, and 
also a voluminous Avork on British history, in 20 vols. 

Arsh'er, n. [Fr., from Lat. arcus, a bow!] A bowman: 
one whe shoots with a bow and arrow. 


A roll'or, in Florida, a p.-v. of Alachua co. 

Arch'cr, in Nebraska, a village of Richardson co., about 
24 m. S. by E. of Brownville. 

Arch'er, in Ohio, a twp. and v. of Harrison co. 

Arch'er, in Texas, a N. co., drained by the Little Wi¬ 
chita. Area, 900 sq. m. 

Arch'eress, n. She who shoots with a bow and arrow. 

Areli'ery, n. [From Lat. arcus.] The art of shooting 
with a bow and arrow. This art, either as a means of 
offence in war, or of subsistence and amusement in time 
of peace, may be traced in the history of almost every 
nation. It always, however, declines with the progress 
of time, which introduces weapons more to be depended 
on, and not so easily exhausted as a bundle of arrows. 
With the ancients, the sagitarii, or archers, were an 
important class of troops. In the middle ages, the bow 
was much more used by the burghers than by the barons. 
The Swiss were famous archers. In modern times, this 
weapon is used by the Asiatic nations, by the tribes 
of Africa, by the American Indians, &c. In 1813 and 
1814, irregular troops, belonging to the Russian army, 
particularly the Bashkeers, appeared in Paris, armed 
with bows and arrows, and made surprising shots. This 
weapon was the leading arm of the English people for 
centuries, and their expertness in the use of it was pro¬ 
verbial. Great dependence was placed upon archers in 



Fig. 179.— ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ARCHER,AND QUIVER. 


war; and frequently has the success of a battle been 
attributed to their means, as at Cressy, Poitiers, and 
Agincourt. Most of the English sovereigns had a body¬ 
guard entirely consisting of archers. In the reign of 
Charles II. the Royal Company of Archers, as it was called, 
became merged in the Artillery Company of London. A. 
has been revived in modern times as a pastime, and is 
largely practised throughout Great Britain, Germany, 
and Switzerland; and also in some cities of the 
United States. The Toxopholite Society of Lon¬ 
don was first established in 1781. — The principal 
instruments employed in A. are the bow, string, arrow, 
glove, and brace. The bows are generally made of yew 
and ash, and the best arrows come from the latter de¬ 
scription of wood. The distance to which an ar-ow can 
be sent by a good archer is generally from 200 to 250 
yards. Interesting particulars of this art may be found 
in Blaine’s Encyclopedia of Rural Sports. 

Archety'pal. a. Having the nature of an archetype; 
original; constituting a model or pattern. 

Ar'clietype, n. [Gr. urchetypos — arche, beginning, 
original, or origin, and typos, type.] The chief type, 
pattern, or model; the original model from which a 
thing is made; an authentic or original draught. 

Archetypical, a. Relating to an archetype. 

Arche'us, n. [From Gr. arche, beginning.] (Alchemy.) 
A name given by Paracelsus to the original principle in 
nature, Primum mobile, pervading all things and presid¬ 
ing over all organic phenomena. 

Archibald, in Pennsylvania. See Archbald. 

Archida'mus, the name of five kings of Sparta, of, 
whom there is little or nothing lo say. 

Arcliidiac'onal, a. Pertaining to an archdeacon. 

Archido'na, a town of Spain, 34 m. N. of Malaga; 
pop. 8,172. 

Archiepis'copacy, n. [Gr. archos, a leader, chief, 
commander, and episkopos, a bishop.] The state of an 
archbishop. 

Archiepis'copal, a. Belonging to an archbishop. 

ArchiepKcopate, n. The office of an archbishop; 
an archbishopric. 

Ar'chil, Orchil, Cudbear, n [Corrupted from the Fr. 
orse.ille..] A violet dye obtained from many species of 
lichens, chiefly the Bncclla tinctoria, fuciformis. A. is 
chiefly used to improve the dye of other colors, and to 
give richness and brilliancy to them. The coloring mat¬ 
ter is due to the chemical principle orcine. In silk-dye¬ 
ing, A. produces the lilac color; it economizes the use 
of indigo in woollen cloth. It also stains marble violet. 

A roll ilocus, a celebrated lyric poet of Greece. B. at 
Peros, the son of a slave, though of noble descent. He 
distinguished himself by the violence of his satires, and 
to him is attributed the invention of Iambic verse. He 
flourished abt. b. c. 710-670. 

Archimandrite, n. [Fr.; from Gr. arche, chief, 


and mandea, a monastery.] In the Greek church, a chief 
of the monks; an abbot. 

Archimede'an, a. Relating to Archimedes. 

Archime'des, the most famous of ancient mathema¬ 
ticians, was a native of Syracuse. He possessed equal 
knowledge of the sciences of astronomy, geometry, hy¬ 
drostatics, mechanics, and optics. Among his inven¬ 
tions were the combination of pulleys for lifting heavy 
weights, the revolving screw, and a spherical representa¬ 
tion of the motion of the heavenly bodies. His inven¬ 
tive genius was especially exemplified in the defence of 
Syracuse when besieged by Marcellus. It is said that on 
this occasion he devised a burning-glass, formed of re¬ 
flecting mirrors of such power, that by it he set fire to 
the enemy’s fleet. This well-known story is, however, 
believed to be equally an invention. Upon the city be¬ 
ing taken by storm. A., then in his 74th year, was 
among those who lost their lives, B. c. 212. Ilis burial- 
place was afterward discovered by Cicero. Nine of the 
works of A. have descended to posterity. 

Archime'des, Principle of. (Hydraid.) A well- 
known principle in hydrostatics, the discovery of which 
is attributed to the celebrated philosopher whose name it 
bears. This important theorem may be thus defined : — 
When a solid is immersed in a fluid, it loses a portion of 
its weight, and this portion is equal to the weight of tho 
fluid which it displaces, that is, to the weight of its own 
bulk of the fluid. An experimental proof of this princi¬ 
ple is thus obtained : — From one of the arms of a bal¬ 
ance is suspended a hollow cylinder, having a cylindrical 
mass of any substance capable of exactly fitting into it, 
hanging from it by means of a thread. From the other 
arm of the balance hangs a scale-pan. into which weights 
are placed until the solid cylinder and the hollow ono 
are exactly counterbalanced. Water is then poured into 
a vessel around the solid cylinder, until it is completely 
immersed; upon which the weights in the scale-pan will 
preponderate, the solid cylinder seeming to have lost a 
considerable portion of its weight. The balance will, 
however, be brought into equilibrio, if water be poured 
into tbe upper hollow cylinder until it is quite full. 
Now, as this hollow cylinder is of such a size that the 
solid mass exactly fits its interior, it follows that the 
water with which the hollow cylinder is filled is pre¬ 
cisely equal in bulk to the solid cylinder; which proves 
that the apparent loss of weight suffered by the latter is 
precisely equal in weight to a mass of water equal in 
bulk to itself. This very ingenious method forms ono 
mode — but not the most exact—by which the specific 
gravity of solids is ascertained. A wonderful story is told 
in connection with the discovery of this important prin¬ 
ciple. Hiero, king of Syracuse, intending to offer to the 
gods a crown, caused one to be manufactured of pure 
gold. When brought home, the crown appeared to be of 
full weight, but it was suspected that a part of the gold 
had been stolen, and a like weight of silver substituted. 
Archimedes was desired to investigate the supposed 
fraud, and while engaged in solving the difficulty, he 
happened to enter the bath, where observing that a cer¬ 
tain quantity of water overflowed, equal to the bulk of 
bis body, he instantly saw in it the solution of the prob¬ 
lem. Carried away by his ardor, he is said to have hast¬ 
ened home, without waiting to dress, crying out. “Eu¬ 
reka!” (I have found it!) —See Specific Gr.aa-ity. 

Archimedes’ Screw, or Spiral Pump. n.(Hydrant.) 
A machine invented by Archimedes, the celebrated Syr¬ 
acusan philosopher, while studying in Egypt. Observ¬ 
ing the difficulty of raising water from the Nile to places 
above the reach of tbe flood-tides, lie is said to have de¬ 
signed this screw as a means of OA-ercoming the obstacle. 
It consists of a pipe twisted in a spiral form round a cyl¬ 
inder, which, when at work, is supported in an inclined 
position. The lower end of the pipe is immersed in 
water, and when the cylinder is made to revolve on its 
own axis, the water is raised from bend to bend in the 
spiral pipe until it flows out ut the top. The A. is still 



used in Holland for raising water, and draining low 
grounds. The Dutch water-screAvs are mostly of large size, 
and are moved by the wind, one windmill furnishing suf¬ 
ficient motive-power to kef p several screws going at once. 

Arch'injj, p. a. Curved as an arch. 

Arehiog'rapher. n. [Gr. archos, chief, and grapha, 
to write]] The head-secretary. 

Ar<4ii|)e1ag'ie, a. Relating to an archipelago. 

Arcliipel'ag'O, n. A term applied to such tracts of 
sea as are interspersed with many islands. It is 
more especially applied to the numerous islands of tho 
Algean Sea, or that part of the Mediterranean lying 
between Asia Minor and Greece. These islands are 
principally divided into two groups called the Cyclades 
and Sporades. The former contains the islands of Kyth- 






















ARCH 


ARCH 


ARCO 


139 


bos, Lyra, Seriphos, Keos, Anoros, Tenos, Naxos, Thera, 
Ios, Melos, Kimolos, &c., all belonging to Greece, and 
formiug the prov. of the Cyclades , containing an aggre¬ 
gate population of 120,037. The Sporades group consists 
of Scio, Cos, Rhodes, Samos, Mitylene, Lemnos, Ac., and 
belong to the Turkish empire, forming the sandjak or 
government of Djezairi-Bahri. The islands of both 
groups will be severally described in their proper places. 

Archipel'ago (Eastern), Indian, or Malay. This 
great A. contains a vast number of islands within the 
tropics, and extends between 95° and 135° E. Lon.; and 
11° S. and 19° N. Lat., having on the N. and N.YV. the 
Chinese sea; N.E. and E. the Pacific; and S. and S.W. 
the Indian ocean. It has been separated into 5 divisions, 
each distinguished by peculiarities of situation, climate, 
and productions; viz.: 1st div., Long. 95° to 110°, in¬ 
cludes Sumatra. Java, Bali, Lombok, Madura, Banca, 
Billiton, the Malayan peninsula, and the W. or larger 
portion of Borneo. — 2d div., Long. 121° to 130°, includes 
Celebes, Sambawa, Flores, Sandal-wood island, Timor, 
and the E. part of Borneo to 3° N. Lat. — 3d div.. Long. 
124° to 130°, Lat. 10° S. to 2° N., includes Ceram, Gil- 
lolo, the Papuans, Aru islands, &c.— ilk div., Long. 
116° to 125°; and Lat. 4° to 10° N., includes Mindanao, 
the Sooloos, Palawan, and N.E. part of Borneo. — bth and 
last div. includes the remainder of the Philippines, and 
is the only portion within the limit of the hurricanes.— 
See Banca, Borneo, Celebes, Java, Sumatra, Philip¬ 
pines, &c. — The other archipelagos will receive sepa¬ 
rate notice, each under its proper name. 

Ar'chitect, n. [Fr. architecte, from Lat. architectus; Gr. 
architekton, from teucho, to prepare, to make, to work.] 
One skilled in the art of building; one who plans or de¬ 
signs buildings, Ac., and superintends their erection; 
a contriver. 

Aretiitec'tive, a. Used in architecture, (r.) 

Architecton'ic, Architecton'ical, a. Skilled in 
the art of building, (r.) 

Auchitec'tural, '<• Pertaining to architecture, or to 
the art of building; that is, according to the rules of 
architecture. 

Architecture, n. [See Architect.] The art or science 
of building according to certain proportions and rules 
determined by the character and future appropriation 
of the edifice to be erected. It bears different denomi¬ 
nations, according to the purposes for which it is applied. 
When called Civil A., it has for its object the construc¬ 
tion of any public or particular buildings intended to 
meet the requirements of social man. This class of 'A. 
may be subdivided into domestic, rural, and monumental, 
agreeably to any particular object it lias in view.— Mili¬ 
tary A. relates to the erection of works necessary to 
the defence or attack of a town or territory. See Forti¬ 
fication. — Naval A. has for its object the construction 
of marine vessels, whether intended for purposes of war 
or commerce. See Ship-building. — Hydraulic Archi¬ 
tecture signifies the art of conducting and retaining 
bodies of water; as also that of the formation of struc¬ 
tures necessary for the same purpose. See Aqueduct; 
Bridge; Canal, &c. —We have here but to treat of civil 
A., and more especially of monumental and religious A., 
at all epochs, and of all nations; because it is in the erec¬ 
tion of religious edifices that the architect has displayed 
all the resources of his art; and that with every religi¬ 
ous system there has invariably been a corresponding 
architectural system, forming both its symbol and its 
material realization. A. constitutes a veritable art, but 
this is only when a people or nation shall have arrived 
at a certain point of civilization, wealth, and luxury. In 
its original design, wo can consider it but as an indus¬ 
trial pursuit, which had for its object the providing of a 
shelter for mankind against the inclemency of the 
seasons. And, whatever may be the perfection to which 
the state of A. has attained in any country, there is al¬ 
ways found certain characteristic features belonging to 
it that reveal the first principles of its origin. It is also 
found that writers generally agree in recognizing three 
different types of A., of which every one relates to the 
three different estates of the human race. The oldest 
people were shepherds, agriculturists, and hunters. The 
first of these led an errant and migratory existence, and 
tended their flocks in the more fertile plains. They 

!I wore consequently obliged to provide themselves with 

such movable dwellings as it would be practicable to 
carry with them during their peregrinations. They ac¬ 
cordingly invented the tent, which forms the evident 
typo of all Chinese A.; the inhabitants of that country, 
in common with all the Tartar tribes, being originally 
nomads, or. in other words, shepherds, and cenobites, that 
is to say, dwellers in tents. On the other hand, the ag¬ 
riculturist, finding himself under the necessity of fixing 
his permanent habitation in the country of his choice, 
was obliged to build a homestead sufficiently strong and 
commodious to shelter not only himself and family, but 
also his herds and harvests. The hut or cottage with 
sloping roofs was the first result of this necessity. As 
for those people who lived by the chase, or by fishing, 
their mode of life, in incessantly roaming over moun¬ 
tains and forest countries, suggests the belief that they 
were contented to take shelter in such natural excava¬ 
tions as the rocks might present to them, or to dig cavi¬ 
ties called barrows, in which they domiciled. This man¬ 
ner of habitation may be judged from the ruins of Petra, 
(Pig. 181,) on the S. of the Dead sea, in Arabia Petrasa. 
Altogether, we ought not to believe that the art of A. in 
any % country has reference to any unique principle or 
type; because, if the Chinese system of A. be derived from 
a tent, that of Greece from the primitive hut, and that 
of India from subterraneous excavations, others will 
admit that Egyptian A. proceeds from a combination of 
these two last principles. It is impossible, in the actual 


state of science, to fix exactly for such remote periods the 
chronology of A.; neither does the general plan of this 
work permit of a condensed general article on its history. 



We will, therefore, give only such a sketch of the prin¬ 
cipal orders as will enable the reader to refer to the 
various names under which will be found all that is im¬ 
portant to know of the A. of any country. To Greece 
w r e are indebted for the three principal orders of A., the 
Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian; Rome added two 
others, both formed out of the former, the Tuscan and 
the Composite. Each of these has a particular expres¬ 
sion ; so that a building, or any parts of one, may be rude, 
solid, neat, delicate, or gay, accordingly as the Tuscan, 
the Doric, the Ionic, the Corinthian, or the Composite 
are employed. The columns of these several orders are 
easily distinguishable to common observers, by reason 
of the ornaments that are peculiar to their capitals; but 
the scientific difference consists in their proportions. 
The Tuscan order is characterized by its simplicity and 
strength. It is devoid of all ornament. The Doric is 
enlivened with ornaments in the frieze and capital. The 
Ionic is ornamented with the volute scroll, or spiral 
horn; its ornaments are in a style of composition be¬ 
twixt the plainness of the Doric and the richness of the 
Corinthian. The Corinthian is known by its capital 
being adorned with two sorts of leaves; between these 
rise little stalks, of which the volutes that support tiie 
highest part of the capital are formed. The Composite 
is nearly the same as the Corinthian, with an addition 
of the Ionic volute. In their private buildings the Ro¬ 
man architects followed the Greeks; but in their public 
edifices they far surpassed them in grandeur. During 
the dark ages which followed the fall of the Roman em¬ 
pire, the classic architecture of Greece and Rome was 
lost sight of, but was again revived by the Italians at 
the time of the restoration of letters. The Gothic style 
was so called because it was first used by the Visigoths; 
but at first it was vastly inferior to that which we now call 
Gothic, and which exhibits grandeur and splendor with 
the most accurate execution. The Saxon and Norman 
styles were so called because they were respectively 
used by the Saxons before the conquest of England, and 
by the Normans after, in the building of churches. The 
Saxon style was distinguished by the semicircular arch, 
which they seem to have taken partly from the Romans, 
and partly from their ancestors on the continent of 
Europe. The Norman was particularized by the fol¬ 
lowing features: the walls were very thick, generally 
without buttresses; the arches, both within and without, 
semicircular, and supported by very plain and solid col¬ 
umns. (See Fig. 177.) These two styles continued to be the 
prevailing modes of building in England until the reign 
of Henry II., when a new style was introduced, which was 
called Modern Gothic. Whether this was purely a devi¬ 
ation from the other two modes, or whether it was de¬ 
rived from any foreign source, is not known. It is, how¬ 
ever, supposed to be of Saracenic extraction, and to have 
been introduced by the crusaders. This style is dis¬ 
tinguished by its numerous buttresses, lofty spires and 
pinnacles, and large and ramified windows, with a 
profusion of ornaments throughout. In the 15th and 
16th centuries the taste for Greek and Roman A. re¬ 
vived, and brought the five orders again into use, al¬ 
though for sacred edifices the Saxon and Gothic styles 
still maintain the pre-eminence. It was in Italy that 
the reaction began which resulted in the deposition 
throughout the whole of Europe of the Ogivale A. The 
Gothic art had not taken great root in Italy', and nearly 
all of the buildings built in the Ogivale style show traces, 
more or less numerous, of the persistency of the Roman 
art. The contemplation of those classical monuments so 
plent iful in the Italian states, brought back, year by year, 
the Italian architect to them as to a school for imitation. 
The first signs of this revolution in art were manifested 
about the 14th contury. But, it is to the celebrated 
Brunelleschi, born in 1377, that posterity has rightly ac¬ 
corded the title of restorer of the antique A. After him, 
the one who most contributed to the artistic movement 
of which we have spoken, was L. B. Alberti, of the noble 
Florentine family of the Alberti. Amongst the crowd 
of great architects produced by Italy in the 16th century, 


we must mention the illustrious names of Bramante, 
Michael-Angelo Buonarotti, Rafaelle, San-Gallo, Bal¬ 
thasar Peruzzi, Giacondo, San-Micheli, Vignola, Serlio, 
and Ammanati. The style of that epoch has received 
the distinguishing title of Renaissance. We need not 
further pursue this sketch of the history of A., as the 
innumerable buildings erected within the two last cen¬ 
turies in Europe and in America are well known to 
everyone; and it belongs more peculiarly to a special 
treatise, in which to criticize the tendencies exhibited 
by the A. of this period. Besides, the modern A. pre¬ 
sents no idiosyncratic character which would permit us 
to give to it a particular name; as, for a long time past, 
it has continued to imitate, with more or less skill, all 
the antique monuments and works of the great master* 
of the art who lived in the 15th and 16th centuries.— 
See Arabian; Byzantine; Celtic; Chinese; Composite; 
Corinthian; Doric; Egyptian; Gothio; Indian ; Ionic; 
Norman;Renaissance;Roman; Rustic; Saxon; Tuscan; 
Ac. See Fergussotis History of Architecture. 

Ar'chitrave, n. [Fr., from Gr. archos, chief, and Lat 
trabs, a beam.] The lower of the three principal mem¬ 
bers of the entablature of an order; being, as its name 
imports, the chief beam employed in it, and resting im¬ 
mediately on the columns. It is sometimes called epi- 
stylum, from epi, upon, and stylos, column. The height 
of the A. varied in the different orders, as also in different 
examples of the same order.—A. cornice, an entablature 
consisting of an A. and cornice only, without the inter¬ 
position of a frieze. It is never used with columns or 
pilasters, unless through want of height.—A. of a door 
or window, a collection of members and mouldings round 
either, used for the decoration of the aperture. The 
upper part, or lintel, is called the traverse; and the 
sides, the jambs. 

Ar'chives, n.pl. [Fr.; Gr. archeion, from arche, begin¬ 
ning, origin.] A collection of written documents, con¬ 
taining the rights, privileges, claims, treatises, const! 
tutions, Ac., of a family, corporation, community, city, 
or country; also, the place where such records are kept. 
The A. of the U. States are easily accessible, and proper 
recommendation will open them to any one who wants 
to use them for scientific purposes. 

Ar'cliivist, n. A keeper of archives or records. 

Ar'chivolt, n. [Fr. archivolte; It. archivolto, from Lat. 
arcus, a bow, and volutus, turned.] (Arch.) The orna¬ 
mental band of mouldings round the voussoirs, or arch; 
stones of an arch which terminates horizontally upon 
the impost. It is decorated, as to the members, anal¬ 
ogously with the architrave, which, in arcades, it may 
be said to represent. (See Fig. 170.) 

Arch'-lnte, n. (Musi) See Lutb. 

Areb'ly , adc. (See Arch.) Shrewdly; wittily; roguishly# 
jestingly. 

Archmock', n. Principal mockery, or jest, (o.) 

Areh'ness, n. Quality of being arch; cunning; shrewd¬ 
ness; waggishness; roguishness. 

Ar'elions, n.pl. The highest magistrates in ancient 
Athens. (See Attica.) The Jews, also, had A. during 
their captivity. 

Arch Spring, in Pennsylvania,apost-ofi\c&of Blairco. 

Arcli'stone, n. (Arch.) The stone that binds an arch; 
the keystone. 

Arch'way, n. A way or passage under an arch. 

Archwife', n. The wife of a person of high rank, (o.) 

Arcli'wise, adv. In the form of an arch. 

ArclmorU, n. The formation of arches. 

Arch'y, a. That resembles an arch. 

Ar'ehytas, a Pythagorean philosopher and mathema¬ 
tician ; B. at Tarentum, about b. c. 400. He is known as 
having been one of the first to apply the theory of 
mathematics to practical uses. 

Ar'cis-sur-Aube, a town of France, dep. of Aube, ob 
the river Aube; Lat. 4S° 32' N.; Lon. 4° 8 / E.; is the 
entrepot of the iron of the Aube valley. This place 
suffered heavily during the campaign of 1814. Here, 
Napoleon 1. repulsed with a much smaller force one of 
the principal divisions of the allied army. Fop. 3,090. 

Ar'cog-raph, n. [From Lat. arcus, a bow, and Gr. 
grapho, I describe.] An instrument by means of which 
a circular arc may be drawn without the use of a cen¬ 
tral point. 

Areo'la, in Illinois, a manf. city in rich farming district 
of Douglas co. Pop. (1890) 1,733. 

Areo'la, in Indiana, a post-village of Allen co., 8 m. 
\V. N. W. of Fort Wayne. 

Areo'la, in Iowa, a village of Monona co. 

Areo'la, in Louisiana, a post-office of St. Helona par. 

Areo'la, in Minnesota, a village of Washington co. 

Areo'la, in Ohio, c. village of Lake co. 

Ar'cola, in Virginia, the P. O. name of Sum Spbing, in 
Loudoun co., about 115 N. of Richmond. 

Ar'cole, (ar-ko-lai,) [Eng. Areola ,] a village of Italy, in 
Lombardy, 15 in. E.S.E. of Verona; aseriesof sanguinary 
battles took place here on the 15th, 16th, and 17th Nov., 
1796, between the Austrians, and the French under 
Napoleon I.; when the latter gained a splendid and sig¬ 
nal victory. 

Areo'li, in Nebraska, a village of Saline co., about 8» 
m. W. of Nebraska City. 

Ar'oon. Jean Claude Leihceaud d’, an eminent French 
engineer, B. 1733. He distinguished himself by the in¬ 
vention of the famous floating batteries used at the 
siege of Gibraltar, in 1782. D. 1800. 

Ar'cos «le la Fron'tera, a town of Spain, in Anda¬ 
lusia, on the river Guadalete, 29 m. N.E. of Cadiz; pop. 
13,000. 

Arcot'. a maritime districtofHindostan,in the Carnatic, 
and presidency of Madras. Area, 13,400 sq. in. Nearthe 
coast the country is low and fertile, but further inland 
it becomes hilly, and full of jungles. Agriculture is 






















140 


ARCT 


ARDE 


AREC 


largely followed outlie ryot system. (See India.) — Manuf. 
Cotton stuffs and iron.— Towns. Arcot, Vellore, Cudda- 
lore, Ac. 

Argot, a city, cap. of the above dist., and formerly of the 
Carnatic. Lat. 12° 54' N.; Lon 79° 24' E. It contains 
many ruins,among them the palace ofits ancient princes, 
or nabobs. The inhabitants are principally Moham¬ 
medans, and speak Hindostauee; they have a handsome 
mosque and other religious edifices. A. came into pos¬ 
session of the British in 1801. It lies 68 m. AV.S.W. of 
Madras. Pop. 53,168. 

Arc’tia. or Tiger Moth, n. ( Zobl.) A gen. of night-flying 
insects, fam. Bnmbycidie. The one selected for illustra¬ 
tion is well known and abundant. It measures from two 
and a half to three inches in the expanse of the fore 



Fig. 182. — tiger-moth (Arclia caga). 


wings, which are of a rich brown color, with numerous 
irregular spots and streaks of cream-white; the hind 
wings bright red, with blue-black spots; the thorax 
brown, with a red neck-band, and the abdomen red, with 
blue-black bars. The caterpillar is dark brown, and 
very hairy, the hairs on the back dusky, and those on 
the neck and sides reddish, the head black: its food is 
nettles, chickweed, lettuce, strawberries, &c. When full 
fed, it spins itself a web, w herein, at the latter end of 
April, it changes to the chrysalis state; and the moth 
appears about the end of June or beginning of July. 

A re tie, a, [Gr. arktikos , from arktos , a bear.] An epi¬ 
thet given to the North Pole, or the pole raised above our 
horizon. It is called the arctic pole, on account of the 
constellation of the Little Bear, the last star in the tail 
whereof points out the north polo. — Arctic circle is a 
lesser circle of the sphere, parallel to the equator, and 
2.3° 30'distant from the north pole, whence its name. 
This and its opposite, the Antarctic, are called the two 
polar circles, and may be conceived to be described by 
the motion of the poles of the ecliptic round the poles 
of the equator, or of the world. 

Arct ic liigh'Iandcrs, the name often given to the 
most northerly human community, a group of Eskimos 
dwelling north of Cape York, West Greenland. 

Arctic Ocean, or Northern lev Sea, extends from 
the Arctic Circle, Lat, 66° 30' N., to the N. pole, and 
washes the N. shores of Europe, Asia, and America; 
known respectively as the White Sea, the gulfs of Obi, 
Kara, and Yenisei, and the Polar Sea. The chief rivers 
embouching into it are, in America, the Coppermine, 
Mackenzie, and Black; and, in Asia, the Obi, Yenisei, 
Lena, and Colima. Its princ. islands are Spitzbergen, 
the Laffodens, Wongatz. and Nova Zembla, in Europe; 
those of New Siberia, in Asia; and the Polar Archipel¬ 
ago, in America. An expanse of ice of nearly 4,000 sq. m. 
extends during an eight months’ winter round the pole, 
and even in summer the temperature is at freezing-point. 
From this region come the icebergs which drift into 
the N. Atlantic. In 1878, an expedition under Nor- 
denskjold crossed the Kara Sea, and continued its route 
by Behring’s Straits towards Japan, thus perhaps de¬ 
monstrating a new commercial route connecting the 
Atlantic with the Pacific Ocean. The highest altitude 
jet reached is 87° 6', about 200 miles from the Pole, 
by Lieut. R. E. Pearv in 1906. See Northwest and 
Northeast Passages and Arctic Exploration. 

Ar<*ti'i<l«e, n. pi. {Zooli) A sub-family of Lepidopter- 
ous insects, fam. Sphingidce, comprising those species 
which have the wiugs deflexed in repose, the posterior 
pair not extending beyond the costa of the anterior. 

Arctostapli'ylos, n. [Gr. arktos, a bear; staphylos, a 
cluster of grapes.] <Bot.) 

A gen. of plants ord. Fa- 
baceie .—The A. uva ursi 
is a shrub 1 foot high, 
growing in mountains in 
the N. States and Canada; 
flowers in short, terminal 
clusters; drupe globular, 
about as large as a cur¬ 
rant. The leaves are as¬ 
tringent, and much val¬ 
ued in nephritic com¬ 
plaints. The Indians use 
them for mixing with to¬ 
bacco.— The Alpine bear- 
berry is found in the 
Alpine regions of the 
White Mountains. Its flowers are white, its berries 
grateful, and are sometimes used as food. 

Arctu'rus, n. [Gr. arktos, a bear, and oura, the tail.] 
( Astron .) A star of the first magnitude, in the constel¬ 
lation Bootes, or Archtophylox, 26° S.E. of Cor Caroli, 
and Coma Berenices, with which it forms an elongated 
triangle, whose vertex is at A. The star is so called 
because it is situated near the tail of the Bear. Accord¬ 
ing to M. Secchi, the spectrum of A. presents the same 
fine metallic rays as Orion and Scorpion (Antares). The 
appearances which render, at first sight, these spectra so 
different, depend on wide bands of absorption, which are 
absent in .1., well marked in Orion, and still more devel¬ 
oped in Antares. These obscure and ill-defined bands 
eie independent of the metallic lines, and may be com¬ 


pared to those produced by the gaseous terrestrial at¬ 
mosphere in the solar spectrum near the horizon, and 
they may have a similar origin. The two systems, 
therefore, the one formed by five metallic rays or lines, 
and the other by black, gaseous bands, are independent 
of each other. A. was supposed to be the nearest star 
to our system visible in the northern hemisphere, but 
this idea is now exploded. 

Artl. [A.S.] An affix signifying natural disposition ; as, 

Goddard is a divine temper; lteimm/, a sincere temper: 
Giffard, a bountiful and liberal disposition; Bernard, 
filial affection, &c. 

Ard, or aird, is also a Celtic root meaning height (comp. 
Lat. arduus, high), which appears in many geographical 
names in Ireland, Scotland, France, Ac. 

Ardagll', in Ireland, a bishopric in the co. of Armagh. 
— A parish in the co. of Cork. — Another parish, co. of 
Limerick. — Another parish, co. of Mayo. — Another 
parish, co. of Meath.—A village and parish in the co. 
of Longford. 

Ardar'a. a town of Ireland, in the prov. of Ulster, 15 m. 
N.W. of Donegal, at the head of Loughrismore bay. 

Ard'bear, an inlet of the sea, on the coast of Galway, 
in Ireland. It forms a fine harbor, at the head of which 
stands the town of Clifden. 

Ardbrac'caii, a town and parish of Ireland, in the co. 
of Meath. 

Ard'candries, a parish of Ireland, in the co. Wex¬ 
ford. 

Ard'canny, a parish of Ireland, in the co. Limerick. 

Ard'cstrne, a parish of Ireland,in the co. Roscommon. 

Ard'calli, a parish and village of Ireland, in the co. 
Meath. 

Ardcav'an, a parish of Ireland, in the co. Wexford. 

Ard'clare, a parish of Ireland, in the co. Roscommon. 

Ardclin'is, a parish of Ireland, in the co. Antrim. 

Ardcol'lum, a parish of Ireland, in the co. Wexford. 

Ardcro'ny, a parish of Ireland, in the co. Tipperary. 

Ar'dea, n. [Lat.] A gen. of birds, sub-fam. Ardeincc; 
the Heron, q. v. 

Arde'byl, a town of Persia, prov. of Azerbeitzan, 38 m. 
from the Caspian sea, from which it is separated by a 
high chain of mountains. It is an inconsiderable place, 
falling into decay, and only noted for containing the 
tomb of Sheikh Suffu, the founder of the Sulfite dynasty 
of Persian monarchs, and of a religious sect. It is still 
a great resort for pilgrims. 

Ardeche', a dep. of France, lying along the W. side of 
the Rhone, which separates it from the Drome. Lat. 
between 44° 16'and 45° 21' N.; Lon. between 3° 50'and 
4° 50' E.; area, 2,130 sq. rt . The greater part of it is 
occupied by the Cevennes mountains, of which Mont 
Mezen rises to the height of 5,770 ft. Its surface com¬ 
prises besides, forests, meadows, and vineyards. Rivers. 
The Rhone, Loire, Canee,and Ardeche. The forests pro¬ 
duce vast quantities of chestnuts, and the culture of the 
vine is carried on extensively. The wine of St. Peray 
is highly esteemed. The silk-worm is also largely raised. 
The paper produced at Annonay is among the very best 
in Europe. There are other important manufactures 
and industries. A. has 3 arrondisements. The chief 
towns of this department are Privas, the cap., Annonay, 
and Aubenas. Fop. (1897) est. 387,174. 

Ardeche, a river of France, which gives its name to the 
above dep. It rises in the Cevennes, and, after a course 
of 45 m., falls into the Rhone above Pont St. Esprit. 

Arde'cleave, a village of Ireland, in co. Londonderry. 

Ardee', a barony, town, and parish of Ireland, in the 
co. Louth, 40 m. N.W. of Dublin; pop. 4,480. 

Arde'ithe, n. pi. {Zobl.) The Heron family, comprising 
grallatorial birds which are formed for wading, and gen¬ 
erally seek their food on the margins of rivers and lakes, 
and in marshes, where they obtain fish, reptiles, and 

. even small mammalia. They have the bill acuminate, 
compressed, acute, and the edges usually notched at the 
end; the frontal feathers generally extending beyond 
the nostrils, the inner toe connected by a basal web to 
the other. This fam. includes the Herons, the Aigrettes 
or Egrets, and the Bitterns. 

Ar'delan, a prov. of Persia, forming the E. division of 
Kurdistan; 200 m. long, by nearly 160 broad. Senna, 
the cap., is in Lat. 35° 12' N.; Lon. 40° E. It produces 
fine oak timber and gall-nuts, the latter of which is ex¬ 
ported to India. The tribes of this country are nomadic, 
and incessantly engaged in war and rapine. They have 
a language of their own, and some of their chiefs pos¬ 
sess great power. 

Ar'tlency, n. [Lat. ardens, pp. of ardere, to burn.] 
Ardor; eagerness; warmth of passion; as, “the ar¬ 
dency of our love for the Redeemer.” 

Ar'deunes, a dep. of France, bordering N. on the 
duchy of Luxembourg; Lat. between 49° 13' and 50° 
10' N.; Lon. between 4° 5' and 5° 21' E.; area 1,955 sq. 
m.— Desc. In the N. it is full of mountains and woods, 
in the S.E. the soil is chalky, in the S.W. it consists of a 
rich loam, and in the E. it is stony.— Rivers. The Meuse 
and the Aisne, with their affluents.— Prod, Corn in 
abundance, cattle, horses, and sheep.— Min. Iron, slate, 
marble. — Manf. Ironmongery, cashmere shawls, cloth, 
Ac.— Towns. Mezieres, Rethei, Rocroy, Sedan, Youziers. 
Pop. 326,864. 

The Forest of Ardennes, which occupies the N. part 
of the above dep., extended far into Germany in the 
time of Cfesar. but is now rather a series of heights and 
woods, than an entirely connected forest. Here, as the 
Forest of Arden, Shakspeare is believed to have laid the 
scene of his famous comedy, “ As You Like It.” — Sir 
Walter Scott has also celebrated it in his novel of Quen¬ 
tin Durward. 

Ar'dent, a. [Fr. from Lat. See Ardency.] Hot; burn¬ 
ing; fiery; causing a sensation of burning; as, an “ ar¬ 


dent fever,” “alcohol is an ardent spirit.”—Fierce; vebc 

I ment. 

, “ With flashing flames his ardent eyes were filled."— Dryden. 

, —Passionate; affectionate; used generally of desire. 

“ With haughty pride may hear her charms contest. 

And scorn the ardent vows that 1 have blest."— Prior. 

Ar'dently, odv. Eagerly; affectionately. 

Arileiitncss, n. The quality of being ardent; a r 
dency; ardor. 

Ard'lcrt. a town and parish of Ireland, co. Kerry. 

Ard'field, a parish of Ireland, co. Cork, E. of Ross bay. 

Ardfin'nan, a parisli of Ireland, in the co. Tipperary. 

Ard'glass, a seaport and parish of Ireland, in the co. 
Down. This was once a place of great strength and im¬ 
portance. 7 m. S.E. by S. of Downpatrick. Pop. 1,100. 

Ardg-uin', a parish of Ireland, in the co. Down, on 
Lough iStrangford. 

Ardkeen', a parish of Ireland, in the co. Down. 

A i-dkil I. a parish of Ireland, in the co Kildare. 

A i*i 1 in ay 1 o', a parish of Ireland, in the co. Tipperary, 
3 m. N. by W. of Cashel. 

Ard'more, a village and parish of Ireland, in the co. 

Waterford. 

Ard'more IFead, a promontory in the above parish, 
forming the E. side of Youghal harbor. Lat. 51° 37' K.j 
Lon. 70° 43' W. 

Ard'inulean, a parish of Ireland, in the co. Meath, 
3 m. E.N.E. of Navan. 

Ardna'greeliy. a parish of Ireland, in the co. Cork. 

Ardiia'g'lass Bay, an inlet on the W. coast of Ireland, 

co. Sligo. 

Ardnaniur'chan Point, a promontory on the W. 

coast of Scotland, in Argyleshire, forming the most 
westerly point on the mainland of Great Britain. Lat. 
5t.° 45' N.; Lon. 3° 8' 30" W. 

Ardnur'cher, or Uorseleap, a parish of Ireland, co. 
W. Meath. 

Ar'doch, a village of Scotland, in Perthshire, 8 m. N 
of Dumblane. It is celebrated for its fine antiquities. 

Ar'dor, n. [Lat. from ardere, to burn; Fr. ardeur .] Heal, 
in the literal sense; as, the ardor of the fire.—Heat, in 
a figurative seuse; as, the ardor of passion, of love, of 
courage. 

Ar'doye, a town of Belgium, 14 m. S.S.W. of Bruges. 
Pop. 8,146. 

Ardoyne', a parish of Ireland, in the co. Carlow. 

Ard'patrick, a parish and village of Ireland, in the 
co. Limerick. 

Ardra'han, a parish of Ireland, in the co. Galway. 

Ard'ree, a parisli of Ireland, in the co. Kildare, 1 m. 
S. of Athy. 

Ar'dres, a small, but well-fortified town of France, in 
the dep. of Pas-de-Calais, 9 m. S.E. of Calais. In its 
vicinity, in June, 1520, was held the famous meeting 
between Francis I., king of France, and Henry Till, of 
England. The pomp and magnificence displayed on both 
sides during the 18 days of the meeting, gave rise to the 
name of the “ Field of the Cloth of Gold,” as the appel¬ 
lation of the place of rendezvous. 

Ardris'tan, a parish of Ireland, in the co. Carlow. 

Ardros'san, a seaport ami parish of Scotland, in Ayr¬ 
shire, on the Firth of Clyde, 24 m. W.S.W. of Glasgow. 
Pop. of parish, 7,173. 

Ardsal'lag-li. a parish of Ireland, in the co. of Meath, 
on the Boyne. 

Ard'snir. See Artaxerxes Bebegan. 

A rd skeagh. a parish of Ireland, in the co. of Cork, 

2 m. S. by E. of Charleville. 

Ard'straw, a parisli and village of Ireland, in the co. 
Tyrone. 

V rd'trea, a parish of Ireland, in the counties of Ty* 
rone and Londonderry. 

Arduous, a. [Lat. arduus, steep, high.] Lofty; hard 
to climb. 

High on Parnassus* top her sons she show'd, 

And pointed out those arduous paths they trod.**— Pope • 

—Figuratively, difficult; attended with great labor. 

“ The arduous employment that God designed with him.” 

Ar'duously, adv. In an arduous manner; with diffi¬ 
culty. 

Ar'duousuess, n. The state or quality of being ar¬ 
duous; height; difficulty. 

Are. The plural present indicative of the substantive 
verb to be. 

— n. The French superficial square measure, the side 
of which is 10 metres, or 32-809 English feet. It 
consists, therefore, of 1076-44 English sq. feet. The 
next denomination in the ascending scale is the Decare, 
or ten ares, and tiie Hectare, or 100 ares. In the de¬ 
scending scale the 10th part of an are is called a Deciare, 
and the 100th a Centiare. 

A'roa, n. [Lat.. probably from area, to dry; it was for¬ 
merly a place where corn was piled up to be dried before 
it was threshed.] Any plain or open surface; superficial 
contents; space enclosed within lines or boundaries; any 
enclosed space. 

( Genm.) The superficial contents of any figure. 

( Grog.) The contents of any surlace. 

Arc'ea, n. [ Malabar, Arecci] ( Hot.) A gen. of trees, ord. 
Palmacece, distinguished by having pinnate leaves and 
double spathex. The A. catechu is a tall, slender, and 
graceful palm. Its stem is from 6 to 8 inches only in 
diameter, but the sheaf of green leaves that springs out 
of its top is 30 to 40 feet from the ground. Its fruit is 
the well-known Betel nut. remarkable for its narcotic 
and intoxicating power; from the same popular iruit is 
prepared a kind of catechu. This tree grows all over 
tropical India, and the whole archipelago, including the 
Philippines. Its Malay name is Pinang, hence Palo 
Pinang is the Betel-nut island. 7n nearly all the largo 



Fig 183. — a. uva ursi. 












AREO 


AREZ 


ARGE 


141 


Islands it has a different name, an indication that it is 
indigenous. In Javanese it is called jambi, and a region 
on the N. coast of Sumatra, where it is very abundant, 
has therefrom received its name. In favorable situations, 
this tree begins to bear when it is six years old, and 
usually yields about 100 nuts in a loose, conical cluster. 
Each nut, when ripe, is about as large as a pullet’s egg, 
and of a bright ochreous yellow. This yellow skin en¬ 
closes a husk, the analogue of the thick husk of the 
cocoa-nut. Within this is a small spherical nut, closely 
resembling a nutmeg, but very hard and tough when 
taken directly from the tree. It is chewed with a green 
leaf of the siri. Piper betel. — See Betel, and Catechu. 

A. oleracea, the Cabbage-palm, whose huge terminal 
bud is known by this name, is a tall tree, 1O0 to 200 feet 
high, with a comparatively very slender stem, growing 
in the W. Indies. The bud or cabbage is sweet, nutritious, 
and delicate; but when cut off, the tree dies. 

Arecife'. a seaport, and cap. of Lancerota one of the 
Canary islands; Lat. 28° SO' N. ; Lon. 13° 36' W.; pop. 
2.778. 

A reek', adn. [A S. reac , smoke.] In a reeking condi¬ 
tion; smoking; steaming. 

Arefac'tion, n. [Lat. arefacio —area, to dry, and facin, 
to make.J The act of drying; the state of growing dry. 

Ar'efy, i>. a. To exhaust of moisture; to dry. 

Are'iia, n. [Fr. arene; Lat. arena , sand.] A term ap- 
liod to that part of an amphitheatre where the com¬ 
ats of gladiators and wild beasts took place; froln its 
being usually covered with sand. It is now used in a 
general sense to denote a place where any contest or 
display of power takes place. 

Are'na, in Wisconsin, a post-village and township of 
Iowa co. 

Arena*', in Michigan, a post-village of Arenac co., 
situated near Saginaw bay. 

Arena'ceous, a. [Lat. arenaceus, from arena, sand.] 
Sandy; having the properties of sand. 

A. Rocks. ( Geol .) The name given to rocks composed 
entirely, or to a large extent, of grains of silex. Beds 
of loose sand occur extensively in the more recent de¬ 
posits. The grains, either of quartz or flint, are gen¬ 
erally water-worn and rounded. In older deposits, the 
grains of sand are bound together by silicious, calcare¬ 
ous, argillaceous, or ferruginous cements. It is seldom 
that a rock is composed of quartzose materials alone; 
grains or particles of other mineral substances are fre¬ 
quently mingled with the grains of quartz. Silvery 
flakes of mica are seldom absent; and they often occur 
in layers parallel to the planes of stratification, causing 
the rock to split into thin slabs, and exposing a glitter¬ 
ing surface. These are called micaceous sandstones. 
When grains of feldspar occur, it is a feldspathic sand¬ 
stone. Often large quantities of calcareous matter, 
either as cement or as distinct grains, occur ; and these 
are called calcareous sandstones. The presence of lime 
can always be detected by the effervescence which takes 
place on the application of muriatic or other acid. 
When the sandstone is coarse-grained, it is usually 
called grit. It becomes conglomerate, or pudding-stone, if 
the grains are large enough to be called pebbles; or brec¬ 
cia, if the fragments are sharp and angular. 

Arena'ria, Sand-wort, n. [Lat. arena, sand.] A gen. 
of mere weed-plants, ord. Cargophyllacece. 

Arena'rious, a. Relating to sand; arenaceous. 

Arena'tion, n. (Med.) Sabulation, or the sprinkling 
of hot sand upon the bodies of patients. 

Ar'eiHlalil; in Minnesota, a post-township of Fillmore 
co. 

A ren'dal, a seaport town of Norway, 75 m. N.E. of 
Christiansand; Lat. 58° 27' N.; Lon. 8° 50' 25" E.; pop. 
6,800. 

Ar'endtsville, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Adams 
co. 

Aren'ga, n. ( But.) See Saguerus. 

Areuilit'ic, a. [From Lat. arena, sand, and Gr. lilhos, 
stone.] Relating to sandstone. 

Are nis «le Mar, a seaport of Spain, in Catalonia, 26 
m. N.E. of Barcelona; pop. 4,976. 

Arenose', a. Sandy; full of sand. 

A'rensburg, a seaport of Russia in Europe, in the 
gov. of Livonia, at the mouth of the gulf of Riga. It 
is the cap. of the island of Oescl. Pop. 4,129. 

Ar'eitzville, in Illinois, a post-village of Cass co., 
about 48 m. W. of Springfield. 

Are ola, n.; pi. Areolar. [Lat., a small open space or 
circle, diminutive of urea.] (Anal, and Physiol.) A term 
applied to the small interstices of minute cellular or 
other tissues, through which the smallest vessels and 
nerves pass. It is also applied to the small red or brown¬ 
ish circle which surrounds the nipples of females, or the 
ring which surrounds the pustule of small- or cow-pox. 
(hot ) Space marked out on a surface. 

Are'oiar. a. Resembling or relating to an areola, 
(Physiol.) Marked out into definite spaces. 

Areola'tion, n. Any small space distinctly bounded 
by something different in color, texture, Ac. 

Areom'etcr. n. A name of the instrument more com¬ 
monly called Hydrometer, g. r. 

Areomet'ric, Areomet'rical, a. Relating to 
areometry, or hydrometry. 

Areom'etry, n. Same as Hydrometry. g. v. 

Areop'agite, Areop'agist, n. A member of the 
Areopagus. 

Areopagit'ic, a. Relating or pertaining to the Areop- 

Aroop'aarns, n. [Gr. Ares, Mars, and pagos, a hill.j 
(Hist.) The name of a hill or rocky eminence lying to 
the W of the Acropolis at Athens, which was the meet¬ 
ing-place of the chief court of judicature of that city; 
hence called the council of A. It was of very high an-. 


tiquity, and existed as a criminal tribunal long before 
the time of Solon. Solon enlarged its sphere of juris¬ 
diction. and gave it extensive powers of a censorial and 
political nature. He caused it to consist of exarchons 
who had creditably passed the scrutiny to which they 
were subjected at the termination of their period of 
office. As a court of justice, it took cognizance of capi¬ 
tal crimes, as murder, arson, Ac.; and it also exercised 
a certain control over the ordinary courts. 1 ts censorial 
duties were of a very extensive and inquisitorial nature, 
for the preservation of order and decency. Religion 
also came within its jurisdiction, which punished im¬ 
piety in whatsoever form. Pericles succeeded in greatly 
diminishing the power of this council, and deprived 
it of many of its old prerogatives. It still, however, 
seems to have retained a great degree of power; but in 
later times, when corruption of manners prevailed 
among the people, it lost its moral influence and au¬ 
thority : yet it continued to exist down to a very late 
period. Some say that the apostle Paul was taken be¬ 
fore this council; but the Scripture does not bear out 
this idea. It would seem, rather, that the Athenians 
had taken him to the hill in order to hear him expound 
his new doctrines. 

Arequi'pa. a province and dep. of S. America, in the 
republic of Peru; Lat. 16° 30' S.; Lon. 73° 11' W. It 
contains a mountain, and also a city, of the same name, 
and lies between the western Cordillera of the Andes, 
and the Pacific ocean. It produces wheat, maize, sugar, 
gold, silver, copper, sulphur, nitrate of soda, and wine 
and brandy; all of which are exported via Islay, its 
trading-port. The mountain called A. is of volcanic for¬ 
mation, and reaches an altitude of 20,320 ft. The entire 
country around may be said to exist in a chronic state of 
subterraneous convulsion, having been frequently deso¬ 
lated by earthquakes. Pop. about 150,000, principally 
composed of Indians. 

Arequi'pa, cap. of the above dep., was, previous to 1868, 
one of the largest, and said to have been the most beau¬ 
tiful, city in Peru. It was solidly built of stone, had a 
fine cathedral, and many churches and convents; and 
carried on flourishing manufactures of gold and silver 
cloths, woollens, aud cottons. It was originally founded 
by Pizarro, and had, until recently, about 50,000 inhabit¬ 
ants. On the 13th August, 1868, this city was almost 
utterly destroyed by a fearful earthquake, which deso¬ 
lated the entire sea-board of Peru. So complete and 
terrible were its results, that not. a church was left 
standing, nor a house habitable. The massive construc¬ 
tion of the buildings was, however, able to resist its 
earlier shocks, and accordingly permitted the inhabitants 
to escape into the open air; but this did not altogether 
suffice to counterbalance its continued violence, about 
200 persons losing their lives eventually. After this ca¬ 
tastrophe, with the aid tendered by the Chilians and 
other nations, the people of A. commenced a partial re¬ 
storation of their city; but in Feb., 1869, it was again 
visited by shocks of earthquakes, by the last of which 
many persons were hurt, but, fortunately, none killed. 
Many citizens, in consequence, resolved to quit A. for 
ever. Pop. 30,000. 

A retie'iis, a Greek physician of the time of Vespasian. 
His works are held in great repute. An English trans¬ 
lation was published in London, 1837. 

Arethti'sa. (Myth.) Oneof the Ilesperides.— A daugh¬ 
ter of Nereus and Doris, first a nymph of Diana, then 
metamorphosed (see Alpheus) into a fountain situated 
in the city of Syracuse. As Theocritus composed his 
idyls on her banks, she is often made tho muse of pas¬ 
torals. This fountain, mentioned by Cicero (Verr. lib. iv. 
537), Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. ii. § 3) and many poets, is now 
degraded into a sort of public washing utensil for the 
poor Syracuseans. 

(Bot.) A gen. of small plants, ord. Orchidacece. — Diag. 
Periantli with its segments cohering at base; lips spur¬ 
less; adnate to the column at base, deflected at the end, 
and bearded inside; pollen angular. — The A. bulbosa 
is found in wet meadows from Canada to Virginia. At 
the top is a single, large, fragrant flower, of a rich purple 
color. 

Ar'etin, Johann Christoph Friedrich, Baron von, a 
celebrated German bibliographer; b. 1773. He was cu¬ 
rator of the royal library at Munich, and member of the 
most important German academies. Among his many 
works are, a History of the Jews in Bavaria, sundry 
treatises on mnemonics, the divining-rod, Ac., Ac. D. 
1824. 

Areti'no, Pietro, an Italian satirist of great eminence, 
was b. in Tuscany, 1492. Though of profligate life, and 
unprincipled in his writings, the caustic satire of his li¬ 
bellous verse gave him a high reputation, the patronage 
of sovereigns, and the friendship of his illustrious con¬ 
temporaries, Michael Angelo, Titian, and Tasso. He 
notably made himself famous by his bitter satire upon 
the indecorous life of the nuns, and the profligacy of the 
cardinals and higher priesthood. He also satirized to 
such an extent the European sovereigns, that he ac¬ 
quired the title of the “ Scourge of Princes.” His poeti¬ 
cal works include a tragedy, and five comedies full of 
wit and genuine comic humor. D. 1557. 

Aretino, or Arezzo Guir o. See Guido d’Arezzo. 

Areva'lo, a town of Spain, in Old Castile, on the Adaja, 
29 m. N.N.E. of Avila; pop. 5,162. . 

Arez'zo (anc. Arretium), a city of central Italy, in the 
rich plain of Chiana, 31 m. E. by N. of Sienna. Petrarch 
was born here in 1364, and the adjacent country gave 
birth to Vasari, Bacci, and Aretino A. is very ancient, 
and was formerly one of the principal states of Etruria. 
It was famous for the terra-cotta vases it produced, which 
were ranked by Pliny with those of Samos, aud Saguu- 
tum. Pop. of prov. 219,559; of city, 11,081. 


Arfvedsonite, n. (Min.) A mineral, probably mono, 
clinic, having a vitreous lustre; pure black color; in 
thin scales, deep green, or brown. Streak grayish-green. 
Opaque except in very thin splinters. Fracture imper¬ 
fectly conchoidal. — Comp. Silica, 50-5; sesquioxide ot 
iron, 26-9; protoxide of iron, 12’1; soda, 10-5 =. 190. I; 
occurs in black hornblende-like crystals, in Greenland. 

Ar'gaens, Mount, the highest mountain of Asia Mi 
nor, in the pashalic of Karamania; height, 13,000 ft. 

Ar'gal, or Ar'gols, n. (Che.m.) The commercial name 
of impure cream of tartar, or acid tartrate of potash, as 
it is taken in the form of an incrustation from the inte¬ 
rior of wine-casks. It has usually a red tinge, due to 
the coloring matter of the grape. 

Ar'gali, n. (Zool.) A species of wild sheep, found on 
the mountains of Siberia and Kamtschatka. It so closely 
resembles the moufflon, as to be regarded by many natu¬ 
ralists as the same species. — See Moufflon. 

Ar'gand, Aim£, a Genevese, who invented the lamp 
called by his name, which was first made in England in 
1782. D. in England, 1803. The A. lamp has a circular 
wick to admit a double current of air, aud has been for 
a long time in common use. 

Ar'gauin, a town of Central India, 40 m. from Ellich- 
poor, where Wellington (then General Wellesley), in 
1803, gained a decisive victory over a Nagpoor force. 

Argelan'der, Friedrich Wilhelm August, b. at Me- 
mel, 1799. He studied at Kbnigsberg, and becoming 
early attracted to the science of astronomy, was em¬ 
ployed by Bessel to make observations, aud in 1820 was 
appointed bis assistant in the observatory. In 1823, be 
succeeded Walbeck as astronomer at Abo observatory, 
Finland. He commenced here a course of observations 
on those fixed stars possessing a perceptible proper mo¬ 
tion; and, ultimately, published a catalogue of not less 
than 560 stars of this character. For his discoveries, he 
received the great Demidoff prize from the academy of 
St. Petersburg. After his removal to the university of 
Bonn in 1S37, A. published the “ Uranometria JS'ova ” 
(Berlin, 1843); and in 1846, his Astrmomical Observa¬ 
tions, giving the positions of 22,000 stars of the north¬ 
ern heavens, from 45° to 80° declination. Of late years, 
A. had much studied the changes of light in variable 
stars. D. 1875. 

Argem'one, n. [Gr. argema, a disease of the eye ] 
(Bot.) A gen. of herbs with yellow juice, ord. Papave- 
racece. The horn-poppy, -4. Mexicana, found ia all the 
States, has a stem 2-3 ft. high, branching, armed with 
prickly spines, and axillary and terminal yellow flowers 
on short peduncles. Its seeds are narcotic, purgative, 
and diuretic. The juice of the plant was formerly 
employed as a remedy for ophthalmia, whence its 
name. 

Ar'gens, Jean Baptiste de B >yer, Marquis d’, aFrcnch 
miscellaneous Avriter, b. 1704. Choosing the profession 
of arms, he served a campaign in Germany, and thc>E 
retired to Holland, where he wrote the Lettrcs Chinoises 
and other works. Being invited by Frederick the Great 
to the Prussian court, he was appointed director of tk« 
academy at Berlin, and d. there in 1771. 

Argcn'son, R£ne Louis Voyer d', a French statesman, 
was a friend of Voltaire. B. 1696; d. 1757. 

Argen’son, Marc Pierre, Count d’, an eminent French 
statesman, b. 1696. After filling subordinate offices, 
he succeeded 51. de Breteuil, as minister of war, ia 
1742. After the death of Cardinal Floury, the war 
which was at that time raging threatened tho very ex¬ 
istence of the French power; but the vigorous adminis¬ 
tration of A., and his singular capacity' for selecting 
competent generals, speedily reversed the tide of events, 
and secured a succession of victories to the French arms, 
until peace was restored, in 1748, by the treaty'of Aix-la- 
Ckapelle. A. becoming obnoxious to Madame de Pom¬ 
padour, the mistress of Louis XV., lost the royal favor, 
and was exiled; but after her demise he returned to 
Paris, where he D. 1764. A. was a patron of letters, and 
the friend of Voltaire; and to him was dedicated tho 
great Ency elopedie of Diderot and D’Alembert. 

Ar'gent, n. [Fr., from Lat. argentum, silver.] (Her.) 
A term borrowed from the French to express tho metal 
silver when used in armorial bearings. It is generally 
left white in the fields and charges of all coats-of-arms, 
whether colored or engraved. 

— a. Silvery; like silver. 

Ai'gcu'ta, a town of Central Italy, 18 m. S.E. of Fei> 
rara. 

Ar'g’ental. a. Pertaining to silver. 

Ar'gentan, a town of France, dep. of Orne, cap, of 
an arrond., and seated on a river of the same name, 22 
in. W. by N. of Alen<;on. It is well built, has agreeable 
promenades, and possesses manufactures of liueu, lace, 
(point d’AlenQon), &c. Pop. 6,221. 

Ar'gentane, German Silver, Pack-fono, or British 
Plate, n. (Client.) An alloy consisting of copper, nickel, 
and zinc, in various proportions, in imitation of the 
Chinese silver of pack-fong. The maillechort of Paris, 
with a sp. gr. of 718, consists of Cu 65, Ni 16-8, Zn 13, Fe 
3-4. Each maker has his own receipt for imitating, or 
improving this preparation, extensively employed as a 
basis for plating with silver; forks and spoons, and arti¬ 
cles of domestic use, being made of this material, and 
electro-plated. Before being dipped in the plating- 
trough. they are usually immersed in nitric acid. 

Argenta'rium, n. [Lat ] (Chem.) An alloy consist- 
ing of equal parts of lead and tin. 

Arg-enta'tion, n. [Fr.] A plating with silver. 

Argen'teuil, a village of France, dep. of Seine-et-Oise, 
on the Seine, 13 m. N.W. of Paris, on the Cherbourg 
railway. Here was a convent of which the celebrated 
Heloise (see Abelard) was prioress. 

Argen tic, a. Relating to silver, or obtained from it 








142 


ARGE 


ARGE 


ARGE 


Arjrentif'erous. a. [From Fr. argent, and Lat. ar¬ 
gentum, silver.] Containing silver, as, argentiferous 
lead-ores. 

Argent i'na, w. ( Zoiil.) The argentine, a gen. of mal- 
acopterygious fishes, belonging to tlie Salmonidce. The 
-1. sphyroena, caught in the Mediterranean, has an 
air-bladder, thick, and loaded with nacre, the substance 
used in making artificial pearls. 

Argentine, n. (Min.) The slate-spar, a variety of cal¬ 
careous spar, with a pearly lustre, found in thin plates 
in Norway, &c.—The name is also applied to oxide of 
antimony. 

Argentine, a. [Fr. argentin, from Lat. argentinus, 
from argentum, silver.] Like silver; silvery; sounding 
like silver. 

Argentine Republic, erroneously called Argen¬ 
tine Confederation, and formerly the Confederation 
or Republic of La Plata, in S. America; a republic of 
'confederated States whose extent in latitude is greater 
than that of any other existing country, though it only 
slightly exceeds that of the comparatively narrow slip of 
land which forms the neighboring republic of Chili. It 
is bounded on the W. by Chili; on the S. by Chili and the 
Atlantic Ocean; on the E. by the Atlantic Ocean, Uru¬ 
guay, Brazil and Paraguay, and on the N. by Bolivia. 
The boundary to the W. is formed by the mountain 
chain of the Andes. The southern limit was long a ques¬ 
tion of dispute with Chili, and was finally settled by a 
commission which gave Chili all territory and islands S. 
of the 52d parallel and west of 68° 30' W. This gave A. 
a small eastern section of Terra del Fuego, and the Straits 
of Magellan were declared neutral. The A. It. is 
divided into 14 provinces and territories. The most re¬ 
markable feature of the country is its plains, which ex¬ 
tend over more than three-fourths of it. The plains of 
Patagonia in the south, the Pampas across the extend¬ 
ing central part of the country, and the Chaco in the 
north-east, have no definite natural boundaries. The 
two latter are, in fact, the same continuous formation, 
in which a slight undulation divides the streamsof the 
Chaco, which join the Parana, from those of the Pam¬ 
pas, which either flow into the Atlantic south of the 
mouth of the latter river, or disappear by absorption 
into the soil, and evaporation as they spread over the 
plains. The best parts of these plains are covered with 
a rich alluvial soil from three to six feet in thickness, 
formed by the constant decaying of the luxuriant veg¬ 
etation which grows upon it. and this soil rests upon a 
sedimentary deposit of earth, which appears to have 
been scoured away from the Andes and the high lands 
of the central part of the continent. A great part of 
Patagonia and the Western- Pampas consists of gravel 
and coarse detritus from tho Andes, and though appar¬ 
ently sterile, only requires irrigation to become pro¬ 
ductive. Other parts of the plains are dry, saline 
wastes or blackish marshes, which probably mark the 
former position of an inland sea. The true Pampas are 
Situated between the Rio Negro and the liio Salado; 
their principal vegetation consists of grasses, which 
serve as food for the numerous herds of cattle. Tim¬ 
ber trees are not met with. Towards the N., the vege-| 
tation becomes extremely varied; along the rivers 
it becomes luxuriant; the trees, however, are not 
extraordinarily high. — Rivers. The great estuary 
of the Rio de Ja Plata (or River of the Plate) forms 
the watershed c-f a great fluvial system, second only, 
in S. America, to that of the Amazon. The prin¬ 
cipal rivers are the upper Parana, and its twin, the 
Paraguay, which, after meir contluence at Corrientes, 
form one noble stream, that, under the name of Parana, 
flows down to the gulf of La Plata. The ParanA proper 
has for its chief tributary the Rio Grande, while the 
Paraguay receives as affluents the Pilcomayo, the Ara- 
guarmini, and the Vermejo. More to the S. the Rio 
Salado flowr; into the great river; and still further S. 
another Salado, after an E. course, enters the Atlantic 
at the mouth of La Plata. The Colorado, and the liio 
Negro, are streams alsoembouching into the ocean; the 
latter forming the boundary of Patagonia. There is also 
an inland river, the Tucuman, which, after a course of 
350 m. S.E. across the Pampas, loses itself in the salt 
lakes of l’orongos. — Lakes. Owing to the uniformly 
even surface of this country, the lakes are in general 
the mere overflow of the large rivers. Of this descrip¬ 
tion is the celebrated one of Xarayos, on the confines of 
Bolivia and Brazil, those of Aguascaty and Estero de 
Nemlmgu. and, in fact, all the lakes lying *o the E. of 
the Paraguay. That of Ybera, between this river and 
the Parana, is of great extent. In the S. parts of the 
republic, a chain of salt lakes reaches from the Andes to 
the waters of the Plate. One of these, 360 in. S.W. of 
Buenos Ayres, is about-18 m. in circumference, with its 
bottom so encrusted with hard salt, that even iron tools 
make but little impression upon it. — Mount. The N. and 
N.W. provinces are generally mountainous, having with¬ 
in their limits some of the loftiest outlying spurs of the 
Andes, as the Sierra Negros, in the parallel of 24° 40' S.; 
and the Sierra Barbara, extending N.N.E. from the Rio 
Salado on the S-, to the Vermejo on the N. On the E., 
the mountains >f Brazil connect with the Andes on the 
W. and N W., by the iV.tcrmediate range of theChiquitos. 
The road from i’otosi to Buenos Ayres, 1,S60 m., and that 
from Potosi to Lima, 1,402 more, or a total of 3,262 m., 
passes uver the highest ridge of the Andes. — Clini. A 
country so extensive as the A. must necessarily possess 
a variety of climate. On the icy summits of the Andes 
an almost intolerable degree of cold prevails in summer; 
while in tne plains the summer beats are absolutely 
oppressive. At Buenos Ayres, in S. Lat. 34° 36' 28", 
water freezes slightly at certain times during winter; 
but should this happen frequently, the winter is deemed 


severe. At tho same place, the mean annual tempera¬ 
ture is about 64° Fahr.; of summer, and winter, the 
mean is 72°, and 52°, respectively. Taken altogether, 
however, the salubrity of this climate is unsurpassed 
by any other; and even that humidity of atmosphere 
incidental to the marshy and periodically inundated dis¬ 
tricts, is not prejudicial to the public health generally. 
From this salubrious feature, Buenos Ayres (“ good airs”) 
derived its name. — Soil and Prod. In the elevated 
lands near the frontier of Bolivia, agriculture is little 
practised. Tucuman, more in the interior, has a rich 
soil, and warmer temperature, and produces grains and 
fruits. In Santiago del Estero, indigo was formerly 
raised in quantities. The cultivation of cotton occurs 
here and there in the provinces on the ParanA, but to 
no great extent; and it remains to be proved in how far 
tho growth of this important staple will be adapted to 
tho soil generally. Around Buenos Ayres, and in the 
Platino districts, tho soil is fertile and prolific, requiring 
no manure, and yielding abundant crops of wheat, barley, 
and maize, besides nearly all the fruits of the temperate 
zone, and the more tropical varieties of oranges, lemons, 
and ananas. Tho vine is extensively cultivated, and 
furnishes the export of excellent wine and brandy. The 
soil of A. is, on the whole, admirably suited to the pro¬ 
duction of cereals; but this husbandry, owing to Span¬ 
ish supineuess. and the Indian aversion to labor, re¬ 
mained comparatively undeveloped until the European 
emigration id' late years, which has opened the resources 
of the land, and promises for it a prosperous future. 

(Rot.) As examples of the flora of A. may be men¬ 
tioned, cinchona, or quinine, sarsaparilla, jalap, and other 
medicinal plants, as tho sassafras, maguey, guayacan, 
zuma, coa, &c. Vanilla and cacao, of but indifferent 
quality, are also indigenous. In the forests grow cedars 
of a class well adapted for ship-building, the American 
pine, or cury, and the algarobaor carob-tree, whose fruit 
affords not only food, but a pleasant drink called laaga. 
Among the native fruits are the jujud, quabyra, guimbi 
(exuding a perfumed wax of which candles are made), 
the tatay, turumay (resembling an olive), and the inani 
(producing an oil superior to t hat of the olive). 

(Zoiil.) The zoology of the A. much resembles that of 
Peruand Chili. The tapir is tlieprincipal graminivorous 
animal; and the hippopotami, the armadillo, guanaco, 
vicuna, and llama are also indigenous. Elks anil deer 
are numerous. The zorrino, resembling a small rabbit, 
emits a fetid odor like that of the N. American skunk, 
and is avoided by all living creatures, animal as well as 
human. Of birds, the nandu, or ostrich, and the condor, 
tenant this country; serpents of large size, and locusts, 
abound. The numbers of horned cattle in a w'ild state 
on the great plains have been estimated at 12.000,000, 
and the horses at 3,000,000, besides vast numbers of 
sheep.— Min. The auriferous wealth of the mountains 
of S. Bolivia, is said to be illimitable, and no doubt gave 
rise to the appellation of “River of Silver” (Rio de la 
Plata) to that great stream whose head-waters are found 
in its region. The A. republic has not as yet shown 
much sign of mineral activity, but there can be no 
doubt that gold, as well as silver, exists in the Andino 
provinces. Silver mines are being worked at San Juan, 
and mining is every year growing into importance in the 
districts of San Luis, Cordova, and Catainarca. Iron is 
found in Santiago del Estero.— Inhab. The aboriginal 
race of Indians comprises to-day the various tribes of the 
Chiquitos,Guaranis, Puelches, Mojos,Matioas, Iluilliches, 



Fig. 184. — view Uf the range of the vextana, and 

HUILI.ICHES INDIANS. 


and many others. Of their numbers nothing authentic is 
known; but, on approximation, they may be estimated 
at from 1,000,000 to 1,200,000. The principal class of the 
inhabitants of the A. are the Creole descendants of the 
Spanish settlers, who, in mind, morals, and physiqne, 
differ little or nothing from the other Hispano-Americans. 


I Though vicious and indolent, they possess good nalura 
abilities, and occasionally exhibit a sort of spasmodu 
energy. The meaner degree of whites are divided inti, 
the two classes of agriculturists and herdsmen, in which 
latter capacity they are most numerous, but so detei i 
orated as to be hardly above par with the savages. They 
are famous horsemen, and perfect masters of tho lasso 
(See Gauchos.) Mestizos, Mulattoes, and Negroes, form 
the third grade in society.— Religion. Tho Catholic is 
the established religion, but other creeds are tolerated. 
The ecclesiastical power in the A. vies in splendor with 
that of the church in Europe. Large cathedrals, and 
monasteries, are found all over the country. Education, 
backward but with better prospects. Gov. Tlje execu¬ 
tive power centres in a president, elected for 6 years by 
representatives of all the prov. The legislative assem¬ 
bly is composed of a senate, and house of deputies. The 
president is commander-in-chief, and appoints to all 
civil, military, and judicial offices. The governors of 
provinces are elected by the people for a term of 3 
years. The pop. of A. has increased within the last 
25 years at a rate much greater than that of the United 
States during the same period. Gov’t aid fosters immi¬ 
gration, which is chiefly from Italy. Companies for the 
export of frozen beef and mutton and Liebig extract ol 
beef have been formed with large capital, chiefly Eng 
lish and German. Modern ideas and inventions are 
largely seized upon by the A. The eslancieros may now 
be said to go to his ranch in a Pullman car, instead of a 
silver laden saddle. He talks over a telephone with hie 
superintendent and slaughters his cattle by electric light 
Beef hides and sheep skins are largely exported; also 
wool, tallow, wine and grain. All kinds of rnauuf 
goods are imported, chiefly from Great Britain. Imp 
(1905), total value, $205,154,000; export*, $.!Z2, 844.000. 
chiefly through the port of Buenos Ayres. Of the 
imports, 39 per cent, was with Gt. Britain, 16 per cent, 
with France, 8 per cent, with U. S. Of the exports, 29 
per cent, went to France, 17 to Belgium, 15 to Gt. Britaiu, 
10 to Germany and 7 to U. S, The navigation of the 
Parana has much developed during the last few years; 
a regular system of steam communication being carried 
on between Buenos Ayres and the interior.— Railroads, 
constructed mainly by the State, aggregated in June, 
1905, open for traffic, 12,000 miles; lines in construction, 
1,350 miles, including an international line from Buenos 
Ayres to Chili, 894 miles. The total of telegraph wires 
in 1905 was 15,125 miles of Government and 15,000 miles 
of private lines. The President of the Confederation 
has a salary of $20,000, and the Vice-President, $10,000. 

(Hist.) In 1516, the estuary of La Plata was discovered 
by Juan Diaz de Solis, who, with his companions, were 
killed and devoured by the natives. In 1526, SebitstiaD 
Cabot visited the Plate, and one of his captains, ascending 
the Paran5, built a tort at the mouth of the Carcarana. 
The emperor Charles V. subsequently sent out an expedi¬ 
tion underthecommandofMendoza. whofounded thecity 
of Buenos Ayres, in 1535. The Spaniards, after the lapse 
of half a century, succeeded in establishing their power 
over the entire country, built cities, and founded Jesuit 
missions. In 1726, the Portuguese, jealous of the ascen¬ 
dency of Spain, founded the city of Monte Video in the 
Banda Oriental. In 1776, the Plate provinces were sepa¬ 
rated from the government of Lima, and formed into the 
viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. In 1806, a British expe¬ 
dition was dispatched to the Rio de la Plata, and cap¬ 
tured Buenos Ayres, which was ultimately retaken by 
the Spaniards. A second attack met witL no better re¬ 
sult. In 1808, the Spaniards revolted, deposed the vice¬ 
roy, and declared a provisional government. After a 
protracted struggle with the mother^country, they ac* 
complished their independence. Between 1810 and 1835, 
the A. prov. had no fewer than 36 changes of govern' 
ment. In the last-named year. General Rosas was elected 
president, with dictatorial powers. lie rule I the country 
with an iron tyranny for 17 years, sought to bring the 
Banda Oriental, or Uruguay (as it is now termed), under 
his control, and also to exclude foreign commerce from the 
river Plata. Upon this. France and England blockaded 
Buenos Ayres, occupied Monte Video, and captured the 
Argentine fleet. In 1849, a peace was concluded. In 
1851, Brazil and Paraguay, objecting to the control of 
Rosas over the navigation of the Paranft, declared war 
against the A. R. Their confederated forces, amounting 
to 18,000 men, utterly defeated Rosas in the battle of 
Caceres, or caclieco, in Feb., 1852, and obligecf him to 
seek refuge in England. The navigation of the ParanA 
was then declared open to the world; and in 1853. the 
present constitution was established. After the fall of 
Rosas, the government was successively assumed by 
Gen. Urquiza and others; and, in 1860, by Gen. Mitre. Ia 
1862, Buenos Ayres was declared the capital of the A. R., 
which it continued to be until 1868, when Rosario was 
made the seat of the federal government. When the 
ambitious designs of Lopez, the dictator of Paraguay, led 
to a war with Brazil, the A. R. took a neutral attitude, 
but upon the refusal of Mitre to allow the Paraguayan 
troops passage through his territory, Lopez crossed the 
Paraml, and invaded Corrientes, seizing two Argentine 
vessels, as well as the persons of Argentine subjects, 
upon whom lie levied black-mail. These outrages obliged 
the A. R. to ally itself with Brazil, and Uruguay, against 
the common enemy. A long and sanguinary war iollow- 
ed, with varying success, until the fall of Angostura, the 
last stronghold of Lopez, which was taken by the allies 
on the 22d Dec., 186S, after a desperate resistance. The 
results of this great victory will be found under the head 
of Paraguay. A fter a wise and popular rule, Gen. Mitre 
was succeeded as president. 12th June, 1868, by Senhor 
Domingo Sarmiento. In 1874, an insurrection broke out 
in Buenos Ayres, which was suppressed in 1876. and 





























ARGO 


ARGU 


ARGY 


143 


the president peacefully installed, Oct. 12,1880, and his! Ar'ponant, and Argosauta, n. [Gr. Argonautes, a 





successor, Dr. Coleman, in 1»86. In 1890 a revolution 
broke out in consequence of financial distress due to 
the improvidence of the administration. The president 
was victorious, but was forced bv public opinion to re¬ 
sign. More recently there were boundary troubles and 
threats of war with Chili, but these were adjusted, and 
the country now seems prosperous. Pop. (1900) -2,800,000. 

Ar'gen t it o. n. (Min.) An isometric mineral, of metal-, ....._ e _ e _„„ , 

lie lustre: in streak and color a blackish lead-gray, with in close contact, hv n. double row of suckers and thus I 

a shining streak: opaque, and yielding a small, uneven I 
fracture of sub-cnnchoidal form. Perfectly sectile.— 

Comp. Sulphur, 12-9; silver, 87 1 = 100. This is an im¬ 
portant silver ore, found in parts of Kurope and Asia, and 
also occurring in the U. States, especially in Nevada; it 
is common among the ores of Reese river. 

Argen'ton-sur*Crense', a town of France, dep. of 
Indre, cap. of a canton, on the Creuse, 16 m. S.S.E. of 
Chateauronx; pop. 4,827. 

Argen turn n. [Lat., God's penny], was an¬ 

ciently the name given to earnest-money, or money ten¬ 
dered to bind a bargain. In some places of England it 
is called arles o\ erles; and by civilians and canonists, 
arrhee. 

Argen'tvive. ». [From Fr. vif argent , quicksilver.] 

The alchemical name of mercury. 

A rgil, n. [Fr. argite; bat. argiUa; Gr. a rgill os, from 
argos, white, bright.] (Min.) The old name of alumina, 
or potter's clay. Its following derivatives are still in 
frequent use in geology. 

Ar'gile Plas’tiqiie, n. [Fr.] ( Gebt .) A series of beds 
at the base of the tertiary system in France, resting on 
a conglomerate, or breccia of rolled and angular chalk- 
flints. They consist of extensive deposits of sand, with 
occasional beds of plastic clays, used for pottery. Marls | 
occur, enclosing, in some places, the fluviatile shells that 
are met with in the same position in the London basin: 
and in others, large numbers of a species of oyster. I 
Beds of impure lignite also occur. The A. P. is the q 

equivalent in the Paris basin of the Woolwich and Read- Argonauts. (Myth.) Those heroes of ancient Greece 
ing series, or lower eocene of the English geologists.— who performed a hazardous voyage, through unexplored 
See Eocene. | seas, to Colchis, in quest of the Golden Fleece, under 

Argilla ceous, a. [See Argil.] Of the nature of clay; I the command of Jason, q. v. 
clayey. Ar gos, a city of Greece. See Argolis. 

A. Pocks. (Geol.) The name given to the rocks entirely. Ar'gos, in Indiana , a thriving town of Marshall co., 
or mostly, composed of clay. They are generally distin-l about 8 m. S. S. E. of Plymouth. Pop. (1890), 1,101. ’ 
guished by the peculiar A. odor which they give out Arg-os'toli. a seaport-town, and cap. of Cephalonia, 
when breathed upon.— See Clay. I one of the Ionian islands, on the W. coast of Greece, on 

ArgFltif 'erous. a. (Min.) Producing clay. I the E. side of a gulf of the same name; Lat. 38° 10' 40" 

Argil lo-arena'ceous, a. (Min.) Containing clay X.; Lon. 20° 29' 15" E.; pop. about 5,000. 
and sand. Ar'gosville, in New York. See Argcsyille. 

Argfirio-calca'rcous, a. (Min) Containing clay 
and lime. 

Argil lo-ferru’grinons, a. (Min.) Containing clay 
and iron. 

Argillous, a. Clayey; argillaceous, (o.) 

Ar go. n. [Gr., from argos, swift.] (Myth.) The name of 
vie ship which carried Jason and his companions, the 
Argonauts, to Cplchis, when they resolved to recover 


sailor in the ship Argo.] (ZoiiL) The Paper-nautilus, a 
gen. of Cephalopodous mollusca, the shell of which is pe¬ 
culiarly white and delicate, and into which the animal 
can withdraw itself entirely. It has 8 arms, 2 of which 
expand into wide membranous flaps: and as the animal 
floats on the surface of the sea, the expanded mem¬ 
branes are epread over the sides of the shell, where, 
meeting along its keel or edge, they are said to be held 
in close contact by a double row of suckers, and thus 
completely enclose it. Such being the structure and 
action of the A., it is not surprising that it has had the 
reputation, from very early times, of using its arms as 
oars, and spreading these 
expanded membranes as 
sails, so as to be wafted 
along by the wind. The de¬ 
scription, so long admitted, 
of the A. using its dilated 
teutacula as sails, the re¬ 
mainder as oars, and aids 
its movements by means 
of a kind of proboscis by 
way of a helm, are now 
considered a fable. While 
swimming, the A. sits in 
its shell, with its siphon 
turned toward the keel, 
and its dorsal, sail-shaped 
arms closely applied to 
the shell, and then swims 
by ejecting water from the 
funnel. The animal is not attached to the shell, but 
when underwater, it adheres firmly to it by its sail- 
arms. The shell, which is remarkably brittle when ex¬ 
posed to the air, is quite pliable in water, and thus 
escapes the destruction to which so thin and tender a 
fabric would otherwise be liable.— See Nautilus. 
Argonau t ic. a. Relating to the Argonauts. 


Pig. 185. 

ARGONAUT AND SHELL. 


the Golden Fleece. — See Jason. 

(Astron.) Argo navis, or the ship Argo, a southern 
constellation, situated S.E. of Canis Major, and contain¬ 
ing 64 stars, of which two are of first magnitude; Cano¬ 
pus and Miaglacidus. Most of these stars are too low 
down to be seen in the U. States. A. comes to the me¬ 
ridian on the 3d of March, about half an hour after 
Procyron. 

Ar go, an island in the Nile, 25 in. long and about 5 
broad ; Lat. between 19° 8' and 19° 30' N. 

Arg o, in Illinois, a post-village of Carroll co., 6 m. E. of 
the Mississippi river. 

Ar' go, in Inica, a hamlet of Lucas co. 

Argo, in Minnesota, a village of Winona co. 

Ar'go. in Missouri, a post-village of Crawford co. 

Ar'gol, n. See Argal. 

Argolis. a peninsula of Greece, in Morea. It lies be¬ 
tween the bays of Nauplia and iEgina, and now forms, Ar'guer 
with Corinth.anomarcliy or dep. A. was theeastern re- Ar’guin 


Ar gosy , or Ar'oosie, n. (Mar.) A term given by old 
writers to a large ship of burden, whether for war or 
commerce. It is found in Shakspeare, Beaumont and 
Fletcher, and others, and was probably derived from the 
ship Argo, q. e. 

Ar'got, n. A term applied in France, and England, to a 
species of cant language, used among gipsies, thieves, 
&c. Examples of this slang mode of speech may be 
found in the works of George Borrow and W. Harrison 
Ainsworth, and in the Mysteres tie Paris of Eugene 
Sue. 

Ar'guable, a. That may be argued. 

Ar'gne, v. n. [Fr. arguer, from Lat. arguo, probably 
from Gr. argos, bright, clear, manifest.] To invent and 
otfer reasons, in order to make something clear or mani¬ 
fest ; to offer reasons ; to dispute or debate; to reason. 

— v. a. To make clear or manifest; to show; to show by 
inference; to show reasons for; to persuade by rea¬ 
sons or reasoning; to debate or discuss; to prove or 
eviDce. 

Ar’g uelles. Acgcstixo, an eminent Spanish statesman, 
minister of the interior in 1820; he died in 1S44, soon 
after being appointed guardian to the young queen Isa¬ 
bella. He was the most eloquent and the most popular 
liberal orator of Spain. 

n. Oue who argues; a reasoner. 
a small island in the gulf of the same name, on 


gion of Peloponnesus. The Greeks inhabiting it were 
often called Argives, or Argians. Hills and mountains al-j 
ternate with fruitful plains, and valleys. According to | 
the monuments of Greek mythology, A. was peculiarly 
rich, and early cultivated. Inachus, about 1800, anil 
Danaus, about 1500 years B c, came hither with colo¬ 
nists from Egypt. Here reigned Pelops, an emigrant 
from Asia Minor, from whom the peninsula derives its 
name. It was afterward the seat of government of j 
Atreus and Agamemnon, Adrastus, Eurystheus. and Dio- 
medes. Here, Hercules was born. In the morass of A. j 
he slew the Lernsean hydra, and in the cave of Nemea | 
subdued the ferocious lion. In the earliest times it 
was divided into the small kingdoms of Argos, Mycenae, 

Tirinthus, Trcezetie, Hermione, and Epidaurus, which 
afterward formed free states. The chief city, Argos, has 
retained its name since 1S00 b.c. Its inhabitants were 
renowned for their love of the fine arts, particularly of 
music. Some vestiges remain of its ancient splendor, 
and it has at present about 9,000 inhabitants. Here, and 
in Delphi, statues were erected to the brothers Biton 
and Cleobis. who fi-ll victims to their filial piety. Near 
this city lies the capital of A.. Nauplia, or Napoli di Ro¬ 
mania, with an excellent harbor, and the most impor¬ 
tant fortress of the peninsula. On the site of the present 
village Castri, on the iEgean sea, formerly lay the city 
Hermione, with a grove dedicated to the Graces: oppo-| 
site is the island of Hydra. Near the city of Epidaurus. 
the watering-place of ancient Greece, on the .F.gean _ 
sea, iEsculapius had his temple. At Troezene, now the Argument'al, a. 
village Domain, Theseus was born. A. forms one of, ment. 
the 13 prov. of Greece. Area, 1,442 sq.m., pop. abt. Argumenta'tion. n. Act. art, or process of arguing 
144,850 (1897). Cap. Nauplia. | or reasoning ; a using of arguments. 


the \V. coast of Africa, abt. 54 m. S.E. of Cape Blanco. 
It possesses abundant fresh water, and is supposed to be 
identical with the Island of Cerne, where Hanno settled 
a colony during his famous voyage of discovery. It is 
now uninhabited. The dangerous shoal of A. extends S.E. 
for a considerable distance from Cape Blanco. It has 
occasioned numerous shipwrecks; among others, that of 
the French frigate La Meduse. 

Ar guing, p. a. Offering reasons; disputing; dis¬ 
cussing. 

Argument, n. [Fr. from Lat. argumenlum.] The 
means by which an assertion or assumption may be 
rendered manifest, or shown to be true; reason offered 
or alleged; a proof; process of reasoning; a plea; subject 
of any discourse; summary of heads of contents; 
debate, discussion; controversy. Logicians have given 
distinct names to various kinds of A., the princi¬ 
pal being the argumentum ad hominem, which is no 
real proof, but only an appeal to the known preposses¬ 
sions, or admissions of the persons addressed. In this 
style, when a man upholds one method of fraud, he may, 
by an appeal to his consistency, be driven to uphold 
another. The argumentum ad ignorantiam. nr employ¬ 
ment of some fallacy toward persons likely to be de¬ 
ceived by it; and the argumentum ad rerecundiam (A. 
to modesty), drawn from the sentiments of some great or 
good man, whose authority is revereuced by the party 
addressed. 

Arjruinent'aMe, a. That may be argued, (r.) 

Belonging to, or consisting in argu- 


Argunient'ative, a. Consisting of, or containing 
argument; containing a process of reasoning; addicted 
to argument. 

Argument'atively, adv. In an argumentative man¬ 
ner. 

Arg’iiment'ativeness, n. State of being argu¬ 
mentative. 

Argus, (Myth) the son of Arestor, had eyes all over his 
body, or, according to Ovid, one hundred eyes. He was 
killed by Mercury, when appointed by Juno to guard 
Io: and tradition says that his eyes were transferred 
to the tail of a peacock. — See Io. ” 

— n. A watchful person. 

Ar'gus, in Alabama, a post-office of Montgomery co. 

Ar'gnis-pheasant, A. Giganteus, n. (Zool.) A beau¬ 
tiful, but rare bird, na¬ 
tive of many paits of 
the Indian Islands. 

The male measures 
five feet six or eight 
inches from the beak 
to the tip of the tail; 
and the whole of the 
plumage is remarka¬ 
ble for variety and 
elegance. The wings 
consist of very large 
feathers, nearly three 
feet long, the outer 
webs being adorned 
with a row of large 
eyes (ocelli) arranged 
parallel to the shaft; 
the tail is composed 
of twelve feathers, 
the two middle being 
about four feet in 
length, the next 
scarcely two, and 
gradually shortening 
to the outer ones. Its voice is rather plaintive, and not 
harsh, as in the peacock. 

Ar'g-iis-sliell. n. See Pecten. 

Ar'j- usvi 1 le. in New York, a post-office of Schoharie 
co., 46 m. W. of Albany. 

Argu te'ness, n. Wit; acuteness, (o.) 

Argyle', or Argyll', a maritime county of Scotland, 
consisting partly of mainland and partly of islands, the 
chief of which are Islay, Mull, and Jura. Area, 3,255 sq. 
m. Its shores are rocky and irregular, and present nu¬ 
merous bays and inlets. Its surface is very mountain¬ 
ous, interspersed with deep glens, moors, and lakes, the 
principal of the latter being Loch Awe. Ben Cruaehan, 
the highest mountain, rises to3.670 ft. above the level of 
the sea. On the coast are extensive herring-fisheries. 
The soil produces oats, barley, and potatoes, and A. is 
especially famous for its native breed of black cattle, 
which affords he very best beef that can be brought to 
table in Europe. Climate mild, but wet, changeable, 
and stormy. Woods and plantations cover nearly 
45,000 acres, and lead, copper, iron, coal, marble, and 
slate are found in quantities. Towns. Oban, Inverary 
Campbeltown. Pop. about S 0.000. 

Argyle', in Australia, a county of New South Wales; 
Lat. between 34° and 35° S.. and Lon. 149° and 150°. Its 
rivers are tributaries of the Warragamba. Pop. abt. 5,300. 

Argyle', in Georgia, a village of Ware co. 

Argyle', in Maine a post-township of Penobscot 
county. 

Argyle', in New York, a post-village and township of 
Washington co., 45 m. N. of Albany. 

Argyle', in North Carolina, a village of Cumberland 
county. 

Argyle', in IFIsconsi'n, a post-village of Lafayette co., 
on the Wassemon river. 

Argyll', the title borne by the head of the great Scot¬ 
tish family of Campbell, known to the Highlanders as 
“ Mac Callum Mohr.’’ The most eminent members of 
this race are the following:- —-1. Archibald, Earl, and 
1st Marquis of A., b. 1598. He zealously espou.-ed the 
cause of the Covenant, and played a conspicuous part in 
the troublous times of the great civil war. Possessing 
great duplicity of character, he, while ostensibly acting 
for Charles I. in Scotland, secretly intrigued against the 
royal authority. Such was the odium attaching to his 
name, that even to this day there lingers in Scotland a 
popular saying, “ Fair and fause (false) as a Campbell.” 
After acquiescing in the protectorate of Cromwell, he 
was, at the Restoration, tried for high treason, and be¬ 
headed at Edinburgh, in 1661. — 2. Archibald. Mar¬ 
quis of A., son of the above. He was a gallant 
supporter of the royal cause; but being ultimately 
condemned to death for high treason, he made his 
escape to Holland. From thence he attempted to in¬ 
vade Scotland, but was taken prisoner, and executed at 
Edinburgh, in 16S5.—3. John, 1st Duke of A., grandsoB 
of the preceding, was a celebrated genera! and states¬ 
man, who fought under Marlborough, and in 1711 com¬ 
manded the English troops in Spain. Later, he sup¬ 
pressed the insurrection in Scotland, and drove the Pre¬ 
tender out of that kingdom. He also took a prominent 
partin the Union of England and Scotland. D. 1743.— 
4. George John. Duke of A., an English author an<f 
statesman, b. 1823. Author of many valuable historical 
and theological works, the latest of which are, The 
Reign of Laic, and Primeval Man, published in 1868- 
1869, Scotland as it was and is, 1887. He is well known 
in the U. States by the active sympathy he exhibited 
for the preservation of the Union during the civd war. 
His eldest son, Marquis of Lome, b. 1845, married ths 
Princess Louise in 1871, daughter of Queeo Victoria. 



(A. giganteus.) 

























144 


AKIE 


AEIS 


ARIS 


lr's'yro-Cas'tro, a town of Turkey-in-Europe,on the 
Driuo, the Roman Justinianapolis; pop. about 4,000. 

A ria, n. [It.J (Mas.) A song introduced in a cantata, 
oratorio, or opera, and intended for one voice supported 
by instruments; an Air. q. v. 

Vriail ue. (Myth.) A daughter of Minos, king of Crete, 
who, having fallen in love with Theseus when he was 
engaged in an attempt to destroy the Minotaur, gave 
him, in token of her love, a clue of thread, which served 
to conduct him out of the labyrinth, after his defeat of 
the monster. Theseus, on leaving the island, took with 
him A., but abandoned her on the island of Naxos, where 
she was found by Bacchus, who married her, and present¬ 
ed her with a crown of gold manufactured by Vulcan, 
which was afterward transformed into a constellation. 
A. had a son by Bacchus, called Eumedon, who was one 
of the Argonauts. 

( Astron .) One of the asteroids, a group of small plan¬ 
ets revolving between Mars and Jupiter. It is the 43d 
in ordor of discovery, and was first noticed by Mr. Pog- 
son, at Oxford, April 15,1857 — See Asteroids. 

Aria'na, in Illinois , a flourishing township of Grundy 
county. 

A'riuuisin, n. The doctrine of Arius. See Arums. 

Aria'no, a town of S. Italy, prov. of Avellino, in the 
Apennines, 17 m. from Benevento; pop. 14,500. 

A'rians, n. pi. (Eccl. Hist.) A name usually given to 
all who adhere to the opinions advanced by Arius re¬ 
specting the relation of tiie Father and the Son in the 
Holy Trinity. It is alleged by Athanasius, in his 2d 
oration (§24), that Eusebius of Nicomedia, and Asterius, 
agreed with Arius in maintaining that God, being will¬ 
ing to create the universe, and seeing that it could not 
be subject to the working of his almighty hand, made 
first a single being, whom he called Son, or Logos, to bo 
a link between God and the world, by whom the whole 
universe was created. In other words, the followers of 
Arius maintain that Christ, the Son of God, is the most 
exalted of all created things, but inferior to God the 
Father, and produced by his free will. The opinion 
itself was first ventilated about 318 a. d., and it was pub¬ 
licly condemned at the Council of Alexandria, held in 
320 a. d., and in the Council of Nice, which was held 
325 A. d. The orthodox Church maintained the perfect 
equality of essence of both Father and Son, and could 
only express their relation by terming it eternal genera¬ 
tion. The articles of both the Nicene, and the Athanasian 
creeds, arose out of this great Arian controversy. Arius, 
and his partisans, were banished by the former council; 
but, as he had powerful adherents, he soon found means 
to return at the express command of the emperor Con¬ 
stantine. He was on his way .0 receive the oath of min¬ 
isterial allegiance to the orthodox views of the Church 
at Constantinople, when he died very suddenly, as some 
say, by poison, in 336 a. d. His followers received great 
accessions after his death, and the emperor Constantine 
is said to have been baptized into the Arian communion 
a short lime before his decease, in 337. Under Constan¬ 
tins, Arianism became the religion of the court; and it 
even penetrated as far as Home, which was obliged to 
receive into its communion Felix, an Arian bishop. But 
the divisions which grew among the A. themselves, pre¬ 
pared for the Catholic Church an easy victory over them, 
and led to their final extinction. The first split in the 
Arian faith occurred in the western part of the Roman 
empire, where all opponents of the Athanasian doctrine 
that the Son was homoousios, or of the same essence 
with the Father, wore called A.; but some of these op¬ 
ponents clung to the doctrine already taught in the 
school of Origen, that the Son was homoiousios, or of 
similar essence with the Father. These received the 
name of Semi-Arians; but the sect broke up into some 
10 or 12 separate communions, before it finally disap¬ 
peared from the history of the Church. The A., how¬ 
ever, made a bold struggle for existence. They ascended 
the throne with Valens, in 364 a. d.; but Theodosius 
hurled them down, and restored the dominion of the 
ancient Church. Their creed was altogether extinct in 
the Roman empire at the beginning of the 5tli century. 
It continued to flourish among the Goths, the Suevi in 
Spain, the Burgundians, the Vandals, and the Lombards, 
among which latter people it survived down to 662 a. d. 
Since that time, pure Arianism has nowhere constituted 
a distinct sect. — See Socinians and Unitarians. 

Ari' ca, a seaport of Peru, on the Pacific, 40 ra. N.W. of 
Potosi; Lat. 18° 26' S.; Lon. 70° 13' 30" W. It was a 
flourishing city, with about 30,000 inhabitants, but, 
during the dreadful volcanic convulsion which occurred 
13th Aug., 1868, A., nearly destroyed by the earthquake, 
was obliterated by the sea, which, having retired to a 
great distance, returned, and fell with irresistible force 
on the ruins of the buildings, and completed the work 
of destruction. Another destructive earthquake oc¬ 
curred in May,1877. A.was taken by theChilians in 1880. 

Arichat', a seaport of Cape Breton Island, province of 
Nova Scotia; Lat. 45° 28' N.; Lon. 61°3' \Y\; pop. about 
17,500. 

Ari'cine, Cusco Cinchonine, n. (Chem.) An alkaloid 
obtained from arica bark, in the same way as cinchonine 
from Peruvian bark. It crystallizes in white brilliant 
translucent needles, with a slightly bitter taste. The 
salts of A. are very bitter. 

Ar'iti, a. [Fr. ariile; Lat. aridus, from areo, to be dry.] 
Dry; parched; sterile; unproductive. 

Arid'ity, Ar'idness, n. [Fr. aridity, from Lat. ari- 
dttos.] Dryness; a state of being without moisture. 

Ari'ege, a dep. of France, bounded S. by the republic 
of Andorra and the Pyrenees; Lat. between 42° 33' and 
43° 19' N.; Lon. between 0° 50' and 2° S' E.; principally 
formed from part of the old county of Foix.— Gen. Des. 
Wooded and mountainous, with a mild climate generally; 


and with iron mines, marble quarries, and mineral 
waters. Its chief commerce is in grain, cheese, iron, and 
wood. Its manufactures consist of woollen, cotton, paper, 
and steel wares.— Towns. Foix, Pamiers, and St. Girons. 
Pop. (1891), 227,491; (1897), about 230,500. 

Arieoe, a fiver which gives its name to the above dep. 
It rises in the Pyrenees, and falls into the Garonne, near 
Toulouse. 

A'riel, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Wayne co., 

Ar ies, n. [Lat.J (Astron.) The Ram ; the first of the 
12 signs of the zodiac, and a constellation giving its 
name to a space of 30° of the ecliptic, which the sun 
enters in March, measured from the vernal equinox. 
Owing to the constant change of the position of the 
vernal equinox, arising from the precession of the equi¬ 
noxes, the sign A. no longer corresponds with the con¬ 
stellation of that name, but has moved about 30° to the 
westward of it. 

(Antiq.) The battering-ram of the ancients, which was 
used to batter down the walls of besieged cities. It con¬ 
sisted of a large beam, made of the trunk of a tree, to 
one end of which was fastened a mast of bronze, resem¬ 
bling in its form the head of a ram. The use of this 
machine was f urther aided by placing the frame in which 
it was suspended upon wheels; and, also, by constructing 
over it a wooden roof, so as to form a testudo, which pro¬ 
tected the besieging party from the defensive assaults, 
of the besieged. 

Ariet'ta, n. [It.] (Mus.) A short melody, song, or air. 

Ariet'ta, in New York , a township of Hamilton 
county. 

A'rigal, a mountain of Ireland, in the co. Donegal, 
3 m. W. of the Derryveagh range; height, 2,462 ft. 

Arig-lit', adv. [A.S. a for on, and riht, right.] According 
to the right way, applied physically and morally; right; 
well; rightly; truly; correctly; properly; uprightly; 
uuexceptionably. 

“ Guardian of groves, and goddess of the night, 

Fair queen, he said, direct my dart aright." — Dryden. 

Arig'na. a district of Ireland, in the co. Roscommon, 
important for its mines of coal and iron. 

Ar il, Aril'lus, n. [Lat. arillus.] (Bot.) A term applied 
to an integument occasionally found covering, either 
wholly or partially, the testa or outer coat of a seed. 
The seed of the passion-flower exhibits this covering, 
which commences at the base, and proceeds toward the 
apex. In the nutmeg, the additional coat proceeds from 
above, downward, and constitutes the substance called 
mace, which is extensively employed as a spice. 

Ar'illate, Ar'illated, a, (But.) Having the form 
of, or relating to an aril. 

Arim'anes, Ahriman, n. The principle of evil in the 
Persian theology, which perpetually counteracts the 
designs of Ormuzd or Oromazdes, who denotes the prin¬ 
ciple of good. 

Ari'nos, a river of Brazil, which, after a N.W. course of 
700 m., enters the Tabajos, an affluent of the Amazons, 
in Lat. 9° 30' S., Lou. 50° 20' W. 

Ariola'tion, n. [Lat. ariolatio, or hariolatio.] Sooth¬ 
saying; vaticination; foretelling, (o.) 

Ari'on, the inventor of dithyrambics ; B. in Lesbos, 
flourished about b. c. 625. A hymn to Neptune, attrib¬ 
uted to this poet, may be found in Brunch's Analecta. 

Ar'iose, a. [It. arioso.] (Mus.) Characterized by melody, 
as distinguished from harmony; as, “Ariose beauty of 
Handel.” 

Ario'so, a. [It.] (Mus.) Applied to a passage in the 
style of the aria, often introduced into recitative. 

Arias'to, Ludovico, one of the greatest Italian poets, 
b. at Reggio, in 1474. He early became engaged in lite¬ 
rary pursuits, and settled at Ferrara, where he entered 
the service of Cardinal d’Este, who employed him in 
political negotiations. Amid the turmoil of official 
duties he composed his great epic, the Orlando Purioso , 
which was published in 1516. D. 1533. The “ Orlando 
Furioso” commemorates the legendary exploits of Charle¬ 
magne and his paladins. It displays a splendid and 
inexhaustible richness of invention, and ever-changing 
variety of incidents, accompanied with the talent of 
lively narration. The activity of a youthful fancy ani¬ 
mates the whole work. A. exhibits, also, a wonderful 
skill in interweaving the episodes with which he con¬ 
tinually interrupts, and again takes up with an agreea¬ 
ble and often imperceptible art, and so entwines them 
with one another, that it is difficult to give a connected 
history of the contents of the poem, consisting of 46 
cantos. These qualities place him among the great 
masters of poetry, and have gained for him, among his 
countrymen, the appellation of Divine. The Orlando 
has been translated into all the languages of Europe. 
A. is also the author of many fine satires and other 
poems. 

Arise', v.n. [i. arose ; pp. arising, arisen.] [A.S. arisan. 
See Rise.] To rise up; to mount up, or upward; to 
come into view, or notice; to emerge from the horizon. 

“ He rose, and, looking up, beheld the skies 
With purple blushing, and the day arise.”—Dryden. 

—To rise; to get up from sleep, from any state, or from 
a reclining posture. 

“ When wilt thou arise out of thy sleep ?”— Prov. vi. 0. 

—To begin; to grow; to spring upward; to originate; 
to proceed from. 

“ A mischief may arise hereafter from such an innovation.”— 

Dryden. 

—To revive from death. 

“Thy dead men shall live, together with my body shall they 
arise ."— Isaiah xxvi. 19. 

—To begin to act; to move, or to exert power. 

Aris'ing, p. a. Rising up; ascending; originating or 
proceeding from; getting up; springing up; appearing. 


Aris'pe, a mining town of Mexico, cap. of Sonora, neai 
the source of the river Yaqui; pop. about 5,000. 
Aris'pe, in Illinois, a village of Bureau co., about 68 
m. N. of Peoria. 

Aris'ta, n. [Lat.] (Bot.) See Awn. 

Aris'ta, Don Mariano, formerly president of the Mexi¬ 
can republic, b. 1803. Of Spanish descent, lie at an 
early age entered the army, in which lie attained to 
the rank of major-general. He served with distinc¬ 
tion in the war against the U. States, was in 1848 ap¬ 
pointed minister of war, and, in 1850, president of the 
republic. In the latter capacity, he distinguished him¬ 
self by the liberality of his political views, his leanings 
toward peace and progress, and bis attention to the 
social and commercial development of the country. il« 
was succeeded as president, in 1852, by Don Juan Ce- 
bellos. D. 1855. 

Aristse'us, (Myth.,) son of Apollo and Cyrene, wai 
brought up by the Nymphs. The introduction of the 
use of bees is ascribed to him (hence lie is called Mel- 
lisceus), and gained for him divine honors. 
Ar'istarch, n. (See Aristarchus.) A severe critic. 
Aristar'chian, a. Severely critical. 

Aristar'eli us, a Greek grammarian, who criticised 
Homer’s poems with the greatest severity, and estab¬ 
lished a new text; for which reason, severe and just 
critics are often called Aristarchi. He was born in the 
island of Samofhrace, and lived at Alexandria, about 
150 b. c. Ptolemy Philometor, who highly esteemed 
him, confided to him the education ol his children. 
After having spent his life in criticising Pindar, and 
other poets, especially Homer, he died at Cyprus, 
aged 72. 

Aristar'clius of Samos, born 267 b. c., was a fa¬ 
mous astronomer, who first asserted the revolution of 
the earth about the sun. His work on the magnitude, 
and distance of the sun and moon, is still extant, lie is 
also regarded as the inventor of the sun-dial. 
Aris'tate, a. (Bot.) Furnished witli aristas or awns. 
Aris'tida, n. [Lat. arista, an awn.] (Bot.) A gen. of 
plants, ord. Graminacece. They are generally grasses of 
little value. 

Al-isti <1 os, a celebrated Athenian, surnamed the Just, 
was the son of Lysimachus. lit! was one. of the ten 
generals of the Athenians when they fought with 
the Persians at Marathon. According to the usual 
arrangement, the command of the army was held by 
each of the generals, in rotation, for one day. But 
Aristides, perceiving the disadvantages of such a cliaDgo 
of commanders, prevailed on his colleagues each to 
give up his day to Miltiades; and to this, in a great 
measure, must be ascribed the victory of the Greeks. 
The year ensuing, he was archou, and in this office 
enjoyed so universal a popularity that he thereby ex¬ 
cited the jealousy of ihemistocles. This ambitious 
man, not daring, openly, to attack his rival, contrived 
to spread a report that A. was aiming at a kind of 
sovereignty, and at last succeeded in procuring his 
banishment by ostracism. It is said jliat a rustic citi¬ 
zen, who happened to stand near A. in the public as¬ 
sembly which decreed his banishment, turned to him, 
without knowing who he was, and asked him to write 
the name of Aristides upon the shell with which he was 
going to vote. “ Has Aristides injured thee? ” inquired 
he. “No,” answered the voter; “but 1 am tired of 
hearing him called the Just.” A. wrote his name, and 
returned the shell in silence to the voter. He left the 
city, with prayers tor its welfare. Three years after, 
when Xerxes invaded Greece with a large army, the 
Athenians hastened to recall a citizen to whom they 
looked for aid in this emergency. Forgetting everything 
but the good of liis country,upon receiving intelligence 
that the Greek fleet was surrounded at Salamis by the 
Persians, he hastened thither with all speed, to warn 
Themistocles of the danger which threatened him. 
Touched by bis generosity, Themistocles admitted him 
at once to his confidence, telling him that the report 
had been purposely spread by himself, to prevent the 
separation of the Grecian fleet. In the battle of Platsea, 
A. commanded the Athenians, and bad a great share in 
the merit of the victory. On one occasion, when The¬ 
mistocles announced that he had formed a project of 
great importance to the state, but which he could not 
make known in a public assembly, the people appointed 
A. to confer with him on the subject. The project was 
to set fire to the combined fleet of the Greeks, which 
was then lying in a neighboring port, and thereby to 
secure to tlie Athenians the sovereignty of the sea. A. 
returned to the people, and told them that nothing 
could be more advantageous, but. at the same time, 
nothing more unjust, than the plan of Themistocles.' 
The plan was at once rejected. The party of 1 hemisto- 
cles at length prevailed, and A. was banished a second 
time. D. in poverty, about 467 b. c. — The Athenians 
bestowed on him a magnificent funeral, and gave an 
estate and pension to his son Lysimachus. 
Aristip'pus, of Cyrene, the disciple of Socrates, and 
founder of the Cyrenaic sect. His maxim was, that 
pleasure is the chief good of man, and thus differed 
widely from the doctrines of his master. lie flourished 
about 400 b. c. — His daughter Arete was famous for her 
wisdom and beauty. 

Aristobu'lus, an Alexandrian Jew, considered by th» 
early fathers as the founder of the Jewish philosophy 
of Alexandria. He lived under Ptolemams Philometor. 
about 175 b. c. 

Aristoc racy, n. [Fr. aristocratic, from Gr. aristos. 
best, noblest, and kratos, strength, power, sovereignty.] 
In its original acceptation, A. denotes that form of gov¬ 
ernment in which the ruling power is vested in the best 
inen, whether by birth, wealth, or personal distinction. 










































































‘ 




































ARTS 


ARIS 


AR1S 


147 


Personal excellence, however, was usually regarded as a 
necessary element in the character of those constituting 
an aristocracy. It was opposed to oligarchy, which was 
looked upon as a perversion of aristocracy, and in which 
the dominant power was in the hands' of a few, who 
ruled for their own advantage. 1 n the idea of A ., there¬ 
fore. was included that the administration of affairs 
should be for the general good, and not for any one class. 
Iu modern times, those governments have been usually 
deemed aristocratic, in which a small privileged class of 
noble or wealthy persons either governed absolutely, or 
shared the government in various proportions with the 
sovereign, or the people. In a more general sense, it is 
applied to any form of government, in which a minority 
of adult males constitute the ruling class, and is opposed 
to democracy, in which the ruling power is vested in a 
majority of adult males. Lord Brougham’s definition is 
somewhat different. He says, “Where the supreme 
power in any state is in the hands of a portion of the 
community, and that portion is so constituted that the 
rest of the people cannot gain admittance, or can only 
gain admittance with the consent of the select hotly, the 
government is an aristocracy ; where the people at large 
exercise the supreme power, it is a democracy Nor does 
it make any difference, in these forms of government, 
that the ruing body exercises its power by delegation 
to individuals,or to smaller bodies. Thus, a government 
would be aristocratic, in which the select body elected a 
chief, to whom a portion, or even the whole of its power 
should be entrusted.” — Sometimes the word A. is ap¬ 
plied, not to any form of government, but to a particu¬ 
lar class of persons : n a state. In this sense it was never 
used in ancient times, but it is common with modern 
writers. The former distinction is dropped, and au .4. in 
this sense is not necessarily connected with the govern¬ 
ment, and may exist under any form of rule. It is in 
this way sometimes used as synonymous with nobility. 
In a wider sense, it is applied generally to the rich, as 
distinguished from the rest of the community. 

Aris tocrat, n. [Fr. aristocrate.] One who favors 
aristocracy. — A-haughty, overbearing person. 

Aristocratic, Aristocrat'icai, a. Pertainingto 
aristocracy; — haughty; overbearing. 

Aristocratically, adv. In anaristocratical manner. 

Aristocrat'icaliiess, n. The quality or state of 
being aristocratical. 

Aristoc rat ize, v. a. To render aristocratic, (r.) 

Aristog-i ton. See Harhodius and Aristogiton. 

Aristolo'cliia. n. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Aris- 
tolochiacece. They are distinguished by a tubular oblique 
perianth, generally inflated at the base, the mouth dilat¬ 
ed on one side, and by stamens adherent to the style. 
Several species have been employed for centuries in 
medicine on account of their supposed emmenagogue 
properties ; and hence the name birth-wood. The roots of 
the A.longa, A. rotunda, and A. dematitis are most com-1 
monly used. They have all stimulant and tonic proper¬ 
ties. The rhizome and root-fibres of A. serpentaria, or 
Virginian snake-root, found from Pennsylvania to Louis¬ 
iana, are officinal. It is a valuable stimulant, tonic, and 
diaphoretic, and is specially useful in fevers of a low 
ami typhoid character. Several species of this important 
gen. are cultivated in liot-houses as ornamental plants. 
The Dutchman’s pipe, A. sipho, highly ornamental in 
cultivation for arbors, is a vigorous climber in moun¬ 
tainous woods, found in W. Pennsylvania, and the S. 
States. Its stem is woody, twining, and ascends trees 
for 30 or 40 ft. 



Fig. 1S7.— ARiSTOLOCRiA galatea, (the Dutchman's pipe.) 

2. Fruit of an A.; 3. Cross section of it; 4. Half its Seed. 

A ris tolocliia'ccfc. n. pi. [From Gr. aristos, excel¬ 
lent, and lochens. pertaining to parturition.] (Bot.) The 
birth-worts, an ord. of plants, alliance Asarales. — Dlag. 
3-S-celled ovary, and no ovules. They are herbaceous 
plants or shrubs, the latter often climbing. Wood with¬ 
out concentric zones and inseparable wedges. Leaves I 
alternate, simple, stalked. Hermaphrodite flowers, ax¬ 
illary, solitary, brown or some dull color. Calyx adhe¬ 
rent’ tubular, with the segments valvate or induplicate. | 


Stamens 6-12, epigynous. Ovary inferior, 6-celled; style! 
simple. Fruit dry or succulent, many-seeded. Seeds 1 
thin, angular, or round, with a very minute embryo. 
There are 9 genera, and 130 species; most abundant in 
the tropical countries of S. America, and thinly diffused 
throughout the N’. hemisphere. Aristulochia is the typ- 1 
ical genus. 

Aristopli'anes. the only Grecian comic poet of whom 
any pieces have been preserved entire. He was au Athe¬ 
nian, and appeared, as a poet, in the 4th year of the 
Peloponnesian war, b. c. 427. He was distinguished, 
among the ancients, by the appellation of the comedian, 
as Homer was by that of the poet. Of 54 comedies which 
he composed, 11 only remain; and in these, without 
doubt, we possess the flower of the ancient comedy. 
But in order fully to enjoy them, and not to be offended 
by the extravagances and immoralities with which they 
abound, we must be intimately acquainted with ancient 
customs and opinions. His pure and elegant Attic dia¬ 
lect, the skill and care displayed in the plan and execu¬ 
tion of his pieces, and their various other excellences, 
have gained for A. the fame of a master. His wit and 
humor are inexhaustible, and his boldness unrestrained. 
The Greeks were enchanted with the grace and refine¬ 
ment of his writings; and Plato said, the Gra .es would 
have chosen his soul for their habitation. “ According 
to our ideas of decorum,” says a late scholar “ we should 
esteem the soul of A. a fitter residence for the licentious 
and malicious satyr, or, at least, we should call him, 
with Gbtlie, the spoiled child of the Graces. He made 
use of allegory in his attacks on the politicians of the 
day, as well as in scourging the vices and follies of his 
age. In a political and moral view, he is a strong advo¬ 
cate for ancient discipline, manners, doctrines, and art: 
hence his sallies against Socrates, in the Clouds, and 
against Euripides, in the Frogs, and other comedies. The 
freedom of ancient comedy allowed an unbounded de¬ 
gree of personal satire, and A. made so free use of it 
that nothing, divine or human, which offered a weak 
side, escaped his sarcasms. He feared the Athenian 
people so little, that he personated them, under a most 
miserable figure, in his old Demos. He incessant ly re¬ 
proached them for their fickleness, their levity, their 
love of flattery, their foolish credulity, aud their 
readiness to entertain extravagant hopes. Instead 
of being irritated, the Athenians rewarded him with a 
crown from the sacred olive-tree, which was, at that 
time, considered an extraordinary mark of distinction. 
This excessive freedom characterized the ancient comedy, 
which was long considered as a support of democracy. 
After the Peioponnesian war, its licentiousness was much 
restrained; and, iu the year 388 B.c., it was forbidden by 
law to name any person on the stage. 

Aristoplian'ic, a. Relating to Aristophanes. 

Aristotelian, a. Pertaining to Aristotle, or to his 
philosophy. 

— n. A follower of Aristotle. 

Aristote'lianisiu, or Peripateticism, n. (Philos.) 
The doctrine of philosophy of Aristotle; one of those 
speculative systems which arose from the school of 
Socrates, and which, from the unity and grandeur of its 
founder's genius, took strong root in the Greek mind, 
and since the revival of letters, also in lVestern Europe. 
Aristotle attempted to steer a medium course between 
thp ultra-idealismof his master Plato,and the low sensa¬ 
tionalism of the physical school of Elea. His genius was 
as wide as nature. He studied all things, and seemed 
to know everything better than all others. His knowl¬ 
edge was something amazing, and he extended the 
boundaries of science to almost an encyclopedical ex¬ 
tent. Science, whether as abstract or physical, he was at 
home iu. Aristotle keenly combated the ideal theory of 
Plato, or that which expounded the Deity as holding in 
himself the archetypal ideas after which the world 
was fashioned, and which it was the business of 
reason and science to discover. But while denying 
these ideas of his master, he nevertheless agreed with 
him in the view that knowledge contains an element j 
radically distinct from sensation. He also differed from 
the Eleatics and the Epicureans, inasmuch as he denied 
that sensation could account for the wholeof knowledge; 
but maintained, with them, that without this sensation, 
knowledge would be impossible. The celebrated maxim 
that "there is nothing in the intellect-which was not pre¬ 
viously in the sense," if not Aristotle's, at least well ex¬ 
presses a side of his doctrine; but, when he insists upon 
the distinction between the necessary and the contingent, 
the absolute and the relative, ho rises altogether above 
the sphere of sensation, and takes emphatically his 
place with reason. Thus he steered a middle course 
between what he considered to be the Scylla and Cha- 
rybdis of speculation— idealism, and sensationalism ; but 
in what precise line he moved is by no means clear. He 
in no place has expounded his doctrines, and he is very 
| chary of definition; so that no two Aristotelians of to¬ 
day are agreed upon the details of his philosophy. Per¬ 
haps it may be best characterized when we say, that 
it was a system of empiricism, or one based upon 
experience, often very considerably modified by the 
rationalism of Plato. The language in which his phi- j 
losophy is couched is brief, pregnant, and peculiar: and > 
his system not only has afforded a test of the critical 
acumen of those who have taken to a study of his works, 
but it has afforded, besides, a nice test of advancement 
in the knowledge of the Greek language to read Aris¬ 
totle with intelligence and promptitude. Philosophy, ac¬ 
cording to Aristotle, is properly science arising from the 
love of knowledge. There are two sorts of knowledge: 
mediate, and immediate. From immediate knowledge, 
which we gain through the experience of particulars, 
we derive mediate knowledge, by means of argumenta¬ 


tion, whose theory it is the office of logic to properly 
expound. Logic is therefore the instrument of all sci¬ 
ence ; but only quoad formam, for it is experience which 
supplies the matter to be worked upon. The formal 
part of reasoning he accordingly expounds better than 
any man either before or since his time. He, indeed, 
created logic, and this system stands erect through tho 
changes of centuries like an Egyptian pyramid, which 
heat aud moisture cannot wear away. lie nowhere 
defines logic; but the book which contains it is ordi- 
narily called the Organon. Ilis successors have only 
damaged when they have tried to improve hir system of 
argumentation; aud down to the period of Sir William 
Hamilton, it remained nearly destitute of a single modi¬ 
fication or addition. He most profoundly bases his logic 
upon the laws of contradiction, and he even recognizes 
that of sufficient reason as a regulative principle in the 
evolution of truth: After logic he took up all the sci 
ences, rational, empirical, and mixed, except one alone; 
viz.,history. He seems to have divided philosophy into 
logic, physics, and ethics, or into speculative and'prac- 
deal knowledge.—1. Speculative philosophy contem¬ 
plates the real order of things, irrespective of human 
control; practical philosophy discusses affairs voluntary 
and accidental. Real substances are either invariable, 
or variable; while sublunary matters are variable, and 
perishable; the Deity alone is imperishable, and un¬ 
changeable. Do men pursue the real in an abstract 
way? Then, Metaphysics and Mathematics emerge. Do 
they pursue knowledge as to its objects? Then Physics, 
Cosmology, Psychology, Theology emerge.—2. Practical 
philosophy again comprehends Ethics, Politics, aud Econ¬ 
omy. A word or tw o on each of these heads; and first 
of Speculative Philosophy. — I. Physics, or Natural 
Philosophy. Nature is the sum of all existences, which 
are disclosed to us by our perceptive faculties. The 
knowledge of nature is properly the knowledge of the 
laws of bodies in motion. Nature, cause, accident, end, 
change, infinitude, space, time, and motion,are included 
in this science. The three elements of existence are 
matter, form, and privation; and change is possible as 
regards substance, quantity, quality, and place. Motion, 
like time, has neither beginning nor end; and the first 
thing to which motion was applied was the heavens. In 
his Cosmology, Aristotle discusses astronomy, using that 
term in its widest signification. It appears to us mod¬ 
erns obscure and inconsistent, and is by no means sat¬ 
isfactory. Physiology is indebted to Aristotle for its 
first essay. The soul is, according to him, the active 
principle of organized life. It is distinct from the body, 
yet, considered as its form orentelechy, it is inseparable 
from it. Its faculties are production, nutritiou, sensa¬ 
tion, thought, and will or impulse. His remarks on the 
principle of common sense, on consciousness, on imagi¬ 
nation. on memory, and on recollection, nearly all of 
which he was the first to distinctly recognize, are very 
valuable, and will repay a careful perusal even at tho 
present day. Metaphysics, or more properly the first 
philosophy, according to Aristotle, is his attempt to sci- 
encize being in the abstract. The leading character¬ 
istics of the latter existence he analyzes into the 10 cate¬ 
gories of substance, quantity, quality, relation, time, 
place, situation, possession, action, passion. With this 
arrangement he connected the question of the First 
Being, whose felicity is alone complete, and whose 
existence is alone immutable.— II. The ruling idea of 
his practical philosophy was that of a sovereign good, 
and final end or aim of actiou. This final end he de¬ 
nominated happiness, which is the result of the per¬ 
fect energies of the soul, aud is the highest of which 
our nature is capable. It arises from the perfect exer¬ 
cise of reason, and is ordinarily called virtue. This lie 
describes as the mean between two extremes, which is 
the character of nearly the whole of his philosophy. 
He distinguishes the moral virtues into the 7 cardinal 
ones, of which justice, in a sense, embraces all the rest. 
Under the head of right, he distinguishes that belong¬ 
ing to a family, from that belonging to a city. A per¬ 
fect unity of plan prevails throughout his morals, poli¬ 
tics, and economics. Both of the latter have for their 
object to show how this perfect virtue, already de¬ 
scribed. may be attained in the civil and domestic rela¬ 
tionships, through a good constitution of the state aud 
the household. The principle of the science of politics 
is expediency, and its perfection consists of suitableness 
of means to the end proposed. By this principle Aris¬ 
totle proves the legality of slavery; and all education 
he refers to the ultimate end of political society. — Of 
Aristotle's successors, the only one deserviug of men¬ 
tion is Theophrastus, author of the Characteristics . 
This system long maintained its ground as distinct 
from that of Plato. In the middle ages it became de¬ 
graded into a noxious system of barren formularies, 
which were ultimately swept away by the revival of 
Platonism. All except his Logic, which will live forever, 
is now nearly forgotten, save by a few devoted students. 

Aristotel'ic, a. Relating to Aristotle, or to his phi- 
losophy: Aristotelian. 

Aristot'le. the head of the Peripatetic sect, was the son 
of Nicomachus, physician to Amyntas, grandfather of 
Alexander the Great. Losing his parents when young, 
it is said he led such a dissipated life, as to squander away 
his estate, although others assert that he became a pupil 
of Plato at the age of seventeen. On the death of that 
philosopher, under whom he studied with great dili¬ 
gence. but to whom, some assert, he was ungrateful, he 
went to the court of Hernias, at Atarna, in Mysia, and 
married that prince's sister. He was afterward sent 
for by Philip of Macedon to instruct Alexander, and gave 
such’ satisfaction to the king, that the latter erected 
statues to him, and rebuilt Stagira, his birthplace: 



















148 ARIZ 


On the accession of Alexander to the throne, Aristotle 
refused to accompany him in his expeditions, but recom¬ 
mended to him his kinsman Calisthenes, and he himself 
settled at Athens, where, in the Lyceum, he taught his 
philosophy to a great number of disciples. Here he 
composed his principal works. Being accused of impiety, 
he wrote an apology for himself, and addressed it to the 
magistrates, lie soon, however, quitted this city, and 
spent the remainder of his days at Clialcis, a city in 
Euboea. Some say that he poisoned himsel) others, that 
he cast himself into the river Euripus; ana some assert 
that he died a natural death, 322 B. c. B. at Stagira, 384 
b. c. The works of Aristotle may be classed under the 
heads of rhetoric, poetry, politics, ethics, physics, math¬ 
ematics, logic, and metaphysics; and they display an 
immense amount of genius.—See Aristotelianism. 

Arith'inetic, n. [Fr. arithmetique; Gr. arithmeiike.J 
The science of numbers, or that portion of mathematics 
concerned with the properties of numbers. Every num¬ 
ber is a ratio or relation; that is to say, every magnitude, 
compared with another magnitude, is either equal, or 
greater, or less, and. therefore, has a certain relation to 
that with which it is compared. A. is the art of com¬ 
bining these relations with one another, using for the 
purpose the signs themselves by which the numbers are 
distinguished; thus the four operations of addition, sub¬ 
traction, multiplication, and division, include the entire 
science. For the facilitating of calculations, and for com¬ 
mercial purposes, other useful rules have been in¬ 
vented ; such as proportion, interest, discount, decimals, 
extraction of roots, &c.; but they are but different appli¬ 
cations of the four elementary rules. The origin of A. 
is extremely obscure. According to Plato and Diogenes 
Laertius, A. and geometry are of Egyptian origin; on 
the other hand, Josephus affirms that Abraham, during 
his stay in Egypt, taught the inhabitants the use of 
numbers. The precise epoch in which numerical signs 
and the first methods of computation and calculation 
were discovered, is enveloped in equal mystery. Arabian 
philosophers were of opinion that it was from the people 
of India, during the 9th or 10th century, that they bor¬ 
rowed the signs which we call Arabic, but which they 
call Indian numerals. The employment of these numer¬ 
als, and the facilities afforded by algebra, have been the 
chief cause of the immense progress and development 
of modern mathematical calculations. 

Arithmetical, a. Pertaining to arithmetic; accord¬ 
ing to the rules or method of arithmetic.— A. progression 
is a series of numbers increasing or diminishing by a 
common difference, so, 3, 6, 9,12,15, 18 form an A. pro¬ 
gression, of which the difference is 3. — A. mean, of any 
number or quantities, is the quotient obtained by divid¬ 
ing their sum hy the number of quantities. 

Arithmet'ically, adv. By means of arithmetic; ac¬ 
cording to the rules, principles, or method of arithmetic. 

Arithmeti'cian, n. One versed in arithmetic. 

Ar'ius, the founder of the sect of the Arians, q.v. 

Arizo'na Ter'ritory, one of the extreme south¬ 
western political divisions of the United States, lying 
between 31° 20' and 37° N. Lat., and between 109° and 
1 15* W. Lon. It is bounded on the N. by Nevada, and 
Utah, on the E. by New Mexico, on the S. by Mexico, 
and on the W. by California and Nevada. Total area, 
113,020 sq. m., of which 100 sq. m. are water.—Desc. Its 
surface consists of elevated table-lands, broken by 
mountain ranges, and interspersed with fertile valleys 
and sandy wastes. Its N. and N.E. portions are wild 
and sparsely settled, and contain several large Indian 
reservations. S. of the liver Giia, and W. of the 112th 
meridian, the country is sandy, and not as a general 
rule arable, except along that river. In other portions 
there are many beautiful valleys, containing millions 
of acres of extraordinary fertility, producing wheat, 
barley, oats, tobacco, fruits, and vegetables. In the S , 
cotton and sugar crops are remunerative, and on the 
hills and mountain sides is found a rich and abundant 
pasturage.—Numerous short ranges of mountains exist, 
as the San Francisco mountains in the W. central por¬ 
tion, the Gila, Caliura, Santa Catalina and Sierra Tucson 
in the S.E., the Grande, Mohawk, &c., in the S.W.—The 
l iver system of A. presents points of great interest. The 
Colorado, with its affluents, the Gila, Bill Williams’ 
Fork, and Flat river, or Colorado-Chiquito, drains an 
extensive region S. of the Great Salt Lake basin, and 
W. of the Sierra Madre. These various streams, with 
their affluents, rise among mountains covered with 
valuable timber. At the head of Bill Williams’ Fork is 
the Black Forest, but little, if at all, inferior to the 
Schwarzwald of Baden, separating the basins of the 
Rhine and the Neckar. Pine and cedar forests of in¬ 
definite extent cover the Mogollon and Pinaleno 
mountains, and valuable timber is found at the heads 
of the Rio Verde, Salado, and Gila. The mesquite fur¬ 
nishes good fuel in all parts of the territory. In the 
valleys, the larch, ash, elm, walnut, oak, and sycamore 
are found in ample supply. The Colorado is navigable 
for many miles by boats of light draught. The San 
Pedro and Santa Cruz flow from the S.W. part of the 
territory into the Gila; the former, through a rich 
valley, 100 miles in length, expanding in places to a 
width of many miles. Its tributary valleys are of nearly 
equal extent. A beautiful, fertile, anti well-wooded 
region lies along portions of this stream, extending to 
the Gila. Ruins of haciendas and ranches show an 
ancient attempt to introduce the institutions of civili¬ 
zation into these wilds. One of the finest portions of the 
territory is the country bordering on the Santa Cruz. 
Its valley, wider than the San Pedro, is equally rich and 
well timbered. A large quantity of land may be made 
productive without irrigation, e-pecially the lands oc¬ 
cupied by the Pinos Indians, who, being instructed in 


ARK 


ARKA 


agriculture by the Jesuit fathers, have continued ever I 
since to gather two crops per annum. The grazing lands 
are about three-fourtns of the entire area, or 55 millions 
of acres.— Irrigation. As the Nile in Egypt, the Colorado, 
q. v., is subject to annual overflow. Thus, the valleys of 
this river and its affluents are thoroughly fertilized, and, 
by a system of irrigating canals the water may easily be 
conducted to immense tracts unvisited by its annual 
overflow. The celebrated Colorado desert, generally be¬ 
low the bed of the river, and bordering it on both sides for 
150 m., possesses a soil composed of alluvial earths, marl, 
and shells, needing only the stimulation of moisture to 
awaken its fertility. Other tracts along the course of 
the river are susceptible of similar improvement. Within 
recent years much has been done in the direction of 
irrigation, the area reclaimed embracing about 750,000 
acres, while canals and storage reservoirs are being con¬ 
structed which will reclaim 535,000 acres more,and works 
are contemplated which will add an additional 750,000 
acres. These operations will bring more than 2,000,000 
acres, recently arid, into a state of fertility.— Minerals. 
It was not until 1862, and 1863, that an attempt was made 
thoroughly to explore Central A. All along the Hassy- 
ampa, upon the Agua Frio, a parallel stream of con¬ 
siderable size, upon Lynx creek, Big Bug, Turkey creek, 
an'’, indeed, upon nearly all the streams, lodes of gold, 
silver, and copper, were found. The highly interesting 
report published by Mr. J. Ross Browne, in 1868, on the 
mineral resources of the states and territories west of 
the Rocky mountains, indicates the discovery and loca¬ 
tion of lodes of the precious metals in all parts of the 
territory, rather than their development. He attributes 
the want of success of the miners hitherto, not to any 
deficiency in the mines, but firstly to the comparative 
inaccessibility of the territory, which is off the great 
overland lines of travel, and without seaports; next, to 
the Indian troubles; and, finally, to the limited extent 
of the placer diggings, to the lack of water for their 
working, and to the refractory character of the ores of 
most of the lodes thus far opened. Since the date of this 
report mining operations have become active and exten¬ 
sive, and the output of metals is now large and valuable. 

In 1907 the goiu product was valued at $18,489,400. The 
yield of silver was 1,090,000 ounces, and of copper 
128,433 tons. In addition there are found iron, 
nickel, platinum, quicksilver, gypsum, cinnabar, and 
coal. The Salt mountains near Callville, and a few miles 
from the Colorado, are among the most remarkable for¬ 
mations in A. The deposits of pure, transparent, and 
beautifully crystallized salt are very extensive, and no 
salt is superior for table, or general use.— Climate. In 
Southern A. and upon the Colorado, the temperature is 
rather warm. In Central A. the sun is seldom oppressive. 
The thermometer has been known to stand at llu° on the 
Colorado, when it rose but to 65° in and about Prescott. 
The nights in the mountains throughout the territory 
are cool at all seasons. Snow falls in Central A., but, 
excepting on the higher mountains, it usually remains 
but a few hours. The rainy season generally lasts from 
June to December.— Chief towns are Tucson, Yuma 
(opposite Fort Yuma, Col.), Prescott, a thriving city, 
picturesquely situated in a valley of the Pine Mts., 
Phoenix, (the capital), Florence, and Tombstone. The 
white inhabitants are mostly employed in mining; 
nevertheless, the agricultural settlements are many 
in the south and along the Colorado. The agricultural 
production in 1907 embraced 331,665 bushels of wheat, 
300,000 of corn, 458,776 of barley, 116,000 of oats, the 
value being over $2,000,000. The animals included 
83,804 horses, 375,684 milch cows, 370,000 oxen and other 
cattle, 924,761 sheep anil 18,103 swine, valued at 
$20,000,000. The Indian tribes along the Colorado river 
are generally friendly. The Pima and Maricopa 
Indians, at their villages on the Gila river, have 
a very prosperous community of about 12,000 souls, 
cultivating successfully wheat, corn, barley, cotton,^ 
beans, peas, and other vegetables.— History. The Colo¬ 
rado valley was an early seat of Spanish civilization, 
and missionary enterprise. The Santa Cruz, and its trib¬ 
utaries, teemed with an agricultural and mining popula¬ 
tion, early in the 18th century. The relics of this busy 
industry are still seen in the ruins of cities, cathedrals, 
and farms, scattered up and down the Colorado and its 
branches. But priest and layman, alike, fell beneath 
the tomahawks of the Apaches. The Santa Cruz region 
was occupied by Jesuit missionaries, as early as the year 
1600. The modern history of A. is connected with that 
of New Mexico, from which it was separated in 1863. 
Pop. in 1890, 59,620; in 1900,122,931. 

Arizo na, in Louisiana, a post-office in Claiborne co. 

Arizo'na, in Nebraska, a post-township of Burt co. 

Arizo'na City, now Yuma, in Arizona, a town of 
Yuma co., on Colorado R. at mouth of the Yuma R. 
Pop. (1890) 1,773. 

Ark, n. [Lat. area, from arcere, to shut up; A. S. ere or 
erk; Fr. arehe.] A chest or coffer for the safe-keeping of 
any valuable thing; a depository. — The large floating 
vessel in which Noah and his family were preserved 
during the deluge; (see Deluge.)— Also, in the U. States, 
a kind of flat-boat, used on the Western rivers. 

Ark of the Covenant, in the synagogue of the Jews, 
was the chest, or vessel, in which the tables of the law 
were preserved. This was a small chest or coffer, 3 
feet 9 inches in length, 2 feet 3 inches in breadth, and 
the same in height, in which were contained the vari¬ 
ous sacred articles mentioned in the quotations. It was 
made of shi trim-wood, and covered with the mercy-seat, 
called also the propitiatory, as the Septuagint expresses 
it. ‘Ilacrrijpioi/ £t iOrjpa, that is, the lid or cover of pro¬ 
pitiation; because, in the typical language of Scrip¬ 
ture, those sins which are forgiven are said to be cov¬ 


ered. This lid was made ot pure gold; at either eno 
was a cherub: these looked toward each othe> and em- 
braced the whole circumference of the mercy-seat with 
their expanded wings (Ex. xxv. 17, 22, and xxxix. 1-9)' 
between which the Sliekinah, or symbol of the divine 
presence, manifested itselfYu the appearance of a cloud, 
hovering, as it were, over the mercy-seat (Lev. xvi. 2). 
From hence the divine oracles were given (2 Kings xix. 
15; Isa. lxxx. 1). The high-priest, once every year, on 
the great day of expiation, appeared before the mercy- 
seat, to make atonement for the people (Heb. ix. 7). The 
ark was placed in the sanctuary of the temple of Solo¬ 
mon. Before his time, it was kept in the tabernacle, and 
was moved about as circumstances dictated. At the 
captivity, it appears to have been either lost or destroyed; 
for the Jews universally concur in stating that, among 
the things wanting in the second temple, one was the 
ark of the covenant. 

Arka'da, in the State of Washington, a post-village of 
Mason co. 

: Arlta'dia, a province of Greece. See Arcadia. 

Arkadel'pliia, in Arkansas, a post-village, cap. of 
Clark co., abt. 75 m. S.W. of Little Rock. 

Arkansas, a large river of the U. States. It rises in 
the Rocky Mountains, near the boundary between Utah 
and the Indian Territory; and, pursuing an E.S.E. di¬ 
rection, unites with the Mississippi in Lat. 33° 55' N., 
Lon. 91° 10' W. The river has a course, following its 
bends, of about 2,170 m. It has several important tribu¬ 
taries, of which the Great Canadian, falling into it on the 
right, is the principal. During the periodical swell, the 
A. is navigable to the Rocky Mountains; and at other 
times it may be navigated for about 600 m. from its con¬ 
fluence with the Mississippi. Its navigation is safe, be¬ 
ing uninterrupted by rocks, shoals, or rapids. If the 
Missouri be reckoned the first in magnitude among the 
tributaries of the Mississippi, the second rank is due to 
the A., it being longer, and draining more surface than 
the Ohio, Mississippi proper, or Platte. 

Arkan'sas, in the U. States, a S.W. State, bounded N. 
by Missouri. E. by the Mississippi river, S. by Louisiana 
and Texas, and W. by Texas, and Indian Territory. Al¬ 
though usually classed among the Western States, A. 
presents features of soil, climate, and productions which 
naturally associate it with the Southern States. It lies 
between 33° and 36° 30' N. Lat., and between 89° 45' 
and 94° 40' W. Lon. Its length from N. to S. is 242 m., 
its breadth varying from 170 to 229.— Area, 53,850 sq. 
m., or 34,464,000 acres— Hist. A. takes its name from 
the river Arkansas, q. v. It was discovered and settled 
by the French, under the Chevalier de Tonti, as early as 
1685. In the various transfers of territory, it followed 
the fate of the other portions of Louisiana. It was 
erected into a separate territory in 1819, and into a State 
in 1836. It joined the Confederate States by an act of 
secession from the Union, passed May 6,1861. In 1868. 
a new constitution was adopted, by a convention elected 
in pursuance of the acts of Congress on reconstruction, 
and in June of the same year, A. was re-admitted to rep¬ 
resentation in Congress. This constitution was revised 
in 1874. By act of legislature the name of A. is to be 
pronounced Ark'dn-saw. Desc. The physical aspects 
of the country present a remarkable variety. The 
eastern portion, for a breadth of from 30 to 100 m. 
from the Mississippi, is a low marshy plain, abounding 
in lagoons, and subject, with exceptions, to the annual 
overflow of the Mississippi, and its tributaries. Toward 
the centre of the State, the land rises into hills, enlarg¬ 
ing into the Ozark mountains, the highest elevation of 
which is not over 2,000 ft. This chain enters the State 
in the N.W., dividing it into two unequal portions, one 
of which, in its physical character, assimilates to the 
Northern, and the other to the Southern States. Be¬ 
sides the Arkansas river that passes wholly through 
the State from W. to E., and the Mississippi which re¬ 
ceives all its waters, A. is drained in the N. E. by the 
White river, and the St. Francis, with their affluents; 
in the S.W. by Red river; and in the S. by the Washita, 
and its numerous tributaries. The internal improve¬ 
ments of A. are confined largely to levees, or embank¬ 
ments against the Mississippi. The extensive and 
widely diffused internal navigation of the State has 
supplied so well the limited wants of a hitherto sparse 
population, that railroads have not been completed to 
any great extent. The total number of miles of rail¬ 
road, completed and in operation at the beginning of 
the year 1897, was a little under 3,000 miles, with some 
in construction and in contemplation. A singular phe¬ 
nomenon in Hot Springs county, 60 m. S.W. of Little 
Rock, has excited the marked attention of men of science 
as well as of the public generally. Overlooking Hot 
Springs creek is a ridge, 250 feet high, composed of 
beautiful novaculite, of chalcedonic whiteness, of the age 
of millstone grit, differing from the ordinary sandstone 
by being penetrated with heated alkaline siliciant water. 
From this ridge issue a number of springs, varying in 
temperature from cold spring-water to a heat of 160° 
Fahrenheit. These extremes of temperature are so near 
each other, that a person can place one hand in cold auc 
the other in hot water at the same time. The tempera¬ 
ture of Hot Springs creek has been elevated by the in¬ 
fusion of these waters to such an extent, that even in the 
coldest weather it furnishes a comfortable bath. Many 
chronic diseases have been cured by these springs, the 
virtues of which Seem to result from varied temperature 
and chemical infusions. They are the resort of invalids 
from all parts of the country. — Climate. In the E. part 
of the State, and in the bottoms along the rivers, especi¬ 
ally the Arkansas, the climate is moist and unhealthy; 
but in the middle and W. parts it is comparatively salu¬ 
brious. The temperature of the northern and 







ARIZONA. 

Land surface, 

Sq. m. 112,920 
Water surface, 

Sq. m. 100 
Pop. 1900. 122 ,931 


White. 92,903 

African ... 1,818 

Indian.26.180 

Chinese.. .1,419 
Japanese.281 


98,698 

Foreign-born, 

2-4 

Males.71,795 

Females...51,136 


COUNTIES. 


Apache. 


Cochise. 

(•' 7 

Coconino.. . 

.C 3 




F 5 

Maricopa. 


Mohave. 

K 3 

Navajo. 

.E 3 

Pima. 

. 1> 6 

Pinal. 

1) 6 

Santa Cruz... 

■ E 7 

Yavapai. 


Y uma. 

B 5 

CITIES-TOWNS 

Fop. Th< usiind*. 

7 Tucson. 

F, 6 

6 Bisbee.. 

..E 7 

5 Phoenix.... 

C 5 

3 San Cat los 

• E 5 

3 Prescott.... 

. C 4 

2 Jerome ..., 

,.C 4 

1 Nogales..., 

E 7 

1 Yuma. 

A 6 

1 Globe. 


1 Williams.. 

.<: 3 

1 Winslow .. 

■ E 3 

1 Flagstaff... 

. T> 3 

1 St. Johns. • 

,. F 4 

1 Morensi.... 


1 Clifton. 


Pop. Hundreds. 

9 Safford— 

F 6 

8 Tempe. 

I) fl 

7 Congress. 

6 Tombstone 

..C 4 
,.E 7 

6 Thatcher.. 

..F 6 


6 Soloinonsville 

5 Metcalf.F 5 

5 Willcox_ F 6 

5 Springerville F4 
5 Snowflake.• F, 4 

5 PLna.F 6 

4 Chloride... .A 3 































p Mt.Carmel 
Orderville 


'^Toquervilli 

-A^Virgin 


Leeds, 
Washington- 


Glendale 


Springdale 


Wheeler 


Rockville 


Johnson 


Bloomington 


Kanab 


ittlefieia 


'Fredonia 


Mesquite^ 

Bunkerville 


Vermillion 
Cliffs A 


Aga-thia 

Needle 


Skeleton 


<angs 


Mesa. 


diamond 

Butte 


Pi-tse-hy-tso 

Butte 


Overton 


Solitaire Butte 


Roof Buttei 


St.Thomas 


Mt. trumbull 


'.Grand. 


Son-sa-IcC. 
/ Buttes 


't: Delletib't 


<p . 

Laua Butte,,^ 


tw-wijj 


Tuba 


GracdX’anyon A, : 


%Mt. Wilson 


Zilt-tusayan ] 
Butte \ 


l Oraibn Butte 

Oraibi Polacca 
I o Toreva o 


/Cocon i 
/’Apex 
'-Anita 
iWillaha 


iffSguaw Pk. 


Ft-Defiance 1 


Dorado Canyon 

<.% 

f^MtrPerhins JL tT 
%Ch 1 orid. 

■M 

- IT ■ \Z 

a "■» sir Utll0n ), ? fi .F 

ing’hiani 


Gaoado c 5 - 


Gianfaf Chair 


Vane Mesa.,Butte ’V 

W0 ‘C[ 

iPrado Kendrick PJif 

i | mM 

\ .* f^San Francisco Pk. 

pal A. G ‘Vtt/' ''T- ' , 

af Flagstaff & 6 

Vi I hams Mt. ■■ G reenlav#®&,-a. 


Saint Michaels 


n u merit ;Pt. 


_Nelson 


Tolchaco'X'l 


Manueli 
^Luna 
Allentown / 


41PM 

^Red Mesa 


Pottery Hill 


ipai/5XU-:'p IU ' ton 

/ 'sk, Crozier 
/ ypP? acock Pk. 
Berr.y .fp2C9 


Aubrey 


Chimney Bu 


Querino 
Sanders A’ 


’inaveta 


took ton 


--- Kll._,. 

i ctj/ iMeConnico’ 
l$A v'Acme 

^ ' Mt. Nutt 


Chambers ry 
Navajor^ &' 


lancock'’ 


Jillerk Pt. 

wAX.o- 


\>Mol, a eCyS| Raster 


“Adam ana 


Juniper 

Sim^onS 

/Hope Pk,- Jerome Jc.i^X ' e ' v dk'il 

(L XH K™„_ GranH ? 

f ¥^S££.rfmM 

Prescb.it i’bMA 

/Poland’"- 4Huron% 

/ -—v Poland. 

^ien-TrojI^^X-Mayc, 
Walnutgrqve ' ;§r 1( Jdleton 
\ Washer VT “ I *f | J 


^-Carrizo 
“-Pari yon 
Butte 


Ilolbrool 


Y uc 

-/l^Haviland 
Franconia o 


Needles’ 


.. £ 

% a.,x 
3-&t: 

.,x OwcnsW 1 . 

\Aubr,eu Pk. Vx 


.Woodruff' 


Twin 

Buttes 


P 10 '' Hawley P { k.\ 


Topocki 


i euions Butte 




.Hebrr Snoiv-n.-iUo ) 
S a "'"*PinedaleVft 


Concho 




Hillside 1 


Rlchville 


V Angbra 

Paj sop 

Oxbow \\ ■ 


Show lot 


YarSeil 


>,, \Spnnjrerville 


•ill® 


*arker 


Greens 


Colum b ja' 


'arc uyar Mf s 


\ 

la Hala\ 


C.iv-creek 


vMfi 

, Vulture} 

%. Mis-; / 


U • • ' 

A, 

mountain' , p: 


Cline 


Salome 


,I Beardsh 

'white 
TankM V 
■ Mts\W' ■ 

, Buekoyo I 


'$>0 Marinette 
J 'f Peoria 
Y \Glendt U 
Alhambra ^ S -o 


Ehrenburg 


Quartzsite^ 


Superstikon 

M%S 


% Cathedra! 


Jlbola*&| 


Ajllngton 


M' A ti 

%Sentinel Mt. 


itnisoi 


oVobsterv 

wf- 


lacaton 


^ySacVtonS' 
Indian Re$iH. 


Montezuma 


,:-„A 

-n k letrmn - .. 

\T' . ' ' • x ~M:i 

AljX^-AfovUpa Math«V< 


Picacbl 


Estrclli 


llrll •», ' lTlat-O r> i 

llryc- S. V^tvpmbrl 

\ Hutibard / ^ >'« \\CoroD 
1 x X\v Sanchtr. vtsStee] 

y s i> \\ 

i-V v <v\ \i>o|omon>>ille' ''Shd 

• , A'Rail N.RanchVvSN 

ntaJicrn a m \ ,t» . 


Palouas 


Bosque 


igrande \ a Arlzola^ 
s. Toltec 


Vasa Grdr(de'^ 


■' i ’ ^ J 

"..AVlIamnu.lS 


APicscho p es ert 
°C/ s NWymola 'D Pk. 


Pome or 
'Monitor 


Oracle 


lV T ji^ yk-t, Bonita 

1 --AtP fort orantA' 

-J ..:;f Mil. Kt*. V, V 

ltcdlngton , Sumnut, Si 


Mohawk 


Picacho\Pk. 


Baileys Well& ' 

Orange Butti 

Summit stdtfeg 


Roilrock 


, Somerton 


Fortuna 


sNavIska 


Sllv.erboll 


Brownell o 


£ \ Johnson 


Cochise 


Quljotoa 


Pra.yoon 


^ Sierra del Aja 


Warren 

Butte 


' rllosembnt y 


ma^ch l’eatce * 

Black Diamond 
Glee son. 


i-' OU pa/ay o r 
i Santa Rita: > 

P Oreiterylll® 


Rucker 


ARIZONA 


Babiiqui l iari 


College f^k 


SCALE OF Ml'CES 


Sasttbo - 


A -Calahasas 
Aildglory \ , 


10 5 U 10 20 30 40 50 00 

Indian Reservation Boundaries ; - : — 

Military Reservation Boundaries- 

State Capital ® County Seats 0 
Places of 5,000 and over TICSON 

«* 3,000 to 5,000 Prescott 

>• <• 1,000 to 3,000 Elaitstuff 


Presidio 
San l“cd 


Enclna 


San Lazaro 


Caunanea 


Nacotarl 


Hammond’s 8x11 Map of Arizona 
Copyright, 1904, by C.S. Hammond ii Co«,NrY 
















































































































































































































































































ARKANSAS. 

Land surface, 

Sq. m. 53,045 
Water surface, 

Sq. m. 805 
Pop. 1900, 1,311.504 
White ... 914.580 
African.. 306,856 

Indian.66 

Chinese.62 

Japanese.— 

Native-born, 

1,297,275 

Foreign-bora, 

14,289 

Males.675,312 

Females . 636,252 


COUNTIES. 


Arkansas.... 

D 

4 

Ashley. 

.D 

5 

Baxter. 

.0 

2 

Benton . 

4 

2 

Boone. 

.B 

2 

Bradley. 


5 

Calhoun ..... 


5 

Carroll . 

. B 

2 

Chicot. 

D 

5 

Clark. 


4 

Clay . 

■ F, 

2 

Cleburne _ 

<: 

3 

Cleveland.... 

.0 

5 

Columbia.... 

B 

5 

Conway. 

O 

3 

Craighead ... 

,E 

3 

Crawford .... 

4 

3 

Crittenden... 

• E 

3 

Cross . 

• E 

3 

Dallas.. 

, O 

5 

Desha. 

■ D 

5 

Drew. 

• D 

5 

Faulkner .... 

• U 

3 

Franklin .... 

B 

3 


D 

B 

2 

Garland. 

4 

Grant.. 

..<! 

4 

Greene. 

. E 

2 

Hempstead .. 

B 

5 

Hot Springs. 

,.B 

4 

Howard 

B 

4 

Independence.!) 
Izard.D 

3 

2 

Jackson. 

Jefferson .... 


3 

. D 

4 

Johnson ...., 

..B 

3 

Lafayette... 

..B 

5 

Lawrence.. • 

.D 

2 

Lee. 

,.E 

4 

Lincoln . 

■ D 

5 

Little River., 

..A 

5 

Logan____ 

B 

3 

Lonoke . 

.D 

4 

Madison. 

. B 

3 

Marion. 


2 

Miller. 

..B 

5 

Mississippi.. 

..E 

3 

Monroe. 

. D 

4 

Montgomery 

B 

4 

Nevada . 

B 

0 

Newton. 

B 

3 

Ouachita- 

C 

5 

Perry . 

B 

4 

Phillips . . 

K 

4 

Pike . 


4 

Poinsett . 

. E 

3 

Polk . 

.A 

4 

Pope . 

B 

3 

Prairie . 

D 

4 

Pulaski . 


4 

Randolph... 

. .i) 

2 

St. Francis.. 

..E 

3 

Saline . 

. C 

4 

Scott . 

. A 

4 

Searcy . 

..c 

3 

Sebastian.... 


3 

Sevier . 

.4 

5 

Sharp . 


2 

Stone . 

. C 

3 

Union. 

..C 

5 

Van Buren.. 

..C 

3 

Washington. 

..A 

3 

White . 


3 

W oodruff .. . 

. D 

3 

Yell . 

..B 

3 


CITIES-TO WNS 

Pop. Thousands. 

38 Little Rock C 4 
11 Fort Smith.A 3 
11 PineblulL.. C 4 
9 Hot Springs B 4 

5 Helena.E 4 

4 Texarkana..A 5 
4 Jonesboro ..E 3 
4 Fayetteville A 2 
3 Eureka 

SpringsB 2 


3 Mena.A 4 

3 Paragould..E 2 
2 Newport....D 3 
2 Camden. ...C5 


2 ArkadelphiaB 4 
2 VanBuren. .A 3 


2 Batesville...D 3 
2 Black Rock.D 2 

1 Rogers.A 2 

2 Prescott.B 5 

2 Conway.C 3 

1 Searcy . D 3 

1 Bentonville.A 2 
1 Clarendon.. D 4 
1 Russellville B 3 
1 Slloarn 

SpringsA 2 
1 Fordyce. ...C 5 
1 Morrill ton . C 3 
1 Marianna.. E 4 
1 Brinkley.... 1) 4 

1 Hope.B 5 

1 Wynne.E 3 

1 Magnolia... B 5 
1 Dardanelle. .B 3 

1 Malvern_C 4 

1 Monticello..D 5 
1 Harrison ... B 2 
1 Forrest City E 3 

1 CoalhiU.B 3 

1 Huntington A 3 
1 Hamburg...D 5 
1 Stuttgart. .D 4 
1 Junction CityC5 
1 Springdale..A 2 

1 DeQueen.A 4 

1 ArkansasCityD5 
1 Clarksville. .B 3 


1 

Eldorado... 

.C 5 

1 

Gurdon .... 

B 5 

1 

Corning.... 

E 2 

1 

Augusta.... 

D 3 

1 

Benton. 

O 4 

1 

Stamps .... 

.B 5 

Pop. Hundreds. 

9 

Booneville. 

■ B 3 

9 

Pocahontas. D 2 

9 

Warren_ 

• C 5 

9 

Osceola. 


9 

Lonoke. ... 

■ D 4 

9 

Luxora. 

E 3 

9 

Waldo. 

B 5 

9 

Nashville... 

B 5 

9 

Beebe. 

D 3 

8 

Magazine .. 

. B 3 

8 

Ozark. 

• B 3 

8 

YValnutridge E2 

8 

Wilmar. 

r> 5 

8 

Paris. 

.B 3 

7 

Mammoth 



Spring D 2 

7 

Bald knob. 

.D 3 

7 

Pike City. •. 

B 4 

6 

Horatio- 

A 5 

6 

Nettleton .. 

• E 3 

6 

Devall Bluff. D 4 

6 

Danville.... 

B 3 

6 

Judsonia... 

.1) 3 

5 

Piggott. 

.E 2 

5 

Rector. 


5 

Yell ville.... 

■ C 2 

5 

Belleville... 

B 3 

5 

Berryville.. 

• B 2 

5 

Lockesburg.A 5 

5 

New Lewisville 



B 5 

5 

Fulton. 

B 5 

5 

Altus. 

. B 3 

4 

Hardy. 

. D 2 

4 

Greenwood 

• A 3 

4 

Waldron... 

• A 4 

4 

Lamar. 

■ B 3 

4 

Green Forest B2 

4 

Dermott.... 

D 5 

4 

Harrisburg..E 3 

4 

Hartford... 

.A 3 

4 

Cottonplant.D 3 

4 

Rison. 

• C 5 

4 

Gravett.... 

..A 2 

4 

Alma. 

A 3 

4 

Lake City.. 

• E 3 

4 

Hazen. 

.D 4 

4 

Portland... 

.D 5 

4 

St. Francis. 

■ E 2 

4 

Gentry. 

.A 2 

4 

C’argUe. 


4 

Imboden... 

■ D 2 

4 

Knobel. 

, E 5. 

4 

Stephens... 

,B 5 

4 

Russell • ■ • . 


4 

Ashdown... 

■ A 5 

4 

Portia. 

.l> 2 

4 

Buckner... 

B 5 

3 

Hollygrove.D 4 

3 

Baringcross.C 4 

3 

Quitman... 

• C 3 

3 

Wilmot. 

, D 5 

3 

Washington B 5 

3 

Mansfield. • 

■ A 3 

3 

England ... 

• D 4 

3 

Kingsland. 

• C 5 

3 

Mountain 



Home C 2 

3 

Mulberry.. 

A 3 

3 

Maynard.. • 

E 2 

3 

Marked TreeE 3 

3 

St. Paul_ 

B 3 

3 

Dyer . 

A 3 

3 

Bearden .. 

.0 5 

3 

Center PointB 4 

3 

Red field... 

,.C 4 

3 

Hackett... 

, A 3 

3 

Dewitt. 



3 Newark.D 3 

3 Sulphur 

Springs A 2 
3 Sedgwick...E 3 
3 Blythesville.F 3 
3 Perryville...C 3 

3 Sayre.B 5 

2 Clinton ... . C 3 
2 PlummerviUe 
C 3 

2 Cabot.C 4 

2 London.B 3 

2 Kress.„B 5 

2 Tuckerman.D 3 

2 Marshall_C 3 

2 McNeil.B 5 

2 Melbourne.. D 2 
2 Star City.. ..D 5 
2 Powhatan .. D 2 
2 Mountainview 
C 3 

2 McCrory....D 3 
2 Frostville... B 5 
2 Bradford... D 3 
2 Sulphur Rock 
D 3 

2 Collins.Df 

2 Carlisle.D 4 

2 Sheridan—C 4 

2 Swifton.D 3 

2 Cleveland...C 3 

2 Emmet.B 5 

2 MurfreesboroB4 

1 Antoine.B 4 

1 Austin.D 3 

1 Palestine....E 4 
1 Pottsville.. .B 3 

1 Shiloh.C 3 

I Upland.C 5 

1 Delark .C 5 

1 Chester-A 3 

1 Alexander...C 4 
1 Princeton . .C 5 
1 Green way ..E 2 

1 Reyno.D 2 

1 Jamestown.D 3 

1 Hoxie.D 2 

1 Beebranch.. C 3 

1 Ozan.B 5 

1 Douglas ....D 5 

1 Bryant.C 4 

1 Westpoint. ..D 3 
1 Mt. Nebo ...✓* S 

































































































































33 [ 




O 


34 



.-.Cartluue 
Horen 


Hammond's 8x11 Map of Arkansas 

J.8. 

ZZ3S 

VI' 


Copyright, 1004, by C'.8. Hammond A Co., N.Y 

- 1 — —i— 



33 ! 


II 


vr 


'Longitude C 


West 


from 


T) Greenwich 


90 



















































































































































































AKKA 


AELI 


ARMA 


151 


parts of the ?tave is allied to that of the NAY. States; while 
that of the eastern and southern resembles Louisiana. 
The downfalls of rain are very copious.— Minerals. The 
minerals of A. are chiefly iron, coal, lead, zinc, manganese, 
gypsum, and salt. The coal embraces deposits of the an¬ 
thracite, caunel, and bituminous varieties. Gold is said to 
have been found in White county. Near Hot Springs is a 
quarry of novaculite, or oil-stone, superior to any other on 
the globe, inexhaustible in quantity, and of great variety 
in fineness. There is manganese enough in the State to 
supply the world’s demand. In zinc, A. ranks next to 
New Jersey. It has more gypsum than all the other 
States, and is equally well supplied with marble and 
salt. The lead ore is largely associated with silver. 
Lead mines were worked extensively during the civil 
war to answer military necessities. It possesses 4,650,000 
acres of coal land; 7,124,000 acres containing ores of 
iron, manganese, zinc, copper, galena, antimony, silver 
and bauxite; 3,150,000 acres containing ochre, clay, 
kaolin, gypsum, marble, granite, ouxy and slate; 
12,000,000 acres containing sandstone, limestone, litho¬ 
graphic stone and novaculite, immense deposits of 
valuable aluminium clay, and apparently inexhaustible 
beds of clay and ochre. It has 18,000,000 acres of timber 
laud, yielding $20,000,000 worth of lumber annually.— 
Forests. The principal forest-trees growing in the hilly 
regions of the State are the white oak, which is very 
abundant, and other species of oaks; the hickory, ash, 
black-walnut, gum, cherry, pine, red-cedar, dog-wood, 
cypress, maple, beech, cotton-wood, poplar, bois d’arc, 
sassafras, and black-locust. Pine is abundant from 
Arkansas river southward to Red river.— Soil and Pro¬ 
ductions. All descriptions of soil are met with. On the 
borders of the rivers it is exceedingly fertile, but as it 
recedes from them it becomes poorer, and in some of 
the more elevated parts is sterile. A. has nearly six 
million acres of improved land. The staple products 
are cotton, Indian corn and live stock. 



Fig. 188. —cotton-plant, ( Gossypium herbaceum.) 

The production of the leading cereals for the year 191)8 
wasH.-* follows : Indian corn, 43,430,000 bushels; wheat. 
1,463,000 bushels; oats, 3,412,000 bushels. The cottonj 
crop lor the same year was 915,000 bales, A. ranking 
eighth in the Union in the production of this staple, and 
having alnvst the highest average Ji-r acre. Toe pro-! 
ductien of Indian corn lias nime than doubled since 
lssii, though this is not the case with the other crops. 
The culture of tobacco is decreasing, onl ^ 1.000 acres 
being now planted, yielding about 700,000 pounds. In 
190 i the total farm area was 16,637.719 acres, of which 
ti.O.V;,735 was improved land. The wool crop from 
200,000 sheep yielded 464.000 pounds of scoured w ool, 
worth $-'32,000. The coal area employs 6,000 persons 
and yields over 2,000,0o0 tons. Liduslny. A. has 
not engaged largely in manufacturing enterprises, 
thou.4i its production in t'is cirectiou was greatly 
stimulated during the civil war. There was 
considerable increase in the decade 1S80-IX90. In 
the former year there were l,2o2 manufactories, 
with $2,953,130 capital ; iu the latter, 2,073 man¬ 
ufactories, with $14,971,614 capital. Tho principal 
productions were cotton-seed oil, flour and meal, 
lumber, leather, woolen and cotton goods, tobacco 
and cigars, and hones of novaculite. The State 
has a large trade with New Orleans, an interna 1 
navigation of over 1,000 miles bringing every part of 
the tonntry in ready communication with the great 
streams of commerce. Active steps are being taken to 
improve the navigation of the Red river, by snagging 
and dredging operations and the protection of the 
banks by levees. The development of the back country 
will add very materially to the volume of this domestic 
►radi.%^ Immigration is proceeding at an encouraging 


rate, over 50,000 immigrants entering the State in 1894, 
while in three months of 1895 there were taken up 
70,000 acres of public land. The increase of population 
from 1880 to 1890 was 40 per cent.; that of wealth 102 
per cent.— Comities and Towns. The State is divided 
into 75 counties: 


Arkansas, 

Ashley, 

Baxter, 

Benton, 

Boone, 

Bradley, 

Calhoun, 

Carroll, 

Chicot, 

Clarke, 

Clay, 

Cleburne, 

Cleveland, 

Columbia, 

Conway, 

Craighead, 

Crawford, 

Crittenden, 

Cross, 


Dallas, 

Desha, 

Drew, 

Faulkner, 

Franklin, 

Fulton, 

Garland, 

Grant, 

Greene, 

Hempstead, 

Hot Springs, 

Howard, 

Independence, 

Izard, 

Jackson, 

Jefferson, 

Johnson, 

Lafayette, 

Lawrence, 


Lee, 

Lincoln, 

Little Riverton, 
Logan, 

Lonoke, 

Madison, 

Marion, 

Miller, 

Mississippi, 

Monroe, 

Montgomery, 

Nevada, 

Newton, 

Ouachita, 

Perrv, 

Phillips, 

Pike, 

Poinsett, 

Polk, 


Pope, 

Prairie, 

Pulaski, 

Randolph, 

St. Francis, 

Saline, 

Scott, 

Searcy, 

Sebastian, 

Sevier, 

Sharpe, 

Stone, 

Union, 

Van Buren, 

Washington, 

White, 

Woodruff, 

Yell. 


The principal towns are Little Rock, cap. of the State, 
Hot Springs, Helena, Pine Bluff, Fort Smith, &c.— 
Government. The governor, lieut-gov., and other State 
officers are elected for 2 years by the people. The ju¬ 
diciary consists of a supreme court of 5 judges, elected 
for 8 years; of 10 circuit courts, the judges of which are 
elected for 4 years.— A. sends 2 senators and 6 represen¬ 
tatives to Congress. It is entitled to 8 electoral votes 
for President of the U. S.— Debts. The bonded debt, 
October 1, 1908, was §1,250,500. This is exclusivo Of 
levee and railroad bonds and other debts which have 
been declared unconstitutional by the supreme court of 
the State, amounting in all to over $10,000,000. The 
United States acquired by purchase in 1838 $793,000 of 
Arkansas State bonds. These, with accrued interest, 
now amount to $2,671,952. For 20 years a pressure for 
their payment has been made, but the State brings 
counter claims against the National Government for 
nearly the same amount. The assessed valuation of 
taxable property in 1908 was $302,181,563, an increase 
of 350 per cent, since 1880. The state tax is 50 cents 
on $100.— Education. A. had in 1907, 340,182 pupils 
enrolled in the public schools, outof a school population 
of 433,100. The daily average attendance was 220,621; 
number of teachers, 8113. There are normal schools at 
Helena and Pine Bluff. The State has 5 universities 
and colleges, including the Arkansas Industrial Uni¬ 
versity. There is also a school of medicine. In 1892 
there were 216 newspapers, of which 16 were dailies. 
A system of public libraries is also being developed. The 
Methodist and Baptist are the most numerous religious 
denominations, each having about 8).Kl churches and 
75,090 members. Pop. in 1SSO, 802,525; in 1890,1,128,179, 
including 308,922 colored: in 1900,1,311,564. 

Arkansas, in Arkansas State, an E.S. E. county, bor¬ 
dering E. on White river, and intersected by Arkansas 
river. Area, l,2d0 sq. m. The Great Prairie occupies 
one-third of the surface, and has a fertile soil; pop. 
(1890), 11,432. Cap., De Witt; pop. (1890) about 500. 

Arkan sas Post, in Arkansas, a post-village in Ar¬ 
kansas co., on Arkansas river, 117 m. S.E. of Little Rock. 
Settled in 1685 by the French. It has a landing-place 
for steamboats. 

Arkan'saw, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Pepin co. 

Ark'dale, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Adams co. 

Ark'low, a seaport and parish of Ireland, in the co. 
Wicklow, 40 m. S. by E. of Dublin; pop. 4,760. 

Ark/port, in New Fork, a post-village of Steuben co., 
on the Canisteo river. 

Ark'sutite. n. (Min.) A granular massive mineral 
of vitreous lustre; color white: translucent, brittle. 
Comp, aluminium 18 - 6, sodium 2.T3, calcium 6’8, fluorine 
51’3=100. Fuses at a red heat, and yields no water. 
Found in Greenland. 

Ark tvrigltt. Sir Rickard, b. at Preston, England, in 
1732. He devoted his mind to the invention of improved 
machinery for cotton-spinning, and at last succeeded 
in revolutionizing its entire mechanical system. He 
amassed a colossal fortune. D. 1792. , 

Ark'wrijgflit, in New York, a post-township of Chau¬ 
tauqua co. 

Ar'laiid, in Michigan, a post-office of Jackson co. 

Arles, (anc. Arelas, or Arelate,) a city of France, dep. 
Bouches-du-Rhone, on the Rhone, 44 m. W.N.W. of 
Marseilles. It is principally notable as having been an 
important town when Gaul was invaded by Caesar. It 
afterward became a Roman colony, and was long a 
rich and prosperous city. The Roman amphitheatre, 
capable of accommodating 30,000 spectators, yet re¬ 
mains, noble in its ruins. The great obelisk, and innu¬ 
merable artistic remains, attest the former magnifi¬ 
cence of this city. — Manf. Silk, soap, glass, Ac. The 
emperor Constantine embellished A., and his son Con¬ 
stantine II. was born here. In 855 it became the capi¬ 
tal of the kingdom of Arelate, which was, in 933, united 
to that of Burgundy. Pop. 21,876. 

ArTinjrton, Henry Bennet, Earl of, an English 
statesman in the reigns of Charles II. and Janies II. He 
was a member of the famous administration nicknamed 
the Cabal, from the initials of its leading members. 
B. 1618; d. 1685. 

Arlington, in Illinois, a post-office of Bureau co. 

Arlington. in Iowa, a village of Montgomery co., 
about 20 m. N. of Clarinda. 

Arlington, in Massachusetts, a twp. of Middlesex co. 

Ar lington, in Michigan, a post-township of Van Bu¬ 
ren co., about 25 m. W. of Kalamazoo. 

Ar'l i ngton. in Minnesota, a post-village and township 
of Sibley co., 62 m. W.S.W. of St. Paul 


Arlington, in Missr/uri, a twp. of Phelps co. 

Arlington, in Ohio, a post-village of Hancock co- 
about 11 m. S. of Findlay. 

—A village of Montgomery county, about 15 m. N.W. of 
Dayton. 

Ar lington, in Vermont, a post-township of Benning¬ 
ton co., 106 m. S. W. of the city of Montpelier. Here 
are extensive marble and limestone quarries, and a 
mineral spring. 

Arlington Heights, a range of hills in Fairfax co, 
Virginia, overhanging the Potomac, opposite to Wash* 
ington. They were strongly fortified during the civil 
war. General Robert E. Lee had a residence here, the 
grounds surrounding which are used as a National Ceme¬ 
tery, containing (1897) nearly 17,000 soldiers’ graves. 

ArTon (anc. Arolaunum), a town of the kingdom of 
the Netherlands, in the duchy of Luxembourg, 16 m. 
W.N.W. of Luxembourg; pop. 5,917. 

Arm, n. [A.S. arm, earm; Lat. armus; Gr. harmos, 
from arb, probably originally harb, to join to.] (Anat.) 
The limb of the human body from the shoulder to the 
wrist. It is divided into arm and fore-arm. In the 
skeleton of the arm, or brachium, properly so called, 
there is one bone, the humerus; in that of the fore-arm, 
or anti-bracluum, two bones, the radius and ulna. — See 
Muscles, Skeleton. 

—Anything extending from the main body, trunk, or 
stem, as an inlet of the sea, a branch of a tree, &e. 

“ Full in the centre of the sacred wood, 

An arm ariseth of the Stygian flood.”— Dryden. 

" The trees spread out their arms to shade her face, 

But she on elbow lean’d.” — Sidney. 

—Power; might. In this sense is used “the secular am,” 
&c. 

“ O God. thy arm was here 1 
And not to us, but to tby arm alone 
Ascribe we all.” — Shaks. 

(Mil.) A branch or department. So, the infantry, the 
cavalry, the artillery, &c., are each called an arm of 
the service. — Also [from the Fr. arme ], a weapon or 
instrument of warfare; but in this sense it is seldom 
used in the singular, except in the compound fir e-arm. 
See Arms. 

(Naut.) The name given to each extremity of a bibb, 
or bracket, attached to the mast of a ship for supporting 
the trestle-trees. — Also a part of the anchor, q. v. 

To make bare the arm (Is. lii. 10) refers to the position 
of an ancient warrior ready for battle, and prepared to 
use his strength to the best advantage. 

Arm’s end, a phrase taken from boxing, in which the 
weaker man may overcome the stronger, if he can keep 
him from closing. 

“ Such a one as can keep him at arm's end, need never wish 
for a better companion.” 

Arm, v. a. [Fr. armer .] To furnish with armor of de* 
fence, or weapons of offence. 

“ And when Abram heard that his brother was taken captive, 
he armed his trained servants."— Gen. xiv. 14. 

—To prepare for resistance; to protect; to strengthen; 
to defend. — To fortify, (in a moral sense.) 

— v. n. To provide one’s self with arms, weapons, or means 
of attack or resistance; to take or put in arms. 

Arnia'da, n. [Sp. from Lat. arma, armor, implements 
of war.] A fleet of armed 6hips; a squadron;—particu¬ 
larly applied to that great naval armament, which was 
called the Invincible Armada, fitted out in 1588, by 
Philip II., against Queen Elizabeth. It consisted of 129 
ships, carrying about 20,000 soldiers and 8,000 sailors. 
The loss of the marquis of Santa Cruz, their admiral, 
and a violent tempest, the day after they sailed, retarded 
for some time the operations of the Spaniards. They 
arrived on the coast of the Netherlands in July, were 
thrown into disorder by a stratagem of Lord Howard, 
and in this situation were attacked with such impetu¬ 
osity, that it became necessary to attempt to return. 
Contrary winds obliged the Spanish admiral, the Duke 
of Medina Sidonia, to make the circuit of Great Britain 
with the wreck of this magnificent armament, lu pass¬ 
ing the Orkneys, it was attacked by a violent storm, 
and only a feeble remnant returned to Spain. 

A rma'da, in Michigan, a post-township of Macomb co. 
35 m. N. by E. from Detroit. 

ArmadilTo, n. [Sp. from Lat. arma, armor.] ( Zobl .) 
The Tatou, a genus of mammiferous quadrupeds, be¬ 
longing to the order Edentata, readily distinguished 
from till others by the singular, covering with which 
nature has protected them. This is a complete suit of 
armor, consisting of a triangular or oval plate on the 
top of the head, a large buckler over the shoulders and 
the haunches; and between this, disposed in transverse 
bands, which allow of freedom of motion to the body, 
similar bands in most species protecting also the tail. 
All this armor is attached to the skin of the body. The 
A. has a pointed muzzle, slightly extensive tongue, and 



Fig. 189. — the tatou, ( Armadillo Cabassou.) 


powerful claws. All the species inhabit the warm and 
hot parts of America, dig burrows, and live upon vege¬ 
tables, ihsects, and worms. The A. Cabassou is about 1$ 










































152 


AKME 


AKMI 


AEMI 


Inches long to the tail, which is about 8 inches in length, 
has a flesh white, fat,.tender, and very delicate. — The 
Giant A. of Cuvier is about 3 feet long.—See Glyp- 
todon. 

—Also the name of a gen. of Crustacea. 

Annas'll', a county of Ireland, in the prov. of Ulster, 
having Lough Neagh on its N. border. Area, 513 sq. m. 
Surface generally flat, and soil fertile. A. contains 8 
baronies, and 28 parishes. Pop. (1891), 143,056. 

Ariuagh’, a city, and cap. of the above co., and the 
archepiscopal seat of the “Primate of all Ireland,” 70 
m. N. by W. of Dublin. Armagh is said to have been 



Fig. 190.— view of armaqh, {Ireland.) 


founded by St. Patrick, a.d. 450. It is a fine city, and is 
the centre of a great inland trade. Pop. 8,801. 

Ariling-llin Pennsylvania, a post-town of Indiana co., 
62 m. E. of Pittsburg. 

—A township of Mifflin co. 

A rmagnac, (ar-man-yah',) a small territory in the 
ancient French province of Gascony, (now a part of the 
deps. of Hautes-Pyrenees and Gers,) from which the 
counts of A. took their title. The chief town was Lec- 
toure. 

Armagnac , (Counts of,) a family descended from the ancient 
dukes of Aquitaine and Gascony, many of whose mem¬ 
bers were mixed up with the public affairs which agi¬ 
tated Europe between the beginning of the 14th, and 
the end of the 15th centuries. 

Ariiingnac', n. A species of French brandy, distilled 
in the dep. of Gers, and second in quality only to 
Cognac. 

Ar'inainent,n. [Lat. armamenlum.] A force equipped 
for war, either naval or military.— Also used to signify 
weapons employed for war, whether in sea or land ser¬ 
vice.— More particularly applied to the number and 
strength of the batteries carried by a vessel of war. 

Ar'mnture, n. [Fr. from Lat. armatura .] Armor; 
something to defend the body from hurt. 

“Others should be armed with hard shells; others with 
prickles: the rest that have no such armature, should be endued 
with great swiftness and pernicity.”— Ray on the Creation. 

( Phys.) A piece of soft iron affixed to the poles or ex¬ 
tremities of a magnet, in order that its magnetic power 
may be preserved. It is sometimes called a keeper. In 
dynamos a coil <>r series of coils of wires are used for 
the armature. Iu these, by revolution, an electric cur¬ 
rent is produced. See Dynamo and Electric Motor. 

Arm'-chatr, Armed'-cliair, n. An elbow-chair, 
or a chair with rests for the arms. 

Armrolo'la ( reek, in Georgia, enters the Etowa in 
the S.W. of Lumpkin co. 

Armed* P- a. Furnished with arms, or weapons of 
offence or defence; furnished with the means of security. 
Fortified, (in a moral sense.) 

(Physics.) Said of a magnet when furnished with an 
armature. 

(Bot.) Furnished with prickles or thorns. 

(Her.) Applied to the horns, hoofs, beak, or talons of 
any beast or bird of prey, when borne of a different color 
than the rest of their bodies. 

Ariue'nia, an extensive country of W. Asia, forming 
principally that table-land which lies between the Kur 
on the N. and the mountains of Kurdistan on the S., 
having the Euphrates on the W., and nearing the Cas¬ 
pian sea on the E. Lat. between 37° 50' and 41° 40' N.; 
Lon. 39° 20' and 50° 40' E. — Area, loosely estimated at 
90,000 sq. m. Its principal mountain summit is Ararat 
(q. v.), and there are several other lofty chains. — Fiv¬ 
ers. Some large rivers take rise in this country, as the 
Euphrates and Tigris, the Kur, the Araxes or Aras, and 
the Chorak. Its greatest lakes are those of Van. Ur- 
miah, and Goukcha or Sevan. The soil is generally very 
fertile; in the higher parts all kinds of cereals may be 
cultivated, and the valleys produce excellent cotton, 
grapes, tobacco, rice, hemp and flax. The minerals 
are iron, rock-salt, lead, arsenic, alum and great abun¬ 
dance of copper, indeed A. is exceedingly rich in mineral 
wealth. In ancient times the precious metals were also 
found. Many deserts exist, and the country is but 
thinly peopled. — Climate. Severe in winter, but. in 
summer hot enough to ripen all manner of fruits.— 
Inhabitants. Mostly Turks, Persians, and Russians, 
with wandering hordes of Kurds and Turcomans.— 
Prin. towns. Erzeroum, Erivan. Van, Akhlat, &c.— Pop. 
5,276,714, of whom the Christians number 1.385,627.— 
History. A., now long since extinct as a nation, was 
governed for a long period by independent princes, or 
by satraps of the Assyrian and Persian monarchs. It 
was the theatre of long wars between the Roihans and 


Persians, in the 13th century was overrun by the Moguls, 
and in the next ceased to be an independent country. 
The people have since become diffused over nearly the 
whole world. Until of late years, A. was divided be¬ 
tween Persia and the Ottoman empire; but the latter 
ceded to Russia, by the treaty of Adrianople, a consider¬ 
able portion of her A. territories, and, in 1827, Russia 
acquired the prov. of Erivan from Persia. Prior to the 
war in 1877, Turkish A. was subdivided into thepashal- 
ics of Erzeroum, Kars, and Van. The Armenians have 
always been noted for their eminent commercial capa¬ 
city/and at the present time a large portion of the 
foreign and internal trade of Turkey, Persia, S. Russia, 
and India, is in their hands. They are particularly ex¬ 
pert in banking operations, and though shrewd and ex¬ 
acting, are considered less prone to practise deceit than 
the Greeks. — Feligion, die. As early as the 2d century, 
Christianity is said to have been introduced into A., but 
it was not firmly established there until the4th century 
by the exertions of bishop Gregoiy; and in the 5th, the 
Bible was translated into the Armenian language by 
Miesrob. It differs but little from that of the Creek 
Church. Since 1441, the A. people have recognized as 
their spiritual head, called by them catholikns, the patri¬ 
arch of Etschmiadzin, near Erivan. Their theology 
differs from that usually styled orthodox, in attributing 
only one nature to Christ, and holding that the Spirit 
proceeds from the Father alone. A considerable num¬ 
ber, however, belong to the Holy See, who are called 
United Armenians. Among this peoplo the patriarchal 
system of life and manners prevails in its highest integ¬ 
rity.— Language. The ancient Armenian is harsh and 
overcrowded with consonants; and, while having Indo- 
Teutonic roots, it bears also an affinity with the Finn¬ 
ish, and- some languages of N. Asia. It is now a de¬ 
funct language, only surviving in books. The modern 
tongue is a mere compound of Persic and Turkish, cor¬ 
rupted iuto various dialects. There are in Armenia 
828,841 Armenian and 556.786 Greek and other Chris¬ 
tians. (Continued in Section II.) 

Armo'llia, iu Georgia, a vill. of Scriven co. 

Ariue'nia, in Ohio, a village of Washington co. 

Arme'nia, in Pennsylvania, a twp. of Bradford co. 

Ariue'nia, in Wisconsin, a post-twp. of Juneau co. 

Arnieni'aca, n. (Bot.) See Prunus. 

Arme'nian, a. Pertaining to Armenia. 

— n. A native of Armenia; the language of the country. 
See Armenia. 

Arilieil'tteres ( ar-man’ti-air), a frontier town of 
France, dep. du Nord, on the Lys, 13 m. N.W. of Lille. — 
Manf. Linen fabrics, laces, beet root sugar &c. Pop. 
(189i), 27,628. 

Arme'ria, n. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Plumbagi- 
nacece. — The Thrift, A. vulgaris, found in the Middle 
and Southern States, near the sea-coast, is a neat and 
elegant plant, bearing in June showy flowers, rose-col¬ 
ored. It is an active diuretic. From two drachms to an 
ounce of the flowers, freshly gathered and quickly 
dried, should be gently boiled, and the patient allow'ed 
to drink of the decoction ad libitum. Some aromatic 
substance is added to the decoction, as aniso or cinna¬ 
mon. The remedy appears to cause the excretion of 
urine in a direct manner. 

Ar'met, n. [Fr.] A kind of helmet, used from the 14th 
to the 16th centuries. — An A. grand, was an A. worn 
with the beaver. The A. petit, was an A. without a 
beaver, and supplied with a triple-barred face-guard.— 
See Armor. 

Arm'ful, pi. Armfuls. As much as the arms can 
hold. 

Arm'hole, n. The armpit. — A hole for the arm in a 
garment. 

Arnii'da, an imaginary personage in Tasso's Jerusalem 
Delivered. She is represented as a very beautiful sorce¬ 
ress, employed by Satan to seduce Rinaldo and other 
crusaders. Rinaldo was conducted by A. to a remote 
island, where, iu her splendid palace, surrounded by de¬ 
lightful gardens and pleasure-grounds, he utterly forgot 
his vows, and the great object to which he had devoted 
his life. To liberate him from his voluptuous bondage, 
two messengers from the Christian army — Carlo and 
Ubaldo—came to the island, bringing a talisman so 
powerful that the witchery of A. was thereby destroyed. 
Rinaldo escaped, but was followed by the sorceress, who, 
in battle, incited several warriors to attack the hero, 
and at last herself rushed into the fight. She was de¬ 
feated by Rinaldo, who then confessed his love for her, 
persuaded her to become a Christian, and vowed to be 
her faithful knight. The story of A. has inspired Gluck 
with an admirable opera. Rossini has not been so suc¬ 
cessful: his opera on the same subject beiug far below 
his other compositions. 

Armies'bnrgll.in Indiana, a post-office of Parke co. 

Ar'iniger, Armige'ro, n. [Lat. arma, arms, and 
gerero. to bear.] (Her.) Literally one who bears arms. 
The phrase was formerly applied to the attendant or 
esquire of a knight. It is a term of dignity now obso¬ 
lete, entitling the bearer to hold rank above a simple 
gentleman, but below a kuiglit. 

“.And a gentleman born, master parson, who writes 

himself * Armigero,’ in any bill, quittance, or obligation, ‘ Armi- 
gero .'" — Shahs. 

See Esquire. 

Armig'erous, a. Bearing arms. 

Armil'la, n. [Lat., from annus, the arm.] (Antiq.) An 
armlet, q. v. 

(Mech .) An iron ring, hoop, or brace, in which the 
gudgeons of a wheel move. 

(Anat.) The A. membrnsa is that circular ligament 
which comprehends all the tendons of the whole hand, 
as if it were a circle. 


Armll'lary, a. [Lat. armilla, a bracelet.] Consisting 
of rings or circles. 

Armillary Sphere. (Astron.) An instrument which 
represents the great circles of the celestial sphere, the 
equator, ecliptic, tropics, equinoctial colure, &c. It is 
constructed of metal rings, representing these circles, 
fastened together in their relative positions, and mov¬ 
able on an axis passing through the poles; it is fur¬ 
nished with an horizon and meridian similar to those 
attached to the terrestrial, and the celestial globes. It 
was’formerly much used by the early astronomers. It is 
now only used as an aid to instruction iu astronomy, and 
is in this respect generally superseded by the celestial 
globe. 

Ar'millated, a. Having bracelets. 

Arm'ing. "■ The act of taking arms. 

(Naut.) A piece of tallow put in the cavity at the bot¬ 
tom of a lead, to bring up, in sounding, samples of the 
ground at the bottom of the sea. 

A r 'illington. iu Illinois, a pcst-village of Tazewell 
co., 45 m. N.N.E. of Springfield. 

Armin'ian, n. One professing Arminianism. 

— a. Relating to Arminius, or to his doctrines. 

Arniin'ianisiiil. n. (Eccl. Hist.) The doctrine of Ar¬ 
minius, a Protestant divine, (q. v..j who maintained that 
God had predestinated the salvation or condemnation of 
individuals only from having foreseen who would and 
who would not accept of offered mercy. His chief op¬ 
ponent was Gomar, who, with the Calvinists, asserted 
that God had from all eternity, of his free good pleasure, 
elected some to everlasting life, while he had left others 
to unbelief and consequent perdition. After the death 
of Arminius, in 1609, his followers rapidly increased, 
and were vehemently attacked by the Calvinists. In 
1610, they addressed a petition to the States of Holland 
for protection, from which they got the name of lie- 
monstrants. The Calvinists put forth a counter-remon¬ 
strance, and in 1614, the States issued an edict granting 
full toleration to both parties. This displeased the Cal¬ 
vinists, who continued their persecutions, and at length, 
in 1619, the doctrines of the A. were condemned by the 
synod of Dort, and their clergy were driven from their 
churches, and forbidden the exercise of their ministry 
in public. Owing to this step, many left the country, 
and found refuge in France, England, and other places. 
The views of the A. are summed up in the following five 
articles:—1. That God had, from all eternity, determined 
to save all who, ho foresaw, would persevere in the faith., 
and to condemn all who should continue in unbelief. 
2. That Christ died for all men; but that only those 
who believe are really saved by his death. 3. That man 
is of himself incapable of true faith, and must there¬ 
fore be born again, of God, through Christ, by the Holy 
Spirit. 4. That all good works are to be attributed to 
the grace of the Holy Spirit, which, however, does not 
force a man against his own inclination. 5. That God 
gives to the truly faithful the power to resist sin. With 
respect to the possibility of a fall from the state oi 
grace, Arminius and his immediate disciples were unde¬ 
cided; but his followers came afterwards to the belief 
that it was possible. After 1630, the A. were again tol¬ 
erated in Holland; but from that time, their opinions 
underwent a considerable change. They have inclined 
more and more to freedom of thought,and the rejection 
of creeds and confessions. They chiefly build on the 
necessity of moral duties and good works, and allow 
each one to interpret the Holy Scriptures for himself. 
They reject many articles of faith, and do away almost 
entirely with the necessity of succor from the Holy 
Spirit. The A. have, however, dwindled down to a very 
small body; but their tenets, more especially regarding 
predestination, have been adopted by various other de¬ 
nominations, as the Wesleyan Methodists, ns well as by 
numerous individual members of other churches. 

Arinin'ius. or Hermann, who by his intrepidity and 
success acquired the title of “ the Deliverer of Germany,” 
was son of Segimer, a chief of the Cherusci. Having 
been sent to Rome as a hostage, he was there educated, 
served in the Roman army, aud for his valor was raised 
to citizenship, and knighted. But his attachment to his 
native country iuduced him to revolt, and he became 
one of the most powerful leaders of the discontented 
German nations. He drew Varus, the Roman command¬ 
er on the Rhine, into that ambuscade in which he and 
nearly all his troops were slain, and completely baffled 
Germanicus; but, after having for years withstood the 
vast power of Romo, Arminius was assassinated by one 
of his own countrymen, in the 37th year of his age, a. i>. 
19. 

Ariiiin'ius, James, a Protestant divine, B. at Oude- 
water, Holland, 1560, founder of the sect of the Annin* 
ians. In his public and private 'life, A. has been ad¬ 
mired for his moderation: and though many gross insin¬ 
uations have been thrown against him, yet his memory 
has been fully vindicated by the ablest pens. A life of 
perpetual labor and vexation of mind, at last brought or. 
a sickness, of which he died, 1609. His writings were all 
on controversial and theological subjects. — See Armin¬ 
ianism. 

Armip'otent, a. [From Lat. arma, arms, and potent, 
powerful.] Powerful in arms. 

Armis'onoiis, a. [Lat. amnisonus.J Resounding with 
arms, (r.) 

Ar'inistiee, n. [Fr., from Lat. armo, arms, and sisto, 
to stop.] The term given to a truce, or suspension of 
hostilities between two armies or nations at war, by 
mutual consent. It sometimes occurs owing to the ex¬ 
haustion of both parties; at other times it is had recourse 
to with a view to arrange terms of peace. It may be 
either general or partial: the former, between two coun¬ 
tries, the latter, limited to particular places, as between 
























NATIONAL COATS OF ARMS. 


1 GERMANY. 

2 BRAZIL. 

S RUSSIA. 

4 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 

5 ITALY. 

6 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

7 SPAIN. 

8 CHILE. 

9 PORTUGAL. 

10 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

11 BELGIUM. 

12 GREECE. 

13 SWEDEN. 

14 NETHERLANDS. 

15 DENMARK. 

16 PERSIA. 

17 FRENCH EMPIRE. 

18 REPUBLIC OF FRANCE. 

19 GREAT BRITAIN. 



COPYRIGHT 1896 BY F. E.WRIGHT 


1EN 


A CO.N.Y 



























ARMO 


ARMS 


ARMS 


153 


two armies, or between a besieged fortress and its assail¬ 
ants. The former ordinarily requires ratification, but 
the latter is in the power of the commanders of the 
respective troops. 

Arm'less, a. Without armor or weapons: defenceless. 

Arm'let, n. [Lat., from armilla, a bracelet or large orna¬ 
mental ring worn by the ancients upon the wrist or 
arm.] This ornament was, with the Medes and Persians, 
worn by both sexes, but among the Greeks it appears to 
have been adopted by the women only. The wearing of 
the armilla, or A., is of high antiquity: for we read in 
2 Sam. i. 10, that the Amalekite who slew Saul “ took 
the crown that was upon his head, and the bracelet 
that was upon his arm.” With the Romans, the wearing 
of the A. was regarded as a sign of effeminacy; but it 
was, nevertheless, a custom of the Roman generals to 
bestow armillse upon soldiers, as an acknowledgment of 
extraordinary valor. The materials out of which the 
A. were made were as various as the designs into which 
they were fashioned, a twisted serpent l>eing one of the 
most popular forms. The Danes, Norsemen, and Anglo- 
Saxons also wore the A. Now, as in ancient times, they 



Fig. 191. — ASSYRIAN ARMLET. 

From Nineveh Marbles, (British Museum.) 
are sometimes made plain, sometimes enchased, some¬ 
times with the ends not joined, and, sometimes, in a 
complete circle. 

Armoire (arm-wdr'), n. [A Fr. word.] A clothes-press; 
a closet; a buffet. 

Arrao'ni, son of Saul, by llizpah. (2 Sam. xxi. S.) 

Ar'monk. in New York, a post-office of Westchester co. 

Ar'mor, Ar'mour, n. [From Lat. arma, arms; Fr. 
armure.] Defensive arms; any habit worn to protect the 
body in battle. 

(Hist.) Front the earliest dawn of the historic era we 
find mention of this defensive covering. Leather, brass, 
iron, and even gold were employed for their fabrication. 
According to Homer, the golden A. of Glaucus was 
worth 100 oxen, and from the description in the Iliad 
we may learn how highly ornamented was the shield of 
Achilles. An ancient Greek soldier’s heavy A. was com¬ 
posed of his greaves (or leg-guards), cuirass (or thorax) 
protecting his back and chest, sword, massive round 
shield, helmet, and finally his spear. (See Fig. 194.) 
Among the Egyptians, metal A. seems to have been 
worn only by the monarchs and nobility. With the 
Homans, the attire of a soldier was almost identical with 



Fig. 192.-A KNIGHT OF THE 15TH CENTURY. 

Armed at all points. 

that of the Greek warrior already described. The an¬ 
cient Britons, Germans, and Gauls, it is supposed, had 
n") other defensive A. than a shield. The Anglo-Saxon 
4. consisted of shield, helmet, neck-guard, and breast-] 


plate, all constructed of leather or tough hide, and pan¬ 
taloons, which were strengthened by a net-work of per¬ 
forated steel lozenges, called mascUs. They also wore 
a conical skull-cap, probably of leather, and had bat¬ 
tle-axes, swords, and spears. In the Middle Ages, a 
knight, when attiring himself in his suit of steel, called 
A. or harness, as represented in Fig. 192, commenced 
with his feet, and, proceeding upward, put on succes¬ 
sively his sabatynes, or steel clogs; his greaves, or shin- 
pieces; his cuisses, or thigh-pieces; his breech of mail; 
his tuillettes, or enveloping-pieces below the waist; his 
cuirass, or breast-plate; bis vambraces, or arm-coverings; 
his rerebraces, or shoulder-coverings; his gauntlets ; next, 
he hung his dagger; put on his short sword; donned 
his cloak ; cased his head in his bassinet, or helmet; fast¬ 
ened his long sword; took into his left hand his pennon- 
cel or lance; and, finally, he took up his shield. He was 
then said to be ''Armed cap-d-pie,” ‘‘from head to foot,” 
or "at all points .”— A suit of A. was generally made of 
chain-mail; but in the 14th century, plate-armor came 
into use, and reached its acme of splendor in the reign 
of Richard III., when it was often damascened and in¬ 
laid with gold. In the beginning of the 17th century, 
A. fell into general disuse, though Charles I. endeavored 
to revive the fashion of wearing a complete suit. The 
helmet and cuirass are still retained in several elite corps 
of the European armies, as, for instance, the English 
Royal IIorse-Guards and Life-Guards, the French Cent- 
Gardes, and the Imperial Guard of the Czar of Russia, 
the French heavy cavalry called cuirassiers, &c. 

Ar'nior-bear'er, n. One who carries the armor of 
another; an esquire. 

Ar morer, or Ar'mourer, n. One who fabricates arms 
or any warlike weapon. The armor-smiths, or makers 
of armor, were among the most skilful workers in 
metal during the feudal times; but their trade after¬ 
ward fell away, after the invention of gunpowder. In 
most European armies, an A. is a soldier whose duty it 
is to take charge of, and keep in good condition, the 
arms of the troop or company to which he belongs. In 
the British navy, the A. is a warrant-officer, assisted by 
a subordinate, who is called armorer’s mate; on ship¬ 
board hehas under his care all thesmall arms, cutlasses, 
boarding-pikes, &c. 

Armo'rial, a. Belonging to armor, or to the arms or 
escutcheon of a family. 

A. ensigns, or A. bearings. (Her.) A term applied, col¬ 
lectively, to the shield and 
its charges, and the crest, hel¬ 
met, and motto, belonging to 
any gentleman entitled to 
bear arms. In England, the 
supporters are also included 
in this expression. It is, 
however, properly applicable 
to the devices on the shield 
only, which are also termed 
arms. The figure (193) repre¬ 
sents the A. ensigns or arms 
of the kingdom of Spain, 
which is described as es- 
carteled 1 and 4 gules with 
argent towers, which are for 
Castile; 2 and 3 argent with 
lions of gules crowned Or, 



Fig. 193. — ARMORIAL 
ENSIGNS OF SPAIN. 


which are for Leon; ente-in-pointe of argent with a 
pomegranate of gules, having leaves of sinople, for 
Granada; under all, azure with three fleurs-de-lis of Or, 
which is for Bourbon (France). 

Armor'ic, Arinor'ican, a. Relating to Armorica. 

Arnior'ic, n. The language spoken in Armorica, which 
was one of the Celtic dialects. 

Armor'ica. [Celt, ar, near, and mor, the sea.] The 
country of the Armorici; the name by which the people 
occupying the coast of Gaul between the Seine and the 
Loire were known to Ctesar. Ata later period, the name 
A. was confined to the country afterward styled Bre¬ 
tagne, q. v. 

Armory, n. [From Lat. armarium, a place for arms.] 
A repository' for arms and instruments of war; and also 
a manufactory of arms. — Armor or arms; warlike im¬ 
plements.—Armorial ensigns. 

Ar'inotir, n. See Armor. 

Ar'inoy, a parish of Ireland, in the co. of Antrim. 

Arm'pit, n. The hollow place under the shoulder. 

Anns, n. pi. [Lat, pi. arma ; Fr. pi. armes.] In its gen 
eral sense, this name, rarely used in the singular (see 
Arm), is applied to weapons of offence or defence; but it 
is more usually given to weapons of offence. 

“Arms on armor clashing, brayed 
Horrible discord."— Hilton. 


—War; hostility; warlike exploits. 

“ Arms and the man I sing .”—Dryderu 

(Mil.) The offensive weapons may be divided into two 
principal classes—those acting by explosion, and those 
that do not. The earliest offensive weapons (properly 
so called) were the club, and the bow and arrow. After¬ 
ward came into use the pike, lance, spear, dart, jave¬ 
lin, dagger, mace, battle-axe, chariot-scythe, dirk, bay¬ 
onet, sword, &c. The balista, catapulta, and battering- 
ram, may be said to have been the precursors of the 
modern artillery'. The invention of gunpowder led to 
the introduction of a great variety of offensive weapons, 
to be acted on by its agency. As all these A. will be de¬ 
scribed under their own headings, we will here but cur¬ 
sorily allude to their names, viz.: the hand-cannon, 
hand-gun, arquebus or harquebus, demi-haque, harque- 
but or hagbut, musket, wheel-lock, match-lock, caliver, 
carbine, escopette, fusil, blunderbuss, dragon, firelock, 
rifle, Ac. — See also Armor, Army, Artillery, Ac. 


To be in arms, to be in astate of hostility.— To arms! a 
summons to battle.— To be under arms, to be armed and 
ready for action.—Stand of arms,a. complete set of arms 
for a single soldier, whether of infantry or cavalry; as 
rifle, bayonet, carbine, sabre, belts, cartridge-box, Ac. 

(Her.) See Armorial. 

(Mech.) The two parts of a balance or other lever on 
opposite sides of the fulcrum. 

(Law.)' Anything that a man wears for his defence, 
or takes in his hands, or uses in his anger, to cast at oi 
strike at another. 

(Zobt.) The natural weapons of beasts, as claws, teeth, 
beak, Ac. 

ArmV-Iengtli, ArmV-reach.it. The length 
or reach of the arm. See Arm. 

Arms, Coats of. National. See Armorial; also 
the accompanying plate. 

Arms, Sergeant at. See Serjeant-at-Arms. 

Armstrong. John, a Scotch poet and physician. In 
1744 he published t he A rt of Preserving Health, a didactic 
poem, which is his best work. D. 1779. 

Arm's!rong. an American general, who distinguished 
himself in the Indian wars. He defended Fort Moultrie, 
and was in the battle of Germantown. D. 1795. 

A., John, son of the preceding, b. 1758, was also a general, 
who at the age of 18 joined the Revolutionary army, 
contrary to the wishes of his parents; was aide- 
de-camp to Mercer at the battle of Princeton, received 
him into his arms when he fell, and afterward served 
as major under Gates. Just before the close of the war, 
he wrote a series of anonymous articles which arc cele¬ 
brated as the Newburgh Letters, the effect of which was 
so great, that Washington felt called upon to issue an 
address to counteract their influence. He was sub¬ 
sequently Secretary of State for Pennsylvania, a member 
of the first Congress, a United States Senator from New 
York, and Minister to France under Madison. He passed 
the latter part of his life in literary and agricultural 
pursuits. D. 1843. 

Armstrong', Lord, (formerly Sir) William George, 
a distinguished English mechanical engineer, was born 
at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1810. After being educated 
at Bishop-Auckland School, Durban], he studied law 
and became partner of a solicitor in Newcastle, but 
soon gave his attention to scientific pursuits. In 1840 
he investigated an incident which happened to a New¬ 
castle workman, who received a strong electric 6hock 
from the steam coming from a high-pressure engine. 
As a result of this case he invented the hydro-electric 
machine, which yielded much more electricity than the 
machines previously in use. He was, in consequence, 
elected a fellow of the Society of Arts. Armstrong’s 
next inventions were the hydraulic crane and the 
“accumulator,” the latter of which furnished an 
artificial head of hydraulic power for working ma¬ 
chines. The invention, however, for which he is par¬ 
ticularly known, is the Armstrong Gun (q.v.), a piece 
of rilled ordnance which he produced iu 1854 and 
which was adopted in the English service in 1858, 
Armstrong being knighted and made engineer of rifled 
ordnance. He made successive changes in this gun and 
applied the principle to all sizes, from the 6-pounder 
to the 600-pounder. Within three years he supplied 
the British service with 3000 of these guns. In 1863 
he resigned his government position and rejoined the 
Elswick Company, which he had previously organized 
for the construction of hydraulic machinery. It has 
become one of the most important works in Europe 
for the construction of cannon and armored ships. In 
the same year, as President of the British Association, 
he called attention to the probable exhaustion of tiie 
coal of Great Britain within a brief period, and sub¬ 
sequently more fully investigated this subject as a 
member of a royal commission. In 1862 Cambridge 
conferred on him the honorary degree of LL. D., and 
in 1870, Oxford that of D. C. L. He was made a peer 
in 1887, under the title of Baron Armstrong. He is a 
Kuigtit Commander of the Bath and belongs to various 
orders. He lias strongly opposed the patent laws of 
Great Britain and has sought to have them repealed. 

Ai'inst roiij;'. iu Illinois, a post-village of Vermilion 
co., 9 m. N. N. E. of Mount Carmel. 

Arm'strong, in Indiana, a post-township of Vander¬ 
burgh co. 

Armstrong’. in Pennsylvania, a W. county, organized 
in 1800, and named in honor of General Armstrong. 
Area, about 750 sq. m. The surface is hilly, and in many 
places unfit for cultivation, but tlie county is very rich 
iu iron, stone coal, limestone, and salt. — Fivers. Alle¬ 
ghany and Kiskiminetas rivers; Red Bank, Mahoning, 
Cowanshannock. and Crooked creeks. Cap. Kittanuiug. 
Pop. in 1890. 46,340. 

—a township of Indiana co. 

—a township of Lycoming co. 

Arm strong Gun, a. (Mil.) A piece of ordnance 
possessing great power and precision, invented by Sir 
William Armstrong, and first used by the English in 
China, in 1860, with remarkable effect. The following 
were its leading characteristics and qualities:—1. Its 
lightness as compared witli the guns previously iu use, 
the weight being reduced more than half.—2. The 
economy in the consumption of powder, only half the 
quantity formerly used for guns of equal calibre being 
needed.—3. Its great range, this being more than 5 
miles.—i. its resistance to, injury from repeated firing. 

_The great accuracy of aim possible with it.—7. The 

peculiar construction of its elongated shells. The 
breech-loading principle was at first adopted, but was 
afterward abandoned. The strength, lightness, and 
durability of this gun were due to its mode of construc¬ 
tion, it being made of pieces of the best wrought iron, 























154 


ARMY 


ARNA 


ARNE 


which were put together in a maimer similar to that 
used in making gun-barrels out of nails, horse-shoes 
and pieces of rod-iron, which were twisted round a steel 
bar and hammered together. The bore of the gun was 
rifled by machinery, it having a large number of small 
grooves close together. These formed a complete twist 
around the bore in a distance of 10 feet, and there were 
as many as 40 in a gun of 2% inches bore. In this re¬ 
spect it differed from ordinary rifled guns, which had 
only from 2 to 4 grooves. The shot and shell used for 
the Armstrong gun were elongated, the length being 
about 3 times the diameter. Bands of thin lead were at¬ 
tached to them, that they might take the form of the 
rifled interior of the bore and acquire a rotatory motion 
before leaving the muzzle. Many men-of-war and shore 
batteries have been furnished with guns of this make 
of large calibre, some of them being adapted to 
balls of very great weight, while the lightness of the 9 
and 12-pounders made them well suited lor field-bat¬ 
teries. The invention of the Armstrong gun has led to 
the development of other improved guns, and to a great 
advance in the range and power of artillery. Large 
numbers of Armstrong guns were used during the 
American civil war by both belligerents. This weapon is 
now practically superseded by the later forms of breech¬ 
loading rifled guns of still greater power and range. 

Armstrong'' formerly Armstrong’s Corners, in Wis¬ 
consin, a post-office of Fond du Lac co. 

A rn» sl rmii;. formerly Armstrong’s Grove, in Iowa, 
a post-office ot Emmett co. 

Arm strong’s Mills, in Ohio, a'post-office of Bel¬ 
mont co. 

Armu'chee, in Georgia, a post-office of Floyd co. 

Ar'my, n. [Fr. arm.ee, from Lat. anno or anna.] In a 
general sense, an army is the whole armed force raised 
for the defence of a country by land. In a limited sense, 
it denotes a large body of soldiers, consisting of horse 
and foot.completely armed, and provided with artillery, 
ammunition, provisions, &c., under a commander-in¬ 
chief, having lieutenant-generals, major-generals, briga¬ 
diers, and other officers under him. An A. is generally 
divided into a certain number of corps, each consisting 
of brigades, regiments, battalions, and squadrons; when 
in the field, it is formed into lines. The first line is 
called the vanguard, the second the main body, the third 
the rearguard, or corps of reserve. The middle of each 
line is occupied by infantry; the cavalry forms the right 
and the left wing of each line, and sometimes squadrons 
of horse are placed in the spaces between the battalions 
—The materiel of an army, as the French term it, con¬ 
sists of the horses, stores, provisions, and everything 
necessary for service. — Armies are, moreover, distin¬ 
guished according to their manner of service, as block¬ 
ading A., A. of observation, A. of reserve, &c. 

(Hist.) The earliest trained A. of which we have any 
account was that of Sesostris, king of Egypt, about 1601) 
B. c. It was organized for the purpose of conquering the 
world, and consisted, according to Diodorus Siculus, of 
600,000 infantry, 24,000 cavalry, and 27,000 war-chariots. 
In the reign of David, the Jews acquired considerable 
military skill. Solomon introduced cavalry, and also 
chariots into his A. Subsequently, the Persians came to 
be distinguished for their military achievements. The 
strength of their army, however, consisted in its cavalry. 
Their infantry seems to have been little better than an 
armed mob, and hence the repeated defeats that they 
sustained from comparatively small bodies of Greeks. 
The A. of Xerxes for the invasion of Greece is said, in¬ 
clusive of the sea forces, to have amounted to upward 



Fig. 194. — HEAVY-ARMED GREEK WARRIOR. 


(From Hope's Costumes of the Ancients.) 

of 2,600,000 fighting-men. Arrian says that Darius 
brought into the field against Alexander, 1,000,000 in¬ 
fantry, 40,000 cavalry, 200 chariots ai med with scythes, 
and many elephants. In Greece, the people were early 
Inured to arms, and among them the Spartans were pre-j 


eminently distinguished for their perfect discipline, and 
high military training. They first introduced the pha¬ 
lanx, a particular mode of arranging the infantry, (see 
Phalanx.) As regards the Athenian military strength, 
we are told that they had 10,000 heavy-armed troops at 
Marathon. The Macedonian A. of Philip was the first 
standing A. in Greece, and in its train we find artillery 
in the form of basilt® and catapult®. In Alexander’s 
reign, the strength of this A. was much increased, for 
we find that at Arbela they mustered 32,000 heavy in¬ 
fantry, 16,000 light infantry, and 4,000 cavalry, besides 
several thousand auxiliaries; making an A. altogether 
of probably 60,000 men. The Carthaginians under Hanni¬ 
bal may be estimated at, at least, 100,000. The Roman A., 
in its best days surpassed, in organization and discipline, 
all preceding armies. Its basis was the legion, compris¬ 
ing both infantry and cavalry to the extent of from 
about 6,000 to 6,000 men, (see Legion.) Their cavalry 
had nearly the same armor us the heavy-armed infantry. 
The total number of Roman legions under Augustus was 
25; under Alexander Severus, 32; but in the latter, and 
corrupt days of the empire, their military [lower declined 
and degenerated into a feeble militia, which was easily 
overthrown by the Northern barbarians. After the sub¬ 
version of the Roman empire, the feudal system which 
was introduced, was hostile to the establishment of large 
armies. Military servico was the tenure by which occu¬ 
piers held their lands; and while the barons enjoyed 
unlimited authority over their vassals, and were fre¬ 
quently at war with their neighbors, there were no great 
armies. In the 11th century the Crusades aroused men’s 
minds, and called forth the whole energies of Europe. 
Mighty armies were marched into Asia to deliver the 
Holy Land from the domination of the Infidels. Charles 
VII., of France, was the first to introduce standing ar¬ 
mies in Europe, after the fall of the Roman empire.— 
The history of modern armies may, properly', date from 
the invention of gunpowder, and is divided into 7 peri¬ 
ods:— 1. From the first employment of cannon to the 
campaign of Charles VIII. in Italy. 2. From the end 
of the loth to the middle of the 16th century: it com¬ 
prises the wars of the French, Germans, and Spaniards 
in Italy. 3. The war of the Independence of the Nether¬ 
lands, from 1568 to 1609. This war led to great improve¬ 
ments in the organization and tactics of armies. By 
skill and discipline, a people, mostly merchants and 
manufacturers, nerved by oppression, coped with and 
ignominiously expelled from their country, the forces of 
the then greatest European military power. 4. The period 
of the Thirty Fears' War in Germany, extending from 
1618 to 1648. In this war Gustavus Adolphus greatly 
changed the character and tactics of armies. He aban¬ 
doned the dense formation of his predecessors, intro¬ 
duced lighter weapons, and made many improvements 
in artillery. 5. Comprehends the wars of the French in 
Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands, us well as the 
Northern and Turkish wars, and embraces a period of 
90 years, from 1648 to 1738. In the wars of Louis XIV., 
during this period, great improvements were introduced 
in the art of carrying on military operations, under such 
generals as Turenne, Luxembourg, and Conde; while 
opposed to them were Marlborough, Eugene of Savoy, 
and othercommanders. Standing armies now attained an 
extent hitherto unexampled. Instead of the 14,000 men 
maintained by Henry IV., Louis XIV., after the peace of 
Nimeguen, had an A. of 138,000 men. To this period, too, 
belong the wars of Charles XII., under whom the Swed¬ 
ish infantry reached a high degree of perfection. 6. 
This period includes the three Silesian wars, and extends 
from 1745 to the breaking out of the French revolution 
in 1792. The Prussians had been for some time increas¬ 
ing their standing army and improving their military 
discipline, so that when Frederick the Great ascended 
the throne, in 1740, he found himself at the head of an 
efficient A. of about 80,000 men. This A. he greatly in¬ 
creased and improved, until Prussian tactics became a 
pattern for all other European states. The 7th, and last 
period,extends from the first French revolution down to 
the present time. The standing armies and the military 
science of this period far outnumber and surpass those 
of auy one preceding. — Under the namesof the principal 
modern nations will be given the latest information on 
their respective armies. 

Ar'nauld. a Spanish churchman, who lived in the 13th 
century.— See Amalric. 

Ar'nauld, an ancient French family of Auvergne, 
which distinguished itself both in civil and military 
affairs, and from which are here selected: 

A.. Antoine, an advocate at Paris, b. 1560, distinguished for 
his powerful and successful defence of the university of 
Paris against the Jesuits, in 1594. By this he drew on 
himself the hatred of the Jesuits, but remained, till his 
death, in 1618, in possession of his honors, and was es¬ 
teemed the greatest lawyer of his time. Iiis twenty 
children formed the rallying point of the sect of Jan- 
senists (see Jansenius) in France; the daughters and 
grand-daughters as nuns, in Port Royal, the sons as mem¬ 
bers of the learned society, who shut themselves up in 
this monastery, and are known under the name of Mes¬ 
sieurs du Port Iioyal. A son of his eldest daughter, 
Isaac ie Matti e de Sacy, also united himself to this soci¬ 
ety, and, as translator of the Bible that appeared at Mons, 
played an important part in the history of Jansenism. 

A., Robert d’Andili.y, eldest son of Antoine, born at Port 
Royal, in 1588, died in 1674, made himself known as a 
very correct French writer, by his religious poems and 
tracts, and his translations of Josephus’s History of the 
Jews, and of Davila’s works. He was far surpassed in 
intellect by his youngest brother. 

A., Antoine, known as the Great A., was the youngest child 
of the lawyer Antoine, B. 1612. Under the guidance of 


the abbot of St. Cyr, John du Vergier de Hauranne, first 
head of the Ja’.isenists in France, he devoted himself to 
theology, and was received, in 1643, among the doctors 
of the Sorbonne. In the same year, he attacked the 
Jesuits in two works, De la frequente Communion, and 
La Thiolngie Morale, des Jesuites, the first of which 
occasioned much controversy, because it applied the 
principles of the Jansenists to the receiving of the sac¬ 
rament. He excited similar controversies by his work, 
De TAutoriti de St. Pierre el de St. Paul residente dans le 
Pape, 1645, by the opinion therein maintained, that the 
two apostles should be regarded as of equal rank, and 
as founders of the Roman Catholic Church. Alter 1650, 
when Jansenism had become an object of public odium, 
and the watchword of an important party in the state, 
Arnauld engaged in all the quarrels of the French Jan* 
seuists with the Jesuits, the clergy, and the government, 
was their chief writer, and was considered their head. 
The intrigues of the court occasioned his exclusion from 
the Sorbonne, 1656, and the persecutions which com¬ 
pelled him to conceal himself. After tlie reconciliation 
between Pope Clement IX. and the Jansenists. 1668, he 
appeared in public, and enjoyed the homage which even 
the court did not refuse to his merits and talents. To 
satisfy his love of controversy, he attacked the Calvinists 
in many controversial tracts, and, with his friend Nicole, 
composed the great work. La Perpetuite de la Foi de. 
Cfglise Catliol. touchunt VEuchai islie, in opposition to 
them. On account of the new persecutions of the court, 
or rather of the Jesuits, lie fled, in 1679, to the Nether¬ 
lands, employed himself, in his exile, in controversial 
writings against the Calvinists and the Jesuits, and died, 
in want, at a village near Liege, 1694. He was a man 
of a vigorous and consistent mind, full of solid knowledge 
and great thoughts; in li(s writings, bold and violent to 
bitterness; undaunted in danger, and of irreproachable 
morals. He is acknowledged to have done much for the 
improvement of morality in the Catholic Church; yet 
would his genius have been far more useful to the Church 
and to literature, had not his situation and character 
involved him in a multitude of controversies, which 
rendered his literary activity, for the most part, fruit¬ 
less to posterity. 

A., Angelique, daughter of Robert, n. 1624, abbess at 
Port Royal des Champs, where she had been educated 
by her aunt, Marie Jaqueline Angelique A.,sister of the 
great A. She was a determined Janscnist, as were all 
the family of the A. Mother Angelique de Saint Jean, 
which was her conventual name, had much to endure, 
but she met misfortunes with intrepidity; n. 1684. She 
was learned without being pedantic, pious without bi¬ 
gotry, and gentle to others in proportion as she was 
severe to herself.—See Port Royal. 

A rusiuld'ville, in Louisiana, a post-office of St. Lan¬ 
dry parish. 

Ar'nauts, or Ar'naouts, the name given by the Turks 
to the inhabitants of Albania, q. v. 

Ar'nay-l«*-l>uc, a small town of France, dep. of Cote 
d’Or, 29 m. S W. of Dijon, near w hich, in 1550, the great 
Huguenot chief, admiral Coligny, dileated the royal 
army commanded by the Marshal de Cosse. 

Arndt', Ernst Moritz, a distinguished German patriot 
and poet, b. in Riigen, 1769. lie was educated at Greils* 
walde and Jena, and while at the first-named university 
he published his History of Serfdom in Pomerania and 
Riigen —a work which highly excited against him the 
animosity of the German nobility. In 1'07 appeared 
the first volume of his Geist der Zeit (“Spirit of The 
Time”), which contained such bitter attacks on Napo¬ 
leon, that A. was forced, after the battle of Jena, to 
6eek refuge in Stockholm, where he remained until 
1809. On the outbreak of the war in 1812, he withdrew 
to Russia. During this, and the years immediately fol¬ 
lowing, appeared those national tracts and poems from 
his pen, which evoked the patriotic enthusiasm of ttie 
German people, and largely contributed to the expulsion 
of the French from their country. Ilis finest poem (o- 
martial hymn), Wasistdes Deutschen \aterlund? (What 
is the German’s Fatherland?) lias since become almost 
the national anthem of Germany. Subsequently, his 
liberal political opinions involved him in comparative 
disgrace with the Prussian government. In 1848. Pro¬ 
fessor A. was a deputy from Rhenish Prussia to the Ger¬ 
man National Assembly at Frankfort, which he quitted 
on 21st May, 1849, along with the rest of the Gagern or 
constitutional party. The last occasion upon which lie 
used his pen was during the Schleswig-Holstein war, 
when, in what he termed The Last Words of E. M. A rndt 
of Riigen, lie made a spirited and vigorous appeal to the 
country, in his old style of patriotic fervor. A new 
selection from his poems was published at Leipzig, iu 
1S50; D. 1860. 


- - -7 . ‘I ” --- «1IU OUU 

of the most popular religious w riters of the Lutheran 
Church; b. at Ballenstadt,in 1535. In 1557, he studied 
at Wittenberg, whence he proceeded to Strasbourg, and 
afterward to Basle. In 1611, he was called to be gene¬ 
ral superintendent at Zelie, where be died on the 11th 
May, 1621. His most famous work is his Vom wahren 
Christenthum, or “True Christianity.” It produced a 
powerful reaction in Germany, and has been translated 
into all the European tongues, and even into some of 
the Oriental languages. The so-called pietism of A. and 
iiis followers lias had an immense theological influence 
on the continent of Europe. An excellent edition of 
bis principal works w'as published by Krummacher, in 
1852. 


Arne', Thomas Augustine, a famous English musical 
composer, b. in London, 12th March, 1710. He from an 
early age became a devoted enthusiast in the musical 
art, and indulged his passion by the production of operas, 









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ARNI 


ARNO 


ARNU 


155 


orr.iorios, &c., some of which, as his Rosamond, Zara, 
Jiulith, and Artaxerxes, established his reputation, during 
that epoch, as a musical composer of the highest class. 
He also wrote the music for the revival of Milton’s 
Masque of Oomus; in which first appeared the sotig of 
Rule Britannia, since acknowledged as the national air 
of England. D. 1778.—Ilis son Michael, also a composer, 
is principally known for his opera of Cymon, produced in 
1707. 

Arnee', n. ( Zob'l .) The common name of the Bos arde, 
an inhabitant of the highlands of Ilindostan, where it 
is known under the name of arria. It is closely allied 
to the common wild buffalc, and is remarkable for 
strength and courage, qualities admirably seconded by 
a pair of horns measuring from 4 to 6 feet in length, and 
arching in the form of a bold crescent. 

Arnee', two towns of Hiudostan, in the British presi¬ 
dency of Madras. 

Ar'nettsville, in West Fa., a post-office of Monongalia 
co. 

Ar'ney, in Indiana , a post-office of Owen co. 

Ar'ney town, in New Jersey, a post-village of Hanover 
township, Burlington co., 15 m. S.E. of Trenton. 

Arn'Iieim, a fortified city of Holland, cap. of Guelder- 
land, on the Rhine, about 50 m. from Amsterdam. It 
stands on the right bank of the Rhine, which is here 
crossed by a bridge of boats. It is well-built, and pos¬ 
sesses fortifications which, in 1702, were much improved 
by the famous engineer Cohorn. Manuf. Cottons, wool¬ 
lens, tobacco, and paper. Pop. 32,479. A. was taken from 
the Spaniards in 1585, and by the Prussians from the 
French in 1813. 

Arn'Iieim, in Ohio, a post-village of Brown co.. 100 m. 
S.S.W. of Columbus. 

Arn'hem Bay, in Australia, a spacious inlet in Arn¬ 
hem Land, at the N.W. extremity of the Gulf of Carpen¬ 
taria; Lat. 12° IF S.; Lon. 136° 3' E. 

Arnhem land, on the N. coast of Australia, is a 
tract of country discovered by the Dutch in 1618. It 
comprises all the territory between the Gulf of Carpen¬ 
taria and Anson’s Bay, stretching in E. Lon. from about 
129° to about 137°; and in Lat. extending indefinitely 
southward from about 12° S. 

Ar' ■lien. n. [Perhaps from Gr. ptairo, to sneeze.] (Bat.) I 
A gen. of plants, ord. Asteracees. The most important 
species is A. montana, known by the names of mountain- 
tobacco, and Ger¬ 
man leopard-bane. 

It is a perennial, 
herbaceous plant, 
found growing in 
the meadows of the 
cooler parts of Eu¬ 
rope, and also of 
the Western States 
of N. America. The 
florets are of a yel¬ 
low color, tinged 
with brown. The 
whole plant, when 
fresh, possesses a 
strong and dis¬ 
agreeable odor, 
and an acrid, bit¬ 
ter taste. All parts 
of the plant have 
striking medicinal 
properties, but the 
flowers constitute 
the part general¬ 
ly preferred. The 
preparationknown 
as tincture of A., 
which is obtained 
by macerating the 
flowers with alco¬ 
hol, is now largely 
employed by the 
public as an exter¬ 
nal application for 
bruises and intern¬ 
ally as a stimulant 
in typhoid and 
other low fevers, 
and also in cases of 
palsy. Its action 
is to promote per¬ 
spiration. The use 
of A. in medicine, Fig. 195. — arnica Montana. 

however, is lim¬ 
ited, and its utility is much questioned. The dose of 
the tincture varies from two to forty drops. The flow¬ 
ers, though not much used internally, have beeu occa¬ 
sionally employed as a substitute for Peruvian bark,and 
are said to have proved beneficial in cases of amaurosis 
and chronic rheumatism Preparations of A. are much 
used by the homoeopathists. The species A. mollis is 
found in ravines on the White Mountains. 

Ar'nica, Oil op. ( Chem .) Both tho roots and the flowers 
of A. montana contain volatile oil. The oil obtained 
from the flowers has a yellow or brownish-green color, 
dissolves in 10 to 60 pts. of absolute alcohol, and forms 
a solid resin when treated with nitric acid. 

Ar'nica, Tincture of. See Arnica. 

Ar'nicine, n. (Chem.) A bitter principle in the flowers 
of the A. montana. 

Ar'nim, Elizabeth von, more usually styled Bettina 
Brentano, b. at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, in 1785. She 
spent part of her youth in a cloister, and while extremely 
young, conceived an ardent passion for the poet Goethe, 
at that time nearly 60. She possessed considerable lit- 


| erary ability, as is testified by her letters written to 

I Goethe. Iu later years she published several works on 
social reform. D. 1859. 

Ar'nini, or Arn'Iieim, Johann Georg, Baron von, 
commander-in-chief of the Saxon army during a part of 
the Thirty Years’ War, b. in the Mark of Brandenburg, 
1586. He was first employed by Uustavus Adolphus, 
whom he left, in 1626, to take a command under Wallen¬ 
stein. He entered the service of the Elector of Saxony 
in 1630 ; and in the year following commanded the Saxon 
troops in the great battle of Leipzig. On the 3d May, 
1634, he defeated the Imperialists at Lieguitz, but after 
the treaty of Prague, in 1635, he retired from public life. 
D. 1641. 

Ar'nim. Ludwig Achim von, a distinguished German 
romancist; b. in 1781, at Berlin. His fictions are too 
fantastic and bizarre; but he possesses deep feeling, 
considerable humor, and great powers of observation. 
Ilis Complete Works were published at Berlin, in 1839- 
1846. iu 19 vols. D. 1831. 

Ar'nis, an island of Denmark, containing a small fish¬ 
ing town of the same name, on the Schlei. 

Ar'no, a large and famous river of Italy, in Tuscany, 
rising in the Apennines, at Monte Falterona, and pur¬ 
suing generally a W. course, by Florence and Pisa, enters 
the Mediterranean sea 5 miles below the latter city. 
Its entire length is estimated at about 175 miles. This 
river has an uncertain navigability, dependent upon the 
influences of the seasons, and is so liable to floods at 
times, that it has been embanked for a great distance 
from its mouth. A. is the Arnus of the Romans. The 
Val d’Arnn (“ Valley of Arno”), between Florence and 
Pisa, is one of the richest and loveliest vales in Italy. 

Ar'no, in Illinois, a village of Coles co., about 6 m. N.E. 
of Mattoon. 

Ar'no, in Missouri, a post-office of Douglas co. 

Ar'nold, Benedict, an American general, was b. at Nor¬ 
wich, Connecticut, in 1740. He was settled in extensive 
business at New Haven when the war of Independence 
broke out. After the news of the battle of Lexington, 
he raised a body of volunteers, and received a colonel’s 
commission. After commanding, for a short time, a 
small fleet upon Lake Champlain, he was, along with 
General Montgomery, charged with the difficult duty 
of leading a force of 1,100 men across the wilds of the 
country to Quebec, to stir up rebellion there, and dis¬ 
place the British garrison. In this unsuccessful attempt, 
Montgomery was killed, and A. severely wounded. 
After this, we find him in various important commands, 
but as often involved in quarrels with Congress and 
his fellow-officers. It would be of little interest now to 
enter into a detail of his grievances. He seems to have 
been a singularly brave, but reckless and unprincipled 
man. Washington valued him for his acts of daring, 
and would gladly have overlooked his faults; but Con¬ 
gress and his brother-officers regarded him with dis¬ 
like, and sought every possible means to humble and 
annoy him. After many disputes about the honor that 
was due to him for his services, he was invested with the 
government of Philadelphia. There his imprudence was 
most marked; indeed, it would be difficult to clear him 
from the charge of actual dishonesty. He was brought 
before a court-martial: four charges were urged against 
him; two of these were found proven, and he was sen¬ 
tenced to be reprimanded by the commander-in-chief. 
A. could not bear the affront, nor longer endure the 
difficulties into which he had brought himself. He, ac¬ 
cordingly, formed the disgraceful design of deserting to 
the ranks of the enemy, and put himself in communi¬ 
cation with Sir Henry Clinton, the British commander. 
Major Andre was sent by Sir Henry to negotiate with A., 
and they had an interview near West Point, which for¬ 
tress A. had offered to surrender to the enemy. On his 
way to the British camp, however, the young officer fell 
into the hands of the Americans, and the whole plot 
was of course discovered. The news of Andre’s capture 
reached A. just in time to enable him to make his escape, 
and reach the British camp in safety. There he re¬ 
tained his rank of brigadier-general, and fought with as 
much daring against the cause of American independence, 
as he had before fought against the royal forces. He 
took command in an expedition against Virginia, and 
again in an incursion into his native State. Afterward 
he served in Nova Scotia and the West Indies, and at 
last settled in England, where he D. in 1801. 

Ar'nold, Thomas, D.D. One of the most distinguished 
English divines and historians of the present century: b. 
at Cowes, 1795. He entered Oxford university in 1811, 
and was elected a Fellow of Oriel Coll, in 1815. While 
in this position, he was the friend and contemporary of 
the poet Keble, of Copleston, and of Archbishop Whately. 
In 1828, A. was elected to the head-mastership of Rugby 
School, which office he held until his death, and raised 
it, by the enlightened system of education he inaugu¬ 
rated, to the highest rank among the great public schools 
of England. Under his auspices, the antiquated scho¬ 
lastic system became revolutionized. In politics he was 
an advanced liberal, so much so, indeed, that he was at 
one time denounced by some of the clergy for what they 
termed the Jacobinism of his views. In 1841 he was ap¬ 
pointed Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford, 
and d. 12th June, 1842. As a writer, A.’s works consisted 
mainly of a History of Rome, completed to the end of 
the Punic war; a Commentary on the New Testament, 
and a Treatise on Church and State. Fearless, disinter¬ 
ested, transparently truthful, religious without cant, 
and zealous without rancor, A. produced through life 
the impression on his warmest opponents of a man whom 
it was impossible not to respect. Few men in modern 
times have so well realized and represented the ideal of 
the old knightly character as the Rugby schoolmaster. 


Like Bayard, he was pre-eminently sans peur et sans re> 
proche. His life has been written by Dean Stanley, one 
of his old pupils. 

Ar'nold of Brescia, one of the reformers prior to the 
Reformation, a disciple of Abelard of Paris, and of Be- 
rengarius. As early as the middle of the 12th century, 
his bold spirit, his scriptural knowledge, and his elo¬ 
quence, had succeeded in arousing France and Italy 
against the abuses of the Roman Church. Driven by the 
clergy from Italy, he sought refuge in Zurich, where he 
made many converts. At length, through the instiga¬ 
tion of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, he was charged with 
heresy, and excommunicated by Pope Innocent II. At 
this juncture, serious popular tumults occurred at Rome, 
and A., hastening thither, was received with great cor¬ 
diality, and soon vested with supreme power. In 1155, 
however, Adrian IV. interdicted and expelled him the 
city. For a time he sheltered in Campagna, but was 
seized, and taken back to Rome, where he w as executed, 
and his ashes were thrown into the Tiber. A. was a 
man of great eloquence and sanctity. He taught that 
Christ’s kingdom was not of this world; that temporal 
dignities and large independent revenues ought not to 
be held by the clergy; and that nothing should be left 
to them but spiritual authority, and a moderate subsist¬ 
ence. He is also reckoned by Dr. Wall among those who 
denied the scriptural authority of infant baptism. His 
followers were called Arnoldists, and held the same opin¬ 
ions as the Waldenses. 

Ar'nold, Matthew, an eminent English poet, critic, and 
essayist, son of Dr. A., of Rugby, b. 1822, educated at 
Winchester and Rugby. In 1844" he obtained theNew- 
degate prize-poem at Oxford, in which university he 
was elected Convocation Professor of Poetry in 1866. 
Balder, his most considerable poem, is derived from the 
Norse mythology. As a poet, he has little in common 
with the prevailing tastes of the age. His verse is al 
ways calm, chaste, and noble; and there is throughout 
his style of thought a certain antique grandeur, strik¬ 
ingly in contrast with most modern poems. He is the 
author of Essays on Criticism, Culture, and Anarchy; 
Literature and Dogma, an essay toward a better appre¬ 
ciation of the Bible; God aiul the Bible; St. Paul and 
Protestantism ; Isaiah of Jerusalem, &c. In 1883 he vis¬ 
ited the U. S. D. 1888. 

Ar'nold of Winkelried. a Swiss hero,who, at the battle 
of Sempach in 1386, sacrificed himself to insure victory 
to his countrymen. The Austrian knights, dismounted, 
had formed themselves into a phalanx which the Swiss 
vainly strove to pierce; when A., rushing on the spear 
points of the enemy, and burying several in his breast, 
thus opened a gap in the fence of steel. The Swiss 
rushed in through the opening, and routed the Aus¬ 
trians with great slaughter. 

Ar'nold. in hid., a v. of Rush co. 

Ar'noldists, n.pi. See Arnold of Brescia. 

A r'nold's, in Ufa., a p.-o., of Anne Arundel co. 

Ar'noldsburgh, in If. Fa., a p.-o. of Calhoun co. 

Ar'nold's Creek, in Indiana, flowing into the Ohio 
river 2 m. from Rising Sun. 

Ar'nold's Hills, in S. C., a village of Pickens co. 

Ar'noldsville, in Mo., a village of Buchanan co. 

Arnold'toil. iu Virginia, a village of Campbell co., 
110 m. W. S. W. of Richmond. 

Arnol'fl di Cam'bio, or di La'po, one of the most eminent 
architects and sculptors of Italy, was b. at Florence in 
1232. The most celebrated of his architectural works 
are, the churches of Santa Croce, the Cathedral, and Or 
San Michele, at Florence, in which the gradual transi¬ 
tion from the Gothic severity to the Italian elegance is 
markedly represented. This structure was completed 
after the death of A. by Brunelleschi, between 1430 and 
1444. D. 1300. 

Ar'non, in Illinois, a village of Will co., about 36 m. S. 
from Chicago. 

Ar'not, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Tioga co. 

Ar'not, or Ar'nut, n. [Ger. enfoittss.] The earth-nut 
or pig-nut; the root of the Btlnium bulbocastanum. 

Ar'nott, Neil, ED, an eminent Scottish physicist; B.at 
Aberdeen, in 1788. In 1811, he settled in medical prac¬ 
tice in London, and in 1827 published his great w r ork. 
Elements of Physics, or Natural Philosophy, General and 
Med. He is also known as the in ventorof the stove” 

the “A. ventilator,” and the “ water-bed.” D. 1874. 

Arnot'to, n. See Annotto. 

Ar'nould, Madeleine Sophie, a celebrated French ac¬ 
tress, B. at Paris, 1744; D. 1803. Though famous as a 
comedienne and a singer, Sophie made herself still more 
illustrious by her wit, which was satirical and caustic. 
Many of her sayings are recorded in Arnouldiana, ou 
Sophie Arnould et ses Contemporains, and still retain 
currency as bons mots. When the priest of St. Germain 
l’Auxerrois gave her the extreme unction, she suddenly 
said to him, “Je suis centime Mayddeine, beaucoup de 
piches me seront remis, carfai beaucoup aimt.” 

Arns'berg;, a town of Prussia, in Westphalia, cap. of 
a circle of the same name, on the Ruhr, 57 m. N.E. of 
Cologne. Here the manufacture of potash is largely 
entered into, and there are numerous distilleries. Pop. 
6,348. 

Arn'stadt, a town of Prussia, on the Gera, 12 m. S. of 
Erfurt. It is one of the oldest Thuringian cities, and 
has now a considerable trade. Pop. (1891) 12,450. 

A rus'walde, a town of Prussia, prov. of Bradenburg, 
19 m. S. E. of Stargard; pop. in 1897 (est.) 7,500. 

Arn'nlf, grandson of Louis le Debonnaire, who after 
the deposition of Charles le Gros, was elected, in 887, 
king of Germany. Proceeding to Italy to be crowned, 
he was there opposed by Agelrude, duchess of Spoleto, 
mother of Lambert, his competitor: and although con¬ 
secrated emperor by the Pope in 896, continued to moel 









150 


ARPI 


AURA 


ARRA 


with determined opposition. He died three years after¬ 
wards by poison, administered, it was supposed, by the 
Duchess, and was succeeded by his son, Louis IV., the 
last of the Carlo vingian race in Germany. 
Arokszal'las, a village of Jazygia in Hungary, 44 m. 
E.N.E. of Death. It forms the entrepot of trade between 
that city and Upper Hungary, Pop. 9,176. 

Vrol'sen, a town in N. Germany, cap. of the princi¬ 
pality of Waldeck, on the Aar, 21 m. N.N.W. of Cassel. 

It is the residence of the prince. Pap. about 2,060. 
Vro'ma, n. [Gr., from art, intensive, and uso, I smell; 
perhaps related to Sansc. ghrd, to smell; Fr. arame.] The 
principle in plants, or other substances, which consti¬ 
tutes their fragrance. In some plants this resides in a 
volatile oil; but in others the portion containing this 
substance cannot be detected. It is of an extremely sub¬ 
tile nature, filling the air of rooms, or even the whole 
atmosphere around gardens; and, although constantly 
being imparted for years,—as it may be, for instance, in 
the case of musk, so as perpetually to fill the air of a 
well-ventilated room,—yet never causes the substance 
from which it emanates to diminish in weight. The A 
of plants is imparted to oils and spirits by maceration, 
tro'ma, in Jllinois, a post-village of Kankakee co., on 
the Kankakee river, 40 m. S.S.E. of Joliet, in a township 
of same name, which has a pop. of 1,150. 

Aromat'ic, Aromat'ical, a. Having an aroma; 
strong-scented; fragrant; spicy; having an agreeable 
odor. 

Aroiutit'ic, n. A substance, as plant, drug, and medi¬ 
cines, which emits agreeable odors. They are usually 
characterized by a warm pungent taste. Of such are the 
spices, ginger, pepper, cinnamon, balsams, frankincense. 
&c. They usually contain a peculiar volatile oil, mixed 
with resinous substances. The animal kingdom fur¬ 
nishes some A., as ambergris, musk, civet, Ac. They 
are chiefly employed in the manufacture of perfumery, 
and in medicine as anti-spasmodics, &c. 

Aromat'ic Vinegar, the name of a very agreeable 
perfume, the base of which is acetic acid. One of the 
most popular recipes for its composition is the following: 
Dried leaves of rosemary, rue, wormwood, sage, mint, and 
lavender-flowers, each oz -1 bruised nutmeg, cloves, 
angelica-root, and camphor, each oz.; rectified alcohol, 

4 oz.; concentrated acetic acid, 16 oz. The materials 
should be macerated for a day in the spirit; the acid then 
to be added, allowing the whole to digest for a week. 

A romat i/.a tion, n. The mingling of aromatic spices 
with any medicine, (o.) 

Aro'ntatize, v.a. To impregnate with aroma or fra¬ 
grant odors; to perfume. 

Aro'matizer, n. That which aromatizes. 
Aro'matons, a. Containing aroma; aromatic. 
Aro'na, a town of N. Italy, on the Lago Maggiore. St. 

Charles Borromeo was born here. Pop. 4,127. 

Aro'nia, n. (But.) A name of the gen. Pyrus, q. v. 
Aroos'took, a river of the U. States, which rises in the 
N. of Maine, Piscataquis co., and after a N.E. course of 
120 m., empties into the St. John’s river in New Bruns¬ 
wick. 

A roost ook. in Maine, a N.E. county, organized in 
1839. Area, 4,950 sq. m. It is bounded N. by St. John s 
river,and drained by numerous streams, the principal 
of which are the Aroostook and the Matawamkeag. The 
surface is hilly, with some mountain-peaks, as Chase’s 
Mount and Mars Hill. The soil is fertile, but a large 
part of the county is still unsettled, and thickly wooded. 
Cap. Iloulton. 

—A post-office in the above county. 

Arose'. The past or preterit tense of the verb to arise. 
Around', prep. About; on all sides of; encircling; en¬ 
compassing. 

— adv. 1 n a circle; on every side. 

Arouse', v.a. [ a and rouse, from the root of raise.] To 
raise; to rouse; to awaken; to stir up; to excite; to call 
forth ; to animate. 

“ Fantastick woes arous'd rage in each thought."— Thomson. 
Arow', adv. In a row; in order, (o.) 

Aroynt', interj. [A word of very old use; etymology un¬ 
certain.] Begone! away! (o.) 

“ Saint Withold footed thrice the wold, 

He met the night-mare, and her name told, 

Bid her alight, and her troth plight, 

A ad aroynt thee, witch aroynt thee right."— Shaks. 
Ar'pad, the conqueror of Hungary, and founder of the 
A. dynasty, which reigned till 1301, was is. in the 2d 
half of the 9th century. He was the son of Altnus, whom 
the 7 Magyar clans dwelling in the steppes N.E. of the 
Caspian Sea had elected their hereditary chief about 
889. Thus united into one nation, the Magyars, muster¬ 
ing about 25,000 warriors, crossed the Carpathians, and 
conquered Hungary, when A. was elected their prince. 
A. was unable completely to transform their nomadic 
hordes into an agricultural nation. He d. 907. 
Arj»eg'gio, n. [It., from arpeggiare, to play on the 
harp ] ( Mus .) A rapid production of the several notes 
which compose any chord, in succession, and not si¬ 
multaneously. Tlie violoncello, viola, violin, and all in¬ 
struments played upon with a how, are capable of per¬ 
forming an A., but it is to the harmonium and piano¬ 
forte that its execution more particularly appertains. 
Ar'pent, n. [Fr.] An ancient French land-measure, the 
value of which was different in every province. The A. 
of Paris was somewhat equivalent to five-sixths of the 
English acre. It is now practically used only in Switz¬ 
erland, where it represents f of an acre. 
Arpenta'tor, n. (Law.) A measurer or surveyor of 
land. 

Arpi'uo, a town of S. Italy, prov. of Caserta, 6 m. S.S.E. 
of Sora. It is the ancient Arpinum, birthplace of Caius 
Marius, Agr ip pa, and Cicero. Pop. 12,276. 


Ar'qua, a town of N. Italy, 12 m. S.W. of Padua, in which 
prov. it is situated. It is famous for having been the 
residence of Petrarch during the greater part of his lile, 
and tiie place where he died in 1374. His sarcophagus is 
still to be seen. Lord Byron, in the 4thcanto of “Childe 
Harold,” says: 

•• They keep his dust in Arqua, where he died; 

The mountain-village where his latter days 
Went down the vale of years ; and *tis their pride — 

All holiest pride — uud let it be their praise, 

To offer to the passing stranger’s gu7.e 
His mansion and his sepulchre; both plain 
And venerably simple, such as raise 
A feeling more accordant with his strain, 

Than if a pyramid form'd his monumental fane." 

Ar'quated, a. [Lat. arquatus.] Shaped like a how; 
arcuate. 

Arquebusade', n. [Fr., tlio shot of an arquebuse.] 
(Med.) The name of a spirituous water, distilled lroin a 
farrago of aromatic plants, originally used for wounds 
inflicted by an arquebuse; afterward applied to sprains 
and bruises; now out of use. 

Ar'quebuse, Ar'quebus, 
or Harquebus, n. [Fr ar¬ 
quebuse .] (Mil.) A kind of 
liand-gun used before the 
invention of the musket. 

The earliest hand-guns 
were fired by applying a 
match with the hand to 
the touch-hole. Afterward 
a contrivance, suggested 
by the trigger of the 
cross-bow, was introduced, 
by means of which the 
burning match could be 
applied instantaneously. 

This was called an A., 
and is first mentioned 
by Philip de Comines, 
in his account of the 
battle of Morat, in 1476. 

On the formation of the 
Yeomen of the Guard in 
England, in 1485, many of 
them were armed with the 
A. Its use was discontin¬ 
ued in England about the 
reign of Henry VIII., and 
in France during that of 
Henry IV. 

Arqmcbu'sier, n. [Fr.] A soldier armed with an ar¬ 
quebuse. 

Ar'querite, n. (Min.) A mineral of isometric form. 
It occurs in regular octahedrons: also in grains, small 
masses, and dendrites. It resembles silver in lustre, 
color, and ductility, but is softer.— Comp. Silver 86-5, 
mercury 13-5 n 100. A. is the principal ore of the mines 
of Arqueros, near Coquimbo, in Chili. 

Ar'qnos, a small, decayed town of France, dep. Seine- 
Inferieure, 3 m. from Dieppe. Its castle, in former ages, 
formed the principal bulwark of Normandy on the N., 
and withstood many sieges. In the neighborhood of A., 
in 1589, Henri IV., of France, defeated the Leaguers 
under the Due de Mayenue. 

Arraca'clia, n. (Sot.) See Oxalis. 

Arrack', Hack, Raki, n. [Hind.] A strong spirituous 
liquor, largely used in the E. Indies and S. America, pre¬ 
pared in many ways, often from rice, sometimes from 
sugar fermented with the juice of cocoa-nuts, and from 
other substances. In Java, it is prepared in the follow¬ 
ing way: After all the sugar has beeu obtained from 
the cane, the common and impure molasses that drains 
off is fermented with a small quantity of rice; palm-wine 
is then added, and from this mixture is distilled the A., 
which consequently differs hut little from rum. It is 
considered, and no doubt rightly, to be the most destruc¬ 
tive drink that can be placed in the human body in 
these hot regions. Large quantities are shipped to the 
cold countries of Sweden and Norway. 

Ar'ragon. n. (Geog.) See Aragon. 

Ar'ragonite, if. (Min.) See Aragonite. 

A r rali. a town of Ilindostan, and cap. of the district of 
Shadabad, in the British presidency of Bengal, 36 m. 
from Patna. During the Indian mutiny of 1857, A. was 
heroically defended by 20 British civilians and 50 Sikli 
troops, against a force of 3,000 Sepoy mutineers. Pop. 
about 15,000. 

Arraign (ar-ran'), r. a. [0. Fr. arraigner, from Lat. ad. 
and ratio, rationis, account.] To call to account; to call 
for a defence or justification; to indict; to accuse; to 
charge; to censure. 

(Cnm. Law.) To cal) a prisoner to the bar of the 
court, to answer the matter charged in the indictment. 
Arraign'ment, n. Act of arraigning; accusation; a 
calling in question. 

(Crim. Law.) The A. of a prisoner consists of three 
parts: — 1. Calling him to the liar, and commanding him 
to hold up his hand, making it appear that he is the 
party indicted. 2. Reading the indictment to him dis¬ 
tinctly, that he may fully understand the charge. 3. 
Demanding whether he be guilty or not gv.ilty. The 
pleas upon A. are either the general issue, i. e. not guilty, 
or a plea in abatement or in bar; or the prisoner may 
demur to the indictment, or he may confess the fact, 
upon which the court proceeds immediately to judgment. 
But if the prisoner “will not answer directly to the in¬ 
dictment or information, it shall be lawful for the court 
to order the proper officer to enter a plea of not guilty 
on behalf of such person; and the plea so entered shail 
have the same force and effect as if the person had so 
pleaded the same.” 


Ar'ran, an island of Scotland, in Buteshire, separated 
from the Mull of Kintyre, by Kilbrannan Sound, and 
from the Ayrshire coast by the Frith of Clyde. It is \ x / 2 
m. from the Isle of Bute, is about 17 ni. long by 11 broad, 
aud contains about 100,000 acres. It is very rugged 
and mountainous; Goatfell, the highest elevation, being 
2,874 feet above the sea. The shores are generally steep 
and rocky. It has three deep bays. Ransa, Brodick, 
and Lamlash; the latter is one of the best harbors of 
refuge in the Frith of Clyde. The geology of A. is re¬ 
markable. ThoS.E. half of the island consists of Devo¬ 
nian sandstone, and of trap rocks and carboniferous 



Fig. 197.— mountains of mica —slate and granite. 

strata, which occupy the middle and western portions 
The N.W. half consists of a central granite nucleus, 
including Goatfell, bordered on the W. by a tract of mica- 
slate, and on the N.E. and W. by lower Silurian rocks, 
which again have a run of Devonian sandstone on the 
E. and S. Lias aud oolite lie on the mica-slate. Pop. 
5,991. 

Ar'ran (North Island of). The largest of a group of 
islands called the Posses, on the N.W. coast of Ireland. 
Ar'ran (South Isles of). Three islands on the N.W. 
coast of Ireland, at the mouth of Galway bay. Their 
names are Arranmore, Inismaine, and Innishere. The 
A. contain about 11,288 acres, and yield a rental of 
$9,000. The inhabitants subsist on fishing, for which 
purpose they uso a boat made of wicker-work covered 
with tarred cloth, closely resembling the coracle of the 
ancient Britons. The principal village is Killany. on 
the island of S. Arranmore, the largest of the group. 
Lat. 53° 7' 38" N.; Lon. 9° 42' 22" W. 
Ar'ran-I'ow'tldy. and Arren'ig, two mountains 
of Wales, in the co. of Merioneth, a lew miles from Bala. 
Height, about 3,000 feet each. 

Arrange', t>. a. [Fr. arranger — ad, and ranger, from 
rang, a rank or row.] To range or set in ranks; to place 
in a row or line. 

“ I chanced this day 
To see two knights in travel on my way, 

(() sorry sight!) arrang'd in battle new .”—Faerie Queen e 
—To put in proper order; to dispose in an orderly manner, 
to adjust; to settle; to classify. 

Arrange'ment, n. Act of arranging; orderly dis¬ 
position ; adjustment; settlement; classification. 

(Mus.) The adaptation of a piece of music so as to be 
performed on an instrument, or instruments, different 
from those for which it was originally composed; as 
when orchestral or vocal compositions are set for the 
pianoforte, or the reverse. 

—Thepiece so adapted; as, a violin arrangement of Norma. 
Arrang'd*, n. One who arranges. 

Arran'more (Worth ),an island on the N.N.W. coast 
of Ireland, co. Donegal. Area, 4,335 acres, of which 
only about 600 are under cultivation. Kelp is manufac¬ 
tured here, and ironstone found. 

Ar'rant, a. [Lat. errans, from erro, tb wander.] Infa¬ 
mous; shameless; vile; downright; thorough; mere. 
“And let him every deity adore, 

If his new bride prove not an arrant. . . .**— Dryden. 
Ar'ran tly, adv. Corruptly; shamefully. 

Ar'ras, a city of France, cap. of the dt p. of Pas-de-Calais, 
60 m. S.E. of Calais, and 100 N.N.E. of Paris, on the 
Brussels railway. This is a very ancient city, replete 
with fine old architectural remains, and also possessing 
a large commerce in cotton and stuffs, hosiery, lace, 
pottery, &c. A. has been the theatre of many memo¬ 
rable historical events, and was fortified by Vauban, in 
the reign of Louis XIV. Robespierre waB born here, as 
was also Damiens, the assassin of Louis XV. Pop. 
26,295. During the middle ages, A. was famed for its 
tapestry, richly figured hangings that adorned the halls 
of the kings and the nobles. They were known under 
the name of A.; but have been fora long time super¬ 
seded by tlie tapestry of tlie Gobelins, q. v. 

Ar'ras-wise, adv. (Tier.) Applied when anything of a 
square form is placed with one corner in front, showing 
the top and two of the sides, in the same way as loz¬ 
enges are set. 

Array',n. [Norm, araie, from ray. a robe; 0. Fr. army; 
It . arredn, household furniture; Sw. reda, to prepare; 
Scot, rede, to put in order, to dress.] Preparation; equip¬ 
ment; dress; ornaments. 

“ In this remembrance, Emily ere day 
Arose, and dressed herself in rich array.**— Dryden 
— Regular disposition of any objects for show or exhioh 
tion; as, “an array of flowers.” 























ARRI 


ARRO 


ARSA 


157 


•-Order; order of buttle; disposition of an army in regu¬ 
lar lines. 

“A great gen'ral sets his army in array 
In vain, uuiess lie fight and'win the day ."—Denham. 

—Posture of defence. 

(Law.) The whole body of jurors summoned to attend 
a court, as they are arrayed or arranged on the panel.— 
Bouvier. 

Array', v. a. [Norm, arraer; 0. Fr. arroyer; It. arri- 
dare. J To prepare; to get ready; to deck, or dress; to 
adorn. 

•• Deck thyself now with majesty and excellency, and array 
thyself with glory and beauty."— Job xi. 10. 

—To envelop; to draw up. — To arrange; to equip;—to 
set or dispose in order, as the names of the jurors in the 
panel, or an army for battle. 

Array'er, n. One who arrays. 

(MU.) An officer who anciently had the care of seeing 
the soldiers duly appointed in their armor. 

Arrear', n. [From Fr. arriere, behind.] That which is 
to the rear or back; that which remains behind unpaid, 
although due. — Generally in the plural. 

Arrear age, n. [Fr. arrerage .] That part of a sum 
which remains behind, though due; arrears. 

Ar'reboe, Andres, a Danish theologian and poet, b. at 
A3roe in 1589; v. 1617. 

Arrecl', Arrect'ed, a. Erected; erect; raised or 
lifted up. (r.) 

A rrest', v. a. [Fr. arrUer, for arrester ; from Lat. ad, and 
rrsto — re, and sto, to stand back, to stay behind, to stop.] 
To stop, stay, or obstruct; to check; to hinder; tore- 
strain; to seize; to apprehend. 

(Law.) To take, seize, or apprehend a person by vir¬ 
tue of lawful authority. 

Arrest', n. A stoppage; obstruction; stop; hindrance; 
delay; restraint. 

(Law.) The apprehending or restraining one’s person, 
which, in civil cases, can take place legally only' by pro¬ 
cess in execution of the command of some court or offi¬ 
cers of justice; but, in criminal cases, any man may 
arrest without warrant or precept. — Although ordina¬ 
rily applied to any legal seizure of a person, A. is more 
properly used in civil cases, and apprehension in crimi¬ 
nal.— A. of judgment. The act of a court by which the 
judges refuse to give judgment, because upon the face 
of the record it appears that the plaintiff is not entitled 
to it. 

(Far.) A scurfiness seated between the ham and the 
pastern of the hind legs of a horse. 

Arresta'tion, n. [Fr.] The act of arresting; arrest ox- 
apprehension. (R.) 

Arrest'cr, Arrest or, n. One who ari-ests. 

Arrest'ment, n. (Sottish Law.) The securing a crim¬ 
inal’s person until trial, or that of a debtor until he 
gives security. — Also, the order of a judge, by which he 
who is debtor in a movable obligation to the arrestor’s 
debtor, is prohibited to make payment or delivery till 
the debt duo to the arrestor is paid or secured. 

Arret', n. [Fr. arret.] A judgment, sentence, or decree 
of a court. This term, derived from the French, is used 
in Louisiana and Canada. — Saisie arret is an attachment 
of property in the hands of a third person. 

Arrlienathe'riiin, re. (Bot.) See A vena. 

Arrllidae'us, one of the generals of Alexander the 
Great, was employed to convey the body of that king 
from Babylon to Egypt. In 321 B. c., after the death 
of Perdiccas, he was proclaimed, along with Pithon, 
regent of Macedonia, which office Eurydice compelled 
him to resign. Ho was afterward assigned the govern¬ 
ment of a part of Phrygia. 

As^rhy tinny, re. [Gr. arrythmia, from a, priv., and 
rythmos, rhythm.] A want or deficiency of rhythm. 

Ar' ria, a celebrated Roman matron, wife of CsBCinna 
Ptetus, consul during the roign of Claudius, about a. d. 
41. Paetus having raised an unsuccessful revolt against 
Claudius in Illyria, was condemned to die. He was, 
however, allowed the option of ending his life by sui¬ 
cide, which the Romans did not deem a crime. Paetus 
hesitated; A. seized the dagger, plunged it into her 
bosom, and then presenting it to her husband, said, “ It 
is not painful, P.etus.” This, with other instances of her 
conjugal devotion, hits immortalized her. 

A>*ria,'nus, Flavius, a philosophical and historical 
writer, and a native of Nicomedia, in Asia .Minor, who, 
in the reign of Antoninus Pius, was raised to the con¬ 
sulship. -4. was a pupil of the famous Stoic Epictetus, 
and tried to do for his master what Xenophon did for 
Socrates. Ho published Epictetus’lectures in 8 books, 4 
of which have come down to us. It was he who com¬ 
piled the world-renowned Mmual of Epictetus, the 
best compendium of the Stoic philosophy. He also 
wx-ote, besides other works, the Anabasis of Alexander 
the Great, a work much inferior to that of Quintus 
Curtius in power of description, but far more accurate 
in details, and more trustworthy in its authorities. 

Ai'risi'za, Juan Battista, xi Spanish poet, who ranks 
among the best contemporary authors of his country. 
His effusions largely inclined to favor monarchy and 
legitimacy. B at Madrid, 1770; r>. 1837. 

Arriere', re. [Fr. arriere, behind.] (Mil.) A term for¬ 
merly applied to the last body of an army; the rear. 

Arriere'-l»»n, n. [Fr. arriere, behind, ban. proclama¬ 
tion.] ( Feudal Law.) A general proclamation of the French 
kings, by which not only their immediate feudatories, 
but their vassals, were summoned to lake the field in 
war.— A. fee, or fief\ a fee dependent on a superior one, 
or a fee held of a feudatory.— A. vassal, the vassal ol a 
superior vassal. 

A rri'n'li i. Giovanni Toussaint, Duke of Padua, a Cor¬ 
sican, who became a general in the French service. He 
was b. in 1778, and served Napoleon I. to the last with 
10 


bravery and fidelity. He was banished in 1815, but re¬ 
called in 1820. D. 1853. 

Arrington, in Virginia, a post-village of Nelson co., 
24 m. N. by E. of Lynchburg. 

Ar'ris, n. [Fr. arete, from Lat. arista, the bone of a 
fish.] (Arch.) The intersection or line on which two 
surfaces of a body, forming an interior angle, meet each 
other. Though, in common language, the edge of a 
body implies the same as arris, yet, in building, the word 
edge is restrained to thoso two surfaces of a rectangular 
pai-allelopipedal body of which the length and thick¬ 
ness may be measured, as in boards, planks, doox-s, and 
other framed joinery.— A. fillet, a slight piece of timber 
of a triangular section, used in raising the slates against 
chimney shafts, or against a wall that cuts obliquely 
aci-oss the l-oof. When the A. fillet is used to raise the 
slates at the eaves of a building, it is then called the 
eaves-board, eaves-lath, or eaves-catch. — *4. gutter, a 
wooden gutter of the V form, fixed to the eaves of a 
building. 

Arri’val, n. [From arrive.] Act of arriving, or coming 
to any place. 

41 She, like the sun, does still the same appear, 

Bright as she was at her arrival here."— Waller . 

—A coming, reaching, or gaining; attainment of anything 
by effort, study, or practice; as, “ his arrival to the per¬ 
fection of art.”—Persons or things arriving; as, “the 
last arrivals from California.” 

Arrive', v. n. [Fr. arriver; It. arrivare, from Lat. ad, 
and ripa, bank of a river, a shore.] To come to the 
shore, or bank; to come to; to reach any place. 

“ At length arriving on the banks of the Nile."— Dry den. 

—To reach any point; — with at. 

“ The bounds of all body we have no difficulty to arrive at ; but 
when the mind is there, it finds nothing to hinder its progress.”— 
Locke. 

—To gain any thing by progressive approach. 

“ It is the highest wisdom by despising the world to arrive at 
heaven."— Taylor. 

—To happen; to befall, (o.) 

Ax-ro'ba, n. [Sp.] (Com.) A measure of weight or quan¬ 
tity, employed in various countries. In Buenos Ayres, 
and throughout the Argentine provinces, it is equal to 
2;V35 lbs. avoix-dupois; and in Brazil, to 32-38 lbs. av. In 
Chili, the A. of 25 lbs. weight is equivalent to 25-36 lbs. 
av.; the A. of wines or spirits, to 6.70 imp. gallons. In 
Mexico, an A. of wine is 3%, and of oil, = 2% imp. 
gall. In Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay, an A. of weight 
amounts to 25-35 lbs. av.; and Peru lias also an A. for 
measuring wines or spix-its, of 6-70 imp. gallons. In 
Spxtin, the A. of wine is 3%, aud of oil, imp. gallons. 

Ar'rog-ance, Ar'rog-aitey.re. [Fr.; Lat. arrogantia, 
from arrogans, from arrogo. — See Arrogate.] Such a 
habit of mind and manner as seems to abuso the defer¬ 
ence of others by claiming more than one’s due; as¬ 
sumption; haughtiness; presumption; px-ide; insolent 
bearing. 

Ar'royaut, a. [Fr., from Lat. arrogans.] Claiming too 
much; assuming; presuming; haughty; supercilious; 
overbearing. 

Ar'rogantly, adv. In an arrogant manner. 

Ar'rogaxxtuess, re. Arrogance, (it.) 

Ar'rogatc, v. a. [Fr. arroger, from Lat. arrogo — ad 
and rogo, rogatus, to ask, to clxtim.] To lay claim to more 
than is proper; to make undue claims; to demand; to 
assume from pride or vanity. 

Arr<>ga'tion, n. Act of arrogating; proud and unjust 
assumption. — (Roman Law.) The adoption of a pel-son 
of full age; while adoption, j roperly so called, was of 
a person under full age. 

Ar'rog-ative, a. Making undue claims; assuming. 

Arrond'issement. [Fr.] A term employed in France 
to distinguish any portion of land held under the control 
of civil or military authority; as, the A. of the justice 
of peace, the maritime A., &c. Paris is divided into 18 
A., or mairies. — The Department, q. v.,is subdivided 
into arrondissements. 

Arro'ipihar, or Akro'char, a parish and village of 
Scotland, 4 in. from Ben Lomond, on the lake of that 
name. It is a great place of resort for tourists. 

Ar row, re, [A.S. arewa ; Goth, arf; etymology uncer¬ 
tain.] The name given to the shaft which is discharged 
from a bow. It has three principal parts: the stele or 
wooden portion, the head or jrile, and the feather. The 
wood best adapted for the shaft of an A. is ash. An A. 
is furnished with 3 feathers, one of which, of different 
color from the others, is placed uppermost on the string, 
and is called the cock-feathei-. The piles, or heads, are 
made either blunt or sharp, the advantage of the former 
kind being that they are more easily extracted than the 
latter. The weight of the arrow should be proportioned 
to the strength of the bow. For bows of 5 feet, ai-rows 
of 24 inches are commonly used, and for those of 5 feet 
9 inches, arrows of 28 or 29 inches. The nock of the 
arrow is usually cased with horn, and should be made so 
as to exactly fit the string. The distance to which an 
A. can be sent by a good archer is generally from 200 to 
250 yards. The A. of the English archers, so famous in 
days of yore, was usually the length of a cloth-yard; 
hence the designation “ cloth-yard shaft.”—See Archery, 
Bow, &c. 

Ar'row (Lough), a lake of Ireland, in the co. Sligo. It 
is 5 nx. iu length, and covers 5,100 acres. This lake, with 
its numerous islands, is most picturesque. — A river of 
the same name; flows N.N.W. to its confluence with the 
Owenbeg. 

Ar'row-ffrass, n. (Bot.) See Juncaginaoe.®. 

Ar'row-head, n. The head of an arrow. 

(Bot.) See SAOITTARIA. 

Ar'rowhead'ed C’har'acters. See Cuneiform 
Inscriptions. 


Ar'row Rock, in Missouri a post-village of Saline 
county, on the Missouri river. Near this place 
a battle was fought, Oct. 12th, 1863, between the Con¬ 
federates, numbering about 2,500 men, under Shelby, 
and the Union troops, commanded by Gen. E. B. Brown, 
which lasted until dusk, and on the following morning 
was resumed; then lasting about 5 hours, at the end of 
which the Confederates were defeated with a loss of 
about 300 men, and all their artillery, excepting one gun. 

Ar'row-root, re. The starch of the Maiuinta arundi- 
nacea (see Maranta), cultivated both in the E. and \Y. 
Indies. According to Benzon, the root contains: starch, 
26-00; woody fibre, 6-00; albumen, 1-43; chloride of cal¬ 
cium, 0-26; water 56-60i=100. In the island of St.Vincent, 
the skinned tubers are washed and ground in a mill, and 
the pulp is washed in cylinders of tinned copper with 
perforated bottoms. To obtain the fecula free from im¬ 
purity, great care must be used in every step of the 
process. — The term A. is applied generally to indicate 
a stiirch or fecula; thus, Portland A. is obtained from 
Arum maculaturi; Tahiti A ., from Jarca oceanica; Eng¬ 
lish A., from the potato. &c. The cheaper fecules are 
sometimes substituted for genuine A.; but they are 
readily detected by the microscope. The true A. is one 
of the most palatable and digestible of the starches. The 
expressed juice of the plant has been used as an antidote 
to poisons, and to the bites and stings of venomous 
insects. A. is frequently adulterated with potato-starch 
and refined sago-flour, sometimes with rice-starch, and 



Fig. 198.— arrow-root, (Maranta arundinacea.) 

1. Tubers. 2. Leaf and flowers. 


the starch of common wheaten flour. The granules of 
these inferior starches can readily be distinguished under 
the microscope by their different sizes and forms.— Sea 
Starch. 

Arrow'sic, in Maine, a township of Sagadahoo 
county. 

Ar'rowsniith., Aaron, an English geographer, b. at 
Durham, 1750. His maps of the World, and of N. Amer¬ 
ica and Scotland, though, of course, inferior to those of 
the present day, were a striking improvement on all 
preceding ones. D. 1823. 

Ar'rowsniith (Mount), in Tasmania (or Van Die¬ 
men’s Land); Lat. 42° S.; Lon. 146° E. Height about 
4,000 feet above sea-level. 

Ar rowy, a. Consisting of, or formed like arrows. 

“ The lambent homage of his arrowy tongue."— Cowper. 

Arro'yo. [Sp.] (Geog.) A term given in Spanish-speak¬ 
ing countries to a small stream or rivulet. 

Arro'yo. in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Elk co. 

Arro'yo del Puer'fO. a town of Spain, in Estrema 
dura, 10 m. W. of Caceres; pop. 8,096. 

Arro'yo Moli'nos, a town of Spain, in Estremadura, 
27 m. S.S.E. of Caceres; pep. 3.515. — Here, on the 28th 
of Oct., 1811, a body of the French, sent out by Soult on 
a foraging expedition, was surprised by a much larger 
English force under Lord Hill. An engagement took 
place, the result of which is differently appreciated by 
the historians of the two nations. The English took 
1,300 prisoners, but the French retreated in good order 

Ar'ru or Ar'oo Islands. See Aru. 

Arru'ra, re. See Akura. 

Ar'saces, founder of the Parthian monarchy. He In¬ 
duced his countrymen to rise against the Macedonian 
yoke, 250 b. c., on which they raised him to the tin-one 
A. wxis slain in battle, aftera reign of3' years. A. was 
the first of a long line of monarchs of the same name, 
the last of whom was put to death about 226 a.d. 

Arsa'cks Tira'nus, king of Armenia, who, being taken 
prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, was cast into prison 
at Ecbatana. where lie died 362 b. c. His country then 
became a Persian province. — There were many other 
Armenian kings of this name, but they are not easily 
distinguishable from each othur, and are generallyof 
small historical importance. 












158 


ARSE 


ARSE • 


ART 


rtrsa'cides, in the S. Pacific ocean. See Solomon Is 

LANDS. 

Ar'senal, n. [Lat. arx, arcis , a citadel.] A term gen¬ 
erally appliod to any place where naval or military stores 
are kept, more particularly to a large public establish¬ 
ment where the munitions of war are manufactured and 
stored. 

Ar'nenal, in Pennsylvania, a village of Alleghany co. 

Arse'niate, Aii'senate, n. ( C/iem .) A salt resulting 
from the union of arsenic acid with a base. The A. are 
generally insoluble in water, but very soluble in an ex¬ 
cess of arsenic acid, which solubility is a useful criterion 
of the acid. They are decomposed at a red heat by char¬ 
coal, and yield the characteristic garlicky smell of the 
metallic vapor. They are generally unimportant in the 
arts. 

ilr senic, n. [Fr.; Gr. arsenikon, from arsen, male, 
masculine, i. e. the substance which kills with masculine 
force.] (Chem. and Min.) A vory soft, brittle, and emi¬ 
nently poisonous metal, of a steel-gray color. Symbol 
As. It is scattered in great abundance over the mineral 
kingdom, and is sometimes found in the free state, but 
more frequently combined, chiefly with iron, nickel, co¬ 
balt, and sulphur. It is also contained in very small 
quantities in many mineral springs. In order to sepa¬ 
rate A. from any of the metallic ores in which it occurs, 
the ore is roasted, or exposed to a current of heated air 
in a reverberatory furnace. A. was known in different 
combinations by the ancients, but has only latterly been 
known to be of metallic origin. It is, however, so unlike 
metal in many of its properties that, even now, certain 
French chemists consider it as belonging to the non- 
metallic elements; indeed, it may be considered the con¬ 
necting link between these two divisions of the elements; 
antimony and bismuth being closely connected with it on 
the one hand, and phosphorus and nitrogen on the other. 
.A. combines with the atmospheric oxygen, forming arse¬ 
nic and arsenious oxide. Metallic A. may be formed from 
arsenious oxide by mixing it with charcoal andsodium 
carbonate, and heating in a closed crucible, the upper 
part of which is kept cool; A.condenses in the cool part 
of this apparatus as a solid, with a brilliant grayish lus¬ 
tre. It tarnishes in the air from oxidation; it has a sp. 
gr. of 5-7 to 5-9, and when heated to 50o° Fahren., it vol¬ 
atilizes as a colorless vapor without undergoing fusion, 
and this vapor possesses a remarkable garlic-like smell. 
A., when heated in the air, takes fire, and burns with 
a bluish flame, forming arsenious oxide, As 2 0 3 ; when 
thrown into chlorine it instantly takes fire, forming A. 
trichloride, ASCI 3 . Metallic A. may be reduced to pow¬ 
der in a mortar, and is not considered poisonous; but 
when introduced into the animal system, it is in part 
oxidized, thus acquiring poisonous properties. A minute 
quantity of A. is added to lead, to diminish its cohesion, 
during the manufacture of shot. It is the only use to 
which the metal A. is applied in the arts. Its only impor¬ 
tant combinations are: arsenic and arsenious acids , q.v.; 
the disulphide, or realgar (q. v.), which is used in pyro- 
teehny; and the trisulphide, or orpiment (q. v.), which 
is the king’s yellow of the artist. A. also forms a trihy¬ 
dride with hydrogen, analogous to the ammonia-like 
compounds formed by antimony and phosphorus. 
Poisoning. The symptoms produced by a dangerous dose 
of arsenic, or of one of its *omponnds, begin to appear 
in a quarter of an hour, or not much longer, after it is 
taken. First, sickness and great distress at the stomach, 
soon followed by thirst, and burning heat in the stomach. 
Then come on violent vomiting, and severe colic pains, 
and excessive and painful purging. This brings on 
faintings, with cold sweats, and other signs of great de¬ 
bility. To this succeed painful cramps, and contractions 
ot the legs and thighs, weakness, and death. No en¬ 
tirely effective chemical antidote has yet been discovered. 
At the first symptom of poisoning, freshly-precipitated 
hydrated sesquioxide of iron, or calcined magnesia, should 
be at ence administered. Too often A., principally arse¬ 
nious acid, has been used as a means of destroying animal 

life, but, 
happily, 
the pro¬ 
cess for 
the detec¬ 
tion of the 
poison in 

the animal tissues, or organic mixtures, 
has been brought to such a degree of 
perfection, that, even after months or 
years, the minutest quantity of poison 
is detected with an unquestionable 
certainty. For the isolation and recog-, 
nition of A. in organic mixtures, such 
as the contents of a stomach, the 
method generally pursued is called 
Keinsch’s process, from the name of 
Fia 199 its discoverer; but the most perfect, 

marsh’s process since detects A. in a liquor contain- 
MARSH S PROCESS. ^ miUionth of jj, j s the piO- 

»ess recommended by Marsh (Fig. 199), in which the 
material is treated with dilute sulphuric acid,and metal¬ 
lic zinc, in a gas-generating apparatus, when the A., 
combining with hydrogen, forms arseniureted hydro¬ 
gen, AsH 3 , from which, when lighted, the metallic A. is 
condensed in brownish-black spots on a china plate.— 
It has been confidently stated and generally believed 
that the metallic bismuth of commerce almost always 
contains A., a fact which may explain many obscure 
affections of the skin, mucous membranes, &c., in persons 
who make free use of cosmetic powders containing bis¬ 
muth. See Dialysis. 

( Bot.) An obsolete name of the water-pepper, Persir 
taria punctatum. 




Arsen'ic Acid, Arsenic Oxide. (Chem.) This acid, 
discovered by Seheele, is obtained by acting upon the 
trioxide (arsenious acid) with nitric acid, evaporating to 
dryness, and heating to a temperature of 270°. It forms 
a non-crystalline white powder, which, when strongly 
heated, decomposes into As 2 0 3 and 0 2 . This powder is 
readily dissolved by water, and the solution yields crys¬ 
tals of A. acid, or trihydric arsenate, H 3 ASO 4 .—Arsenic: 
acid is a more violent poison than even the arsenious. It 
is used in taxidermy, and in making aniline colors. 

Arsen'ical, a. Consisting of, or containing arsenic. 

Arsen'icate, v. a. To combine with arsenic. 

Ar'senide, Arseni'uretyn. (Chem.) A compound of 
arsenic with an elementary substance. The Arseniureted 
hydrogen is formed by decomposing an alloy of arsenic 
and zinc with sulphuric acid. It is a colorless gas, pos¬ 
sessing a fetid odor of garlic; it acts as a most deadly 
poison, a single bubble of the pure gas having been 
known to act fatally; when cooled to —40°, it condenses 
to a colorless liquid. Arseniureted hydrogen burns 
with a bluish flame, and deposits arsenic upon a cold 
body held in the flame; below a red heat, it is decom¬ 
posed into arsenic and hydrogen. Density 39; form. 
AsH 3 . 

Arseniosid'erite, n. (Min.) A mineral having fibrous 
concretions of a yellowish-brown color, approaching to 
golden, resembling cacoxenite; the fibres large and 
easily separable between the fingers. Lustre silky; 
powder yellowish-brown, rather deeper than yellow- 
ochre in color. Comp. Arsenic pentoxide, 37 8 ; iron 
sesquioxide, 42.1; calcium oxide, 18 3; water, 8 9. It 
occurs associated with manganese in France, and with 
erythrite at Schneeburg in Saxony. 

Arse'nious Acid, Arsenious Trioxide, White Ar¬ 
senic. (Chem.) A white substance known in commerce 
by the name of white arsenic, which is one of the most 
virulent poisons of the mineral kingdom. It frequently 
occurs in a native state, if not very abundantly; and it is 
obtained in roasting several ores, particularly those of 
cobalt. In the chimneys of the furnaces where this 
operation is conducted, it generally condenses in thick 
semi-transparent masses; though sometimes it assumes 
the form of a powder, or of little needles, in which state 
it was formerly called Jlowers of arsenic. The A. A. red¬ 
dens the most sensible blue vegetable colors, though it 
turns the syrup of violets green. On exposure to the air, it 
becomes opaque, and covered with a slight efflorescence. 
Thrown on incandescent coals, it evaporates in white 
fumes, with a strong smell of garlic. In close vessels it 
is volatilized; and, if the heat be strong, vitrified. 
The result of this vitrification is a transparent glass, capa¬ 
ble of crystallizing in reg. octohedra, the angles of which 
are truncated. It is easily altered by hydrogen and 
carbon, which deprive it of its oxygen at a red heat, and 
reduce the metal, the one forming water, the other car¬ 
bonic acid, with the oxygen taken from it. It is feebly 
soluble in water; it dissolves more readily in hydro¬ 
chloric acid, and is feebly soluble in solutions of the 
alkalies. Density (of vapor) 99; sp. gr. 3-6; form ASO 3 . 
As ordinarily sold in quantities under 10 lbs. in weight, 
the A • A. is required by law, in Europe, to be colored 
with g of its weight of indigo, or jg of its weight of 
soot; the object of the admixture being to render any 
liquid to which the A. A. might be added with a mur¬ 
derous intent, of a black or bluish-black hue, and thus 
indicate the presence of something unusual. The solu¬ 
tion of A. A. in water is recognized by three tests: 

1. Hydrosulphnric acid in acid solutions produces a 
yellow precipitate of sulphuride of arsenic, As 2 S 2 , solu¬ 
ble in ammonia. 2 . Ammonio-sulphate of copper, an 
apple-green precipitate of arsenic of copper, CuAs 2 0 6 . 

3. Ammonio-nitrate of silver, a yellow precipitate of 
arsenite of silver, Ag 4 As 2 0 s . The quantity necessary 
to destroy life, of course, varies, but it is stated that 2 
or 3 grains may prove fatal. Death may occur in a few 
hours, or after the lapse of days. A. A. has been used 
frequently as a slow poison, the symptoms being at¬ 
tributed to inflammation of the bowels from natural 
causes, but its detection is now easy. (See Arsenic.) — 
A. A. has long been used as a medicine. When taken 
into the stomach, it is soon absorbed into the blood, and 
circulates with that fluid, exhibiting great power over 
certain diseases, especially skin diseases, as psoriasis, 
lepra, eczema, &c. It is also classed among the tonic 
minerals, and given for nervous disorders, especially 
those that are periodic. It has been much recommended 
for rheumatism; and considered as holding the foremost 
place among the remedies for cholera. In ague, also, 
and remittent fever, as well as in other disorders origi¬ 
nating from the same source, A. and quinine are our 
chief remedies. They are considered to act as alteratives 
of the blood. The usual method of administering A. is 
in small doses (from three to five drops) of the liquor 
arsenical is. largely diluted with water, twice or thrice in 
aday. The influence of a minute quantity of A. A. on the 
human frame is a very curious question. Though strange 
it may seem, it is asserted that in Styria it is a common 
thing for the peasants to take 12 to 13 grains per day of 
white arsenic, to improve their wind. It appears to do 
them no harm, as long as they relinquish the use of it 
gradually when they reach 50 or 60 years of age. They 
begin by taking a single grain per day, increasing the 
dose until they arrive at their maximum. If the doses 
are discontinued suddenly, death, with all the symptoms 
of arsenical poisoning, is the result. 

Ar'senite, n. [Fr. arsenite .] A salt resulting of the 
union of arsenious oxide with a base. The general for¬ 
mula of the arsenites is MAsO a . The alkaline A. are 
soluble in water; those of the metals of the alkaline 
earths, and heavy metals, are insoluble in water. Some 
of them are employed in the arts and in manufacturing • 


as, for example, A. of copper, or Scheele’s green, and lii« 
Schweinfurth green, which is a double arsenite and ar- 
Reflate of copper, both of which are largely used as pig¬ 
ments. All the soluble A. are deadly poisonous sub¬ 
stances, which ought to be prohibited. Wherefore, 
it seems proved that rooms coated with Scheele's 
green are detrimental to the health of human beings 
residing therein, from the readiness with which minute 
particles of the poisonous pigment are detached from 
the walls by the slightest friction, are diffused through 
the room, and ultimately pass into the animal 
system. 

Arseni'uret, n. She Arsenide. 

Arsen i'll r«“te«l, a. Combined with arsenic. See 
Arsenide. 

Arsen'olite, n. (Min.) An isometric mineral; octolie- 
dronal; of vitreous or silky lustre; color white with an 
occasional yellowish or reddish tinge. Streak white, 
pale yellowish. Transparent, opaque; astringent, sweet¬ 
ish taste. Comp. Oxygen 24-24, arsenic 75-76:=100. It 
accompanies silver and lead ores, arsenical iron, cobalt, 
antimony, nickel, Ac., as a result of the decomposition of 
arsenical ores; and is found in Nevada and California. 

Arseno'pyrite, or Mispickel, n. (Min.) An ortho¬ 
rhombic mineral. Lustre metallic; silver-white, ap¬ 
proaching to steel-gray, in color; dark grayish-black 
streak; uneven in fracture, and brittle. Comp. Arsenic 
46-0, sulphur 19-6, iron 34-4~100. Part of the iron is 
sometimes replaced by cobalt. It is principally found in 
crystalline rocks, and is generally associated with silver, 
lead,and tin ores,and tin pyrite, ehalcopyrite,and blende. 
It is also found in serpentine. It occurs in many parts 
of the U. States and S. America. 

Arsc'sinart, n. (Bot.) A vulgar name of the knot¬ 
grass. See Polygonum. 

Arsi'noe, the sister and wife of Ptolemy Philadelphns, 
worshipped, after her death, under the name of Venus 
Zephyr ills. — Also the name of several other Egyptian 
queens and princesses. 

Ar'sis, n. [From Gr. aim, to raise.] (Pros.) That part 
of a poetical foot on which the stress of the voice falls, 
the rest of the foot being called the thesis. 

(Mas.) The raising of the hand, as applied to the beat¬ 
ing of time, the falling of the hand in the beats being 
called thesis. 

Ar'son, n. [O. Fr., from Lat. ardeo, arsum, to burn.] 
(Law.) The malicious setting on fire of the house or 
building of another. It is a felony at common law, and 
originally punishable with death. If homicide result, 
the act is murder. 

Art. [A.S. eart.) The second person, singular, indica¬ 
tive mrtod. present tense, of the substantive verb, am. 

Art, n. [Fr., from Lat. ars, arti»; from Greek arete, ex¬ 
cellence, virtue, power, skill.] The power of doing some¬ 
thing not taught by nature or instinct; as, to walk is 
natural, to dance is an art; —power or skill in the use 
of knowledge; the practical application of the rules, or 
principles of science. — A system of rules to facilitate 
the performance of certain actions; contrivance; dex¬ 
terity; address; adroitness. 

“ The art ot our necessities is strange, 

That can make vile things precious." — Shaks. 

—Cunning; artifice; deceit. 

••More matter with less art." — Shaks. 

—Profession, business, or trade. 

(Esthetics.) Art, as distinguished from science, con¬ 
sists of the truths disclosed by that species of knowledge 
disposed in the most convenient order for practice, in¬ 
stead of the best order for thought. Art proposes to it¬ 
self a given end, and, after defining rt, hands it over to 
science. Science, after investigating the causes and con¬ 
ditions of this end, returns it to art, with a theorem of 
the combination of circumstances under which the do. 
sired end may be effected. After receiving them, art in¬ 
quires whether any or all of those scientific combina¬ 
tions are within the compass of human power and hu¬ 
man means, and pronounces the end inquired after 
attainable or not. It will be observed iere, that all that 
art supplies is the major premise, or the assertion that 
the given aim is the one to be desired. The grounds of 
every rule of art are to be found in the theorems of sci¬ 
ence. An art can then only consist of rules, together 
with as much of the speculative propositions (which 
lose all their speculative look as soon as they come into 
the artist’s hands) as comprises the justification of 
those rules. Though art must assume the same general 
laws as science does, yet it follows them only into such 
of their detailed consequences as have led' to certain 
practical rules, and pries into every secret corner, as 
well as into the open stores of the household of science, 
bent on finding out the necessities of which she is in 
search, and which the exigencies of human life demand. 
Hence, as Edmund Burke wisely remarks, in his Treatise 
on the Sublime and Beautiful, “ Art can never give the 
rules that make an art.” It must always owe them 
to science. Whatever speaks in precepts or rules, ns 
contrasted with assertions regarding facts, is art; and 
hence it always adopts the imperative mood , whereas, 
science almost invariably adopts the indicative. Science 
is wholly occupied with declarations, while art is wholly 
engaged with injunctions that something should be done. 
Thus, the builder’s art desires to have houses, the archi¬ 
tect s art desires to have them beautiful; and the medi¬ 
cal art desires to cure diseases of the human body.—See 
Fine Arts. 

Art and part. (Laxo.) A phrase used in Scotland: when 
any one is charged with a crime, they say lie is art and 
part in committing the same, that is, he was concerned 
both in the contrivance and execution of it. The deri¬ 
vation of these words from the Latin artifex ct particeps. 




















ARTE 


ARTE 


ARTE 


159 


“ contriver and partaker,” seems evident; it is neverthe¬ 
less much contested. 

Ar ta, a town of Spain, in the island of Majorca; pop . 
4,996. 

Ar'ta, the ancient, Ambracia, capital of nome of same 
name in Greece, about 7 m. above the gulf of A.; esti¬ 
mated pop. (1897) 5,000. 

Ar 'ta, (Gulf of,) a deep inlet of the Ionian sea, between 
Albania and the N.W. part of Greece. At its entrance 
it is only 700 yards across. The fort of La Punta is there 
built on a long tongue of land called the promontory of 
Actiura. — See Actium. 

Artaba'nns IV., the last of the Parthian monarchs, 
wiio, in a.d. 217, escaping with great difficulty from a 
perfidious massacre commenced by the Romans under 
Caracalla, mustered an army, and engaged his foes in a 
battle which lasted for two days; but as the armies were 
preparing to renew the combat, A. was informed of 
Carwcalla’s death. Peace was then made on honorable 
terms. A. afterward incited his subjects to revolt, and 
in a battle, in 226, was taken and put to death. Thus 
ended, in the 3d century, the Parthian empire. 

Arlasi res. the last Arsacid king of Armenia. lie was 
placed on the throne by Bahrain V. of Persia, who after¬ 
ward deposed him and annexed his dominions to Persia, 
under the name of Persarmenia, 248 ». c. 

Arta'ta. (Com.) In Persia, a measure of quantity, 
equivalent to 1,S09 imp. bushels. 

Artavas'tles I., a king of Armenia, who succeeded his 
father Tigranes. He joined the Roman forces commanded 
by Crassus, but deserted to the enemy, causing the de¬ 
feat of the Romans, and the death of Crassus. He sim¬ 
ilarly betrayed Mark Antony when engaged against the 
Medes; but afterward falling into Antony’s power, A. 
was taken with his wife an.1 children to Alexandria, 
where they were dragged at the victor's chariot-wheels 
in golden chains. After the battle of Actium, Cleopatra 
caused his head to be struck off and sent to the king of 
Media. Reigned in the 1st century b. c. 

Artaxer'xes I., surnamed Longim anus, was the third 
sou of Xerxes, king of Persia, and, having murdered his 
brother Darius, ascended the throne 465 b. c. He d. 424 
b. c., and was succeeded by his only son Xerxes. This 
prince is generally supposed to have been the Ahasuerus 
of Scripture, who married Esther, and by whose permis¬ 
sion Ezra restored the Jewish religion at Jerusalem. 
Some modern authors, nevertheless, identify Ahasuerus 
with Xerxes. 

Artaxer'xes II., surnamed Mxemon, was the eldest son 
of Darius Nothus, and began his reign 405 b. c. His 
brother Cyrus formed a conspiracy against him, for 
which he was sentenced to death; but at the intercession 
of his mother Parysatis, the sentence was commuted to 
banishment to Asia Minor. Cyrus repaid this act of 
clemency by musteriug a large army of Asiatics, and 
some Greek troops under Clearchus, with whom he 
marched to Babylon; but being encountered by A., he 
was defeated and slain. The Greeks, however, escaped, 
and reached their own country, under Xenophon. A. 
died at the age of 94, after reigning 62 years. 

Artaxer'xes III., succeeded A. II., his father,359 b. c. To 
pave his way to the succession, he murdered two of his 
brothers, and afterward put to death all the remaining 
branches of the family. He suppressed several insur¬ 
rections which were raised against him, and in Egypt 
slew the sacred bull Apis, and gave the flesh to his sol¬ 
diers. For this, his eunuch, Bagras, an Egyptian, caused 
him to be poisoned, and after giving his carcass to cats, 
made knife-handles of his bones, 339 b. c. 

Art vxer'xes B jbegan, or Ardshir, the first king of Persia 
of the race of Sassanides, was a shepherd’s son; but his 
grandfather, by the mother’s side, being governor of a 
province, he was sent to the court of king Ardavan. On 
his grandfather’s death, A. being refused an appoint¬ 
ment, retired to Persia proper, where, exciting the people 
to revolt, he defeated and slew Ardavan and his son, on 
which he assumed the title of king of kings. He made 
vast conquests, and wisely administered the affairs of 
his kingdom. D. b. c. 24o. 

Arte' mis. (Myth.) A name of the goddess Diana. i 

Artemi'sia I., daughter of Lygdamis, and queen of 
Caria, who assisted Xerxes in person against the Greeks, 
and behaved with such valor that the Athenians offered 
a reward for her capture, and the Spartans erected a 
statue to her. Lived in the 5th century b. c. 

Artemi'sia II., queen of Caria, who erected so magnificent 
a monument to the memory of her husband Mausolus, 
that every splendid structure of this kind has been since 
styled a mausoleum. Lived in the 4th century b. c. 

Artemi'sia, n. [From artemis.] (Bit.) A gen. of plants, 
ord. Asleracece, and comprehending several valuable and 
interesting species. The aromatic and medicinal prop¬ 
erties of A. absinthium, the common wormwood, have 
been described under the names Absixthum, Absenthine, 
and Absinthe. Its flowers are arranged in globular 
heads, and are of a buff or yellowish color, blossoming 
in August. A. abrolanum is the southernwood, a fra¬ 
grant plant employed in Europe for making beer. The 
Persian species, A. acetica, is said to have the odor of 
strong vinegar; hence its name. The species A. alba, 
and others, are said to serve as nutriment to the herds 
of the Kirghis and Kalmucks. The anthelmintic known 
by the names Semonseriphii and Barbotine, consists of 
the flower-heads of A. cceridescens, a Mediterranean plant 
A. chinensis, and other species, are stated by Lindley to 
yield the moxa of China. It is prepared from the cot¬ 
tony or woolly covering of the leaves, and used as a 
cautery by burning it upon parts affected with gout and 
rheumatism. (See Moxa.) A. dracunculus is the tarra¬ 
gon, the leaves of which are used for flavoring vinegar 
in pickles and salads. A. gallica, termed in France san- 


guerie or sanguerite, possesses similar properties to the 
species Ccendescens. A. indica and madraspalana, both 
Indian species, are much used by the native doctors. 
The substance sold as wormseed, and known under the 
names of semen-contra, semeu-cin®, and semen-santoni- 
cum, consists of the broken flower-stalks, involucres, 
and flower-buds of A. contra, pauciflora, lercheana, 
sieberi, and valiana. It is employed as a vermifuge. 



Arte'riac, a. [See Artery.] Same as Arterial. 

— n. A medicine for diseases of the windpipe. 

Arte'rial, a. Pertaining to, or contained in, an artery 
or the arteries.—The name of arterial navigation is some¬ 
times figuratively given to navigation by means of a 
stream having numerous inland connections. 

Arterializa'tion, n. (Physiol.) The blood is the 
principal agent of nutrition. In its circulation through 
the body, it communicates to the organs, and loses con¬ 
sequently its nourishing properties. It reaches them of 
a bright vermilion color; when it leaves them it is 
dark and sombre-colored, and has lost its qualities of 
maintaining life. But the blood so altered has its vital 
properties restored by being exposed to the atmosphere. 
This important function is called respiration. The blood 
which has been exposed to the air is called arterial ; 
that which has already acted on the organs is called ve¬ 
nous; and the transformation of the venous into arterial 
blood is called arterialization. — See Circulation, and 
Respiration. 

Arte'rialize, v. a. To make arterial; to communicate 
to venous blood the qualities of arterial blood. 

Arteriog-'rapliy, n. [Gr. arteria, an artery, and 
grapho, to describe.] A treatise or discourse on the arte¬ 
ries. 

Arteriol'og’y, n. [Gr. arteria, and logos, a discourse.] 
Same as Arteriography. 

Arteriot'oiny, n. [Gr. arteria, and tome, a cutting.] 
(Surg.) The opening of an artery for the purpose of 
drawing blood; distinguished from phlebotomy, or vene¬ 
section, which is the opening of a vein. In ordinary 
cases the latter is always preferable to the former; but 
sometimes, when it is necessary to take a large quantity 
of blood from the system very rapidly, as in apoplexy, 
A. is adopted, and then it is generally the temporal ar¬ 
tery that is selected. 

Ar'tery, n. [Fr. artere; Gr. arteria, from aer, air, and 
tereo, to preserve or contain: so called because the an¬ 
cients believed that the arteries contained air only.] 
(Anal.) A membranous pulsating canal, that arises from 
the heart and gradually becomes less as it proceeds from it. 
A. are composed of three tissues: the inner, continuous 
with the inner membrane of the heart, resembles the 
serous membranes; the middle tissue is fibrous and 
elastic; the outer tissue, cellular and also elastic. The 
fibres of the middle tissue are disposed circularly. They 
are only two in number, the pulmonary A., and the 
aorta, and these originate from the heart; the pulmo¬ 
nary A. from the right ventricle, and the aorta, convey¬ 
ing the blood from the left to all parts of the body (Fig. 
2ul). The other arteries are all branches of the aorta. 
Fig. 120 explains perfectly the course of this great 
A., from its commencement in the heart to its termina¬ 
tion; also of all the great branches which arise from it. 
Their termination is either in the veins, or in capillary 
exhaling vessels, or they anastomose with one another. 
It is by their means that the blood is carried from the 
heart to every part of the body, for nutrition, preserva¬ 
tion of life, generation of heat, and the secretion of the 
different fluids. The action, called the pulse, corre¬ 
sponds with that of the heart, and is effected by the con¬ 
traction of their muscular, and great elasticity of thsir 
outermost coat. (See Circulation, and Heart.) — The 
pulmonary A., after emergingfrom the right ventricle of 
the heart, soon divides into a right and left branch. 


which are distributed by innumerable ramifications 
through the lungs. — The branches arising from the 
aorta have received different names. We have pointed 
out the principal of them in Fig. 120; the others will be 
found under their respective names. 



Fig. 201.— theoretical 

1. Aorta. 

2. Pulmonary artery. 

3. Vena cava sup. 

4. ** inf. 

5. Pulmonary veins. 

6. Right auricle. 


SECTION OF THE HEART. 
7- Left auricle. 

8. Tricuspid valve. 

9. Mitral valve. 

10. Right ventricle. 

11. Left ventricle. 

12. Septum. 


Arte'sia, in Mississippi, a post-office of Lowndes co, 
219 m. N. by W. from Mobile. 

Arte'sian Well. n. [Fr. artesien, from the province 
Artois, where A. W. were first made.] A well from which 
water is obtained at a very great depth below the sur¬ 
face of the ground, by boring through strata of various 
kinds through which water cannot pass, such as clay, to 
others of a light and porous character, which are charged 
with water. The flow of w T ater is obtained by hydro¬ 
static pressure. The principles of an A., and the way by 
which the water is obtained may be better understood by 
reference to Fig. 202, from which it will be presently seen 
that it would be useless to attempt to bore an A. W. on 
hills or elevated ground; but that they can only be mado 
with satisfactory results, in basin-shaped hollows of con¬ 
siderable extent, the porous strata of which, that con 
tain the water, crop out or come to the surface of tbo 
land above the level to which the water is required to 
rise. Let Fig. 202 represent the section of a basin, 
shaped tract of country, in which a peculiar stratum a a, 
suppose it to be chalk, sand, or any porous matter, rests 
upon a bed of clay, or upon rocks, c c, which will not 
admit of the escape of the water accumulated from the 



deposit of atmospheric moisture, in the form of rain or 
dew', along the hills. This stratum of chalk or sand is 
also covered with a tenacious mass of clay, or some other 
equally impervious body, D. Under these conditions it 
will be evident that the stratum a a becomes a reservoi 
of a greater or less extent, and if, by boring through tin! 
superincumbent mass, we form an opening into this 
stratum, as at b, the water will rise in it, and flow over 
in a jet proportional to the height of the w r ater in the 
stratum from which it flows. In a basin such as that 
described above, some miles in extent, liaving imper¬ 
meable strata lying immediately under the thin surface 
of the soil, there must necessarily be a deficiency in the 
supply of water, and itis for these districts that A. W. ;ire 
especially serviceable. There are many in the neighbor¬ 
hood of Vienna, and in the basins of London and Paris; 
among which maybe mentioned those which supply the 
fountains in 'Trafalgar square in the former city, and 
the famous well of Grenelle, near Paris, from which, 
after boring for 8 years, with frequent interruptions 
arising from the obstructions and accidents thatoccurred 
during the prosecution of the work, water was obtained 
at the depth of 1,800 feet below the surface, a distance 
of 1.700 feet below the sea-level. The water from this 
well rushes upward with such force as to rise 30 feet 
above the level of the surface. The temperature of this 
water never varies, and is about 81° Fahr. 'I lie French 
government have caused many A . 1U. to be sunk in differ¬ 
ent parts of Algeria, round which some of the wander¬ 
ing Arab tribes have settled, and formed villages. The 
operation is performed by rods from 15 to 20 feet in 
length, which can be attached to each other by male and 
female screw's. A boring-tool is fastened to the end of 
the lowest rod, and to the uppermost one a lever, turned 
by hand or power, by which the whole machine is turn¬ 
ed round. The machine somewhat resembles a gigantic 
auger or gimlet, and operates in a sim'lar manner. There 
are many A. in the U. States. In the arid regions of 
the West they are largely used in irrigation. 

(Continued in Section II.) 















160 


ARTH 


ARTI 


ARTI 


Ar'(ev(*l(lp, Jacob van, a celebrated Flemish patriot 
of the 14th century. Ilis riches, eloquence, and experi¬ 
ence in diplomatic business put him at the head of affairs 
in his native town of Ghent, at a time when the Flem¬ 
ings, subject to Louis II., count of Flanders, had resolved 
to extend their liberties, or at least to rid themselves of 
certain oppressive imposts. The French wars of Edward 
III. of England, in which he requested the assistance 
of the discontented Flemings against the lord-superior 
of their count, Philip VI. of Valois, presented a favor¬ 
able opportunity for revolt, and accordingly, in 1339, A ., 
acting for the duke of Brabant, the cities of Louvain, 
Ghent, and others, concluded a treaty with Edward, by 
which the English king, styling himself king of Franco, 
was acknowledged lord-superior of Flanders. The de¬ 
feat, however, which he sustained at St. Omer, obliged 
him to make peace with France, and a rupture ensued 
between the Flemings and their new superior. The 
alliance was revived after Edward's renewal of the war 
with Philip, and he was now persuaded by A. to make 
his son, the Black Prince, count of Flanders. This pro¬ 
ject was defeated, and A.’s career terminated, by a revolt 
of the citizens of Ghent against his authority. A., and 
60 of his friends, were murdered by a rabble of their 
fellow-citizens, on 2d May, 1346. 

Artc'velde, Philip van, son of the preceding, inherit¬ 
ing his father’s wealth, and something of his ambition 
and genius, lived in quiet in his native city of Ghent, 
till 1382, when his fellow-citizens, having revolted from 
Count Louis III. of Flanders, summoned him to the 
chief command of the city. After summarily avenging 
his father’s death, A. obliged Louis to raise the siege of 
Ghent, and pursued him to Bruges, where the Ghentois 
gained a great victory, which resulted in the flight of 
Louis, and the submission of most of the Flemish cities 
to the dictatorship of A. Charles VI. of France then 
interfered, and sent an army under Clisson to reinstate 
the count. On the 22d Nov, the French army, in which 
the king himself took a subordinate command, met the 
Flemings, commanded by A., at Ilosbeck. The battle 
which ensued resulted in the defeat of the Flemish 
troops, 9,000 of whom perished on the field, and 26,000 
in tlie pursuit. A. was found among the slain. A.’s 
career lxas been made the subject of a drama by Henry 
Taylor. 

Art'ful, a. Performed with art or skill; artificial; not 
natural; skilful; dexterous; cunuing; crafty; deceit¬ 
ful ; full of stratagems. 

“ O still the same, Ulysses, she rejoin'd. 

In useful craft successfully reBn d. 

Artful in speech, in aotion, and in mind." — Pope. 

Artfully, adv. With art; skilfully; dexterously; cun¬ 
ningly; craftily. 

Art'fnlness, re. Art; skill; cunning; craftiness. 

Artlirit'ic, Arthrit'ieal, a. [Gr arthritikos, from 
arthron, a joint.] Belonging or relating to joints; per¬ 
taining to arthritis or gout; gouty; its, “Frequent 
changes produce all the arthritic diseases.” 

Artliri'tis, n. [Gr.] (Med.) The gout. 

Arthro'rtia, n. [Gr., from arthron, a joint, and eidos, 
form.] (Anat.) A movable connection of bones, in which 
the head of one bone is received into the superficial cavity 
of another, so as to admit of motion in every direction, 
as the head of the humerus with the glenoid cavity of 
the scapula. 

Artltro'klial, Artlirod'ic, a. Pertaining or relat¬ 
ing to arthrodia. 

Artliro'dieue, n . [From arthrodia.] (Bot .) A term ap¬ 
plied to such algae as possess an articulated structure, 
like confervalese and oscillatorem. 

Arthrodyu'ia, n. [Gr., from arthron , a joint, and 
odyne, pain.] (Me/1.) Pain in a joint. It is one of the 
terminations of rheumatism. 

Artlirodyn'ic, a. (Med.) Relating to pain in a joint, 
or in the joints. 

Artlirol'ogy, n. [Gr. arthron, and logos, discourse.] 
(Med.) A treatise on, ora description of, the joints. 

Ar'tliur, a prince of the Silures, and king of Britain 
in the time of the Saxon invasions in the 5th and 6th 
centuries. A. was the son of Uther Pendragon, by 
Ignera, wife of Gorlois, duke of Cornwall, and was elected 
king of Britain at the age of 15. He immediately de¬ 
clared war against the Saxous in the north of Eugland, 
and defeated them so completely, that in one battle 
alone, it is said,he slew 500 Saxons with his own sword, 
the famous Caliber. He subdued the Piets and the Scots, 
and also Ireland and Iceland. After a long peace, during 
which he married the fair Guinevere, A. conquered 
Gaul and Norway, and even fought against the Mus¬ 
covite hordes. On the Romans demanding tribute, he 
crossed into Gaul, and defeated them in a mighty battle. 
Recalled to England by the revolt of his nephew Modred, 
allied to the Scots and Piets, A. fought against him 
in Cornwall his last battle, in which Modred was slain, 
and A. himself mortally wounded. He was buried at 
Glastonbury. It was long believed by his countrymen, 
that he was not dead, but carried to faery-land, there 
to repose on flowers until his deep wounds were healed, 
and that he would yet reappear, and, with his mighty 
sword, again lead them to victory over their enemies. 
The existence and exploits of A. and of his paladins, 
the Knights of the Round Table, whether they have 
any real foundation, or are but a mere historical fable, 
have been for ages the theme of minstrels and poets, 
i-ven down to the present day; for examples of which 
we may quote the famous romaunt of the Mori d'Arthur; 
and tlie Idylls of the King, the work of the great poet 
Tennyson. 

Artltur, Chester A. See Section II. 

A r't It tirshur" , in New York, a P. 0. of Duchess co. 

Arthur’s Seat, au emiueuce iu the vicinity of Edin-J 


burgh, the Scottish capital, 822 feet high. From its top 
is a view of magnificent extent. 

Ar'thurstown,aseaport of Ireland, in theco. Wexford, 
lying on Waterford harbor, 7 m. E. by S. of Waterford. 

Ar'tic, a. An old spelling of the word arctic, q. v. 

Ar tichoke, n. [Fr. artichaut; probably from Gr. 
artytikos, fit for seasoning.] The Cynaro scolymus, gen. 
Cynara, q. v., is a perennial, esculent plant, growing 
wild in the S. of Europe, and reared in gardens for use. 
They are cultivated from suckers arising in spring from 
the root of the old plants, and placed in rows 3 feet 
apart. By this process, artichokes may be produced in 
the autumn of the same year. The size of their fruit 
will gradually diminish, after the third or fourth year, 
though the roots continue sound for several seasons. A. 
flourish best in a rich and moist soil; but if it be too 
wet, the roots are apt to decay in severe irosts. When 
covered with straw in the autumn, they rot. The only 
precaution necessary to take, is to dig a ditch round the 
plant, to prevent the water from injuring them. The 
parts used are the receptacle, the lower part of the in¬ 
volucre, and the upper portion of the stalk. The A. is 
eaten raw, with salt, pepper, and oil; or it is boiled be¬ 
fore being sent to table. It is not extensively cultivated 
in America. 

Jerusalem A. See IIelianthus. 

Ar'ticle, n. [Fr., from Lat. articulus, dim. of artus, a 
joint; Gr. arOiros, a joint, from aro, to fit, to adapt.] A 
particular part of any complex thing; a single clause of 
iin account, writing, or document. — A condition of a 
bargain; astipulation.—A particular commodity or sub- 
stanco; as, au article of food.—The different species of 
goods that a merchant has in his store; as, “These 
articles are sold at fixed prices.” — A point of faith; as, 
“ the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England.” 

(Gram.) A part of speech prefixed to substantives in 
order to render their meaning more or less definite. Tlie 
Greeks had only the definite article; the Latins had 
none, but used, instead, the demonstrative pronouns. 
In English there are two articles—the definite, the, and 
the indefinite, a or an. 

(Lit.) A complete portion of any literary work which 
treats of various topics separately; as, “An article iu a 
newspaper, or review.” 

(Law.) A division or paragraph of a document or 
agreement. A specification of distinct matters agreed 
upon, or established by authority, or requiring judicial 
action. — Articles of agreement. A written memorandum 
of the terms of an agreement. — Articles of impeachment. 
A written articulate allegation of the causes for impeach¬ 
ment.— Articles of partnership. A written agreement 
by which parties enter into a partnership upon the con¬ 
ditions therein mentioned. — Articles of the peace. A 
complaint made before a court of competent jurisdiction 
by one who has just cause to fear that an injury to his 
person or property is about to be committed or caused 
by the party complained of, alleging the causes of his 
belief, and asking the protection of the court. — Articles 
of war. The code of laws established for the govern¬ 
ment of the army. The term is used in this sense both 
in Eugland and in the U. States. The term also includes 
the code established for the government of the navy.— 
Bouvier. 

Ar'ticle, v. a. To draw up in articles or particulars; 
to accuse or charge by articles; to bind by articles. 

— v. n. To stipulate; to make terms. 

44 He has not infringed the least title of what was articled."—Donne. 

Ar'ticled, a. Bound by articles to render services in 
return for instruction, as apprentices or pupils.— Wor¬ 
cester. 

Ar'ticles of t on federa tion. The title of the 

compact which was made by the 13 original States of the 
U. States of America. It was adopted and carried into 
force on the first day of March, 1781, and remained as 
the supreme law until the first Wednesday of March, 
1789. 

Ar'ticles of Faith. (Eccl. Hist.) A point of Christian 
doctrine established by the Church, as the Thirty-nine 
Articles of the Churc h of England, for which see Prot¬ 
estant Episcopal Church. 

Artic'ular, a. [Lat. articularis, from articulus, a joint.] 
Belonging to the joints, or to an article. 

Artic'uiarly, adv. Articulately. 

Articula'tioii, n. [Fr., from Lat. articulatin.J (Gram.) 
Literally, uttering “ by joints” (see Article) ; hence, the 
sounding of letters or of syllables distinctly and apart 
from each other. Therefore, a good A. consists in giving 
every letter and syllable of a word its due pronunciation. 
Exactness in A. corresponds to propriety iu spelling, and 
is an object that ought to be aimed after by all. The 
Greeks and Romans paid particular attention to this 
subject, which constituted a principal branch of instruc¬ 
tion: and the smallest error in pronunciation was re¬ 
garded by them as disgraceful. An indistinct A. usually 
arises from too great precipitancy of speech, or from an 
improper use of the vocal organs. The latter of these 
may be cured by attending to the proper position of the 
tongue, lips, &c., in the formation of each letter; the 
former is to be got over by continued practice in reading 
aloud slowly and distinctly. 

(Anat.) The skeleton is composed of a great number 
of bones, which are all so admirably constructed, and 
with so much affinity to each other, that the extremity 
of every bone is perfectly adjusted to the end of the 
bone with which it is connected; and this connection is 
termed their articulation. The articulations are divided 
into diarthroses, or movable articulations, and synarthro¬ 
ses, or immovable. — See Skeleton. 

(Bot.) See Joint. 

Articiila'ta, Artic'ulated Animals, n.pl. (Zool.) A 
branch of the animal kingdom, the species of which are 


characterized by the body being composed or movanh 
pieces, jointed or articulated to each other. There an 
many classes and orders belonging to this division 
varying considerably from each other in form and struo 
ture, but all agreeing in their nervous system. Thb 
consists of either a very small brain, 
and two nervous chords surrounding 
the oesophagus or gullet, and con¬ 
tinued along the abdomen, but unit¬ 
ing here and there into knots, called 
ganglia, as in Fig. 203, representing 
the magnified nervous system of an 
insect; or of merely two ganglia, ono 
in the head, and the other in the 
thorax, and unit ed by slender threads. 

Respiration is effected either by bran¬ 
chial, a species of gill; or by tracheae, 
or air-tubes. They have red blood. 

The division of articulated animals 
contains the A nnulosa, or worms; the 
Crustacea ; the Cirripedia, or barna¬ 
cles; the Rotifera, or wheel-animal¬ 
cules ; the Myriapoda; the Insecta, 
or insects, and the Arachnida, or spi¬ 
ders. 

Arf ie ulate. a. [Lat. articulatus.] 

Separated into distinct members, 
or joints ; articulated. Uttered dis¬ 
tinctly, as sounds; distinct; clear. 

— v. n. To utter distinct sounds, syl¬ 
lables, or words. 

— v. a. To form into distinct elemen¬ 
tary sounds, syllables, or words; to 
speak, utter, or pronounce distinctly. 

— n. (Zool.) One of the articulata. 

Articulated, p.a. U ttered, spoken, 
or pronounced distinctly. 

(Zobl.) Having articulations.—Fee 
Articulata. 

(hot.) Jointed. 

Artic'ulately, adv. Distinctly; clearly; with dis¬ 
tinct utterance of syllables or words. 

Artic'lllateness, n. The quality of being articulate. 

Ar'tilice, n. [Fr.; Lat. artifieium, from ars, artis, art, 
and facia, to make.] An artful or skilful contrivance or 
device; trick; fraud; cunning; imposition; craft; strat¬ 
agem. 

“It needs no legends, no service In an unknown tongue: none of 
all these laborious artifices of ignorance; noue of all these cloaks 
and coverings.”— South. 

Artificer, n. [See Artifice.] A person who works 
with his hands in (he manufacture of anything. He is 
usually a person of intellectual acquirements, and inde¬ 
pendent of mere manual labor, placing him above the 
artisan, whose knowledge is limited to the general rules 
of his trade. 

—An artist; a maker; a contriver; an inventor. 

“ Th* artificer of lies 

Renews th* assault, and his last battery tries." — Dryden, 

(Mil.) A soldier-mechanic attached to the artillery, 
and engineer services, designed to be employed in the 
construction and repair of war-materials, &c. 

Artificial, a. Made or contrived by art or skill; not 
natural. 

“ The curtains closely drawn the light to screen. 

As if lie had contrived to lie unseen; 

Thus cover’d with an artificial night, 

Sleep did his office.’* — Dryden* 

—Fictitious; not genuine; as, artificial tears; artificial 
majority. — Cultivated; not indigenous; not being of 
spontaneous growth; as, “l’luuts forced by artificial 

process.” 

(Rhet.) A. arguments, aro proofs on considerations 
arising from the genius, industry, or invention of the 
orator; in contradistinction from laws,authorities, cita¬ 
tions, and the like, which are said to be inartificial ar¬ 
guments. 

(Math.) A. lines, on a scale or sector, are lines so con¬ 
trived as to represent the logarithmic sines and tan¬ 
gents; which, by the help of the line of numbers, solve 
with tolerable exactness, questions in trigonometry, 
navigation, &c. — A. numbers. Tlie same as logarithms. 

Artili'cial !■'lowV rs, ( Manf.) This manufacture 
has latterly been carried to a wonderful degree of per¬ 
fection, ; he imitation of natural flowers being so exact 
as to mislead even artists. The greatest ingenuity is dis¬ 
played in the imitation of certain flowers; even in a 
common cheap sprig, consisting of several materials well 
put together and arranged. The leaves and petals ar« 
generally made of silk, or cambric, punched out to 
proper shapes and sizes. These are tinted with a brush 
and color, and, it necessary, glazed with gum. or sprinkled 
with fine flock, to imitate the glossy or velvety surface 
of natural flowers. 'The ribs, where present, are indented 
with a warm iron. The stamens and pistils are formed 
of wire covered with silk, and dipped in gum-water to 
form the anthers. The stalk is then made of wire, 
coated with green paper, and fixed to tlie stamens and 
pistil, around which are attached the petals, and, 
lastly, the calyx. Buds are made of cotton or glass ball* 
covered with cambric of a proper color. The French 
excel in tlie manufacture of these pretty frivolities. 
This industry has been successfully naturalized in tLa 
U. States, where a large number of girls are constantly 
employed in making flowers. The coloring matter, how¬ 
ever, used for these articles, is often nothing less than 
tlie deadly poison arsenic. Hoffman, and other chem¬ 
ists, have shown that the most terrible effects may 
spring from the use of these arsenical compounds; and 
it is to be hoped that their use will be speedily discon¬ 
tinued. 




















ARTI 


ARTI 


ARTU 


161 


Artificial ity, n. The quality or state of being arti¬ 
ficial: artificialness. 

Art ifi'cially, adv. In an artificial manner. 

Artifi'cialness, n The quality of being artificial. 

Art'ilize, v. a. To give an appearance of art to; to make 
to seem artificial. 

Artillerist. n. One who manages artillery; one 
skilled in gunnery. 

Artil'lery, n. [Fr. artiUerie.; from O. Fr. artiller, to 
make or form by art, to make implements or weapons: 
from Lat. ars, arhs, art.] (Mil.) In the most appropriate 
application of the word, A. means the guns, mortars, how¬ 
itzers, and other large pieces for discharging shot and 
shell by the expansive force of gunpowder. In a more 
general sense, it denotes all kinds of engines of war, an- 
cieut and modern, by which darts, stones, bullets, Ac., 
were shot forth in battle. A. is divided into land A. 
and marine A. The former is subdivided into field, coast, 
garrison, and siege A. Field A. accompanies cavalry and 
infantry, or arms any field-works that may be thrown up; 
coast, garrison, and siege A. consist of the heaviest guns 
that can be brought to bear iu each particular case. The 
term A. has, since the invention of gunpowder, been re¬ 
stricted to such large pieces of ordnance as cannons, 
howitzers, mortars, and rockets; but including, also, 
the troops required for their working, the carriages, 
ammunition, Ac. Yet, in its broadest signification, the 
term implies all kinds of missiles employed in warfare, 
with the machines used in propelling them. The earliest 
of these military engines were probably used for casting 
stones of enormous weight. In 2 Chron. xxvi. 15, we 
read of Uzziab, that “he made in Jerusalem engines 
invented by cunning men to be upon the towers and 
upon the bulwarks to shoot arrows and great stones 
withal.” From the writings of Cassar. Cicero, Livy, 
Seneca, and Tacitus, we gather, that the principal en¬ 
gines of A. of the Romans were the balista or ballista, 
tor casting stones, and the catapulta for propelling darts 
and arrows. A. does not seem to have been known in 
England earlier than the Norman invasion; but the 
Normans appear to have introduced such machines, in 
the form of contrivances for discharging arrows, at the 
battle of Hastings. Edward I. is said to have used en¬ 
gines at the siege of Stirling Castle, in 1303, throwing 
stones of 300 lbs. in weight. Although it can be shown 
that the explosive force of gunpowder was understood 
in the East much earlier than the 12th century, the 
date when it became known to Roger Bacon; yet, it was 
not until long afterward, that fire-arms superseded the 
ancient war-engines we have hitherto included as A. 
Col. Chesney, in his “ Observations on Fire-anus,” thus 
traces the introduction of the new form of A. into Eu¬ 
rope:— The Moors, according to Conde, used A. against 
Saragossa in 1118; and in 1132, a culverin of 1th calibre, 
named Salamonica, was made. In 1157, when the Span¬ 
iards took Niebla, the Moors defended themselves with 
machines which threw darts and stones by means of 
fire; and, in 1157, Abd-el-Mumen, the Moorish king, cap¬ 
tured Mohadin, a fortified city near Bona, from the Si¬ 
cilians by the same means. In 1280, A. was used against 
Cordova, and ip 1306, or 1308, Ferdinand IV. took Gi- 
bral tar from the Moors by its means. Ibn-Hassan-ben-Bin, 
of Granada, mentions that guns were adopted from the 
Moors, and were used in Spain in the 12th century, and 
that balls of iron were thrown by means of fire, in 1331. 
Barbour, in his “ Metrical Life of Robert Bruce,” says 
that cannon or “ crakys of war,” as he terms them, were 
employed by Edward III. in his earliest campaign 
against the Scots in 1327. Du Cange asserts that cannon 
were used by the French at the siege of Puy-Guillaume, 
in 1338; but Rapin, on the other hand, relates, that, so 
unacquainted were the French with these destructive 
engines, that four small cannons, used by Edward III. at 
the battle of Cressy, in 1346, contributed, as much by the 




Fig. Vyi. —1. French cannon, (time of Charles VII., 1440.) The 
first one used for iron balls. 

2. One of the famous guns of the Emperor Charles V., called 
the “ Twelve Apostles," (Palace of the Invalides, Paris.) 

surprise as the slaughter they created, to the success of 
the day. The earliest cannon were clumsy and ill-con¬ 
trived machines, wider at the mouth than at the cham¬ 
ber, and consisting generally of a series of iron bars sol¬ 
dered together lengthwise, and hooped about with iron 
rings. The projectiles were made of stone. Cannon 
were first cast in England in 1521; and in 1535, as Stowe 
informs us, “ John Owen began to make brass ordnance, 
as cannons, culverines, and such-like.” It was usual, 
about this period, to apply to cannon the names of cer¬ 
tain birds and beasts, in fancifnl allusion to their swift¬ 
ness, or cruelty. Thus arose the terms falcon, falconet, 
cuherin, taker, basilisk, siren, dragon, Ac. Cannon have 
long been named according to the weight of the ball 


they propelled, as 10-pounder, 12-pottnder, Ac., but it is 
now largely the practice to name them from the diam¬ 
eter of the bore, as 8-inch, 12-inch, 15-inch, Ac.—We 
first find mention of shells as projectiles in the siege 
of Naples by Charles VIII., in 1435. The howitzer, an 

- improved form of mortar, was first used in 1697, and 
the carronade about 1779. Congreve rockets, invented 
by Sir William Congreve, were first employed at the 
siege of Copenhagen. The rifling of cannon has added 
immensely to their effectiveness, and this system was 
soon applied to howitzers and later to mortars, greatly 
increasing their range. Large rifled cannon are now 
constructed with an effective range of from 8 to 12 
miles. Rifled cannon were first used in the Italian 
campaign of 1859, and have since been adopted by all 
nations. The Gatling gun, a machine gun invented by 
R. I. Gatling, of Indiana, in 1861, was followed in 
France by the mitrailleuse. These have given rise to the 
Gardiner, the Lowell and the Hotchkiss, all of which 
were invented in this country, and to others designed in 
Europe. These so-called “machine-guns” pour out an 
incessant shower of bullets with most destructive result. 
Tire effectiveness of A. in warfare has been greatly en¬ 
hanced iu recent years by the invention of “ rapid-fire ” 
guns, ranging as high as 6 iuches in caliber. These are 
of the breech-loading type and their construction is 
such as to permit very rapid service in action. See 
Cannon, Armstrong, Dahlguen, Lancaster, Parrott, 
Remington and Whitworth Guns, Ordnance, Rifle, 
Shell, Ac. 

Artil'lery Corps. (Mil.) When large balls of iron 
came to be propelled to great distances by the irresist¬ 
ible force of gunpowder, a great revolution gradually 
took place in military tactics. A body of men were set 
apart to study the force and action of gunpowder, the 
flight and range of projectiles, the weight and strength 
of cannon,and the manoeuvring of heavy masses of troops. 
The French were the first to make these researches: after 
them, the English ; and still later, the Germans. During 
the Thirty Years’ War, an important step was taken in 
Germany — that of including the artillerymen, who 
were till then a sort of guild, as a component in the 
regular army. Gustavus Adolphus in Sweden, Frederick 
II. in Prussia, and Napoleon I. in France, all attached a 
very high degree of importance to the artillery as an 
arm of the service. After the great wars in the be¬ 
ginning of the present century, all the states of Eu¬ 
rope formally recognized artillery as the third great 
branch of military service; and in many of them, as 
France, Italy, and Russia, A. ranks before cavalry and 
infantry. The A. of the United States is divided as 
follows, according to its duties: — Heavy or foot A. 
is that portion which takes charge of, and manoeu¬ 
vres the siege, sea-coast, and mountain A. Light or 
field A. is that portion which manceuvres field-pieces 
with troops in the field. It is divided into horse A. 
and mounted batteries. In horse A., the gunners, of 
which there are 7 to each piece, are mounted on horses, 
from which they have to dismount before attending to 
the piece, the two extra men holding the horses of the 
rest. In the mounted batteries, formerly called foot A., 
the gunners are on foot, and remain so during the ma¬ 
noeuvres of the battery, except when it is desired to move 
at a very rapid rate, when they are mounted on the am¬ 
munition boxes. The horse A. was originally, and is 
still, designed for service along with cavalry, receiving 
the lightest guns, which enables it to move at the same 
rate as the cavalry, and to keep up with it for a con¬ 
siderable time. In time of peace, a battery of field A. is 
to be composed of 4 pieces; in time of war, of 6 or 8. 
In peace, each battery will have 76 men and 44 horses; 
in preparing for war, 10U men and 80 horses; and in war, 
150 men and 110 horses. This.supposes these batteries to 
be formed of pieces of the smallest calibre. For heavy 
pieces, of course, these numbers would have to be in¬ 
creased. For the effective force of our A., see United 
States. 

Artil'lery, Park of. (Mil.) That place in a camp, 
or the rear of an army, where the artillery is placed. 
The artillery is drawn up in lines, one of which is formed 
by the guns, the others by the ammunition wagons, 
pontoons, &c.; and the whole is usually surrounded by 
ropes. The term park of artillery is also applied to the 
entire complement of guns, wagons, caissons, Ac., 
necessary for siege oi field operations. 

Artil'lery, Trains of. (Mil.) A number of pieces of 
ordnance mounted on carriages, with all their furniture, 
Ac., in marching order. 

Ar'tisan, n. [Fr.; see Art.] One trained to manual 
dexterity; a mechanic; a handicraftsman. 

Ar'tist. n. [Fr. artiste; from Lat. ars, artis, art.] One 
who is skilled in the exercise of any of the liberal arts, 
such as painting, sculpture, music, Ac.; the professor of 
any liberal or mechanical art. The term is especially 
applied to those who follow painting and sculpture as a 
profession; the other A. being commonly designated by 
a term taken from the art to which they are devoted; as, 
a musician, a literateur, Ac. In early times, the expres¬ 
sion was used to denote a proficient in the 7 liberal arts 
which formed the prinoipal course of study at the univer¬ 
sities; viz., grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, music, 
geometry, and astronomy. By Paracelsus it is used to 
signify a chemist, or rather alchemist. In an extended 
sense, the term artist is frequently applied to a person 
skilled in any art, as a hair-dresser, a cook, Ac. In this 
case, artist is commonly written with the Freneh spell¬ 
ing, artiste. 

Artis'tic, Artis'tical, a. Pertaining or relating to 
the fine arts, or to an artist; conformable to art. 

Artis'tioally, adv. In an artistic manner. 

Ar'tistry, n. Works of art. (r.) 


Artless, a. Wanting art or skill. 

“ The high-shoed ploughman should he quit the land, 

Artless of stars, and of the moving sand.”— Dryden. 

—Simple; unaffected; as, “an ai-tiess tale.”—Sincere; with* 
out guile or fraud; as, “artless maid.” 

Artlessly, adv. In an artless manner. 
Art'lessness. n. Quality of being artless; want of art 
or skill; absence of guile or fraud. 

Artocarpa'cese, Artocar'pads, n.pl. (Bot.) An order 
of plants, alliance Urticales. — Diag. Milky juice, large 
convolute stipules, solitary erect or suspended ariles, a 
straight exalbuminous embryo, and superior radicle. 
This ol der includes 23 genera and 54 species, all belong¬ 
ing to the tropics of both worlds. The artocarpads 
exude a milky acrid juice, the nettles a watery secretion. 
The celebrated Upas-tree, Anliaris toxicaria, named also 
Antjar-poison, is the most dangerous species. Extraor¬ 
dinary fabulous tales used to be told about this tree, 
which is a native of the island of Java, and was said to 
be so exceedingly poisonous, that no one could even 
approach it without certain death. Notwithstanding 
the exaggeration of these statements, there remains no 
doubt that the upas is a plant of extreme virulence. 
The stem when wounded exudes a gum resin containing 
strychnia, which, when introduced into the animal 
economy, produces vomiting, purging, and finally death, 
with tetanic convulsions. Even linen fabricated from 
its tough fibre is so acrid as to verify the story of the 
shirt of Nessus; for it excites the most distressing itch¬ 
ing if insufficiently prepared. The natives of Java and 
Borneo use it mixed up with the Capsicum fruticosum, 
and some other substances, to steep their arrows in. It 
is said to act more powerfully when it is dried on the 
arrows than when used moist. The most important 
plant of the A. is the Bread-Fruit, Artocarpus incisa : 
the massive heads into which its fruits are collected 
representing the typical condition of the genera of this 
order. The Bread-Fruit tree, Fig. 205, is about the thick¬ 
ness of a man, and grows to the height of 40 feet in hot 
and damp places. The fruit is about the size of a melon, 
and the seeds are large nut-like bodies, which when 
roasted are said to be as good as the best chestnuts. The 
fleshy receptacle, however, is themost valuable part of the 
fruit. It is as white as snow’, and of the consistence of 
new bread, and when roasted becomes excellent food, 
tasting like wheaten bread mixed with Jerusalem arti 



Fig. 205.— artocarpus incisa. 

(The Bread-Fruit Tree.) 

chokes. A cloth is made from the fibres of the inner 
bark; the wood is used for making boats and building 
houses; the male catkins serve as tinder; the leaves 
are used as tow’els, table-cloths, and to wrap provisions 
in; and the juice, for making bird-lime, and for filling 
up the cracks of water-vessels. 

Artocar'pus, n. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Artocar- 
pacea:, q. v. 

Artois, (ar-twa',) an ancient province of France, now 
forming the greatest part of the department of Pas-de- 
Calais. Its capital was Arras. It is from the name of 
this province that the word Artesian, as applied to 
wells, is derived. 

—Before ascending the throne of France, Charles X. was 
known under the name of Comte d’Artois. 

Ar'ton. in Maine, a township of Penobscot co. 

Arts'man, n. A man skilled in arts, (o.) 

Art-U'nions,«.pl. (Fine Arts.) Institutions formed with 
the object of promoting a more liberal patronage of, and 
a livelier interest on the part of the general public in, the 
fine arts. The original idea of A.-V. belongs to France, 
in the days of the first Napoleon. They were afterw ard 
established in Belgium, and, 10 years later, were encour¬ 
aged and adopted in Germany. The .4.-17. of Malines 
commenced its operations in 1812; that of Munich in 
1823. The eminent Alex, von Humboldt, who took great 
interest in these institutions, recommended their adop¬ 
tion; and his advice was followed in Leipzig, Dresden, 
Berlin. Halberstadt, Breslau, and other cities and towns; 
and, in 1833, nearly every important town in Germany 
could boast of its A.-U. Since then groups of associations, 
each including several towns, such as Hanover, Cassei, 
Brunswick. Gotha, Halberstadt, Magdeburg, and Halle, 
have been formed for the encouragement of works of the 
highest class of art; and the influence of these (esthetic 
associations in improving and refining the general public 
taste, by the collection and distribution of modern works 













































1G2 ARY A 


ct' art, has been most powerful and beneficial. From 
Germany, A.-U. were introduced into England, where they 
were formed in the hope of offering to artistic genius and 
talent a higher aim and purpose than mere imitation. 
Many societies of this kind exist in this country, but they 
are all, unhappily, of a local character. An Art-Union, 
extending over the different States, with annual exhibi¬ 
tions in our principal cities by turns, and closing with a 
distribution for the pecuniary benefit of the artists rep¬ 
resented, would have an immense influence in encourag¬ 
ing art. The periodical exhibitions of the works of our 
great artists would also tend to cultivate, and extend 
among the population of the U. States, a taste for the 
fine arts, and largely develop the artistic genius of the 
nation. 

Art/Yin, a town of Asiatic Russia, 35 m. from Batoum; 
pop, about 7,000. 

Ar'tus, H. ; pi. Auttjs. [Lat.] (Anal.) A limb. 

Ar'u, or Ar'oo Islands, (“The islands of the Casu- 
arina trees,”) a group of islands in the Indian ocean, 
lying to the S. and YV. of New Guinea, between lat. 5° 
30' and 7° S. They number about 80, are very low, and 
form a chain about 100 m. long, and 50 broad. They 
are thickly wooded, and swampy. The natives are mild 
and tractable, a few of them being Christians, cultivat¬ 
ing maize and rice, and principally living by fishing. 
Exp. Pearls, mother-of-pearl shells, birds of paradise, 
and tripang. These islands are under the protection of 
the Dutch. Total population was estimated to he abuui 
00,000 at the end of 1896. 

A'ruiu, n. [Coptic aron, the name of the Egyptian 
snecioa A. colocasia.] (Hot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Aracea. 
The dragon-root, or jack-in-the-pulpit, inhabitant of wet 
woodlands, is common in the U. States. Its scape, 8-12' 
high, is erect, round, embraced at the base by the long 
sheaths of the petioles. Fruit, a bunch of bright scarlet 
berries. The corm loses its fiercely acrid principle by 
dryiug, and is then valued as a carminative. The corms 
of the A. maculatum, are macerated, steeped, and the 
powder obtained from them is eaten by country people 
•n England under the name of Portland sago. They are 
universally cultivated in India, and known there under 
the names of kuchoo and gaglee. 

A'ruin, a town of Arabia, in Yemen, 46 m. N.E. of 
Chamer. 

Ar'undel, a town of England, in the co. of Sussex, 55 
m. S.S.YY. of London. There is here a magnificent baro¬ 
nial castle of Norman origin, which forms the principal 
residence of the great family of Howard, dukes of 
Norfolk. Pop. 2,496. 

Arunile'Iian Marbles, the name given to a collec¬ 
tion of ancient sculptured marbles, discovered by Wil¬ 
liam Petty, who explored the ruins of Greece, at the ex¬ 
pense of, and for Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel, who 
livedin thetime of James I. and Charles I., and devoted 
a large portion of his fortune to the collection of monu¬ 
ments illustrative of the arts, and of the history, of 
Greece and Borne. These marbles, named in honor of 
their purchaser, arrived in England, in 1627. A part of 
this celebrated collection was afterward presented by 
the grandson of the collector to the University of Ox¬ 
ford, where they still remain. 

Aru ml if'erous, a. [Lat. arundo, a reed, and fe.ro, to 
bear.] Producing reeds. 

Arundina'ceous, a. [Lat. arundinaceus.] Of or like 
reeds. 

Arundin'eous, a. [Lat. arundineus.] Abounding with 
reeds. 

Arun'do, n. [Lat., reed.] (Pot.) A gen. of plants, ord. 
Graminacea. —Diau. Spikelets many-flowered; glumes 2, 
awnless, lanceolate, unequal; lower flower perfect and 
naked at the base; the others perfect, pedicellate; pal® 
unequal, the lower one mucronate, acuminate or slightly 
awned. The species attain frequently a considerable 
size. The A. Phragmites or Phragmites communis, tne 
common Reed, found in swamps and about ponds, is a 
well-known species, the culms being largely employed 
for thatching and other useful purposes. 

Aru'ra, n. [Gr. aroyra, arable land.] ( Antiq .) A Greek 
measure of surface, 100 Egyptian cubits in every direc¬ 
tion, or 21-904 English square feet. 

(Law.) Formerly a day’s work at the plough, 

Ar'uspex, n.; pi. Aruspices. [Lat.] An aruspice. 

Ar’uspice, H\r'Uspice, n. [Lat. aruspex, from arits, a 
ram, and specio, to view.] (Antiq.) The aruspices were 
Roman priests and prophets, who foretold events from 
observing the entrails of sacrificed animals. They ob¬ 
served, too, all the circumstances which accompanied or 
happened during the sacrifice; e. g., the flame, the mode 
in which the animal behaved, the smoke. Their origin is 
to be sought for in Etruria. They were introduced into 
Rome by Romulus, where they enjoyed their authority 
till the time of the emperor Constantine, 337 a.d., who 
prohibited all soothsaying on pain of death. Their 
number, at that time, was 70; their chief priest was called 
summus aruspex, or magister publicus. —The name of A. is 
sometimes applied to any kind of soothsayer or prophet. 

Arus'picy, n. (Antiq.) The art of the aruspices. It was 
considered by the Romans so important at one time, that 
the senate decreed that a certain number of young 
Etruscans, belonging to the principal families in the 
state, should always lie instructed in it. In later times, 
however, their art fell into disrepute among well-edu¬ 
cated Romans; and Cicero relates a saying of Cato, that 
he wondered that one aruspice did not laugh when he 
saw another. 

Ar've, a river in Savoy, France, which, after a course of 
45 miles, falls into the Rhone near Geneva. 

Ar'vel, A evil, Arval, n. [W. arwyl, from wylo, to weep, 
and ar. over ] A funeral. — A word only used in the 
north of England. 


AS 


ASAR 


A'ryan, Indo-Germanic, and Indo-European, I.an< 
giiages. (Pliilol.) The diflerent names given by dif¬ 
ferent philologists to one ol the three great iauiilies into 
which the tongues of the Mediterranean branch of the 
white race are divided. The tamily was also formerly 
called the Japhetic or Japetic family ; but it is held by 
the more scientific grammarians of the present time, 
that A. is the most appropriate technical term, inasmuch 
as A. was the name adopted by those ancient tribes trom 
whom we have preserved the oldest texts in this lin¬ 
guistic stock. There are likewise two other groat lami- 
lies of languages in Asia, known respectively as the 
Semitic and the Turanian, both of which will be treated 
of iu their proper places. To deal here with the A. 
languages:—Tne A. family of languages may, at the 
outset, be broadly classified into two great divisions: 
The Asiatic division, containing two main classes, the 
Indie and Iranic. The Indie branch comprises, as living 
languages, the Aryan dialects of India, and the dialect 
of the Gypsies; as dead languages, the Prakrit and Pali, 
the modern Sanscrit, and the Vedic Sanscrit. The 
Iranic brauch comprises, as living languages, the dia¬ 
lects of Persia, Afghanistan, Kurdistan, Bokhara, Arme¬ 
nia, and the Ossetic; aud, as dead languages, the Parsi, 
Pehli, the cuneiform inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes, 
the Zend, and the old Armenian. The European divi¬ 
sion of the A. family of languages contains six chief 
classes. 1. The Celtic has two branches, the Cymric 
and the Gaelic. To the Cymric belongs the dialects of 
Wales aud Brittany, and the Cornish, the latter being 
a dead language. To the Gaelic branch of the Celtic 
class belong the dialects of Scotland, Ireland, and that 
of the Isle of Man, or Manx. 2. The Italic class em¬ 
braces the dialects of Portugal, Spain, Provence, France, 
Italy, and Wallachia, as well as the dead languages 
known as the Langue d’Oc, Langue d’Oil, and the 
Oscan, Latin, and Umbrian. 3. The lllyric class con¬ 
tains the dialects of ancient Illyria aud modern Albania. 
4. The Hellenic class comprises the dialects spoken in 
Greece at the present time, together with the Doric, 
iEolic, Attic, and Ionic, the four latter being dead lan¬ 
guages. 5. The Letto-Slavic class comprises within 
itself the living dialects of Lithuania, Courland, and 
Livonia (Lettish), as well as the old Prussian, which last 
is reckoned its a dead language ; the living dialects of 
Russia (Great, Little, and YVhite), Illyria, (Slavonian, 
Croatian, Servain), Poland, Bohemia (Slovakia), aud 
Lusatia; in this class also are included the dead lan¬ 
guages known as the Ecclesiastical Slavonic, and the old 
Bohemian. 6. The Teutonic class contains: the High- 
German branch, in which are included the living dialects 
of Germany, and the dead languages called the Middle 
High-German and Old High-German ; the Low-German 
brauch, containing the living dialects of England, Hol¬ 
land, Friesland, and the north of Germany (Platt- 
Deulsch), together with the Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, Old 
Dutch, Old Frisian, aud Old Saxon, the five latter being 
dead languages. The Scandinavian branch comprises 
the living dialects of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and 
Iceland, as also the dead language known as Old Norse. 
It may now be asked—Why are these great streams of 
language, rolling on through centuries, set down as 
converging to one common source? To this question 
the greatest philologists of our day reply, that in all 
these languages and dialects, we find a great number of 
roots or radicals in common; that the grammatic pro¬ 
cesses and laws are the same in all; and that these 
identities increase in number as we go back in time. 
Yet, even if we attempt to assert that all the dialects 
of the Indo-Germanic family have diverged from one 
common type, how shall we be able to prove this to be 
the original language ? It may have been the language 
of conquerers which had pushed away and survived 
numerous previous idioms. All that we can say is, that 
iu the A. languages the closest affinity has been dis¬ 
covered in the roots and in the inflections, those two 
great tests of the relationship of languages. Did our 
space permit, an extensive list of samples might be 
given in a tabular form, to prove the unmistakable 
family likeness which exists between the chief repre¬ 
sentatives of the great A. family of languages. YVe 
must, however, rest content by referring the reader to 
some of the most valuable authorities on this subject: 
Schrader and Jevons, Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan 
Peoples; Brugmann, Comparative Grammar of the Indo- 
European Languages ; Isaac Taylor, Origin of the Aryans. 

Aryt'enoid, a. [Gr.] (Anat.) Applied to some parts, 
from their being funnel-shaped.— A. cartilage is the 
name of two cartilages of the larynx. 

Arza'mas, a town of Russia in Europe, gov. of Nijni- 
Novgorod, 62 m. from the latter city. 

Arza'no. a town of S. Italy, near Naples. Flax and 
hemp are largely cultivated in its environs. Pop. 5,171. 

Arzig'nano, a town of N. Italy, prov. and 10 m. W. 
of Yhcenza. It produces good wine, and has cloth-mills, 
dye and brick works. Pop. 7,700. 

As, adv. and conj. [A.S. ase, from eall-swa; 0. Eng. als, 
also.] In the same or like manner. 

I live a* I did,I think as I did, I love you as T did*, but all these 
are to no purpose; the world will not live, think, or love as Ido." 
Swift. 

—Like; in the same kind with; for example. 

A simple idea is one uniform idea, as. sweet, bitter.’*— Watts. 

—In the state or character of another. 

" Madam, were I os you, I’d take her counsel.’’— A. Phillips. 

—While; at the same time that. 

“ These haughty words Alecto’s rage provoke, 

And frighted Turnus trembled as she spoke.’’— Dryden. 

—It is used in a reciprocal sense, answering to as. 

“ Assure as it is good that human nature should exist, so certain it 
is, that the circular revolutions of planets do declare God.’’— Bentley. 


—Also in a comparative sense, before as. 

**’ Sempronius is as brave a man as Cato.”— Addison. 

—Answering to such. 

“ is it not every man’s interest, that there should be such a gov 
ernor of the world as designs our happiness, as would govern It, 
our advantage?”— Tillotson. 

—Having so to answer it; iu a conditional sense. 

“ As far as they carry light and conviction to any other man s un¬ 
derstanding, so far, I hope, my labor may be of use to him."— Locke * 

As for, as to, with respect to.— As if, in the same man¬ 
ner that it would be if.—As well as, equally with .—At 
though, as if. 

•• These should be at first gently treated, as though we expected 
an imposthumation.”— Shaks. 

As, n. [Lat. as, copper or brass.] (Antiq.) The Romani 
used this word in three 
different ways, viz., to 
denote, 1, any unit 
whatever, considered 
as divisible; 2, the 
unit of weight, or the 
pound (libra); 3, their 
most ancient coin. In 
the first use of the 
word, the pound, foot, 
jugerumsextarius, were 
called as, when con¬ 
tra-distinguished from 
their divisions or frac¬ 
tions. In fact, the 
word was applied to 
any integer; e. g. in¬ 
heritances, interest, 
houses, funds, Ac. 

Therefore, ex asse heres 
signifies to inherit the 
whole. The as, what¬ 
ever unit it represent¬ 
ed, was divided into 
12 parts, or ounces 
(uncice). The as (libra) 
corresponded nearly 
to the English pound. 

The as (coin) weighed 
originally a pound, 
and its value was 
then about 18 cents; . 

but it was gradually Pig- 206. 

reduced to L of a pound, and even lower. The oldest 
form of as usually bore the figure of an ox. a 6heep, or 
other domestic animal ( pecus), from which it is usu¬ 
ally supposed that the Latin word for money, pecunia, 
is derived. The next aud most common form is that 
which has the two-faced head of Janus on one side, ana* 
the prow of a ship on the other, as seen in Pig. 206. 

A'sa, son of Abijah, and third king of Judah, conspicu-j 
ous for his earnestness in supporting the worship of 
God aud rooting out idolatry, and for the vigor and wis¬ 
dom of his government. He reigned from 955 to 914 B. C. 

Asafcet'ida, or Assaket'ida, n. [Assa, a corruption of 
laser, the juice of the plant laserpitium, and Lat. fatidus, 
fetid.] (Chem. and Med.) A resinous gum, procured from 
the root of plants of the genus Ferula, q. v. According 
to Pelletier, A. is composed of 65 parts resin, 3-6 volatile 
oil, 19’44 gum, 11-66 bassorin, and -30 various salts. No 
one who has ever smelt tbe peculiarly powerful aud 
garlic-like odor of A. cau well forget it. If exposed te 
the air, but particularly when heated, it will per¬ 
vade every apartment of a house. Notwithstanding 
this, it constitutes a favorite seasoning for food with the 
inhabitants of the East Indies. It is brought to us from 
Persia, in large irregular masses, composed of various 
little shining lumps, or grains, which are partly of a 
whitish color, partly reddish, aud partly of a violet hue. 
Those masses are accounted the best which are clear, of 
a pale reddish color, and variegated with a great number 
of elegant white tears. It is the most powerful of all 
the fetid gums, and is a most valuable remedy. It is 
most commonly employed in hysteria, hypochondriasis, 
some symptoms of dyspepsia, flatulent colics, and in 
most of those diseases termed nervous, but its chief use 
is derived from its anti-spasmodic effects; and it is 
thought to be the most powerful remedy we possess for 
those peculiar convulsive and spasmodic affections 
which often recur in the first of these diseases, both 
taken into the stomach and in the way of enema. It is 
also recommended as an emmenagogue, anthelmintic, 
anti-asthmatic, and anodyne. 

As'aph, son of Berechiah, a Levite,andone of the leaders 
of David’s choir (I Chr. vi. 39, xv. 17, xxv. 6, 9). Psalms 
Land lxxiii.-lxxxiii. are attributed to him (Psalms) ; 
and he was in after-times celebrated as a seer (Prophets), 
as well as a musical composer (2 Chr. xxix. 30; Aeh. xii. 
46). The office appears to have remained hereditary in 
his family, unless he was the founder of a school of 
poets and musical composers, who were called, after him, 
“ the sons of Asaph,” as the Homerid® from Homer. 

Asapli', St., a city of Great Britain, in N. YY’ales, co. of 
Flint, 185 m. N.YV. of London. 

A'saphiis, n. (Pal.) A genus of Trilobites. 

As'arales, n. pi. (Bnt.) An alliance of plants, class EpU 
gynous Exogens, having monochlamydeous flowers, aud 
a small embryo lying in a large quantity of albumen. 

As'arin, As'arone, n. (Chew.) A substance contained 
in the root of asarabacca (Asarum Europaum), which 
passes over in a crystalline form when the dry root is 
distilled with water. The crystals belong to the mono¬ 
clinic or oblique prismatic system, and resemble cam¬ 
phor in taste and odor. A. melts at 40° C., begins to 
boil at 280°, and may be sub 1 ' aed in small qu8"tit> 














ASCE 


ASCE 


A.SCH 


163 


between two w~.teh-glasses. It is insoluble in water, 
but dissolves readily in alcohol, ether, and essential oils. 
Nitric acid converts A. into oxalic acid. It is dissolved 
with red color by strong sulphuric acid. Form. Cas'd 26 
0 5 . — See Asarum. 

As arite, n. (CAem.) A camphor-like substance found, 
together with asarin, in the root of Asarum Europteum, 
and resembling that substance in many respects, but 
melting only at 70° G , whereas asarin melts at 40°. 

As arum, u. [Gr. a, not, saron, feminine.] (Bot.) A gen. 
of plants, ord. Aristolochiaceai. They are herbs with 
creeping rhizoraas and 1-2 leaves on each branch; 
flowers solitary. The root of the A. Europium, which 
forms the drug Asarabacca, gives by distillation the 
Asarin, q. v. It was formerly much employed as an 
emetic; but has been superseded by ipecacuanha, which 
is milder and safer. It is still occasionally used as an 
errhine. The species A. Cantdense, the Canada snake- 
root, or wild ginger, found in the W. States, is another 
medicinal plant, the rhizome being used as a tonic, dia¬ 
phoretic. and aromatic stimulant. 

As'arum Oil, n. (Chent.) A volatile oil existing in 
small quantity (about jgf,) in the root of Asarum Earo- 
pceum, and passing over, together with asarin, when the 
root is distilled with water. It is yellowish and viscid, 
smells like valerian oil, has a sharp burning taste, is 
lighter than water, sparingly soluble in water, but easily 
soluble in alcohol, and in oils both fat and volatile. 
Form. CioH^O*. 

As'beil, a considerable kingdom of Central Africa, be¬ 
tween Fezzan and Cashna; Lat. about 20° N.; Lon. 7° 
E. The sultan is said to rank next to that of Bornou 
among the potentates of interior Africa. Its inhabitants 
are Tuaricks of the Kolluvi tribe; their numbers are 
unknown. The chief town is also called Ashen. 

Asbes tic, Asbes'tine, Ashes tons, a. Pertain¬ 
ing to asbestos; incombustible. 

Asbes'tiform, a. Having the structure of asbestos. 

Asbes'tons, a. Same as Asbestic. 

Asbes'tus, Asbes'tos, n. (Min.) See Amianthus. 

As'bury, Francis, an American divine, and one of the 
pioneers of Methodism in the U. States, b. in England, 
1745. He was sent by John Wesley as a missionary to 
this country, and, in 17S4, was appointed first bishop of 
the newly constituted Methodist organization. D. 1816. 

As'bury', in New Jersey, a post-village of Warren co., 
in Mansfield township, about 40 m. N.N.W. of Trenton. 

As'calon, Ash'kelon, As'kelon, one of the five cities 
of the Philistines, on the Mediterranean, W.S.W. of Je¬ 
rusalem, on the main road from Egypt through Gaza to 
central Palestine. Very often mentioned in Scripture, 
A. rose to considerable importance in past biblical times. 
Near the town were the temple and sacred lake of Der- 
ceto, the Syrian Venus. A great victory was won here 
by the crusaders in 1099. The position of A. is naturally 
very strong. Near the ruins of the city, stands now a 
village of the same name. The eschalot or shallot, a 
kind of onion (Allium escalonicum), was first grown there. 
Fig. 207 is a copy'A a medal of A. representing the Sy¬ 
rian Venus Derceto or Derketos. The dove is the in¬ 
signia of Venus; the ship implies her arising from the 
sea; the staff is an ensign of command; and the branch 
is a memorial of the olive-branch brought by the dove 
to the great patriarch. 



Fig. 207. — MEDAL OF ASCALON. 


Asca'nius. (Myth.) A son of .Eneas and Creusa, who 
accompanied his father in bis flight from the burn¬ 
ing of Troy, and landed in Italy. He ably supported 
JEneas in his war with the Latins, and succeeded him 
in the government of Latium. He afterwards built Alba 
Longa, to which he transferred his seat of government 
from Laviuium. and reigned there 3$ years. His de¬ 
scendants ruled over Alba for 420 years. 

As qu-is. n.; pi. Ascar'Ides. [Gr. askarizo, I jump.] 
(Zool.) Parasitic worms which inhabit the intestines of 
animals. They belong to the ord. of Nematoids. One of 
the commonest species, the A. lumbricoides, which is 
very like the common earth-worm, is found frequently 
in the intestines of men. and of horses, oxen, Ac. They 
have been often observed 15 inches in length, and they 
are frequently the cause of a severe disease, which has 
sometimes proved fatal. The mouth of this worm is only 
formed for suction; hence it is unable to injure the 
coating of healthy intestines. In a very young state, 
A. have never been found either in man or the other 
animals. Persons living in damp valleys are said to be 
most liable to suffer from them. The A. vermicularis, 
or thread-worm, is very common among young children. 
It is white, and about half an inch long. It infests the 
lower part of Ibe intestines in great numbers, and is 
sometimes called Little Maw. 

& ace mi', v. r. [Lat. ascendo, from ad, and scando, to 


mount, to climb; probably allied to W. esgyn, to ascend, 
to mount, to rise.] To mount; to go or come up; to 
rise; to arise; to soar; to become higher or more 
elevated. To go backward in the order of time; as, “ to 
trace genealogies in the ascending line.” 

— v. a. To go or move upward upon; to climb. 

‘‘They ascend the mountains; they descend the valleys."—Delaney. 

—To go toward the source; as, “ to ascend a river.” 

Ascend'able, a. That may be ascended. 

Ascend'aucy, re. Same as Ascendency, but not so 
much used. 

Ascend'ant, re. Height; elevation; that which is high 
or elevated. 

“ Sciences were there in their highest ascendant." — Temple. 

—Superiority or commanding power or influence. 

•• Some star. I find. 

Has given thee an ascendant o'er my miud." — Dryden. 

(Law.) One of the degrees of kindred reckoned up¬ 
ward; an ancestor. We take from Bouvier the follow¬ 
ing computation: “ Every one has two ascendants at the 
1st degree, his father and mother; 4 at the 2d degree, 
his paternal grandfather and grandmother, and his ma¬ 
ternal grandfather and grandmother; 8 at the third. 
Thus, in going up we ascend by various lines, which form 
newer branches at every generation. By this progress, 
16 ascendants are found at the 4th degree; 32 at the 5th; 
64 at the 6th; 128 at the 7th; and so on. By this pro¬ 
gressive increase, a person has at the 25th generation 
33,554,432 ascendants. But, as many of the ascendants 
of a person have descended from the same ancestor, the 
lines which were branched reunite to the first common 
ancestor, from whom the others descend; and this multi¬ 
plication, thus frequently interrupted by the common 
ancestors, may be reduced to a few persons.” 

(Astral.) A term applied to the first or strongest house 
in the scheme of any person's nativity. The A. is so 
called from containing the eastern point of the horo¬ 
scope, or the degree of the ecliptic rising on the horizon 
at the time of birth. This was imagined to exercise 
considerable influence on a person’s life and career, ac¬ 
cording to the supposed nature or power for good or evil 
of the planet or sign of the ecliptic about to rise at that 
time, and the relative position of these and other hea¬ 
venly bodies to each other in all parts of the heavens at 
that moment. 

Ascend'ant, a. Superior; predominant; surpassing. 

“ Christ outdoes Moses, and shows an ascendant spirit above 
him." — South. 

—Above the horizon. 

“ Let him study the constellation of Pegasus, which was about 
that time ascendant." — Brown. 

Aseend’ency, n. [Fr. ascendance .] Elevation or superi¬ 
ority of position; governing or controlling influence or 
power; authority; sway; prevalence. 

Aseend'ible, a. [Lat. ascendibilis.] That may be as¬ 
cended. 

Ascend'ing', p. a. Rising; moving upward. 

(Astron) A. latitude, the latitude of a planet when 
moving toward the North pole. — A or northern node. 
that part of the orbit of a planet or other heavenly' body 
in which it crosses the ecliptic going northward.— Hutton. 

(Math.) A. series, a series in which each term is greater 
than the preceding. 

Ascension, n. [Fr., from Lat. ascensio.] Act of ascend¬ 
ing; a rising or mounting upward;—frequently applied 
to the visible elevation of Christ to heaven, celebrated 
on Ascension Day, q. v. 

(Astron.) The Right Ascension of a heavenly body is 
its distance (which may be calculated and expressed 
either iu hours, minutes and seconds of time, or degrees, 
minutes and seconds of arc) east of the first point 
of Aries, measured on the equinoctial. It corresponds 
with longitude on the terrestrial globe- and as the position 
of any place on the earth is determined by its longitude 
and latitude, so the position of any object in the heavens 
is determined by its A. and declination. (See Declination.) 
The A. of any heavenly body is ascertained by the aid of 
a transit instrument and sidereal clock, the former 
showing its passage across the meridian, and the latter 
indicating the time when the passage takes place. The 
sidereal clock beats seconds, and is so constructed and 
regulated, that the hour-hand describes a complete revolu¬ 
tion in 24 hours from the time of the passage of any star 
across the meridian to its return to the same point. The 
hands are set at Oh. 0m. 0s. when the first point of 
Aries is on the meridian, and the time shown by the 
clock when any other celestial body passes the meridian 
is therefore its A., or distance from the first point of Aries 
in time; and if the time shown be multiplied by 15, the 
distance in degrees, minutes, and seconds is obtained.— 
Oblique ascension is the arc of the celestial equator in¬ 
tercepted between the first point of Aries and that point 
of the equator which rises at the same time with any 
heavenly body'. — Ascensional difference is the difference 
between the right and oblique ascension of any object. 
The terms oblique ascension and ascensional difference 
are old expressions, seldom used in the present day: the 
latter was chiefly applied to the sun. because the sun’s 
ascensional difference converted into time shows how 
much he rises before or after 6 o’clock. 

Aseen'sion. a British island in the Atlantic ocean, off 
the W. coast of Africa, 780 m. N.W. of St. Helena; Lat. 
7° 55' 55” N., Lon. 14° 25' 5" W. It is 8 m. long by 6 
broad, and is of volcanic origin, having a barren appear¬ 
ance. A. is a coaling depot for steamers. It was dis¬ 
covered on Ascension Day, 1501; hence its name. Pop. 
1879, abt. 200. 

Aseen'sion. in Tndiana, a village of Sullivan co. 

Aseen'sion, in Louisiana, a S.E. parish, lying on both 
sidesof the Mississippi, and partly subject to inundation. 


The seat of justice is at Donaldsonville, which is situated 
on Bayou La Fourche. 

Ascen'sional, a. Relating to ascension or ascent. 

(Astron.) A. difference is the excess of the right ascen¬ 
sion over the oblique, or trice versa. 

Aseen'sion Bay, in Central America, on the E. coast 
of Yucatan, N. of Espiritu Santo Bay. 

Aseen'sion-Day. (Eccl.Hist.) One cf the groat reli¬ 
gious festivals of the Roman Catholic and Episcopal 
churches. As its name denotes, it is intended to com¬ 
memorate the ascension of our Lord into glory, aftet 
his last appearance upon earth. A. has been observed 
in the Church from the earliest times, and is believed 
by some to have been instituted by the Apostles them¬ 
selves. or their immediate successors. It is held on the 
Thursday next preceding Whit-Sunday; and is hence 
also termed Holy Thursday. The week in which it 
occurs is also termed Rogation Week, from the rogation* 
(petitions or litanies) which were anciently used by the 
minister of each parish in perambulating his district, 
which he did on A., or on one of the three days immedi¬ 
ately preceding it. 

Ascent', n. [Lat. ascensus, from ascendo .] Act of as¬ 
cending or rising; a mounting upward. 

“ To him with swift ascent he up return'd.”— Milton. 

—The means of ascending. 

‘‘A rock.... winding with one ascent." — Milton. 

—An eminence; acclivity; the rise of a hill. 

‘‘The country is diversified with depressed valleys and swelling 
ascents." —Bentley. 

Ascertain', v. a. [0. Fr. acertener, from Lat. ad, and 
certum, certain or sure.] To bring to clearness or cer¬ 
tainty, as the result of investigation; to determine; to 
establish; to become cognizant of. 

” Money differs from uncoined silver in this, that the quantity 
of silver in each piece is ascertained by the stamp.”— Locke. 

Ascertain'able, a. That may be ascertained. 

Ascertain'er, n. One who ascertains. 

Ascertain'ment, n. The act of ascertaining; deter¬ 
mination by a settled rule or established standard. 

“ The positive ascertainment of its limits.”— Burke. 

Aseet'ic, a. [Fr. ascetique; Gr. asketos, from asked, 1 
exercise.] Pertaining to ascetics or asceticism; employed 
wholly in exercises of devotion and mortification; re¬ 
cluse ; austere; rigid. 

— n. One who retires from the world, and exercises him¬ 
self in acts of piety, devotion, and self-denial; a hermit; 
a recluse; one extremely rigid and austere in religiou* 
things. 

Aseet'ieisrn, re. [See Ascetic.] State or practice of 
ascetics. — Among the Greeks, the word A. was at first 
applied to those athletes and wrestlers who were accus¬ 
tomed, by rigid abstinence from all sensual and enervat¬ 
ing indulgences, to harden their bodies for the personal 
competition in the public games; but it soon came to 
bear a deflected, or secondary meaning. Among the 
Stoics and Cynics, it became applied to that severe dis¬ 
cipline to which those persons subjected themselves, by 
mastering their passions and appetites for the sake of 
that ideal virtue sought for by them ail. It was after¬ 
ward applied by the Christians to all who wrestled with 
Satan, with the world, and with the flesh, and thus en¬ 
deavored to exalt themselves by a severe course of per¬ 
sonal renunciation above this world, where they were 
strangers and sojonrners. But the earliest ascetics we 
read of had an Eastern origin. The Brahmins, and other 
sects in Asia, carried this practice to a monstrous extent, 
even long before authentic history begins. The yogis 
and fakeers of the present time, the suicides in the 
sacred Ganges and under the wheels of the car of Jug¬ 
gernaut, are only a repetition, in a civilized age, of what 
was done by their remote ancestors long anterior to any 
authentic record we have of the country. The Buddh¬ 
ists, who for the most part dwell considerably to tlis 
E. of India, carried the principle of A. to an extreme 
height. They despised the world; lived a life of solitude 
and beggary; mortified the flesh, and abstained from all 
uncleanness. And so they do at the present day. In the 
early centuries of Christianity, the adherents of the 
comparatively new religion were more exemplary for 
purity of morals than for the practice of ascetic sever¬ 
ities. But, before long, in Egypt and elsewhere, they 
endeavored to escape from the sinful world in which 
they lived, and by fasting and prayer sought for divirn 
aid around the shores ot Lake Marcetis, and in other 
parts of the Christian world. A. assumed a more intel¬ 
lectual shape among the Neo-l’latonists of Egypt than 
it lias ever done in any other part of the world. Its 
greatest names are Philo the Jew, the father of the 
system, Plotinus, Porphyry. Iamblichus. and Procius. 
Philo has left us a history of it in his De Vita Omtemr 
platird. Even in the 2d century of the Christian era 
we find societies of men and women living together 
under vows of continence. The tendency to outward 
manifestation, and to inward and spiritual life, began to 
decline in Christian communities. This gave rise to th» 
chief manifestation of A., namely, monasticism. — Ths 
essence of A. is to hold self-denial and suffering to hr 
meritorious in the sight of God, in and for itselt, with¬ 
out regarding whether it promotes in any way the good 
of others, or the improvement of the individual’s own 
character. Ascetic practices have been modified in re¬ 
cent times; nevertheless, its spirit often shows itself a* 
still alive, even in Protestantism. In some religiou* 
orders of the Catholic Church, as the Carmelites, A. b 
actually practised in its greatest severity. — See Gnos 
tics, &c. 

Ascii, a town of Austria, in Bohemia, circ of ElmbogeD 
Man /. Cottons, hosiery, woollens <tc. Pop. 8,17*. 

















1G4 


ASCL 


ASDO 


ASHA 


Ascliaff'enburg 1 , a city of Bavaria, circle of Lower 
Franconia, on the Main, 38 m. N. W. of Wttrburg, 23 m. 
K. S. E. of Frankfort-on-the-Main. It has a fine old 
Gothic church, containing the tombs of the former 
Electors of Mayence.— Trade. Timber, wine, tobacco, 
and shipbuilding. Top. (1895) 13,030. 

Aschersle'ben, a town of Germany, kingdom of Sax- 
ony, 14m.E.S. E. of Quedliuburg. Manf. linens, wool¬ 
lens, and earthenware. Pop. (1895) 22,805. 

As'ci, n. pi. [Lat., from Gr. askos, a pouch.] (Bot.) The 
spore-cases of certain lichens and fungi. 

Asc ians, Ascii, n. pi. [Ur. a, priv.,and slcia, shadow.] 
A term applied to those inhabitants of the globe who at 
certain times of the year have no shadow. Such are the 
inhabitants of the torrid zone, where the sun being twice 
a year in its zenith — in other words, being perpendicular 
to their heads — no projecting shadow is thrown. 

jscid ians, pi. [Gr. askos, a bottle or pouch.] (Zo'ol.) 
An order of acephalous mollusks, also called Tunicata. 
They adhere by their base to rocks, shells, and other sub¬ 
marine substances; they are more or less gelatinous, and 
some are esculent; they contract and dilate themselves 
alternately,and havetlie power of squirting outthe water 
they have imbibed. Some of the A. are compound; differ¬ 
ent individuals being united together by a common stem, 
but each having its own heart, respiratory apparatus, and 
digestive system ; and each fixed on a footstalk that 
branches from a common creeping stem, through which a 
circulation takes place that connects them all. The gen¬ 
eral structure of the individuals is the same in the single 
and in the composite animals, and may be understood 
from thefigure accompanying the art. AcKPHALA,q.r. The 
cavity of the mantle possesses two orifices; by one of 
which, b, a current of water is continually entering, 
while by the other, a, it is as continually flowing out. 
These orifices lead into a large chamber, the lining of 
which, folded in various ways,constitutes the gills; and 
at the bottom of this chamber lies the stomach, e, and 
the intestinal canal, i, which terminates near the aper¬ 
ture for the exit of the water. All these parts are cov¬ 
ered with cilia , by the action of which a continual 
stream is made to flow over the gills, and to enter the 
stomach; and the minute particles, which the water 
brings with it, and which are adapted to serve as food, 
are retained and digested in the stomach. Even these 
animals, fixed to one spot during the early part of their 
lives, and presenting but very slight indications of sen¬ 
sibility, possess a regular heart and system of vessels; 
and these vessels form part of the stem, c, by which the 
compound species are connected. Both in the compound 
and solitary A., the young animal, when it first issues 
from the egg, has active power of locomotion, being pro¬ 
vided with a large tadpole-like tail, by the aid of which 
it is propelled through the water. The A. are not un¬ 
common on the coasts of the United States. 

Ascid'inm, n.; pi. Ascidia. (Bot ) A name given to 
an anomalous form of petioles constituting a hollow re- 
ceptaclo, which is called a pitcher, as in the side-saddle 
flower, Sarracenia purpurea. — See Sarracenia. 

Asci'tes, n. [Gr. askites; from askos, a battle.] (Med.) 
A term used to denote abdominal dropsy, or dropsy in 
the belly. 

Ascit'ic, Ascit'ical, a. Pertaining to ascites; drop¬ 
sical. 

Asciti'tions, a. [Lat. ascititius.\ Supplemental; addi¬ 
tional; not inherent; not original; adscititious, q. v. 

Ascle'piatl, n. (Anc. Poet.) The name of a species of 
verse, so called after Asclepiades of Tragilos, in Thrace, 
a scholar of Isocrates. He wrote some tragedies, frag¬ 
ments of which still remain. The verse consists of 4 feet, 
of which the 1st is a spondee, the 2d, a choriambus, and 
the 3d and 4th, dactyls, as in the following line from 
Horace: 

Msece | nas 

Asclepiatl'acese, 

Ascle'piads, n. pi. 

[ See Asclepias. ] 

(Bot.) An ord. of 
plants, alliance So- 
lanules. — Diao. An¬ 
thers and stigma con¬ 
solidated into a col¬ 
umn. They are herbs 
or shrubs, almost al¬ 
ways milky, and of¬ 
ten twining. Leaves 
entire, opposite, hav¬ 
ing cilice in lieu of 
stipules. Flowers 
somewhat umbelled, 
fascicled, or race¬ 
mose. Calyx 5 - di¬ 
vided, persistent. Co¬ 
rolla monopetalous, 

5-lobed, with imbri¬ 
cated sestivation. Sta¬ 
mens 5, inserted into 
the base of the corol¬ 
la; anthers ordinarily 
2-celled. Ovaries 2; 
styles 2; stigma com¬ 
mon to both styles. 

Follicles 2; placenta 
attached to the sut¬ 
ure; seeds numerous, 
imbricated, pendu¬ 
lous; albumen thin; 
embryo straight; co¬ 
tyledons foliaceous. 

The order includes 
>41 genera and 910 


part warm and tropical regions, though there are many 
natives of northern latitudes also. In general, they 
have acrid, purgative, emetic, and diaphoretic proper¬ 
ties. The milky juice is usually bitter and acrid, but 
occasionally it is bland, and is used as milk, as in the 
case of Gymnema lactiferum. Many of the species of the 
gen . Asclepias possess powerful medicinal properties. 
The celebrated Hindoo medicine mudar is procured 
from several species of the gen. Calolropis. The gen. 
Gomphocarpus furnishes the silk-plant of Madeira; and 
the gen. Periploca has fine and valuable species for 
arbors and gardens. 

Asclepi'ades, the descendants of the god of medicine, 
iEsculapius, by his sons Podalirius and Machaon, spread, 
together with the worship of the god, through Greece 
and Asia Minor. They formed an order of priests, which 
preserved the results of the medical experience acquired 
in the temples as an hereditary secret, and were thus, at 
the same time, physicians, prophets, and priests. They 
lived in the temple of the god, and by exciting the im¬ 
aginations of the sick, prepared them to receive healing 
dreams and divine apparitions; observed carefully the 
course of the disease; applied,as it is believed, besides 
the conjurations arid charms usual in antiquity, real 
magnetic remedies, and noted down the results of their 
practice. They were, accordingly, not only the first 
physicians known to us, but, in fact, the founders of 
scientific medicine, which proceeded from their society. 
At first, this order of priests was confined to the family 
of the Asclepiades, who kept their family register rvith 
great care. Aristides celebrated them,by his eulogiums 
at Smyrna. Hippocrates of Cos, the founder of scientific 
physic, derived his origin from it, and the oath admin¬ 
istered to the disc-iples of the order (jusjurandum Hip- 
pocratis) is preserved in his writings. 

Asclepi'adic, a. Relating to an asclepiad. 

Ascle pias, ». [From JEsculapius, the god of medicine.] 
(Bot.) The silk weeds, a gen. of plants, ord. Asclepiadacea 
The A. incarnata is a handsome shrub, found in wet 
places in the U. States and Canada. Its stem is erect, 
branching above, 3-4 feet high, with 2 hairy lines; um¬ 
bels close, 2-6 together, at the top of the stem or 
branches, and consisting of 10 to 20 small flowers; 
corolla deep purple, corona pale; blossoming in July. 
The roots of A. curassavica, or bastard ipecacuan of the 
West Indies, are emetic, and are frequently sold as 
ipecacuanha. The roots of A. tuberosa, a species found 
in sandy fields in the U. States and Canada, are famed 
for their diaphoretic qualities. The sap of A. syriaca 
is rocommended as an expectorant. It is white, and 
contains a considerable quantity of caoutchouc. The 
nectaries or leaflets of the crown act as fly-traps. The 
seeds of this and some other species are covered with 
down, which is well adapted for stuffing mattresses and 
pillows. They are hence sometimes called wild cotton- 
plants. A good many of them are cultivated for their 
beauty. Their flowers have curious horned processes 
added to the corolla. 

As'eoli, a frontier town of Central Italy, in the Marches, 
53 miles S. of Ancona. It is a handsome place, well- 
built and strongly fortified. A. is the ancient Asculum, 
Picenum, described by Strabo as a place of almost in¬ 
accessible strength. It sustained a memorable siege 
against the Romans under Pompey. Lat. 42° 51' 24" 
N.; Lon. 13° 25' 15" E. Pop. 14,223. 

As'coli «li Satria'no, a very ancient town of S. Italy, 
in prov. of Capitanata, 13 in. E. by S. of Rovino. It was 
here that Pyrrhus encountered for a second time the 
Roman legion, but with no decisive result to either side. 
It was destroyed by an earthquake in 140Q, 

Ascomyc'etes, Hi.lvei.lacca;, n. pi. [Gr. askos , a bag.] 
(Bot.) An ord. of fungi, or mushrooms, alliance Fungales, 
producing the spores, often in sets of eight, in tubular 
sacs, which are called asci or thecae. They are nearly 
related to the lichens. They differ considerably, and 
are hence divided into several tribes. Some are floccu- 
lent in appearance, or of a fleshy r consistence, growing 
on the ground or on decaying vegetable substances in 
damp situations; others growing underground, of a 
globular form, solid and fleshy within, such as the 
truffle, Tuber cibarius. 

Ascot Meath, a place in England, co. of Berks, 6 m. 
S.W. of Windsor, celebrated for its races. The annual 
meeting is in June, and the first prize is a gold cup 
valued at £500. 

Ascri'S»ahle, a. That which may be ascribed. 

" Those phenomena are ascribable to the weight of the air.”— Boyle. 

Ascribe', v. a. [Lat. ascribo, from ad, to, and scribo, to 
write.] To account for one thing by another, as its 
cause or the subject in which it recedes, or to which it 
appertains. 

11 To this we may justly ascribe those jealousies and encroach¬ 
ments, which render maukiud uneasy to one another."— Rogers. 

AscriiFtion, n. Act of ascribing; the thing ascribed. 

Ascii t. iicy Mon it t ;i i n , i n Vermont, Windsor co. It 
is but a huge mass of granite, affording from its summit 
a splendid view of the Connecticut river. 

Ascut'ney villc, in Vermont, a post-office of Windsor 
co. 

Ascy'rum, n . [Gr. a, priv., and skyros , roughness.] A 
gen. of plants, ord. Hypericacece. The St. Peter’s-wort, 
Acrux-andrec b, found in sandy woods, from N. Jersey to 
Louisiana, has a stem about 1 foot high, thickly clothed 
with leaves; flowers pale-yellow, on very short pedicels, 
blossoming in July. 

As'doud, or As'dqod, a small seaport of Palestine, on 
the Mediterranean, 35 m. W. of Jerusalem. It wins the 
Ashdod of Scripture, one of the five confederate cities 
of the Philistines, and one of the seats of the worship 
of Dagon (1 Sam. v. 5). It occupied a commanding 
position on the high-road from Palestine to Egypt, and 


was never subdued by the Israelites. It sustained 
against Psammetichus a siege of 29 years, B. c. 630; was 
destroyed by the Maccabees (1 Mac.v. "68, x. 84), and 
restored by the Romans, b. c. 55. It is now an insignifi¬ 
cant village, from which the sea is constantly receding 



Fig. 209.— asdoud, in Palestine, (the Ashdod of Scripture.) 


Asel'li. or Ascl'lio, Gaspar, a celebrated Italian phy¬ 
sician and surgeon, b. at Cremona, about 1581; n. 1626. 
He was the discoverer of the lacteal vessels, to which ha 
assigned the function of conveying the chyle. His dis¬ 
covery, though now universally regarded by physiolo¬ 
gists as genuine and important, was not generally admit¬ 
ted as true until 15 or 20 years after it was made. 

As'enatli, daughter of Potipherah, wife of Joseph 
(Gen. xli. 12,45), and mother of Manasseh and Ephraim. 

Asep'tie, a. [Gr. a, priv., and sepomai, to putrefy.] Not 
liable to putrefaction. 

A'ses. See Odin. 

Asex'ual, a. [Gr. a, priv., and Lat. sexualis, sexual.] 
That has no distinct sex. 

Aslt, n. [A.S. atsc ; Ger. esclie.] The English name of a 
genus of trees, which will be described under its botan¬ 
ical name, Fraxinus, q. v. They are generally large, 
hardy trees, and their wood is extensively used where 
strength and elasticity are required. — Ash Mountain, 
another species of tree, gen. Pyrtjs, q. v. 

—The wood of the ash. 

—a. Pertaining to the ash; made of ash. 

— v. a. To sprinkle with ashes. 

tsli, in Michigan, a township of Monroe co., 27 m. S.W. 
by S. of Detroit. 

Ashamed', a. \ A.S. gescamian, ascamian, to be ashamed. 
See Shame.] Affected by shame; abashed; put to tlia 
blush. 

“ This I have shadowed that you may not be ashamed of that 
hero.”— Dryden. 

Asham'edly, adv. Bashfully; shyly. 

Ashan'g'O l.and, a country of Loango, in W. Africa, 
between the rivers Gaboon and Congo, Lat. 1° 58' 54" 
S.; Lon. 11° 56' 38" E. A. was discovered in 1863, by 
Paul B. Du Chaillu, a celebrated French explorer, who has 
written a very interesting account of it. In the dense 
tropical forests of this and the adjoining countries was 
first seen the gorilla, an animal which is both the lar¬ 
gest and fiercest of the ape tribe. 

Asliaatee', an extensive kingdom of W. Africa, lying 
along the Guinea coast, between from 6° and 8° N. 
Lat,, and from 4° 48' W. to 1° 10' E. Lou., being 280 m. 
equally both in length and breadth.— Estim. Area, 70,000 
sq.m.— Surface. Mountainous, but with no elevated peaks 
or summits; and on the N. of Lat. 7° to 8° the country is a 
large and very fertile plain. The Yelta or Asweda, about 
. 400 m. in length, and the Assinec, are the principal rivers. 
There are several lakes, which, in the summer season, 
often overflow their banks.— Clim. The heat of six months 
of the year, from October to March, is excessive, but dur¬ 
ing the remainder it is so cool that fires are frequently 
desirable. The coast is very unhealthy, especially to 
Europeans. The rainy and foggy season lasts from May 
to October. From 7J^° N. Lat. to the coast, A. presents 
one vast forest, whose trees have all the stupendous 
characteristics of African vegetation, exemplified near 
the sea by the gigantic baobab, the cactus, mangrove, 
and various kinds of |>alm and cotton trees; and in the 
interior the oliferous and viniferous palms, the aloe, and 
the citron. The lands are generally covered with jungle, 
and Guinea grass of enormous height and thickness. 
The sugar-cane grows wild, and tobacco, maize, dhourra, 
yams, and rice, are produced in plenty. Fruits, as the 
pineapple, orange, banana, cocoa, fig, papay, &c., flourish 
here in perfection, as also gums, aromatic plants, dye 
and hard woods. — A. has a magnificent flora, and pos¬ 
sesses all the animals, reptiles, and insects peculiar to 
tropical Africa. — Inhab. The natives on the coast are 
well made and muscular, and less imbued with the 
characteristic features of the African type than those in 
the interior. The better classes of the women are almost 
handsome, and of Indian rather than Negro physique. 
Both sexes are cleanly, and the upper orders wear a 
garment resembling the Roman toga. The lower orders 
are destitute of clothing, save a piece of cloth round the 
loins. There are five orders into which society is divided: 
the king, the caboceers, the gentry, the traders, and the 
slaves. Polygamy is allowed, but only accessible to th« 


atavls | edite | reglb&s. 



Fig . 208. — KERIPLOCA GRA5CA. 

(1. Flower, natural size.) 

species, inhabiting for the most 
















ASHE 


ASHL 


ASHM 


105 


rich. Well-stocked and well-managed markets are held 
in the towns. The common drink is palm-wine. At 
their high festivals, the most brutal excesses and cruel¬ 
ties are practised, and hundreds of human victims are 
sacriiiced in cold blood. Cannibalism is practised, but 
not avowed; and to complete their character, it must be 
observed that they are great thieves, and extraordinary 
lovers of etiquette. — Coin. Gold is the chief article of 
export, and a good deal is done in ivory, dye and hard 
woods. Slaves are exported when practicable. The 
imports are principally arms, gunpowder, rum, to¬ 
bacco, &c., and many kinds of European manufactured 
goods. The currency is gold, either in dust or small 
lumps, but the cowrie-shells in use farther N. are not 
unknown. — Gov. and Relig. The legislative power lies in 
the king, an aristocracy of 4 persons, and an assembly 
of caboceers, or captains. The religion of A. is Feticliism, 
but there are many indications of Mohammedanism. 
Language. 7 or 8 different languages are spoken within 
60 m. of the coast. The only written language is the 
Arabic; and the Moslems are the only persons who can 
read and write. Cap. Coomassi.— Hist. The early history 
of A. is obscure. In consequence of disputes with the 
Fantees, A. declared war against the English, in 1824, 
were defeated, and compelled to recognize the indepen¬ 
dence of the Fantees. In 1874 England went again to 
. war with A., defeated the king iu battle. burnt his capital, 
and comjielled him to sue for peace. In 1895 new 
troubles broke out and a British expedition invaded the 
country, captured Coomassi, and took the king (Jan. 
1896) as a hostage to Cape Town. A. is now a British 
protectorate. 

Ash'away, in R. I„ a manf. village of Washington co. 
Ash'borough, in Indiana, a post-village of Clay co., 
about 19 m. E. by S. of Terre-Haute. 

Asli'borotiKii. in IV. Carolina, a township and cap. 
of Randolph co., 78 m. N.VV. of Fayetteville. There are 
cotton mills in the neighborhood. 

Ash'bouriie, a borough and par. of England, Derby¬ 
shire. At A., in 1644, the Parliamentary troops defeated 
those of Charles I. Pop. of par. 5,445. 

Ash'burn, in Missouri, a post-village of Pike co., on the 
Mississippi, 17 m. S.E. of Hannibal. 

Astl'bnrnhaill, in Massachusetts, a post-township of 
Worcester co., 55 m. N.W. of Boston. 
Asll'bumhaiii, a village in Peterborough co, On¬ 
tario, Canada. Fop. 1,674. 

Ashburton, Lord (Alexander Baring), a London 
merchant of considerable wealth, b. 1776. In 1834 ho 
became a member of Sir Robert Peel's cabinet, as Presi¬ 
dent of the Board of Trade, and Masterof the Mint, and 
was created Baron A. In 1841, he proceeded to America, 
and concluded with the (J. States the famous treaty 
commonly called the A. Treaty, by which the frontier 
line between the State of Maine and Canada was settled. 
By this treaty, seven-twelfths of the disputed ground, 
and the British settlement of Madawaska, were given to 
tiie U. States, and only five-twelfths of the ground to 
Great Britain. D. 1848. 

Ash'by, in III., a. v. of Coles co.—In Mass, a township 
of Middlesex co. 

Ash'by-<le-la-Zouche', a town of England, in the 
co. of Leicester, 116 m. N. W. by N. of London. In 
the vicinity are the rains of Ashby Castle, in which 
Mary, Queen of Scots, was once confined. Fop. (1895) 
7,302. 

Ash'bysburgh, in Kentucky, a post-village of Hop¬ 
kins co. on Green river, 200 m. W. S. W. of Frankfort. 
Ash'by’s Mills, in Indiana, a post-office of Mont¬ 
gomery co. 

Ash Creek, in Mississippi, a village of Oktibbeha 
Co. 

Ash'dotl. (Seripf.) A city of the Philistines. SeeAsoouD. 
Ashe, in IV. Carolina, a mountainous county, bordering 
on Virginia and Tennessee; and situated between the 
Blue Ridge on the S.E. and Stone Mountain on the W. 
Capital, Jefferson. 

Ashelf, ado. [ a and shelf.] [Maul.) On a shelf, or 
rock. 

Asll'en, a. Pertaining to ash; made of ash wood. 
Asll'ery, n. A place where ashes are kept; an ash- 
hole. A manufactory of potash. 

Ash es, n.pl. [A.S. asca; Goth .azgn; Ger. asche; proba¬ 
bly allied to Or. a;a, aze, dryness, heat.J The dry dust 
or remains of anything burned; the dust or loose earthy 
particles produced by combustion. — The remains oi a 
human body;—used iu poetry,from theancient practice 
of burning the dead. 

“ To great LaSrtes I bequeath 
A task of grief, his ornaments of death; 

Lest, when the fates his royal ashes claim, 

The Grecian matrons taint my spotless name.”— Pope. 

*-l n common language, ashes is always used in its plural 
form, but the singular, ash, seems to be generally adopted 
by modern chemists. 

(Chem.) When any part of an organized body, vegeta¬ 
ble or animal, is burned with free access of air, part of it 
is resolved into volatile compounds, while the other, 
and generally the smaller portion, is left as incombusti¬ 
ble residue or ash. This residue may contain the fol¬ 
lowing elements:— Basic. Potassium, sodium, calcium, 
barium, iron, magnesium, manganese, aluminium, cop¬ 
per, zinc.— Acid. Chlorine, bromine, iodine, phosphorus 
(sis phosphoric acid), sulphur (chiefly as sulphuric acid), 
silicon (as silicic acid), carbon (as carbonic acid, and oc¬ 
casionally as cyanogen). These substances are the so- 
called inorganic or mineral constituents of the vegetable 
or animal structure; they are essential to its existence, 
and are associated with the organic matter in certain 
definite forms, not necessarily the same as those winch 
they assume in the ash. The inorganic constituents 


above enumerated are not all equally essential to or¬ 
ganized structures. Potassium, sodium, calcium, mag¬ 
nesium, and irou, associated with phosphoric acid, sul¬ 
phuric acid, carbonic acid, silicic acid, and chlorine, are 
almost always present, in greater or lesser quantity, in 
the ashes of organized bodies, whether vegetable or ani¬ 
mal ; the other elements are of rare or doubtful occur¬ 
rence. In hone, the inorganic matter, consisting mainly 
of phosphate of calcium and carbonate, constitutes J4 to 
% of the entire mass. Phosphate of calcium occurs also 
in the ashes of the albuminous principles. Phosphate of 
magnesium is abundant in the ash of wheat-grain; 
chloride of sodium is invariably present in the fluids of 
the animal body, and in the juices of plants. Carbonate 
of potassium forms the greater part of wood-ash. Silica is 
scarcely ever absent from the ashes of organized bodies. 
The ashes of equisetaceous plants contain 97 per cent, of 
silica. Sulphur occurs to the amount of about 1 per 
cent, in all the albuminoidal substances. Alumina has 
been found in considerable quantity in the juiceof plants 
which exhibit an acid reaction, as Lycopodium chamce- 
cyparissus. The presence of the other metals is mostly, 
perhaps, due to some peculiarity in the nutrition of the 
plant or animal in which they are found. 

(Agric.) As the mineral constituents of plants are all 
derived from the soil, and vary greatly in amount and 
in composition, it will be easily understood that the ex¬ 
amination of plant-ashes is of great importance with 
reference toagriculture. A plant will not grow on soil 
deficient in the mineral substances whicli it requires; if 
phosphoric acid is deficient, wheat and other cereal 
grasses cannot form their seed in its normal amount; if 
there is a deficiency of silica, the straw will be weak; 
some plants require abundance of alkali, others of lime, 
&c. The examination of the ashes shows what particular 
mineral substances the plant requires, and consequently 
what substances must bo supplied to it artificially in the 
form of manure, if they are not already contained in the 
soil. The preparation and analyses of ashes require 
very delicate manipulations, and ought to be intrusted 
only to an experienced chemist. 

( Volcanic Ashes.) This name is applied to the pul¬ 
verulent portion of the matter thrown out by volcanoes. 
The ashes emitted by different eruptions of tho same 
volcano, at different times, exhibit great differences of 
structure and composition. It is sometimes dark-colored 
or even black, and composed of earthy or soft particles, 
sometimes gray or white, and finely divided. In the 
eruption of Vesuvius, a. d. 79, which overwhelmed 
Pompeii and Herculaneum, the ashes was so fine and 
dry that it took exact casts of objects buried in it. It is 
this finely divided matter to which the term ashes is 
especially applied, tho coarser varieties being generally 
denominated volcanic sand ; it sometimes rises to a con¬ 
siderable height, and is then carried by the wind to great 
distances. V. A., when examined by the microscope, 
appear to be composed of fragments of lava, slag, mica, 
felspar, magnetic iron ore, augite, pumice, olivine, &c. 
It is therefore a mechanical mixture of minerals and 
rocks abraded by trituration against each other. 

Ashe ville, iu Pennsylvania, a village of Lancaster 
co. 

Ashe'ville, in Alabama, and IV. Carolina. See Ash- 
ville. 

Asti field, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Frank¬ 
lin co., 40 m. N.W. of Springfield. It is a large place, 
and the seat of considerable trade. 

Asli Flat, in Arkansas, a post-office of Lawrence co. 

Ash'forti, a town and par. of England, co. of Kent, 47 
m. E.S.E. of London; pop. 7,215. 

Ashford, in Connecticut, a post-township of Windham 
co. It is noted tbr its tanneries. 

Ash'lbrtl, in New York, a post-township of Cattaraugus 
co., 35 m. S.S.E, of Buffalo. 

Aj$h'ford, in Wisconsin, a post-township of Fond du 
Lac co., 14 m. S.S.E. of Fond du Lac. 

Ash G rove, in Illinois, a post-township of Iroquois co., 
65 m. E.N.E. of Bloomington. 

—A township of Shelby co. 

Ash Grove, in Indiana, a post-office of Tippecanoe co. 

Ash Grove, in Missouri, a post-office of Greene co. 

Ashi|>']mn, in Wisconsin, a post-township of Dodge 
county, 25 m. N.W. of the city of Milwaukee, on Roca 
river. 

Ashi'ra Hand, a country of W. Africa, bordering on 
Ashango Land, in Lat. 1° 44' 22" S.; Lon. 10° 30' 34". 
Discovered in 1863 by Du Chaillu. Its inhabitants are 
savages of the purest Negro type. 

Ash'kenaz, one of the three sons of Gomer, son of 
Japhet (Gen. x. 3), i. e., one of the peoples or tribes be¬ 
longing to that part of tho Japhetic division of the hu¬ 
man race which bears the name of Gomer. The original 
site of the people of A. was in the neighborhood of Arme¬ 
nia (Jer. li. 27), and we may perhaps recognize the tribe 
of A. on the N. shore of Asia Minor, in the name of Lake 
Ascanius, and in Europe in the name of Scand- ia, Scan¬ 
dinavia. Knobel regards A. as a compound, Ash-kenaz, 
i. e. the Ms-race, perhaps the origin of the name Asia. 

Asli'kum, in Illinois, a post-village of Iroquois co., 73 
m. S. by W. from Chicago. 

Ash'lantl, in Illinois, a town of Cass co., 16 m. N. E. of 
Jacksonville. Pop. (1890) 1,015. 

Ash'Iaml. in Indiana, a thriving village of Fayette co., 
65 m. E. by S. of Indianapolis. 

—A post-village of Henry co., 3 m. E. by S. of Newcastle. 

_A village of Wabash co., 48 m. S. W. of Fort Mayne. 

Ash'land, in Iowa, a village of Wapello co., 72 m. 
S. W. of Iowa City. 

Ash'land, in Kansas, a post-village, cap. of Clark co., 
on A., T. &. S. Fe R.R., 40 m. S. by W. of Dodge City. 


Ash'land, in Kentucky, a thriving town of Bnya co, 
on the Ohio. 

Ash'land, in Maine, a township of Aroostook co., now 
called Dalton, q. v. 

Ash'land, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Middle¬ 
sex co., 24 m. from Boston. 

Ash land, in Michigan, a post-townsliip of Newaygo 
co. 

Ash'land, in Minnesota, a post-village of Dodge co., in 
A. township. 

Ash'land, in Mississippi, a post-office of Monroe co. 

Ash'land, in Missouri, a post-village of Boone co., 
about 18 m. N. by W. of Jefferson City. 

Ash'land, in Nebraska, a vill. of Saunders co. 

A village of Cass co., 3 m. S.W. of the Platte river. 

Ash'land, in New York, a post-township of Greene co., 
40 m. S. by W. of Albany. 

Ash'land, in Ohio, a N.E. co., watered by the Black 
Fork and Lake Fork. Its soil is highly fertile. Area, 
390 sq. m. Pop. (1890) 22,223.—Cap., Ashland, situated 
85 m. N.N.E. of Columbus; pop. (1890 ) 3,566. 

Ash'land, in Pennsylvania, a township of Clarion co. 

—A thriving city of Schuylkill county, iu the midst of a 
rich anthracite region. Pop. (1890), 7,346. 

—A village of Wayne co., 170 m. N.E. of Harrisburg. 

Ash'land, in Virginia, a post-village of Hanover co., 
about 16 in. N.W. of Richmond. 

Ash'land, in Wisconsin, a thriving city, cap. of Ashland 
co. on Cliaquamegon Bay, Lake Superior. Pop. (1890), 
9,956; in 1897 est. at 12,500. 

Ash'land City, in Tennessee, a township of Cheatham 
county. 

—A vill. of Wayne co., abt. 76 m. N.W. of Nashville. 

Ash'land Mills, in Oregon, a post-office of Jackson 
co., iu Ashland township, now called Oregon. 

Ash lar, Ash'ler, n. [It. asciare, to cut or hew smooth 
with an axe, from a see, an axe.J (Masonry.) The name 
given to common or free-stones, as they come from the 
quarry, of various sizes. — Also the facing or squared 
stones on the front of a building. When the work ia 
smoothed or rubbed, so as to take out the marks of the 
tools by which the stones were cut, it is called plane A. 
— Tooled A. is understood to be that, the surface of 
which is wrought in a regular manner like parallel 
flutes, and placed perpendicularly in tho building; but 
when the surfaces of the stones are cut with a broad 
tool, without care or regularity, the work is said to 
be random-tooled; when wrought with a narrow tool, it 
is said to bo chiselled, or boasted; and when the surfaces 
of the stones are cut with very narrow tools, the A. is 
said to be pointed; when the stones project from tho 
joints, the A. is said to be rusticated; in this kind, the 
faces may either have a smooth or broken surface. 

Asli'laring - , and Asb'lering', n. (Arch, and Mason¬ 
ry.) In Nicholson’s Architectural Dictionary, the word 
ashlaring is used to signify the operation of bedding the 
slabs of stone employed for facing brick or rabble walls; 
and ashlering, as a technical term in carpentry, for the 
short pieces of upright quartering used in garrets to cut 
off tho acute angle between the floor and tho sloping 
rafters of the roof. 

Ash'ley, Lord. See Shaftesbury. 

Ash'ley, in Arkansas, a S.E. county, watered by Bar¬ 
tholomew bayou, Saline and Washita rivers. Area. 870 
sq. m.; surface generally level. Chief Prod. Cotton, 
Indian corn, tobacco. Cap. Hamburg. Pop. (1890) 
13,295. 

• —A township of Independence co. 

Ash'ley, in Illinois, a post-village and township of 
Washington co., 18 S.W. of CentraUa. 

Ash'ley, in Michigan, a post-office of Gratiot co. 

Ash'ley, in Missouri, a post-village and township of 
Pike co. 

Ash'ley, in Ohio, a post-village of Delaware co., 104 m. 
S.W. of Cleveland. 

Ash'ley, in South Carolina, a small river, which hag 
lately acquired a great importance. It takes rise iu the 
district of Colleton, and flowing S.W. to Charleston, 
forms with Cooper river the Charleston harbor. On the 
banks of this river and its tributary streams, were found, 
in 1867 and 1868, very extensive deposits of pliosphatic 
rocks or boulders, imbedded near the surface of the 
ground. These, when ground, are quite adapted to use 
as the main substratum of the fertilizers now coming so 
extensively into use; and lias already become so much 
in demand, that tho citizens of Charleston rely on the 
trade as a very important means of restoring their com¬ 
mercial importance. 

Ash'ley, in Utah, a lake of Iron co., about 25 m. long, 
and 10 broad. 

Ash'ley City, in Michigan, a village of Macomb co., on 
Lake St. Clair, with a harbor open to large vessels. 

Ash'ley Falls, in Massachusetts, a post-office of Berk¬ 
shire co. 

Ash ley’s Fork, in Utah, a tributary of the Green 
river of the Colorado. 

Ash'leyville, in Massachusetts, a village of Hamp¬ 
den co. 

—A village of Berkshire co. 

Ash'mole, Ei.ias, a celebrated English antiquary, b. 
1617. On tho restoration of Charles II. ho was appointed 
Windsor herald, and became one of the first members 
of the Royal Society. His principal work is the History 
of the Order of the Garter. D. 1692. 

Asli'niore, in Illinois, atownship of Coles co. 

Asli'iniin, .Tehcdi, an American philanthropist, B. at 
Champlain, New York, 1794. In 1822, he was commis¬ 
sioned to conduct a body of liberated Negro settlers to 
Liberia, and accordingly set sail for Cape Montserado. 
Tho greatest difficulties in tho way of the settlements 
had been overcome by the talents and energy of A., when 





166 


ASHY 


ASIA 


ASIA 


his health gave way, and he was obliged to return to 
America. I). 1828. 

Axliore', adv. On shore ; on the land. 

“The poor Englishman riding iu the road, having all that he 
brought thither ashore, would have been undone.”— Raleiyh. 

—To or at the shore. 

“ We may as bootless spend our vain command, 

As send our precepts to the leviathan 
To come ashore.” — Shake. 

(Naut.) A ship is said to be ashore whet she has run 
upon the ground, or on the sea-coast, either by acci¬ 
dent or design. 

Ash'petiick' River, in Omnecticut, a small river of 
Connecticut, emptying into the Saugatuck. 

Atilt Point, in Kansas, a post-village of Nemaha co., 
about 70 in N.N.W. of Topeka. 

Aslt'port, in Tennessee, a post-village of Lauderdale co., 
on the Mississippi, 170 m. W.S.VV. from Nashville. 

Axil Ridge, in Illinois , a village of Massac co. 

Asti Riilge. in Ohio, a post-office of Brown co. 

Asll'rtlII', a town of Persia, province of Mazanderan, 
52 m. W. of Asterliad. Near it are the ruins of the 
magnificent palace built by Shah Abbas, the greatest of 
the Persian nionaichs. 

Ash Sprin g - , in Texas, a village of Harrison co. 

Aslitabu la. in Ohio , a county settled in 1796, border¬ 
ing on Pennsylvania and Lake Erie, and watered by 
Grand and Conneaut rivers. Prod. Hay, Indian corn, 
oats, butter, cheese, wool and cattle. Cap. Jefferson. 

—a thriving manuf. city of above county, on Lake Erie, at 
mouth of Ashtabula river. Pop. (1890), 8,338. 

—A river of Ashtabula co., falling into Lake Erie. 

Asli't arotll, or As'taroth, plurals of Ash'toreth ; As'- 
TAieris. The Ashtoreth worshipped by the Jews in times 
when idolatry prevailed, was the principal female divin¬ 
ity of the Phoenicians, as Baal was the principal male 
divinity; and the plural Ashtaroth indicate probably 
different modifications of the diviuity herself. Asli- 
toreth is the Astarte of the Greeks and Romans, and 
is identified by ancient writers with the goddess Venus 
{Aphrodite). She is probably the same a« the Isis of the 
Egyptians, and closely connected with the Asherah of 
Scripture; Ashtoreth being, according to Berthau, 
the name of the goddess, and Asherah the name of her 
image or symbol. In Scripture she is almost always 
joined with Baal, and is called god, Scripture having no 
particular word for expressing goddess. She was the 
goddess of the moon; her temples generally accompanied 
thoso of the sun, and while bloody sacrifices or human 
victims were offered to Baal, bread, liquors, and perfumes 
were presented to Astarte. She was also goddess of 
woods, and in groves consecrated to her, such lascivious¬ 
ness was committed as rendered her worship infamous. 
Cicero says, lib. iii. de Nat. Deonvn, that their Astarte 
was the Syrian Venus, born at Tyre, and wife of Adonis: 
very different from the Venus of Cyprus. On medals 
she is represented in a long habit; at other times with 
a short oue; sometimes holding a large stick; some¬ 
times she has a crown of rays; sometimes she is crowned 
with battlements,as the Venus of Ascalon. (See Fig. 207.) 
In a medal of Caesarea she is in a short dress, with a 
man's head in iier right hand, and Sanchoniathon says 
that she was represented with a cow's head, or only with 
horns intended to represent the lunar rays, as in Fig. 
210, which is the copy of an ancient sculpture. 



Fig. 210. — ashtoreth, or astartC. 


Axli'ton, in Illinois, a township of Lee co. 

Asli'toii. in Iowa, a village of Monona co., 2 m. N.by 
W. of Ouawa. 

Axli'ton, in Missouri, a post office of Clarke co. 

Ash ton, in Pennsylvania, a village of Carbon co., 115 
m. N.E. of Harrisburg. It is largely engaged in coal¬ 
mining. 

Axli'ton. in Rhode Island, a post-office of Providence co. 

Axh'ton, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Dane co. 

Asli'ton-umler-I.yne, a borough of England, in 
Lancashire, on the Tame, 187 m. N. by Vi. of London, 
and 7 E.N.E. of Manchester. Man/. Extensive manu¬ 
factures of cotton, calicoes, ginghams, Ac. Pop. of 
parish, 71,181; of borough, 40,000. 

Asli'nelot, in New Hampshire, a river falling into the 
Connecticut river. 

—A post-office of Cheshire co. 

Axh'ville. in Alabama, a post-village and cap. of St. 
Clair co., 120 in. N. of Montgomery. This county is full 
of bituminous coal 


Asll'ville. now Asheville, in North Carolina, a thriv¬ 
ing city, capital of Buncombe co., 255 m. W. of Raleigh. 
Is a famous health resort. Pop. (1897), about 15,000. 

Axli-Wetinexilay is the name given to the first day 
of Lent, from the Roman Catholic ceremony of strewing 
ashes on the head, as a sign of penitence. The ashes 
used on this day are said to be those of the palms con¬ 
secrated on the PaJm-Sunday before. The ashes are 
first consecrated on the altar, then sprinkled with holy 
water, and afterward strewed on the heads of the 
priests and the assembled people, the officiating priest 
repeating the words, “ Remember that thou art dust, and 
shult return to dust.” The ceremony is said to have been 
introduced into the Church by Pope Gregory the Great. 
In the Church of England, a commination service is ap¬ 
pointed to be read on this day, containing the curses de¬ 
nounced against impenitent sinners. 

Axli-Weetl, n. {Hot.) An herb of the tribe Angelicidce, 
named also goat-foot, herb-gerard, gout-weed, Ac. 

Axil'wood, in Tennessee, a post-office of Maury co. 

Axli'y, a. Belonging to ashes; having the color of ashes; 
pale; composed of ashes. 

“ Oft I have seen a timely partest ghost 
Of ashy semblance, meagre, pale, and bloodless.”— Shake. 

Axh'y-jiale, a. Pale as ashes. 

“ ’Twixt crimson shame and anger, ashy-pale 

Asia, (a'zhah.) [Lat. and Gr. Asia; Ger. Asien ; perhaps 
from Scr. ushoc, aurora. See also Ashkenaz.] Asia, the 
largest of the great divisions of the earth, the birthplace 
and cradle of the human race, the mother of nations, re¬ 
ligions, and states; of languages, arts, and sciences; rich 
in all natural gifts and historic memories; the theatre 
of human progression in ancient times, and still exhib¬ 
iting, in many parts, the same characteristic traits which 
distinguished it centuries ago,—presents to our study an 
immense assemblage of facts that cannot be condensed 
in the space of a few columns. We, therefore, in offering 
below a generalized summary of its geographical history, 
and principal divisions, have to refer the reader for more 
minute details to the various names of countries, Ac. it 
contains, each in its alphabetical place in this work. 

I. History. —The geographical knowledge of A. may be 
considered os commencing with its western countries, 
and with Greece, the cradle of our present civilization. 
Judtea and Phoenicia are the quarters from which the 
earliest information comes, and this knowledge became 
extended in the 5th century u. c. The conquests of 



Fig. 211. — VIEW OF NAZARETH. 


Alexander the Great, and, after him, the Romans, did 
much to arouse the spirit of discovery ; but in this they 
were surpassed by the Saracens or Arabs, who pene¬ 
trated all over this continent, with the exception of Si¬ 
beria and that region bordering on the Arctic ocean. The 
latter was by them supposed to contain the castie of two 
enormous giants, Gog and Magog, the search after which 
impelled the caliphs to send forth many exploratory ex¬ 
peditions, one of which returned with a formidable ac¬ 
count of this fortress. This fable was so implicitly be¬ 
lieved at the time, that the castle figures conspicuously 
in all the maps of the middle ages. In Europe, the 
crusades first drew attention to the Eastern world, and 
intercourse was also created by an embassy from the 
Pope being sent to the Mongols, who had invaded Europe 
as far as Hungary and Silesia. About the same time, 
owing to the revival of commerce among the maritime 
cities of Italy, two Venetian nobles of enter].rising 
spirit, named Polo, visited Bokhara, and from thence 
Cambalu. thecourt of Kublai, surnamed the Great Khan, 
who was the inheritor of the conquests of Jenghisin 
China and other countries. They a second time trav¬ 
elled through the Farther East, taking with them the 
son of one of them, Marco Polo (q. v.), to whom man¬ 
kind is indebted for the earliest work of travel known 
of A. Cathay, as N. China was then called, with Cam¬ 
balu, its cap. (the modern Pekin), excited their wonder, 
the latter surpassing in magnificence any city of Europe 
at that time. They afterward visited Mangi, or S. China, 
whose cap., Quinsai, or the “Celestial City,” is also de¬ 
scribed in glowing colors. Marco heard also of JTipangu, 
or Japan, as a riclt insular empire, which the great khan 
had been unable to subdue. Returning, the travellers 
passed through India and Syria to Trebizonde, and 
reached Venice after an absence of 24 years. In the 
beginning of the 14th century, Juan de Monte Corvino, a 
Minorite friar, went on a religious missiou, and pene¬ 


trated to Cambalu, where he resided for many years, 
made many converts, and even caused himself to b< 
made archbishop of that city. Another, Od9ric of 
Portenau, also describes a voyage made to India, the 
Oriental Archipelago, and China, and his return by way 
of I hibet. At the end of this century, Europe resounded 
with the triumphs and conquests of Timour the Great; 
and Henry III., of Castile, sent two successive embassies 
to the court of the Tartar conqueror, the last of which 
was in 1403, under Ciavijo, who sojourned at Samarcand, 
and has given us an interesting account of that moimrch, 
his court, and policy. In 1497, Vasco de Gama doubled 
tlie Cape of Good Hope, and arrived at Calicut in India. 
The Portuguese followed him, and in 20 years establish¬ 
ed forts and settlements in Hindostan. and the Malayan 
islands, and even tried to get a footing in China. In the 
17tli century, a body of French missionaries, eminent 
for their scientific acquirements, obtained permission 
to reside in Pekin, and made a survey of China and the 
adjacent countries. The materials thus collected we re 
sent to France and arranged by D’Anville. In 1636, 
Broughton, an English surgeon, found lavor witli Shah 
Jehan, the Great Mogul, or emperor of Hindostan, who 
gave him the privilege of tree commerce throughout liis 
dominions, and promised to allow the same to all the 
English who should come to Bengal. This was com¬ 
municated to the English governor of Surat, a place 
where this people had already established a trading 
factory. In consequence of this permission, the English 
company sent out from England, in H.40, two ships to 
Bengal, and thus formed the nucleus of a vast com¬ 
merce, which in course of years led to the territorial con¬ 
quest and absorption of nearly the whole of Hindostan. 
The southern part of A. having thus become known, the 
discovery of that division of tliecontinent N.of the Altai 
was reserved for Russia, which country, about the mid¬ 
dle of the 15th century, having conquered the Cossacks, 
engaged that hardy race to explore and conquer lor her 
the vast region of Siberia. This was gradually done for 
60 years, until 1639, when Dimetrei Kopiloff reached 
the Gulf of Ochotsk. Another division marched to the 
Amoor,but were driven back by the Chinese. I he English 
and Dutch, during this time, w ere engaged in the attempt 
to reach China by way of the Arctic ocean; Middleton, 
Hudson, Barentz, and other navigators, tiled this pas¬ 
sage, but none of them reached beyond the Gull of 
Oby, to the E. of Nova Zerubla. In 1640, however, Cos¬ 
sack expeditions sailed down the rivers Lena, Alaska, 
and Colima; and in 1646, they explored the extreme 
N.E. peninsula of A., inhabited by the Tchutcliis. To¬ 
ward the end of the century, Behring discovered the 
most E. capeof A.; and, in conjunction with Tchurikoff, 
afterward made a voyage to America. Subsequent ex¬ 
peditions, as those of V t angel, Beechey. Cook, Perouse, 
and Broughton, did much to explore the E. boundary 
of Asiatic Russia, and its connection with Jesso, Japan, 
and China. The entire coast of A. lias thus been ex¬ 
plored, and in a great measure possessed by Europeans 
The chain of the Himalayas has been surveyed, and its 
heights determined. Thibet has been explored by 
Turner and Moorcroft, Cabool and Afghanistan l.y 
Elpbinstone. and Bokhara by Burnes and W olff. Rus¬ 
sian embassies, sent overland to China, have crossed the 
Great Mongolian desert ; as has also Pallas, and Hum¬ 
boldt. Siberia, and the regiou of tlie Amoor, has be¬ 
come known to us by the adventurous researches of 
Atkinson ; and iu Central A. the brothers Schlagentweit, 
in 1856, passed over the Kuenluen mountains, a feat 
never before attempted. An Hungarian traveller, Ar- 
minius Vambery, accomplished, in 1S63, a perilous 
journey from Teheran through tlie wilds of the Turcoman 
deserts' to Samarcand. We have here named only the 
earlier of the Asiatic explorers of tlie present century. 
Those named have been followed by a host of others, 
who have penetrated almost every portion of that long 
little-known continent, and made us faiily well ac¬ 
quainted with its physical features aud the character* 
teristics of its populations. Our know ledge of Asia is, 
in considerable measure, due to the aggressive move¬ 
ments of Russia, in consequence of which Central Asia 
lias been made a part of the great Russian Empire. 
Beginning with tlie conquest of the Caucasus, Russia 
extended her invasive movements into Turkestan, the 
whole of whicli has been made a Russian province, 
while a railroad now traverses the desert to and beyond 
the once inaccessible Samarcand. A railway has also 
been built across the great widtli of Siberia and through 
the length of Manchuria, and in China many miles of 
railway have been built. The long seclusion of Asia is 
at an end, and civilization seems destined to penetrate 
its every section. 

II. Topography. — A. extends from Lat. 10° 20'. and, 
inclusive of the archipelago of islands belonging to it, 
from Lat. 10° 19' S. to 78° N. From W. to E. it occupies 
from 26° to 190° E. Lon. The most northerly point of 
tlie continent is Cape Sievero Vostotchnia. Lat. 78° 25' 
N.; easterly, Cape Tschukotskoi-noss, 190° E. Lon.; 
southerly. Cape Romania, Lat. 1° 18' N.; and the most 
westerly, Cape Baba, in Natolia, 26° E. Lon. Its greatest 
length E. to W., from Behring's straits to the Dardanelles, 
may be taken as 7,500 in.; its greatest breadth, from 
North-East cape in Siberia, to Cape Romania at the ex¬ 
treme end of the Malayan peninsula, at about 5,200 m. 
Area. Estimated to be about 17,805,146sq. ni., being over 
4 times tlie size of Europe. — Asia is washed on tlie N 
by the Arctic sea; on the E. by the Pacific ocean, w liieli 
separates it from the American continent; on tlie S by the 
Indian ocean, which lies between it and Australia; while 
on the W. it is divided from Africa by the Red sea and 
Gulf of Aden; and from Europe, by tlie Mediterranean 
and .Egean seas, the Dardanelles, the Black sea, and the 


























ASIA. 


Area sq. m. 

17,000,000 
Pop.826,000,000 


COUNTRIES. 

Afghanistan. .H 5 
Area sq. m. 

216,400 

Pop.4,000,000 

Anam.L 7 

Area sq.m.52.100 

Pop.6,124,000 

Arabia.. F 6 

Area sq. m. 

170,300 

Pop.1,050,000 

Baluchistan .. H 6 
Area sq. m. 

125,958 

Pop.984,292 

Bhutan.J 6 

Area sq.m.16,800 
Pop.50,000 

Cambodia.L 7 

Area sq m.37,400 

Pop.1,500,000 

Ceylon. J 8 

Area sq.m.25,332 
Pop.3,578,333 

Chinese Empire 
K 4 

Area sq. m. 

4,277.170 
Pop.. .426,047,325 
Coch-inChina. L 7 
Area sq.m.22,000 

Pop.2,968,600 

Formosa. N 6 

Area sq.m.13.458 

Pop.2,870,921 

Hongkong.... M 6 
Ar ea sq. m. . 29 

Pop_219,389 

India.. .I 6 

Area sq. m. 

1,766,642 
Pop... 294,361,056 

Japan.O 5 

Area sq. m. 

147,655 
Pop.... 44,805,937 

Korea.N 5 

Area sq.m 82.000 
Pop.... 17,000,000 

Nepal.J 6 

Area sq.m 54,000 
Pop.... 4,000,000 

Oman.G 6 

Area sq.m 82,000 

Pop.1,500,000 

Persia. G 5 

Area sq. m. 

628,000 

Pop.9,653,600 

Philippine Is. .N 7 
Area sq. m. 

115,029 
Pop.7,635,437 

Russia in Asia 

A to S 
Area sq. m. 

6,564,778 
Pop....22,697,469 

Siam.L 7 

Area sq. m. 

220.000 

Pop.5,000,000 

Straits 

Settlements.L 8 
Area sq. m.. .270 

Pop.572.249 

Tonkin.L ti 

Area sq. m. 

144.000 

Pop.7,641,900 

Turkey.E 5 

Area sq. m. 

693.610 
Pop.... 16,898,700 























































































































































ASIA 


ASIA 


ASIA 


167 


Ural mountaias. The principal straits of A. are, Beh¬ 
ring's, dividing it from N. America; Corea, between 
China and Japan; Formosa, separating that island from 
China; Perouse,and Sangor in Japan; Malacca, between 
the island of Sumatra and the Malayan peninsula; Or¬ 
muz, Bab-el-mandeb, the Dardanelles, and the Bospho¬ 
rus or Strait of Constantinople. Of bays and gulfs, the 
moat remarkable are the sea of Kara, and gulfs of Obi 
and Khatanskaia, on the N.; all connected with the 
Arctic ocean. The seas of Anadyr, Kamtschatka, and 
Okhotsk, on the N.E.; the sea of Japan, Gulf of Tartary, 
and Yellow sea, on the E.; and the China sea, and Gulf 
of Tonquin, on the S.E.; all connected with the Pacific. 
The gulfs of Siam and Martaban, the Bay of Bengal, the 
Arabian and died seas, and the gulfs of Cambay and 
Gutch, together with the Persian gulf, all form a junction 
with the Indian ocean. There are, besides, the Gulfs of the 
Levant, and Archipelago; and seas of Marmora, the Eu- 
xiue, and thatof Azoff,all associated with the Mediterra¬ 
nean.— Rivers. A. is, like America,acontinent possessing 
rivers of the first magnitude. Of such aro the Oby, the Ye- 
nesei, and the Lena, flowing into the Arctic ocean. Enter¬ 
ing the Pacific are the Amooror Saghalien, the IIoang-Ho, 
Yang-tse-Kiang, and the Cambodia; and falling into the 
Indiau ocean are the Irrawaddy, Brahmapootra, Ganges, 
Godavery, and the Indus. In the W., the Jihoun and 
Sihoun empty into the sea of Azoff. With the excep¬ 
tions of the Amazon and the Mississippi, the Obi has 
the largest basin of any river in the world. The lengths 
of some of these rivers are as follows: Yang-tse-Kiang, 
2,880 m.; Yenesei, 2,800; Amoor, 2,611; Lena, 2,400; 
Obi, 2,000; Hoang-Ho, 2,000; Indus, 1,700; Ganges, 
1,557; Brahmapootra, 1,500; Irrawaddy, 1,200. — Lakes. 
A. possesses the largest inland lake in the world, viz., 
the Caspian sea, covering an area of 140,000 sq. m.; the 
other large lake3 are Aral, Baikal, Van, and Balkasli, 
and there are numerous smaller ones. — Mountains. The 
principal systems are those of the Himalayas, the Altai, 
the Thian-shan, and the Kuenluen. These generally 
run parallel with the equator, and form the great cen¬ 
tral tableland of A , the most extensive on the globe. 
The entire length of the Himalayan chain, from Assam 
to the W. of the Iliudoo-Coosh, is about 1,800 in., with 
peaks which are the loftiest on earth. Among these, 
Chumulari rises to nearly 24,000 feet above sea-level; 
Comsanthan, to close on 25,000; Jamnobri and Nanda 
Dewi to about 26,000 each; Dhawalagiri, to 27,600 to 
about 29,000; and Deodkunga, the loftiest, to 29,002 
feet. Many of the passes of this range are above 15,000 
feet, while some reach even to as high as 18,000 and 
19,000 feet above sea-level. On the N. of these mountains, 
the perpetual snow-line is at 16,620 feet; on the S., 
12,981. The Altai mountain system extends, under 
various names, from the confluence of the Oby and Ir¬ 
tish, to East Cape: their whole length is about 5.000 m., 
and their breadth varies from about 400 to 1,000. The 
Thian-shan, or Celestial mountains, have their rise in 
Tartary, and, taking a course nearly along the 42d par¬ 
allel of N. Lat., terminate in the great desert of Gobi. 
Their highest summit is the Bogdo-Oola, a huge snow- 
clad elevation rising abruptly from a flat steppe, and 
held as sacred by the Kalmucks. The Kuenluen moun¬ 
tains run nearly parallel with the Celestials, and also, 
in some places, with the range of the Ilindoo-Coosh. 
They rise a little to the E. of the 100th degree of E. Lon., 
and, under a variety of names, takeacourse IV. and N.W., 
and skirting the Caspian and Black seas on the S., finally 
terminate to the W. of the latter. These are the prin¬ 
cipal mountains, but other chains exist, which are com¬ 
paratively but little known. Volcanoes in active opera¬ 
tion are found in Iceland, the island of Jan Mayen, and 
in Kamtschatka. Earthquakes are frequent, and occur 
at times with considerable violence. — Deserts, Steppes, 
Plateaux, <£:. The principal portion of the great coun¬ 
try known as Central A. is composed of vast deserts, 
called more generally steppes. Of these the most exten¬ 
sive is Gobi, or the Great Steppe, lying to the N. of the 
Kuenluen mountains, on the W. between the latter and 
the Thian-shan range, and on the E. between it and the 
Altai. This is all a sandy waste of vast and imperfectly 
known extent. The Gobi-shamo Steppe or “ Sand sea,” 
extends about 1,200 m. in length, and has a width of be¬ 
tween 500 and 700. Thecountry which is included between 
the two branches of the Kuenluen range, the Nan-shan, 
and Bayan Kara mountains, is called Khoo-khoo-noor, 
from a lake of that name. This region is but little 
known. The plateau of Yu-nan, which forms the most 
southerly portion of the greet table-land of Eastern A., 
has an extremely diversified surface, comprising moun¬ 
tains, in some places above the snow-line, and small 
valleys and plains. The great salt desert of Irak-A jemee, 
in Persia, has a length of about 300 m., by a breadth of 
210.— Islands. The principal are those of Japan, Sagha¬ 
lien, Formosa, the Philippines the islands of the Eastern 
or Malay Archipelago, Ceylon, Ac. 

III. Minerals. — A. abounds in gold, and precious 
stones in great variety; diamonds are found in Hindos- 
tan, the Ural mountains, Borneo, Ceylon, Ac.; gold in 
the Altai chain; silver in China, Annam, Asiatic Russia, 
Ac.: tin in Banca, and the islands of the Malayan archi¬ 
pelago; copper, iron, and mercury in Japan, China, 
Hindostan, Ceylon, Ac.; coal has been met with in 
Northern China, Bengal, and other localities; and salt 
is very generally diffused over the entire surface of the 
continent and petroleum on the shores of the Caspian. 

IV. Botany.— The following table will give a promi¬ 
nent view of the more important botanical productions 
of A. — Forest Trees: Bamboo, Birch, Chestnut, Cy¬ 
press, Fir, Larch, Mangrove, Myrtle, Oak, Palm, Pine, 
Plantain, Ponna, Poplar, Teak, and Willow. — Hard¬ 
woods: Aloes, Eagle-wood, Ebony, Iron-wood, Lingoa, 


Rose-wood, Sandal-wood. — Fruits: Almond, Apple, 
Apricot, Banana, Banyan, Betel, Bignonia, Bread-fruit, 
Cashew, Citron, Cocoa, Coffee, Date, Dunon, Fig, Guana. 
Guava, Jamboo, Lemon, Lime, Mangosteen, Mulberry, 
Olive, Orange, Pandanus, Peach, Pear, Plum, Pomegran¬ 
ate. Shaddock, Tamarind. Vine, Walnut. — Spice-tkees: 
Camphor, Cassia, Cinnamon, Clove, Mace, Nutmeg, Ac. 
There are also several species which cannot be conven¬ 
iently classed under either of the 4 foregoing heads, as 
the champaka, malor, and tanjang, all flower-bearing 
trees; the touki, th v faung, the tallow-tree, the upas, the 
most deadly of vegetable poisons; the cotton-tree, and, 
above all, the tea-plant. The other kinds of vegetation 
are not less abundant. Grain of every kind is grown 
with but little labor, and generally yields two crops an¬ 
nually. The leguminous plants are common, as, peas, 
beans, lentils, and the less-known kinds of the lotus, 
moony, murhus, tamea, tour, koll, Ac. A root called hat¬ 
ch ill supplies the place of the American potato; hut this 
last root, as well as the yam, is abundantly cultivated, 
especially in China and the E. peninsula of India. This 
is also the native home of the arrow-root, galanga, ja¬ 
lap, sarsaparilla, datura, anise, opium, and other drugs. 
The fields abound in flax, hemp, tobacco, and flowers of 
every hue. Dye-plants are very numerous; the sugar¬ 
cane grows luxuriantly, and manj’ odoriferous gums are 
met with. Lindley estimates the gross number of spe¬ 
cies of the plants of A. to be 86,000. 

V. Zoology. — A. is the natal country of all the more 
useful species of animals, excepting, perhaps, the sheep. 
From this continent came originally, the ox, horse, 
camel, goat, ass; together with the whole race of do¬ 
mestic poultry, excepting the turkey, which is a denizen 
of the New World. Of the ox-tribe, are the Asiatic, or 
common ox ( Bos Taurus of Linnaeus), the aurochs, the 
buffalo, and the yak. Among sheep, the argali is found 
in Siberia and the northern countries. Of goats, the An¬ 
gora goat, the Thibet goat, and the ibex; and the do¬ 
mestic species, Capra hircus, are the most noted varie¬ 
ties. The elk is common to Siberia and Mongolia. 
Deer and antelopes are also found. The elephant, horse, 
ass, and hog, have their home in the forests and plains 
of this continent; and the dziggetai.a creature interme¬ 
diate in size between the horse and ass, still runs wild in 
the Asiatic deserts; like his congeners, he is gregarious, 
and like them, too, his numbers seem almost unlimited. 
A similar remark will apply to the Koulan, or wild ass. 
Two species of the rhinoceros are peculiar to Asia and the 
Indian islands; the latter are distinguished by a double 
horn like the A. Africanus. Tropical A. possesses most 
of the fiercer Carnivora: lions, tigers, leopards, black 
panthers, ounces, and tiger-cats, of the feline genus; 
wolves, hyenas, and jackals, of the dog tribe. The lion 
is, however, becoming very rare in A. ; he is now found 
only in the deserts of Mesopotamia, Persia, and India, 
and perhaps in some parts of China. The dog and fox, 
in all their varieties, are common throughout this con¬ 
tinent. The smaller Carnivora also abound, as the mar¬ 
tens, civets, mangousti or ichneumon, which attacks and 
destroys the most dangerous serpents; bears, badgers, 
gluttons, sea-otters, walruses, seals, Ac. The ornithol¬ 
ogy of A. is less rich than its mammalogy. It includes 
eagles, vultures, falcons, buzzards, with nearly all the 
varieties of domestic and game-fowls. Song-birds are 
very scarce. Among reptiles are the Python and other 
venomous serpents, alligators, lizards, turtles, Ac. The 
sea and rivers swarm with fish of all kinds. The insect- 
tribe is numerous throughout the whole continent; and 
the ravages of the locust in Arabia, Syria, Ac., are far 
more dreaded than the attacks of wild animals. 



Pig. 212. — elephant with howdah. 

(From Major Luard's “ View a in India.") 


VI. Meteorology. — Although A. is mostly within the 
temperate zone, it is generally colder than might he 
supposed by the indications of its latitude. In the cen¬ 
tral N. and E. parts the extremes both of cold and heat 
are felt. The great table-land is both dry and cold; but 
to give a general and comprehensive definition, A. may 


be said to be cold in the N., wet and cold in the E., dry 
and hot in the S.W., and wet and hot in the S., where 
the year is divided only into two seasons, a wet and a 
dry. Here the monsoons blow from April to Sept, from 
the S.W., and from Sept, to April from the N.B. It is 
from this peculiarity that they have received their name, 
which, in the Malay language, signifies a season. The 
suffocating simoom sweeps the Syrian and Arabian des¬ 
erts, whilst typhoons carry their terrors across Persia, 
and the S.E. countries generally. In China every variety 
of climate is experienced, in accordance with the differ¬ 
ence of latitude in which it lies, and witli other causes 
which combine to give it this character. Although its 
capital is in the same latitude as Naples, in winter it 
has the atmosphere of the N. of Europe, and in summer 
the temperature of Egypt. 

VII. Races of Man. — The natives proper of A. belong 
to the three distinct types of the Caucasian, the Mongo¬ 
lian, and the Malay. The first of these families com¬ 
prises all the aboriginal inhabitants of the mountainous 
region lying between the Black and Caspian seas, from 
about 38° to 42° of N. Lat. It includes the mountain¬ 
eers of the valleys of the Caucasus, as the Abashins, 
Lesghians, and Kisti; and, in the more level country 
lying to the S. of the Caucasus, the Georgians, Mingre- 
lians, and Armenians. The Caucasian family also com- 



Fig. 213. — CAUCASIAN TYPE. 


prises the independent Tartar tribes, Kurds, Druses, 
Arabs, Persians, Hindoos, Afghans, Ac. The Mongolian, 
or 2d great aborigitial race, occupies all Thibet, Central 
A., China, Japan, Mautchouria, and the country of the 
Samoyedes. Finally, the Malay family have their habi¬ 
tat in Siam, Malacca, and the islands of the Indian Ar¬ 
chipelago generally. 

YIH. Political Divisions, Population, and Foreign 
Possessions. Compiled from the best authorities and 
latest estimates to 1897: 


Countries. 

Sq. Miles. 

POPULATIOH, 

Afghanistan ....... 

278,562 

4,000,000 

Arabia ......... 

968,200 

3,700,000 

200,000 

Assam (British) ..... 

25,290 

Beloochistan ...... 

106,800 

500,000 

Bokhara.. . 

92,300 

2,130,000 

Burmali (British). 

277,720 

6,736,800 

China A Manchuria ... 

1,660,300 

395,000,000 

Cochin-China. Cambodia, Ton¬ 
kin and Annam (French) . 

225,620 

25,100,000 

India and Ceylon. 

1,413,490 

257,119,100 

Island Settlements (Java, Su¬ 
matra, Borneo, Ac.) . . . 

781,920 

35,080,300 


147,669 

41,089,940 

Kafiristan ....... 

20,000 

22,300 

1,000,000 

Khiva ......... 

70,OIK) 
7,653,600 

Persia. . • 

630,000 

Russian Asia— 

Caucasus . 

182,500 

6,534,850 


4,824,570 

4.093,500 

Transcaspia . 

230,400 

206,000 

Turkestan . 

1,541,500 

5,245,000 

5,700,000 

Siam. 

280,550 

Straits Settlements (British) . 

1,450 

640,000 

Turkey in Asia . 

729,200 

16,133,000 

Vassal States (Mongolia, Thi¬ 
bet, Ac . 

2,519,300 

9,200,000 

Total . 

16,959,541 

826,324,090 


IX. Religions. —The four pre-eminent religious 
creeds ruling on this continent are, Brahtninism, Buddh¬ 
ism, Mohammedanism, and Christianity; but there ex¬ 
ist numerous other sects, many of which are but little 
known. Hindostan is the principal seat of the religion 
of Brahma, and Buddhism reigns omnipotent over Far 
ther India, China, Japan, Mongolia, Thibet, and the 
Corea. In Independent Tartary, Afghanistan, Beloochis 
tan, Persia, and Arabia, Islamism is professed, as it is, 
also, by the Tartars and Turks of Siberia and Turkey. 
In Asiatic Russia, and in some parts of Asiatic Turkey, 































ASKA 


ASP 


ASPA 


168 


In addition a number of minor modern sects might 
be named, including Babisiu (q.v.), "'hich has made 
some progress in Persia and Hindustan, and the Brahma 
Somaj {q.v.), a reformed Brahmanism, which is having 
a salutary effect upon Indian thought.- India has also 
populations still in a state of abject heathenism. 

Asi'ago, a town of N. Italy, 24 m. N. of Vicenza, cele¬ 
brated for its manufactures of straw hats. A. is the 
chief town of a district of 7 communes, the people of 
which speak a sort of bastard German; and they are 
supposed to descend from such of the ancient Cimbri 
that escaped after their great defeat by Marius, 101 B. c. 
Pop. 5,574. 

A'sia Minor. See Natolia. 

Asian, a. Belonging or relating to Asia; Asiatic. 

“ The Aslan churches.”— Milton. 

A'siarrli, [Lat. asiarcha; Gr. asiarches, from Asia, 
and archos, ruler.] In the time of pro-consular Asia, one 
of the chiefs or pontiffs who had the superintendence of 
the public games and religious mysteries or spectacles. 
The office of A. was annual, and subject to the approval 
of the pro-consul for renewal. 

Asiatic, a. Relating to Asia. 

—a. A native of Asia. 

Asiat'icism, n. Imitation of the Asiatic manner. 

Asiatic, or Eastern, Archipelago. See Archi¬ 
pelago. 

Asiat'ic Societies. Associations formed for investi¬ 
gating the languages, literature, history, and archaeology 
of Asia. Some of these exist in Asia, others in Europe, 
and in America. The oldest society of this kind is the 
Balaviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschapen, 
founded in Batavia, 1781. It was soon followed by the 
A. of Calcutta, founded by Sir William Jones. The first 
volume of its proceedings was published in 1'88, under 
the title of Asiatic Researches, and was continued till 
1836. Other kindred societies in India followed. The 
first A. founded in Europe was the Satiric Asialique of 
Paris, in 1822, whose published records, the Journal 
Asialique, still appear. In 1823, the Royal Asiatic 
Society of Great Britain was founded, and in 1824 re¬ 
ceived a royal charter. It has also published an annual 
volume of its transactions. In 1845, the German 
Deutsche Morgenldndische Gesellschaft was instituted at 
Leipzig. In 1842, an American Oriental society was 
founded at Boston; and, in 1852, at Constantinople, 
appeared the Sotiite Asiatique. 

Aside', adv. [a and side.] On side; to or on one side; 
not straight or perpendicular. 

11 The flames were blown asia , yet shone they bright, 

Fann'd by the wind, and gave a ruffled light.”— Drydtn. 

—Out of the right way; to another part. 

“ He had no brother; which, though it be a comfortable tiling 
tor kings to have, yet it draweth the subject's eyes a little aside." 
Bacon. 

—Apart; at a small distance; separate from. 

“ He took him aside from the multitude.”— Mark vii. 33. 

To lay aside. To put off; to put away. 

To set aside. To put by for a particular use.— {Law.) To 
annul; to make void; as, to set aside an award. 

Asil'idfe, n.pl. (Zo'til.) A tribe of insects belonging to 
the sub-order Diptera. The gen. Asilus is the type of the 
tribe. They are very strong, predaceous insects, living 
upon live flies, humble-bees, and other insects, Sic., which 
they chase and soon kill. Their flight is strong, and 
when on the wing they make a loud buzzing noise. 
They attack horses and cattle, and sometimes cause 
them groat annoyance and irritation. 

Asi'Iius, n. See AsiurcE. 

Asimi'na, n. See Anona. 

Asine'jfo, «• See Assinego. 

Asinoi li, Gherardo, and his brother, were two Bolog¬ 
nese architects of the 12th century. Among their works 
may be mentioned the tower of Bologna, and a leaning 
tower, La Garizenda. 

As'inine, a. [Lat. asininus, from, asinus, an ass.] Be¬ 
longing to or resembling the ass. 

Asi'tia, n. [Gr., from a, priv., and silos, food.] {Med.) 
Abstinence from food; want of appetite. 

As' ins, an elegiac poet of Samos, who flourished in the 
5th or 6th century b. c., and whose fragmentary poems 
have been published by Diinzer, (Cologne, 1840, Svo.) 

Ask, v. a. [A S. ascian, acsian, or axiun; probably from 
asecan, to search, to seek out, to inquire.] To request; 
to demand; to petition; to beg; to solicit; to entreat. 

“ When thou dost ask me blessiDg, I’ll kneel down, and ask of 
thee forgiveness.”— Shake. 

—To seek for by interrogation; to question. 

“ He asked the way to Chester.”— Shaks. 

—To inquire of; to interrogate. 

“Sent priests.... to ask him, who art thou?”— John I. 19. 

—To require; to demand; to claim. 

“ Ask me never so much dowry and gift.”— Gen. xxxiv. 12. 

Ask, v.n. To request or petition; to beg; generally 
with for. 

“ If he ask for bread, will he give him a stone?” -Matt. vii. 9. 

—To make inquiry or seek by request; sometimes with 
for, or after. 

“ Ask for the old paths, where is the good way, and walk there¬ 
in.”— Jer. vi. 16. 

“ Wherefore dost thou ask after my name T'—Gen. xxxii. 12. 

Askance’, Askant', adv. [But. schuins, away, ob¬ 
lique; probably allied to It. scansare, to turn or slip 
aside.] Awry; sideways; obliquely; toward one corner 
of the eye. 

“At this, Achilles roll’d his furious eyes. 

Fixed on the king askant."—Dry den. 

“ Zelmare, keeping a eeuntenance askance, as she understood 
him not....’’— Sidney. 


Ask'er, n. A petitioner; an inquirer. 

(ZoUl.) An old name of the water-newt. Written also 
ask. 

Askew', adv. [Ger. schief, from schieben, to push, to 
shove; closely allied to askance .] With a wry look; 
aside; obliquely; askant; contemptuously. 

“Then take it, sir, as it was writ. 

Nor look askew at what it saith; 

There’s not petition in it.”— Prior. 

As'kew, Anne, an English martyr, daughter of Sir W. 
Askew, a Lincolnshire knight, b. 1529; she was burned 
at the stake, 1546, for maintaining the doctrines of the 
Reformation. She died with great serenity, aud as she 
said herself, “for her Lord and Master.” 

As'kew’, in Arkansas, a post-office of Phillips co. 

Ask'ing,p.a. Requesting; petitioning; interrogating; 
inquiring. 

— n . The making of a request; a petition. 

As'koe, a small Danish island in the Belt; Lat. 54° 54' 
N.; Lon. 11° 29' E. 

As'lau, Asla'ni, or Assela'ni. {Com.) A name given to 
the Dutch dollar, in most parts of the Levaut. It is of 
silver, but much alloyed, and is current for from 115 to 
120 aspers. 

Aslant', a. or adv. On a slant; on one side; obliquely; 
not perpendicularly. 

“ There is a willow gl ows aslant a brook. 

That shews his hoar leaves in the glassy stream.”— Shake. 

Asleep', adv. and a. In, or to sleep; sleeping; at rest. 
“ How many thousands of my poorest subjects 
Are at this hour asleep! O gentle sleep, 

Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee I”— Shaks. 

—Figuratively, it is used for dead. 

(Naut.) Applied to the state of the sails when the wind* 
is just strong enough to fill without shaking them.— 
Worcester. 

Aslope', adv. aud a. On slope; with leaning or inclina¬ 
tion ; obliquely; with declivity or descent. 

“ Set them not upright, but aslope, a reasonable depth under 
the ground."— Bacon. 

Asmannshau'sen, a village on the banks of the 
Rhine, below RUdesheim, in Nassau, celebrated for the 
excellent wine produced on hills of blue slate in its 
vicinity. The red kind of A. wine is the more valuable; 
its color is peculiar. It retains its value only 3 or 4 
years; after which it becomes worse every year, and 
precipitates the whole of its red coloring matter. It is 
difficult, but not impossible to transport it across the 
Atlantic. 

Asniatog'rapliy, n. [Gr. asma, a song, and grapho, 
to write.J The art of writing songs, (r.) 

Asnio'tlous, n. [Lat., from Ileb. aschmedai, the des- 
olator, the destroying angel; probably the same as 
Abaddon, q. r\] An evil spirit, which in Tobit is repre¬ 
sented as loviug Sara, the daughter of Ruguel,and caus¬ 
ing the death of seven husbands; but Tobias, instructed 
by Rachel, having burned the heart and liver of a fish 
on “ the ashes of the perfumes,” “ the evil spirit fled into 
the utmost parts of Egypt, and the angel bound him.” 
(lob. viii. 1 to 3.) Since the Talmud calls A. “ king of 
the demons,” some identify him with Beelzebub, and 
others with Azrael. 

Asino'na’ans. See Maccabees. 

A.s'nieres, a village of France, on the river Seine, 4 m. 
N.W. of Paris, known in history for the fights of the 
Paris communists with the government troops in April, 
1871. Pop. 5,782. 

Asoak', a. In a state of soaking; soaking in water. 

Aso'tles, n. [Gr.. from ase, disgust, and odes.] (Med.) A 
fever accompanied with anxiety and nausea. 

A'sol it. a fortified town of N. Italy, on the Chiesa, 20 m. 
N.W. of Mantua; pop. 5,760. 

As'olo, a fortified town of N. Italy, 19 m. W.N.W. of 
Treviso; pop. 4,950. 

Aso'niiltous, a. [Gr.a, priv., and soma,a. body.] With¬ 
out a body; incorporeal, (o.) 

Asp. Asp'ic, n. [Lat. and Gr. aspis ; etyrnol. uncertain.] 
(Zool.) A species of venomous serpent, fam. Viperidce, 
often mentioned both by Greek and Roman writers (who, 
from the discrepancies in their accounts of it, appear to 
have known several noxious reptiles under this name); 
but most especially celebrated sis the instrument chosen 
by Cleopatra to put an end to her existence after the 



Fig. 214. — the asp, (Naja Haje.) 


defeat of Mark Antony. It is believed that the true asp 
is the serpent called by the Arabs Naja Haje, of a green 
color, marked obliquely with brown bands, and measur¬ 


ing from 3 to 5 feet in length. “The effects of its poiso* 
are most deadly; but it is asserted that its bite is tbs 
least painful of all the instruments 6f death, and that its 
poison has some affinity with opium, though less disa¬ 
greeable in its operation. The name Asp is also gener¬ 
ally given to Vipera aspis, a native of S. Europe. — See 
Viperidas. 

Aspalaso'inos, n. [Gr. aspalax, a mole, and soma, 
a body.] {Physiol.) A genus of monsters in which there 
is imperfect development of the eyes. Also, a malforma¬ 
tion, in which the fissure and eventration extend chiefly 
upon the lower part of the abdomen. 

Aspal'atlins. n. {But.) A gen. of plants, ord. Fahacca’, 
tribe Lotece. Some tropical species yield a beautiful 
rose-colored wood. 

Aspara'g-ete, n.pl. (Bat.) A tribe of plants, ord. Lilt- 
acece. — Diag. Stem usually fully developed, or if not, 
the leaves are coriaceous and permanent. Asparagus, q. 
v., is the principal genus of the tribe. 

Aspar'ag'ine, Aspar'amide, n. (Chem.) A substance 
which exists ready formed in common asparagus (A. 
officinalis in the marsh-mallow, in potatoes, chestnuts, 
&c. The juice obtained from the young shoots of aspar¬ 
agus, filtered and evaporated to a syrup, deposits, after 
standing for some days, hard brittle crystals of A., which 
may be purified by re-crystallization from water, and 
belong to the trimetric system. They are inodorous, 
have but a slight taste, and are permanent in the air. 
They dissolve in 11 parts of cold, and 4-44 parts of boil¬ 
ing water; the solution has a slight acid reaction. A. 
dissolves also in acids, and in alkalies. Sp. gr. 1-519 at 
14° C. Form. CgHgN.jOo. 

Asparag'inous, a. ‘Belonging to, or resembling, as¬ 
paragus. 

Aspar'ag'us, n. [Gr. asparagos; Lat. asparagus; Fr. 
asperge .] (Bot. and Hold.) A genus of plants, tribe As- 
paragece. The common A., A. officinalis, concentrates 
in itself the chief interest of the genus. It is one of the 
most delicate, extensively diffused, and anciently used 
of culinary vegetables. It is usually boiled and served 
without admixture, and eaten with butter and salt: or 
the points of its shoots are cut into small pieces, and 
served in a manner similar to green peas. It has too 
delicate a flavor to be a mere ingredient in compound 
culinary preparations, or to admit, without detriment, of 
almost any vegetable accompaniment. The plant ia 
thought to be diuretic, and is extensively employed as 
an alleviative of stone or gravel by the sedentary opera¬ 
tive classes of Paris. It was in high esteem as a delicate 
esculent among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and 
it continues to be held in esteem by a large portion of 
the modern civilized world. It was much praised bv 
Cato and Columella, and is said to have been highly 
relished by Augustus Caesar. The plant usually grows to 



Fig. 215. —common asparagus, (A. officinalis.) 

1. Stem with fruit. — 2. Flowers. — 3. Young shoot, natural sire. 

the height of about 4 feet, and blooms from June till 
August. Each flower consists of a calyx of 6 deeply-cut 
segments, — 6 stamens, one very short style, with its 
stigma cut into 3 divisions, — and a germen; and the 
fruit, which becomes developed from the last of these, is a 
scarlet globular berry, containing iu its 3 cells one or more 
perfect seeds. The annual shoots for esculent use rise from 
the roots in the months of April till July, and are often 
obtained in winter, but usually in an imperfect condi¬ 
tion, by various processes of forcing. Two principal va¬ 
rieties are in cultivation, — the red-topped, with reddish* 
green, full, and close heads, — and the green-topped, 
with green heads, not so close and plump as those of the 
red-topped. The successful and highly artistic modes of 
cultivating A., with the view to producing it in full per¬ 
fection, are too numerous and complicated to be even men¬ 
tioned hers. The mode which is now in favor with the 
best gardeners, is to sow carefully selected seed in spring, 
once in several years for a single plantation; and when 
the plants are one year, or at most two years old, to 
transplant them into permanent beds; and to begin to 
cut off the annual shoots for esculent use in the 3d year 






















ASPE 


AS PH 


ASPI 


160 


after transplantation. The seed-beds are usually 4 feet 
broad; the transplanted plants are generally in rows, at 
tho distance of 9 inches from plant to plant, and of 12 or 
even 18 inches from row to row; and sometimes the 
seeds are sown in the permanent beds, and merely 
thinned out to the proper distance. The soil in every 
case is as nearly as possible a dry, sandy, light, mellow 
loam, trenched to the depth of 2% or 3 feet, and very pow¬ 
erfully manured. A covering of dung or litter is laid 
over the beds in winter, to protect the plants from the 
frost; and iu spring this covering is raked off the plants 
and dug into the alleys, and the beds are stirred wdth a fork 
in order to increase absorption of heat and air, and the 
infiltration and ascent of moisture. Plants raised ac¬ 
cording to this general method of culture wall yield 
shoots in excellent condition from the 5th to the 15th or 
17th year after sowing; and they may be forced a week 
or two by warm coverings of dung upon the beds, or ex¬ 
tensively forced, but with the speedy death of the roots, 
by lifting the plants, and placing them on dung or tan 
beds. 

ispar'tates, n. pi. (Chem .) Aspartic acid is monobasic, 
the formula of its normal salts being C 4 H 6 MN0 4 . It 
likewise forms basic salts or aspartates, the composition 
of which is not very clearly made out. The A. of the 
alkali-metals are soluble, and taste like broth. The 
active and inactive A. agree in composition, and in most 
of their properties, differing only in solubility, crystal¬ 
line form, and relation to polarized light. 

Aspar'tic Acid, Asparamic Acid, n. (Chem .) An 
isomeric acid, obtained either by the decomposition 
of asparagine, chiefly under the influence of acids or 
alkalies, or by the action of heat on the acid malate, 
raaleate, or fumarate of ammonium. Tho acids obtained 
by these two processes are identical in composition, but 
differ in their relations to polarized light, the former 
being optically active, the latter inactive. A. acid crys¬ 
tallizes in small crystals belonging to the monoclinic 
system. It dissolves in water, and more easily in hydro¬ 
chloric, and in nitric acid. Sp. gr. P6613-P6632 at 
12-5° C. Form. 2C 4 H : N0 4 . 

Aspa'sia, a celebrated Ureeian courtesan, issued from 
a family of some note iu Miletus, and was early distin¬ 
guished for her graces of mind and person. She came to 
Athens after the Persian war, and by her beauty and 
accomplishments soon attracted the attention of the 
leading men of that city. She engaged the affections 
of Pericles, who is said to have divorced his former wife 
in order to marry her. Their union was harmonious 
throughout; he preserved for her to the end of his life 
the same tenderness; she remained the confidante of 
the statesman’s schemes, and the sharer of his strug¬ 
gles. Their house was the resort of the wisdom and 
wit of Athens. Orators, poets, and philosophers came 
to listen to the eloquence of A.; and in their con¬ 
versation, which turned upon the politics, literature, 
and metaphysics of the age, they deferred to her author¬ 
ity. Plato says that she formed the best speakers of her 
time, and chief among them, Pericles himself. The sage 
Socrates was a frequent visitor at her salons, drawn 
thither, it is insinuated, by the double attraction of 
eloquence and beauty. Anaxagoras, Phidias, and Alci- 
biades, were also numbered among her admirers. The 
envy which assailed the administration of Pericles was 
unsparing in its attacks on his mistress. Jealousy of 
foreigners, and dislike of female influence, combined to 
offend the prejudices of the mass. Her fearless specula¬ 
tion aroused their superstitious zeal. She shared the 
impeachment, and narrowly escaped the fate of her 
friend Anaxagoras. She was accused by Hermippus of 
disloyalty to the gods, and of introducing free women 
into her house to gratify the impure tastes of Pericles, 
lie himself pleaded her cause triumphantly, and A. w-as 
acquitted. She survived Pericle3 some years, and is re¬ 
ported to have married an obscure Athenian, Lysicles, 
whom she raised by her example and precept to be one 
of the leaders of the republic. 

As'pe* a town of Spain, in Valencia, 16 m. W. of Alicante; 
pop. 7.003. 

As'pect, n. [Fr., from Lat. aspectus, from aspicio — ad, 
and specio, to look, to look at.] Look; air; appearance; 
view. 

‘■ They have the true aspect ot a world lying in its rubbish.” Burnet. 

—Countenance; look; visage. 

“ Yet had his aspect nothing of severe. 

But such a face as promised him sincere.”— Dry den, 

—Point of view; position; situation. 

“ The setting sun 

Slowly descended; and with right aspect 
Against the eastern gate of Paradise 
Lerell'd his ev'ning rays."—Milton. 

(Arch.) The quarter of the heavens to which the front 
of a building faces. Thus, a front to the north is said 
to have a north aspect. 

(Astron. and Astral.) A. is an old term, almost dis¬ 
used, and of interest only because it may bo met with in 
old works of considerable value. It denotes the situa¬ 
tion of the planets and stars with respect to each other. 
There are five different aspects: — 1, sextile aspect, when 
the planets or stars are 60° distant, and marked thus, #; 
2, the quartile or quadrate, when they are 90° distant, 
marked Q; 3, trine, when 120° distant, marked (\\ 4, 
opposition, when 180° distant, marked § ; and 5, con¬ 
junction, when both are in the same degree, marked t$. 
Kepler added 8 more. It is to be observed that these 
aspects, being first introduced by astrologers, were dis¬ 
tinguished into benign, malignant, and indifferent. 

Aspect'ant. a. (Her.) Opposite to each other, as two 
beasts or birds. 

As'pen, Asp, n. [A.S rrsp; probably allied to Or. aspairo, | 
to palpitate, to tremble, to quiver.] A species of pop-| 


lar, with trembling leaves—the Pnpulus tremula, genus 
PopULUS, q. v. 

— a. Pertaining to, or resembling the aspen. 

“ Oh! had the monster seen those lily bands 
Tremble like aspen leaves upon a lute."— Shales. 

—Made of aspen-wood. 

As pen Hill, in Tennessee, a post-office of Giles co. 

Avpt‘11 Wall, in Virginia, a post-office of Charlotte co. 

As'per, a coin current in Egypt, of which 80 form a 
piastre; in Morocco and Algiers, 180 belong to a sequin. 
American value, about l]/£ cents. 

Aspergil'liform, a. (Bot.) Shaped as an aspergil¬ 
lum, or brush used to sprinkle holy water, as the stigmas 
of most grasses. 

Asperg-il'luni, n. [L. Lat., from aspergo, to sprinkle; 
Fr. aspersoir and aspergcs.j A kind of brush used in 
the Catholic Church to sprinkle holy water. 

(/tool.) The watering-pot shell, a genus of conchiferous 
or bivalve mollusca, fam. Gaslrochcenidoe. The animal 
lives in a shelly tube, which is round, elongated, open 
above, where the siphonal end is generally ornamented 
with a series of ruffles, but closed below with a convex 
disc, which is perforated with numerous small holes, and 
having a minute fissure. 

Aspergillus, n. (Bot.) A gen. of fungi, ord. Hyphomy- 
cetes. The A. glaucus is well known as producing the 
blue mould of cheese. It is only common on cheese, 
lard, bread, &c.; but what is curious, it is found in the 
lungs and air cavities of birds. It gives a value to cheese, 
and its color is often imitated by fraudulent dealers by 
sticking brass pins into the cheese, the verdigris formed 
from the pins giving it the color of mould. 

Asperifo'liate, Asperifo'lious, a. [Lat. asper, 
rough, and folium, a leaf.] (Bot.) That has rough leaves. 

Asper'ity, n. [Fr .aspfriU-, Lat. asperitas, from asper, 
rough.] Roughness of surface; ruggedness; unevenness. 
—Hence, by analogy, roughness of sound or taste; — and 
metaphorically, harshness and disagreeableness of feel¬ 
ing, character, or manner; sharpness; sourness; morose¬ 
ness. 

Asper in 'ous, a. [Gr. a, priv., and sperma, a seed.] 
(Bot.) Destitute of seeds. 

As'pern, a small village of Austria, on the Danube, 
about 2 m. from Vienna. Here, and in the neighboring 
village of Esslingen, were fought tho tremendous battles 
of the 21st and 22d May, 1809, between the French grand 
army commanded by Napoleon, and the Austrians under 
the Archduke Charles. The French, after this continu¬ 
ous fighting, with vast loss to both sides, were obliged 
to retreat, and occupy the island of Lobau. 

Asperse', v. a. [Lat. aspergo, aspersus, from ad, and 
spargo, to strew, to scatter; Gr. speiro, to sow.] To be¬ 
sprinkle with ill words or bespatter with slander; to 
calumniate; to befoul; to defy; to defame; to vilify. 

Aspers'er, n. One who asperses. 

Asper sion, n. The act of aspersing; a sprinkling 
upon;—calumny; defamation. 

(Eccl. Hist ) The sprinkling with water in the sacra¬ 
ment of baptism. 

Asper'sive, adv. Tending to asperse; defamatory; 
slanderous; calumnious. 

Asper'sively, ado. In an aspersive manner. 

Asper'sory, a. Aspersive. (it) 

Aspet'ti, Tiziano, a sculptor of Padua, b. in 1565. His 
mother was the sister of Titian. A. was a pupil of San¬ 
sovino, and produced many beautiful works in marble 
and bronze at Padua, Florence, and Pisa. D. 1607. 

Asphalt', Asphal'tum, n. [Fr. asphalts; Gr. as- 
phaltos ; probably from a, privative, and sphalo, to slip; 
from its use as a cement in ancient buildings.] (Min. and 
Chem.) The Mineral Pitch, a variety of bitumen arising 
from the decomposition of vegetable matter. It is found 
in most parts of the world, and is the principal coloring 
matter of the dark indurated marl, or shale, found in 
coal districts. It occurs frequently floating on the sur¬ 
face of springs. There is one such in tiie island of 
Zante, which was at work in the time of Herodotus, and 
continues so at the present time. Great quantities are 
found on the shores, or floating on the surface, of the 
Dead sea. whence its name of Asphaltites, or Asphaltic 
lake. It is also artificially prepared from bitumen, and 
is largely used iu Europe, and more recently in America, 
as a material for paving. It has the advantage of 
being very easy to repair.—The mineral A. is a mix¬ 
ture of different hydrocarbons, part of which are oxy¬ 
genated. Ordinarily, its character is thus: Amorphous. 
Lustre resembling that of black pitch. Color black and 
brownish-black. Bitumiuous odor. Melts in ordinary 
cases at 90° to 10U° C., and burns with a bright flame. 
Mostly or wholly soluble in oil of turpentine, and partly 
in alcohol. The more solid kinds graduate into the pit- 
tasphalts, or mineral tar, and have through these a grada¬ 
tion to petroleum. The fluid sorts change into the solid 
by the loss of a vaporizable portion on exposure, and 
also by a process of oxidation, which consists, 1st, in a 
loss of hydrogen; and, 2dly, in the oxygenation of a 
portion of the mass. — Comp. The A. from different lo¬ 
calities is very various in composition. Yet the true 
composition is not known to any one of them. A. belongs 
to rocks of no particular age. The most abundant de¬ 
posits are superficial. But these are generally, if not 
always, connected with rock deposits containing some 
kind of bituminous material, or vegetable remains. 

(Continued in Section II.) 

Asphal'tic, a. Pertaining to asphalt, or containing it. 

Asphal'tin, n. (Chem.) A black substance dissolved out 
of asphalt by oil of turpentine, insoluble in alcohol and 
ether. 

Asphal'tites, Lake. See Dead Sea. 

Asphal'tus, n. See Asphalt, Asphaltum. 

As phodels, n. pi. See Anthekice-e. 


Asphodel'tis, As'phodel, n. [Lat. asphoddus; from 
Gr. a, priv., and sphallo, to surpass; a flower not surpassed 
in beauty.] (Bot.) A genus of plants, order Liliacetr. 
They are fine garden-plants, native of S. Europe. The 
king's spear, A. luteus, is a plant of easy culture and 
rapid increase. Stem 3 ft. high, thickly invested with 
3-cornered, hollow leaves. Flowers yellow, in a long 
spike, reaching from the top almost to the baso of stem; 
blossoming in June. — The white or blanching asphodel, 
A. ramosus, is not so tall as the preceding, but lias 
larger, white flowers. — The ancients planted A. near 
burying-places, in order to supply the manes of the dead 
with nourishment. 

By those happy souls, who dwell 

Iu yellow meads ot asphodel." — Pope. 

(Chem.) The bulbs of A. ramosus and other species ar» 
said to contain a fermentable substance from which al¬ 
cohol may he prepared. According to Landerer, an ex¬ 
cellent glue maybe obtained from thebulhs of the same 
species by washing them with water, drying them thor¬ 
oughly in a stove, grinding them to coarse powder, and 
mixing the powder with water. 

Asphyx'ia. Asphyxy, n. [Gr., from a, priv., and phyxis, 
pulse; Fr. asphyxie.) (Med.) A term which denotes that 
state of body during life iu which the pulsation of the 
heart and arteries cannot be perceived. In A., the action 
of the lungs is suspended, and the blood no longer un¬ 
dergoes that purifying process so necessary to life. 
Hence tho body becomes filled with impure blood, the 
powers of sensation and voluntary motion are suspended, 
and, if the proper means of restoration are not resorted 
to, death will speedily ensue. A. may he produced by 
various causes; as by whatever prevents the access of 
air to the lungs, as strangulation, drowning, choking, 
&c.; or whatever interferes with the action ot the nerves 
that arc concerned in respiration, as paralysis, cold, 
stroke of the sun or lightning, &c. It may also be pro¬ 
duced by breathing an impure or a too rarefied atmos¬ 
phere. “ In cases of A.,” Dr. Trail says. “ atmospheric 
air is the only remedy. The patient should.be placed in a 
current of fresh air, or fanned vigorously, and the tongue 
drawn forward. This last point is exceedingly im¬ 
portant, and lives have been lost by not properly at¬ 
tending to it. The tongue is paralyzed, and lies like a 
dead mechanical weight in the back part of the mouth, 
closing the glottis and completely excluding the atmos¬ 
pheric air from the lungs. To favor the inclination of 
the tongue forward, the patient should he turned on one 
side, with the face inclining downward. IVhen the pa¬ 
tient has been for a long time exposed to mephitic gases 
or vapors, or submerged, the restoration of the respira¬ 
tory function can often be achieved as follows: Support 
the patient in a sitting posture, carry the arms gradu¬ 
ally upward and outward above the head, and then as 
gradually depress them downward and forward, the 
whole to be performed 16 to 18 times per minute; during 
the downward motion an attendant should press firmly 
against the abdominal muscles. The object is to imitate 
the respiratory motions as nearly as possible, by which 
means a sufficient quantity of air may be made to enter 
the lungs to reinvigorate the circulation of the blood, 
and set the whole machinery of life in motion again. 
The strangling is not occasioned, as is commonly sup¬ 
posed. by the water or noxious gases or vapors entering 
the lungs, but by the spasmodic closure of the glottis 
to keep them out.’’—See Drowning, Strangulation, 
Suffocation, &c. 

As'pic, n. [Fr.. an asp.] A serpent; the asp, q. v. 

(Cookery.) A savory meat-jelly moulded into a regular 
form, and containing portions of fowl, game, fish, &c., 
usually with hard-boiled eggs and sliced pickles. 

—(Oil of), or oil of spike. See Lavandula. 

Aspiil'iti hi. n. [Gr. aspidion, a little buckler.] (Bot.) 
A gen. of ferns, tribe Polypodece. The fronds of the 
species A.fragrans possess aromatic and slightly bitter 
properties, and have been used as a substitute for tea. 

Aspidu'ra, n. pi. [Gr. uspis, a shield, oura, tail.] (Pal.) 
A gen. of fossil star-fishes, so named from the buckler- 
like arrangement of the bony plates which protect the 
arms. They are peculiar to the muschelkalk of Germany, 
and are closely related to the existing ophiura. 

As pinnull. in Nebraska, a post-village of Nemaha co., 
on the Missouri river, 10 m. trom Brownville; pop. 835. 

As'pinwall (generally called Colon), a flourishing 
seaport of the Republic of Colombia, situate on the 
small island of Mauzauilla, in Navy Bay, Gulf of Mexico. 
This town was founded in 1852 by the American Com¬ 
pany who formed the Isthmus of Panama Railroad, and 
named A. iu honor of Col. Aspiuwall, one of the original 
promoters. It was ceded to the railroad company in per¬ 
petuity by the government of New Granada. A. is the 
terminus, on the Atlantic side, of the above-mentioned 
line, 48 m. long, which terminates on the S. at Panama, 
on the Pacific. This route, connecting as it does the 
two great oceans, has been termed the highway of the 
world. A. is a handsome, well-built town, and is tho 
terminus of the inter-oceanic ship canal projected by 
the French engineer, Ferdinand de Lesseps, and prose¬ 
cuted with vigor for a number of years. The company 
organized for this purpose in 18S0, purchased the 
Panama railroad in 1881 as an aid in the work, 
and did a vast amount of excavating, but was finally 
forced to abandon the enterprise on account of the 
enormous cost. There is a light-house on its point, 
but the harbor, though commodious, is quite open te 
the “ norther,” that scourge of the Mexican gulf. 
Steamers touch here from various ports in Europe and 
America, and from its commanding position as a place 
of transit, A. benefits by the traffic, in both directions. 
A. is sit. 8 m. N. E. of the old Spanish fort of Chagrefii 







170 


ASQU 


ASS 


ASS 


A., formerly unhealthy, has been greatly improved by 
drainage, but fevers prevail largely among those unac¬ 
climated. In 1870 the French Empress Eugenie pre¬ 
sented the town with a Statue of Columbus, after whom 
it is named officially, Colon. A . was burned down during 
a civil commotion in April, 1885, p. then abt. 10,000, but 
has decreased since the abandonment of the Canal work. 

Aspir'ant, n. [Fr., from Lat. aspirans, aspiring.] One 
who aspires, breathes after, or seeks with eagerness; a 
candidate. 

—a. Aspiring; ambitious. 

As'pirate, v. a. [Fr. aspirer, from Lat. aspiro, aspi- 
raius. See Aspire.] To pronounce with a breathing, or 
full emission of breath. 

—n. To be pronounced with full breath. 

As'pirate, a. Pronounced with a full breath. 

—n. A letter to whose articulation the force of a rough 
breathing is given. 

( Greek Gram.) The spiritus asper, an accent peculiar 
to the Greek language, marked thus (’), and importing 
that the letter over which it is placed ought to be 
strongly aspirated, that is, pronounced as if an h were 
prefixed. 

As'pirated, p. a. Uttered with a strong emission of 
breath; aspirate. 

Aspira tion, n. [Fr.; Lat. aspiratio, from aspiro, as- 
piratus.] A breathing or panting after; art of aspiring; 
eager pursuit or search after; ardent wish or desire for; 
ambition to reach or attain. 

“ A soul inspired with the warmest aspiration after celestial be¬ 
atitude.”— Walts. 

—The pronunciation of a letter with a full emission of 
breath. 

" H is only a guttural aspiration, i. e., a more forcible impulse 
of the breath from the lungs."— Holder. 

Aspira'tor, n. ( Chem.) An apparatus first devised by 
Brunner, „ 

for draw- - 

ing a E 

stream of 

air through a tube or other 
vessel. The simplest form 
of it is a cylindrical vessel 
G (Fig. 216), of zinc or tin 
plate, to hold water, hav¬ 
ing acock, A, near the bot¬ 
tom, and three apertures 
closed with corks, B, C, D, 
on the top. B is connected 
with the vessel through 
which the stream of air is 
to be drawn; C is for the 
insertion of a thermome¬ 
ter ; and D to pour in water. 

The vessel G being filled 
with water, the apertures 
C and D closed, and the 
cock A opened, the water 
runs out; and as air can only enter by the bent tube E, 
inserted into the opening B, a stream of air is drawn 
through the apparatus with which the other end of this 
tube is connected, the volume of air thus drawn through 
being exactly equal to that of the water which runs out 
at G. Instead of the metal cylinder, a glass vessel may 
be used, having a stop-cock at the lower part of its side. 

Aspire', v. i. [Fr. aspirer, from Lat. aspiro, aspiratus, 
from ad, and spiro, to breathe.] To breathe or pant 
after; to desire or pursue eagerly; to aim at what is ele¬ 
vated, great, noble, or difficult.—Followed by to or after. 

“ Aspiring to be gods, if angels fell, 

Aspiring to be angels, men rebel.”— Pope. 

“ To aspire after immortality."— Atterburp. 

—To rise; to tower; to soar. 

“ My own breath still foments the fire, 

Which flames as high as fancy can aspire.”—Waller. 

Asplr'er, n. One who aspires. 

Aspir'ing, a. Ambitious; having an ardent desire to 
rise to eminence. 

Aspir'ingly, adv. In an aspiring manner. 

Aspiringness. n. State of being ambitious; eager 
desire to rise to eminence. 

As'plenites, n. pi. [See Asplenium.] (Pal.) A genus 
ot fossil ferns, containing a number of species, bearing a 
general resemblance to the recent genus Asplenium. 
Most of them are found in the mines of Silesia. 

Asple'nium, n. [Lat., from Gr. a, priv., and splen, the 
spleen; from its supposed medicinal virtues.] A genus 
of ferns, tribe Polypodece. Its fructifications or sori are 
disposed in right lines along the under disc of the frond. 
A considerable number are described; several are natives 
of the U. States. The dwarf spleenwort, A. trichomanes, 
is a very beautiful little fern, common on rocks and old 
walls. The wall-rue spleenwort, A. ruta muraria, found 
in dry rocky places, is extremely small and delicate. The 
bird’s-nest spleenwort, .4. nidus, native of Java, grows 
on the tops of trees, the leaves coming out in a circle, 
and forming a kind of umbel, in the middle of which 
birds make their nests. 

Aspoi'ta'tloii, n. [Lat. asportatin, from abs, from, and 
porto, to carry.] (Law.) The act of feloniously carrying 
a thing away. In all larcenies, there must be both a 
taking and a carrying away. 

Aspropot'aiiio, the largest of the rivers of Greece, 
rising in Albania, and, after a course of 100 m., falling 
into the Ionian sea, 15 m. from Missolonglii. 

Asquint', adv. [Dut. schuinte, a slope, wryness; kin¬ 
dred with askance?] To the corner or angle of the eye; 
obliquely; toward one side. 

“A single guide may direct the way better than five hundred, who 
have contrary views or look asquint, or shut their eyes."— Swift. 


Ass, n. [A.S. assa; Lat. asinus; Gr. onos; Heb . atlion, 
from the last syllable of which the Greek appears to have 
been formed; Fr. dne.] Figuratively, a dull, heavy, stupid 
fellow; a dolt. 

(Zool.) The common name of the Equus asinus, a well- 
known and the humblest species of the Horse family. 
The common ass is a most useful domestic quadruped, 
whose good qualities are too generally undervalued by 
us in consequence of our possessing a more noble and 
powerful animal in the horse; but, as Buffon remarks, 
if the horse were unknown, and the care and attention 
which we lavish upon him were transferred to his hum¬ 
ble and despised rival, both his physical and moral qual¬ 
ities would be developed to an extent, which those per¬ 
sons alone can fully estimate who have travelled through 
Eastern countries, where both animals are equally valued. 
In his domesticated state, we observe no superior marks 
of sagacity; but he has the merit of being patient, en¬ 
during, and inoffensive; temperate in his food, and by 
no means delicate in the choice of it; eating thistles and 
a variety of coarse herbage which the horse refuses. In 
his choice of water, however, he is remarkably nice, and 
will drink only of that which is clear. His general ap¬ 
pearance, certainly, is very uncouth; and his well-known 
voice, it must be confessed, is a most discordant succes¬ 
sion of flats and sharps — a bray so hideous as to offend 
even the most unmusical ear. The ass is believed to be 
a descendant of the wild ass inhabiting the mountain¬ 
ous deserts of Tartary, &c., (by some naturalists called 
the onager, and supposed to be identical with the Per¬ 
sian koulan,) and celebrated in sacred and profane his¬ 
tory for the fiery activity of its disposition, and the 
fleetness of its course. But, in the state of degradation 
to which for so many ages successive generations have 
been doomed, the ass has long since become proverbial 
for stolid indifference to suffering, and for unconquerable 
obstinacy and stupidity. From the general resemblance 
between the ass and the horse, it might naturally enough 
be supposed that they were very closely allied, and that 
one had degenerated; they are, however, perfectly dis¬ 
tinct ; there is that inseparable line drawn, that barrier 
between them, which Nature provides for the perfection 
and preservation of her productions,— their mutual off¬ 
spring, the mule, being incapable of reproducing its kind. 
The best breed of asses is that originally derived from 
the hot and dry regions of Asia; at present, perhaps, the 
best breed in Europe is the Spanish; and very valuable 
asses are still to be had in the southern portion of the 
American continent, where, during the existence of the 
Spanish dominion, the breed was very carefully attended 
to. In truth, wherever proper attention has been paid 
to improve the breed by crossing the finest specimens, 
he is rendered nearly if not quite equal to the horse for 
most purposes of labor; while on hilly and precipitous 
roads he is decidedly better adapted from his general 
habits and formation. The most common color of the 
ass is a mouse-colored gray, with a black or blackish 
stripe, extending along the spine to the tail, and crossed 
by a similar stripe over the shoulders. The female goes 
with young eleven months, and seldom produces more 
than one foal at a time; the teeth follow the same order 
of appearance and renewal as those of the horse. Asses’ 
milk has been long celebrated for its sanative properties; 
invalids suffering from debility of the digestive and 
assimilative functions make use of it with great advan¬ 
tage; and to those also who are consumptive it is very 
generally recommended. The wild ass ( Equus hemionus), 
called koulan or ghor-khur by the Persians, stands much 
higher on its limbs than the common ass; its legs are 



Fig. 217.— wild ass ok Persia. 


more slender, the forehead is more arched, and it is alto¬ 
gether more symmetrical. The mane is composed of a 
soft, dusky, woolly hair, about 8-4 inches long; the 
color of the body is a fine silvery gray; the upper part 
of the face, the sides of the neck, and body are of a 
flaxen hue; and a broad brown stripe runs down the 
back, from the mane to the tail, and crosses the shoul¬ 
ders, as in the common ass. The koulan inhabits parts 
of Central Asia, and migrates from north to south, accord¬ 
ing to the season. Its flesh is held in high esteem by 
the Tartars and Persians, who hunt it in preference to 
all kinds of game.—Since we have alluded to the frequent 
mention of this interesting animal by both sacred and 
profane writers, we may properly conclude by quoting 
some passages of a witty and humorous study of the ass, 
by Mr. H. T. Tuckerman, in Putnam’s Magazine (Feb., 
1869): “Theass is intimately associated with the East, 
and patriarchal life. In the schedule of Abraham’s pos¬ 
sessions, when he went down into Egypt, she-asses are 
noted; among the possessions of our neighbor the De¬ 


calogue forbids us to covet, is his ass; the princes and 
rulers of Judah rode thereon, and Moses is said to have 
proscribed the use of horses, because of their unsuitable¬ 
ness to the country; Deborah apostrophizes the great, 
‘ Ye who ride on white asses; ’ and in the story of Isaac's 
sacrifice, the patriarch is described as rising early in the 
morning and ‘ saddling his ass; ’ from Balaam's ass, 
who saw the angel of the Lord, and stood still until his 
master’s eyes were opened to the celestial vision long 
apparent to the beast he so cruelly smote, to the ass's 
loal wliereonour Saviour rode into Jerusalem in triumph, 
the animal most despised by modern civilization figures 
benignly. It was with the jawbone of an ass that Sam¬ 
son crushed his foes; and the evidence of prosperity of 
the thirty sons of Jair of Gilead, cited by the sacred his¬ 
torian, is not only that they ruled that number of cities, 
but rode on as many asses. Homer compares Ajax to an 
ass, in no degrading sense, as whoever has seen the wild 
breed of the Syrian mountains can well understand. 
How have the mighty fallen, even in the asinine realm! 
Once worshipped as a sacred creature, cared for with ex¬ 
quisite nurture, the favorite of monarchs, the free and 
fleet denizen of mountain and desert, a gift for princes, 
a grace of courts, and pride of households — theass is 
now the drudge of mendicants, the butt of gamins, the 
vagabond of animals, the contemned, belabored, over¬ 
burdened victim, and the synonym for imbecility and 
obstinacy in the human species. Only in the Orient do 
some of hi6 ancient honors linger; and now and then, in 
Southern Europe, we catch glimpses of the original 
glory of the tribe, or learn, on dizzy summit or dreary 
wild, to appreciate the patient, frugal, sure-footed crea¬ 
ture, who bears us so safely where no other quadruped 
could pick his way without a stumble, or keep his pace 
without drooping. From Apuleius to JEsop, from Shaks- 
peare to La Fontaine, and from Sterne to Dickens, the 
ass figures effectively in literature; perhaps the animal 
kingdom affords no creature more suggestive in author¬ 
ship. The earliest romance of celebrity (A. D. 130) is the 
‘Golden Ass,’ by the first-named writer, a student of 
Platonic philosophy at Athens; this, as well as tlse 
‘Asinus’ of Lucan, aimed to satirize hypocrisy and the 
profligacy of a priestly order, specious pretenders to the 
supernatural. Bishop Warliurton argues, in his ‘Divine 
Legation,’ that its object was to contrast paganism favor¬ 
ably with Christianity; others contend that it is sug¬ 
gestive of human progress. This ancient allegory was 
the predecessor of countless fables, wherein the ass plays 
a conspicuous part. Many of them are current in pro¬ 
verbial philosophy; such as, the ass in the lion’s skin, 
between two bundles of hay, with the cock and lion, 
with the old man, the dog, the horse, the shadow, relics, 
eating thistles, etc. La Fontaine serves him up with 
infinite variety, both of situation and moral lessons; h© 
is the best lay-figure to drape with human absurdities, 
the most apposite animal whereby to illustrate mortal 
folly. The fantasy of Shakspeare finds in an ass’s head 
the most grotesque illusion of love's midsummer dream; 

• Come sit thee down upon this flowery bed, 

While I thy amiable cheeks do coy, 

And stick musk-roses in thy fair, large head, 

And kiss thy fair, large ears, my gentle joy.* 

The sting of passion’s recoil he makes the consciousness 
of being made ‘egregiously an ass;’ and ‘write ms 
down an ass’ is the adjuration of official obtuseness. 
The adjectives he applies to modify the term are signifi 
cant; thus we have a secure, a mad, a virtuous, a tender, 
a Trojan, a valiant, an affectionate, and a preposterous 
ass. In Parini's Animali Parlanti he is an important 
personage; and how the vivacious reiteration in the Bar¬ 
ber of Seville haunts the memory —‘ and a jackaas was 
your father 1 ’ Titania was enamored of one, and Crassus 
is said to have laughed only once in his life, and that was 
at an ass eating thistles; while in our day he is the 
central figure of Guerrazzi's elaborate political allegory. 
When the rhetorical gave place to the natural school of 
poetry, in Britain, and bards went back to the simple in 
expression and the elemental in life, seeking to reveal 
the charms of familiar things and to show that tho hum¬ 
blest objects, regarded with sympathy and reverence, 
had in them some benign attraction; while Wordsworth 
took a pedlar or an idiot-boy for his hero, and sang of 
childhood and ‘the meanest thing that lives,’ — Cole¬ 
ridge thus apostrophized a young ass: 

‘Poor little foal of a despised race, 

I love the languid patience of thy face. 

And oft with gentle hand I give thee bread, 

And clap thy rugged coat, and pat thy head. 

Do those prophetic eyes anticipate, 

Meek child of misery, thy future fate T 

The starving meal, and all the thousand achec. 

Which patient merit of the unworthy taka*? * 

Whereupon Byron, in his fierce attack on the minstrels 
and critics of the day, declares, as the consummation of 
his satire, that none 

‘in lofty numbers can surpass 
The bard who soars to elegize an ass.* 

IIow aptly, in the peerless romance of Cervantes, th» 
ass plays his part; though Don Quixote doubted if such 
an animal were admissible in knight-errantry, to him 
we owe the memorable episode of‘The Brayers;’ and 
Sancho’s lament for Dapple is characteristic of that un¬ 
aspiring squire’s selfish affection; for, though he refuses 
the Don’s pecuniary consolation, and calls his deceased 
ass the child of his bowels and the joy of his children, 
the true reason of liis ostentatious lamentation cornea 
out at last, when he says, ‘ Thou wert the envy of my 
neighbors, the relief of my burdens, and lastly, the half 
of my maintenance, for with the six-and-thirty marsve- 
dis I earned every day by thy means, I have'half sup¬ 
ported my family.’ Thus was Sancho unchivalric and 
material in his grief, which, therefore, is in entire con- 























ASSA 


ASSA 


ASSE 


m 


trast to that described in Sterne’s chapter, in the * Sen- ’ 
timental Journey ’ of tlie ‘ Dead Ass,’ so unwarrantably 
satirized by Thackeray. — Nor has he (the ass) lacked 
eulogists among human observers. ‘ L’ane,’ says George 
Sand, ‘est sage et plein ile raisonuements.’ No animal 
enjoys such constant health. He never blushes for liis 
race, but is proud thereof. He lias not only to bear the 
physical burdens imposed by man, but the moral weight 
of his follies, of which fable makes him the invariable 
victim. His two most ridiculed defects — long ears and a 
dissonant bray — are the provisions of Nature, whereby, 
in his native wilderness, he heard his enemies afar off, 
and gave shrill notice thereof to his distant comrades.— 

‘ How trusty, when you come to a steep, rocky place,’ 
says a grateful traveller, ‘they put their steady little 
feet exactly in the right spot, and carry you safe; but on 
free roads nibble at grass, and amuse themselves, care¬ 
less of their riders,’ — a philosophic proceeding that 
shows donkey discrimination between business and plea¬ 
sure, and the time and place for each. ‘ L ane,’ says 
About. ‘ est moins degrade en Orient que chez nojis. Les 
fines d’aujourd'hui sont braves petites betes qui ont le 
pied sur, qui galopent au besoin et qui font dix lieues 
par jour lorsqu il leur plait.’ In other words, they are 
capable, but capricious — a combination not rare among 
much higher animals.”—The word Ass is used in a 
number of compound words: Ass’s-ear, (Conch.) the 
Haliotis asininus, an iridescent shell used in the manufac¬ 
ture of buttons and for inlaying. (Bot.) The Symphytum 
officinale , or popular comfrev. Ass’s head, or Ass head. 
(archaic), q. v. Asses’ bridge, or Pons asinorum, (Geom.) 
the fifth proposition of the first book of Euclid’s 
“Geometry,” so called from the difficulty often expe¬ 
rienced by beginners in mastering its demonstration. 
To make ax ass of oxeself, is a decidedly uncompli-' 
meutary phrase, meaning to act foolishly or stupidly. 

As'sabet. in Massachusetts, a village of Middlesex 
co., 22 m. N. by W. of Boston. 

—A river of Worcester county, joining the Sudbury at 
Concord. 

As'sacon, or Vssaen, n. (Chem.) The Brazilian name 
for the Hura brasiliensis Martius, a euphorbiaceous tree, 
the bark and sap of which contain an acrid and very 
poisonous principle. The thickened sap and the decoe-j 
tion of the bark exert an emetic action, produce ulcerat¬ 
ing pustules on the skin, and are used as a remedy for 
elephantiasis. The natives also use them to prepare 
poisonous drinks, against which no antidote is known. — j 
See Hue a. 

Assafa di. an Arabian biographer, and commentator on 
the Koran; so named from his place of birth, Safadah, 
in Syria: B. 129*3; D. 1362. His name in full was Khali- 
Ibn-Aybek Abc-s-Defa Salahu-Din. 

Assafoel'icla. n. See Asafcet'idv. 

As'sagni, or As'segai, n. [Sp. azagaya; Port, tagaya; 
It. zageia; Ar. al-khazegah .J A weapon or instrument 
of assault, in the form of a dart or javelin, used among 
the Kaffirs of S. Africa, and other semi-barbarous nations. 

Assa'i, (as-sa'-e.) [It., enough, much, very.] (Mus.) A 
term denoting increase; as, adagio, slow; adagio-assai, 
very slow. 

Assai', n. A beverage used in Brazil.—See Euterpe. 

Assail', t\ a. [Fr. assadlir, from Lat. assilio — ad, and 
satin, to leap.] To spring, rush, or fail upon; to invade; 
to attack; to assault. 

“ So when he saw his flatt'ring arts to fail. 

With greedy force he 'gan the fort t' assail .”— Faerie Queene. 

—To attack with argument; censure, or motives applied 
to the passions. 

“ My gracious lord, here in the parliament 
Let us assail the family of York."— Shake. 

Assail'able, a. That may be assailed. 

Assail ant, n. One who assails, attacks, or assaults. 

—a. Attacking; assaulting or invading. 

Assail'er. n. An assailant. 

Assail inent. n. Attack; assault. (R.) 

Assainisse inent, n. [A French word, from Lat. ad, 
and sanare, to make healthy.] The act of rendering 
healthy, as by the draining of marshes, the disinfection 
of the air, &c. 

Assaisonne'ment, n. A French word answering to 
condiment. 

As sam, a province in the N.E. extremity of British 
India, separated from that of Bengal in 1874. It is bound¬ 
ed on the N. by Bootan and Thibet, on the E.. S.E., and 
S. by Burmab.’and on the W. by Bengal. Lat. from 25° 
40' to 28° 17' N : Lon. from 90° 4u' to 97° 1' K Area, 88,364 
sq. m . — Desc. A. forms part of the great basin of the 
Brahmapootra, which ffovs through the centre of it. 
Many other lesser rivers also irrigate its surface. The 
country is. in general, highly fertile, more particularly in 
the dry season, when it is capable of high cultivation. 
Many stagnant lakes ami swamps are interspersed over 
a great part of its surface. — Climate. Hot, unhealthy, 
and earthquakes frequently occurring. — luhah. The! 
Assamese are an idle and depraved race, inferior even to 
the Bengalese. To them has been ascribed the first inven¬ 
tion of gunpowder. — Relig. Formerly Buddhism, now 
Brahmanism.— Prod. The tea-plant is indigenous, and its 
leaf bears a good repute both in Europe and America; 
gold, ivory, rice, mustard, amber, Ac., are also found.— 
Mxnf. Unimportant. — Divisions and Towns. A. is divid¬ 
ed into two provinces, Upper A.and Lower A., and these 
are again subdivided into smaller districts. Gowhati 
is the principal town ; the others are Ghergong, and 
Rungpore. Pop. 6,476,883.— Hid. In 1826, a part of A. 
was ceded to England at the termination of the Burmese 
war, but owing To the mal-admiuistration of the remain- 
in- rajah. Great Britain took possession of his portion 
in 1838. Its capital is Gow hatty, on the Brahmapootra. 
Pop. (1695). 1L492. 


As-Sa'maani, Abu-s-ad-Abdul-Kerim-Ibn-Abi-Bekr ' 
Mohammed At-Temimi-al-Merwazi, surnamed Kawwa- ' 
muddix (“the pillar of the faith”), a celebrated Moslem 
writer, author of a history of Bagdad, a history of Meru, 
and a work on Genealogy; b. at Meru, 1113; d. 1166. 

Assainar', n. [Lat. assure, to roast, and amurus, bitter.] 
(Chem.) This name was given by Reichenliach to the 
peculiar bitter substance produced when gum, sugar, 
starch, gluten, meat, bread, Ac., are roasted in the air 
till they turn brown. According to Reicheubach, A. 
is a yellow transparent solid; but according to Volcker, 
it is a reddish-yellow syrupy liquid, which does not solidify 
till it begins to decompose. It is extremely hygroscopic, 
and dissolves in water in all proportions. The aqueous 
solution is neutral. Volcker assigns to A. the formula 
but it is doubtful whether the substance so 
called is a definite compound, or has ever been obtained 
in the pure state. 

Assamese', n. sin. and pi. A native, or natives of Assam. 

Assa'moosieli, in Virginia, a P.0, of Southampton co. 

Ass'as, Nicolas, Chevalier d’, a French officer, celebrated 
for an act of patriotism which cost him his life, was cap¬ 
tain in the regiment of Auvergne when the French army 
was stationed near Gueldres, in 1760. On the lath Oct., 
while engaged in reconnoitring, he was taken prisoner j 
by a division of the enemy advancing to surprise the ] 
French camp, and was threatened with death if a word 
escaped him. lie shouted, “A moi, Auvergne, voild les \ 
ennemisl” and was instantly struck down. An annual | 
pension was allowed to his descendants. 

Assas'sin, n. [Fr.: see Assassins.] One who kills, or 
attempts to kill, by surprise or secret assault. 

** The Syrian king, who, to surprise 
One man, assassin-like, had levyd war.”— Milton. 

Assas'sinate, v. a. To murder by surprise or secret 
assault; to waylay. To take by treachery; a meaning 
peculiar to Milton. 

“ Such usage as your honourable lords 
Afford me, assassinated and betray'd.”— Milton. 

Assassination, n. Act of murdering by surprise or 1 

secret assault. 

Assas’sinator, n. One who assassinates: an assassin. 

Assas’sins, or Ismaili. a sect of religious fanatics who 
existed in the 11th and 12th centuries. They derived 
their name of A. originally from their immoderate use 
of hasheesh, which produces an intense cerebral excite¬ 
ment, often amounting to fury. Their founder and law¬ 
giver was Hassan-ben-Sabah, to whom the Orientals gave 
the name of Sheikh-el-Jobelz, bat who was better known 
in Europe as the Old Man of the Mountain: he was a 
wily impostor, who made fanatical and implicit slaves of 
his devotees, by imbuing them with a religion com¬ 
pounded of that of the Christians, the Jews, the Magi, 
and the Mohammedans. The principal article of their 
belief was that the Holy Ghost was embodied in their 
chief, and that his orders proceeded from the Deity, and 
were declarations of the Divine will. They believed 
assassination to be meritorious when sanctioned by his 
command, and courted danger and death in the executiou 
of his orders. In the time of the crusades, they mus¬ 
tered to the number of 50,0<X>. So great was the power 
of tlie Sheikh, that tlie sovereigns of every quarter of 
the globe secretly pensioned him ; and Philip Augustus, 
king of France, hearing that the Sheikh had ordered his 
assa-sinatiou, instituted a new body-guard, distinguished 
for their courage aud activity, called sergens d'armes. 
who were armed with bows and arrows and brass clubs; 
and he himself never ventured in public without a club 
loaded with gold or iron. The Knights Templars alone 
dared bid defiance to this terrible and subtle foe. Among 
their victims was Conrad, Marquis of M^ntferrat, who 
was murdered in the market-place at Tyre, in 1192, 
although some historians have attributed the crime to 
Richard Coeur de Liou. For a long time this fearful sect 
reigned in Persia, and on Mount Lebanon. Holagoo, or 
Huiaka, a Mogul Tartar, in 1254, dispossessed them of 
several of their strongholds; but it was not till some 
years after tiiat they were completely extirpated by the 
Egyptian forces sent against them by the great sultan 
Bibars. 

Assault', n. [Fr. assaut, from 0. Fr. assault, from Lat. 
assilio, assultum. See Assail.] An active and violent 
attack by words or deeds ; a recourse to violence. 

“ Her spirit bad been invincible against all assaults of affec¬ 
tion.”— Shaks. 

‘‘After some unhappy assaults upon the prerogative by tbe par¬ 
liament.”— Clarendon. 

(Law.) An attempt or offer, with force and violence, to 
do a corporeal hurt to another; as by striking at him, 
with or without a weapon. Assault does not always 
necessarily imply a hitting or blow; because, in trespass 
for assault and battery, a man may be found guilty of 
the assault, and acquitted of the battery. But every 
battery includes an assault. If a person in anger lift tip 
or stretch forth his arm, and offer to strike another, or 
menace any one with any staff or weapon, it is an assault 
in law; and if a man threaten to beat another person, 
or lie in wait to do it, if the other is hindered in his busi¬ 
ness, and receive loss thereby, an action lies for the in¬ 
jury. Any injury, however small, actually done to the 
person of a man, in an angry or revengeful, or rude or 
insolent manner, as by spitting in his lace, or any way 
touching him in anger, or violently jostling him, is a 
battery in the eye of the law. To lay hands gently upon 
another, not in anger, is no foundation of an action of tres¬ 
pass and assault: the defendant may justify his so doing 
in defence of his person or goods, or of his wife, father, 
mother, or master, or for the maintenance of justice. If 
a master takes indecent liberties with a female scholar, 
without her consent, though she does not resist, it is an 
assault. 


(Mil.) To take or carry by assault, signifies a sudden 
and determined onslaught on any strongly fortified 
place or position held by an enemy, by forces detailed 
for the express purpose. These troops are usually divid¬ 
ed into those who lead the attack, who are the stonnerl 
or advance party; supports, or reserve party; and sharp¬ 
shooters. or covering party ; and a fourth body, but rarely 
employed, wbo are termed the forlorn-hope (q. v.). Some 
assaults are called “surprises;” as when a garrison, or 
intrenched troops, are secretly sjnd momentarily assailed, 
which is most commonly effected by night. The force* 
employed on this service are always provided with scal¬ 
ing-ladders, and all needful accessories for the undertak¬ 
ing. — See Siege. 

Assault', v. a. To assail; to fall upon by violence; 
to invade; to charge; to storm. 

Assault'able, a. That may be assaulted. 

Assault'er, n. One who violently assaults another. 

Assay', n. [Fr. essai. See the verb.] Examination; 
proof; trial; determination. — See Essay. 

“ This cannot be 

By no assay of reason. ’Tis a pageant, 

To keep us in false gaze.”— Shaks. 

—Determination of the quantity of metal in an ore or alloy, 
&c., or of the quantity of gold or silver in coin or bul¬ 
lion. — See Assaying. 

—The substance to be assayed. 

“ The assays are charged into the cupels.”—I7re. 

—Real value; ascertained ^urity.— Worcester. 

“ Of pearls and precious stones of great assay." — Spenser. 

(Law.) The proof or trial of the purity or fineness 
of metals, particularly the precious metals gold aud sil¬ 
ver, by the method described under the word Assaying. 
— Assay Office, is an establishment or department in 
which the manipulations attending the assay of bullion 
and coins are conducted. Departments of this character 
are attached to the national Mint and each of its branch- 
es. 

Assay', v. a. [Fr. essayer, from It. assagiare, to taste, to 
prove, to try: from L. Lat. exagium, a balance, a kind of 
weight appointed as a standard, from Lat. exign, to 
weigh, to examine, to measure; L. Gr. exagion, a weigh¬ 
ing.] To examine; to weigh accurately; to try; to de¬ 
termine the amount of a particular metal in an ore, 
alloy, or other metallic compound. 

— v.n. To attempt, try, or endeavor, (o.) See Essay. 

Assaye', or Assye'. a town of Hindostan, prov. of Berar 
in the Nizam's dominions, 28 m. N. of Jaulua. It is 
famous as being the spot where, on Sept. 23d, 1803, the 
Duke of Wellington, with 4,500 troops (of which only 
2,000 were British), defeated the forces of Dowlut Khow 
Sindia and the Rajah of Nagpoor, amounting to 30.000 
men. The Anglo-Indian army’s loss was 1,566 men 
killed and wounded. 

Assay'er, n. One who assays metals.—A. Master is an 
officer of the mint, appointed to determine the propor¬ 
tion of gold or silver in coin or bullion. 

Assay ing, n. [Fr. essayer, to try.] (Met.) A quanti¬ 
tative analysis performed for the sake of discovering the 
amount of one particular constituent in a compound. 
The term is generally applied to the determination c 
gold and silver in alloys of these metals ; but it is als. 
used to denote any process for determining the commer¬ 
cial value of any substance by the separation of its val¬ 
uable portion. Thus lichens and indigo are assayed for 
their coloring matter, galls and oak-bark for their tan¬ 
nin, and ores for their metal. The A. of gold and silver 
is generally performed by the process of cupelling. 
Bone-ash is mixed with water, made into a little cup, and 
dried. This is called the cupel, and lias the property of 
absorbing oxides when they are combined with oxide of 
lead in a state of fusion. Silver is assayed by mixing 
it with a certain quantity of lead, determined by the 
amount of impurity suspected to exist in the alloy. The 
mixture is melted in the cupel in a current of air, until 
the whole of tbe lead is converted into oxide, which 
dissolves the other impurities, and carries them down 
with it into the cupel, the silver being left behind in a 
pure state. Silver alloys are also assayed by dissolving 
them in nitric acid, and precipitating the silver in the 
form of chloride by a standard solution of chloride of 
sodium. This method is now adopted in the English, 
French, and Belgian mints, as well as in those of the 
U. States. Gold is generally assayed by the process of 
quarlation. It is mixed with three times its weight of 
silver, and nine times its weight of lead, and cupelled as 
above described. The whole of the impurities are thus got 
rid of, and an alloy of silver and gold remains. This is 
beaten into thin plates, which are thrown into nitric 
acid, which dissolves out the silver, and leaves the gold 
intact. The large amount of silver is added to prevent 
any particles of that metal existing in the gold from 
being protected by it from tlie action of tbe acid, and 
remaining undissolved. 

Assehe', a town of Belgium, prov. of S. Brabant, mid¬ 
way between Brussels aud Dendermonde; pop. 6,492. 

Asseerghnr'. Asserghur, or Asser, a town and for¬ 
tress of Hindostan. prov. of Candeish, and pres, of Bom¬ 
bay. 215 m. K.N.E of Surat: Lat. 21° 28' N.; Lon. 76° 
23' E. The town stands at the foot of the rock on which 
the fortress is situated; the latter is one of the strongest 
fortifications in India, and was taken in 1803, and after¬ 
ward in 1819, by the British, who have since held it. 
Pop. about 2,500. 

Assem blage, n. [Fr.] A collection, concourse, mass, 
or number brought together, whether of persons, ideas, 
or things. 

•• All that we amass together in our thoughts is positive, and th* 
assemblage of a great number of positive ideas of space or dura- 

I tioa. — locke. 






















172 


ASSE 


ASSI 


ASS1 


—The state of being assembled or brought together; the 
act of assembling or forming in mass. 

Witn innocence ana meditation join’d 

In soft assemblage, listen to my song."— Thomson. 

(Arch.) See Joinery. 

Assein'ble, v. a. [Fr. assembler, from Lat. ad, and 
simul, together.] To bring, gatlier, or call together; 
to collect; to convene. 

“ He wondered for what end you have assembled 
Such troops of citizens to come to him."— Shaks. 

— ( Mech .) To bring together the parts of any complex 
mechanism, as a locomotive, bicycle, built-up cannon, 
Ac., for the purpose of joining them to form the com¬ 
plete device. Iu large factories and arsenals this is done 
in what is frequently termed the “assembling room.” 

— v. n. To meet or come together; to convene. 

“ These men assembled, aud found Daniel praying."— Daniel. 

Assem bled, p. a. Collected into a body ; congregated. 

Assem'bler, n. One who assembles. 

Assem'bly, n. [Fr. assembles.] A company of persons 
gathered together in one place for a common object; as 
literary, social, political, and religious assemblies ; a con¬ 
gregation; a meeting; a convocation ; a convention. 

“ They bad heard, by fame, 

Of this so noble and so fair assembly, 

This night to meet here.”— Shake. 

(Mil.) To sound the assembly. To beat a certain tattoo 
upon the drum, or sound a call upon the bugle, in order 
to bring together scattered or detached troops. 

Political assemblies are those required by the constitu¬ 
tion and laws; for example, the general assembly, which 
includes the Senate aud House of Representatives. The 
meeting of the electors of the President and Vice-Presi¬ 
dent of the U. States may also be called an assembly.— 
Popular assemblies are those where the people meet to 
deliberate upon their rights ; these are guaranteed by the 
constitution (U. S. Const., Amend., art. 1.)—Unlawful as¬ 
sembly is the meeting of three or more persons to do an 
unlawful act, although they may not carry their pur¬ 
pose into execution. 

General Assembly, in the Presbyterian Church, is the 
name given in Scotland, and in the U. States, to a su¬ 
premo ecclesiastical court, which holds its meetings an¬ 
nually, and consists of a certain number of ministers and 
ruling elders, delegated from the various presbyteries, 
according to the number of parishes contained in each. 

Assembly,(National,) (of Prance and Germany.) See 
National Assembly. 

Assembly,(Primary.) See Primary Assemblies. 

Assem bly-room. n. A public room for company. 

Ass'enede, a town of Belgium, prov. of E. Flanders, 
and 13 m. N. of Ghent. — Manf. Wool and cotton; dye- 
works, Ac. Pop. 4,726. 

Ass'ens, a seaport-town of Denmark, on the W. coast 
of Fiinen, an island on the Little Belt, 22 m. S.W. of 
Odensee; pop. about 4,000. 

Assent', n. [O.Fr., from Lat. assensus, from assenlior — 
ad, and sentio, to think.] Act of agreeing to anything. 

•‘Without the king’s assent or knowledge, 

You wrought to be a legate."— Shake. 

—Agreement of opinion; harmony of sentiment; concur¬ 
rence ; consent; accord; compliance. 

“The evidence of God’s own testimony, added unto the natural 
assent of reason concerning the certainty of them, doth not a little 
comfort and coulirm the same."— Hooker. 

•—In strictness, assent is to be distinguished from consent, 
which denotes a willingness that something about to be 
done, be done; acceptance, compliance with, or receipt of, 
something offered; ratification, rendering valid some¬ 
thing done without authority; and approval, an expres¬ 
sion of satisfaction with some act done for the benefit of 
another besides the party approving. 

Assent', v. n. To be of the same mind or opinion with; 
to agree to; to acquiesce iu; to yield to; to consent to; 
to admit as true. 

“ And the Jews also assented, saying, that these things were so.” 

Acre xxiv. 9. 

Assenta'tion, n. Compliance with the opinion of 
another out of flattery or dissimulation. 

Assent/cr, n. One who assents. 

Assen'tient, a. Yielding assent. 

— n. One who assents; an assenter. 

Assent'iiijgly, a/lv. In an assenting manner. 

Assen'tive, a. Giving assent. 

Asseo'la, a Seminole Indian chief. See Osceola. 

Assert', v. a. [Lat. assero, assertum, from ad, and sero, to 
join, to knit.] To reiterate an opinion; to affirm; to 
maintain; to defend; to vindicate; to declare positively ; 
to bind a statement on to a thing; to declare plainly, as 
to assert a right. 

Assertion, n. Act of asserting; positive declaration 
or averment; affirmation. 

Asser'tional, a Containing assertion. 

Asser'tive, a. Positive; dogmatical; peremptory. 

Asser tively, adv. Affirmatively. 

Assert'or, n. One who asserts. 

Asser'iory, a. Affirming; supporting; as, “the as¬ 
sertory oath.” 

Assess', v. a. [O.Fr. assesser. from session, name given 
to the assembly of officers who adjusted taxes; from 
Lat. assitleo, assessum — ad, and sedeo, to sit.] To rate or 
fix the proportion that every' person has to pay of any par¬ 
ticular tax. — To tax. — To adjust the shares of a contri¬ 
bution by several persons toward a common beneficial 
object according to the benefit received. — To fix the 
value of: to fix the amount of. 

Assessable, a. That may be assessed. 

Assessed', p. a. Charged with a certain sum; valued; 
set; fixed; ascertained. 

Asses'sionary, a. Pertaining to assessors; as, “ as- 

sessionary court.” 


Assess'ment, n. The act of determining the value of 
a man’s property or occupation for the purpose of levy¬ 
ing a tax. — The act of determining the share of a tax to 
be paid by each individual. — The sum assessed or lev¬ 
ied; a tax; a rate. — In New York, the act of adjusting 
the shares of a contribution by several persons towards 
a common beneficial object according to the benefit re¬ 
ceived. 

(Law.) An A. of damages is the fixing of the amount 
of damages to which the prevailing party in a suit is en¬ 
titled. 

Asses'sor, n. [Lat., from assidere, to sit by.] One who 
sits by another as an assistant or adviser. 

“Minos, the strict inquisitor, appears; 

And lives aud crimes, with his assessors, hears.”— Dry den. 

Or, as next in dignity. 

“ To his son, 

Th’ assessor of his throne, he thus begun.” — Hilton. 

—One appointed to make assessments.— The “assessors of 
taxes,” so named in the U. States, are commonly termed 
surveyors in England. In this sense, A. derives from 
Assess. 

(Law.) A., in civil and Scotch law, are persons skilled 
in law, selected to advise the judges of the interior 
courts. — This name is also applied in England toper- 
sons chosen to assist the mayor and aldermen of corpo¬ 
rations in matters relating to elections. 

(Anliq.) As, among the Romans, the consuls, praetors, 
governors of provinces, and judges, were often imper¬ 
fectly acquainted with the law and forms of procedure, 
A. were appointed to sit with them on the tribunal. 
Their advice or aid was given during the proceedings, as 
well as at other times, but they never pronounced a ju¬ 
dicial sentence. 

Assesso'rial, a. Pertaining to assessors, or a court of 
assessors. 

As'sets, n. pi. [0. Fr. assets; Fr. assez, enough, suffi¬ 
cient; signifying originally the property of a deceased 
person, which is sufficient, in the hands of his executor 
and heir, for the payment of his debts and legacies.] All 
the stock in trade, cash, and all available property be¬ 
longing to a merchant or company. 

(Law.) The property of a deceased person, which is 
charged with, and applicable to, the payment of his 
debts and legacies. In the U. States, generally, by stat¬ 
ute, all the property of the deceased, real and personal, 
is liable for his debts. The wearing-apparel of widows 
and minors is retained by them, and is not assets. A 
quarantine, i. e., forty days of food and clothing, is also 
among the things reserved to a widow. 

Asse v'e rate, v. a. [0. Fr. asceverer; from Lat. asscvero, 
asseveraius, to assert earnestly; from ad, and severus 
serious.] To declare, affirm, or assert with solemnity or 
seriousness; to protest; to assure. 

Assevera'tion, n. Positive affirmation or assertion ; 
solemn declaration. 

Ass'head, n. [From ass, and head.] One slow of appre¬ 
hension; a blockhead; a dolt. 

“Will you help an asshead, anil a coxcomb, and a knave, a thin¬ 
faced knave, a gull ? " — Shake. 

Ass'lmr, the second son of Shem, and the founder of 
the Assyrian empire. 

Assid'eans, n. pi. The name assumed by a section of 
the orthodox Jews, as distinguished from the Helleniz- 
ing faction. They appear to have existed as a party be¬ 
fore the Maccabean rising, and were probably bound by 
some particular vow to the external observance of the 
law. Frauckel has shown that both the Essenes and the 
Pharisees are sections of the A.; and that all three or¬ 
ders are frequently spoken of under the same name. — 
Win. Smith. 

AsSident, a. [From Lat. as, and sedere, to be seated.] 
(Med.) That which accompanies or is concomitant.— 
Applied to the accessory symptoms and general pheno¬ 
mena of disease. 

Assidu'ity, n. [Fr. assiduite: Lat. ossiduitas, assiditus, 
from ad, and sedeo, to sit.] Close or constant application; 
diligence; attention; perseverance; watchful care. 

Assid'uous, a. [Lat. assiduus.] Constant in applica¬ 
tion; unceasingly diligent; unwearied; persevering. 

Assid'uously, adv. With assiduity. 

Assid'iiousness, n. Quality of being assiduous; con¬ 
stant or diligent application. 

Assien'to, n. [Sp. asiento, a treaty.] A term specially 
applied to a treaty between the Spanish government and 
some other nation, by which the former, in consideration 
of certain payments, granted the latter a monopoly of 
supplying the Spanish colonies in America with slaves 
from Africa. 

Assign', v. a. [Fr. assigner; Lat. assigno — ad, and sig¬ 
ns), from signum, a mark, token, or sign.] To mark out; 
to allot; to apportion. 

“ The last day will assign to every one a station suitable to his 
character." — Addison. 

—To fix; to specify; to determine; as. to assign a day for 
trial; to assign a counsel for a prisoner, &c. 

—To allege; to set forth as a reason. 

(Law.) See Assignment. 

Assign', n. (Law.) An assignee. Now only used, in 
deeds, in this phrase; “ Heirs, administrators, and as¬ 
signs.’’ 

Assign'able, a. That may be assigned. 

Assignat, (ds'-seen-ya.) n. [Fr., from Lat. assignatus, 
assigned.] The name of the paper currency issued by de¬ 
cree of the National Assembly of France, with the ap¬ 
probation of the king, April 1st, 1790, and so called from 
the national property being assigned as security. At 
first 400,000,000 francs were issued; but, a few months 
later, 800,000,000 more were issued, and subsequent is¬ 
sues increased the number to about 45,000,000,000 francs. 


The consequence was that they became of almost nc 
value, and, at length, in 1796, they were withdrawn from 
the currency. 

Assignation, n. [Fr., from Lat. assignatin.] The act 
of assigning, as a particular name to a particular object; 
designation. — An appointment to meet; used generally 
of love appointments. 

(Law.) The same as Assignment, q. v. 

Assignee', n. (Law.) A person appointed by another 
to do any act or perforin any business; also, a person 
who takes some right, title, or interest in things by an 
assignment from an assignor. They are divided into ’. 
A. by deed, as when a lessee of a term sells or assigns it 
to another; and A. by law, as, when property devolves 
upon an executor without any specific appointment, the 
executor is A. by law to the testator. — Assignees, how¬ 
ever, are more specially those persons in whom the prop¬ 
erty of a bankrupt vests by virtue of their appointment. 
See Assignment. 

Assign'er, n. One who assigns or appoints. 

Assign'ment, n. Act of assigning; the thing assigned; 
the appropriation of one thing to another thing or 
person. 

(Law.) A transfer or making over to another of the 
whole of any property, real or personal, in possession or 
iu action, or of any estate or right therein. — A transfer 
by writing, as distinguished from one by delivery.— 
The transfer of the interest one has in lands and tene¬ 
ments, and more particularly applied to the unexpired 
residue of a term or estate for life or years. — Every de¬ 
mand connected with a right of property is assignable. 
Every estate and interest in lands and tenements may 
be assigned, as also every present and certain estate or 
interest in incorporal hereditaments, even though the 
interest be future. — The most extensive class of A. are 
the general assignments in trust made by insolvent 
and other debtors for the discharge of their debts. In 
most of the U. States these are regulated by statu¬ 
tory enactments. — An instrument of A. must be of as 
high a character as the instrument transferred; never¬ 
theless, a parol A. (usually written) may transfer a 
deed, if the deed be at the same time delivered. — Tho 
proper technical and operative words of A. are, “assign, 
transfer, and set over;” but “give, grant, bargain, aud 
sell.” or any other words which show the intent of the 
parties to make a complete transfer, will work an A. — 
During the continuance of the A., the assignee is liable 
on all covenants running with the land, but may rid 
himself of such continuing liability by transfer to a 
mere beggar. — The assignee of a cause iu action in a 
court of law must bring the action iu the name of the 
assignor, in whose place he stands; and everything 
which might have been shown in defence against the 
assignor, may be used against the assignee. — Assign¬ 
ment of Power. The act by which the share of a widow 
in her deceased husband's real estate is ascertained and 
set apart for her. The A. may be made by the heir or 
his guardian, or the devisee or other persons seized of 
the lands subject to dower: otherwise it may be made 
by the sheriff, after a course of judicial proceedings. 
The A. should be made within forty days after the death 
of the husband, during which time the widow shall re¬ 
main in her husband s principal house. The share of 
the widow is usually one-third of all the real estate of 
which the husband has been seized during coverture. 

Assignment of Errors. In practice, the statement of the 
case of the plaintiff in error, setting forth the errors 
complained of. 

Assigner', n. (Laiv.) One who makes an assignment. 

Assimilabil'ity, n. The quality of being assimi¬ 
lable. (R.) 

Assim'ilable, a. That which may be assimilated. 

Assim ilate, v. a. [Fr. assimiltr; Lat. assimiln, assimi- 
latus; from ad, aud similis, like or similar.] To make 
like or similar to; to bring to a likeness with; to ctfise 
to resemble; to turn to its own substance or nature by 
digestion. 

— v. i. To grow or become similar to; to be converted or 
turned into the substance of the body. 

Assimilation. n. The state of being assimilated, c* 
becoming like something else; as, “to aspire to an as¬ 
similation with God.” (Decay of Piety.) — The act or 
process of converting anything to the nature or sub¬ 
stance of another. 

(Physiol.) The substances introduced into the animal 
economy are there employed to support the respiratory 
combustion (see Respiration), and to tho formation of 
the different parts of the body itself. Before being 
adapted for nutrition, all substances must assume a 
liquid or gaseous form; this is the object of digestion. 
There exist three modes of ingress for the nutritive 
matter — the skill, the respiratory mucous membrane, 
and the alimentary canal; but, of the three, it is the 
intestinal or alimentary canal that is the great route by 
which the matter destined to assist in nutrition reaches 
the interior of the body. — These nutritive elements are 
at first mingled with the blood. This fluid, elaborated 
by processes not yet discovered, becomes rich in all the 
compound principles of which the tissues are, in their 
turn, formed; and it is out of this fluid that all tho or¬ 
gans of the body draw the materials fitted for their 
growth and support, each choosing the molecules iden¬ 
tical with its own nature. It is this last act which con¬ 
stitutes assimilation. But nothing is known as to the 
real nature of this act of A., how it is brought out, how 
effected. Such questions touch too nearly the very es¬ 
sence of the principle of life, itself perfectly unknown 
in its nature. One thing is certain, that in all animals 
possessing a nervous system, the influence which this 
exercises over A. is distinct and undeniable. — The as¬ 
similating force possesses the property, especially in th« 






A.SSI 


AS SO 


ASSU 


173 


Jswer animals, of restoring parts which hare been de¬ 
stroyed ; bones are reunited by bone after being broken, 
and even large portions of them which have been lost 
have been restored. The limb of the lizard, when bro¬ 
ken off, has grown again; a new foot has been repro¬ 
duced in crabs and spiders; in salamanders, a new eye 
and portion of the head have been restored after the re¬ 
moval of the original parts by amputation. Finally, 
earth-worms and many other annelides can thus repro¬ 
duce a great part of the body. — Moreover, various cir¬ 
cumstances, which we have not the leisure to examine 
here, may modify the progress of the work of assimila¬ 
tion, render it active, retard it, or change its direction, 
rt is in this way that in certain diseases wo see nutrition 
to be almost entirely arrested, and that in others certain 
tissues change their nature. It is also to be observed, 
that this assimilative labor does not take place with the 
same rapidity in all parts of the body: to be assured of 
this, we have only to observe the changes in form often 
brought about by the progress of age; for these changes 
depend chiefly on this, that certain parts increase more 
rapidly than others. Thus, from the moment of birth 
to the adult condition, the members of the body of man 
grow more rapidly than the trunk; whence it follows 
that, in general, this latter is a portion the less consid¬ 
erable of the whole, as the growth is more prolonged. 









Fig . 218. — DIGESTIVE APPARATUS IN MAN. 


1. Gullet. 

2. Stomach. 

3. Pancreas. 

4. Pylorus. 

5. Liver. 

6. Spleen. 

7- Gall-bladder. 


8. Large intestine. 

9. Ca um. 

10. An ndix of the caecum. 

11. ColOw. 

12. Small intestine. 

13. Rectum. 


Assim'ilative, a. Having power to assimilate; as, 
as assimilative virtue.” 

Assim'ilatory, a. That tends to produce assimila¬ 
tion ; as, “ assimiiatory organs.” 

j Assine'go, n. [Port, asinego, a little ass.] An ass.— 

■ Herbert. 

| Assin'iboine, a river of British N. America, N.W. 
territory, flowing into the S. extremity of Lake Winni¬ 
peg. The Red river is its chief affluent, near the influx 
of which is the station Assiniboine. 

Assin'iboine, a fort on the Athabaska river, British 
N. America; Lat. 54° 20' N.; Lon. 114° 3' W. 

Assin'iboine Indians, a tribe of the great Sioux 
or Dakota family, who speak the language of most of the 
tribes found on'the N. of the sources of the Mississippi. 
They live entirely by the chase, and are quite uncivil¬ 
ized. They are estimated to number about 4,000. 

Assinie', a country of Africa, at the extremity of the 
Gold Coast. In 1843, the French took possession of the 
country, and founded a factory on the river Assinie or 
Gaboon. 

As'sir-Uddin-Akhsikti. a Persian poet of the 12th 
century, the contemporary of Khakani and Anwari. 

As'sir-Uddin-Uniani, a Persian poet of the 13th 
century. 

Assis'cunk Creek, in New Jersey , Burlington co. 
It falls into the Delaware river, above Burlington. 

Ass'ish, a. Like an ass; stupid; as, “ au assish phrase.” 

Assi'si, a town of Italy, 13 m. E.S.E. of Perugia, the 
birthplace of St. Francis, the founder of the order of 
Franciscans. Hop. 14,154. 

Assi'sor, n. In Scottish law, a juror. 

Assist', v. a. [Fr. assister; Lat. assisto, from ad, and sis- 
to, to stand, to set, to place; from Gr. histemi.] To sup¬ 
port ; to aid; to help; to succor; to sustain. 

<< Receive her in the Lord .... and assist her in whatsoever busi¬ 
ness she hash need." — Bom. xvi. 2- 
11 


—To lend aid; to help; to contribute. 

“She agreed to assist In the murder of her husband." - Brooms. 

Assistance, n. [B'r.] Help; aid; support; succor. 

Assistant, a. Helping; lending aid or support. 

— n. One who assists or aids; a helper; a supporter; an 
auxiliary. 

Assistantly, adv. In a manner to give assistance. 

Assister, n. An assistant; a helper. “Chief aiders 
and assisters.” — North. 

Assisting, p. a. Helping; aiding; supporting. 

Assize', n.; pi. Assizes. [O. B’r. assize and assire; Fr. as¬ 
sises; from Lat. assideo — ad, and sedeo, to sit.] (Law.) 
In the middle ages, this name was given in France and 
other countries of Europe, to assemblies or courts for the 
administration of justice to vassals and freemen. After 
Godfrey of Bouillon had taken Jerusalem, in 1099, he 
adopted for his two courts of justice the ordinances estab¬ 
lished in these assemblies; hence this remarkable col¬ 
lection was styled Assises of Jerusalem. — After the con¬ 
quest of England, the term was introduced from Nor¬ 
mandy. It is still used to signify, 1, the sessions or sittings 
of the judges of the superior law-courts, held periodically 
in each county, for the purpose of administering civil 
and criminal justice; 2, a statute for regulating weights, 
measures, or prices; 3, the weight, measure, or price 
thus regulated. There are also assize courts (cours d’as¬ 
sises) in the judicial system of B'rance, but they differ 
essentially from the English assizes. They are held at 
least once every three months in the capital of each 
department. They consist of a judge of the high court 
(cour imperiale), of two judges of the local court (tribu¬ 
nal de premiere instance); and of a jury consisting of 
twelve jurors chosen by ballot from a list of the citizen- 
electors in each department. The cours d’assises try all 
criminal causes; the jury give their verdict, and the 
judges pronounce sentence. 

Assize', v. a. To settle; to establish; to fix the weight, 
measure, or price of commodities. 

Assiz'er, n. An officer who, in England, has the care or 
inspection of weights a»d measures. — In Scotland, a ju¬ 
ryman;— also spelt assisor or assizor. 

Ass'-like, a. Resembling an ass. “Ass-like braying.”— 
Sidney. 

Associabil'ity, n. The quality of being associable ; 

associableness. 

A^so'ciable, a. That may be associated with; sociable; 
companionable. 

Asso'ciableness, n. Sociableness; associability. 

Asso'ciate, i>. a. [B'r. associer ; Lat. associo — ad, and socio, 
socialus, from socius, a companion.] To join in company 
with, as a friend, companion, partner, or confederate.— 
To combine; to unite in the same mass. 

“ Language and fashion associate also affections."— Sandys. 

— v. n. To unite one’s self with another or others; to keep 
company with; to unite. 

Asso'ciate, a. Joined to or with; conjoined; confede¬ 
rated ; connected. 

— n. One joined or united with another; a companion ; a 
friend; a mate; a partner; a coadjutor. 

“ Sole Eve, associate sole, to me, beyond 
Compare, above all living creatures dear."— Milton. 

Asso'ciatecI, p. a. United in company or in interest; 
joined. 

Associa/tion, n. [Fr.] The process, and also the result 
of bringing together into alliance or companionship. It 
is used of mental as well as of material things, and of 
two or more.—A society or body of persons joined to¬ 
gether for the support or furtherance of some object.— 
Union; connection; conjunction ; consortship ; compan¬ 
ionship; alliance; familiarity; friendship; community; 
membership ; society; company.—Associations are usu¬ 
ally divided into two classes, accordingly as the indi¬ 
viduals who compose them have for their object the at¬ 
tainment of a spiritual end, or have in view the further¬ 
ance of a mere material interest. These two classes are 
again subdivided, as follows : The 1st embraces A. of a 
purely religious character, as Orders, Congregations, &c. 
The 2d comprehends political A., as the Secret Societies, 
which have existed at all periods, and in all countries. 
The 3d, those A. which have for their object the ad¬ 
vancement and cultivation of letters, arts, sciences, agri¬ 
culture, or other industrial occupations; as, for instance, 
the “ American Association for the Advancement of Sci¬ 
ence.” The 4th consists of those A. which aim at the 
propagation of morality and humanity; as the various 
Temperance Safeties, and the Magdalen Society, the 
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, &c. 
The 5th includes all the A. which may be termed 
Benevolent, and which tend to alleviate and succor dis¬ 
tressed humanity. The second class of A. form two 
sections: in the first are found those commercial and 
industrial organizations which have for their object 
pecuniary gain; in the other, those A. or societies, as 
Provident and Co-operative Societies, and Insurance 
Companies of all kinds. The latter class of A. may be 
said to include all forms of fellowship and co-operation 
that tend to establish a certain homogeneousness and 
solidarity among men. 

Associa'tional, a. Belonging to an association.—A 
word peculiar to America. 

Associative, a. That has a tendency to association, 
or the faculty of being easily affected by sympathy. 

Assoil', v. a. [From B’r. souiller .] To soil; to stain, (o.) 

As'sonance, n. [Fr., from Lat. ad, to. and sono, I 
sound.] A term used in poetry and rhetoric to denote 
that the words of a phrase or verse have the same sound 
or termination, yet without making proper rhyme. This 
is commonly a fault in English, but the Romans some¬ 
times used it with elegance; as, “Militem comparavit, 
exercitum ornavit, aciem lustravit.” 


As'sonant, a. Having a resemblance of sounds. 

As'sonant Rhymes, n. pi. (Pros.) A term applied 
to a kind of verse common among the Spaniards and 
Portuguese, where the vowels only are required te 
rhyme; as, ligera, cubierta, tierra. 

Assort', v. a. [B’r. assortir, from Lat. ad, and sors, sortis, 
a lot.] To separate and distribute into classes or kinds, 
as things suited to one another; — generally applied to 
things, but sometimes to persons. To furnish with all 
sorts; as, a well-assorted store. 

— v. n. To suit; to agree; to consort; to be in accordance. 

Assort'ment, n. Act of assorting; a variety; a mass or 
quantity of things assorted; as, an assortment of goods. 

Assouan'. Assuan, or Asswan, (anc. Syene,) a town 
of Upper Egypt, on the E. bank of the Nile, near the 
borders of Nubia, 110 m. S. of Thebes, in Lat. 25° 4' 30” 
N., and Lon. 32° 55' E. Few remains exist of the ancient 
city. The modern town is but a poor place, surrounded 
by sandy plains. Dates form the principal object of 
traffic. 

Assuage', v.a. [A.S. aswefian, to soothe; or 0. B’r. 
assouager, from Lat. suavis, sweet.] To soften; to allay; 
to mitigate; to soothe; to calm. 

u Shall I, t’ assuage 
Their brutal rage, 

The regal stem destroy ? ”— Dryden. 

— v. n. To abate or subside. 

“ God made a wind to pass over the earth, and the waters 
suaged — Gen. viii. 1. 

Assuagement, n. Mitigation; abatement. 

“ But all my days in pining languor spend, 

Without hope of assuagement or release."— Spenser . 

Assuag*'ei% n. One who assuages. 

Assuapmoussoin', in E. Canada , a lake in Lat. 49* 
22' N., Lon. 73°55' W.; 8 to 10 m. in length, and about 4 
in breadth. 

Assua'sive* a. [From assuage.] Softening; mitigating; 
tranquillizing. 

** If in the breast tumultuous joys arise, 

Music her soft assuasive voice supplies.”— Pope. 

As'suetude, n. [Lat. assuetudo. ] Custom; habit; 
habitual use. (o.) 

Assume', v. a. [Fr. assumer; Lat. assumo, from ad, and 
sumo, to take.] To take to or upon one’s self. 

“ Spectre and power, thy giving X assume." — Milton. 

—To take for granted; to suppose. 

“ In every hypothesis, something is allowed to be assumed." Boyle. 

—To arrogate; to claim or seize unjustly; to put on with 
a view to deceive. 

•• Assume a virtue, if you have it not.”— Shaks. 

—To apply to one’s own use; to appropriate. 

“ His majesty might well assume the complaint and expression 
of king David."—Clarendon. 

— v. n. To be arrogant; to claim more than is due. 

Assum'er, n. An arrogant man; one who claims more 
than his due. 

Assum'ing', p. a. Taking or disposed to take upon 
one’s self more than is just; haughty; arrogant; pre¬ 
sumptuous. 

“ His haughty looks, and his assuming air. 

The son of Isis could no longer bear.”— Dryden. 

— n. Presumption ; arrogance; as, a vain assuming. 

Assnmp'sit, n. [Lat. assumpsit, he undertook, from 
assumo, to take to one’s self.] (Lav;.) An undertaking, 
either express or implied, to perform a parol agreement. 
—An action to recover a compensation in damages for the 
non-performance of a parol promise; that is, a promise, 
whether verbal or written, not contained in a deed 
under seal. For breach of a promise of the latter 
kind, assumpsit will not lie; hut the proper remedy is 
by action of covenant or debt. The common law adopts 
the maxim, that a mere nude agreement and undertak¬ 
ing, without any quid pro quo, will not constitute a 
binding contract. This maxim is commonly said to 
have been borrowed from the civil law, where we find 
it laid down, that exnudo pactonon oritur actio; but this 
seems rather to have referred to agreements without 
certain formalities. What our law requires, in order to 
sustain a promise, is termed a consideration; and it must 
be either a benefit to the party promising, or to soms 
third person, in whom he takes an interest; or detriment 
sustained by the party to whom the promise is made, at 
the request of the party making it. The degree of benefit 
or detriment, or its relative proportion to the thing 
promised, is immaterial. A promise of remuneration for 
an act which the party is bound to perform, as a promise 
to a sailor of extra pay for extraordinary exertion in ex¬ 
treme peril of the ship, is void. The law regards such 
exertion as the sailor’s previous duty; the considera¬ 
tion, therefore, for the promise, fails. A. are of two 
kinds, express and implied; the former are where the 
contracts are actually made, in word or writing; the 
latter are such as the law implies from the justice of the 
case; as, for instance, if I employ an artificer to do any 
work for me, the obvious justice of my paying him a 
reasonable sum for that work, when done, raises an implh 
cation, in the understanding of the law, oi a promise on 
my part to pay him. 

Assump tion, n. [Fr.; Lat. assumptio, from assumo, 
assumptus .] The act of assuming or taking anything t* 
one’s seif. — The supposition of, or act of supposing any¬ 
thing without further proof. 

" These, by way of assumption, under the two general proport- 
tions, are intrinsically and naturally good and bad."—A’orrfar. 

—The thing supposed; a postulate. 

“ Hold, says the stoick, your assumption ’s wrong."—Dryden. 

(Logic.) The minor or second proposition in a categor¬ 
ical syllogism. It is sometimes also applied to *K» oot> 











174 


ASSU 


ASTE 


ASTE 


sequence drawn from the propositions of whi«h an argu¬ 
ment is composed. Thus we say, the premises are true, 
but the A. is captious. 

(Eccl. Ilist.) The name of a festival celebrated by the 
Roman Catholic and Greek Churches on the 15tli of Au¬ 
gust, in honcr of the miraculous ascent of the Virgin 
Mary into heaven. 

Assump tion, or Asuncion. See Paraguay. 

Assiimp'tion, a small island of tlio Pacific ocean, in 
the Marianne archipelago; Lat. 19° 45'N.; Lon. 154° 
54' 11. It is of volcanic formation, and but a poor, deso¬ 
late place. 

Assumption, a village of Lower Canada, on a river 
of the same name which joins the St. Lawrence 14 m. 
N.N.E. of Montreal. 

Assumption, in Illinois, a post-village and township 
of Christian co. 

Assumption, in Louisiana, a parish in the S.E. of 
the State. 

Assumption, in Minnesota, a post-office of Carver co. 

Assumptive, a. That is or may be assumed. 

(Her.) A. arms are those which are borno without a 
right to them. — The name of assumptive was also given 
to arms assumed for a particular deed, with the approval 
of the sovereign and of the heralds. 

Assumptively, adv. By way of assumption. 

As'sunpink, or As'sanpink, Creek, in New 
Jersey, rises in Monmouth co., and runs N.W. and then 
S.W. till it enters the Delaware at Trenton. 

Assur'ance, n. [Fr. See Assure.] Firm persuasion; 
certain expectation; full confidence or trust; freedom 
from doubt. 

“ A religious life gives the comfortable assurance of God's 
favor."— TMotson. 

—Ground of confidence; sufficient reason for trust or be¬ 
lief; certainty. 

"‘Whereof he hath given assurance unto all men, in that he 
hath raised him from the dead .”—Acts xvii. 31. 

—Firmness of mind; undoubting steadiness. — Spirit; 
intrepidity. 

With all the assurance innocence can bring, 

Fearless without, because secure within.”— Dryden. 

—Want of modesty; impudence; as, ‘‘his assurance is 
intolerable.” 

—Insurance; but only applied to a contract of indemnity 
for life contingencies. 

(Law.) Any instrument which confirms the title to 
an estate. In a general sense, the word assurance 
includes all legal evidences of the translation of prop¬ 
erty, called common assurances, by which every man’s 
property is secured to him, and controversies, doubts, 
and difficulties prevented and removed. 

Assure', v. a. [Fr. assurer ; from Lat. securus, sure or 
certain.] To give confidence by a firm promise. 

“ So when he had assured them with many words that he would 
restore them without hurt.... ”—2 Mac. xii. 

—To secure to another; to make firm. 

“ Those whose piety assures its favor to them."— Rogers. 

—To make confident; to exempt from doubt or fear; to 
confer security. 

“And hereby we know, that we are of the truth, and shall assure 
our hearts before him.”—1 John iii. 19. 

(Law.) To insure; to promise to indemnify for a loss. 
See Insure. 

Assured', p. a. Certain; indubitable; not doubted; 
as, “an assured experience.” (Bacon.) — Certain; not 
doubting; confident. 

** Young princes, close your hands, 

And your lips too ; for 1 am well assured 
That l did so, when I was first assur'd.” — Shake. 

(Law.) Insured. 

Assur'edly, adv. Certainly; indubitably. 

Assur'ediiess, n. State of being assured; certainty. 

Assur'er, n. One who assures or insures. 

Assur'gency, n. The act of rising upward. 

Assur'gfcut, a. [Lat. assurgo, to rise up.] ( Bot .) That 
which rises up in a curve. 

Assur'ing’Hy, adv. In a way to create assurance. 

As'sus, or Assos, an ancient city of Asia Minor, now in 



Fig. 219. — ruins of the acropolis of asscs. 


ruins. It is 35 m. W.S.W. of Mount Ida. It was col- 
••wed from Lesbos about 1000 B.C., and was, for a while, 


fthe residence of Aristotle. Leake says of tlx, ruins 
here, that “the whole gives, perhaps, a more 
perfect idea of a Greek city than anywhere else 
exists.” 

Asswajre', v. a. An obsolete spelling of Assuage, q. v. 

As'synt, in Scotland, a mountainous, moorish, and rug¬ 
ged parish, in S.W. Sutherlandshire; area, estimated at 
100,000 acres. There are here a dozen mountains 3,000 to 
3,500 feet high; and among them, Suil Veinn, aperfect 
sugar-loaf, towering nearly 2,000 feet above a rugged 
table-land of gneiss hills, 800 to 1,000 feet above the sea. 
In Ardbreck castle, on a. promontory on the E. side of 
Loch A., the famous Marquis of Montrose was confined 
in 1650. Pop. about 3,000. 

Assyr'ia, a former great kingdom of Asia, renowned in 
early history. It probably derived its name from Asshur, 
the sou of Shem (Gen. x. 22), who in later times was 
worshipped by the Assyrians as their chief god. A. was 
situated on the Tigris, and had for its capital Nineveh, 
q. v. Its boundaries differ greatly at different periods, 
but it was generally regarded as comprising the whole 
region between the Armenian mountains (Lat. 37° 30') 
on the N., and the country about Bagdad (Lat. 33° 30') 
on the S. The E. boundary was the high range of Za¬ 
gros, or mountains of Kurdistan; the W. was, according 
to some, the Mesopotamian desert; according to others, 
the Euphrates. The greater part of the region embraced 
in ancient A. is now nominally subject to the Turkish 
sultan; and is peopled by Turks and Kurds, who both 
profess Mohammedanism, and by Christians, as Chal¬ 
deans, Nestorians, Armenians, Ac. A. was originally 
a province of Babylonia, its rulers being provincial 
governors. These set up an independent government at 
Assur (about 60 miles below (he site of Nineveh), in 
the 17th or lGth century b. c In 1280 an Assyrian 
king conquered the city of Babylon. Under Tiglath 
—pileser 1, about 1140, A. began its great career, he 
making conquests from the Mediterranean to the 
Persian Gulf. After a period of decline, it began to 
grow powerful again in 730 b. c. and for more than 
three centuries dominated all southwestern Asia, its 
conquests extending to Egypt. Its career ended in a 
great revolt of the subject nations, and in an invasion 
from Media and Babylonia about 606 b. c. Nineveh 
was taken and destroyed and A, became a Median 
province. See Assyrian Explorations. (Sec. II). 

Assyr'ian, a. Belonging or relating to Assyria. 

—n. A native or inhabitant of Assyria. 

Assyriol'ojjy, n. The antiquities, history, language, 
and archaeology of the Assyrians. 

Ast, Georg Anton Friedrich, an eminent German phi¬ 
lologist, B. at Gotha in 1778 ; D. at Munich in 1841. Pro¬ 
fessor A. published various works on philosophy and 
aesthetics, but his latest and most important works are 
the Life and Writings of Plato, published at Leipzig, in 
1816; and his complete edition of the same author’s 
works, published in 11 vols., 1819-32. 

Asta'eian, n. (Zool.) A crustacean of the gen. Astacus. 

Astac'olite, n. (Pal.) A fossil crustacean, resembling 
the lobster. 

As'tacus, n. [Lat., from Gr. astakos, a lobster or crab ] 
(Zool.) A genus of long-tailed crustaceous animals, of 
the Macroura group. Its distinguishing character is 
derived from the antenn®, the two pairs of which are 
inserted in the same horizontal line. It includes the 
lobster, A. marinus, and the crayfish, A.Jluvialis. — See 
Lobster, and Crayfish. 

Astar'te, n. (Myth.) See Ashtaroth. 

( Zool.) A genus of shells. See Crassinid.®. 

Astasia- 'a, n. (Zool.) A family of microscopic animals 
belonging to the class Infusoria. Their body is of a 
spontaneously variable form, and they are insoluble in 
a solution of caustic potash. 

Astat/ic, a. [Gr. a, priv., and statikos, causing to stand; 
from histemi, to make to stand, from obs. slao, to stand.] 
(Electro-Magnetism.) Being unstable; being without 
polarity. — Applied to a compound galvanometer needle 
of great sensibility, composed of two parallel magnetic 
needles of nearly the same strength, affixed to the same 
axis of suspension, and having their similar poles oppo¬ 
sitely directed, so as nearly to neutralize the magnetic 
influence of the earth. 

Astny', adv. (Naut.) The position of an anchor when, 
during heaving, the cable forms an acute angle with the 
surface of the water. 

As'ti-ism, n. [Gr. asteismos, a witty saying, from asty, 
the city.] (Rhet.) A genteel and pleasing irony; an ur¬ 
bane wit. 

Asteraba<l', or Astrabad', a city of Persia, cap. of a 
prov. of same name, on the Gourgan; Lat. 36° 50'N.; 
Lon. 53° 23' E. Its bazaars are extensive, and situation 
picturesque, but it is a decaying place, and very un¬ 
healthy. Pop. 4,000, 

As'ter-acan'thus, n. [Gr. aster, a star, axantha, a 
spine.] (Pal.) A genus of fossil placoid fishes discovered 
in the lias and oolitic formations. 

As'ter, n. [Gr., a star.] (Bot.) The Star-Wort, a genus 
of plants, ord. Asteracece, sub-ord. Tub aliform, tribe Aste- 
roiilce. A great number of species are described from all 
parts of the world, though about three-fifths of the num¬ 
ber are from North America. Several are handsome, 
showy plants, such as the A. Chinensis , or China Aster, 
which was imported into France from China in the year 
1728. Most of the species rank as ornamental plants; 
and yet comparatively few are cultivated in flower-gar¬ 
dens. Most of the best known kinds have a rank and 
coarse appearance in the stem and leaves, and a some¬ 
what staring appearance in the flowers; and yet, except 
mere brilliance of tint, several might advantageously 
compare with some of the pet varieties of the fashion¬ 
able cineraria. The species most commonly cultivated 


are those designated amellus, alpina, hysopifolius, pun> 
tatus, acris, canus, rigidus, linarfolius, tenuifolius, due 
mosis, ericoides, and conifolius. About 160 species, nearly 
all exotic. 



Fig. 220.— aster dumosis. 


Astera'cese, Composites, n.pl. (Bot.) An order of plants 
of the Camp'tnales alliance. — Diag. A 1-celled ovary, 
valvate corolla, syngenesious anthers, erect ovule, and 
no albumen. They are herbaceous plants or shrubs. 
Leaves alternate or opposite, without stipules, usually 
simples, but commonly much divided. Flowers (called 
florets) unisexual or hermaphrodite, collected in dense 
heads upon a common receptacle, surrounded by an in¬ 
volucre. Bracts, when present, stationed at the base of 
the florets, and called pale® of the receptacle. Calyx 
superior, indistinguishable from the ovary; its limb 
either wanting or membranous, divided into bristles, 
pale®, hairs, or feathers, called pappus. Corolla mono- 
petalous, superior, usually deciduous, either ligulate or 
funnel-shaped. Stamens equal in number to the teeth of 
the corolla, and alternate with them; the anthers co¬ 
hering into a cylinder. Ovary inferior, 1-celled, with a 
single erect ovule ; style simple, stigmas 3; fruit, a small, 
indehiscent, dry pericarp, crowned with the limb of the 
calyx; seed solitary, erect; embryo with a taper inferior 
radicle.—This order, one of the most natural and exten¬ 
sive families of the vegetable kingdom, is divided into 
three sub-orders— Tubiliflorce, Labiatiforee, Liguliflorce. 
It includes 1,005 genera, and 9.000 species.—The uses to 
which A. or Composites have been applied are as numer¬ 
ous as their forms. They will be noted under the name 
of the principal genera. 

Aste'ria, n. (Min.) See Asterite. 

Asteri'atla;, n.pl. (Zool.) A family of animals belonging 
to the class Echinodermala, and known by the name of 
star-fishes or sea-stars, from the star-like form which 
they all have more or less. They have a coriaceous skin, 
in which are implanted spines or tubercles. Their body 
is expanded into arms of the same structure as itself. 
The under surface of these arms is marked with gutters 
or grooves, radiating from the centre, and pierced with 
several rows of small holes, through which issue tenta- 
cula, with expanded tips capable of contracting and 
elongating themselves. By means of these filaments 
acting as suckers, the animals are enabled to walk; 
their motion is, however, very slow. The animals be¬ 
longing to this family vary much in form and structure. 
Most of the species have five rays or arms, but some 
have more, varying from eight to thirty. They have th® 



Fig. 221. — asterias, (Star-flsh.) 

power of reproducing these arms or portions of them, if 
they are accidentally broken off; and if an entire arm be 
torn off with a small portion of the body attached to it, if 
other arms are reproduced, and a fresh perfect animal is 
formed. Their mouth is always placed in the inferior i 
centre of the rays. They live chiefly on young shells, 
crustace®, and other marine animals. They are ovipa¬ 
rous, and their spawn is said to be venomous to th® 




















ASTE 


ASTI 


ASTE 


175 


touch, and poisonous to the animals which eat them. 
Their larvae or young are different in appearance from 
the adult animal. They are ciliated, and move with 
great quickness by means of their vibratile cilia, and 
swim rapidly, rotating round their axis. The species are 
numerous, and are arranged in a considerable number of 
distinct genera. In Aslerias, or the typical star-fish, the 
rays or arms are five in number, and they much exceed 
in length the diameter of their disc. Several species are 
found on our coasts. In Astropecten the back of the 
rays or arms are thin and netted, and have numerous 
tubercles at the junction of each of the little bones, 
which are covered at their tips with many small movable 
spines. The genera Pentacems and Goniaster have the 
body or skeleton formed of large roundish tubercles, the 
skin between which is pierced with small holes, the first 
having a convex back and a triangular arm, the latter be¬ 
ing flat above and beneath, with five broad, short rays 
edged with larger pieces. Asterina has the skeleton 
formed of compressed pieces, placed one over the other 
like the tiles of a house, and have always a thin margin. 
The species are generally flat and pentagular. Some are 
many-rayed. 

Aste'rias, n. [Gr. aster , a star.] ( Zool.) The star-fish. 
See Asteriad,®. 

Aste'riated, a. Radiated, as a star. 

Aste'rina, n. (Zool.) A genus of the Asteriad.E, q. v. 

As'terisk, n. [Gr. aster, a star.] A mark in the form 
of a small star (*), placed over a word or sentence, to re¬ 
fer the reader to the margin, or elsewhere, for an expla¬ 
nation, quotation, or the like. 

As'terism, n. [Gr. aster, a star.] ( Astron .) A group of 
stars, a term formerly applied to the collection of any 
heavenly bodies forming an entire constellation, and 
used instead of that expression. It is now taken to de¬ 
note any small cluster of stars, whether forming part of 
a constellation, or a distinct group. 

(Printing.) Three asterisks placed thus *** for direct¬ 
ing attention to a passage. 

As'terite, Asterites, Aste'rias. Astroite, Astrite, n. 
(Min.) The star-stone, or bastard opal, a variety of sap¬ 
phire. This gem, when seen obliquely', emits a radiance 
which disappears in the direct light of the sun. 

A-stern', a. [A.S. a, and steam.] (Mar.) Any distance 
behind a ship, as opposed to a-heaa, which signifies be¬ 
fore her; thus, if south is a-head, or on the line to which 
the stem is directed, north will be a-stern. It also signi¬ 
fies in or at the hinder part of a ship, or toward the 
hinder part; as, to go a-stern. 

As'teroid, n; pi. Asteroids. [Gr. aster, a star, and 
eidos, form, species.] (Astrom.) Asteroids are a group of 
bodies or small plauets (often called minor planets and 
zodiacal planets ; but as they are not stars, planetoids 
is preferable to asteroids as being expressive of their 
planetary character), singularly insignificant in size, 
that revolve around the sun in planetary orbits, between 
Mars and Jupiter. The existence of a body or bodies 
between those two planets, seemed to be indicated by a 
remarkable hiatus. (See Bode’s Law.) The celebrated 
Olbers, of Bremen, ventured to assert that the applica¬ 
tion of telescopes to the search for planets occupying 
that place would certainly be richly rewarded. Conse¬ 
quently, upon this suggestion. Ores was discovered by 
Piazzi, of Palermo, on the first day of the 19th century, 
Jan. 1, 1801; Olbers himself soon after detected Pallas 
and Vesta, and Harding discovered Juno. Since then 
the number of A. has been increased to 425 in the 
beginning of 1897; but the probability is, that they 
count by maDy thousands, and that they form a stream 
or zone of small bodies occupying the place, and in sc 
far performing the function, in the system, of the large 
planet which, according to Bode’s law of distances, 
might have been expected in that locality. Believing 
it to be unimportant to give a particular account of dis¬ 
covery, size, distance, Ac., of every one of these small 
bodies, that every year increase in number, we limit 
this article to the most interesting information relating 
to the character of the system. The mean breadth of 
the zone or ring within which the the A. lie, is 202 
millions of miles. But in consequence of the great 
eccentricity of several of the orbits, some of these curi¬ 
ous bodies can adventure much farther into space. The 
inclination of the orbit of several of the A. presents an 
extraordinary contrast with anything that prevails in 
our solar system. The greatest inclination known 
among the larger plauets is that of Mercury, being 7° 
O ' 5'9"; while the inclination of that of Pallas is 
34° 42' 37". But their variations in this respect do 
not involve any r deviation as to motion from what 
the law of gravitation would induce us to expect. 
Although the ellipses are eccentric, and the inclination 
large, every one of these mi nute orbs obeys the three har¬ 
monic laws of Kepler, and so constitutes no exception 
to the great harmonies of the solar system. From the 
observations of M. Leverrier it would appear that the 
sum total of the matter constituting the small planets 
lying between the mean distances 2 2 and 319 from the 
sun (that of the earth beiDg 1), cannot greatly, if at 
all, exceed one-fourth of the mass of the earth. This 
restricted mass, however, is very considerable, being 
upwards of 20 times greater than the mass of our moon; 
and it doubtless includes within it multitudes of A. not 
yet discovered by T the telescope. The contemplation 
of this very curious group gives rise to singular reflec¬ 
tions. How odd the motions of masses of small orbs, 
within paths so near that they must often pass within 
hailing distance—like ships at sea! But whence came 
they ? What means this extraordinary exception to 
that general law which has constituted the solar system 
for the most part an orderly arrangement of large orbs 
moving through spheres far apart from each other, and 


thus in all things independent ? Reflecting on the fact 
that they occupy' the precise place which, in conformity 
with Bode s law of distances, ought to have been filled 
try a laige planet, Olbers threw out the conjecture that 
these A. may be the Iragments of a planet once existing 
there, but which, in some mighty convulsion, had burst 
asunder. Nor, perhaps, if one considers that inherence 
in all planets know r n to us, of the same disturbin'' 
powers which originate volcanoes and mountain masses 
in the earth, can the conjecture be rejected d priori as 
entirely fanciful. But a fatal dynamical objection 
remains. If the groups are fragments arising from the 
bursting of one body, they would all, in the course of 
these revolutions, necessarily tend to return to the place 
where the primary explosion occurred. Laplace, on 
the other hand, regarded them as an indication that e, 
primary or large planet had never been formed there, 
but that the ring of primary nebulous matter, out of 
which he imagined every planet to have sprung, had 
rather resolved itself, in this place, into a multitude of 
small knots or aggregations. It cannot escape obser¬ 
vation, that this group of A., strange though it may 
seem, may' not, after all, occupy' an isolated place, even 
within our own system. It may, indeed, turn out that 
our leading plauets of the solar system are only the 
more a isible parts; and that when we know our scheme 
better, its simplicity' will no longer be recognized. 

A large proportion of these minor planets bear 
mythological names. When but few w'ere known and 
their profusion unsuspected, not only a name, but also 
a symbol, was given to each; but when their great 
number became apparent, a simpler method of symboli¬ 
zation was adopted, viz., a tiny circle in which, in the 
order of their discovery, the number of each is inclosed; 
thus, 50 enclosed in a circle would represent Urania, 
Hi, Lomia, etc. As regards the size of A , they subtend 
no measurable angle ; so estimates of their magnitudes 
must be deduced wholly from their brightness. But. 
according to Barnard, this manner of judgment fails in 
the case of \ esta—the most brilliant one of all, which 
is sometimes visible to the naked eye. The largest of 
the A. is Ceres, some 1,200 miles in diameter; that 
having the least mean solar distance is No. 380 (Adel- 
berta)=2’09, i.e., 2‘09 times the Earth’s distance from 
the Sun ; that having ihe greatest is No. 279, (Thule) 
=4 26. Of these latter two, the former has the shortest 
period of revolution of all=305 years; the latter the 
longest—about 8 years. The one most inclined is 
Pallas^SI 0 42'37"; that with the least inclination is 
Massalia=41 / . The least eccentric in form is Philomela 
=•005; the most so is Aethra='3S—that is, the distance 
fionx the center of its elliptic orbit to the focus occupied 
by the Sun is equal to "38 of half the major axis. The 
perihelion distance of Medusa is almost exactly' equal 
to the aphelion of Mars; and, as they revolve around 
the Sun in nearly the same plane, they must, when the 
little planet is in perihelion and Mare is in aphelion, 
both having the same longitude, approach near enough 
to cause the tiny planet to assume a new orbit and, pos¬ 
sibly, for the bodies to collide. The greatest density of 
the group is found exactly at the distance indicated by 
Bode’s law,=2-08. Of the twenty-three A. found in 1896, 
every one was photographically discovered. The tele¬ 
scope being for hours held upon a certain star, the 
negative plate reveals, by a trail thereon, the motion of 
the new object, and surely indicate its planetoidal char¬ 
acter. See Solar System Star, Nebula, Planet, &c. 

Asteroid'a, n. (Zool.) See Anthozoa. 

Asteroici'al, a. Pertaining to the asteroids. 

Asteroitl'ese, n. pi. (Bot.) A tribe of plants, sub¬ 
order Tubuliflora’.—Di.KQ. Heads radiate, rarely discoid. 
Branches of the style more or less flattened and linear, 
equally pubescent above outside. Leaves mostly al¬ 
ternate. Aster is its principal genus. 

Asterol'epis, n. [Gr. aster, a star, and lepis, a scale.] 

( Pal.) A genus of fossil fishes, 18 to 20 ft. long, found in 
the old red sandstone, and related to the genus Anna. 

Asteropli'yllite, n. [Gr. aster, a star ,phyllon, a leaf, 
and litkos, a stone.] (Pal.) The name given to fossil 
exogenous plants of the coal-measures. The species are 
very numerous, but they' are of doubtful affinity',and till 
now their right place in the system has not been found. 

Asthe'nia, As'theny. n. [Gr. astheneia, from a, priv., 
and thenos, strength.] (Med.) Want of strength; debility. 
— Dunglison. 

Asthen ic, a. Relating or belonging to asthenia. 

Asthmatic, Asthmat'ical, a. Pertaining to, or 
affected by asthma. See Asthma. 

Asthmat'ic, n. One affected with asthma. 

Asthmat'ically, adv. In an asthmatical manner. 

As'ti. a city of N* Italy, in Piedmont, 28 m. E.S.E. of 
Turin, on the railway to Genoa, is a fine and very ancient 
city, and was burned by the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa 
in 1154. From 1387 to 1529, it belonged to France; in 
the latter year it was ceded to the Emperor Charles V., 
w'ho made it over as a marriage dowry to the House 
of Savoy. — Manf. Silks and stuffs. The vineyards 
furnish a celebrated white and red wine, called Vino 
cTAsti, and sparkling as Champagne. The poet Alfieri 
was born here in 1749. Pop. 20,223. — A. is the capital 
of a province of same name, bounded by the provinces 
of Turin, Alba, Alessandria, and Casale. A. is hilly and 
picturesque; soil, generally fertile. Pop. 125,335. 

As'tible, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, order Saxifra- 
gacece, q. v The species possess no known properties. 
The A. japonica is cultivated as a garden ornament. 

Astigmatism, n. [Gr. a, priv., and stigma, a point.] 
(Med.) An affection of the eye characterized by a decided 
difference of refraction, in the different meridional planes 
of the dioptric apparatus, and a consequent diminution 
of sharpness in vision. 


Astir', a. [A. S. on, and stir.] Stirring; active; in 
motion. 

As'ton, in Pa., a township of Delaware co. 
Aston'iesl, pp. of the verb astony. (o.) 

Aston ish, it. a. [A. S. stunian, to stun; Ger. staunen , 
to be astonished; Lat. attono, to thunder at, to stupefy 
ivith sudden tear or wonder; 0. Fr. estonner ; Fr. etonner.l 
To strike dumb with sudden fear, terror, or wonder; to 
amaze; to surprise; to astound.— See Amaze. 

Astonish’d at the voice, he stood amaz’d, 

And all around with inward horror gaz’d.”— Addison. 

Aston'isliedly, adv. In an astonished manner. 
Aston'ishing, p. a. Tending to astonish ; very won* 
derfui; amazing; surprising: marvellous. 

Aston'ishingly, adv. In a manner or degree to ex. 
cite amazement. 

Aston ishing ness, n. Of a nature to excite astonish 
ment. 

Aston'ishment, n. State of being astonished: amaze, 
ment; confusion of mind; wonder; great surprise. 

11 She esteemed this as much above his wisdom, as astonishment 
is beyond bare admiration.”— South. 

Aston'ville, in Pennsylvania, a mining village of Ly¬ 
coming co., 18 nt. N. of Williamsport. 

Aston'y, v. a. To astonish, (o.) 

As'tor, in Wisconsin, a village of Brown co., on Green 
Bay 

As'tor, John Jacob, b. at Walldorf, in Germanv, in 
1763, and emigrated to America in 1784, where he em¬ 
barked in the fur trade, especially w'ith the Mohawk 
Indians. Having gradually acquired considerable re¬ 
sources, he conceived the idea of forming a fur company 
in opposition to the Hudson’s Bay Company. His pro¬ 
ject received the sanction of Congress in 1809, and the 
“American Fur Company” commenced operations with 
a capital of $1,000,000. Two expeditions, one by land, 
and one by sea, which were sent out to the shores of the 
Pacific, have been described by Washington Irving, in 
his “Astoria,” and “ Adventures of Captain Bonneville.” 
A fort was erected on the Columbia river, which, how¬ 
ever, fell into the hands of the English in the war of 
1812, and the whole project proved abortive. Meantime, 
A. acquired immense wealth in the trade to China. At 
his death he bequeathed funds for establishing anci main¬ 
taining at New York, a public library of 100,000 vol¬ 
umes, largely increased in 1879 by bis sou, John Jacob 
A. D. 1818. 

Asfor'ga, an old town of Spain, prov. of Leon; Lat. 

42° 27' N., Lon. 6° 10' W. Pip. 5,189. 

Asto ria, in Illinois, a post-village and twp. of Fulton 
co., about 50 m. W.N.W. of Springfield. 

Asto'ria, in Missouri, a post-village of Wright co.. 96 
m. S. of Jefferson City. 

Asto'ria, in New York, forms part of Long Island City, 
and extends N. of Brooklyn along the East River shore 
opposite New York. 

Asto'ria, in Oregon, a city and port of entry of Clatsop 
co., about 10 m. from the entrance of the Columbia river. 

It was an established depot for the fur trade as early as 
1808, and was named after John J. Astor, its founder. 
Pop. (1897) about 9,200. 

Astound', v. a. [A.S. astundian; probably allied to 
0. Fr. estonner. See Astonish.] To strike dumb with 
amazement; to astonish. 

These thoughts may startle well, hut not astound 

The virtuous mind, that ever walks attended 

By a strong siding champion, conscience.’'— Milton, 

Astound'ins', p. a. Tending to astonish. 

Astound ment, n. The act of astounding, (r.) 
Astrabad'. (Geog.) See Asterabad. 

Astrac'amite, n. (Chem.) A native sulphate of mag¬ 
nesium and sodium, SC^MgNa'JILO, occurring in white, 
opaque, prismatic crystals, together with ordinary sul¬ 
phate of magnesium, in the bitter-salt marshes on the 
E. side of the mouth of the Volga. 

As'traean. (Geog.) See Astrakhan. 

A-strad'dle, adv. [From a, and straddle.] Astride with 
the legs across a thing, or on different sides. 

As trie'a, (Myth.,) daughter of Zeus and Themis, or of 
Astrseus and Aurora, was the Goddess of Justice, th® 
last of all the goddesses who left the earth w’hen the 
golden age had passed away, and men began to forge 
weapons and perpetrate acts of violence. She took her 
place in heaven as the constellation Virgo in the zodiac. 
— Greek art usually represents her with a pair of bal¬ 
ances in her hand, and a crown of stars on her head. 

(Astron.) The 5th asteroid, discovered by Hencke, at 
Dnesen, in 1845. 

(Zool.) A genus of polyps, family A streetdtv, q. v. 
Astrsea'cea, n.pl. (Zoijl.) A sub-order of polyps, order 
Madreporaria. It contains polyps which are mostly 
compound by budding or fissiparity, with well-developed 
tentacles in multiples of six. It contains Lithophyllidce, 
Eusmillidce, Caryrphyllidce, Stylinida, Astreeidte, Oculin- 
idce, and Stylophoridm. 

Astrse'idse, n. pi. (Zool.) The Star-corals, a family of 
polyps, sub-order Astratacea (order Zoantha of Gray). 
It belongs to the stony corals, and receives its name 
from the star-shaped discs w'hich cover the upper sur¬ 
face. (They are lamillar and sessile, and each disc is the 
seat of a polyp resembling the actiniae in general form, 
having a single row of numerous arms, with the mouth 
in the centre. The genus Astra a is the principal one. 

A number of species are described inhabiting the warm 
regions of the globe. Some have the discs separate from 
each other, leaving interstices between them; others 
have the starry discs contiguous. 

As tragal, n. [Gr. astragalos, a heel-bone.] (Arch.) A 
moulding, the section of which is a complete semicircle 














170 


ASTR 


ASTR 


ASTR 


projecting from a perpendicular 
diameter, so called from its re¬ 
semblance to the projection of 
the heel of the human foot. It 
is principally used at the upper 
ends and bases of the shafts of 
columns, and in the entablatures 
of the Ionic, Corinthian, and 
Composite orders of architecture, 
and also in Roman Doric. It is 
the most simple of all mouldings, 
being the only one that can pro¬ 
ject from a plane surface with¬ 
out the aid of a fillet. Its chief 
use seems to bo to bind the dif¬ 
ferent parts of columns and en¬ 
tablatures together, being gen¬ 
erally found at the junction of 
the shaft of a column with the 
capital and base. The Egyptians 
sometimes divided their columns 
into sections by clusters of A. 
surrounding the shaft at inter¬ 
vals. It is generally plain, but 
sometimes carved to represent 
reeds bound together with a rib¬ 
bon, leaves, and beads of various 
forms. 

(Gunnery.) A moulding encir- l. Astragal.— 2 . Scotia.— 
cling a cannon, about 6 inches 3. Torus. — 4 . Plinth.' 
from its mouth. 

4strag;a'lus, n. [Or. astraynlos, a die.] (Anat.) The 
ankle-bone, or first bone of the foot, upon which the 
tibia moves. It is so called from being shaped like the 
die used by the ancients in their games. 

(Bot.) A very extensive and important genus of her¬ 
baceous plants, sub-order Pupilionacec e. Most of the 
species are popularly called Milk-vetches; and several 
have a close resemblance to the well-known forage plant 
sainfoin. An interesting species, known under the 
name of Swedish coffee, the A. bneticus, is cultivated to a 
considerable extent in Germany, and has been recom¬ 
mended for field cultivation as a substitute for coffee. It 
is a hardy trailing annual, usually grows to the height 
of about a foot, and produces cream-colored flowers in 
June and July. The mode of culture is precisely the 
same as for the pea, only the pods are gathered as they 
ripen. Two-thirds are mixed with one-third of coffee- 
beans, and the two ingredients are roasted together, 
preserved in well-corked bottles, or thoroughly closed 
vases, and taken out as they are wanted to be ground. 
The A. boeticus is probably the best substitute for coffee 
which has yet been tried, and is well worth experimental 
cultivation in either the garden or the field. The A. 
tragacantha, popularly called goat's thorn, yields the 
guin tragacanth of the drug-shops, and forms the type 
of one of several divisions of the A. genus. This species 
is an under-shrub, ranks as a medicinal plant throughout 
the East, and is called by the Persians k&m, and by the 
Arabs kctdd and kussdd. The A. Canadiensis, found 
from Canada to Florida, has a stem, bushy, 3 feet high, 
very leafy; flowers greenish-yellow, in short, dense 
spikes. 

is'trakhan, or Astracan, an extensive govt, of Euro¬ 
pean Russia, lying along the N.W. of the Caspian sea, 
and divided by the Volga into two nearly equal portions. 
Area, 63,237 sq. m. A. is one of the least important 
provinces of the Russian empire. It consists almost en¬ 
tirely of sandy steppes and saline lakes; but in the delta 
of the Volga, agriculture and gardening are successfully 
practised. The heats in summer, and the frosts in win¬ 
ter, are equally extreme. Fisheries form the principal 
wealth of this government, and about 30,000 barrels of 
caviare are exported annually. The inhabitants are 
mostly nomads, and include a variety of races. Pop. 
708,911. 

Astrak'han, a city, and cap. of the above government, lies 
on the Volga, about 30 m. from its mouth; Lat. 46° 27' 
N.; Lon. 48° 6' E. This “ Alexandria of the Scy¬ 
thian Nile,” as it is sometimes called, consists of three 
divisions: — the Kremlin, or citadel; the Bielogorod 
(white town); and the Slobodes, or suburbs. It has 
crooked streets, with the houses nearly all built of wood. 
Manf. Cottons, woollens, and silks; distilleries, tanner¬ 
ies, &c. A. is the entrepot of the trade with countries 
E. of the Caspian, and it is the principal harbor of that 
sea. A., besides being the residence of a Greek arch¬ 
bishop, possesses Moslem, Armenien, Hindoo, and Pro¬ 
testant places of worship. Pop. (1897) est. 95,000 

Astrakhan, is also the name of a fine fur, the pro¬ 
duct of sheep found in Asia. 

As'tral, a. [Lat. astrum; Gr. aster, astar.] Belongingto 
the stars; starry. 

As'tralite, n. (Chem.) A glass flux resembling aventu- 
rin, but containing crystals of a cuprous compound, 
which by reflected light exhibits a dichroitic iridescence 
of dark-red and greenish-blue. To prepare it, a mixture 
of 80 parts of silica, 120 lead-oxide, 72 carbonate of soda, 
and 18 anhydrous borax, is fused either with 24 parts of 
scale oxide of copper, or 1 part of scale oxide of iron. 
The mixture is fused in a Hessian crucible, at the heat 
of an ordinary air-furnace, and left to cool slowly in 
the furnace. The first mixture melts more easily than 
the second, and yields larger crystals. The dichroitic 
iridescence is particularly beautiful on cut and polished 
surfaces. 

As'tral Spirits, n. pi. Spirits that were supposed, by 
those who studied demonology and witchcraft in the 15th 
century, to hold the first place among demons and spir¬ 
its of evil. The Chaldaeans, and those who worshipped 

the stars and fire in the early ages of the world, believed 


that every object in the heavens possessed an animating 
spirit, as the human body possesses a soul. In the medi¬ 
aeval times the supposition arose that these spirits were 
either fallen angels, orthe souls of the dead, or spirits de¬ 
riving their origin from fire, whose location was the air. 
They were thought to exercise an influence for good or 
evil on every member of the human race. Paracelsus 
and the old alchemists believed that every one had an 
astral spirit peculiar to him.— See Spiritism. 

Astray', adv. [A.S. astrceged, strayed.] Out of the right 
way or proper place. 

11 Like one that had been led astray 
Through the heav’ns’ wide pathless nay."—Milton. 

Astrict', v. a. [Lat. astringo, astrictus; from ad, and 

• stringn, to bind fast, to draw tight.] To bind fast; to 
confine; to contract; to make strait or close. 

“ The solid parts were to he relaxed or astricted, as they let the 
humours pass — Arbuthnot, 

Astric'tion, n. Act of binding close together; con¬ 
traction. 

(Med.) Action of an astringent substance on the ani¬ 
mal economy. 

(Scottish Law.) A servitude, by which grain growing 
on certain lands must be carried to a particular mill to 
be ground. 

Astride', adv. [a and stride .] With the legs apart or 
across a thing. 

“I saw a place, where the Rhone is so straitened between two 
rocks, that a man may stand astride upon both at once.” — Boyle. 

Ast ringe', v. a. [Fr. astreindre; Lat. astringo. See 
Astrict .] To bind fast; to constrict; to contract. 

Astrin'gency, n. Power of contracting; state of be¬ 
ing astringent. 

“ Acid, acrid, austere, and bitter substances, by their astrin- 
gency, stimulate the fibres." — Arbuthnot. 

Astringent, a. Binding; contracting; strengthening. 

— n. (Med.) The name given to substances which contract 
and strengthen the animal fibres. They are adminis¬ 
tered principally in cases of dysentery, diarrhoea, and 
fluxes. Their general effects are manifested by greater 
firmness of the muscular fibres, greater rigidity of the 
blood-vessels and diminution of their calibre, and con¬ 
traction of the exhaling secreting orifices, whereby they 
check hemorrhage, and diminish exhalation and secre¬ 
tion. In the mouth they produce a styptic or astringent 
taste. In moderate doses, they are capable of producing 
the same constitutional effects as tonics. A. may be di¬ 
vided into two sections, the vegetable and mineral. The 
vegetable A. owe their peculiar properties to the pres¬ 
ence of tannin or tannil, which is found in all of them. 
They differ only in the proportion of the latter principle, 
and in the other ingredients with which it is associated. 
The mineral A. have nothing in common but their pro¬ 
perty of astringency. To the former belong oak-bark, 
galls, kino, catechu, logwood, rhatany, geranium, tor- 
men til, bistort, pomegranate-rind; to the latter, alum, 
the preparations of lead, zinc, and iron, and sulphuric 
acid. 

Astringently, adv. In an astringent manner. 

As'trite, n. (Min.) See Asterite. 

Astroea'ryum, n. (Bot.) See Cocoes. 

Astrog'nosy, n. [Gr. astron, star, and gnosis, knowl¬ 
edge.] The science of the stars. ( 0 .) 

Astrog'rapUy , n. [Gr. astron, and grapho, to describe.] 
A description of the stars. 

As'troides, n. pi. (Zoiil.) A name applied by Milne- 
Edwards to the A strasidce, q. v. 

As'troite, n. [Fr., from Gr. astron, star.] (Min.) A 
name of the Asterite, q. v. 

(Pal.) A genus of petrified madrepores, allied to the 
Astraddle. 

As'trolabe, n. [Gr. astron, star, and lambanein, to take.] 
(Astron.) A 11 instrument somewhat similar in purpose 
and construction to the armillary sphere; used by the 
old Greek astronomers to take the altitude of the stars, 
as its name implies. The A. of the astrologers were 
merely a graduated circle, with sights attached, which 
they used for the same purpose. It was similar to the 
instrument, so called, which was used for taking altitudes 
at sea before the invention of Hadley’s sextant. Hippar¬ 
chus, an astronomer who flourished at Alexandria, in 
Egypt, about 150 b. c., is supposed to be the inventor of 
the A. He was also the first w ho joined circular rings 
together to represent the equator, the meridian, and the 
tropics; thus originating the armillary sphere. About the 
year 1500, the term was used to signify a projection of 
the circles of the sphere on a plane surface, which is now 
called a planisphere. — See Planisphere. 

Astroliihol'ogy, n. [Gr. astron, star, lithos, stone, 
and logos, discourse.] The science of aerolites. 

Astrol'oger, n. [Fr .astrologue; Lat . astrologus ; Gr. 
astrologos.} One versed in astrology. 

Astrolog-'ic, Astrological, a. Pertaining or re¬ 
lating to astrology. 

Astrolog'ically, adv. In the manner of astrology. 

Astrol'og'ize, v. n. To practise astrology. 

Astrol'ogy, n. [Fr. astrologie; Lat. and Gr. astrol/igia; 
from Gr. astron, a star, and logos, a word or discourse.] 
An expression meaning literally the doctrine or science 
of the stars, but especially taken to signify the art of 
foretelling future events, and the good or evil fortune 
likely to befall any man during his lifetime, from the 
aspect of the heavens and the relative position of the 
planets and other heavenly bodies at the time of his 
birth. This art, which is commonly understood by the 
term A., is properly called judicial A.; for in the early 
ages of the world, A. included the science of astronomy, 
as well as the art of making predictions from the motions 
of the stars ; the early astronomers, or rather astrolo¬ 
gers, making astronomical observations entirely for the 


sake of acquiring an insight into futurity as they im- 
agined. The history of the rise and progress of A. is 
nearly the same as that of astronomy. Its decline may 
be dated from the time of Copernicus, who showed 
that the sun w'as the centre of our solar system, and 
not the earth, as it had been formerly supposed; and 
although this is no argument against the truth of the 
science, yet the fact that all calculations with regard to 
the motion of the heavenly bodies had hitherto been 
based on erroneous suppositions, was mainly instrumen¬ 
tal in disabusing the minds of men generally of any reli¬ 
ance that they had previously placed on the deductions 
derived from the exercise of the art. All astronomers, 
including Kepler himself, up to his time, had been more 
or less infected with the idea that their science gave 
them the power of foretelling events that were about 
to happen; and remarkable instances have occurred of 
the verification of astrological predictions; but no one, 
upon reflection, can assert in earnest that the aspect of 
the heavens at the time of birth can have the slightest 
influence on a man’s character, disposition, and fortunes. 
Tlie practice of A. was universal among the Oriental 
nations at a very early age; and although its origin is 
involved in obscurity, it may probably be attributed to 
the Chaldaeans. The Hindoos and Chinese have always 
attached the greatest importance to it, and the Arabs 
sedulously cultivated the art, as well as the astronomers 
who flourished in Egypt before and after the birth of 
our Saviour, at which period it is considered to have been 
introduced into western Europe. The Jews practised it 
after the return from the captivity in Babylon. It ap¬ 
pears that the Greeks were the only ancient nation that 
gave no credence to the revelations of its professors. We 
proceed to give a brief sketch of the outlines of this sci¬ 
ence, its leading principles, and mode of practice. The 
heavens above and below the horizon were divided by 
imaginary circles, drawn through its N. and S. points, 
into 12 equal parts, which were called the 12 houses of 
heaven. They were numbered, in order, from the division 
in the E. immediately below the horizon which contained 
the part of the heavens about to rise into view. The 
lines of division wore supposed to remain immovable, so 
that every part of the heavens passed through each 
house successively once in 24 hours. The term horoscope 
was given to the point of the ecliptic about to rise. The 1st 
house was called the “ ascendant; ” it was the strongest, 
and also known as the house of life ; the 2d was the house 
of riches; the 3d, of brethren; the 4th, of parents and 
relatives; the 5th, of children; the 6th, of health; the 
7 th, of marriage ; tho 8th, of death ; the 9th, of religion ; 
the 10th, of dignities, (this house ranked next in impor¬ 
tance to the 1st;) the 11th, of friends ; the 12th, oifots. 
To each division one of the heavenly bodies was assigned 
as its lord, who was most powerful in his own house. 
The position of a planet in any house was its distance 
from the boundary circle, or cusp, of the house measured 
on the zodiac ; and the part of the zodiac which chanced 
to be in each house was a point which especially demanded 
the attention of the astrologer in his consideration of 
the aspects of the various divisions. The relative position 
of tho heavenly bodies in the different houses at any 
particular moment was called a theme; and to cast the 
nativity of any one was to form a plan of the heavens, 
in the manner above indicated, at the moment of birth. 

Astrometeorol'ogy, n. [Gr. astron, star, metenros, 
lofty, and logos, discourse.] The act of foretelling the 
weather from the aspect of the moon and stars. 

Astrom'eter, n. [Gr. astron, star, and metron, measure.] 
(Astron.) An instrument invented by Sir John Ilerschel 
for comparing the light of stars, oiie with another, in 
respect to intensity. 

Astron'omcr, n. One versed in astronomy. 

Astronomic, Astronom ical, a. Pertaining to 

astronomy. 

Astronoin'ically, adv. In an astronomical manner. 

Astronomy, (ds-tron’o-me.) [Gr. astron. a star, and 
nomos, a law.] That science which treats of the heav¬ 
enly bodies, explaining the motions, times and cause* 
of the motions, distances, magnitudes, gravities, light. 
Sic., of the sun, moon, and stars ; the nature and cause* 
of the eclipses of the sun and moon, the conjunction 
and opposition of the planets, and any other of their 
mutual aspects, with the times when they did or will 
happen. Since the heavens may be considered either a* 
they appear to the naked eye, or as they are discovered 
by the understanding. A. may be divided into Practical, 
Rational, and Physical. Practical A. enables us,by means 
of instruments, to determine the apparent positions and 
motions of the heavenly bodies. Rational A. teaches us 
the modes of ascertaining their real orbits and motions, 
and gives us the means of calculating their positions in 
advance. Various hypotheses have at different periods 
been invented to explain their apparent motions, and 
seemed sufficient to account for the phenomena known 
at the time of their adoption. But they were exploded 
in succession, by more accurate observations.— Physical 
A. is the application of mathematical science to the 
investigations of the laws which regulate the motions 
of celestial bodies, tho nature of the forces which main¬ 
tain them, and the effects produced by the action of one 
on another. This sublime science is founded on obser¬ 
vation, but it receives its last perfection from calcula¬ 
tion. Outrunning the cautious advances of observation, 
it descends from causes to phenomena, and on philo¬ 
sophical principles explains all the motions,magnitudes, 
and periods of revolution of the heavenly bodies. The 
generality of writers agree in assigning the origin of A. 
to the Chaldeans. The Egyptians also cultivated the 
science of A. abt. the same time, and there are some who 
ascribe to them the honor of being its real authors. The 
most ancient astronomical observations known to ub 32 * 



Fig. 222. 

DORIC COLUMN. 





























ASTU 


ASYN 


ATAL 


177 


Chinese: one, mentioned by Montucla, viz., a conjunc¬ 
tion of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, and the Moon, 
was made almost 2,500 years before the Christian era! 
That the Indian Brahmins also made considerable ad¬ 
vance in the science of A., among the earliest people of 
antiquity, appears no less certain. Descending, however, 
to classic times, we find that A. made great progress in 
Greece, and that Thales calculated a solar eclipse about 
600 years b. c. Pythagoras taught that the earth was not 
placed as the centre of the system, but revolved about 
the sun. Eratosthenes, a Cyrenian, who was born 276 
B. c., measured the circumference of the earth; and 
being invited to the court of Ptolemy Energeses at 
Alexandria, he was made keeper of the royal library, 
and set up there the armillary spheres which Hippar¬ 
chus and Ptolemy afterwards used so effectually. Ha 
also determined the distance between the tropics to be 
of the whole meridian circle which makes the ob¬ 
liquity of the ecliptic in his time to be 23 degrees, 51 
minutes and one-third. Archimedes is said to have con¬ 
structed a planetarium to represent the phenomena and 
motions of the heavenly bodies, and many others added 
to the stock of astronomical knowledge; but none so 
much as Hipparchus, who flourished abt. 140 years b.c., 
and surpassed all who had gone before him in the extent 
of his researches. He showed that the orbits of the 
planets are eccentric, and that the moon moves more 
slowly in her apogee than in her perigee. He con¬ 
structed tables of the motions of the .sun and moon; 
collected accounts of eclipses that had been computed 
by the Chaldeans and Egyptians, and calculated such as 
would happen for 600 years to come. He is, however, 
most distinguished for his catalogue of the fixed stars, 



F , g . 223. — TELESCOPE AT CINCINNATI. 
(Aperture of object-glass, 12 inches. Total length, 17 feet.) 


to the nnmber of 1,080, with their latitudes and longi¬ 
tudes and apparent magnitudes. From the time of Hip¬ 
parchus, a chasm exists in the history of astronomy 
till the commencement of the 2d century after Christ, 
when Ptolemy compiled a complete system of astron¬ 
omy, in 13 books, which is known under the name of 
Almagest —an appellation given it by the Arabians, 
(Continued in Section II.) 

As'troscope, n. [Gr. astron, a star, and skopeo, to see.] 
An instrument out of use, consisting of two cones, on 
which the constellations, with their stars, are delineated. 

As'tro-theol'osry, n. [Gr. astron, a star, and theolo- 
gia, theology.] Natural theology, founded on the obser¬ 
vation of the celestial bodies. 

Astrut', adv. In a strutting manner. 

“Inflated and astrut with self-conceit."— Oowper . 

As'tlir, n. [Fr. an tour.] ( Zoijl .) The Goshawk and its 
allies, a gen. of birds, fam. Falconidte. The goshawk is 
21-23 inches in length; the bill and cere are blue; 
crown, black, bordered on each side by a line of white, 
finely speckled with black; upper parts, slate, tinged 
with brown; legs feathered half-way down, and, with 
the feet, yellow; the breast and belly white, with a 
number of wavy lines or bars of blaek; the tail long, of 
an ash color, and crossed with four or five dusky bars; 
wings much shorter than the tail. The goshawk fre¬ 
quents the deep solitudes of forests, preying upon hares, 


squirrels, and the larger ground-birds. It plucks the 
birds very neatly, ecu tears them into pieces before it 
eats them, but siraiiows the pieces entire. It is ex¬ 
tremely destructive to game, darting through the woods 
after its prey with great impetuosity. The goshawk, 
abundant in the forest districts of continental Europe, 
was formerly used in common with the falcon, gerfalcon, 
&c. in the once celebrated royal pastime of falconry; 
and it is said to be still used by the emperor of China 
in his hunting excursions. — The A. atricapillus, or 
goshawk of N. America, is nearly identical with the 
European species, A. palumbarius. 

Astu'ra, in Italy, a maritime village, at the mouth of a 
river of the same name, 40 m. from Rome. In its little 
harbor, a high tower is said to stand on the site of the 
villa of Cicero, where he was slain by order of Antony, 
b. c. 43. Here also, in 1268, after the battle of Taglia- 
cozzo, Conradin, the last of the Hohenstauffen family, 
was betrayed. 

Astu'rias, an ancient principality of Spain, now form¬ 
ing the prov. of Oviedo, and lying along the Bay of 
Biscay, between 4° 3ff and 7° 10' \V. Long. It is bounded 
on the E. by Santander, S. by Leon, and on the IV. by 
Galicia. Area, 3,686 sq. m.—Desc. Its surface is much 
diversified, having on its S. border a chain of high 
mountains which descend gradually toward the coast, 
along which are found tracts of fertile land. It is 
watered by numerous rivers, and possesses several sea¬ 
ports as Aviles, Gijon, and Cudillero.— Climate, generally 
mild and humid; except about the mountains, where it 
is frequently severe.— Prod, and Ind. Maize, escanda, 
chestnuts, and a few fruits. Iron, copper, lead, jet, 
antimony, marble, and coal are found; and there is a 
considerable exportation of cattle and horses into the 
interior.— Manfi. Trifling. The inhabitants are very 
temperate, living mainly on fruits and unfermented 
bread.— Prin. Towns. Oviedo, Navia, and the sea-ports 
before mentioned.— Pop. 540,586.— A. may be called the 
cradle of the Spanish nation. The Saracens, having ab¬ 
sorbed the rest of Spain, could not accomplish the con¬ 
quest of this province, which elected Pelayo as king, in 
718, and whose successors became, in after-ages, the kings 
of Leon. In 1388, A. was erected into a principality, and 
became an appanage of the kings of Spain, whose heirs- 
presumptive henceforward bore the title of Prince of 
Asturias. 

Astute', a. [Lat. astutus; astus, craft.] Sagacious; 
shrewd; ingenious; wary; cunning; sly; crafty; pene¬ 
trating. 

Astute'Iy, adv. Shrewdly; sharply; snbtly. 

Astute'ness, n. Quality of being astute; shrewdness; 
cunning. 

Asty 'a^'es, the last king of the Medes, was a contempo¬ 
rary of Alyttas, king of Lydia, whose daughter he mar¬ 
ried; 7th century b. c. 

Asty'Iar, a. [Gr. a, priv.. and stylos, a column.] (Arch.) 
Without columns or pilasters. 

Asnn'der, ndt). [A.S. asundriani] Apart; into parts; 
separately ; in a divided state. 

“ Two indirect lines, tbe further that they are drawn out, the 
further they go asunder."— Spenser. 

Asylum, n.; Eng. pi. Asy'lums; Lat. pi. Asyla. [Lat. 
asylum; Gr. asylon, from asylos, inviolable — from a, 
priv., and syle, the right of seizure; Fr. asyle; Sp. and 
It. ariloi] A sanctuary, or place of refuge to which 
criminals might flee for safety, and from which it was 
considered the greatest impiety to take them by force. 
The Israelites by God’s own appointment set apart 6 
cities as cities of refuge, to which those guilty ot any 
unpremeditated crime might flee and obtain protection. 
The altar of burnt-offering was also considered as a place 
of refuge. Among the Greeks, Thebes and Athens each 
claimed to have established the first A .; Slat at Thebes by 
Cadmus, that at Athens by the descendants of Hercules. 
Romulus established an A. at Rome, between the two 
groves on the Capitoline Hill. The temples, altars, 
statues, and tombs of heroes were also anciently regarded 
as asylums, the temples being held as the most sacred and 
inviolable refuge. Under Constantine the Great, all 
churches were made asylums; and by the younger Theo¬ 
dosius, the privilege was extended to all courts, gardens, 
walks, and houses belonging to the churches. In 681, 
the synod of Toledo extended the limits to 30 paces from 
every church. At length these A. led to such abuses, 
that they were generally abolished. (See Sanctuary.) — 
The term A. is now applied to certain institutions whose 
object is to alleviate the condition of the blind, deaf and 
dumb, lunatics, and the destitute. 

Asylum, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of Bradford 
co., on the Susquehanna, 38 m. N.W. by N. of Ililkes- 
barre. 

Asymmet'ral, Asymmetrical, a. Wanting 
symmetry; incommensurable. (R.) 

Asym metry, n. [Gr. a, priv., and symme.tria, sym¬ 
metry.] The want of symmetry or proportion between 
the parts of a thing. 

Asymp tote, n. [Gr. a, priv., syn, with, and ptotos, 
apt to fall, from pipto, peptoka, to fall.] (Genm.) A line 
which approaches continually nearer and nearer to some 
curve, whose A. it is said to be, without evec meeting it. 
It is a property appertaining to the hyperbolic curve. 

It is only with regard to mathematical lines that the prop¬ 
osition is true; and the truth of it has to be conceived 
by an effort of pure reason, for it cannot be represented. 
See Line. 

Asymptot'ic, Asymptotical, a. Belonging or 
relating to asymptote, i. e. approaching, without ever 
meeting. 

Asynlleton. n .; pi. Asyn'deta. [Gr. a, priv.. and 
si/ndetos, bound together, from synded, to bind together,J 
(Rhet.) The omission of the small connecting particles 


of speech, in order to render the expression more lively 
and impressive. This is particularly the case when a 
series of actions, quickly following each other, is to be 
represented; e. g., in Virgil: 

" Ferte cito Hammas, date vela, impellite remos." 

At, prep. [A.S. at; Lat. ad, to, at; O.H.Ger. az.) A figure 
in grammar which primarily denotes presence, nearness, 
or direction towards. 

—Before a place it denotes nearness; as, one is at the 
house before he is in it. 

“ This custom continued among many to say their prayers at 
fountains."— Stillingjtect. 

—Before a word in relation to time it assumes coinci¬ 
dence ; co-existence with; as, “ at the same time.” 

“We thought it at the very fiesta sign of cold affection.”— Hooker. 

—In the state of; denoting that the event accompanies 
or immediately succeeds the action of the cause ; as, “ at 
peace; ” “ at war; ” “ at rest.” 

“ Much at the sight was Adam in his heart dismay’d."— Milton . 

“ At his touch. 

Such sanctity hath Heav’u giv’n his hand, 

They presently amend.”— Shake. 

—Before a superlative adjective it is used in application 
to state or condition; as, at best, at the most perfection. 

“Consider any man as to his personal powers, they are not 
great; for at greatest, they must still be limited.”— South. 

—Before a person; generally used in a ludicrous sense; 
as, to long to be at another. 

“Sir Richard, longing to be at 'em. 

Stood waiting for the Earl of Chatham." 

—Furnished, or supplied with. 

“ And make him, naked, foil a man at arms.”— Shake. 

—Before a substantive; implying employment or design. 

“ But she, who well enough knew what, 

Before he spoke, he would be at. 

Pretended not to apprehend.”— Butler's Hudibras. 

“ The creature's at his dirty work again.”— Pope. 

—The place where any thing is, or is acted. 

“ To all you ladies now at land. 

We men at sea indite.”— Lord Dorset. 

—In immediate consequence of anything. 

“Impeachments at the prosecution of the House of Commons.” Hate. 

—From; dependence on. 

“ The worst authors might endeavor to please us, and in that 
endeavor deserve something at our hands.”— Pope. 

At all. In any manner ; in any degree. 

“ Nothing more true than what you once let fall: 

Most women have no characters at all." — Pope. 

At first. In the first place; firstly. 

At last. Finally; in the last place. 

At once. All together; at the same instant. 

At'abal, n. [Sp., from Ar. al-tabl, the drum.] A kind of 
tabor used by the Moors. 

“ Children shall beat our atabaU and drums." — Dryden. 

Ataba'po, a river of S. America, in Venezuela; Lat 3° 
10' N.; Lon. 66° 44'IV. After a IV. and N. course of 
140 m., it falls into the Orinoco at San Fernando. Its 
waters are clear, cool, and singularly pure. 

Ataea'ma, a large district of Bolivia, lying along the 
Pacific ocean, between 21]/[ 0 and 25%° S. Lat. The 
greater part of its surface is an arid desert, but toward 
the N. there are fertile valleys. Cobija is its principal 
port. A., IV. of the Andes, was ceded to,Chili in 1884, 
andisnowthe dep. of Antofagasta, itisrichin minerals. 

Ataca'ines, in S. America, a small seaport of Ecuador. 

Atac'aniite. n. (Mini) A mineral of orthorhombic form. 
Adamantine lustre — vitreous. Color, various shades of 
bright green, a little darker than emerald; and, some¬ 
times, blackish-green. Streak, apple-green. Translu¬ 
cent.— Comp. Oxide of copper 53 6, chloride of copper 
30’2 (chlorine 16’0, copper 14-3), water 16’2 = 100. This 
species was found originally in the prov. of Atacama, in 
Chili. It occurs in different parts of S. America, Africa, 
and Europe. 

Atag’lian', n. See Yataghan. 

Atahual'pa, the last Inca of Peru, was the son of the 
11th inca, Manco Capac. His mother was of royal lin¬ 
eage, and through her he inherited the kingdom of Quito. 
With his elder brother Huascar, who succeeded to the 
throne of the incas in 1523, he remained at peace for 5 
years ; hut on his being summoned to acknowledge the 
dependency of his kingdom on that of Peru, he prepared 
for war, entered the dominions of Huascar with 30,000 
men, defeated him in a pitched battle, and thrust him 
into prison. Three years afterwards, Pizarro captured 
the island of Puna, and Huascar, hearing in prison of the 
victorious stranger, sent ambassadors to Puna request¬ 
ing assistance. The inca also proposed an interview 
with the Spaniard, and thus was brought about for Pi¬ 
zarro the long-desired opportunity of meddling in the af¬ 
fairs of Peru. By an act of base treachery, he succeeded 
in obtaining possession of the person of the inca. His 
subsequent procedure was sununaiy in the extreme. 
Huascar had been put to death by order of his brother, 
and now A. was declared guilty ot treason to the Spanish 
crown, and sentenced to be burned alive, in 1533. The 
sentence was commuted to strangulation, in considera¬ 
tion of his professing Christianity and receiving baptism. 

Atalan'ta.. (Myth.) Daughter of Jasus and Clymene, 
and celebrated for her skill in archery, was a native of 
Arcadia. She slew the Centaurs, Rhcecus and Ilylaeus, 
who were about to offer violence to her; sailed to Col¬ 
chis with the Argonauts, and was afterwards present at 
the chase of the Calydonian boar, which she was the 
first to wound; hence Meleager awarded to her the 
p r j ze . — Another A., daughter of Schceneus, king of 
Scyros, was renowned for her beauty, and swiftness in 
running. She required each of her lovers to run a race 
with her. Her admirer was to run before, unarmed, 
while she followed him with a dart. If she could not 






























































178 


ATEL 


ATHA 


ATHA 


overtake him, she was his own: but if he were outrun, 
he was doomed to death, and his head to be set up at the 
goal. Many had fallen victims in the attempt, when 
Hippomenes, the son of Maegareus, by the aid of Venus, 
overcame her. The goddess gave him three golden ap¬ 
ples, which he threw behind him, one after the other, as 
lie ran. .4. stopped to pick them up, and llippomenes 
reached the goal before her. Her former reserve now 
gave place to such ungovernable passion, that the chaste 
Ceres, becoming offended, changed both the parties into 
lions, and compelled them from that time to draw her 
chariot. 

Atalau'ta, n. (Astron.) The 3Rth of the asteroids, dis¬ 
covered by Goldschmidt, in Paris, in 1855. 

Ataliiy 'a, in S. America, a town of Brazil, at the mouth 
of the Alagoas river, 15 m S.S.W. of Alagoas; pop. about 
2 , 100 . 

Atalay'a, in S. America, a fort of Brazil, on the Atlan¬ 
tic, near the mouth of the Para river, 80 m. N.E. of 
Para. 

Atalis'sa, in Iowa, a post-village of Muscatine co., 13 
m. N.W. of Muscatine; 

At'ainan, n. See Hetman. 

Ataraipu', [the “ devil's rock,”J a remarkable granitic 
mountain of British Guiana, of pyramidal form. It is 
wooded for 350 feet from its base, from which limit a 
bare cone forms its summit. 

Atar'gatis. See Derceto. 

Atascosa, in Texas, a S. county whose settlements have 
assumed some importance since 1863. A creek of the 
same name, running through the county, is remarkable 
for the purity of its freestone water, from its source 
to its discharge into the Rio Frio. The county is also 
watered by the streams Borego and San Miguel. The 
soil is generally sandy, and the timber-growth is princi¬ 
pally post-oak and live-oak. Cap. Pleasanton. Pop. 
in 1890, 6,459 ; in 1897 (est.) 7,500. 

Atau i', Atooi' Atui', and Tauai', one of the Sandwich 
isles, about 240 m. from Hawaii; Lat. 22° 8' N. ; Lon. 
159° 20' W. Area, about 700 sq. m. Pop. about 7,000. 

A taunt', Ataunto', a. [a and taunt. \ ( Naut .) High or 
tall; taunt; fully rigged, as the masts of a vessel.— All-a- 
tauntn is when a vessel has all her light and topgallant 
masts and spars aloft. 

Atax ia, n. [Gr. a, priv., and taxis, order.] {Med.) A 
term used to denote the state of disorder that character¬ 
izes nervous fevers, and the nervous condition. — Dun- 
glison. 

Atax'ic, a. Having the characteristics of ataxia. 

Atba'ra, a territory and river of Nubia; the former 
sometimes called the island of Meroe. Its surface is 
roelty and for the most part barren. The river A. joins 
the Nile, and has a length of about 270 m. It is the As- 
taboras of Plato and Strabo. 

Atchafalay'a Bayou, in Louisiana, an outlet of 
Red river, at the N. extremity of Pointe Coupee parish. 
It flows a S. course, and enters the bay of the same name 
in the Gulf of Mexico. Its length is about 250 m. and 
is navigable for steamboats. 

At'char, n. A condiment used in India; formed of gar¬ 
lic, ginger, mustard, and pimento, pickled in vinegar. 

At'clie, n. {Com.) A Turkish coin; an Asper, q. v. 

Atch'ison, in Kansas, a N.E. county, bounded E. byMis- 
souri, from which it is separated by the Missouri river. 
Area, about 400 sq. m.; soil, rich, and well wooded. The 
county is drained by Grasshopper and Stranger creeks. 
Cap. Atchison. Pop. (1898) 29,250. 

—A city, cap. of the above co., on the Missouri, 25 m. N. 
of Leavenworth; Lat. 39° 34'N.; Lon. 95° 10' W. It 
is a picturesque place and enjovs considerable trade. 
Pop. (1898) 14,150. 

Atch'ison, in Missouri, a county in N.W. part of the 
State, with an area of about 560 sq. m. The Missouri 
divides it on the W. from Nebraska. It is also drained 
by the Tarkio and Nislinabatona rivers. Cap. Rockport. 

Atch'ison, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Washing¬ 
ton co. 

Atch'ison’s Point, in Texas, a small village of 
Tarrant co. 

At' co, in New Jersey, a post-office of Camden co. 

Ate. (Gram.) One of the preterites of the verb Eat, q. v. 

A'te, {Myth.,) daughter of Jupiter, and the goddess of 
evil. She raised such jealousy and sedition in heaven 
among the gods, that Jupiter dragged her away by the 
hair, and banished her for ever from heaven. She then 
dwelt on earth, where she incited mankind to wicked¬ 
ness, and promoted discord among them. 

At'elene, a. [From Gr. a, priv., and telos, end.] (Min.) 
Not having the regular forms of the genus; imperfect. 

At'eles, n. [Gr., imperfect.] (ZnSl.) The spider-monkey, 
a genus of sapajous, family Cebidce, i nhabiting S. America, 
and corresponding to the Se.mnnpitheci of Asia and the 
Colubi of Africa. They are remarkable for their very 
long tails, strongly prehensile and callous at the ex¬ 
tremity, their very slender limbs, and for their anterior 
hands having only four fingers. They are generally mild, 
timid, grave-looking creatures. They live in troops on 
lofty trees; and by means of their long prehensile tails, 
which act as a fifth member, they swing themselves from 
one tree to another with great facility. They are said 
even to cross rivers in this manner. Mounting to the 
top of the highest tree on the bank of the stream, they 
attach themselves to each other in a chain, by their tails. 
This chain is allowed to swing to and fro till it has ob¬ 
tained sufficient momentum to enable the last of the 
chain to catch hold of a branch on the opposite side. This 
done, it ascends to the top of the tree; the other end of 
the chain is then allowed to swing, and the whole troop 
is thus passed over. A. paniscus, Quata or Coaita mon¬ 
key, is very common in the woods of Surinam and Brazil; 
and is very intelligent, active, and gentle. A. Belzebuth, 


or Marimonda (Fig. 224), is, on the contrary, very sloth¬ 
ful, but of a gentle, timid, and melancholic temperament. 



Pig. 224. — ateles belzebuth, or marimonda. 

(Taken from Tenney's Manual of Zotilogy.J 

Atelier', n. [Fr.] A workshop; a studio; more especi¬ 
ally applied to an artist’s work-room. 

Ateliers Nationaux, or National Workshops (a-tel-e-ai’ 
nas'-i-o-nn), n. pi. (Hist) Since the year 1845, it was the 
custom in France, during severe winters, or in times ot 
distress caused by stagnation of trade, to open temporary 
workshops, inorder to give employment to mechanics who 
were out of work. These workshops were called Ateliers 
de Charite, until 1848, when the provisional government 
of the republic reopened a vast number of these estab¬ 
lishments under the name of A. They were under the 
control of a department called “The Committee of the 
Government for the Workmen; ” they were all, however, 
badly organized, and failed calamitously. The principle 
on which they were conducted was, that every workman 
should have a living provided for him on a fixed scale. 
The result was, that workmen soon left private employers, 
and entered the national workshops. The numbers who 
flocked in soon became alarming. More than 100,000 
men enrolled themselves, and insubordination soon began 
to show itself. Danger was imminent, and the National 
Assembly ordered the dissolution of the A.; an act which 
became the pretext for the terrible insurrection which 
ensanguined Paris in June, 1848. 

Atel'laii, a. Relating to the atellanae, q. v. 

Atel'laiise (Fabulse), (also styled Lttdi Osci or Oscan 
Plays.) (Dram. Lit.) A kind of light interlude between 
tragedy and comedy, which in ancient Rome was not 
performed by the regular company of actors, but by 
free-born young Romans. This kind of play is said to 
have originated from the ancient Atella, a city of the 
Oscans, between Capua and Naples. The favorite char¬ 
acters of the Macchus and Bucco of the F. A. may be con¬ 
sidered the origin of the modern Italian arlecchino (har¬ 
lequin), and other characters of the same stamp. 

At'elo. [Gr. ateles, imperfect.] In composition, defective. 
A prefix found in many compound medical words, as 
atelo-cardia, imperfect development of the lip; atelo- 
prnsnpia, imperfect development of the face, Ac. 

A Tem'po, or A Temp', n. [It., in time.] (Mus.) A 
similar signification with battuta, and, like that expres¬ 
sion, seldom used but when the regular measure has 
been designedly interrupted. When there has been some 
short relaxation in the time, A. denotes that the per¬ 
former must return to the original degree of movement. 

A Tem'po Gius'to. [It., in equal and just time.) (Mus.) 
An expression generally applied to themannerof perform¬ 
ing a steady, sound movement, a movement less directed 
to the feelings than to the judgment, more scientific than 
impassioned. 

Atesh'ga (the “place of fire”),a place on the peninsula 
of Apsheron, on the W. coast of the Caspian sea. It is 
a goal of pilgrimage for the Guebres, or Fire-worship¬ 
pers, who regard as sacred the fire which is caused by 
the ignition of the naphtha with which the soil is alto¬ 
gether impregnated. Petroleum works have been erected. 

Ates'sa, a town of S. Italy, prov. of Chieti, 14 m. W. of 
Vasto (FAmusone. The birthplace of the poet Cardone. 
Pop. 11,518. 

Ateu'cbus, n. (Zool.) A genus of dung-eating, cole¬ 
opterous insects, family Scarabmdse. Two species, 
A. ( scarabseus) sacer, and A. xEgyptorwm , were won 
shipped by the ancient Egyptians. — See Beetle, and 
SCARABjEUS. 

At'la, in N. C., a post-office of Johnston co. 

At'fieli, a town of Egypt, cap. of a prov. of the same 
name, near the right bank of the Nile, 42 m. S.S.E. of 
Cairo. It is supposed to be on the site of the ancient 
Aphrnditopolis. Estim. pop. 4.000. 

A til. [Ir.] A prefix found in many geographical names 
of places in Ireland, signifying a ford; as, Mttlone 
(“ford of the rapffis”); MWiboy (“yellow ford”), Ac. 

Ath, or Aath, a town of Belgium, prov. of Ilainault, on 
the Dender, 14 m. N.N.E. of Motis. It is a well-built 
and flourishing place. Manf. Linens, woollens, cotton 
stuffs, hats, and gloves. A. was fortified by Vauban, 
and it has, since 1815, been materially strengthened. 
Pop. 10,125. 

Ath'a, a daring impostor in the reign of the Caliph Me- 
hedy, or his predecessor, Al-mansur. He taught the doc¬ 
trine of metempsychosis, and claimed to be himself an 
incarnation of divinity. He had lost one of his eyes, on 
account of which he always wore a veil, whence he 
received the epithet of Mohanna. A. is the hero of 
Moore’s “ Veiled Prophet of Khorassan,” in Lalla lioohh. 

Athabas'ka, or Atuapes'cow, [Ind., swampy,] a great 


lake of N. America, about 200 m. long, and averaging 15 
m. broad. Fort Chippewayan. at its S.W. end, lies in Lat. 
58°42'N.; Lon. 111° 18' W. This lake receives a river of 
the same name, and the Slave river flows thence into 
Great Slave lake, lying about 170 m. to N.E It is some¬ 
times called the “ Lake of the Mountains,” Irorn the 
rocky aspect of its northern banks. 

Athal'amous, a. [Gr. a, priv., and thalamos, a bridal 
bed.] (Bot.) Applied to licheus whose thallus are without 
shields or beds for the spores. 

Atlia'lia, in Ohio, a post-office of Lawrence co. 

Atliali'ali, daughter of Aliab, king of Israel, and wife 
of Jehoram, king of Judah, was born about 927, and d- 
about 878 B. C. She was a woman of abandoned charac¬ 
ter, and fond of power: who, after the death of her son 
Ahaziah, opened her way to the throne by the murder 
of 42 princes of the royal blood. She reigned 6 years; 
in the 7th, the nigh-priest Jehoiada placed Joash, the 
young son of Ahaziah, on the throne of his father. This 
prince had been preserved and brought up secretly in 
the temple by Jehosheba, tlio sister of Joram and wife 
of Jehoiada. A., attracted by the noise of the people, 
who were crowding to the coronation of Joash, entered 
with them into the temple, where the ceremony was 
going on. At the sight ot the new king, surrounded by 
priests, Levites, great officers of the kingdom, and the 
joyful people, she was beside herself; she tore her hair, 
and cried out “Treason!” Jehoiada ordered her to be 
immediately led from the temple by the officers, and 
commanded that all who should otter to defend her 
be slain; and she was put to death, at the gate of her 
palace, without opposition. The altars of Baal, which 
she had erected, were thrown down, and the worship 
of the true God restored. (2 Kings xii. 13-18.)—On this 
story, Racine has written his best tragedy, considered aa 
the chef-d'oeuvre of the French school of tragic poetry. 

Athamail'ta, n. (Bat.) The spicknel, a genus of her¬ 
baceous plants, order Apiacece. The seed and roots of 
the A. aureoselinum, or black mountain parsley,are aro¬ 
matic, and are considered attenuant and aperient. The 
seeds of the A. Cretensis, or Cretan carrot, are acrid and 
aromatic. They have been used as carminatives and 
diuretics. 

Athaman'tiiie, n. ( Chem .) A crystalline fatty sub¬ 
stance obtained from the root Athamunta aureoselinum. 
Form. C.. 4 11^ji ,()-. 

Athanakia, n. (Bot.) A genus of ornamental, tender, 
evergreen, shrubby plants, sub-order Tubuhjiorce. They 
are of the kind popularly called everlastings, from the 
durable nature of their flowers; but they suffer some 
depreciation by sharing that name with the genera gna- 
phalium and antennaria. The name A. is a mere Greek 
synonym of “everlasting,” and literally means “death¬ 
less.” Upwards of 15 species of A. have been introduced 
from the Cape of Good Hope, and 10 or 12 more are 
known to botanists. 

Athana'sian Creed, n. (Eccl.Hist.) A formulary 
or confession of faith, said to have been drawn up by 
Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, in the 4th century, 
to justify himself against the calumnies of his Arian 
enemies. That it was really composed by this father 
seems more than doubtful; and modern divines generally 
concur in the opinion of Dr. Waterland, that it was 
written by Hilary, bishop of Arles, in the 5th century. 
It is certainly very ancient; for it had become so famous 
in the 6th century as to be commented upon, together 
with the Lord's Prayer and Apostles’ Creed, by Venan- 
tius Furtunatus, bishop of Poitiers. It waB not, how- 

. ever, then styled the A. C., but simply the Catholic'Faith. 
It is supposed to have received the name of Athanasius 
on account of its agreeing with his doctrines, and being 
an excellent summary of the subjects of controversy 
between him and the Arians. The true key to the A. C. 
lies in the knowledge of the errors to which it was op¬ 
posed. The Sabellians considered the Father, Son, and 
Holy Spirifas one in person; this was “confounding the 
persons:” the Arians considered them as differing in 
essence; this was “ dividing the substance; ” and against 
these two errors was the creed originally framed. This 
creed was used in France about the year 850; was re¬ 
ceived in Spain about a hundred years later, and in Ger¬ 
many about the same time. It was both said and sung 
in England in the 10th century; was commonly used in 
Italy at the expiration of that century, and at Rome a 
little later. This creed is appointed to be read in the 
Church of England. — See Credo. 

AthanaSius, (commonly called theGREAT,) oneofthe 
most distinguished of the Greek fathers, was B. at Alex¬ 
andria, probably in the year 296. Of his early life and 
education hardly anything is known. We only know 
that he was received into the family of Alexander, bishop 
of Alexandria, and appointed his secretary. During the 
session of the Council of Nice, A. was the life and soul 
of the party opposed to Arius; and he so distinguished 
himself there by his zeal and ability, that Alexander 
proposed him as his successor in the See of Alexandria 
an office to which he was appointed, A. d. 326. He there¬ 
upon labored to promote Christianity in Abyssinia until 
A. D. 331, in which year Arius regained the favor of the 
Emperor Constantine, and sought re-admission into the 
Church at Alexandria. This was refused by A., although 
the emperor himself issued an edict for bis admission. 
A long and severe struggle ensued, in which A. con¬ 
ducted his own part with the utmost courage, constancy, 
and resolution. All sorts of charges were brought 
against him, but A. had no difficulty in triumphantly 
refuting them. In presence of the emperor at Psam- 
methia, in 332, he boldly confronted his Arian accusers 
and extorted from Constantine a testimony to his inno¬ 
cence, and to his worth. Subsequently, in 335, a council 
held at Tyre, presided over by Eusebius of Caisarea, bio 




ATHE 


ATHE 


ATHE 


179 


determined enemy, acquitted A. of some of the charges [ 
brought against him, but referred others to the inves-) 
tigation of a committee, who obtained from the emperor 
an edict that A. be exiled to Treves, in Gaul. In 338, 
after the death of Constantine, his son, Constantine 
II., who had obtained the western part of the empire, 
restored -4. to his See. On his return, his enemies re¬ 
sumed their machinations, and having prejudiced the 
mind of the new emperor against .4., they, in a 
council held at Antioch, caused him to be superseded by 
Pistils. Another council, however, convokedat Antioch, 
in the emperor's presence, revoked this decision, con¬ 
demned A.. and appointed Gregory, a native of Cappa¬ 
docia, bishop in his stead. On the publication of this 
edict at Alexandria, the most violent scenes occurred, 
and A. fled to Rome, where he was protected by the 
emperor Constans. The influence of the latter was after¬ 
ward employed to induce his brother Constantius to 
restore A. to his See, and the Eastern potentate was at 
last induced to comply. The death of his patron Con¬ 
stans, and the energy with which -4. after his return to 
Alexandria proceeded against the Arian party, brought 
Constantius once more to their aid; and in the councils 
of Arles, and Milan, (a. d. 353,and a.d. 355,) the expulsion 
of A. was again decreed. A. escaped to the desert, and 
there remained until the death of Constantius, and ac¬ 
cession of Julian, enabled him to return for a brief time. 
Again incurring imperial resentment, the harassed pre¬ 
late once more escaped to the desert, where he stayed 
until the death of Julian. During the reign of Jovian, 
aud the earlier portion of that of Valens, A. enjoyed a 
period of peace and influence ; but, in 367, he was again 
sent for a fifth time into exile, and again recalled, and 
with this his persecution ended. f>). 2d May, A. D. 373. 
With little in his outward appearance to command ad¬ 
miration, A. was endowed with qualities of mind and 
spirit which justly entitled him to be called great. To 
much acuteness he added great depth and force of intel¬ 
lect ; his temper was earnest, constant, and fearless, and 
his moral life seems to have been blameless. His zeal for 
truth was such as to overcome all considerations of self, 
and make him willing to endure toils, privations, and 
dangers, rather than yield one tittle of what he believed 
to be God's truth, llis name is identified chiefly with 
the defence of the doctrine of the Trinity, including that 
of the supreme divinity of Jesus Christ and of the Holy 
Spirit; these doctrines he maintained against the 
Arians, but his arguments have been found of equal 
avail, in more recent times, against the Socinians and 
Humanitarians; indeed it is remarkable how little the 
learning, the reflection, aud the disputations of subse¬ 
quent ages have been able to add to what the writings 
o" A. contain on this subject. The best edition of his 
works is that published at Padua in 1774, in 4 vols. 
folio. 

jktll'anor, or Aea'nor, n. ( Chem .) A kind of fur¬ 
nace, which has long since fallen into disuse. The long 
aud tedious operations of the ancient chemists rendered 
it a desirable requisite that their fires should be con¬ 
stantly supplied with fuel in proportion to the consump¬ 
tion. The A. furnace was peculiarly adapted to this pur¬ 
pose. 

Atti 'ar, At'tar, or Ot'to, n. The Indian name of the 
volatile oil of roses. — See Attar of Roses. 

Ath'boy, atown of Ireland,co. Meath, prov. ofLeinster, 
31 m. N.W. by W. of Dublin. It is an ancient place, 
now in decay ; but a good corn-market is 6till held. 
Pop. (1895) 881. 

A theism, n. [Gr. a, without, Theos, God.] ( Tht'il .) A 
word of comparatively modern invention as applied to 
that system of belief which professes to discard the 
existence of a deity. Many persons, both in ancient 
and modern times, and on very various grounds, have 
had the name of atheist applied to them; but it may 
justly be questioned whether any sane man ever adopted 
such a principle. No doubt many men have repudiated 
altogether the ordinary ideas of the Deity, both as to 
his character, and as to the methods of establishing the 
proof of his existence; and in a comparatively ignorant 
age, or among a comparatively ignorant race of people, 
such persons would very likely be set down as atheists 
by those who did not understand their peculiar tenets. 
Again, such atheists as those among the Greek philoso¬ 
phers, as Leucippus, Democritus, and Protagoras, who 
went mainly upon the assumption that they had no 
proper idea of such an existence, were not really so far 
from certain Christians us might be imagined. From 
Kant to Dr. Mansel, of Oxford, philosophers like Sir 
William Hamilton have maintained what is commonly 
called speculative A.; but this, as is well known, is 
only a name invented by their opponents, who pro¬ 
fess to hold on by the dogmatic view of the existence of 
Deity, and who believe they can demonstrate his being. 
Everybody at all conversant with the question knows 
that no demonstration—no a priori proof—-of such an 
existence is possible, inasmuch as no notion can be formed 
of a higher generality than infinitude, to serve as the 
major premise on which this alleged syllogism can rest. 
And hence, while no demonstration of such a being can 
be offered, ample speculative proof of his existence can 
be inductively reached. Without doubt, vulgar preju¬ 
dice has had much to do with the A. of many eminent 
thinkers, from Socrates downward; but the French en¬ 
cyclopedists of the 18th century made a boast of this 
creed, and vaunted it openly in the streets, as well as 
advoaiting it secretly in the closet. The remark of 
Lord Bacon was quite true, that, although a smattering 
of philosophy might lead a man into A , a deep draught 
«f it will assuredly bring him back to the belief in a God, 
and in a Divine Providence.—See Materialism ; Panthe¬ 
ism 


A'theist, n. [Fr. atheisms; Gr. atheos, from a, priv., and 
Theos , God.] One who disbelieves in the existence of God. 

Atheis'tic, Atlieis'tif at, a. Pertaining to atheism 
or atheists; impious ; godless. 

Atlieis'tically, adv. In an atheistic manner. 

Atlieis'ticalness,n. The quality of being atheistical. 

A'theize, v. a. To render some one atheistic. 

Atli'el, Atl'el, JEth'el. [From A S. adel; Ger. adel, 
noble.] A prefix in many Saxon names. So, /Kthelrnt 
is noble for counsel; uEthelard, noble genius ; sEthd- 
bert, eminently noble; ASthelward, a noble protector. 

Atli cling, JEtu'eling, Eih'eling. The same as Ade- 
ling, q. V . 

Atli'elney (Isle of), a tract of England in the co. of 
Somerset. 7 m. S.E. of Bridgewater, and formerly an is¬ 
land. Here Alfred the Great sought refuge during the 
Danish invasion, and founded an abbey, about a. d. 858. 

Atli'olstan. Ad'elstan, .Eth'ei.stan, or Eal'stan, an 
Anglo-Saxon king, the son and successor of Edward the 
Elder, and grandson of Alfred the Great. B. 895, and, on 
Edward’s death in 925, was chosen Jiing by the people 
of Marcia, and Wessex. Northumbria, Scotland, and the 
British states of Cumberland, Wales, and Cornwall, ac¬ 
knowledged him as their superior lord, and his alliance 
was courted by all the princes of Western Europe. Louis 
IV. of France was protected by A. during the usurpa¬ 
tion of Raoul, and recovered the throne by his aid. The 
emperor Otho the Great married his sister Elgiva. In 
937, Constantine of Scotland, and other princes, formed 
a league against A., who totally defeated them. He died 
at Gloucester, a. d. 941. 

At ill. Athene'um, n.; pi. Lat. Athen.ua; pi. 

Eng. Athenecms. [Lat.; from Gr. Athenairm, the temple 
of Minerva at Athens; from Athenai, Athens.] ( Antiq .) 
A public place frequented by professors of the liberal 
arts, and where rhetoricians declaimed, and the poets 
read aloud their works. At Athens these assemblies 
first took place in the temple of Minerva, whence the 
name. The A. at Rome was founded upon the Capito- 
line Hill, by the Emperor Adrian. It was a school or col¬ 
lege, furnished with a complete staff of professors for the 
several branches of study. Like its Athenian proto¬ 
types, this establishment was frequented by the Roman 
orators, poets, and other learned men, who there de¬ 
claimed their compositions, the emperors themselves 
frequently honoring the assemblies by their presence. 
At a subsequent period, another celebrated A. was 
erected at Lyons. These institutions, generally, appear 
to have retained their high reputation until the 5th cen¬ 
tury. At the present time, the term has been revived as 
a name for certain establishments connected with learn¬ 
ing, as w r ell as for clubs and libraries. It is also the not 
inappropriate title of several literary journals published 
in various countries. 

Aflien.'e'iis, a Greek grammarian, of Nancrates, Egypt, 
who wrote a work entitled Table-Talk of the Sophists. 
published by Casaubon, in 1657. 

At lionag oras. one of the Greek fathers, is the au¬ 
thor of two works, an Apology for Christians, and a 
treatise on the Resurrection of the Dead. There is no 
reliable information as to his history, but he is believed 
to have flourished about A. D. 170. 

Atliena'is. See Eudocia. 

Athenian, a. Pertaining to Athens. 

— n. A native or inhabitant of Athens. 

Athenodo'rus, the son of Agesander, a Greek sculp¬ 
tor of the Rhodian school, who, with his father, and 
Polydorus, executed the celebrated group of the Lao- 
coon , the best specimen now extant of the 3d stage of 
sculpture in Greece, during which the highest display 
of execution was successfully coupled with the utmost 
pathos of conception. A. is supposed to have lived 
about 220 b. c. 



(Vatican, Rome.) 


Atll'enry. a decayed town of Ireland, co. Galway. It 
was once important, and boasted of a university. Pop. 
1,283. 

Ath'ens, [“ City of Minerva,” from Gr. ASrjvg, Minerva, 
or Pallas, the tutelary deity of th<* city.] One of the most 
famous cities of antiquity, the chosen seat of literature, 
philosophy, and the arts, and the capital of the modern 


kingdom of Greece, is situate on the W. side of the pro¬ 
vince or nomarchie of Attica, about 4 m. from the Gulf of 
Higina, in N. Lat.37°5S'8"; E. Lon.23° 43'54". The city 
is built on an abrupt eminence rising out of an extensive 
plain bounded N. by mounts Pentelicus and Parties; N.E. 
by Mount Anchesmus, E. by Mount Ilymettus: and IV. 
by Lycabettus. During the revolutionary war, 1820-7, the 
city was laid in ruins; but when the seat of government 
was transferred thither, in 1834, its resurrection began. 
It now contains several good streets, and some fine pub- 



Fig. 226. — Athens. 


lie buildings. Its aspect is somewhat bizarre: European 
shops elbow Eastern bazaars, a Christian chapel is vis-a- 
vis to a Turkish mosque, an ancient Grecian portico 
opens on a modern residence, aud so on. Its population, 
too, is more heterogeneous than that of any other place 
of its size in Europe. A good road connects the city with 
its harbor, the Pine us, distant 5 m. P. (1897) est. 110,000. 
The ancient city of A. considerably exceeded the modern 
in extent, and, unlike the latter, encircled the Acropolis. 
It was enclosed in a sort of peninsula formed by the 
confluence of the Cephisus and Ilyssus. At the time 
when A. had attained its greatest magnitude, it was 
surrounded by a wall surmounted at intervals by 
strongly fortified towers. A had three great harbors, 
the Pirams, Munychia, and Plialerum. These ports 
formed a separate city larger than A. itself. The harbor 
of the Pirams was a spacious basin embraced by two 
arms of rocky land which formed gigantic natural piers. 
Even now it is considered a safe port, and in former 
times it constituted at once the harbor, arsenal, and dock¬ 
yard of A. At its zenith, A. contained about 10,000 
houses, (A era. Mem. iii. 36,14,) which were, for the greater 
part, mean habitations; and it was to its public edifices 
alone that its attractions were owing. Its population 
has been variously estimated at from 116,000 to 180.000. 
The opulence, prosperity, and power of A. are fully por¬ 
trayed by Thucydides, (lib. ii. 13.) The most striking 
object of A. is the Acropolis, or old Cecropian fortress. 
(See Acropolis.) The Acropolis alone formed the primi¬ 
tive city; it was founded by Cecrops. about anno 1556 B. 
c. It was of the Doric order, and its central pediment 
was supported by 6 fluted marble columns. On the right 
wing stood the Temple of Victory, and on the left was a 
building decorated with paintings by the pencil of Poly- 
gnotus, of which Pausanias has left us an account. But 
the chief glory of the Acropolis was the Parthenon, or 
Temple of Minerva. Dilapidated as it is, it still retains an 
air of inexpressible grandeur and sublimity; and it forms 
at once the highest point in -4., and the centre of the 
Acropolis; (see Parthenon.) On the N.E. side of the 
Parthenon stood the Erectheium, a temple dedicated to 
the joint worship of Neptune and Minerva. Considera¬ 
ble remains of this building still exist. In the modern 
city of A. itself there are still many monuments of an¬ 
tiquity to be found. Of these the principal are 3 exqui¬ 
site Corinthian columns crowned by architraves, the 
Temple of the Winds, and the monument of Lysicrates, 
called by the modern Greeks the “lantern of Demosthe¬ 
nes.” Beneath the S. wall of the Acropolis, near its ex¬ 
tremity, was situated the Athenian or Dionysiac theatre; 
Plato affirms that it was capable of containing 30.000 
persons. On the N.E. side of the Acropolis stood the 
Prytaneum, where citizens who had rendered good ser¬ 
vice to the state were maintained at the public expense 
Opposite to the W. end of the Acropolis was the Area 
pagus, or “Hill of Mars,” where stood the celebrated 
court of the Areopagus, q. v. Outside the modern city 
are the ruins of the temple of Jupiter Olympiusi (see 
Jupiter.) Not far from it is the temple of Theseus, built 
by Cimon, shortly after the battle of Salamis: (see The¬ 
seus.) —Athenian history did not assume a definite form 
until b. c. 1550. when Cecrops, a native of Egypt, by 
marrying the daughter of Actseon, obtained the sover¬ 
eignty. He collected the hitherto scattered inhabitants 
of Attica, divided them into tribes, and founded the 
Acropolis. The sovereignty descended in his family un¬ 
til b. c. 1068, when an aristocratical was substituted foi 
the monarchical form of government, and the title of 
“king” was exchanged for that of “arclion.” In B.c. 
624, Draco was appointed lawgiver; and in 594. Solon 
was made arclion. In 560, Pisistratus assumed regal 
power, and from this time the constitution of Solon was 
gradually absorbed into a pure democracy. With rapid 
strides the Persian monarchy had been encroaching upon 
Greece, and most of the Grecian states had already 
sworn fealty to Darius, when -4. and Lacedaemon raised 
the banner of defiance, and the battle of Marathon (a.o 























180 


ATHE 


ATHI 


ATHW 


490) at once achieved the liberty of Greece, and covered 
A . with glory. Then followed the invasion of Greece, 
the seizure and burning of .-I. and its citadel, the memo¬ 
rable battles of Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale; and, lastly, 
the defeat of the Persians. Among other consequences 
that resulted to A. from the Persian invasion, was the 
impetus given to its naval affairs. Themistocles caused 
(i. 0.479) a new and more commodious harbor to be 
built at the Pirteus, which in process of time was joined 
to the city by the celebrated “ Long Walls.” This pre¬ 
caution gava-A. the command of the sea, and raised her 
commercial and military marine to an unexampled pitch 
of prosperity. Her. spirit hitherto had been decidedly 
martial; but her peaceful glories now followed, and out¬ 
shone those of her victories and political ascendency. 
After the termination of the Persian war, literature and 
the fine arts began to gravitate toward Athens as their 
most favored seat; for here, during the age of Pericles, 
above all other parts of Greece, genius and talents were 
fostered by an ample field of exertion, and by public 
sympathy and applause. It was during this age that 
painting, sculpture, and architecture reached the high¬ 
est degree of perfection; and that Greek poetry was en¬ 
riched with a new kind of composition, the Drama, 
which exhibited all the grace and vigor of the Athenian 
imagination, together with the full compass and highest 
refinements of the Attic language. The drama was in¬ 
deed the branch of literature which peculiarly signalized 
the age of Pericles; and the intellectual character of the 
Athenians is vividly portrayed by the sublimely impas¬ 
sioned strokes of /Etchylus, the graceful and elegant 
touches of Sophocles, the elaborate philosophy of Euri¬ 
pides, and the caustic raillery and moral power of Aris¬ 
tophanes. And though time has effaced all traces of the 
pencil of Parrhasius, Zeuxis, and Apelles, posterity has 
assigned them a place in the temple of fame beside 
Phidias and Praxiteles, whose works are, even at the 
present day, unrivalled for classical purity of design and 
perfection of execution. But the advantages that flowed 
to A. from the administration of Pericles were not with¬ 
out alloy. The splendor which he introduced exhausted 
the public revenues; and to supply deficiencies, recourse 
w:i3 had to rigorous imposts upon the allied states. 
II snce a spirit of disaffection was engendered; and Spar¬ 
ta, who hal long viewed with jealousy the magnificence 
of her rival, seized the opportunity of fanning the dis¬ 
cord into a flame. This broke forth in the Pelopon¬ 
nesian war, in which, after a struggle of 27 years, 
the Spartans were victorious, and the Athenians were 
obliged to submit to the dominion of the “Thirty Ty¬ 
rants.” It was reserved, however, for the skill of Thra- 
sybulus (b. o. 404) to restore to A. its former constitu¬ 
tion; a revolution which was effected with little effusion 
of blood. A. now became the head of a confederacy 
numbering 75 cities; the .'Egean isles were among her 
colonies, Lice lie non recognized her dominion of the 
sea, and she w is once more, and without a rival, the first 
of the Grecian communities. From this time began a 
new eri in the history of A. Philip, king of Macedon, 
by dissimulation and bribery, contrived first to embroil 
the diffirsnt states of Greece, and than to trample upon 
their inispen Unce. The Athenians, roused by the thun¬ 
ders of Dun tsthenes, in ilea vigorous defence, (b. c. 338;) 
but the battle of Chmronea annihilated the supremacy 
of A. She mi la rapeited but unsuccessful efforts to re¬ 
lease herself from Micedonian thraldom, until B. c. 86, 
when Svlla proclaim id her a tributary of Rome. But 
while A. thus siw every trace of her political existence 
vanish, she rose to an empire scarcely less flattering, 
to which Rome itself was obliged to bow. Her conquer¬ 
ors looked to her as the teacher and arbiter of taste, 
philosophy, and science: and all the Romans who were 
ambitious of literary attainments, flocked to A. in order 
to acquire them Hu ler Adrian, (b. 0. 117,) A. regained 
much of her former splendor. In 398, A. was taken and 
sacked by Alaric, king of the Goths, and after this 
dreadful visitation sank into insignificance. We are in¬ 
deed told that the walls of A. were put into a state of 
defence by Justinian; but from the time of this emperor, 
a chasm of netrly 7 centuries ensued in her history. A. 
again emerged from her oblivion in the 13th century, 
under Biblwin and his crusaders, at a time when it was 
besieged by a general of Theodore Lascaris, the Greek 
emperor. In 1427, it wis taken by Sultan Murad; but 
was afterwards recovered from the Turks by auother 
body of crusaders, uulor the Marquis of Montserrat, who 
bestowed it on Otto de la Roche, one of his followers. 
For a considerable time A. was governed by Otto and his 
descendants, with the title of duke; but this family was 
afterwards displaced by Walter de Brienne. The next 
rulers of A. were the opulent family Acciaoli of Florence, 
who possessed it till 1455, when it was taken by Omar, 
a general of Mohammed II., who incorporated it com¬ 
pletely with the Turkish empire. In 1687, it was cap¬ 
tured by the Venetians under Morosini, after a short 
siege, during which the Parthenon, then in an almost 
perfect state, and the other buildings of the Acropolis, 
ware greatly damaged. After a short interval, A. was 
again taken by the Turks, under whose jurisdiction it 
remained until the treaty of Adrianople in 1829, when 
the new kingdom of Greece was established, of which A. 
has since been the capital. 

A tti 'ens, in Alabama, a township and village, cap. of 
Limestone co., 154 m. N.N.E. of Tuscaloosa, and 25 m. 
W. by N. of Huntsville. 

Ath'eiiSo in Arkansan, a village of Izard co., on the N. 
bank of White river, 6 m. N. by E. of Mount Olive. 

Atli'eiiit, in Georgia, a city, capital of Clark co., on the 
Oconee river, 92 m. W.N.W. of Augusta, and 71 m. N. of 
Milledgeville. This is a prosperous place, and the centre 
of a fine cotton-growing country. Pop. in 1890, 8,639 . 


Ath'ens, in Illinois, a post-village of Menard co., 12 m. 
N.N.W. of Springfield. 

—a village of Cook co., about 25 m. S.W. of Chicago. 

—a village of St. Clair co., on the Kaskaskia river, 33 m. 
S.E. of St. Louis. 

Ath'ens, in Iowa, a township of Ringgold coun¬ 
ty. 

Ath'ens, in Kentucky, a post-village of Fayette co., 11 
m. S.E. of Lexington. 

Atli'ens, in Louisiana, a post-village of Claiborne parish. 

Atll'ens, in Maine, a post-township of Somerset co., 45 
miles north of Augusta, on a branch of the Kennebec 
river. 

Atll'ens, in Michigan, a post-township of Calhoun co., 
2u m. S.W. of Marshall. 

Atll'ens, in Minnesota, a village of Dakota co., about 14 
m. S. of St. Paul, and 3 m. W. of the Mississippi river. 

Atll'ens, in Mississippi, a village of Monroe co., 170 m. 
N.E. of Jackson, in the centre of a fertile and prosperous 
country. 

Atll'ens, in Missouri, a post-village of Clarke co., 25 m. 
from the month of the Des Moines river. Here, during 
the civil war, a severe skirmish took place on the 5th of 
August, 1861, the result of which was in favor of the 
national army. 

Alii' ens, in Nebraska, a village of Richardson co. 

Atll'ens, in New York, a village of Greene co., on the 
Hudson river, 29 m. below Albany. 

Atll'ens, in Ohio, a S.E. county, joining the Ohio river 
to the E., and intersected by the Hockhocking river. 
The surface is hilly and well wooded, and the soil gen¬ 
erally fertile. Iron ore and coal abound, and the manu¬ 
facture of salt is an important branch of industry. Area, 
about 430 sq. m. Cap. Athens. 

—A post-township and village of the above county. The 
village, which is the cap. of the county and the scat of 
Ohio University and of a State asylum for the insane, 
is 72 m. S.E. of Columbus. 

—a township of Harrison co. 

Atli' ens, in Pennsylvania, a township of Crawford cos 
about 20 m. E.N.E. of Meadville. 

—a post-borough of Bradford co., on the Tioga river. It 
is a flourishing place. 

Ath 'ens, in Tennessee , a district and post-village, cap. of 
McMinn co., 65 m. N.E. of Dalton, and 154 m. E.N.E. of 
Nashville. 

Ath' eiis, in Texas, a district and town, capital of 
Henderson co., 220 m. N.E. of Austin city, and 20 m. E. 
of Trinity river. 

Ath'ens, in Vermont, a post-township of Windham co., 
100 m. S. of Montpelier. 

Atll'ens, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Marathon co. 

Ath'ensville, in Illinois, a post-village of Greene co. 

Atli'ensville. in Pennsylvania, a village of Delaware 
co., about 8 m. W. of Philadelphia; now Ardmore. 

Atheri'na, n. [From Or. other, a spine.] (Zoijl ) A genus 
of fishes, order Acanthopterygii. They are very abun¬ 
dant in the Mediterranean, and form a considerable 
fishery there. They are salted and sold as sardines. 
They abound also on the coasts of S. America. 

Ather'inanous, a. [Gr. a, priv., and thermaino, to 
heat.] (Chem.) Opposed to diathermanous, and applied 
to substances which do not suffer radiant heat to pass 
through them. 

Athero'ma, n. [Gr., from athera, pap or pulp ] (Med.) 
A tumor formed by a cyst containing matter like pap or 
bouillie, or plaster. 

Atlierom'atous, a. Having the nature of atheroma. 

Atheropo'gon, n. [Gr. other, chaff, and pogon, beard ; 
a characteristic term.] (But.) A genus of plants, order 
Graminaceae. The name signifies a “ bearded awn; ” 
and alludes to one prominent character of the genus. 
Though upwards of 15 species are known to botanists, 
only one, Atlieropugon apluloides, exists in the U. States. 
It is a hardy, half-beautiful perennial, grows 9 inches 
high, and produces its apetalous flowers in August. 
Some botanists call it Chloris curtipendula; and others, 
Dinebra curtipendula. 

Atherespenna'cesf, n. pi. [Gr. other, a point, and 
sperma, seed.] (But.) An ord. of plants, alliance Meni- 
spermales. — Diao. Anthers opening by recurved valves. 
They are trees, with leaves opposite, without bracts. 
Calyx tubular, divided at the top into several segments. 
Stamens numerous, in the bottom of the calyx, but 
arising from the orifice of the calyx in the staminate 
flowers; anthers adnate; ovaries several; styles and 
stigmas simple: seed solitary, erect; embryo minute, 
erect, at the base of soft, fleshy albumen.—This order 
includes but four species in three genera: Atherosperma 
and Doryphora, belonging to Australia; and Laurelia, 
to Chili. The wood of Doryphora sassafras, called sas¬ 
safras in Australia, is said to smell like fennel. — The 
nuts of Laurelia are described as possessing the fragrance 
of the nutmeg. — L. Atherosperma moschata is a very 
beautiful tree, attaining to a height of 150 feet; a decoc¬ 
tion of the bark is used in the colony as a substitute for 
tea. 

Atli'erstone, a town of England, in Warwickshire, 
12GJ m. N. of Coventry; pop. about 4,000. 

Atli'erstone, Edwin, an eminent English poet, b. at 
Nottingham, 1788. His principal works are, The Last 
Days of Herculaneum (1821); Fall of Nineveh, his great¬ 
est work (1828-1847); and Sea-kings of England, pub¬ 
lished in 1830. 

Atli'ertoii, a township of England, in Lancashire. 7 m. 
N.E. of Newton. It has extensive collieries, iron-works, 
and cotton factories. Pop. about 7,000. 

Athirst', a. [From a, and thirst.] Thirsty; wanting 
drink. 

“With scanty measure then supply their food, 

And, when athirtt, restrain ’em from the flood."— Drydtn. 


Ath'Is, a town of France, arrond. of Domfront, dep. of 
Oi ne; pop. 4,768. 

Ath'Iete, n. [Fr. athlete; Lat. athleta, pi. athletce; from 
Gr. athletes, from athlein, to contend lor a prise, from 
atlilon a prize.] One who competes for a prize in any 
muscular contest; an exhibitor of gymnastic skill; a 
prize-fighter; a wrestler. 

(Antiq.) A term applied to those persons who, among 
the Greeks and Romans, contended for prizes at the 
public games, in boxing, wrestling, running, leaping, and 
throwing the disc, or quoit. Unlike the Agonistes, who 
only pursued gymnastic exercises as a means of improv¬ 
ing their health and bodily vigor, the atliletse devoted 
their whole lives to preparing for the contests at the 
public games. For these they were trained with the 
greatest care. They were constantly undergoing a 
course of the most severe exercise, in a gymnasium set 
apart for the purpose, under the superintendence of the 
gymnasiarch. At first the A., when struggling for the 
prize, wore a girdle round their loins; but afterward they 
contended in a nude state. Before commencing wrestling 
encounters, their bodies were covered with sand, that 
they might grasp each other the more firmly. In other 
games they were anointed with oil by the aliptae. An 
athlete who gained the prize at eitlierof the 4 great pub¬ 
lic games, viz., the Olympian, Isthmian, Nemean, or Py¬ 
thian, was received by the state to which he belonged with 
the greatest honors; he was absolved from the payment 
of taxes, and, often, his statue was set up in a public spot. 
A. were, it is stated, introduced from Greece into Rume, 
byM. Fulvius, at the close of the iEtolian war, 186 r.C. 
They speedily became highly popular : and under the 
emperors, their contests were admired by the nation to 
a degree hordering upon passion. Under Nero, an enor¬ 
mous number of A. lived in Rome, where they formed 
a distinct corporation. The A. were an entirely dif¬ 
ferent class from the Gladiators, q. v. 

Athlet'ic. a. Belonging to wrestling, boxing, running, 
and other muscular exercises.— Strong; robust; vigor¬ 
ous. 

" Science distinguishes a man ofliouorfrom one of thos eathleticK 
brutes, whom undeservedly we call heroes."— Vryden. 

AtSilet'acally, adv. In an athletic manner. 

Atlilet'icism, Ath'letism, n. The act of contend¬ 
ing in a public game; muscular strength. 

Atli'lone, an inland garrison-town of Ireland, in the 
counties Westmeath and Roscommon, on the Shannon, 
65 m. W. of Dublin. It carries on a considerable trade 
In 1641, A. was besieged by the Irish army ; and in 1689, 
was taken by storm by De Ginkell, (</. v.) During the 
war with France, A. was 6trongly fortified. Pop. about 
6,500. 

Atli/lone, Earl of. See Ginkell (De). 

Atli'lone, in Michigan, a village of Monroe co. 

Atli'ol, Ath'ole, or Ath'oil, a district of Scotland in 
Perthshire. It is very picturesque and mountainous. 
The forest of A. comprises 101),00U acres, and belongs to 
the Duke of A., head of the house of Murray. 

Atli'ol, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Worcester 
co., about 65 m. W. N. W. of Boston; pop. (1890) 6,319. 

Atli'ol, in New York, a. former township of Warren 
co., now divided into Stony Creek and Thurman town- 
townships. 

Atli'ol Center, in Massachusetts, a post-village of Wor¬ 
cester co., 33 m.W. of Fitchburg. 

Ath'os (Mount), Agion-Ohos, or Monte-Santo, a fa¬ 
mous mountain of Turkey in Europe, on a peninsula 
projecting into the iEgean sea, between the gulfs of 
Contesa and Monte-Santo; L..t. 46° 16' N.; Lon. 24° KF 
E. It rises abruptly from the water to a height of 8,349 
feet above sea-level, and in its lower parts is covered 
with forests of pine, oak, chestnut, Ac., above which 
towers a bare conical peak. A. has been iamous bolh 
in ancient and modern times. Herodotus states that the 
fleetof Mardonius, the Persian general, in attempting to 
double this mountain, was reported to have lost more than 
300 ships and 20,000 men. When Xerxes invaded Greece, 
he determined to guard against the recurrence of a 
similar disaster by cutting a canal across the peninsula 
of such dimensions as to admit of two triremes passing 
abreast lHerod, lib. vii. s. 24): of which great work the 
traces still remain. In modern times, A. has been oc¬ 
cupied from a remote period by a number of monks of 
the Greek Church, who live in a sort of fortified monas¬ 
teries, in number about 20, of different degrees of magni¬ 
tude and importance. These, with the farms or metochis 
attached to them, occupy the whole peninsula ; hence it 
has derived its modern name of Monte-Santo. These 
monasteries are situated in positions of strikingly ro¬ 
mantic beauty. Some of them belong to Russians, other* 
to Bulgarians and Servians. Except tlieproduce of their 
own farms and vinei ards, and the sale of crosses and 
beads, they depend chiefly on the oblations of pilgrims, 
and on the alms collected by their brethren in other 
parts. They pay an annual tribute to the Porte, and 
admit no females upon the peninsula. Most of these 
monasteries possess valuable MSS.; and they suffered 
severely from the exactions of the Turks during the 
Greek revolution. Pop. about 4,000. 

Athwart', prep. [From a and thwart.] Across; from 
side to side; transverse. 

“ Kwecrable shape 1 

That dar’st. though grim and terrible, advance 
Thy miscreated front athwart my way ."-^Milton. 

(Mar.) Across the line of a ship’s course; as, “a 
fleet was discovered standing athwart our course,” that 
is to say, steering across our way.— Athwart-hawse is the 
situation of a ship when she is driven by the wind, tide, 
or other accident, across the stem of another, whether 
they bear against or are at a short distance from each 
other.— Athwart the fore-foot is a term usually applied 







ATLA 


ATLA 


ATLA 


181 


to the flight of a cannon-ball, as fired from one ship 
across the line of another’s course, but ahead of her, as 
a sigual for the latter to bring to.— Athwart-ships signi¬ 
fies reaching across the vessel from side to side, or in 
that direction. 

— adv. Crossly; wrong; wrongfully. 

“All athwart there cam© 

A post from "Wales, loaden with heavy news."— Shafts. 

•* The babby beats the nurse, and quite athwart goes all deco¬ 
rum. Shales, 

A thy, a town of Ireland, co. Kildare, prov. of Leinster, 
on the Barrow, 38 ru. S.W. of Dublin; pop. about 4,200. 
Atliym'ia, n. [Gr., from a, priv., and thymns, heart, 
courage.] (Med.) Despondency; the prostration of spir¬ 
its often observable in the sick. — Melancholy. 

A'tia, daughter of Marcus Atius Balbus and Julia, the 
youngest sister of Julius Ctesar; d. 43 b. c. By her first 
husband, Caius Octavius, she was the mother of Octavius 
Augustus. 

At i a town of Brazil, in the prov. of Sao Paolo, on 

a river of the same name, 110 m. S.S.E. of Santos. 
Atilt', adv. [A.S. tealtian , to tilt.] In the manner of 
a til ter; with the action of a man making a thrust at 
au antagonist. 

" In the city Tours 
Thou ran’sfc a tilt in honor of my love, 

And stol’st away the ladies* hearts of France. 0 — Shak*. 

—In a raised posture; in the posture of a barrel raised or 
tilted behind, to make its contents run out. 

“Such a man is always atilt: his favors come hardly from 
him."— Spectator. 

Atr iia. a town of S. Italy, prov. of Caserta, lying among 
some of the highest summits of the Apennines, 12 m. 
S.E. of Sora. It is principally notable for its Cyclopean 
remains. This is one of the oldest Italian cities, hav¬ 
ing been, according to Virgil, a considerable place even 
in the days of the Trojan war. It was taken from 
tlie Samnites, B. C. 313, by the Romans. Pop. (1897) 
estimated at 6,3(30. 

Atit'lan, in Central America, a lake, town, and Volcano 
of Guatemala, 80 m. NAY. of Guatemala. The town, 
Santiago de Atitlan, is on the S. side of the lake, which 
is 24 m. long by 10 broad. The volcano of A. has an 
altitude of 12,500 feet. 

At'kinson, in Illinois, a post-village and township of 
Henry co., 30 m. E. of Rock Island. 

At'k i nsoii, in Maine, a post-township of Piscataquis 
co., about 80 in. N.E. of Augusta, 

At'kinson, in New Hampshire, a post-township of 
Rockingham county, about 35 miles S. S. E. of the city 
of Concord. 

At'kinson Depot, in New Hampshire, a post-office 
of Rockingham co. 

At'kinson's Mills, in Pennsylvania, a post-office 
of Mifflin co. 

At'kinsonville, in Indiana, a post-office of Owen co. 
Atlan 'ta, n. (Zodl.) A genus of gasteropodous mol- 
lusca, with a very thin, transparent, fragile shell. The 
animals swim on the surface of the ocean, and are some¬ 
times found in great abundance far from land. They 
swim with great rapidity. 

Atlan'ta, in Georgia, a fine city of Fulton co., and the 
cap. of the State, about 7 m. S.E. of Chattahoochee river, 
101 m. N.W. of Macon, and 171 W. of Augusta. Being 
the terminus of the principal railroads of the State, A. 
is a place of active trade, and a depot for the cotton and 
cereals of the surrounding country. A. was laid out in 
1845, and incorporated in 1847, and has now become one 
of the most important places in the State. A. was 
Strongly fortified by the Confederates during the cam¬ 
paign of 1864, and was the scene of a great battle, 
fought on the 22d of July of that year, between the 
Union army commanded by Sherman, and the Con¬ 
federates under General J. B. Hood. It was a san¬ 
guinary action, the national loss being estimated at 
3,7 22, of whom about 1,000 were prisoners, while Sherman 
estimated the Confederate loss “ at full 8,000 men.” 
Among the Confederates killed was Gen. W. H. T. Walker, 
of Georgia. A second battle followed on the 28th, in 
which, after a desperate conflict, the Confederates were 
worsted with a loss of about 5,000 men. The Union loss 
did not exceed 600. On the first of September, the Con¬ 
federates evacuated A., and on the next day it was en¬ 
tered I• v Sherman's corps. Pop. in 1890, 65,553; in 
1900, 89,872. See Atlanta Exposition. 

Atlanta, in Illinois, a city and township of Logan co., 
situated 20 miles southwest of Bloomington. 

Atlan'ta, in Iowa, a post-village of Buchanan co., near 
the Wapsipinicon river, about 58 m. W.S.W. from Du¬ 
buque. 

Atlan'ta, in Louisiana , a post-office of Winn parish. 
Atlan'ta, in Missouri, a village of Harrison co., about 
70 m. N.E. of St. Joseph. 

—A post-office of Macon co. 

Atlan'ta, in Ohio, a post-office of Pickaway co. 
Atlanta City, in Idaho, a village of Alturas co. 
Atlan'tal, a. (Anat.) Relating to the vertebra atlas. 
Atlante'an, a. [Lat .atlante.us; from Or. atlas, atlan- 
thos, a giant..] Resembling Atlas; gigantic. 

Atlan'tic, in New Jersey, a county in the S.S.E. part 
of the State. Area, 620 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. 
by Little Egg Harbor river, S.E. by the Atlantic ocean, 
and is intersected by Great Egg Harbor river. Its shores 
are prolific of oysters and other shell-fish. Soil, light 
and sandy. Pop. (1890), 28,836. Cap. May’s Landing. 
Atlantic City, in New Jersey, a flourishing city and 
fashionable sea-bathing resort of Atlantic co., 58 m. S. E. 
of Philadelphia, with which it is connected by 3 railroads. 
Is the most popular summer resort on the Atlantic coast. 
Pop. (1897) abt. 20,000; transient p op. (May-Aug.),from 
40,000 to 100,000. 


Atlan'tes, n. pi. [from Or. Atlas.) (Arch) 

given by the Greeks to male 
figures used instead of columns 
or pilasters to support entab¬ 
latures. The name was de¬ 
rived from the idea of Atlas 
hearing the heavens on his 
shoulders. The Egyptians were 
in the habit of attaching colos¬ 
sal figures of this kind to the 
columns of their temples, which 
probably suggested the use of 
them to the Greeks. These 
figures are sometimes called 
Telamones or Persians. In the 
modern architecture of Italy, 

A. are frequently to be seen 
supporting the entablature 
above the entrance of a great 
building. When female fig¬ 
ures are made use of for the 
like purpose, they are termed 
caryatides. — See Caryatides. 

Atlan'tic, a. [Gr. Atlantikos , 
from Mount Allas , the shores 
of which this ocean washes.] 

Pertaining to the Atlantic 
ocean. 


•The gilded car of day 
His glowing axle doth allay 
In the steep Atlantic stream.** 
Milton, 



Fig, 227. — atlantes. 
(From the Baths at Pompeii.) 

—Relating to the giant Atlas, or to Mount Atlas, (o.) 

— n. The Atlantic Ocean, q. v. 

Atlan'tic Ocean, n. [Gr. Atlantikos pelagos, the sea 
beyoud Mount Atlas.] One of the great divisions of that 
watery expanse which covers more than three-fourths 
of the surface of the globe. It lies between the Old and 
the New worlds, washing the’E. shores of the Americas, 
aDd the W. shores of Europe and Africa; extending 
lengthwise from the Arctic to the Antarctic seas. Where 
narrowest, between Greenland and Norway, it is about 
930 m. across; but between N. Africa and Florida, where 
it attains its maximum breadth, the distance from shore 
to shore is about 5,000 m. Area, about 25,000,000 sq. m. 
On one side of the equator the A. is called the N. Atlan¬ 
tic Ocean, and on the other, the S. Atlantic Ocean. Its 
coasts are of unequal elevation, exhibiting in some 
places immense banks to within a few fathoms of the 
surface, and in others sinking to almost immeasurable 
depths.— An important feature of the North Atlantic 
is its connection with mediterranean, or close seas of great 
extent. Such are the Baltic sea and the Mediterranean 
sea in the Old Continent, and Hudson’s Bay and the Gulf 
of Mexico, with the Caribbean sea, in the New World. 
These seas doubtless form part of the Atlantic ocean; 
but they cannot be considered as hays or gulfs, the con¬ 
nection between them and the Atlantic being effected by 
narrow straits, and not by an open sea; and, besides, 
they extend so far into the continents, that some of them, 
as the Mediterranean sea, afford a navigation of 3,000 
geographical miles.—The greatest depth that has been 
discovered in the N. Atlantic is about 4%( miles. The tem¬ 
perature of the water is greater in the Northern than in 
the Southern hemisphere. In the seas north of the equa¬ 
torial current, the thermometer indicates 80° or 81°, 
and S. of it, 77° and 78°, at the time when the sun ap¬ 
proaches the line. This difference may, perhaps, be 
satisfactorily accounted for by the sun’s remaining an¬ 
nually 7 days longer to the N. than to the S. of the 
equator. — According to Capt. Scoresby, the spec. grav. 
of the sea-water near tfio coasts of Greenland varies be¬ 
tween l - 0259 and l‘02i 0. Between the tropics, it has 
been found V0300, and near the equator even 1-0578; but 
this last statement is, with reason, regarded as doubtful. 
Winds. The A. is in parts subject to the perpetual or 
trade winds, q. v.% in others, to the variable winds; and 
along some of its coasts, between the tropics, the winds 
are subject to a regular change according to the seasons; 
or, in other words, monsoons. q. v., are there prevalent. 
Principal currents. The current crossing the A. near 
the line, is called the Equatorial Current, q. v.; it runs 
from E. to W. The current which, in a direction from 
W. to E., traverses the North A. between 36° and 44°, 
bears the name of Gulf Stream, q. v.; and that which 
runs in the same direction, through the South A., between 
30° and 40° S. Lat., is called the South A. Current. Other 
currents pass the shores of both continents between 40° 
N. Lat. and 30° S. Lat. Along the Old Continent they 
run toward the equator; but on the shores of America, 
they flow from the line toward the poles. These latter 
kinds of currents are intimately connected with the equa¬ 
torial current: but very slightly, if at all, with the gulf- 
stream or the S. current. The trade-wind region is the 
saltest part of the A., it having been ascertained that 
the heaviest water in all this ocean is found between the 
parallels 17° N. and S. of the equator. — See Calm, Cur¬ 
rent, Drift-current, Gulf-weed, Gulf Stream, Ice, 
Iceberg, Sargasso Sea, Ocean, &c. 

Atlan'tic Tel'eg-rapk, n. [Lat .atlanlicus; Gr .trios, 
far, distant, and graphetn, to write.] The success of vari¬ 
ous attempts to send messages by electric agency through 
cables lying under water, for short distances, induced 
Professor Morse, of New York, to suggest the possibility 
of uniting Great Britain and America by a submarine 
cable, laid from shore to shore throughout the Atlantic 
ocean. In 1845, Mr. J. W. Brett registered an associa¬ 
tion, under the name of the General Oceanic Telegraph 
Company, to carry out the object above mentioned, and 
to connect England with the continent of Europe in 
various parts. The latter part of his design was success- 


A name fully accomplished in 1851, and public attention, in Eng¬ 
land, was, in consequence, again directed to the junction 
of Great Britain and America by similar means of inter- 
communication. N ewfoundland had already been united 
to the main-land of America by a submarine cable; and, 
in 1856, the Atlantic Telegraph Company was formed, 
with the design of laying a cable between St. John’s, 
Newfoundland, and Yalentia, in Ireland, along the bot¬ 
tom of the Atlantic in its shallowest part, which had 
been pointed out for the purpose by Captain Maury, and 
called by him the Telegraphic Plateau. Pecuniary as 
sistance was guaranteed to the company by the respec¬ 
tive governments of Great Britain and the United States; 
and both powers agreed to furnish ships for taking ou» 
the cable and placing it in its destined bed. After differ¬ 
ent attempts made to accomplish this great object, which 
all terminated without practical result, the cable was 
at last successfully laid, when, on the 5tli of August, 
1865, it broke, about 88 m. from Heart’s Content, in 
Newfoundland. Nothing daunted, the operators in this 
mighty scheme again set to work for the fourth time, and 
on the 28th J uly, 1866,the telegraphic junction was at last 
successfully achieved, and came into practical business 
use. as it lias since remained. In addition, the last ex¬ 
pedition recovered the lost cable of 1865, which has also 
since been brought into active operation. The wires in 
the U. States having been joined up for experiment from 
Heart’s Content to California, a message was sent from 
Yalentia, (Ireland,) at 7 21 a. m., Feb. 1, 1S68, and the 
acknowledgment of its receipt was received in Yalentia, 
at 7‘23; the whole operation having occupied two min¬ 
utes. The distance travelled was about 14,000 miles; 
and the message arrived, according to San Francisco 
time, at 11-20 P. M. on Jan. 31, or the day preceding that 
on which it left England. A reduced tariff of rates was 
issued by the company, Sept. 1, 1868. — The accompany¬ 
ing figure, in which the successive gradations in siz« 
represent the materials of 
which they are composed, 
gives a fair idea of a deep- 
sea cable. The upper and 
smaller end is the annealed 
steel wire centre, and the 
next gradation shows the 
small copper wires spirf.lly 
laid around it, forming a 
conductor of great strength 
and conductivity. This is 
insulated with pure gutta¬ 
percha, nine-sixteenths of 
an inch in diameter, laid on 
in three successive coatings, 
so as to insure perfect in¬ 
sulation. The core thus 
made is subjected to a test 
by a very sensitive galvan¬ 
ometer, so that there may 
be no doubt of its perfec¬ 
tion. Then, to protect the 
covering of gutta-percha, a 
coating of Manilla yarn, 
short spiral lay, is put on, 

and over this a second of Manilla yam, long spiral lay, 
is laid on in the reverse direction. The annealed steel 
wire weighs 330 pounds per mile; the copper wires, 475; 
the gutta-percha insulation, 475; and the outside pro- 
tection,75(J pounds. The total of 1 m. of cable wa» 
2,030- pounds. In later cables the weight of the wire 
employed has been considerably increased, though the 
method of manufacture is practically the same. It may 
further be said that the laying of the first cable was 
almost wholly due to the persistent endeavors of Cyrus 
W. Field, to whose labors were due the laying of the 
unsuccessful cable of 1858 and the successful one in 1866. 
Since the latter date a number of other lines have been 
laid, the first being a French line, laid in 1869, from 
Brest to the Island of St. Pierre, south of Newfoundland. 
In 1873 a line was laid from Lisbon to Pernambuco, in 
South America, by means of which Europe and this 
country were brought into direct communication with 
that continent. In 1874 and 1875 two other cables were 
laid from Valentia to Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, the 
latter weighing only 880 pounds per mile. A line 
was laid from Penzance to St, Pierre in 1879, one from 
England to Panama in 1882, and in 1884 the Bennett 
and Mackay line was laid from Yalentia to Torbay in 
Nova Scotia. Up to the present date the many lines oi 
telegraph cable laid between Europe and tins country 
have a total length of over 45,000 miles, while under 
1 lie seas of the whole world there are no less than 
375 cables, with a total length of about 185,000 miles. 
This total includes all those along the shores, and in 
the bays, gulfs and estuaries of rivers, but not those in 
lakes and interior water courses. The rates for mes¬ 
sages over the first line was $100 for 20 words of 5 
letters each, and $5 for every 5 letters extra. These 
rates were reduced one-half the next year, and have 
since been greatly cut down. The rate for a word of 10 
letters from New York to England, France and Ger¬ 
many is now 25 cents, and to other countries at a pro¬ 
portionate increase. See Telegraph. 

Atlan'tis, (the New,) the title of an allegorical fiction 
by Lord Bacon, and the name of an island described 
therein as being placed, like the Atlantis of early writers, 
in the middle of the Atlantic ocean. 

At'las. (Myth.) One of the Titans, son of Iapetus and 
Clymene. Jupiter, the conqueror of the Titans, con¬ 
demned him to bear the vault of heaven ; which fable 
arose from his lofty stature. By Pleione, the daughter 
of Oceanns, he had seven daughters, who, under the 
name of Pleiades or Atlantides, shose in the heaven* 



Pig. 228.— DEEP-SEA CABLE. 







































182 


AT MO 


ATMO 


ATMO 


At las (Mount), an extensive and lofty chain of 
mountains in N.W. Africa, extending through the greater 
part of Barbary, from Tunis to Morocco; and dividing 
the latter countries, and Algeria, from the great south-1 
ern desert of Sahara. The mountains which form the 
15. boundary of the empire of Morocco are the highest 
of the chain, one of them rising to an elevation of 11,000 
ft. above the sea. Our knowledge of the roads traversing 
this mountain-system is very scanty. It is believed that 
only two passes, Bebawan and Belavin, exist between 
the province of Suse and the country N. of the A. Far¬ 
ther E., between 5° and 4° W. Lon., lies the great caravan 
route, by which the commerce between Fez in Morocco, 
and Timbuctoo, in Soudan, is carried on. It traverses 
the districts of Tafilet and Drab, and connects with the 
great caravan road to Mecca. Copper, iron, lead, anti- 
tnouy, saltpetre, and rock-salt, are among the mineral 
productions of A. The inhabitants are called Berbers 
(a . v.). — A. gave its name to the Atlantic ocean. 

At las, n.; pi. Atlases. [From the giant Atlas; perhaps 
from Gr. a, euphonic, and tlenni, to bear.] {Anal.) The 
name of the first vertebra. It differs from the other ver¬ 
tebrae in having its body small and thin, and its fora¬ 
men very large, being in form somewhat like a ring. It 
is connected above with the condyles of the occipital 
bone, and receives the tooth-like process of the second 
cervical vertebra from below; the former admitting of 
moving the head up and down, the latter, from side to 
side. 

(Geog.) A name given to any number of maps col¬ 
lected in the form of a volume, probably because old 
works of the kind had a figure of Atlas bearing the world 
on his shoulders, engraved on the title-page. Boucher 
imagines the name to be derived from the German allass, 
satin, because maps were printed on soft paper with a 
glossy surface like satin. The name is also applied to 
any folio vol. of engravings, illustrating a particular 
subject. 

(Gnn.) A kind of silk cloth fabricated in the East 
Indies. 

At'las, in Illinois, a post-village of Pike co., 12 m. S.W. 
of Pittsfield. 

Atlas. in Michigan, a township of Lapeer co. 

—A post-township of Genesee co., about 10 m. S.E. of 
Flint. 

At'las, in Ohio, a post-office of Belmont co. 

At Law, a legal term, meaning, according to the course 
of the common law; in the law. 

Atlix 'co, a town of Mexico, state of Puebla, 20 m. S. of 
Pueblo de los Angelos, and situated in a fine and salu¬ 
brious country. 

At mid'oscope, n. (Chern .) An instrument invented by 
Babinet, to measure the rate of evaporation. 

Atmolog'ical, a. Relating or belonging to atmology. 

Atinol ogist, n. One who is versed in atmology. 

itniol'ogy, n. [Gr. ahnos, vapor, and logos, discourse.] 
(Phy.) That part of science which treats of the laws 
and phenomena of aqueous vapor. 

Atmoni'eter, n. [Gr. ahnos, vapor; metron, a meas¬ 
ure.] ( Phy.) An instrument for measuring the quantity 
of water evaporated under given circumstances. If it 
were not for the variety of causes which influence the 
# process of evaporation at the earth’s surface, an A. 
‘would be a simple instrument. A quantity of water, 
after being weighed, would have to be exposed in a 
measured vessel to the action of the atmosphere; the 
difference in weight, after the experiment, would give 
the amount of evaporation. But, meteorological and 
other causes so affect vaporous exhalations at the sur¬ 
face of the earth, that no accurate A. has hitherto been 
constructed. 

At'mospliere, n. [Fr. atmosphere ; from Gr. atinos, 
vapo’r, aud sphaira, sphere.] ( Phy.) The whole body of 
air or other mixture of gases which envelops a planet. 
We shall here devote ourselves exclusively to that which 
surrounds the earth, merely observing, that we have 
more or less reason to suppose that an A., in density 
comparable to that of the earth, envelops the sun, 
Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; but does not affect 
the moon. (See these several names.)—The subject of the 
A., treated in all its extent, would lead us much too far. 
Its chemical composition and weight have been already 
spoken of in the article Air, and we shall confine our¬ 
selves here to the description of its average state. The 
A. must be considered as a body of air revolving with the 
earth. This gives its several strata an increasing ve¬ 
locity as we recede from the earth's axis. For instance, 
at the equator, the air (if any), which is twice as distant 
from the centre of the earth as the surface, must revolve 
with double the actual velocity of the air at the surface. 
This consideration shows positively that the A. which 
really accompanies and revolves with the earth, certain¬ 
ly cannot extend in the smallest quantity above 20,000 
miles from the surface. For at that height the tendency 
to recede from the centre, known by the name of centri¬ 
fugal force, would counterbalance the weight, or ten¬ 
dency of particles toward the earth, and at a higher dis¬ 
tance would overcome it entirely. But we are not there¬ 
fore to conclude that there must be air, more or less. 
revolving with the earth up to so great a height. Forty 
or fifty miles is supposed to be the limit which it at¬ 
tains, except in a state of extreme rarefaction. Yet ob¬ 
servations on meteorites give reason to believe that the 
upper limit of the atmosphere is not less than 500 miles 
from the surface of the earth. Though the upper atmos¬ 
phere is in a state of very great tenuity, it still offers suffi¬ 
cient resistance to rapidly moving meteorites to raise 
them to the temperature of incandescence, and from the 
height at which this occurs that of the A. is estimated. 
Near the earth, even at great elevations above the level 
of the sea, we cannot say that observed temperatures cor¬ 


rectly represent the law of the atmosphere; for example, 
we cannot say that the average temperature of Quito, 
which is more than 9,000 feet abo"e the sea-level, is the 
average temperature of the air 9,000 feet above, and over, 
the sea. The only observation worthy of any confidence 
is that of Gay-Lussac, taken during his celebrated ascent, 
at a height of 6,«80 metres, or 7,654 yards, above the sea- 
level. The difference of temperature between air at the 
surface and at the height just mentioned was 40)4° C., or 
nearly 72%° F. This, if the decrease of temperature be 
uniform, gives a diminution of 1° F. for every 105 yards, 
or of 1° C. for every 173 metres of elevation. The fol¬ 
lowing table was deduced by Humboldt from various 
observations. It will serve to show how far the tem¬ 
peratures of elevated regions on the earth agree with 
those of the same height in the atmosphere, as deduced 
from the preceding. The first column is the height of the 
land above the level of the sea; the second, the mean 
temperature at and near the equator ; the third, the 
same in about45° of lat. (4 -) means above, and (—) below 
the freezing point. 


Elevation 

Equator. 

Lat. 45°. 

in Yards. 

Mean Temp. Centig. 

Mean Temp. Ce 

0 

+ 27° -5 

4- 12° -0 

1065 

+ 21° -8 

4- 5° -0 

2131 

4- 18° -4 

— 0° -2 

3197 

4- 14° -3 

— 4° -8 

4265 

4- 7° -0 


5328 

+ 1° -5 



From the preceding table, it appears that at the equa¬ 
tor, on the average of 5328 yards, a rise of 205 yards 
gives a fall of 1° C. But the tail is more rapid in the 
higher regions than in the lower. From 0 to 2131 yards 
of elevation, an elevation of 234 yards produces a fall of 
1°; but from 3197 to 5328 yards, an elevation of 166 
yards does the same. The argument in favor of the 
finite extent of the atmosphere, derived from the pre¬ 
ceding, is as follows: If we suppose an elevation of 200 
yards to produce a fall of 1° F., it follows, that, at a 
height of forty miles above the level of the sea, the tem¬ 
perature of the air must be 35u c F. below that of the 
sea, or certainly more than 300° below the freezing-point. 
This calculation is based on the conception that the 
air would be condensed into the liquid state at that 
low temperature, but recent experiment seems to show 
that pressure would also be necessary, while the ob¬ 
servations on meteoric incandescence negative the 
deductions here made.—The pressure of the A. is one 
of its most important properties. We owe the determi¬ 
nation of the weight of our A. to an invaluable instru¬ 
ment, the Barometer. The action and management of 
this instrument are explained under Barometer ; suffice 
it here, that the corrected height of the mercurial column 
represents the height of an envelope of mercury, at 
the temperature of 32° F., which would equal in weight 
the entire envelope of the earth. In so far as this ele¬ 
ment goes, our actual A. might be supplanted by a 
liquid mercurial ocean of the average depth of 29-97 
inches. A mercurial column 29-97 inches in height, 
and 1 square inch in section, weighs 14-73 lbs.; which 
gives us the equivalent height of a column of atmos¬ 
pheric air of the same section. The word atmosphere is 
often employed to express this weight of pressure on a 
square inch of surface, so that when we speak, in 
Mechanics, of the pressure of steam on a boiler as amount¬ 
ing to three A., we mean a pressure of about 45 lbs. on 
the square inch. The pressure on a square inch being 
thus ascertained, we have merely to multiply it by the 
number of square inches on the earth’s surface to obtain 
the total weight of the A. It amounts to 11-67085 tril¬ 
lions of lbs., or about yg-jy jyg o ol) °* eurt li's mass. 
—It appears, from observation, that the height of the 
mercurial A. is not the same in all latitudes, nor in any 
locality at all seasons, or at all hours of the day. The 
pressure of the A. in the northern hemisphere increases 
as we recede from the equator, reaching a maximum at 
30°N. Lat., and decreasing from30° to 65°, where itagain 
begins to rise. The greater height at 30° is said to be 
due to the accumulation of air at that latitude by the 
action of the trade-winds, q. v. As the heat of the 
earth’s surface increases the rarity of the air above it, 
and causes the air at the top of the heated column to 
overflow, we would expect that, during the year, the 
barometer would stand at a minimum in summer, and a 
maximum in winter. In reality, however, although the 
barometer is highest in midwinter, there is another 
maximum in midsummer, making thus two minima — 
one in spring, the other in autumn. This arises from 
the part which watery vapor plays in the pressure of 
the atmosphere. The heat of midsummer introduces 
into the air a large quantity of moisture, in the form of 
elastic vapor, which, adding its pressure to that of the 
dry air. raises what would otherwise be the minimum 
barometric column to a higher point than that at which 
it stands in spring and autumn. Similar causes affect 
the pressure of the A. during the 24 hours of the day. 
There are two maxima — one at 10 a. m., the other be¬ 
tween 10 and 11 p. m. ; and two minima—at 4 a. M.and 4 
p. m. Very slight variations indicate the existence of 
atmospheric tidal waves; but this subject is still involved 
in some obscurity. The pressure of the A. exercises a 
most important influence on the organism of the human 
frame. A man of ordinary stature is exposed to a pres¬ 
sure of about 14 tons: but as the air permeates the whole 
body, and presses equally in all directions, no incon¬ 
venience is found to result from it. From experiments 
instituted by the brothers Weber in Germany, it has 
been ascertained that the heads of the thigh and arm 
bones are kept in their sockets by the pressure of the 
A.; and in balloon ascents the aeronaut often suffers 


from bleeding at the nose, lips, and even eyes — a fact 
that would seem to indicate that the streugth of the 
blood-vessels has been adjusted with reference to at¬ 
mospheric pressure.—In respect to its form, the A. may 
be considered as a spheroid, elevated to the equator, oa 
account of the diurnal motion of the earth, aud also of 
the great rarefaction of the air by the sun’s rays, which 
there exert a powerful influence.—For the general sub¬ 
ject of the A., as connected with the weather, see Hy- 
grometry, Mkteorology, Temperaiure; and articles on 
particular subjects, as Aurora Borealis, 1>ew, Evapo¬ 
ration, Electricity (Atmospheric), IIeat, Rain, Wind, 
<tc.—For the A. as a medium of communication (taking 
this word in its widest sense), see Aerodynamics, Aero¬ 
nautics, Balloon, Sail, Sound, Vibration, Windmill.— 
For its effects upon animal and vegetable life, see De¬ 
composition, Respiration, Vegetation; and, vice versd, 
for the effects of the imponderable substances upon it, 
see Electricity, Heat, Refraction. For instruments 
used to measure its state, see Barometer, Thermometer, 
Eudiometer, Hygrometer, Manometer. For the history 
of atmospherical researches, see the following names: 
Hero, Ctesibius, Galileo, Torricelli, Pascal, Boyle, 
Mariotte, Priestley, Scheele, Black, Lavoisier, Cav¬ 
endish, &c. 

(Elect.) The name of A. is given to a certain medium 
or electrical influence, supposed to be diffused around aq 
electrical body. 

—Figuratively and morally, a pervading influence; as, an 
atmosphere of virtue. 

Atmospher'ic, Atmosptser'ical, a. Pertaining 

to the atmosphere, or dependent on it; as, atmospheric 
engine (see Engine) ; atmospheric railway- (see Railway) ; 
atmospheric tide (see Tide), &c. 

Atmospliei-orogy. n. [Gr. atmos, vapor, sphaira, 
sphere, and logos, discourse.] A treaty or discourse on 
the atmosphere. 

Ato'ka, in Indian Territory, a post-olfice of the Choctaw 
nation. 

Atoll', Atollon, «. [A Maidive word.] (Geog.) An 
island of coral, consisting of a circular reef or l ing of 
coral, surrounding a lagoon of the ocean. 

Atol'mia, n. [Gr. a, priv.. and tolma, confidence.] 
(Med.) Want of confidence; discouragement. A state of 
mind unfavorable to health, and injurious in disease; it 
is the antithesis of Eutolmia. 

At'olph, Ad'olph, At'aulph, or Ad'aulph, the first king 
of tho Goths. lie appears to have been a brother-in-law 
of Alaric, whom lie joined during the siege of Rome, 
with an army raised in Pannonia, and whom lie suc¬ 
ceeded. lie defeated some pretenders to the empire, hut 
was unable to take Massilia. In 414, he married Placi- 
dia, the sister of the Emperor Honorius. He assumed the 
manners of the Romans, and having conquered Spain, 
was assassinated at Barcelona in 415. 

At'om, n. [Fr. atome; Lat. atomus; Gr. atomns, from a, 
priv., and lemnn , to cut.] A particle of matter so small 
that it cannot be cut, or divided into smaller particles; 
the smallest component part of a body; anything ex¬ 
tremely small. 

( Phys.) The term A. expresses theoretically the small¬ 
est particle of matter, which is believed to be incapable 
of division into parts. A discussion lias been carried on 
from ancient times relative to the finite or infinite divisi¬ 
bility of matter, and although the development of the 
atomic theory was supposed to give the strongest evi¬ 
dence of its limited divisibility, yet it may be fairly 
doubted whether the question can he decided. The di¬ 
visibility of matter apparent to the naked eye, and as¬ 
certained by calculation, is almost beyond conception. 
Thus, according to Kane, 0-01 of a cubic line of silver, 
dissolved in nitric acid, will produce a distinct milkiness 
in 500 cubic inches of clear water containing a trace of 
common salt, so that a particle of silver must he much 
less than the billionth of a cubic line in size. It will give 
a more tangible idea of a billion to say that a man 
counting seconds by a watch day and night would re¬ 
quire 31,675 years to arrive at that number. Dr. T. 
Thomson has shown that the size of a particle of lead 
cannot amount to so much as the 888,490.900 OOU,000th 
part of a cubic inch. The apparent infinite divisibility 
ot matter is more clearly shown in the minuteness of 
the smallest living organized beings, of which millions 
would he required to constitute a point visible to the 
naked eye. Yet each of these creatures possesses some 
diversity of structure, and must be made up of a great 
number of atoms. The mind is lost in attempting to 
conceive the limit in minuteness thus evidently attained 
by the chemical atom of matter. By observations upon 
gases some insight into structure of matter has been 
gained, it being fairly well known that a gas is not a 
continuous substance, but is made up of an enormous 
number of distinct and independent particles, each in 
active motion, and coming into collision with others at 
the rate of some eight thousand million times a second. 
The number of such separate particles in a cubic inch 
of air is almost inconceivably great, it being expressed 
by a unit followed by 21 ciphers. Aud those particles 
by no means fill the space thus allotted them, but have a 
flee area of movement, each occupying probably less 
than the five hundredth part of this very minute area. 
Yet those particles are not atoms, but what are known 
as molecules ( q. v.), each of which is made up of at 
least two and perhaps many atoms. As to the constitu¬ 
tion of the atom, various hypotheses have been ad¬ 
vanced, none of which has proved fully satisfactory to 
modern scientists. The original idea, that entertained 
by the Greek atomic philosophers, was that the atom is 
a perfectly hard and solid body, incapable of separation 
into parts, and that infinite divisibility, while theoret¬ 
ically possible, is practically impossible. Of modern 









ATOM 


ATOM 


ATOM 


theories of the atom, that of Boscovich maintains that ! 
each atom is an indivisible point, having position but 
n»t extension in space. It is capable of motion, and 
has a degree of resisting force aiding it to maintain its 
line of motion. It is also endowed with attractive and 
repulsive energy, any two atoms attracting or repelling 
each other with a force dependent on their distance 
apart. At very minute distances repulsion takes the 
place of attraction, and by its action prevents the junc¬ 
tion of any two atoms. In this theory the atom has no 
parts or dimensions. It has no extension in space, and 
exists as a mere geometrical point. As a result, as it 
occupies no measureable space, two atoms may occupy 
the same place. It is practically a mere centre of force, 
itself withdrawn from contact, its force ever acting ! 
throughout a certain area. There is only one other 
definite theory of atoms to which we need ‘allude, that 
known as the \ ortex Atom theory, propounded by Sir 
William Thomson. In this view an atom is a vortex 
ring, consisting of a vortical motion set up in the in¬ 
divisible ether, or basic substance of the universe, and 
maintaining its formation through infinite duration 
from the absence of frictional force to overcome or dis¬ 
sipate it. Many experiments have been made on smoke 
rings or vortices, and various interesting deductions 
are made from these, the principal being that the sub¬ 
stance of such a vortex in a frictiouless fluid must be 
invariable in volume, and each vortex unchanging in 
shape and infinite in duration. This theory was 
abandoned by its author and of late years the dis¬ 
covery has been made that tho atom is a composite 
structure, composed of a large number of very minute 
parti les, known as electrons, which are probably in 
rapid rotation. 

Atomic. Atom'ical, a. Pertaining to, or consist¬ 
ing of atoms; extremely minute. 

Atoni'ically, adv. In an atomical manner; in accord¬ 
ance with the atomic philosophy. 

Atuin'ic Philosophy. Leucippus, a philosopher 
of Abdera, who flourished about 450 B. c., is generally 
regarded as the original propounder of what has been 
called the Atomic Philosophy. It was adopted by De¬ 
mocritus, in his Cosmogony, and afterwards by Epicurus, 
to whom its celebrity is chiefly owing. The following 
account of this doctrine is taken from Dr. Good’s Bonk 
of Nature , and is a clear and concise sketch of the 
theory contained in the writings of Epicurus and his 
followers:—“ The A. P. of Epicurus, in its mere physical 
contemplation, allows of nothing but matter and space, 
which are equally infinite and unbounded, which have 
equally existed from all eternity, and from different 
combinations of which every visible form is created. 
These elementary principles have no common property 
with each other; for whatever matter is, that space is 
the reverse of; and whatever space is, matter is the 
contrary to. The actually solid parts of all bodies, 
therefore, are matter; their actual pores, space; and the 
parts which are not altogether solid, but an intermixture 
of solidity and pore, are space and matter combined. 
Anterior to the formation of the universe, space and 
matter existed uncombined, oriu their pure and elemen¬ 
tary state. Space, in its elementary state, is absolute 
and perfect void; matter, in its elementary state, con¬ 
sists of inconceivably minute seeds or atoms so small 
that the corpuscles of vapor, light, and heat are com¬ 
pounds of them; and so solid that they cannot possibly 
be broken or abraded by any concussion or violence 
whatever. Every atom is possessed of certain intrinsic 
powers of motion. Under the old school of Democritus, 
the perpetual motions hence produced were of two 
kinds: a descending motion, from the natural gravity 
of the atoms: and a rebounding motion, from collision 
and mutual clash. Besides these two motions, Epicurus 
supposed that some atoms were occasionally possessed 
of a third, by which, in some very small degree, they 
descended in an oblique or curvilinear direction, in this 
respect resembling the oscillations of the magnetic 
needle. These infinite groups of atoms, flying through 
all time and space in different directions, and under 
different laws, have interchangeably tried and exhibited 
every possible mode of rencontre, sometimes repelled 
from each other by a concussion, and sometimes adher¬ 
ing to each otiier from their own jagged or pointed con¬ 
struction, or from the casual interstices which two or 
more connected atoms must produce, and which may be 
just adapted to those of other figures, as globular, oval, 
or square. Hence the origin of compound and visible 
bodies; hence the origin of large masses of matter; 
hence, eventually, the origin of the world itself. When 
these primary atoms are closely compacted, and but 
little vacuity or space lies between, they produce those 
kinds of substances which we denominate solids, as 
stones and metals; when they are loose and disjointed, 
ami a large quantity of space or vacuity is interposed, 
they exhibit bodies of lax texture, as wool, water, and 
vapor. The world, thus generated, is perpetually sus¬ 
tained by the application of fresh tides- of elementary 
atoms, flying with inconceivable rapidity through all 
the infinity of space, invisible from their minuteness, and 
occupying the places of those that are as perpetually 
flying off. fet nothing is eternal or immutable but 
these*elementary seeds or atoms themselves. The com¬ 
pound forms of matter are continually decomposing and 
dissolving into their original corpuscles. The world 
itself is a compound, though not an organized being; 
sustained and nourished, like organized beings, from 
the material pabulum that floats through the void of 
infinity. The world itself must, therefore, in the same 
manner, perish; it had a beginning, and it will have an 
end Its present crasis will be decompounded; it will 
return to its original, its elementary atoms, and new 


183 


worlds will arise from its destruction. Space is infinite, 
material atoms are infinite, but the world is not infinite. 
This, then, is not the only world, nor the only material 
system, that exists. The cause that has produced this 
visible system is competent to produce others; it has 
been acting perpetually from all eternity, and there are 
other worlds and other systems of worlds existing around 
us.” — During the most flourishing periods of the Greek 
philosophy, this doctrine of matter consisting of an 
assemblage of indivisible particles seems to have kept 
its ground under various modifications; the idea of one 
elementary matter deriving its form and properties from 
the shape and union of the particles composing it, is a 
simplification of the doctrine of Anaxagoras. 1 

Atomic Theory, n. (Chem.) Every body is supposed 
to consist of atoms of unknown size, form, and weight, 
which, being infinitely hard, cannot be further subdi¬ 
vided. The atoms of elements are simple, those of com¬ 
pounds are compound. No atom has ever been seen, 
even by the most powerful microscopes, although parti¬ 
cles of bodies less than xo oV oo of an inch in diameter 
have been discerned by their aid; the forms of atoms 
are, therefore, unknown. Although the actual size and 
weight of the ultimate atoms of bodies cannot be ascer¬ 
tained, it is easy to discover their relative size and 
weight. For instance, it is found by experiment that 
1 grain of hydrogen combines with 80 grains of bromine 
to form a definite compound, and never in any other 
proportion; it is therefore supposed that the number of 
atoms of each body is the same, but that the weight of 
each atom is as 1 to 80. This is borne out by the fact 
that bromine is exactly 80 times as heavy as hydrogen, 
a cubic inch of theone uniting with exactly 1 cubic inch 
of the other. The numbers 1 and 80, therefore, represent 
the weight of the atoms or the atomic weights of these 
bodies; and it follows that 81 is the atomic weight of 
the compound formed by their union. These numbers 
are also termed the chemical equivalent or combining 
proportion of these substances. All the other elements 
have their combining proportions or atomic weights, and 
are subject to the same laws as hydrogen and bromine. 
It often happens that double, treble, and quadruple 
atoms of one element will unite with a single atom of 
another element to form a compound; for instance, the 
following compounds of nitrogen and oxygen occur: — 
Nitrogen, 14 grains; Oxygen, 8 grains. 


ii 

14 

(t 

“ 16 

(( 

14 

«( 

“ 24 

»( 

14 

(( 

« 32 

u 

14 

M 

“ 40 


Here we find one atom of nitrogen uniting with a single, 
double, treble, quadruple, and quintuple atom of oxygen, 
and never in any other proportion — as N15 to 08, or 
N14 to 07, for example. This is called the doctrine 
of definite proportions, and is a consequence of the the¬ 
ory of atoms of a constant size and weight laid down 
above. It was first put forth by John Dalton, of Man¬ 
chester. It has been said above, that the atoms of the 
same body are of constant size; but it happens in seve¬ 
ral cases that the atoms of different bodies are of differ¬ 
ent sizes. Thus, though it is found that one cubic inch 
of hydrogen unites with one cubic inch of bromine, it 
by no means follows that equal volumes of carbon and 
iron unite in chemical combination. There is great 
diversity in the relative sizes of elementary atoms, those 
of carbon being only half the size of those of iron. The 
weight of an atom of carbon would be 12, and that of an 
atom of iron would be 56; but the quantity of carbon 
would only take up half the space of the quantity of 
iron. It has been found that bodies of the same com¬ 
bining volume agree strongly in their properties. Iodine, 
chlorine, and bromine are very similar in their reactions: 
and there are several other groups of elements formed 
on the same basis: (see Atomic Volume.) To sum up, 
atomic weight is the relative weight of the atoms of 
bodies, or, which is the same thing, the proportion in 
which they unite. Keasoning on this theory, tables 
have been constructed of the atomic weights of all the 
elements; the atomic weights of compounds being evi¬ 
dently the sum of the atomic weights of their constitu¬ 
ents. " Hydrogen has been taken as the unitary body by 
certain chemists, from being the lightest of all known 
substances. Others have taken 100 parts of oxygen as 
the standard. This latter arrangement, by increasing 
the figures, renders it less convenient to work. 

Atomic Weights, Combining Proportions, or Chemical 
Equivalents of the Elements. 


Elements. 

Svmbol. 

Hydrogen = I. 

Aluminium (or Aluminum).. A1 

27- 

Antimony (Stibium).... 


120- 




Barium. 

..Ba 

137- 

Beryllium. 

.Be 

9* 

Bismuth. 

.Bi 

208- 

Boron. 

.B 

11- 

Bromine. 

.Br 

80- 

Cadmium. 

.Cd 

112- 

Csesium. 

.Cs 

133- 

Calcium. 

.Ca 

40- 

Carbon. 

.C 

12- 

Cerium . 

.Ce 

140- 

Chlorine. 

.Cl 

35-4 

Chromium. 

.Cr 

52- 

Cobalt.. 

.Co 

58-6 

Copper ( Cuprum) .. 

.Cu 

63- 

Didymium. 

.D 

142- 

Erbium. 

.E 

166- 

Fluorine. 

.F 

19- 

Gallium. 

.Ga 

70- 


Germanium. 


72-3 

Gold ( Aurum) . 


196-5 

Hydrogen. 


1- 

Indium. 


113-4 

Iodine. 


126-5 

Iridium. 


1925 

Iron ( Ferrum ). 


56- 

Lanthanium. 


138* 

Lead (Plumbum) . 


206-4 

Lithium. 


7- 

Magnesium. 

.Mg 

24. 

Manganese. 


55- 

Mercury ( Hydrarqyrum)... 

.Hg 

200- 

Molybdenum. 

.Mo 

96- 

Nickel. 


58-6 

Nicobium. 


94. 

Nitrogen. 


14- 

Osmium. 


195- 

Oxygen. 


16- 

Palladium. 

.Pd 

106- 

Phosphorus. 


31- 

Platinum. 


194-4 

Potassium (Kalium) . 


39- 

Rhodium. 


104- 

Rubidium. 

... Rb 

85* 

Ruthenium.. 


103-5 

Samarium. 


150- 

Scandium. 


44- 

Selenium. 

... So 

79- 

Silicon. 


28- 

Silver (Argentum) . 

...Ag 

108- 

Sodium ( Natrium ). 


23- 

Strontium.. 


87-5 

Sulphur. 


32- 

Tantalum. 

... Ta 

182* 

Tellurium. 

....Te 

125- 

Thallium. 

...Tl 

204- 

Thorium. 


232- 

Tin ( Stannum ). 

....Sn 

118- 

Titanium. 

....Ti 

48* 

Tungsten ( Wolfram) . 

„..W 

1836 

L rauium. 

...X 

240- 

Vanadium. 

....V 

51. 

Ytterbium. 

....Yb 

173- 

Yttrium. 


89- 

Zinc. 

...Zn 

65- 

Zinconium. 

....Zr 

90- 


These atomic weights have not been decided upon 
without great difficulty. They have been fixed by vari¬ 
ous kinds of evidence, obtained by very numerous and 
often greatly varied experiments. The result has been 
to make important changes in the tables of atomic 
weights formerly given; many of the weights now 
accepted being double those formerly used, while some 
are three and others four times the old numbers. Many 
efforts have been made to deduce some regular relation 
between the numbers and the properties of elementary 
atoms, the most successful of these being that made by 
Mendeleeff, who formulated what is known as the 
Periodic Law, which states that the properties of an 
element are a function of its atomic weight. He, and 
others before him, found that when the elements are 
arranged in progressive order of their atomic weights 
a certain regularity is observable in the succession of 
elements with analogous chemical properties. So well 
marked is this, that tables of the elements can he formed 
based on their double relation of numbers and prop¬ 
erties, and in these tables certain gaps appear which it 
was predicted would yet be filled by elements of certain 
given weights and properties. It is interesting to he 
able to state that these predictions have been fulfilled 
in the discovery and character of certain elements new 
to science, notably Gallium and Germanium. This 
adds greatly to the standing of the theory. 

Atom ic Volume is the relative sue of the com¬ 
bining proportions or atoms of bodies, just as atomi# 
weight is the relative weight of their combining propor¬ 
tions or atoms. It is determined by dividing the atomic 
weight by the specific gravity. As the principal re¬ 
searches on atomic weights have been made in Germany, 
the oxygen standard is generally used in calculating 
them. As before stated (see Atomic Theory), substances 
fall into several well-marked groups, possessing analo¬ 
gous properties, and giving isomorphous compounds. 
The following table will be sufficient to show this fact:— 



Equiv. 0=100. 

Atom. vol. 

Sp gr. 

Cobalt.. 

. 369. 

. 44. 

... 8-39 

Iron . 

. 350. 

. 44 . 

.... 7-95 


. 369 . 

. 41 . 


Iridium. 

.1232. 

. 57 . 

.... 21-6 

Osmium.. .. 

.1244 . 


.... 21-8 

Platinum .. 

. 1232 . 

. 57. 

.... 21-6 

Gold. 

. 2458. 

.128. 

... 19-2 


.1350 . 

.128. 

.... 10-53 

Tellurium 

. 800 . 

.128.. 

.... 6-25 

Bromine_ 

.1000.. 

.320. 

.... 312 

Chlorine. .. 

. 443. 

.320.. 

.... 1-38 

Iodine. 

.1587. 

.320 . 

.... 4-95 


It has been shown, by Kopp, that those elements which 
are isomorphous possess the same atomic size. This is 
true of numerous isomorphous compounds. Sulphate 
of magnesia and sulphate of zinc crystallize in the same 
forms, and have the same atomic size; although the 
atomic size of magnesium and zinc are different. The 
mysterious relations existing between the atomic vol¬ 
umes of different compounds and elements has lately 
received particular attention from many chemists, great 
light having been thrown on the subject by the researches 
of Kopp, Schroder, Felhol, Playfair, and Joule. — See 
Specific Gravity. 

Atoiu'ic Weight, n. pi. (Chern.) See Atomic Tiwori. 
















































































































184 


ATON 


ATRA 


ATRO 


At'omisin, n. [Fr. atomisme .] The doctrine of the 
atomic philosophy. 

At'oiui set 4 , v. a. To make speculations respecting atoms. 

— v. a. To i educe to atoms. 

Atomoi'ogy, n. [Gr. atomos, atom, and logos, discourse.] 
The doctrine of atoms. 

Aton'tlo y Antil'lon, Don Isidoro, a Spanish admi¬ 
ral of the 16th century, represented to he the first Span¬ 
iard who took possession of California. With 2 ships 
and 100 men, A. sailed from Chacala, Mexico. After 
undergoing many privations, and fighting many battles 
with the Indians, he made, in Oct., 1583, for the large 
hay in 26° 30' Lat., to which he gave the name of St. 
Bruno. Here ho took ceremonial possession of the prov. 
of Lower California, in the name of the Spanish govern¬ 
ment. 

Atone', v. n. [at and one, as in Lat. ad, to, and unus, one; 
i. e., to lie as one, to reconcile, which is the primary mean¬ 
ing of the word.] To stand as a substitute or an equiv¬ 
alent for; to stand for; to make expiation. 

“ The murderer fell, and blood atoned for blood.”—Pope. 

■— v. a. To make reconciliation; to expiate; to satisfy, or 
render satisfaction. 

44 Or each atone his guilty love with life.”— Pope. 

Atone'ment, n. A substitution of something offered, 
or of some personal suffering, for a penalty which would 
otherwise he exacted; expiation; satisfaction; recon¬ 
ciliation. 

44 Surely it is not a sufficient atonement for the writers, that 
they profess loyalty for the government.”— .Swift. 

44 He seeks to make atonement 
Between the Duke of Glo'ster and your brothers. 44 — Shake. 

( Theol .) In theology, A. has respect to offences com¬ 
mitted against the Deity; it is partly connected with 
that of sacrifice, q. v.; hut it is not identical with it; for 
it is not certain that.all sacrifices had A. for their object; 
and sacrifice, as commonly understood, was only one 
among other methods of A. — The practice of A. is re¬ 
markable for its antiquity and universality, proved by 
the earliest records that have come down to us of all 
nations, and by the testimony of ancient and modern 
travellers. In the oldest books of the Hebrew Scrip¬ 
tures, we have numerous instances of expiatory rites 
where A. is the prominent feature, occupying, in fact, a 
large portion of the four last books of the Pentateuch. 
In some cases the A. was made for a specific offence 
(Lev. iv.; Nam. xvi. 46); in others it had reference to 
a state of transgression, as especially in the case of the 
scape-goat, on the day of expiation. (Lev. xvi.) — The 
offender again either atoned by his own personal act, or 
received the benefit of A. by the act of another. (Lev. iv.) 
At the earliest date to which we can carry our inquiries 
by means of the heathen records, we meet with the same 
notiou of A .—The practice of general atonement among 
the heathen nations, whatever may have been its origin, 
must have been greatly encouraged by a certain article 
in the popular creed, which is probably expressed pretty 
accurately by the saying put into the mouth of Solou by 
Herodotus, that “ the Deity is altogether a jealous being, 
and fond of troubling the even course of affairs.” — An 
instance of A. meets us in the very opening of the Iliad. 
Agamemnon having offended Apollo in the person of his 
priest, by refusing a ransom for his daughter, is not con¬ 
tent with restitution, but proceeds to atone for his fault 
by an offering, the purpose of which is declared by Ulys¬ 
ses (II. i. 442): “Agamemnon sent me to sacrifice a sacred 
hecatomb to Apollo in behalf of the Danai, that we may 
appease the Sovereign God.”—Among the many other in¬ 
stances which will readily occur to a reader of the an¬ 
cient classics, the sacrifice of Iphigenia by her father, 
to appease the wrath of Diana, is distinguished by the 
remarkable circumstance of the substitution of one vic¬ 
tim for another by the offended goddess.— If we pursue 
our inquiries through the accounts left us by the Greek 
and Roman writers of the barbarous nations with which 
they were acquainted, from India to Britain, we shall 
find the sameuotionand similar practices of A. Itshows 
itself among the various tribes of Africa, the islanders of 
the South seas, and even that most peculiar race, the 
natives of Australia, either in the shape of some offering, 
or some mutilation of the person. — It is all but univer¬ 
sally acknowledged by the believers in revelation, that 
the Levitic A. were,-in part at least, typical of that one 
great sacrifice on which the Christian doctrine of the 
atonement is founded. The nature of this publication 
does not allow us to consider this part of the subject at a 
length and in a manner suited to its importance. We 
can do little more than state what is understood by the 
Christian when he speaks of the A. He does not con¬ 
sider man, according to the heathen notion already men¬ 
tioned, to be the object of a capricious and vengeful en¬ 
mity, but through a sinful nature, and practices and 
affections conformable to that nature, to have come into 
a state of alienation from God; in other words, he believes 
that God is just and holy, that man liassinned, and must 
therefore be punished. This being his condition, he fur¬ 
ther believes that the Divine Being, revealed to us under 
the title of the Son of God, interposed between the sen¬ 
tence and its execution, suffered in our stead, and atoned 
by his death for our sin; that the immediate consequences 
were, remission of the original sentence, and restoration 
to a state which is still probationary, but in which man 
is made capable of a permanent reunion with his Maker. 
The believer in the doctrine of the A. supposes that the 
sacrifice was necessary according to a law fixed in the 
counsels of God (which law he also supposes to be revealed 
to us) that sin must be atoned for before it can be par¬ 
doned ; but he distinguishes between the necessity of the 
sacrifice itself, and the further purpose of God in causing 
it to be publicly made, and providing that it should be 


universally known. He supposes the knowledge of the 
fact to be necessary to the formation of the Christian 
character, and its moral consequences to be a deeper 
sense of the turpitude of sin; whereas there might other¬ 
wise be danger lest that should be lightly accounted of 
which appeared to have been lightly forgiven; and also 
a new and powerful motive to a love of the Supreme 
Being, supplying a remedy for that selfish principle which 
might prevail, if the only motives to obedience were the 
hope of reward and the fear of punishment. — We have 
endeavored to state the doctrine of the A. in such terms 
as may be accepted by all who accept the doctrine itself 
on the authority of Scripture. — We have also without 
qualification called the doctrine in question a doctrine 
of the Christian religion; though we are well aware 
that there are some whose views of the gospel dispensa¬ 
tion and interpretation of Scripture have led them, while 
fully admitting the divine origin of Christianity, to reject 
as unscriptural the doctrine of the A. But our space 
being limited, we are obliged, with due deference to all 
religious thinkers, to limit ourselves to the general belief. 

Aton'er, n. One who atones. 

AtOli'ic, a. [Gr. a, priv., and tonos, tone.] (Med.) Want¬ 
ing tone. 

(Gram.) Unaccented. 

— n. (Med.) A medicine capable of allaying organic excite¬ 
ment or irritation. 

(Gram.) An unaccented word. 

Aton'ing 4 , p. a. Reconciling; making amends or satis¬ 
faction. 

At'ony, n. [Gr. a, not, and tonos, tone.] (Med.) A term 
used to denote deficiency in power or tone; generally 
applied to muscular power. 

A'tooi. one of the largest of the Sandwich Islands, in 
the South Pacific Ocean. Area , 500 sq. m.; Lat. 21° 67' 
N.; Lon. 159° 39' W. J’op. 55,000. 

AtO|»'. [a and top.] On the top; at the top. 

44 Atop whereof, but fur more rich, appeared 
The work as of a kingly palace-gate." — Milton. 


Atos'sa, daughter of Cyrus, 530 b. c.; was successively 
married to Cambyses, Smerdis, one of the Magi, and, 
Darius, son of Hydaspes, the last of whom she incited to 
invade Greece. — A poetical name given by Pope, in his 
Moral Essays, to Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough. 

Atouqui'a, a seaport of Portugal, in the prov. of Estre- 
madura, 42 m. N. by W. of Lisbon. 

Ati'alklla'rian, Atrabila'rious. a. [Lat. ater, 
atra, black; bilis, bile.] Melancholy; full bf bile. 

Atrabila'rionsness, n. The state of being melan¬ 
choly. 

Atrabil'iary, a. (Med.) Melancholic; hypochondriac; 
from the supposed predominance of an imaginary acrid 
substance named atrabilis, said to be secreted by the pan¬ 
creas or by the supra-renal capsules. Hence the epithet 
of A. was given to the renal capsules, arteries, and veins. 

Atrabil'ious, a. Melancholic or hypochondriac. 

Atra'gene, n.(Bot.) A genus of plants, tribe Ranuncula- 
cetE. The whorl-leaved Virgin’s 
Bower, Clematis verticillaris, is 
a handsome climber, found in 
highland woods in the U. States. 

Stem ascending trees 15 ft. by 
means of its twisting petioles. 

At each node is a whorl of four 
3-foliate leaves, and 2 large pur¬ 
ple flowers, blossoming in May 
and June. 

Atramcnt'al, Atra men t'« 

ous. a. Inky ; black ; an 
atrame.nt.ous quality. 

Atrament'uin, n. [Lat.] 

(Antiquity.) This term was ap¬ 
plied to any black coloring sub¬ 
stance, for whatever purpose it might be used. The inks 
of the ancients seem to have been more durable than 
our own; they were thicker and more unctuous, in sub¬ 
stance and durability more resembling the ink now used 
by printers. An inkstand was discovered at Herculane¬ 
um, containing ink as thick as oil, and still usable for 
writing. Fig. 230 represents an inkstand found at Pom¬ 
peii, and the mode of reading an ancient book. The an- 



Fig. 229. 
virgin’s bower. 



Fig. 230. 

cients used inks of various colors. Red ink, made of 
minium or vermilion, was used for writing the titles 
and beginnings of books. So also was ink marie of ru¬ 
brica, “red ochre;” and because the headings of laws 


were written with rubrica, the word rubric came to be 
used for the civil law. So album, a white or whited ta¬ 
ble, on which the praetors’ edicts were written, was used 
in a similar way. A person devoting himself to album 
and rubrica, was a person devoting himself to the law. 

Atra'ni, a small seaport of S. Italy, prov. of Principato 
Citra, on the Gulf of Salerno, near Amalfi; pop. about 
2 , 200 . • 

Atra'to. a river of S. America, in the United States of 
Colombia, dep. of Choco, which after a course of 200 
miles northerly, enters the Gulf of Darien. Small vessels 
can ascend it as far as Citara, 140 m. from its source. It 
was purposed to connect this river with that of the San 
Juan, and thus form a canal which will join the Atlan¬ 
tic and Pacific. 

Atre'us, (Myth.) son of Pelops and Ilippodamia. He and 
his brother Thyestes murdered their half-brother Chry- 
sippus, from jealousy of the affection entertained for him 
by their father. Thereupon, they fled to Eurystheus, 
with whose daughter, iErope, A. united himself, and, 
after the death of his father-in-law, became king of My- 
cene. Thyestes, yielding to an unlawful passion for the 
wife of his brother, dishonored his bed, and had two sons 
by her. A., after the discovery of this injury, banished 
Thyestes with his sons. Thirsting for revenge, Thyestes 
conveyed away secretly a son of his brother, and insti¬ 
gated him to murder his own father. This design was 
discovered, and the youth, whom A. thought to be the 
son of his brother, was put to death. Too late did the 
unhappy father perceive his mistake. A horrible revenge 
was necessary to give him consolation. He pretended 
to be reconciled to Thyestes, and invited him, with his 
two sons, to a feast: and after he had caused the latter 
to be secretly slain, he placed a dish made of their flesh 
before Thyestes, and, when he had finished eating, 
brought the bones of his sons, and showed him, with a 
scornful smile, the dreadful revenge which he had taken. 
At this spectacle, the poets say, the sun turned back in 
his course, in order not to throw light upon such a hor¬ 
rible deed. 

A'tri, or A'tria (anc. Atrium), a town of S. Italy, prov. 
of Teramo, 5 m. from the Adriatic, on a steep mountain; 
pop. about 11,000. 

At'ritlse. See Agamemnon. 

A-tri|>', adv. (Naut.) An anchor is said to be atrip at the 
moment it is drawn out of the ground in a perpendicu¬ 
lar position. A top-sail is a-trip when it is just started 
from the cap. 

Atr jpal'cla, a town of S. Italy, prov. of Avellino, on the 

Sabbato; pop. 5.175. 

At'riplex, n. (But.) A genus of plants, ord. Chennpodi- 
aceCE. The species A. hortensis, Garden or Golden Ora- 
clie, sparingly naturalized in cultivated grounds, is au 
annual plant; stem erect, herbaceous, 3 ft. or more high, 
with thick leaves of a uniform color on both sides : 
flowers green, in terminal, interrupted racemes or spikes, 
blossoming in July. It is sometimes cultivated as a pot¬ 
herb. — The species Patula, Arenaria, Lacmiata, and 
Alimus, are also found in our country. 

A'triuin, n.; pi. Atria. [Gr. aithrios, exposed to the 
air.] (Arch.) The entrance-hall and most splendid apart¬ 
ment of a Roman house. It consisted of a large covered 
court, with an opening in the centre of the roof, termed 
the enmpluvium, through which the rain-water descended 
into a cistern let into the floor beneath. It was the 
most highly decorated apartment in the whole house. 
Upon the walls were drawings representing ancient 



Fig. 231. — ATRIUM OF THE VILLA OF.DIOMEDES AT POMPEII. 


mythological incidents, surrounded by borders formed 
of elegant arabesques. Even the floors were frequently 
enriched with pictures executed in mosaic. The owner 
of the house here received his morning visitors; and 
here the mistress superintended the labors of tier female 
slaves, while engaging in weaving or other occupations. 
The temples also had atria, where the senators and 
others sometimes held meetings. 

Atro'cious, a. [Fr. atroce; Lat. atrox, atrocis. from 




















































ATTA 


ATTA 


ATTA 


185 


ater, black, dark, gloomy.] Extremely heinous, crimi¬ 
nal, or cruel; enormous; flagitious; horrible; frightful. 

Atro'eiously, adv. In an atrocious manner. 

Atro'ciousness, n. Quality of being atrocious. 

Atro city, n. [Fr. atrocite.] Enormous wickedness; 
enormity; horrible cruelty. 

At'ropa, n. [Gr. atropos, inflexible; the name of one 
of the Parcae, q. ».] ( Bot .) A genus of plants, order 

Solanacece. — A. belladonna, the Deadly Nightshade, is 
very common in Europe, and happily not naturalized in 
our country. All parts of the plant are narcotic, and 
the berries, which are of a black shining color like black 
cherries, are very attractive, often fatally so, to children. 
It owes its poisonous quality to the presence of an alka¬ 
loid called atropine, which exists in the plant in combi¬ 
nation with malic acid. Belladonna is much used in 
medicine to allay pain and spasmodic action, Ac., to 
cause dilatation* of the pupil, and as a prophylactic 
against scarlatina. 

At'ropal, At'ropous, a. (Bot.) The same as Otho- 
tropous, q. v. 

At'roplltecl, p. a. Affected with atrophy; wasted away. 

At rophy, n. [Fr. atrophic; Lat. and Gr. atrophia; 
from Gr. a, priv., and trophe, nourishment.] (Med.) A 
term which denotes a wasting, from deficient nutriment, 
either of a part, or of the whole body. In order to 
maintain a healthy state of the body, or of any of its 
organs, a certain supply of nutrition is required tQ meet 
the waste that is constantly going on. When, from any 
cause, the supply of nutrition is not able to meet this 
waste, the natural dimensions of those parts are reduced. 
In a healthy condition of body, an exact balance is 
maintained between the waste and the supply; but in 
every morbid condition this balance is more or less dis¬ 
turbed, in consequence of which the whole body, or cer¬ 
tain parts of it, receive too little or too much nourish¬ 
ment. The first state, from whatever cause it arises, is 
termed atrophy; the latter, nypertrophy. A. may thus 
arise from a vast variety of causes. It may be occasioned 
by merely withholding the necessary supply of nutritious 
food, without any actual disease. Among the diseases 
capable of producing A., the most common are those 
of the digestive organs, by which the aliment is taken 
up and prepared for assimilation. Disease of the organs 
of assimilation may produce A. as effectually as dis¬ 
ease in the primary organs of digestion. A frequent 
instance of thi3 i3 in consumption, when the lungs 
become so diseased as not to be able to receive a sufficient 
quantity of air. A. may result also from a want of 
activity in an organ, or in the whole body; so that when 
the nutritive particles are conveyed to them in the blood, 
they have not power to appropriate a sufficient quantity 
of them. When the vital activity of an organ is small, 
the nutritive particles are taken up slowly and lan¬ 
guidly; while, the affinity existing between them being 
also weak, they are sooner removed by the process of 
absorption than in health, and the parts thus circum¬ 
stanced are rapidly wasted. Hence, a due supply of ner¬ 
vous stimulus is necessary to the vital activity of an 
organ, while the cessation of action in any organ is inva¬ 
riably followed by A. The first change that takes place 
in an atrophied organ, from whatever cause, is diminu¬ 
tion of the quantitv of blood sent to it; and next to 
this, and chiefly owing to it, is greater paleness of color. 
Subsequently, the organization becomes more completely 
changed, so that frequently all traces of its original con¬ 
formation are lost, and, in some cases, it at last disap¬ 
pears altogether. In all cases, A. arises from the diminu¬ 
tion or perversion of the vital energies, generally the 
former; and hence, by exciting the natural vital ener¬ 
gies of an organ, we tend to remove A. In order to its 
cure, it is necessary to discover in what organ or organs 
the deficiency or perversion exists. The discovery of 
this is often difficult, and the removal of it, when dis¬ 
covered, is often more difficult. 

At'ropie Acitl, n. (Chem.) Long volatile crystals, in 
union with atropine, in the root of the Atropa belladonna, 
obtained as atropate of ammonia in the liquid from 
which atropine is precipitated by ammonia. 

At'ropine, Atro'pia, n. (Chem.) A substance obtained 
from the root of Atropa belladonna, in white silky prisms, 
without smell, with a bitterish taste; soluble in 500 cold, 
and 30 parts boiling water, and in 8 parts of cold alcohol. 
It is strongly alkaline in its action. Extract of bella¬ 
donna is much used to dilate the pupils in affections of 
the eye. 

At'ropos. [Gr .inexorable.] (Myth.) One of the Parcse, 
daughters of Nox and Erebus. According to the deriva- 
tionof her name, she is inexorable, and her duty among 
the three sisters is to cut the thread of life, without any 
regard to sex, age, or quality. 

At'rypa. n. (Pal.) A genus of fossil brachiopod or 
lamp-shells, closely resembling Terebratula. Of the 179 
described species, 100 are Silurian, 56 Devonian, 22 Car¬ 
boniferous, and 1 Permian. 

At'sion, in New Jersey, a village of Galloway township, 
Burlington co., 28 m. E.S.E. of Camden. 

_ \ river, partly dividing Atlantic and Burlington coun¬ 
ties, and uniting with Little Egg Harbor river. 

At'ta, n. (Zool.) The visiting-ant; a genus of ants. 
See Formicid.b. 

Attac'ca. [It., from attacare, to tie.] (Mus.) An expres¬ 
sion signifying that a passage is to follow another im¬ 
mediately ; e. g., attacca allegro. 

Attach', V. a. [Fr. attacher; It. attacare; allied to Eng. 
tack, and Lat. tango, tagn, to touch.] To affix; to annex; 
to cause to adhere; to fasten or fix to. It is also used 
of the bonds of love, friendship, or interest. 

“ The great and rich depend on those whom their power or 
their wealth attaches to them."— Rogers. 

( Mil.) To place or appoint by authority; as, an officer 


or soldier is said to be attached to any regiment or com¬ 
pany with which he may have been ordered to do some 
duty. 

(Law.) To take or apprehend by commandment of a 
writ or precept. — See Attachment. 

Attach'able, a. That may be attached. 

Attache, (dt-tdsh-ai',) n. [Fr.] ( Diplom .) A name given 
to certain young gentlemen who are attached to embas¬ 
sies in the capacity of assistants, with a view to their 
becoming familiar with the duties of the office, in order 
to their afterwards holding diplomatic appointments in 
the public service. 

Attached', a. United; fastened by the bonds of in¬ 
terest, friendship, or love. 

Attacli'inent, n. [Fr. attachement .] State of being 
attached; adherence; fidelity; union or boudof affection; 
tender regard. 

“ The Jews are remarkable for an attachment to their owe 
country.”— Addison. 

—That which fastens or binds one thing to another; as, 
the attachments of a muscle. 

—An adjunct attached to an instrument or machine; as 
the ceolian attachment, which is an A. to the pianoforte 
whereby it may be converted into a wind instrument at 
the will of the player; the same keys that act upon the 
chords being so made as to operate, at the same time, or 
separately, upon reeds through which air is forced from 
a bellows moved by the foot. 

(Law.) The taking into the custody of the law the 
person or property of one already before the court, or of 
one whom it is sought to bring before it.— A writ for 
the accomplishment of this purpose. This is the more 
common meaning of the word.— A. of persons. A writ is- 
suedbyacourt of record, commanding tliesheriff to bring 
before it a person who has been guilty of contempt of 
court, either in neglect or abuse of its process or of sub¬ 
ordinate powers. — A. of property. A writ issued at the 
institution or during the progress of an action, command¬ 
ing the sheriff or other proper officer to attach the prop¬ 
erty, rights, credits, or effects of the defendant to sat¬ 
isfy the demands of the plaintiff. — The laws and prac¬ 
tice concerning the attachment vary in the different 
States.— An A. of privilege, in English law, is a process 
by which a man, by virtue of his privilege, calls another 
to litigate in that court to which he himself belongs, 
and who has the privilege to answer there. 

Attack', v. a. [Radically the same as attach ; but as the 
former becomes in Fr. attacher, so the latter altaquer, from 
the Celtic lac, or nail, which, as it is regarde'd as an ob¬ 
ject of striking, or a means of fastening, would suggest 
the ideas of attach or attack.] To come in contact with, 
forcibly or violently; to assault; to assail; to fall upon; 
to make an onset upon; to invade. — We may attack 
persons with weapons or words; opinions with the weap¬ 
ons of controversy; or an army may attack a country 
or a city. 

— n. [Fr. attaque.] An assault; an onset; an invasion; 
a charge; — opposed to defence. 

—n. (Mil.) An advance upon an enemy, with a view of 
driving him from his position. It may be made either 
upon an adverse army in the field, or upon a fortress. 
In every age, the most experienced generals have gen¬ 
erally preferred making an A., to protracting the war 
by tedious and indecisive manoeuvres, which harass and 
dispirit their troops. The army making the A., especially 
if unexpected, possesses manifest advantages over the 
enemy, which generally more than counterbalance even 
very considerable advantages on the other side. Hence, 
an experienced general always chooses, if possible, to 
keep his enemy ou the defensive. The nature of the A. 
depends upon the condition and position of the enemy, 
upon the purpose of the war, upon the time, place, and 
other circumstances. 

(Med.) A sudden invasion or onset of a disease; a seiz¬ 
ure. One attacked or affected with severe disease is often 
said, in the U. States, to be taken down, or to be down 
with it. 

Attack'able, a. That may be attacked. 

Attack'er, n. One who attacks. 

Attak'apas, (at-tuck'a-paw,) in Louisiana, an Indian 
name, meaning men-eaters, applied commonly to a large 
tract of ground including several parishes in the S. of 
the State. It is a rich country, producing large quanti¬ 
ties of sugar and molasses which are shipped at Franklin, 
in St. Mary’s parish. This appellation is purely local, 
and the name A. is generally omitted on the maps. 

Attakem'bo. one of the Feejee Islands. Lat. 18° 25' 
S.; Lon. 179° 0' W. 

Attain', v. a. [0. Fr. attaindre; Lat. attingo, from ad, 
and tango, to touch; Fr. atteindre .] To reach so i : to 
get hold of; to come to; to gain; to get or procure; to 
accomplish; to obtain. It implies sustained effort, or 
at least movement, in uniform direction. 

“Canaan he now attains; I see his tents 
Pitch'd above Sichem."— Milton. 

—v. n. To come in contact with; to come to, or arrive at. 

“ Such knowledge is too wonderful for me ; it is high; I cannot 
attain unto it.”— Psalm cxxxix. 6. 

Attainability, Attain'ableness, n. The state 
or quality of being attainable. 

Attainable, a. That may be attained. 

Attain'der, n. [From O. Fr. attaindre : radically the 
same as Attain, q. v.] Taint; blemish; sully on character. 

** So smooth he daub’d his vice with shew of virtue, 

He liv’d from all attainder of suspect.”— Shaks. 

(Law.) It is, by the common law, the corruption of blood, 
or stain consequent upon a person’s being adjudged 
guilty of a capital offence, in which case the law set a 
note of infamy upon him, and put him out of its protec¬ 
tion, taking no further concern about him, except if 


he should be executed. But this A. does not take place 
until judgment is pronounced against him. It might be 
by confession, as when the party pleaded guilty, or by 
verdict, when he pleaded not guilty, and was found guilty 
by the jury. There were, formerly, by the English law, 
various forfeitures incident to A., such as incapacity to 
inherit or transmit property; but A. is scarcely known 
at present in the laws of the U. States; at least the term 
is of very rare occurrence in our laws, though there are 
some disabilities consequent upon conviction of perjury, 
or any other crime which makes a man infamous, such 
as incompetency to be a witness. 

Attain'ment, n. The act or power of attaining. 

“All things necessary for the attainment of eternal life.” - Booker. 

—Acquisition; acquirement; accomplishment. 

" They count, it a great attainment to be able to talk much.” 

Granville , 

Attaint', v. a. [See Attainder.] To disgrace; to cover 
with ignominy. 

“For so exceeding shone his glistering ray. 

That Phoebus’ golden face it did attaint." —Faerie Queene. 

—To taint; to corrupt. 

“ My tender youth was never yet attaint 
With any passion of inflaming love." — Shake. 

(Law.) To find guilty of high treason or felony, and 
thereby subject to forfeiture of civil rights, and corrup¬ 
tion of blood. — See; Attainder. 

Attaint', a. Convicted or attainted, (r.) 

— n. A stain; spot; taint, (o.) 

(Farriery.) A blow or wound on the hinder feet of a 
horse. 

(Law) A writ at common law against a jury for a 
false verdict. It is obsolete in England, and has never 
been adopted in practice in the U. Slates. 

Attaint'ed, p. a. Stained; corrupted; disgraced by at¬ 
tainder. 

Attaint'ment, n. The state of being attainted. 

Attaint'ure, n. A staining or rendering infamousq 
reproach; imputation. 

At'tal, At'tle, n. [From Addle, q. r.] (Mining.) Rub¬ 
bish or refuse consisting of broken rock containing little 
or no ore. — 

At'tala. in Mississippi, a central county, containing 
about 630 sq. m. It is bounded by the Big Black river 
on the W. The surface is undulating, and generally 
fertile. Cap. Kosciusko. 

At'talaville, in Mississippi, a village of Attala co. 

Attale'a, n. (Bot.) A genus of trees, ord. Palmaceat. 
They are found chiefly in the tropical parts of America, 
where they occupy the richest soil and the hottest forests. 
They have in general lofty cylindrical smooth stems, but 
there are some stemless species. The leaves are large 
and pinnate. The fruit has a dry fibrous husk, enclosing a 
nut with 3 cells and 3 seeds. The leaves of some species 
are much used for thatching, and those of some are woven 
into hats, mats, Ac. The nuts of A. excelsa and of A. 
speciosa are burned to dry the India-rubber obtained from 
the Siphonia elastica, which acquires its black color 
from their smoke. The leaf-stalks of A. funifera, which 
is found in the southern maritime provinces of Brazil, 
and is there called Piassaba, yield a fibre much used for 
cordage. The name Piassaba, however, is more gener¬ 
ally applied to the fibre of a northern palm, gen. Leopold 
dinia, q. v. The fruit of A. funifera, called Coquilla-nut, 
is as large as an ostrich’s head, and supplies a kind of 
vegetable ivory used for making umbrella-handles, Ac. 
The fruit of A. compta, the Pind6va or Indajfi palm, is 
of the size of a goose’s egg, and the kernels are eatable. 

At'tal its. the name of three kings ofPergamus, of whom 
there is nothing of historical importance to record. 

At'talus. Flavhjs Priscus, a Roman Emperor, a. d. 409. 
See Alaric. 

At'tal US, lieutenant of Alexander the Great,— 330 B. o, 
—who so strongly resembled that monarch, that at a 
distance one could not be distinguished from the other; 
a circumstance so opportune for Alexander, that he took 
advantage of it in order to deceive the enemy, or to con¬ 
ceal the execution of a project. 

Attam', an extensive town of W. Africa, on the Old 
Calabar river; Lat. 6° 37' N.; Lon. 9° 5' E. 

AUapulgus, iu Georgia, a township of Decatur 
county. 

Attar'am, a river of Asia, in British India, Tena-sserlm 
prov., rises in the mountains on the borders of Siam, and, 
after a course of 90 m., falls into the Gulf of Martaban. 

At'tar, Ferid-Ud-Deen, a Persian poet, was b. at Khoras- 
san, in 1119, and D. in 1202. His poetry was much ad¬ 
mired, especially for the profound knowledge which he 
displayed in it of the doctrines of the Sufis. 

At'tar (or Otto) of Roses. (Oil of Roses,) n. pi. 

(Chem.) An essential oil obtained from the petals of 
three species of rose, viz.: Bosa centifolia, moschata, and 
damascena. The rose-gardens at Ghazeepore in India 
have long been famed for the production of this precious 
liquid. These gardens are large fields, planted with rows 
of small rose-bushes. The blossoms, which unfold in the 
morning, are all gathered before noon, and their petals 
are at once transferred to clay stills, and distilled with 
twice their weight of water. The rose-water which 
comes over is placed in shallow vessels covered with moist 
muslin to exclude dust, and exposed all night to the cool 
air. In the morning the thin film of oil which has col¬ 
lected on the top is carefully swept off with a feather and 
transferred to a small phial. This process is repeated 
morning after morning, till nearly the whole of the oil is 
separated from the water. Heber says that about 20,000 
roses are required to yield a rupee weight (170 grains) 
of A.; and this quantity is worth $50. A. is also imported 
from Smyrna and Constantinople; but it rarely, if ever. 










.186 


ATTE 


ATTE 


ATTI 


arrives in this coun¬ 
try pure. It is com¬ 
monly adulterated 
with spermaceti 
and a volatile oil, 
which appears to 
he derived from one 
or more species of 
A ndropogan, and 
which is called oil 
of ginger-grass, or 
oil of geranium. 

Pure A. of rose, 
carefully distilled, 
is at first colorless, 
but speedily be¬ 
comes yellowish. 

It congeals below 
80°; melts at 84°. 

At 57° 1,000 alcohol 
dissolve 7% oil, and 
at 720 , 33 oil. Sp. 
gr. 872. Form. C 23 
H 23 O 3 . — Many at¬ 
tempts have been 
made to discover 
some chemical re¬ 
action which would 

reveal the falsi- Fig. 232.— ROSA damascena. 
fication of Attar 

with Geranium oil. but hitherto mostly in vain. 

Attelab'idiC, n. pi. (Zool.) A tribe of insects belonging 
to the order Coleoptera. and family Ourculionidce. The 
larva; of these beetles live either in the stems of plants, 
or in the fruits, which serve them both as a shelter and 
as food. Others live in young leaves, which they roll 
round them, and of which they only eat the parenchyma 
They change their skin several times before they attain 
their full growth; having acquired which, they spin a 
cocoon of silk or tolerably solid resinous matter, and 
there undergo their transformations. The larvas do great 
mischief to the plants upon which they live, but as bee¬ 
tles they are perfectly harmless. 

Attem'|»er, v. a. [Lat. altempero, from ad, and tempera, 
to mix in due proportion.] In a general sense, to bring 
a thing to a state of internal or external harmony or 
consistency.—.'To mingle; to weaken by the mixture of 
something else; to dilute — as spirit with water.— To 
soften; to mollify. 

“ Those smiling eyes, attempting ev’ry ray, 

Shone sweetly lambent with celestial day." —Pope. 

—To mix in just proportions; to regulate. 

“ She to her guests doth bounteous banquet dight, 

Attemper'd, goodly, well for health and for delight.”— Spenser. 

—To fit to something. 

“Phemius! let arts of gods and heroes old. 

Attemper'd to the lyre, your voice employ." — Pope. 

Attem'perinent, n. Act of attempering, (n.) 

Attempt', v. a. [0. Fr. attempler; Fr. tenter , and at- 
tenter ; Lat. attentn — ad, anti lento, templo, to grasp at, to 
try.] To make trial of; to experiment upon ; to essay; 
to endeavor; to make an effort for; as, to attempt a 
task; to attempt to dance. 

“ I have nevertheless attempted to send unto you. for the re¬ 
newing of brotherhood and friendship."—1 Mac. xii. 17. 

—To make an attack upon; to invade; to venture upon ; 
as, to attempt a surprise. 

44 TVho, in all things wise and just, 

Hinder’d not Satan to attempt the mind 

Of man, with strength entire and free-will arm’d.*’— Milton, 

{Law.) To endeavor to accomplish a crime carried be¬ 
yond mere preparation, but falling short of execution of 
the ultimate design in any part of it.—To constitute an 
attempt, there must be an intent to commit some act 
which would be indictable, if done either from its own 
character, or that of its natural and probable conse¬ 
quences. 

— v. i. To make an essay, trial, or endeavor; or, an attack. 

“ I have been so hardy to attempt upon a name, which among 
some is yet very sacred.”— Glanville. 

An essay, trial, or endeavor; an attack, or assault; or 
an effort to gain an end. 

44 Alack ! I am afraid they hare awak’d, 

And ’tis done ; th’ attempt, and not the deed, 
Confounds us."— Shake. 

44 If we be always prepared to receive an enemy, we shall long 
Kve in peace and quietness, without any attempts upon us."— 
Bacon. 

Attcmpt/able# a. Liable to an attempt or attack; sus¬ 
ceptible of trial or attack. 

44 The gentleman vouching his to be more fair, virtuous, wise, 
and less attemptable, than the rarest of our ladies."— Shaks. 

A ttempt'er, ??. One who attempts. 

Attend', v. a. [Lat. attendo — ad, and ten do , to stretch: 
Gr. teind, to stretch.] To go or stay with; to wait upon; 
to accompany as an inferior or servant. 

44 His companion, youthful Valentine, 

Attends the emperor in his royal court."— Shaks. 

—To accompany, or be present with; to he united to, or 
coincident with; as, a sickness attended with fever; 
they attended together. 

44 He was at present strong enough to have stopped or attended 
Walter in his western expedition."— Lord Clarendon. 

“A pungent pain in the stomach, attended with a fever." 

Arbuthnot. 

—To await; to abide, or be in store for; to stay for. ( 0 .) 

44 1 died while in the womb he stay’d, 

Attending Nature’s law."— Shaks. 

— v. t. To yield attention ; to apply the mind, with a view 
to perceive or comprehend, — usually coming before to. . 


44 But, thy relation now ! for I attend, 

Pleas’d with thy words.”— Milton. 

—To wait; to be near at hand, or within reach or call. 

44 The charge thereof unto a covetous sprite 
Commanded was, who thereby did attend 
And warily awaited."— Faerie Queene. 

Atten«l'ance,». [0. Fr.J The act of attending, or being 
in waiting on; service. 

44 1 dance attendance here, 

I think the duke will not be spoke withal."— Shaks. 

—The persons who attend; retinue; train; escort. 

44 Attendance none shall need, nor traiu."— Milton . 

—Attention ; regard; application of mind. 

44 Give attendance to readiug, to exhortation."—1 Tim. iv. 13. 

Attend ant, a. [Fr. attendant, pp. o t'attendre.] Being 
present. 

44 Other suns, perhaps, with their attendant moons, thou wilt 
descry."— Milton. 

—Accompanying; subordinate to; concomitant with; con¬ 
sequent upon. 

“ Govern well thy appetite, lest sin 

Surprise thee, and her black attendant, death."— Milton. 

— n. One who attends upon another, whether as friend, 
companion, servant, agent, or suitor. 

“ Dismiss your attendant there; 

Look it be done.”— Shaks. 

—One who is present. 

“ He was a constant attendant at all meetings.**— Swift . 

—That which is united with another, or in relation to. 

4 ‘ The one being so close an attendant on the other, 

That it is scarce possible to sever them."— Decay of Piety. 

(Law.) One who owes a duty or service to another, or 
in some sort depends upon him. 

(Mas.) Attendant keys are the keys or scales on the 
fifth above, and fifth below (or fourth above), any key¬ 
note or tonic, considered in relation to the key or scale 
on that tonic. 

Altcml'er, n. One who attends; an associate; a com¬ 
panion. (r.) 

Attenuates, Atten'tats, n. pi. [From Lat. attentare, 
to attempt.] (Law.) Proceedings in a judicial court 
pending suit, after an inhibition is decreed. Things 
Avrongly attempted or done in a suit after an extra-ju¬ 
dicial appeal. 

Atten'tion, n. [Lat. attenlio; Fr. attention.] The act of 
heeding or attending to; the close application of the 
mind to anything; carefulness ; consideration; thought; 
solicitude; heed. 

“ They say the tongues of dying men 
Inforce attention like deep harmony.’*— Shafts. 

—Act of courteousness or civility; as, a polite attention,. 

Atten'tive, a. [Fr. attenti/.] llegarding with atten¬ 
tion; intent; heedful; full of attention; observant. 

"The lion dropped his crested main, 

Attentive to the song.”— Prior. 

Attentively, adv. With attention; in an attentive 
manner; heedfully. 

“ If a man look sharply and attentively, he shall see Fortune.” 

Bacon. 

Attentiveness, n. State of being attentive; heed¬ 
fulness; attention. 

Attentiant, a. [Fr. attenuant; Lat. attenuans, from at- 
tenuo. ] Making thin; diluting; rendering less dense and 
viscid. 

— n. (Med.) A medicine which augments the fluidity of 
the humors. 

Atten'uate, v. a. [Lat. attenun, attenuatus — ad, and 
tenuo, from tenuis, thin; Fr. at tinner.) To make thin; 
to render less consistent, or less viscid; opposed to con¬ 
dense. 

“ The ingredients are digested and attenuated by heat.” 

Arbuthnot. 

—To reduce into fine or minute particles; to comminute. 

—To make small or slender; to reduce in hulk; to ema¬ 
ciate.— To extend in length; to draw out fine. 

— v. i. To become thin, fine, or slender; to lessen; to di¬ 
minish in size. 

Atten'uated, Atten'uate. a. Made thin or less 

viscid; comminuted; made slender; emaciated. 

(Bot.) Tapering gradually to a thin or narrow ex¬ 
tremity. 

Attenua'tion, n. [Fr. attenuation; from Lat. attenu- 
atio. ] The act of attenuating, emaciating, or making 
thin; thinness; slenderness; leanness.— The act of com¬ 
minuting; act of attrition; pulverization; as, the attenu¬ 
ation of those rocks. 

(Chem.) In brewing and distillation, it is applied to 
the thinning or weakening of saccharine worts dur¬ 
ing fermentation, by the conversion of the sugar into 
alcohol and carbonic acid. It is usual to speak of so 
many degrees of attenuation, indicating the decrease of 
specific gravity by the fermentation. 

(Med.) Thinness: emaciation. A term used by the 
homoeopathists, in the sense of dilution or division of 
remedies into infinitesimal doses. 

At'terbury, Francis, an English prelate, b. 1662. lie 
was a man of great learning and brilliant talents, equally 
distinguished as scholar, preacher, and writer. As dean 
of Westminster and bishop of Rochester, lie was chap¬ 
lain to William III. and Mary. After the death of 
Queen Anne, A. was one of the non-juring bishops, and 
in 1722 was committed to the Tower of London, on sus¬ 
picion of his being privy to a plot to restore the Pre¬ 
tender. After a trial, he was banished from England, 
and D. at Paris, 1732. 

At'terclifle, a town of England, in the W. Riding of 
the co. of York, 1% m. N. E. of Sheffield. Pop. (1895) 
16,574, chiefly colliers and artisans. 

Atternioie'iuent, n. [Fr.] (Canon Law.) A making 
terms; a composition, as with creditors. 



At'tersee, or Kam'mersee, a lake of Europe, In Upper 
Austria, 40 m. S.W. of Linz, about 12 m. long by 3 broad. 
The river Ager flows from its N. end. 

Attest', v. a. [Fr. attester; Lat. attestari — ad, and testari, 
to bear witness, from testis, witness.] To bear witness 
to; to confirm; to certify; to affirm to be true, genuine, 
or real; as, to attest a signature. 

“ Many particular facts are recorded id Holy Writ, attested by 
particular Pagan authors."— Addison. 

—To give proof or evidence of; to manifest; as, Athens 
attests its former supremacy in letters. 

—To invoke as conscious; to call to witness. 

“ The sacred streams which heaven's imperial state 
Attests in oaths, and fears to violate."— Dryden. 

Attest', n. Witness; testimony; evidence; attesta¬ 
tion. (r.) 

Attesta'tion, n. [Fr. attestation; Lat. atlestatioi] Th# 
act of attesting; testimony; witness; evidence. 

(Law.) A solemn or official asseveration or declara¬ 
tion, written or spoken, in support of a fact. The sig¬ 
nature of the name of a witness to any deed or writing 
is an attestation. 

Attest'er, n. An attestor; one who attests to any¬ 
thing; a witness. 

Attest'ive, a. Attesting; supplying evidence or proof. 

(R.) 

Attest'or, n. Same as Attester, q. v. 

At'tic, a. [Gr . Attikos; Lat. atticus; Fr . attique.] Per¬ 
taining to Attica or to Athens.—Pure; elegant; classical; 
poignant; characterized by keenness of intellect, deli¬ 
cacy of wit, purity of elegance, soundness of judgment, 
and most expressive brevity; as, the Attic Muse. 

Attic Dialect is that dialect of the Greek language 
which was spoken in Attica. It was the most refined 
and polished of all the dialects of ancient Greece; and 
in it wrote Solon the lawgiver, Thucydides and Xeno¬ 
phon the historians, Aristophanes the comic poet. Plato 
and Aristotle the philosophers, and Demosthenes the 
orator. When, after the Macedonian conquest, Greek 
became the language of literature and diplomacy in 
most parts of the civilized world, the A. came to be that 
dialect of the Greek tongue which was generally adopted. 

(Arch.) Attic, and Attic Order, n. and a. A low order 
of architecture, commonly used over a principal order, 
never with columns, but usually with antae or small pi¬ 
lasters. It is employed to decorate the facade of a story 
of little height, terminating the upper part of a build¬ 
ing; and it doubtless derives its name from its resem¬ 
blance in proportional height and concealed roof to some 
of the buildings of Greece. In all the best examples, 
and especially in the remains of antiquity at Rome, the 
Attic is decorated with a moulded base and cornice; often 
with pilasters and figures, as in the arch of Constantine; 
(see Fig. 178.) — In modern architecture, the proportions 
of the Attic order have never been subject to fixed 
rules, and their good effect is entirely dependent on the 
taste and feeling of the architect. — A. Base. The base 
of a column consisting of an upper and lower torus, a 
scotiaand fillets between them ; (see Fig. *222.) — A. Story. 
A term frequently applied to the upper story of a house, 
when the ceiling is square with the sides, to distinguish 
it from a garret. 

At'tica, a division of the nomarchy of Attica and Boeotia, 
forming the eparchie of Athens, and anciently the most 
celebrated region of the Grecian people. It lies between 
Lat. 37° 39', and38°22'N.,and Lon. 23°20'and 24° 5'E.; 
bounded N. by Bceotia, E. by the iEgean sea, S. and S.W. 
by the Gulf of JEgina, and W. by the eparchie of Megara. 
A.is 44 m. long by 34 broad, with a rugged and, for the 
most part, barren soil. Its chief mountains are Nosea 
(Fames), the loftiest; Elatea (Cithceron); Mendeli (Fen- 
telicus), famous for its marble; Velo-vuni ( Hymetius), 
and Laurini (Laurion), famous for its mines of silver. 
The chief plains are those ot Athens and Marathon; 
rivers, the Cepliissus and Uis 6 us. Good oil, honey, and 
grain are produced, and game is abundant. Athens is 
the principal city;, the villages are mostly inhabited by 
Albanians. A. and Boeotia together turm a monarchy 
or government of Greece. Area, 2,472 sq. m. Fop. 
(1895) 185,364.—See Athens. 

At'tica, in Indiana, a city of Fountain co., on the Wa¬ 
bash river and canal, 75 m. N. W. of Indianapolis. 

At'tica, in Iowa, a post-village of Marion co. about 42 
m. S.E. of Des Moines. 

At'tica. in Michigan, a township of Lapeer co. 

—A post-office of Lenawee co. 

At'tica. in New York, a thriving post-village of Wy¬ 
oming county, on Tonawauda creek, 31 miles east of 
Buffalo, in Attica township, and 43 miles southwest of 
Rochester. 

At'tica, in Ohio, a pose-village of Venice township, 
Seneca co., 77 m. N. from Columbus, and 28 from San¬ 
dusky City. 

At'tica, in Wisconsin,ft post-village of Green co., about 25 
m. S. of Madison. 

At'tical. a. Pertaining to Attica, or to Athens; Attic; 
pure; refined; classical, (o.) 

At ticism, n. [Fr. Atticisme.] The Attic style or idiom. 
A witty or pungent saying.—A partiality or regard for 
the Athenians. 

At'ticixe, v. n. To use Atticisms. 

At'ticus, Titus Pomponius, a noble Roman, the con¬ 
temporary of Cicero, and Caesar. He displayed such ad¬ 
dress and tact, that, during the war between Caesar and 
Pompey, he managed to remain neutral; sent money to 
the son of Marius, while he secured the attachment of 
Sylla; and when Cicero and Hortensius were rivals, waa 
equally intimate with both. When young, he resided at 
Athens, where he so secured the affections of the citi¬ 
zens, that on the day of his departure from that city, all 
went into mourning. He was an author and poeQ and 




ATTO 


ATTR 


A rprr>-r-» 

X X iii 


187 


reached the age of 77 without sickness. When at last 
he became ill, he refused all nourishment, and therefore 
ended his life by voluntary starvation. D. 32 b. c. He 
was a disciple of Epicurus. 

At'tila, a famous king of the Iluns, who ascended the 
throne with his brother Beda in a. d. 433. A. ruled the 
united empires of Scythia and Germany, and at the 
head of an army of 700,000 warriors, laid waste the Ro¬ 
man empire, and obliged the Emperor Theodosius II. to 
sue for peace, and pay him a yearly tribute of 500 lbs. 
weight of gold. After this, A. conquered the remaining 
tribes of Scythia and Germany which had not submitted 
to his arms, and consolidated his increasing power by 
murdering his brother and co-sovereign. He then 
essayed the conquest of the Persian empire, and led an 
immense army through the Caucasus; but after sustain¬ 
ing a great defeat in Media, A. was compelled to retire, 
leaving Persia unconquered. This news was received 
with exultation at Constantinople, but the Greek em¬ 
peror soon learned to his cost that the great Scythian 
was more than a match for him. In the following year, 
A. threw himself and his hosts on the provinces of the 
Eastern empire, and ravaged the entire country from 
the Euxine to the Adriatic. It was converted into a 
burning wilderness, and 70 of the finest cities of Mace¬ 
donia, Thrace, and Greece, were laid in smoking ruins. 
It was only by enormous bribes, and the most abject sub¬ 
mission, that Theodosius induced A. to retire from his 
desolated dominions. A. now directed his views to Gaul, 
and with an immense army crossed the Rhine in 450, and 
besieged the city of Orleans. This city was bravely and 
successfully defended, and thus gave time for the form¬ 
ing of a coalition against him of the whole forces of 
Western Europe, comprising the Goths, Franks, Saxons, 
and Gauls, under the Roman general JEtius, and Theo- 
doric, king of the Visigoths. At Chalons, a great 
battle took place, in which A. was routed with, histo¬ 
rians say, a loss of from 160,000 to 300,000 men. He 
then retreated across the Rhine. In the following year, 
A. burst into Italy at the head of another immense 
army, and demanded from the Emperor Valentinian III. 
the hand of his sister Ilonoria, and the surrender of 
nearly half of the provinces of the empire. These terms 
being refused, he destroyed the cities of Aquileia, Padua, 
Vicenza, Verona, and Bologna, and laid waste the fertile 
plains of Lombardy. Pope Leo I. then went to the 
enemy’s camp, and succeeded in obtaining peace. A. re¬ 
tired into Hungary, and the Romans looked upon their 
preservation as a miracle. A. afterwards organized other 
expeditions against Gaul and Italy, but in 453, on the 
night of his marriage, he burst a blood-vessel, and ex¬ 
pired, to the unspeakable relief of both Europe and 
Asia. A. was buried in a triple coffin of gold, silver, 
and iron; and the captives who dug his grave were 
slaughtered by tire Huns in order to conceal his tomb. 
A. rejoiced in the name “ Scourge of God,” applied to 
him by the world in which lie lived. 

Atti lu. in Illinois, a post-office of Williamson co. 

Atting’liaii'sen, a village of Switzerland, canton of 
Uri, on the Reuss, 2 m. S.W. of Altorf. Here was born 
Walter Fiirst, one of the great Swiss liberators. 

Attire', v. a. [O. Fr. attyrer, alourner, to dress a bride.] 
To dress; to array; to clothe; to adorn; to prepare, ad¬ 
just, or dispose, in relation to dress. 

41 Now the sappy boughs 
Attire themselves with blooms.”— Philips. 

— n. [Fr. obsolete, atours.~\ Dress; clothes; head-dress;— 
usually applied to ornamental dress. 

“ After that, the Roman attire grew to be in account, and the 
gown to be in use among them.”— Sir. J. Davies. 

— (Sport.) The horns of a buck or stag. 

— (Bot.) The former name of the stamens. 

Attired', p. a. Dressed; decked with ornaments. 

(Her.) Applied to the horns of stags or bucks, when 
of a different tincture from their bodies or heads. 

Attir'er, n. One who attires another; a dresser. 

Attir'ing, n. Head-dress: dress; apparel, (r.) 

At titude, n. [Fr. attitude; L. Lat. aptitudo, from apto, 
to fit, to suit; It. attitudine.] Posture or position of the 
whole body in a state of immobility, either momentary 
or continued; as, “ a graceful attitude,” “a threatening 
attitude.” ( Worcester.}— Figuratively, position or appear¬ 
ance of things in a consequential relation; as, “Let ns 
preserve a firm attitude.” 

(Paint, and Sculp.) The position and gesture of a fig¬ 
ure, by which the sentiment or passion of the person 
represented is denoted. A. is to the limbs, what expres¬ 
sion is to the features, and should be natural, uncon¬ 
strained, and varied. In a group of figures, the attitudes 
should be contrastive, and so composed as to balance and 
set off each other. 

Attitu'dinal, a. Pertaining to attitude. 

Attitudina'rian, n. One who attitudinizes, or as¬ 
sumes an attitude. 

Attitu'dinize, v. i. To assume affected attitudes, airs, 
or postures. 

“ Maria, who is the most picturesque figure, was put to attitu- 
dinize at the harp ."—Hannah More. 

Attleborough. in Mass., a thriving town of Bristol 
co., on Mill river, 31 m. S.S.W. of Boston. Manuf. Jewel¬ 
ry, printed calicos, metal buttons Ac. P. (1890) 7,577. 

At'tleliormigll. in Pennsylvania, a post-village of 
Bucks co., 18 m. S.E. of Doylestown, and 8 m. N.W. of 
the Delaware at Bristol. Now called Langhorne. 

Attlebury, in New York, a post-office of Duchess co. 

Attock', (anc. Varanas,) a fortified town of Hindostan, 
in the Punjaub, on the Indus, 42 m. E.S.E. of Peshawur. 
Lat. 83° 56'N.; Lon. 71° 57'E. Pop. about 3,200. 

Attol'lent, a. [Lat. attollens, from attoUo — ad, and tnllo, 
to lift or raise.] Lifting up; raising; as, an attoUent 
muscle. 


— n. (Anat .) A term applied to some muscles, the office 
of which is to lift up the parts they are affixed to. The 
principal is the A. of the ear, attollens uurem, which 
arises from the tendon of the occipito-froutalis, and is 
inserted into the upper part of the ear, opposite to the 
antihelix. Its use is to draw the ear upward, and to 
make the parts into which it is inserted, dense. 

Attoo', Attou', or Attu', the largest of the Aleutian 
islands, in the Pacific ocean. Ext. 70 m. long by about 
30 broad. Desc. Volcanic and sterile. Lat. 62° 68' N.; 
Lon. 172° 17' W. 

Attoor', a fortified town of British India, presidency of 
Madras, 25 m. E. of Salem. 

Attorn', f. i. [0. Fr. attorner, to direct, prepare; Lat. 
attornare — ad, and tome, to turu.] (Feud. Law.) To turn 
or transfer homage from one lord to another. 

( Hod. Law.) To agree to become tenant to another to 
whom reversion has been granted. 

Attor'ney. n.; pi. Attor'neys. [Mod. Lat. attomatus, a 
person set in place of another.] One who tal es the turn, 
or acts in the stead of another, especially in matters of 
law; one who practises in the courts of common law; a 
solicitor; a lawyer. 

(Law.) An attorney is either public or special. The 
former is an officer of a court, who is authorized by the 
laws and the rules of the court to represent suitors, with¬ 
out any special written authority tor the purpose. The 
rules and qualifications, whereby one is authorized to 
practise as an attorney in any court, are very different 
in different countries, and in different courts of the same 
country. There are various statutes on this subject in 
the laws of the several U. States, and almost every court 
has certain rules, a compliance with which is necessary, 
in order to authorize any one to appear in court for, and 
represent an}' party to a suit, without a special authority 
under seal. The principle upon which these rules are 
founded, is the exclusion of persons not qualified by hon¬ 
esty, good moral character, learning and skill, from 
taking upon them this office. Any attorney may, by 
malpractice, forfeit this privilege; and the court, in 
such case, strikes liis name from the roll of attorneys. 
Still this does not prevent his being a special attorney, 
with a specific power from any person who wishes to 
constitute him his representative; for every man, who 
is capable of contracting, has the power to confer upon 
another the right of representing him, and acting in his 
stead. An attorney of a court lias authority, for and in 
the name of his principal, to do any acts necessary for 
conducting a suit, and his employer is bound by his acts. 
A special attorney is appointed by a deed called a power 
or letter of attorney, and the deed by which he is appointed 
specifies the acts which he is authorized to do. It is a 
commission, to the extent of which only he can bind his 
principal. As far as the acts of the attorney, in the name 
of the principal, are authorized by his power, his acts 
are those of his principal. But if he goes beyond his 
authority, his acts will bind himself only; and he must 
indemnify any one to whom, without authority, he rep¬ 
resents himself as an attorney of another, and who con¬ 
tracts with him, or otherwise puts confidence iu him, as 
being such attorney. 

Attorney-General of England. A great officer of state, 
created so by royal letters-patent, and the legal repre¬ 
sentative of the crown, in the courts of law and equity. 
He draws up informations, prosecutes for the crown in 
criminal matters, files bills in the exchequer in revenue 
causes, and informations iu chancery iu cases where the 
crown is interested.—( IT. States.) In each State there is 
an A. G., or similar officer, who appears for the people, 
as iu England he appears for the crown. 

Attorney-General of the U. States. An officer appointed 
by the President. His duties are to prosecute and con¬ 
duct all suits in the supreme court in which the U. States 
shall be concerned, and give his advice upon questions 
of law when required by the President, or when requested 
by the heads of any of the departments of state, touch¬ 
ing matters that may concern their department. 

Attor'neysliii*, n. The office or duty of an attorney; 
agency or commission on behalf of another; proxy. 

“But marriage is a matter of more worth. 

Than to be dealt in by attorneyship." — Shaks. 

Attoyac', in Texas, a small river rising in Rusk co., 
which, after a S. course, enters Angelina river at the S.E. 
extremity of Nacogdoches co. 

Attract', v.a. [0.Fr .attraicter; Lat. atlraho,atlractus — 
ad, and traho, to draw.] To cause to approach, draw to, 
or tend to; to induce, to adhere or combine. 

“ The single atoms each to other tend, 

Attract, attracted to. the next in place 

Form'd and impell'd its neighbour to embrace.”— Pope. 

—To draw by influence of a moral kind; to invite; to allure; 
as, to attract a woman’s limey. 

44 Deign to be lov’d, and ev’ry heart subdue; 

What nymph could e'er attract such crowds as you?”— Pope. 

Attractabil'ity, n. Quality of being attractable; sus¬ 
ceptible to the laws of attraction. 

Alt ract'able, a. That may be attracted; susceptible 
to attraction. 

Attraet'ile, a. Having power to attract. 

Attract'iugly, adv. In an attracting manner. 

Attraction, (at-trdk'shun,) n. [Fr.; Lat. attractio.] The 
act of attracting; the act of drawing together; the re¬ 
sult of the principle of attraction. 

44 Attraction may be form'd by impulse, or some other means; I 
use that word, to signify any force by which bodies tend towards 
one another."— Newton. 

—The power of alluring or enticing; the act of drawing to; 
charm; allurement; as, the attraction of a pretty face. 

44 But her eyes 

Were black as death, their lashes the same hue, 

Of downcast length, in whose silk shadow lies 
Deepest attraction." — Byron. 


(Phys .) The power or principle by which bodies mu¬ 
tually tend toward each other ; which varies according 
to the nature of the bodies attracted, and the circum¬ 
stances under which this A. takes place. Hence A. is 
scientifically distinguished into the Attraction of Co- 
hesion. Attraction of Gravitation, Attraction of Elec¬ 
tricity, Attraction of Magnetism, and Chemical Attrac¬ 
tion. — A. of cohesion is peculiar to the component par¬ 
ticles of bodies, by virtue of which they are firmly con¬ 
nected and held together.—As the A. of cohesion is the 
cause of the solidity of small bodies, so is the A. of 
gravitation that chain which, being diffused over the 
solar system, preserves the planets iu their orbits, and 
makes them revolve about the centre of the system. 
That which in common language is called weight, is 
by philosophers explained to be gravitation; that is, a 
tendency to the centre of gravity. By gravitation a stone 
and allheavy bodies, if let tall from a height, are supposed 
to drop to the earth. All celestial bodies are supposed 
to have not only an A. or gravitation toward their proper 
centres, but that they mutually attract each other within 
their sphere. The planets tend toward the sun, and 
toward each other, as the sun does toward them. The 
earth and moon tend likewise reciprocally toward each. 
By this same principle ot gravity, heavenly bodies are 
kept in their orbits, and terrestrial bodies tend, as is 
supposed, toward the centre ot the earth, and it is from 
this A. that all the motion, and consequently all the 
changes in the universe, are supposed to arise.— A. of 
magnetism (or magnetic attraction), is the particular 
tendency of certain bodies to each other, as that of the 
magnet, which attracts iron.—Attempts have been made 
to deduce all these phenomena from one principle of A., 
modified by an opposing force of repulsion, but as yet 
without success. The idea of an attractive force acting 
as the bond of the universe was first introduced as a 
scientific hypothesis by Newton, and was violently com¬ 
bated by Leibnitz and others.— See Adhesion. Affinity, 
Cohesion, Gravitation, Electricity, Magnetism, Ac. 

Att ract ive. a. [Fr. attractif \ Having the (acuity or 
power of attracting or drawing to; as, “ the attractive 
stone.’’— htackmore. 

—The quality of attracting by moral influence; alluring; 
engaging; inviting: enticing. 

44 Happy is Herraia, wheresoe’er she lies. 

For she hath blessed and attractive eyes.”— Shaks. 

— n. That which attracts, invites, or allures. 

44 But the gospel speaks ot nothing but uttractives and imita¬ 
tion.’’— South. 

Attractively, adv. With the power of attracting, or 
drawing to; in an attractive manner. 

Attrac'tiveness, n. The quality of being attractive. 

Attractor, n. Any one who, or any thing which, at¬ 
tracts. 

At'trahent, a. Drawing to; attracting; attractive. 

—n. [Lat. altrahens.] That which draws or attracts, as a 
magnet. 

44 Oureyes will inform us of the motion of the steel to its atlra- 
hent." — (Danville's Scepsis. 

(Med.) A term sometimes applied to remedies which 
attract fluids to the parts to which they ale applied, as 
blisters, rubelacients, &c. 

At'tri, a large river of Hindostan, which, rising in the 
S. of Thibet, and flowing through a pass of the Hima¬ 
layas due S., falls into the main branch of the Gauges at 
Jafferege, after a course of 100 miles. 

Attrib'utable, a. That may he attributed; ascribable; 
owing to. 

44 Much of the origination of the Americans seems to be attribu¬ 
table to the migrations of the Seres." — Sir Matthew Hole. 

Attrib'ute, v. a. [Fr. attribuer; Lat. attribuo — at’, and 
tribuo, tributus, to assign, bestow, or give.] To give, 
assign, or apportion to; to allot; to ascribe; to impute; 
to yield as due. 

44 The imperfection of telescopes Is attributed to spherical glasses. 44 

Newton. 

At'tribute, n. [Fr. attribut.] It properly signifies a 
quality or property ascribed or belonging to a person 
or thing. Of the several attributes belonging to any 
substance, some are termed essential —those that are 
necessary to it, and go to form its character,as extension 
and attraction to matter; others are termed accidental, 
as roundness in wood, or learning in a man. 

(Theol.) The several qualiiies and perfections which we 
conceive to exist in God, and which constitute his proper 
essence; thus, justice, truth, gooduess, wisdom, Ac., are 
called the attributes of God. Some distinguish them into 
negative, and positive or affirmative; the former being 
such as to remove him from whatever is imperfect iu 
the creature, as infinity, immutability, immortality; 
the latter being such as assert some perfection in him, 
which is in, and of himself, and which, in the creature, 
in any measure, is from him; as goodness, holiness, wis¬ 
dom. Others divide them into absolute and relative., or 
into communicable and incommunicable. 

(Logic.) The attributes are the predicates of any sub¬ 
ject, or what may be affirmed or denied of anything; 
thus, mortality, imperfection, error, are attributes of man, 
as whiteness is an attribute of snow. 

(Fine Arts.) A term used to signify certain symbols 
which accompany, distinguish, and characterize certain 
figures and allegories. Thus, the eagle and thunderbolt 
are the A. of Jupiter; the cadnceus is the attribute of 
Mercury; the trident of Neptune. Love is always rep¬ 
resented with a bow and quiver; Justice, with a balance 
and sword, Ac. 

Attribution, n. [Fr. attribution ; Lat. attribution Act 
of attributing, or the quality ascribed; commendation. 

Attrib'utive, a. [Fr .aUributif.] That attributes; at¬ 
tributing; pertaining to an attribute. 

— n. (Gram.) A word which is significant of attributes; aa 





188 


ATTW 


AUBE 


AUBI 


adjectives, verbs, and participles, which are attributes of 
substances; and adverbs, which denote the attributes only 
of attributes. The former may be called attributes of the 
first order; the latter, attributes of the second order. 

Attrib'utively, adv. (Gram.) In an attributive man¬ 
ner. 

Attrite', a. [Gr. leipein; Lat. at tr it us.) Ground down or 
worn by friction or rubbing. 

“ Or, by collision of two bodies, grind 
Tbe air attrite to fire.” — Milton. 

( Thenl .) Repentant only from fear of punishment; 
opposed to contrite. 

Attrite'ness, n. Being much worn, or attrite. 

Attrition, (at-trish'un,) n. [Fr.; Lat. attritio — ad , and 
trilus , to rub.] A rubbing of one thing against another; 
abrasion; act of wearing by friction or rubbing. 

** The change of the aliment is effected by attrition of the in¬ 
ward stomach." — Arbuthnot. 

—State of being worn by abrasion or rubbing. 

—( Thenl.) Grief for sin arising only from the fear of pun¬ 
ishment; a quasi degree of repentance. 

( Geol.) The wearing and smoothing of rocky or other 
rough surfaces, by the passage of watar charged with 
gritty particles, by the descent of glaciers, or by the 
passage of sand-drift. 

Attune', v. a. fad,and tune.) To tune or put in tune; to 
adjust one sound to another; as, to attune an air to the 
violin. 

—To make musical or accordant; to arrange fitly. 

“ Airs, vernal airs. 

Breathing the smell of field and grove, attune 

The trembling leaves.” — Milton. 

Att'wooil, George, a distinguished English physicist, 
b. 1745; d. 1807. He is known by his treatise on the 
Rectilinear Motion and Rotation of Bodies; but princi¬ 
pally by a mechanical contrivance known as Attwood’s 
Machine, the principle of which merits some notice. — 
Perhaps no questions in mechanics are more interesting 
than those concerning 
the fall of bodies. They 
were, however, for a long 
time, the subject of only 
slight and inefficient ex¬ 
periments. Bodies fall 
in so short a time 
through so considerable 
a space, that it was found 
impossible to get to ele¬ 
vations, fitted in other 
ways for the purpose of 
experiment, sufficient to 
let us observe them ea¬ 
sily. Besides, the resist¬ 
ance of the air, though 
very slight at the com¬ 
mencement of the fall of 
a body, yet becomes con¬ 
siderable as its velocity 
increases. The machine 
of A. proposes to reduce 
the velocity of falling 
bodies, and to enable us 
to observe their laws, by 
giving us time for ex¬ 
perimenting, and by ren¬ 
dering the resistance of 
the air comparatively 
insignificant. — We give 
the following descrip¬ 
tion from a work on 
astronomy, by W. .1. 

Rolfe and J. A. Gillet, 

®f Cambridge. The ma¬ 
chine of A. consists of 
an upright column, with 
a pulley at the top, ar¬ 
ranged to run with the 
least possible friction. 

Over this pulley passes a 
cord, to which are at¬ 
tached the equal weights 
B and E. C and F are 
movable shelves, the for¬ 
mer of which has a cir¬ 
cular hole in the centre, 
large enough to let the 
weight B pass through 
it. A is a clock, beating 
seconds, and carried by 
the pendulum D. When 
we wish to make the 
weight B fall, we place 
upon it a small horizon¬ 
tal bar of iron, which is 
too long to pass through 
the hole in the shelf C. 

When, therefore, the 
weight drops through 
this hole, the bar will be 
caught off and remain 
upon the shelf. If the 

weight B, with the bar r _,___, „ 

will be found that the force of gravity will pull it down 
one inch during one second. Now, adjust the shelf C, so 
that the bar shall be removed at the end of the first sec¬ 
ond; it will then be found that the weight will fall two 
inches the next second. At the end of the first second, 
then, the weight is projected vertically downward, with 
a Telocity of two inches per second. If now the bar is 
left on during both seconds, the weight will be found to 


have fallen three inches during the 2d second. Hence, 
the force of gravity pulls the weight down the 2d second 
an inch further than its velocity at the beginning of this 
second would have carried it; that is, just as low as 
gravity would have pulled it from a state of rest. — By 
means of this same machine the case of a body projected 
vertically upward can be illustrated. While one of the 
weights is falling, the other weight is rising. Suppose 
that one bar be placed upon the ascending weight, and 
two on the descending weight; the second a little hea¬ 
vier than the first, so that it shall bear the same ratio to 
the whole weight now as the one bar used at first. We 
have already seen that this bar, acting during one second, 
will give one of the weights a velocity downward of two 
inches every second, and the other weight the same ve¬ 
locity upward. Suppose now that at the end of the first 
second both bars be caught off the descending weight, 
the other weight will rise not two inches, but only one 
during the next second. Had it not been for the action 
of gravity upon the bar resting on it, it would have risen 
two inches. But we have already seen that gravity act¬ 
ing upon this bar will cause the weight to fall one inch 
from a state of rest; hence it is pulled just as far from 
the place it would have reached as it would have been 
pulled from a state of rest. — See Gravity, Motion, &c. 

Atu'res, a town of S. America, in Venezuela, on the 
Orinoco, 105 m. N.N.E. of San Fernando. 

At'water, in Ohio, a post-township of Portage co., 12 m. 
S. by E. of Ravenna. 

A tweet', interj. [O. Eng., I wot well.] Very well. (Scot¬ 
tish.) 

Atwist', adv. [Prefix a, and fitusL] Awry; twisted; 
distorted, (r.) 

At'wooil, in Indiana, a post-office of Kosciusko co. 

At'wood, in Michigan , a post-office of Antrim co. 

At'wootPs Key, a small island of the W. Indies, in 
the Bahama group, 33 m. N. by E. of Acklin Island; 
Lat. 23° 5' N.; Lon. 73° 43' W. 

Atyp'ic, a. [Gr. a, priv., and typos, type.] (Med.) That 
which has no type; irregular; chiefly applied to an ir¬ 
regular intermittent. 

Atyp'us, n. (Zndl.) A genus of spiders — the species 
of which inhabit turfy declivities, where they form deep 
cylindrical excavations seven or eight inches long. In 
these they weave a kind of funnel of white silk of the 
same dimensions, and at the bottom of this cavity the 
cocoon in which their eggs are deposited is fixed by 
means of threads attached to each other. 

Au, the name of a small town of Hungary, and of seve¬ 
ral villages in Germany. 

Aubageie', (o-bdn’,) a town of France, dep. of Bouches- 
du-Rhone, 10 m. E. of Marseilles, on the railway to 
Nice. It is divided into an old and a new town. The 
former is mean, and the latter well-built, supporting 
the fabrication of earthenware, paper, &c. Population 
7,232. 

Aubaine', n. [Fr., from 0. Fr. aubain, a foreigner.] 
( Fr. Law.) A legal process formerly existing in France, 
by which the sovereigns claimed the property of a 
stranger who had died in their dominions without hav¬ 
ing been naturalized. The droit d’aubaine was abolished 
by laws of 1790 and 1791, re-established in 1804. and 
finally abolished July 14th, 1819. 

An'ban, Marquis de St., an eminent French general, b 

, about the middle of the 17th century. He served with 
distinction in the campaigns of Louis XIV., aud was also 
a clever writer on military matters. D. 1713. 

Anbbeen'aiibbee, or Anbbeen'ubbce, in In¬ 
diana, a post-village of Fulton co., in a township of the 
same name, on the Tippecanoe river, 32 m. N. by W. of 
Logansport. 

Aube, ( obe ',) a river of France, which, rising in the dep. 
of Haute-Marne, joins the Seine 23 m. N.N.W. of Troyes, 
after a course of 90 m. It is navigable from Arcis-sur- 
Aube. 

Aube', a dep. of France, S.E. of Paris, lying between 
47° 45' and 48° 42' N. Lat., and 3° 24' E. Lon.; bounded 
on the N. by Marne, E. by Haute-Marne, S. by the Cote 
d’Or and Yonne, and W. by Seine-et-Marne. Area, 2,393 
sq. m. The river Seine and its important affluent, the 
A. (whence the dep. takes its name), flow through it.— 
Surface. Generally flat; the soil of the region to the 
N. and W. of Troyes being chalky and barren, while 
that of the country to the E. and S. of that city, also 
chalky, has yet a thick coating of alluvial deposit which 
produces luxuriant crops of corn, hemp, and turnips.— 
Forests. Clairvaux, Orient, Montmorency, and Soulaines. 
Towns. The principal are Troyes (the cap.), Arcis-sur- 
A ube, N ogen t-sur-Sei n e, Bar-sur-Aube, and Bar-sur-Seine. 
Manf. Cotton stuffs and yarn, porcelain, paper, &c. 
There are numerous beetroot-sugar factories, vinegar 
distilleries, Ac. Pop. 261,961. 

Aube'nas, a town of France, dep. Ardbche, cap. of a 
cant., near the Ardeche, beautifully situated at the foot 
of the Cevennes, 13 m. S.W. of Privas; pop. 9,181. 

Aube'pine, n. The French name of the shrub Mespi- 
lus oxyacantha, — See Mespilus. 

Au'ber, Daniel Francois Esprit, a celebrated French 
musical composer, and member of the Institute, b. at 
Caen, Jan. 29, 1784. In 1813 he produced his first 
opera, Le Sejour Militaire, which proved so unsuccess¬ 
ful as to dishearten its composer. In 1820 appeared an 
opera in 3 acts, entitled La Bergere Chatelaine, which 
was well received. In 1823 he became associated with 
M. Scribe, who thenceforward supplied A. with the lib¬ 
rettos for some of his greatest works. On the 29th of Feb., 
1828, his Muette de Pnrtici (better known to the world 
at large as Masaniello), was performed at the Grand 
Opera in Paris, with the words (libretto) by Scribe and 
G. Delavigne. It carried the public taste by storm, and 
at once took its place beside the greatest works of Ros¬ 


sini and Meyerbeer. From this time forward the must 
cal career of A. became one grand series of successes. 
Having found the opera comique to be his proper forte, 
he devoted himself to that field of the musical drama, 
and brought out consecutively a multitude of operas 
some of which have attained a world-wide popularity 
and reputation. We give at loot the names and dates 
of his principal works. Some of the incidental airs of 
A.’a repertory have had an influence tar beyond the 
world of musical amateurs. The famous air Amour 
Sacrf de la Patrie, sung by Nourrit, gave the signal 
at Brussels for the Belgian revolution of 1830. For 40 
years, A. was the most popular composer of the French 
school, and almost to the very day of his death he re¬ 
tained alike his vigor of mental genius and his physical 
strength. In 1861, A. was appointed a grand officer of 
the Legvm of Honor. As chief director of the Conserva¬ 
toire de Musique, A. displayed all the vemfr. and indefati¬ 
gable activity of a man of 40, and during the year 1868 
produced the score of a new opera, — a surprising feat 
for a man of so advanced an age. The music of A. 
is light and easy; graceful, and often marked by ori¬ 
ginality. He possesses all the movement and clear¬ 
ness of Rossini, .without, perhaps, all his subtilty 
and depth in the representation of passion. The fol¬ 
lowing is a list of the principal works of A., with 
the dates and places of their first performance. At 
the Grand Opera, Paris: La Muette de Portici (Masani¬ 
ello), (1828); Le Dieu et la Bayadere (1830); Le Philtre 
(1831); Le Serme.nt, or Les Faux Monnayeurs (1832); 
Gustave, or Le Bal Masque (1833); Le Cheval de Bronze, 
ballet-opera (1857). — At the Opera Comique, Paris: 
La Neige (1823); Le Macon (1825); La Fiancee (1829); 
Fra Diavolo (1830); Lestocq (1834); Le Cheval de Bronze 
(three-act opera), (1835); VAmbassadrice (1836); Le 
Domino iW nr (1837); Les Diamants de la Couronne 
(‘‘Crown Diamonds ”), (1841); La Sirene (1844); Haydee 
(1847); and Le Premier Jour de Bonheur (1868). P.1871. 

Atiberge'. ti. The French name for an inn, or tavern. 

Au'bergine, n. The French name of the egg-plant, 
Solanum melongena. 

Au'bergist, n. [Fr. aubergiste.) One who keeps an inn 
or tavern. (R.) 

“ The aubergist at Terni."— Smollett. 

Au'bert till Bayet, Jean Baptiste Annibal, a French 
general, B. in Louisiana, in 1753. lie served under La 
Fayette in the war of American Independence. On his 
return to Europe, he was elected a member of the Con¬ 
stituent Assembly, where he belonged to the party of 
the Girondins. He afterwards fought under Kellermann, 
at Valmy, aud conducted the defence of Mayence. D., 
ambassador at Constantinople, in 1797. 

Aubervil'liers, or NOtre-Dame-des-Vertus, a village 
of France, dep. Seine, near Paris. Great quantities of 
garden-stuff lor the supply of that metropolis are raised 
here. 

Au besoin. [Fr., in case of need.] (Com.) “Au besnin 

chez Messieurs - a -“ In case of need, apply to 

Messrs.-at-.” A phrase used in the superscrip¬ 

tion of a bill of exchange, pointing out the person to whom 
application may be made for payment in case of failure 
oir refusal of the drawer to pay. 

Anbes pine, a noble French family, of which the fol¬ 
lowing were the most distinguished members:— 

A., Claude de l’, Baron de Chateauneuf; who was Sec¬ 
retary of State and Finance from 1542 till his death in 
1567. He was employed in the most important political 
negotiations of the reigns of Francis 1., Henry II., aud 
Charles IX. 

A., Charles de l’, Marquis de Chateauneuf, brother of 
the preceding, was B. in 1580. He was sent on successive 
missions to Holland, Germany, Venice, and England; 
succeeded his father, in 1621, as Chancellor, and was 
named, in 1630, Keeper of the Seals. A. was imprisoned 
by order of Richelieu, from 1633 to 1640, and D. 1653. 

Aube'tei re, David Bouchard, Vicomtk d’, b. at Geneva, 
and appointed, by Henry III. of France, to the govern¬ 
ment of Perigord. A. rendered important services to 
Henry IV. during the wars of the League. He d. iu 
1598, from a wound received at the siege of Lisle. 

Aubiere', a town of France, dep. of Puy-de-Dome, 2 m. 
S.E. of Clermont, in the middle of the volcanic region 
of Auvergne ; pop. about 4,000. 

AubigntV, Pierre d’. a French historian and drama¬ 
tist; b. 1550, near Pons, in France. He was a precocious 
linguist, having translated Plato’s Crito at 7 years of 
age. In the employ of Henry IV., he wrote an able 
tragedy, called Cirri. A. was a strenuous supporter of 
the Protestant faith, and ivas, in consequence, 4 times 
condemned to death. He passed the close of his life at 
Geneva, where he D. in 1630. A. was the grandfather of 
the celebrated Madame Scarron, or de Maintenon, who 
became the wife of Louis XIV. His principal work is: 
Histoire Dniverselle depuis IbbOjusqu'd 1661. 

Aubig'ny, Robert Stuart, Seigneur d’, a marshal of 
France in the 16th century, who was descended from a 
noble Scottish family. He passed the Alps with Charles 
VIII., and signalized himself at the defence of Novara, 
and in various battles and sieges. D. 1544. 

An'bin, n. [Fr. aubin, amble; Lat. ambalatura.) A can¬ 
ter; broken or mixed movement or pace in a horse, 
somewhat between an amble and a gallop; sometimes 
called a Canterbury Gallop. — See Canter. 

All'bill, St., a town of France, dep. Aveyron, cap. of a 
canton, 18 m. N .E. of Villefranche, on a branch of the 
Southern railway. In the neighborhood are the volcanic 
mountains of Fontagnes and Btiegne, which have been 
burning for ages, and from which great quantities of 
alum and sublimated sulphur are obtained. The alum 
is sufficient for the entire supply of France. Pop. 8,325. 

Au'bill, St., a fine seaport town of Jersey, one of the 





































A.UBU 


AUCU 


AUDI 


189 


Channel islands belonging to Great Britain. It is oppo¬ 
site to St. Heliers, on the W. of the bay of the latter. 
The largest ships may anchor inside the pier at St. Au- 
bin’s Castle, close at hand. Pop. 2,276. 

An'bin dn Cormier, St., a village of France, in 
Brittany, where on the 28th of July, 1488, a battle was 
fought between the Bretons aud the French, in which 
the latter were victorious, and took possession of A. 
Among their prisoners were the Prince of Orange, and 
the Duked’Orleans. A body of 400 Kuglish archers, under 
Lord Woodville, werecruelly put to death after the battle. 

ilu'bonne, a town of Switzerland, cant. Vaud, on the 
river Aubonne, 14 m. W. by S. of Lausanne, on the rail¬ 
way to Geneva. There is a fine castle here, which com¬ 
mands a famous view. It was built by the counts of 
Gruyere, and afterwards belonged to Tavernier the cele¬ 
brated traveller. 

Au'brey, John, an eminent English antiquary, b. 1626. 
He contributed largely to Dugdale’s Monasticon Angli- 
canum, and the Athence Oxoniensis ; aud was also the 
author of valuable Miscellanies , which are now iu the 
university of Oxford. He was the friend of Milton, Dry- 
den, and Hobbes. D. in 1697. 

Au'brey, or Au'bry, in Arizona, a post-village of Mo¬ 
have co., on the river Colorado, at the mouth of Bill 
Williams’ Fork. 

Au'brey, in Kansas, a village and township of Johnson 
co., about 36 m. E.S.E. of Lawrence. 

Aubrie'tia, n. (Bot.) A genus of ornamental, evergreen, 
herbaceous, hardy, trailing plants, ord. Brassicacece. The 
species are 3 in number, about 3 inches in height, pro¬ 
ducing purple flowers from March till June; and are very 
commoninali sorts of gardens. They were only recently 
erected into a genus, aud formerly belonged to the genera 
alyssum, arabis, aud draba. 

Aubri'ot, IIugues, a provost of Paris, in the 14th cen¬ 
tury. He is principally notable for having been the 
builder of the Bastille, in which he was himself subse¬ 
quently imprisoned. D. 1382. 

Au'bry, in Arizona. See Aubrey. 

Au'bry tie Mouttlitlier, a French soldier, supposed 
to have been murdered by his comrade, Richard de Ma- 
caire, in 1371. He is the hero of many dramas, founded 
on the details of the discovery of his murderer. A.’s 
faithful dog persisted in pursuing and harassing Macaire, 
and this coming to the ears of King Charles V.. he ordered 
a fight to be tried between them. The dog was victori¬ 
ous, and he has ever since been famous iu story as the 
“Dog of Montargis; ” from the place of the fight. 

Au'burn, (cfbern,) a. [Fr. brim ; A.S. a, and brun , front 
byrnan, brennan, to burn ; Lat. alburnus.] Reddish, or 
golden-brown. 

“ Her brow was overhung with coins of gold, 

That sparkled o'er the auburn of her hair. "—Byron. 

Au'burn, the name of a village immortalized by Oliver 
Goldsmith in his Deserted Village; which has been iden¬ 
tified with Lissoy, in Ireland, near Athlone, co. West¬ 
meath. Lissoy has since been called Auburn. 

Au'burn, in Alabama, a village of Macon co., 60 m. N. 
E. of Montgomery. 

—A township and village of Lee co. 

Au'burn, in Arkansas, a post-office of Sebastian co. 

Au'burn, in California, a city, the cap. of Placer co., 
near the junction of the N. and S. Forks of American 
river, 37 m. N.E. of Sacramento, and 97 m. N.E. of San 
Francisco. Pop. (1890) 1,595. 

Au'burn, in Illinois, a village in Moultrie co., 3 m. N. 
of the Kaskaskia river, and 65 m. E. by S. of Springfield. 

—A township of Sangamon co.; 17 in. S.S.W. of Spring- 
field. 

—A township of Clarke co. 

Au'buru, in Indiana, a town, cap. of De Kalb co., on 
Cedar Creek; 134 m. of N. E. of Indianapolis, aud 22 
N. of Fort Wayne. Pop. (1898) 2,980. 

Au'bu rn, in Iowa, a post-village of Sac collocated on 
the Chicago and Northwestern Railway, and 16 m. S.E. 
of Sac City. Pop. (1898) 275. 

—A village and township of Fayette co., on Turkey river, 
about 5 m. N.W. of West Union. 

Au'burn, in Kunsas, a post-village and township of 
Shawnee co., on Wakarusa Creek, about 13 in. S.S.W. of 
Topeka; 

Au'burn, in Kentucky, a P.0, of Logan co. 

Au'burn, in Maine, a city, cap. of Androscoggin co., 
on the river of the latter name, 34 m. N. of Portland. 
It enters largely into the boot and shoe manufacture. 
Pop. in 1890, 11,250. 

Au'burn, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Worces¬ 
ter co., about 5 m. W. by S. of Worcester. 

Au'burn, in Michigan, a village of Oakland co., on 
Clinton river, 75 m. E. by S. of Lansing, aud 4 E. of 
Pontiac. 

Au'burn. in Missouri, a post-village of Lincoln co., 
about 60 m. N.W. of St. Louis, and 12 N. of Troy. 

Au'burn, in New Hampshire, a post-township of Rock¬ 
ingham co. 

Au'burn, in New Jersey, a post-office of Salem co. 

Au'burn. in New York, one of the most beautiful cities 
iu the state, capital of Cayuga co., 174 m. W. of Albany, 
on the outlet of Owasco Lake, which is 2J4 m. distant. 
Lat. 42° 53' N.; Lon. 76° 40' W. It contains a flourish¬ 
ing academy, a Presbyterian theological seminary in¬ 
corporated in 1821, and numerous churches. Here also 
is the Auburn State Prison; (for particulars concerning 
this celebrated penal institution, see Penitentiary Sys¬ 
tem.) — Manf. Cotton, wool, carpets, iron, paper, Ac., 
besides numerous mills. Pop. in 1890, 25.858. 

Au'burn, in North Carolina, a post-village of Wake co., 
11 m. S.E. of Raleigh. 

Au'buru, in Ohio, a township of Crawford co. 


Au'burn, in 'Ohio, a post-township of Geauga co., 
about 27 in. S.E. by E. of Cleveland. 

—A township of Tuscarawas co. 

Au'burn, in Oregon, a post-village, former cap. of 
Baker co., near East Fork of Powder river, and 300 m. 
E. of Salem. Gold has been found in the neighborhood. 
Au'burn. in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Schuylkill 
co., 83 miles N.W. of Philadelphia, ami 9 miles S.E. of 
Pottsville, on the Phila. & Reading and Penna. It.Rs.; 
a coal shipping point. Pop. (1898) 1,040. 

—A township of Susquehanna co. 

Au'burn. in Wisconsin, a village and township of Fond 
du Lac co., 50 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. 

Au'burn Centre, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of 
Susquehanna co., about 15 m. S.W. of Montrose. 
Au'burndale, in Massachusetts, now included iu the 
city of Newton, in Middlesex co. 

Au'burn Four-Corners, in Pennsylvania, a post- 
olfice of Susquehanna co. 

Au burn .1 unction. in Indiana, a post-office of 
DeKalb co., 136 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. 
Aubus'son, Pierre i>’, Grand-Master of the order of 
St. John of Jerusalem, was b. in 1423. He sprung from 
an old French family. The Ottomans in his day began 
to threaten Europe with a second Moslem invasion ; and 
A., having served ill Hungary against them, determined 
to devote his life to their extirpation. He accordingly 
obtained from Louis XI. a commandery in the above- 
mentioned order, and was shortly afterwards made Grand 
Prior, and intrusted with the defence of Rhodes. In 
1476, he was elected Grand-Master. He held out the city 
of Rhodes against the Turks, in 1480, during a siege of 
89 days, and forced them to retire with the loss of nearly 
10,000 men. When Bajazet and Zizim disputed the 
succession to the Turkish throne, and the latter was 
worsted, he sought refuge with A., who received him 
courteously, but afterwards basely surrendered him as 
a prisoner to Pope Alexander VI., for which service the 
latter created A. a cardinal. He D. at Rhodes, in 1503, 
in the 81st year of his age, of deep compunction for his 
treachery, denounced as it had been by Christendom at 
large. 

Aubus'son. a town of France, dep. of the Creuse, cap. 
of an arroud. on the Creuse river, 20 m. S.E. of Gueret. 
It is picturesquely situated in a mountain gorge; and 
possesses, after those of the Gobelins and Beauvais, the 
most celebrated carpet-manufacture in France. Pop. 
6,551. 

Aneh, (osh ,) acity of France, cap. of the dep. of Gers, on 
the railway from Agen to Tarbes. The best part of the 
city stands on the plateau of a hill, from which there is 
a fine view of the Pyrenees. It has a magnificent Gothic 
cathedral. Trade. Wine, and Armaguac braudy. Pop. 
13,182. 

Au'cheehach'ee, or Ac'chenehatch'ee, in Georgia. 
See Little Ocmulgee. 

Au'ehenairn, a village of Scotland, co. of Lanark, 3 
m. N.E. of Glasgow. Near this place the Scottish pa¬ 
triot, Sir William Wallace, was betrayed to the English, 
by the fause Monteith.” 

Auebe'nia, n. See Llama. 

Auehmu'ty, Sir Samuel, a distinguished British gen¬ 
eral, B. at New York, iu 1756. He entered the army as 
a volunteer in 1776, and was present in the actions of 
White Plains and Brooklyn. He served afterwards with 
distinction in India, and Egypt. In 1806, he commanded 
the British forces in S. America, and carried by assault, 
in 1807, the city of Montevideo. In 1810, A. took the 
island of Java. D. 1822. 

Aucil'Ia, in Florida, a post-office of Jefferson co. 
Auckland, a city and former cap. of the British col¬ 
ony of New Zealand, in the island of New Ulster, at the 
extremity of Waitimala Bay. It is a rapidly growing, 
and improving place. Pop. of A. and suburbs, 51,127. 
Lat. 36° 51' 30" S.; Lon. 175° 45' E. A. was founded I9tli 
Sept., 1S40, and the seat of government was transferred 
from it to Wellington, on the 24th Dec., 1864. 
Auck'lantl, in New South Wales, a maritime county, 
60 m. in length, by 40 in breadth. 

Auck'lantl, in England. See Bishop’s-Auckland. 
Auck'lantl Islands, a group lying in the Pacific 
ocean to the S. of New Zealand. Lat. 50° 48'S.; Lon. 
166° 42' E. The largest of these islands is about 30 m. 
long, by 15 broad, and is covered with dense vegetation. 
They are almost entirely uninhabited, belong to the 
British, and are a station for whaling-ships. 

Auc'tion, n. [Lat. audio, from augeo, audus, to in¬ 
crease.] A mode of public sale in which each succeed¬ 
ing buyer increases or adds to the price offered by the 
preceding, and the article put up for sale is given to the 
highest bidder.—A vendue; the things sold at auction. 

“ Ask you why Phryne the whole auction buys? 

Phryne foresees a general excise."— Pope. 

— v. i. To sell by auction, or vendue, (r.) 

Auc'tionary, a. [Lat. aiwtionarius.] Pertaining or 
belonging to an auction, (r.) 

“ And much more honest to be hir'd, and stand 
With auctionary hammer in thy hand.”— Dryden. 
Auctioneer', n. [Lat. audionator.] One who sells by 
auction; a person who manages an auction; one who dis¬ 
poses of goods or lands by public sale to the highest bid¬ 
der. 

“ Dan Phoebus takes me for an auctioneer."—Byron. 

—v. a. To sell by auction, or public sale. 

Ancu’ba, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, order Oomacece. 
They are shrubs or trees, natives of Japan. The A. Ja- 
ponica, or Japan laurel, is an evergreen shrub, 6 to 10 feet 
high; leaves ovate-lanceolate, acuminated, toothed, cori¬ 
aceous, glabrous, shining, pale green; beautifully spotted 
with yellow, having the midrib rather promineut, the 
rest of the leaf reticulately veined. Petioles articulated 


with the branches, and dilated at the base. As hardy 
as the common laurel, it is readily propagated by cut 
tings, and grows freely in any tolerably dry soil. 



Fig. 234. — a. japonica, (Japan laurel.) 


Autla'cious, a. [Fr. audacieux, from Lat. oudeo, to 
dare.] Daring; fearless; intrepid; confident; bold; with 
out decorum. Daring effrontery; insolent; impudent. 

“ Such is thy audacious wickedness."— Shake. 

Auda'ciously, adv. In an audacious manner. 

Auda'eiousness, n. The quality of being bold o* 
audacious; audacity; excess of boldness; impudence. 

Audac'ity, n. Daring; boldness; confidence; venture 
someness. 

" Lean raw-bon’d rascals ! who would e'er suppose 
They had such courage aud audacity ."— Shuks. 

—Audaciousness; effrontery; impudence; implying a con¬ 
tempt of law, or of moral restraint; as, “The-take 

thy audacity ! ” 

Audte'us. See Acmus. 

Ande, {ode,) a river of France, rising in the Pyrenees, 
which, after a flow of 130 m. N. and E., enters the Medi¬ 
terranean near Narbonne. It gives its name to the fol¬ 
lowing department. 

Aude 7 , a maritime dep. in the S. of France, on the Medi¬ 
terranean, divided from Spain by the dep. of tiie Pyrenees 
Orientales. Area, 2,246 sq. in. The Aude, from which it 
derives its name, is the only notable river ; but it is also 
watered by the canal of Languedoc. The coast along 
the Mediterranean is low, and bordered by many lagoons. 
Surface, generally mountainous: having on the N. a 
prolongation of the Cevennes, while on the S. it is pene¬ 
trated by spurs of the Pyrenees. Climate, variable; bot 
winds prevailing, which blow at times witli violence, and 
in summer strikingly resemble the sirocco. Corn and 
wine are raised in great quantities, and a good deal of 
brandy is manufactured. The honey of Narbonne is the 
finest in France. A. is rich in iron, and other mineral 
products. There are also extensive manufactures of 
cloths, paper, combs, Ac. Prin. towns. Carcassonne (cap. 
of the dep), Narbonne, Castelnaudary, and Linioux. Pip. 
288,626. 

Andenartle', in Belgium. See Oudenarde. 

Auden riecl', in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Carbon 
co. 

Aud'enshaw, a township of England, in Lancashire, 
4)4 m. from Manchester, on the Ashton canal: pop. 5,969. 

Au'tlians, or Auda ans. (Fed. Hist.) See Anthro- 

POMORPHITES. 

Audibil ity, n. The state or quality of being audible; 
the power of being heard. 

Au'di ble, a. [Lat. audibilis, from audio, to hear.] That 
may be heard; perceptible to the ear; capable of sound; 
as, an audible whisper. 

“ And speaking softly, the water returned an audible echo." Bacon. 

Au'dibleness, n. Capability of being heard ; quality 
of being audible. 

Au'dibly, adv. In am audible manner; in such a man¬ 
ner as to be heard. 

Au'dience, n. [Fr. audience; Lat. audientia, from 
audio, to hear, allied to Gr onus, for ous. otos, the ear.] 
The act of hearing or listening to a speaker, or to sounds. 

Thus far his bold discourse, without coutroub 
Had audience.’' — Milton. 

—Persons collected to hear; an assembly of hearers; an 
auditory. 

“ The hall was filled with an audience of the greatest eminence 
for quality and politeuess."— Addison. 

—Admittance to a hearing; reception to an interview; 
more especially used in relation to an interview with a 
sovereign, or head of a government or state. 

11 Let me have audience ; I am sent to speak, 

My holy lord of Milan, from the king.”— Shake. 

( Politics.) The ceremony of the admission of ambas¬ 
sadors or public ministers to a sovereign or other poten¬ 
tate, to deliver the credentials of their own monarch or 
state, is called an audience. 

(Hist, and Law.) The name given to certain tribunals 
or courts of justice, established by the Spaniards in 
America. They were formed upon the model of th« 
court of chancery in Spain.— Also, the name of one of 
the ecclesiastical courts in England, which is held when¬ 
ever an archbishop calls for a cause to be argued befor* 
himself. 


12 














1*90 


AUDU 


AUGE 


AUGI 


Au'dient, a. [Lat. audiens.] Paying attention to; lis¬ 
tening; hearing. 

Au dit, n. [Lat., he hears.] An examination or adjust¬ 
ment of accounts, with a hearing of the parties con¬ 
cerned.— The result of an adjustment; a final account. 
“And how his audit stands, who knows save heaven?"— Shales . 

a. To examine and adjust an account or accounts; 
as, to audit the books of a public company. 

— v. i. To take a final account. 

“Bishops’ ordinaries, auditing all accounts, take twelve pence." 

Ayliffe. 

Au'dita quere'la. [Lat.] A form of action which 
lies for a defendant to recall or prevent an execution, on 
account of some matter occurring after judgment amount¬ 
ing to a discharge, and which could not have been, and 
cannot be taken advantage of, otherwise. In some of 
the U. States the remedy by motion has entirely super¬ 
seded the ancient form; while in others, audita querela 
is of frequent use as a remedy recognized by statute. 

Au'ilit-liouse, n. An office belonging to a cathedral, 
in which is transacted all business affecting the diocese. 

Amii'tion, n. Hearing; listening to. (r.) 

Au ditor, n. [Lat. auditor , from uudire.] A hearer or 
listener. 

“Are you now become so mean an auditor t " — Sir P. Sidney. 

(Law.) An officer or officers of the court, assigned to 
state the items of debit and credit between the parties 
in a suit where accounts are in question, and exhibit the 
balance. 

Autiiio'rial, a. Auditory, (r.) 

Au'ditorsiilp, n. The office or duty of an auditor. 

Au'ilitory, a [Lat .auditorius] Having the power of 
hearing; pertaining to the sense or organs of hearing. 

(A nat.) Applied to certain parts of the organs of hear¬ 
ing; as, the A. nerve, meatus auditorius , &c.— See Ear. 

— n. [Lat. auditorium, an audience.] An assemblage of 
persons gathered together for the purpose of hearing a 
preacher, lecturer, &c. In the ancient churches, the 
term A., or auditorium, was applied to that part of the 
building where the people stood to be instructed, and 
hear the Gospel; it is now called the nave. 

—A place where lectures or causes are to be heard, or dis¬ 
courses delivered 

Au'tlitress, n. A female hearer; as, “She, sole audi- 

tress.” — Milton. 

Audit'ual, a. Same as Auditory, (r.) 

Au'tlius, AuD.Eu.-s, or Udo. See Anthropomorphites. 

And'ley, James, Lord, a famous English knight, who 
distinguished himself under Edward III. in France, and 
was carried, badly wounded, from the field of Poitiers. 

A. was one of the first Knights of the Garter, Governor 
of Aquitaine, and Seneschal of Poitou, li 1311; D. 1386. 

Aml'ouin, Jecn Victor, a French entomologist and 
comparative anatomist, who added many important facts 
to the sciences of which he was an ardent investigator. 

B. at Paris. 1797; i>. 1811. 

Aiuiraiit', in Missouri, a county' in the N.E. central 
part of the State, drained by the North Fork and Long 
Branch of Salt river, and by the sources of Riviere au 
Cnivre. Surface. Level, mostly prairie; soil, fertile. 
Area, 680 sq. m. Cap. Mexico. 

Au'tlubon, J>hn James, a distinguished American or¬ 
nithologist, b. in Louisiana, about 1780. His parents, 
who were of French origin, and in wealthy circum¬ 
stances, sent him to Paris to finish his education, and he 
there studied design under the painter David. After his 
return to America, A.’s father presented him with a 
large and valuable plantation; he married, and might 
have lived a life of ease and comfort in the bosom of a 
happy domestic circle; but it was the nature of A. to 
find home in the unreclaimed solitudes of his native cou- 
tinent, and companions in the wild denizens of the 
prairie and the forest. The study of birds had, beyond 
everything else, an irresistible charm for A. He began 
to devote his life to the ornithology of N. America. For 
years he spent many consecutive months in long and 
quite solitary journeys through the untrodden wilder¬ 
ness; not even returning to shelter and civilization for 
the purpose of sketching the subjects of his pursuit, hut 
executing those colored designs which have since be¬ 
come so fa nous, on the spot where the originals were ob¬ 
tained, and where the proper environment for each sub¬ 
ject was immediately under his eye. Hence the wonder¬ 
ful fidelity and life-like truth, not only of A.’ s bird-por¬ 
traits, hut of the accessories in each picture. These 
excursions, commencing about 1810, were continued 
during 15 years, ilia family residence having been lat¬ 
terly fixed at Henderson, a village ou the Ohio. A. was 
doomed to lose the precious results of these 15 years of 
adventurous toil. Having gone to Philadelphia with 200 
designs representing 1000 different birds, he deposited 
them in the house of a relative, and left the city for some 
weeks. He returned to find his drawings destroyed by 
rats. A severe and lengthened fever was the conse¬ 
quence of this heavy blow; but A. had physical and 
mental elasticity enough to recover from the shock. He 
again shouldered his fowling-piece, and resumed his for¬ 
mer mode of life After four years and a half of unin- 
terrupted devotion to his purpose, the damage was made 
good, and the naturalist was again in a position to im¬ 
part the fruits of his labor to the world. Finding, how¬ 
ever, that proper facilities for bringing out the extensive 
and costly publication which he had in view, could not 
be afforded him in his native country, A., in 1826, went 
over to England, where, as in Fiance, he was received 
with the utmost distinction. About the close of 1830 
appeared in London the 1st volume of The Birds of 
America, in folio, containing 100 colored plates, each 
subject being represented of life-size. The English and 
French sovereigns had headed the list of subscribers. 


It was not till 18.39, that the appearance of the 4th vol¬ 
ume completed this splendid work, which contains in all 
1065 figures of birds. Parallel with the publication of 
the volume of plates at London, had proceeded at Edin¬ 
burgh the issue of the necessary complement to these. 



Fig. 235. — audubon. 

the Ornithological Biography, or an Account of the Hab¬ 
its of the Birds of the U. States of America, accompanied 
by a description of the objects represented in the Work en¬ 
titled “ The Birds of America,” the 1st volume of which 
appeared in 1831,— the 5th and last, in 1839. The same 
year, A. returned finally to his native country; not yet, 
however, to lead a life of repose. He now, along with 
his tw'o sons, and two other companions, undertook a 
series of excursions, which resulted in his work entitled 
“ Quadrupeds of America,” ffublished at Philadelphia 
between the years 1S46 and 1850, and accompanied, as in 
the case of the “ Birds,” by a parallel issue of Biogra¬ 
phies, a title which, as applied by A. to the description of 
the favorite objects of his study, serves to indicate the dig¬ 
nity with which these objects were invested in his eyes, 
and the almost human interest with which they inspired 
him. These biographies are singularly entertaining, be¬ 
ing full of the romance of that wild and solitary life which 
enabled him to compile them. A. died in 1851. — A Life 
of A., compiled from his journal by his widow, was 
published in 1869. 

Au'duboil, in Iowa, a S.W. central county, watered by 
the Nishnabatuua river, an off-shoot of the Missouri. 
Cap. Audubon. This county has an area of about 432 
sq.m., and was named after the distinguished naturalist 
Audubon. Pop. in 1880,7,448; in 1890,12,572; iu 1895, 
12,836. 

Au'dubon, in Tennessee, a village of Montgomery co. 

Aueiibrujj'ger, or Avenbrug'ger, Leopold, an 
eminent German physician, the inventor of percussion 
as a means of discovering diseases of the chest. B. at 
Gratz, 1722; D. at Vienna, 1798. 

Auerbacb, a town of Saxony, ou the Golzsch, 12 m. 
E. of Plauen; pop. 5,258. 

Au'erbaeli, Bert hold, a popular German novelist, b. 
at Nordstetten, on tiie Sualiian side of the Black Forest, 
on the 28th Feb., 1812. Of Jewish extraction, he was 
reared in poverty and obscurity, and destined by his par¬ 
ents to the service of the synagogue. While completing 
his studies at the universities of Tubingen, Munich, and 
Heidelberg, he abandoned the study of Hebrew theology 
for the more congenial fields of history, philosophy, and 
general literature. His earliest work, Spinoza, was 
published in 1837. In 1843 appeared the first series of 
his Dorfgeschichten, (“ Village Stories,”) which at once 
stamped him a master in the German school of fiction. 
These have been translated into the English, Dutch, and 
Swedish languages. A second series, published in 1849, 
more than sustained the reputation of the first. Bar- 
fussle (“Little Barefoot”) was given to the world in 
1836; and is one of the most exquisite idyls of humble 
life in any language. On the Heights, published in 1867, 
The Villa on the Bhine, in 1869, Die Feindlichen Schwes- 
lern, (“ The Hostile Sisters,”) in 1878, and Landolin, in 
1879, may be cited as among his many valuable writ¬ 
ings. D. Feb. 8, 1882. 

Au'erstadt, a small village of Prussian Saxony, reg. 
Merseberg, 6 in. W. of Naumberg. Here, on the 14th of 
October, 1806, the main body of the Prussian army, under 
tiie Duke of Brunswick and the king in person, was de¬ 
feated by the division of the grand French army com¬ 
manded by Marshal Davoust. The former lost 10,000 
men, including the Duke of Brunswick, and tiie French 
7,500. On the same day, Napoleon defeated at Jena the 
right wing of the Prussian army under General Mollen- 
dorff. The combined action has been called the battle 
of “ Jena,” (see Jena.) Davoust received from Napoleon 
the title of Duke of Auerstadt. 

Au fait, (o-fa,) [Fr.] ( Lit.) Expert; skilful; to bo mas¬ 
ter of an accomplishment; able to perform a tiling: — 
vulgarly, up to the mark. 

Auge', Vai,l£e d’, the name given to a part of the French 
dep. of Calvados, distinguished for its picturesque sce¬ 
nery, and also for producing the finest horses and cattle 
in Normandy. 

Ange'an, a. Pertaining to Augeas, q. v .; used to ex¬ 
press anything inexpressibly foul or dirty. 

Au'geas. (Myth.) A king of Elis, famed for his stable, 
which contained 3,000 oxen, and had not been cleansed 


for 30 years. Hercules was desired to clear away the 
filth in one day, and A. promised, if he performed it, to 
give him a tenth part of the cattle. This task Hercules 
is said to have executed by turning the river Alplieus, 
or, as some say, the Peneus, through the stable, which 
immediately carried away the dung and filth. A. not 
only refused to perform his engagement, pretending that 
Hercules had used artifice, and experienced no labor or 
trouble, but banished his own son, Phyleus, from his 
kingdom, for supporting the claims of the hero. Upon 
tliis, a war commenced, and Hercules conquered Elis, 
put A. to death, and gave his kingdom to Phyleus. A. 
has been called the son of Sol, because Elis signifies the 
sun. After his death, lie received the honors usually 
paid to heroes. 

A u'gelite, n. (Min.) A mineral of massive form. Lus¬ 
tre of cleavage-surface, pearly. Colorless, but generally 
ofapalered. Comp. Phosphoric acid 35’3, alumina513, 
water 13-4 = 100. It occurs imbedded in other phos¬ 
phates at the iron mine of Westana, in Sweden. 

Auger, n. [Dut. avegaar; A.S. nofegar or nafogar.] 
An instrument used for boring large holes, by carpen¬ 
ters, wheelwrights, shipwrights, and others. It consists 
of an iron blade terminating in a steel bit. with a han¬ 
dle placed at right angles with the blade. When the A. 
has a straignt channel or groove, it is sometimes called 
a pod A.; when it lias a spiral channel, it is termed a 
screw A. A large kind of A. is used in agriculture for 
boring tiie earth in order to ascertain the nature of the 
subsoil, or minerals, or whether water is existing in a 
certain place. 

Au'ger-P)it, n. (Carpentry.) A bit with a cutting 
edge or blade like that of an auger. 

Auge'reau, Pierre Francois Charles, Duke of Casti- 
Gi.ione, a celebrated French general, B. at Paris in 1757. 
He joined tiie army as a private soldier, proceeded to 
Spain, and soon rose to the rank of adjutant-general. 
He then took high command under Napoleon I. in Italy, 
and in 1796, at the head of his own brigade, stormed the 
bridge of Lodi. To him Napoleon owed the brilliant 
victories of Castiglione and Arcole. A., having been 
sent by Napoleon to Paris, became military commander 
of the capital, and led the coup d'etat, or revolution of 
Fructidor, by which tiie enemies of the Directory were 
seized and overthrown. Appointed to the command of 
the army on tiie German frontier, lie became so wildly 
democratic that the Directory displaced him. and sent 
him to Perpignan. He refused to assist Napoleon in the 
revolution which preceded the consulate and the empire. 
In 1S05, being created a Marshal of France, A. command¬ 
ed at the reduction of tiie Vorarlberg, was at tiie battle 
of Jena in 1806, and accompanied Napoleon to Berlin. 
He commanded the French at Eylau in 1807, and in 
1809 and 1810, commanded in Catalonia, where lie com¬ 
mitted great excesses. A. was at the great battles of 
Leipzig, Oct. 16th, 17th, and 18th, 1813, and, in 1814, 
commanded at Lyons, to repel the march of the Aus¬ 
trians from that direction on the capital. Yielding to 
superior numbers, lie retired to tiie south, and display¬ 
ing little attachment to Napoleon, acknowledged the 
Bourbons, retained liis honors, and became a peer. Dur¬ 
ing the “ hundred days ” of 1815. he remained in privacy, 
but on the return of Louis XVIII., he again sought pub¬ 
lic life; and as the last act of an eventful life, voted for 
the condemnation of liis brother-soldier, Marshal Ney, 
to an ignominious death. For this tiie Frencli people 
have never forgiven him. D. in June, 1816. 

Auget, (o-zha'.) n. [Fr. auget, auge, trough; from Lat. 
alveus, hollow.] (Mil.) A tube or hollow case charged 
with powder, and reaching from the chamber of a mine 
to the end of the gallery, used in exploding mines. 

Aug'gur, a fortified town of Hindustan, prov. Malwa, 
in the dominions of Sinde, ou a rocky eminence, 1,598 
feet above sea-level. 

Augh'aval, or Ougheval, a parish in county Mayo, 
Ireland. Area, 33,695 acres, consisting mostly of hills 
and bogs. Pop. (1895) 7,20U. 

Aughnantul'len, a parish of Ulster, Ireland, 3 miles 
from Bally bay. Aren, 30,710 acres. Pop. (1895) 7,630. 
This parish has a great many lochs. 

Augll'rim, in Ireland. See Aghhim. 

Anglit, ( awt,) n. [A.S. auht, aht, or awld; ohwit, oht, 
from wild, a creature, a thing, anything.] (Sometimes 
incorrectly written Ought.) Any part; any thing; a 
whit; — as, for aught I care. 

“This metaphor. I think, holds good as aught. 

Since there is discord after both at least."— Byron. 

Au'gliun Khan, the fourth sovereign of Persia of 
the family of Genghis Khan, succeeded his uncle Niku- 
dar iu 12x4, and n. in 1291. lie was an enlightened and 
beneficent prince. 

Augli'wieli Kills, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Huntingdon co. 

Au'gier, Guillaume Victor Emile, an eminent French 
dramatic poet, was b. at Valence, on 17tli Sept., 1820. 
La CiguH, liis first piece, in two acts, after being rejected 
at the Theatre Frangaise, in 1844, was accepted by the 
managers of tiie Odeon Theatre, and there brought out. 
It had a run of three months, and established tiie popu¬ 
larity of tiie author. The latter subsequently produced 
other light pieces. These, however, were thrown in the 
shade by Gabrielle, a five-act comedy, which has been 
pronounced by competent critics to be A.’s most finished 
and best constructed work, whether as regards plot, 
poetry, or the delineation of character. A. was nomi¬ 
nated a member of the Academie Francaise, and then 
officer of the Legion of Honor. At the solicitation of 
Mdle. Rachel, A. wrote Diane, apiece in five acts, but 
which failed to elicit tiie applause bestowed upon Ga¬ 
brielle. In 1868, his Fils de Giboyer had a success equal 
to the latter.—The style of A. is at once classic and easy. 







AUGS 


AUGU 


AUGU 


191 


dignified, and yet pictorial, never heavy, and always in¬ 
teresting. He may be said to have founded a new school 
in French dramatic literature, and his works, partly by 
thtir originality, and partly by intrinsic merit of a kind 
possessed in common with other dramatic productions, 
have acquired very great popularity. P. 1R89. 

Au gila, a country and town of N. Africa, on the cara¬ 
van route from Sirvah to Fezzan. Lat. 29° 3o' N.; Lon. 
22° 25' K. 

Au'gite, n. [From Gr. augeo, to shine.] (Min.) A min¬ 
eral found in basalt, lavas, and other volcanic rocks; 
closely related in geological situation and in composition 
with amphibole or hornblende. It is more generally 
called pyroxene. 

Augit'ie, a. Belonging to, or resembling augite, or 
partaking of its nature and characteristics. 

—Containing or composed of augite as a principal constitu¬ 
ent : as, augitic rocks. 

Auglaize', in Missouri, a river rising in the W. central 
division of the State, which, formed by two branches, 
falls into the Osage river, near Erie, in Camden co. 

Auglaize', in Ohio, a river which rises in the N.W. 
middle part of the State, and enters the Maumee river at 
Defiance. Its chief affluents are Blanchard's Fork and 
Ottawa river. 

—A county situated in the W. part of the State, watered by 
the head streams of the Auglaize and St. Mary’s rivers, 
and containing abt. 308 sq. m. Surface, generally level, 
and partly covered with forests of well-grown timber. 
Soil, fertile. Cap. Wapakoueta. Pop. (1890) 28,100. 

—A township of Allen co. 

—A township of Paulding co. 

—A village of Van Wert co. 

Augment', v. a. [Fr. augmenter; Lat. augmento, from 
augeo, to increase.] To make larger; to increase; to en¬ 
large ; to add to; to swell; as, to augment an income. 

** Some cursed weeds her cunuing hand did know. 

That could augment his harm, increase his pain."— Fairfax. 

—». i. To increase; to grow larger; to amplify. 

AIlg'lllc 111 . n. [Fr. augment; Lat. augmentum. ] In¬ 
crease; enlargement by addition; state of increase. 

( Greek Gram.) An increase at the beginning of some of 
the tenses of verbs. The augment is of two kinds : the 
syllabic, when the verb begins with a consonant; and 
the temporal, when it begins with a vowel. 

Augmeut'able, a. Capable of augmentation or in- 
crease. 

Augmentation, n. [Fr augmentation ; Lat .angmen- 
tatio.] The act of augmenting; increase; enlargement; 
addition.—The state of being augmented or enlarged.— 
The thing which is added by way of enlargement. 

(Med.) The stage of a disease in which the symptoms 
go on increasing. 

(Her.) A particular mark of honor, granted by a 
sovereign, in consideration of some noble action; either 
quartered with the family arms, or borne on an escutch¬ 
eon, a canton, &c. 

(Mus.) A., in the music of the olden time, was, as 
Maister Morley teiis us, “ An increasing of the value of 
the notes above their common and essential value,” and 
was indicated by a sign. 

Augmentations, (Court of,) n. (Eng. Law.) A court 
established in England by Henry VIII. in 1535, and 
styled “ The Court of the Augmentations of the King’s 
Revenues.” It was instituted to take cognizance of all 
suits and controversies arising out of the suppression 
of the monasteries. It was afterwards abolished, and 
then re-established by Queen Elizabeth in 1558. 

Angment'ative, a. [Fr. augmentalif] Having the 
quality or power of augmenting. 

r—n. (Gram.) A word formed to express greatness; a de¬ 
rivative word denoting an augmentation or increase of 
that which is expressed by its primitive. 

Auguieut'er, n. One who increases or augments. 

Au Gres' in Michigan, a post-office of Arena co. 

Augs burg, (anc. Augusta Yindelicorum,) a city of S. 
Germany, cap. of Suabia, in the kingdom of Bavaria. It is 
situated on a large and fertile plain watered by the rivers 
Vfertach and Lech, 35 m. N.W. of Munich. A. was forages 
one of the richest, most commercial, and powerful of the 
free cities of the German empire. The streets are narrow, 
but highly picturesque, and the architecture of its build¬ 
ings preserves to a singular degree the quaint and ornate 
characteristics of the middle ages. Among them may be 
noted the Cathedral, Arsenal, Abbey of St. Ulric, and the 
Town-Hall, one of the finest edifices in Germany. At one 
of the educational gymnasiums here, Prince Louis Napo¬ 
leon, after Napoleon III., Emperor of the French, re¬ 
ceived his early education. A. possesses a fine library, 
an academy of arts, a polytechnic society, Ac.— Manf. 
Woollens, cottons, linens, paper, gold-lace, jewelry, print¬ 
ing-types, Ac. A.’s greatest commercial importance, 
however, arose from its being, next to Frankfort, the 
chief seat of banking and exchange operations in Central 
Europe. A large trade is carried on in engraving, print¬ 
ing, and book-selling; and the celebrated AUgemeine 
Zeitung, a leading journal of Germany, was published 
first in 1798. A. was once of much greater pop¬ 
ulation and importance than it is at present. It was 
founded by the Roman emperor Augustus, 12 b. c. In 
the middle ages it became early distinguished for its 
trade, and in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries, its citi¬ 
zens— as for example the Fugger family, who rose from 
simple burghers to be princes of the empire — attained 
to almost regal power and opulence. A has been the 
theatre of many memorable events. In addition to the 
proceedings of the Diet, with respect to the memorable 
Confession of Faith, (q. v..) there, in 1530, was con¬ 
cluded the peace which guaranteed the full enjoyment 
of their rights and liberties to the Protestants. A. con¬ 


tinued to be a free city until 1800, when Napoleon ceded 
it to Bavaria. Pop. (1897) about 75,000. 



Fig. 230. — AUGSBURG. 


Diet of A. —The most celebrated of the numerous diets, 
or parliaments, held at Augsburg was that of 1530. Pope 
Clement VII. refusing to call a general council for the I 
settlement of all religious disputes, to be held in sontej 
German city, in accordance with the recess of the Diet] 
of Spires in 1529, the Emperor Charles V. summoned 
another diet at Augsburg, which met on the 20th June, 
159.0. On the 25th, the famous Confessltm (q. v.)was 
read, and on Aug. 3d an answer was made by the Roman 
Catholics; whereupon it wasproclaimed that the Protes¬ 
tants must conform in all points to the Church of Rome. 
Duke Philip of Hesse withdrew on the 6 th Aug., and 
John, Elector of Saxony, asked leave to depart on the 
20th Sept. Charles V. soon after delivered his decision, 
in which he gave the Protestants till the 15th April, 
1531, to re-unite themselves to the mother Church, dur¬ 
ing which period they were to attempt no further inno¬ 
vations, and to allow their Roman Catholic subjects free 
worship, and to repress Anabaptists and Sacramentaries. 
The emperor engaged to induce the Pope to summon a 
national or general council. This decision was resisted, 
and a recess was issued on the 22d Nov., in which the 
emperor announced his intention to execute the edict of 
Worms, made some severe enactments against the Pro¬ 
testants, and reconstituted the Imperial Chamber. The 
Protestant deputies put in a counter-declaration, and 
the Diet then terminated. 

Confession of A. —The name given to the celebrated 
declaration of faith compiled by Melancthon, and revised 
by Luther and other reformers, which was read before 
the Diet of Augsburg, 25th June, 1530. It consisted of 
28 articles, 7 of which contained refutations of Roman 
Catholic errors, and the remaining 21 set forth the lead¬ 
ing tenets of the Lutheran creed. Soon after its promul¬ 
gation, the last hope of inducing the pontiff to reform 
the Roman Catholic Church was abandoned,and the com¬ 
plete severance of the connection followed. An answer 
by the Roman Catholics was read 3d Aug., 1530: when 
the Augsburg Diet declared that it had been refuted. 
Melancthon then drew up another confession somewhat 
different. The 1st is called the unaltered, and the 2d the 
altered confession. 

League of A. — A league entered into and concluded at 
A. 9th July, 1686, for the maintenance of the treaties of 
Munster and Nimeguen, and the truce of Ratisbon. It 
was negotiated by William, Prince of Orange, on the 21st 
June, in the above year, for the purpose of resisting the 
encroachments of France. The contracting parties were 
the Emperor Leopold I., the kings of Spain and Sweden, 
the electors of Saxony and Bavaria, and the circles of 
Suabia, Franconia, Upper Saxony, and Bavaria. The 
League was to be in force for 3 years, and might then be 
renewed. England acceded to it in 1689. 

Au'gur, n. [Lat. augur, from avis, a bird, and ge.ro, to 
deport, to behave; Fr. augure.~\ A soothsayer; one who 
professes to foretell future events by omens. 

“ What say the augurs f" — Shake. 

(Hist.) Among the people of ancient Italy, in common 
with all rude nations, it was imagined that in every occur¬ 
rence which could not be understood, there was a special 
manifestation of the will of the gods. The power of 
reading and interpreting these signs was supposed to be 
a peculiar gift conferred upon the favored mortal from 
his birth. A superstition offering so strong a hold upon 
the minds of the people was turned to account by the 
astute politicians of Rome, and the College of Augurs 
was instituted at the very earliest period of Roman his¬ 
tory, b. c. 716. A. were a certain sort of priests, who 
predicted future events, and announced to the people the 
will of the gods. They were consulted both in public 
and private affairs, and their influence in the state was 
very great. By merely pronouncing the words "Alin 
die” (another day), they could dissolve an assembly of 
the people, and annul all the decrees that had been passed 
at the meeting. The original number of A. is stated dif¬ 
ferently by Cicero and Livy; Cicero, himself an A., says 
that Romulus associated three others with himself, and 
that Numa added two. The Ogulnian law, which was] 


passed 307 b. c., opened the pontifical and the augurial 
colleges to the plebeians. In the latter, 5 plebeians were 
associated with 4 patricians; and this number remained 
to the time of Sylla, 81 b. c., who increased it to 15. In 
29. b. c„ the extraordinary power was conferred upon 
Augustus of electing A. at his pleasure; and in 309 a. d., 
the office was abolished. 

—v.i. To guess; to conjecture by signs and omens; to 
prognosticate. 

" My pow'r *s a crescent, and my aug'ring hope 
Says it will come to the full."— Sltaks. 

— v. a. To foretell; to predict; to presage; to forebode; 
as, to augur bad weather. 

Au'gural, a. [Fr. augural.'] Pertaining to augurs; be. 
longing to an augury. 

Au'g iirate, v. i. [Lat. augurare.] To predict, or judge 
by augury, (r.) 

Augu ration, n. [Lat. auguratio.] The practice of 
augury, or of foretelling events by portents and phe¬ 
nomena. (o.) 

. “ Claudius Pulcher underwent the like success, when he con¬ 
tinued the tripudiary augurations." — Sir T. Browne. 

Au'gurer, n. One who augurs.—Same as Augur, q. v. 

Augu'rial, a. Relating to augurs or augury. 

Au gurist, n. Same as Augur, q. v. (r.) 

Au'gurship, n. The office, or period of office, of an 
augur. 

A ugu ry, u. [Lat. augurium. ] Art or practice of au¬ 
guring, or of foretelling events by the flight and chat¬ 
tering of birds, Ac.; auguration. — See Augur. 

11 She knew, by augury divine, 

Venus would fail in the design.”— Swift. 

—An omen; prediction; prognostication. 

A uglist', a. [Fr. augusto; Lat. auguslus, from augere, to 
increase, to reverence.] Sacred; awe-inspiring; grand; 
majestic; solemn; awful. 

** The Trojan chief appeared in open sight, 

August iu visage, and serenely bright."— Dryden. 

Au'trust. 71. [Lat. auguslus; It. and Sp. agosto; Fr. 
anuL] The name given to the 8th month of our year. It 
was named b. c. 30, by the Roman emperor Augustus, 
after himself, as he regarded it as a fortunate month for 
him, being that in which he had gained several important 
victories. Before this time it was called Sextdis, or the 
sixth month, the year beginning with March. The name 
of July had, in like manner, been Quintdis, before it was 
changed by Julius Caesar; and as it contained 31 days, 
the senate, in order that Augustus might not be behind 
Caesar, decreed that A. also should have 31 days, and 
that, for this purpose, a day should be taken away from 
February. 

Augus'ta. This title was first given to his wife Livia, 
after the death of Augustus, according to the will of the 
emperor. (Tac. Ann. i. 8.) It was afterwards conferred 
by Claudius on Agrippina (a. d. 51.), and by Nero on his 
wife Poppoea, as well as her daughter (a. d. 64). Event¬ 
ually it became a common title of the mother, wife, sis¬ 
ter, or daughter of an emperor. 

A u gus ta. (Anc. Geog.) The name of a very great 
number of ancient places; as, Augusta Treverorum, now 
Treves; Augusta Auscionun, now Audi; Augusta Tau- 
rinoruin, now Turin; Augusta Suessonum, now Soissons, 
&c. 

Augus'ta, a British settlement in W. Australia, founded 
in 1830, and situated to the westward of Flinders Bay. 

Auglts'ta. in Arkansas, a post-village iu Woodruff co. 
on White river. 

Augus'ta. in Georgia, an important city, cap. of Rich¬ 
mond co., on the Savannah river, 12u m. N.N.W. of 

< Savannah ; Lat. 33° 28' N.; Lou. 81° 54’ W. Bridges 
connect this town with Hamburg in South Carolina. 
A., in the center of a cotton-growing district, is a hand¬ 
some city, and the third of the State in population and 
importance. It has excellent railroad connections, aud 
steamboat navigation to the seaboard. Has very exten¬ 
sive cotton factories, large flour and planing mills, 
chemical and lumber works, and the shops of the Ga. 
Central R.R. There are several large public institutions 
aud many handsome buildings. Pop. (1898) 42,450. 

Augus'ta, in Illinois, a post-village of Hancock 
county, about 95 miles N. W. of the city of Spring- 
field. 

Augus'ta, or Xortli Augusta, in Iowa, a post¬ 
village of Des Moines co., on Skunk river, 11 m. W.S.W. 
of Burlington, aud opposite South Augusta in Lee 
county. 

Augus'ta, or South Augusta, in Iowa, a village 
of Lee co., on Skunk river, about 10 in. N.N.E. of Fort 
Madison. 

Augus'ta. iu Indiana, a village of Marion co., 9 m. N. 
N.W. of Indianapolis. 

—A village of Nobie co., 125 in. N.N.E. of Indianapolis. 

Aligns ta, in Kentucky, a city of Bracken county., 
on the Ohio, 45 m. from Cincinnati, and 74 N.E. of Frank¬ 
fort. 

Augus'ta, in Louisiana, a village of De Soto parish, 11 
m. N.E. of Mansfield. 

Augus'ta, in Maine, a pleasant and flourishing city, cap. 
of the State, and of the co. of Kennebec, on the Kennebec 
river, 60 m. N.N.E. of Portland, aud 175 N.N.E. of Boston, 
by railroad. Here is an elegant bridge across the Ken¬ 
nebec, which river is navigable to A. for small vessels, 
and up to Waterville for steamboats. A. contains the 
State hospital for the insane, and the U. States arsenal, 
in which, besides cannon and other munitions of war, are 
stored many thousand stand of arms. The State-House, 
situated on an eminence at the S. extremity of the city, 
is a noble structure of whitish granite. On 17th Sept., 
1865, nearly the whole of the business quarter of A. was 
consumed by a destructive fire; it has, however, been 








































192 


AUGU 


AUGU 


AUGU 


since rebuilt in a handsome and convenient form. Pop. 
in 1890. 10,527 ; in 1897 (est.) 11,750. 

Au^att'ta, in Michigan, a post-village of Kalamazoo co., 
on the Kalamazoo river, 130 m. W. of Detroit, and 12 m. 
E. by N. of Kalamazoo village. 

•—A township of Washtenaw co. 

Augus ta, in Mississippi, a post-village, cap. of Perry 
co., on Leaf river, 173 m. S.E. of Jackson. 

Augus ta, in Missouri, a post-village of St. Charles co., 
on the Missouri river, about 40 m. W. of St. Louis. 

Augus ta, in New Jersey , a post-village of Sussex co., 
about 65 m. N. of Trenton. 

AugBS'ta, in New York, a post-village and township of 
Oneida co., on Skanandoa creek, 100 in. W. by N. of Al¬ 
bany 

Ausins'ta, in Ohio, a post-village of Carroll co., 135 m. 
E.N.E. of Columbus. 

Augus'ta, in Oregon, a mining camp in Summit dis¬ 
trict, Union co. 

Augus'ta, in Pennsylvania, a flourishing village of 
Potter co., on Kettle creek. 

—A post-oflico of Northumberland co. 

Augus'ta, in Texas, a post-village of Houston co., about 
20 in. S. by W. of Rusk. 

Atigus'ta, in Virginia, a central county, bounded on 
the S.E. by the Blue Ridge. Area, about 900 sq. m. 
— Rivers. This county gives rise to the Shenandoah 
and Calf Pasture rivers. Surface, elevated and hilly. 
Soil, calcareous. Prod., grain, grass, and butter. Min., 
limestone, and anthracite coal. Cup. Staunton. Pup. 
(1898) 37,35©. 

Augus'ta, in Wisconsin, a thriving manuf. city of Eau 
Claire co., on C., St. P., M. & O. R.R. Pop. (1898) 1,540. 

Ang'usta'lia, or Augustales, n. (Hist.) A festival held 
in honor of the birthday (Sept. 23, B. c. 63) of the empe¬ 
ror Augustus, which was established by a decree of the 
Roman senate, b. c. 11. The term was also applied to 
games held in his honor at Rome, Alexandria, Neapolis, 
and other cities. 

Au gus'tan, a. Pertaining to Augustus, or to the Au¬ 
gustan Age, q . v . 

Augus tan Age or .Era, ( Cliron.) The name given 
in honor of the Emperor Augustus to that period of Ro¬ 
man history in which flourished her greatest artists, po¬ 
ets, and philosophers. It began a. u. c. 727, or b. c. 27. 

Augns'ta Springs, in Virginia, are situate in Au¬ 
gusta co., 12 in. N.W. of Staunton. — See Virginia. 

August u Station, in Indiana, a post-village of Ma¬ 
rion co., 10 m. N.N.W. of Indianapolis. 

Augiis tenliorg. a Danish factory and trading-post 
of W. Africa, in Accra, on the coast of Guinea, 9 m. from 
Cliristiansborg. 

Augus'tine, St., or Aug'usti'nus, Aurelius, the 
most eminent of the Latin fathers, and the founder of 
the Western theology, was b. 9th Nov., a. d. 354, at Ta- 
gaste (Tajel), in Numidia. His first school was at Ma¬ 
dura, whence he was removed to Carthage, where, not¬ 
withstanding his addiction to sensual indulgences, he 
applied himself with characteristic vigor to the study 
of eloquence and philosophy. The perusal of Cicero's 
treatise Hortmsius, in his 19th year, awakened him to a 
nobler state of being than ho had hitherto aimed at. 
His studies, however, led him to despise tho Scriptures 
for their simplicity, and to adopt the doctrine of the 
Manichseans. During this period he was engaged in 
teaching grammar and rhetoric, first in his native place, 
afterwards at Carthage, lie subsequently went to Rome, 
where he continued his rhetorical teachings, and was 
afterwards appointed professor at Milan. Here the elo¬ 
quence of St. Ambrose, added to the tears and entreaties 
of his mother, Monica, effected the entire conversion of 
A., who was baptized into the Church by Ambrose, 25th 
April, 387. lie afterwards returned to Africa, where he 
was ordained a priest, and elected bishop of Hippo as 
colleague of Valerian. From this time liis history and 
writings are closely associated with the Donatist and 
Pelagian controversies, in which he took tiie leading part 
on the orthodox side. A. D. 430. — The greatest literary 
production of A. is his On the City of God ; which is an 
elaborate defence of Christianity, and a refutation of Pa¬ 
gan mythology and philosophy. On this work he spent 
13 years, a. d. 413 to 426, and it remains a monument of 
his knowledge, eloquence, and mental strength. As an 
interpreter of Scripture, A. does not rank very high. 
There have been fathers of the Church more learned, 
masters of better language and a purer taste; but none 
have ever more powerfully touched the human heart, 
and warmed it towards religion. He has related the 
events of his life in a work to which he gave the title of 

■ Confessions, and which has been often translated into all 
European languages. A. was the father alike of the me¬ 
diaeval scholasticism, and of the theology of the Reforma¬ 
tion: and to his writings also may be traced the germ 
of the theology of the Mystics. The best edition of the 
works of A. is the “Benedictine,” published at Paris, 
1679-1700, in 11 vols. folio. 

Ang'iis'tine, (St.,) the first archbishop of Canter¬ 
bury, was a Benedictine monk of the convent of St. 
Andrew at Rome, when Pope Gregory 1. selected him 
to carry out his long cherished design of converting 
England to the Christian faith. He accordingly set out 
about a. d. 696, with 40 others, and landed in Kent. 
Ethelbert, at that time king of Kent, kindly received 
the missionaries, and permitted them to reside in his 
capital, Canterbury, and there exercise their functions. 
He was shortly afterwards baptized, and the example 
was followed by many of his subjects. The success of 
A. was now rapid, and the Pope ordered him to repair to 
Arles, there to be consecrated archbishop of Canterbury, 
and metropolitan of the Englisii Church. D. about 607. 

Augus'tine, St., in Florida■ See St. Augustine. 


Aug'us'tinc, St., a cape in Brazil. 25 m. from Per-1 
nambuco; Lat. 8° 21' S.: Lon. 34° 56' \V. This was the 
first point of land in S. America discovered in 1500 by 
Pinzon. 

Augus'tine's, St., a port and river of the Labrador 
coast. — Also, a number of small islands on the same 
coast. 

Ang'us'tines. n. (liccl. Hist.) A religious order in 
the Church of Rome, who follow the rule of St. Augus¬ 
tine, prescribed to them by Pope Alexander IV. in 1256. 
There had arisen, previous to that time, several religious 
orders, which Innocent IV. formed the design of uniting 
into one congregation; and this was carried out by his 
successor. At present, the order is divided into several 
branches; as, the Hermits of St. Paul, the Jeronymi- 
tans, Monks of St. Bridget, and the Bare-footed Augus- 
tines, the last being instituted by a Portuguese in 1574, 
and confirmed by Pope Clement VIII. in 1660 and 1602. 
The A. are clothed in black, and make one of the four 
orders of mendicants. The degeneracy of the order in 
the 14th century led to the formation of new societies, 
among which was the Saxon one to which Martin Luther 
belonged. Since the first French revolution, the order 
has been entirely suppressed in France, Spain, Portugal, 
Italy, and S. Germany; and even in Austria it has been 
decreasing. — The A. are popularly known under the 
names of Austin friars and White friars. 

Augiistin'ian, n. ( Ecd. Hist.) A follower of the 
doctrine of Augustinianism. 

Aug'ustin'ianism, n. The doctrinal system pursued 
by Augustine, who maintained that grace is effectual 
from its nature, absolutely and morally, not relatively 
and gradually. 

Aug’ust'ly, adv. In an august manner. 

August'ness, n. Quality of being august; dignity of 
mien; elevation of look or aspect; grandeur. 

AugiisJo vo, or Augustov', a prov. of Russia, in Po¬ 
land, lying in the N. of that kingdom, between Lat. 52° 
.40' and 55° 5' N. The surface comprises woods, marshes, 
and mountains, and is watered by the Niemen and Bug. 
Cap. Suwalki. 

—A town of the above prov., on the Netta, 140 m. N.E. of 
Warsaw. Manf. Cottons and woollens. Pop. 7,761. 

Augus'tulus, or Romulus Augustus, the last of the 
Roman emperors in tho West, was the son of Orestes, a 
Pannonian noble, and owed his investiture with the 
purple to his father’s popularity, and the prestige of his 
own name, recalling, as it did, those of the respective 
founders of the city and the empire. But he soon 
proved himself so incapable, that his subjects derisively 
gave him the name of A as (“August us the Little”), 

by which he is now known in history. After an inglo¬ 
rious reign of one year, A. was dethroned by Odoacer, 
king of the Heruli, who suffered him to live in retire¬ 
ment at the villa of Lucullus in the Campagna, for the 
remainder of his days. 

Aug-US'tllS, first of the Roman emperors; otherwise 
named Caius Octavius, afterwards Caius Julius C.esar 
Octavianus, and later A.; the latter being a title of honor 
conferred on him as first emperor, and though borne 
officially by his successors, is used in history as his pro¬ 
per name. He is also commonly known as Octavius. 
B. at Velitrae, 63 b. c. — year of Rome 691, he was the 
son of Caius Octavius and Attia,daughter of Julia, sister 
of Julius Caesar, who named his great nephew Octavius 
his son and heir. At the age of 18, he was at Appolonia, 
on the Adriatic, engaged in his studies, when the death 
of Caesar took place. Octavius then took his own 
course, repairing first to Brundisium, and afterwards to 
Rome, where, despite the opposition of Antony, he ap¬ 
peared before the praetor, formally claimed liis inheri¬ 
tance, accepted its responsibilities, and received in con¬ 
sequence the name of Caius Julius G\®sar Octavianus. 
By the law of Rome, he was henceforth regarded as the 
virtual representative of Caesar as much as if he had 
been the dictator’s son. In 43 b. c. the young adventurer 
was appointed praetor, with a military command, and a 
seat in the senate. Octavius now joined the consuls 
Hutius and Pansa, for the purpose of relieving Mutina, 
where Antony was besieging Decimus Brutus Antony 
was defeated and driven across the Alps, the two consuls 
were slain in battle, and Octavius remained the sole and 
successful general of the forces. Antony and Lepidus, 
having become allies, recrossed the Alps, and Octavius 
was appointed to the joint command with Decimus 
Brutus. Octavius now induced the troops to pronounce 
in his favor for the consulship, and entered Rome, where 
he and his kinsman Quintus Podius were appointed 
consuls, and his own adoption by Ca:sar was regularly 
confirmed and publicly acknowledged. After this, Octa¬ 
vius negotiated with Antony and Lepjdus, when a tri¬ 
umvirate was formed, and a compact made, by which 
Antony was to have Gaul; Lepidus, Spain; aud Octavius, 
Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa, for his own share. After 
the battle of Philippi, by which the power of the Re¬ 
publican party was extinguished, a new division of the 
provinces was effected, and Lepidus lost his share, leav¬ 
ing Antony and Octavius to contend for the supremacy. 
Sicily was held by Sextus Pompeius; and Octavius, un¬ 
able to obtain possession of that island, married Scribo- 
nia. a relation of the former, which lady became the 
mother of his daughter Julia. The Sicilian governor 
still refused to give up his province, which brought 
about a more friendly feeling between Antony and Octa¬ 
vius. Antony married Octavia, the sister of Octavius, 
and a new cast of the provinces was made, by which 
Pompey was to retain his island territories. War was, 
however, soon revived by Octavius and Pompey — the 
former divorcing his wife Scribonia, and marrying Livia 
Drusilla, wife of Tiberius Nero. It was also arranged 
that a son of Antony should marry a daughter of Octa¬ 


vius; and this temporary reconciliation led to a com. 
bined action on their part, which resulted in the down¬ 
fall of Pompey, and the acquisition of Sicily. The pe¬ 
riod had now arrived when the definite struggle between 
Octavius and Antony must decide the fate of Rome. 
Antony had forsaken Octavia, owing to the fascinations 
of Cleopatra; Octavius therefore declared war against 
him, and at the naval battle of Actium, 31 B. c., utterly 
defeated him. Octavius now wielded the entire power 
of Rome, which became at peace with the world. 
Agrippa, whose advice had given him universal domin¬ 
ion, counselled him to renounce his authority; but M®- 
cenas, whom he also consulted, advised him otherwise. 
Octavius commenced the consolidation of his power by 
reforming the senate, for which he received the title of 
Prince of the Senate, which had always been bestowed 
by the censors on that citizen who had most deserved 
well of his country. In 29 b. c., he received the litlo 
of Imperator, the titles of king and dictator being 
both objectionable. In 27 b. c., Octavius offered to re¬ 
sign his power to the senate; this was refused, and he 
consented to remain at the head of the government for 
a period of 10 years. This act was constantly repeated 
to the end of his life. In the same year, Octavius also 
received from the senate, and the people, the title of 
Augustus, by which name he was henceforth known. 
During the 40 years of his comparatively peaceful reign, 
A. devoted himself to secure the welfare of the State 
and people of Rome. His name is identified with 
triumphs in arts, as well as in arms. He caused to be 
executed important public works, and improved and 
beautified the city, so that it was said, “he found the 
city brick, and lett it marble; ” he developed the com¬ 
merce of the empire, which had been previously much 
neglected, and by his encouragement of literature and 
art, gave a name to the most splendid era of Roman 
letters, that of the Augustan Age. A. D. at Nola, A.n. 14. 
He was handsome, but of middle stature; abstemious, 
and rigid in his morals; unassuming in deportment: of 
unwearied industry; and also a ready speaker, a great 
reader, and a diligent writer. 




Pig. 237. — gold medal of Augustus. 
(British Museum.) 


Atlgus'tiis I.. Elector of Saxony, n. 1526. During a 
peaceful reign, he greatly beautified Dresden, his capital, 
and built the palace of Augustenburg. D. 1586. 

Augustus II., Elector of Saxony, and King of Poland: b. 
at Dresden in 1670. On account of his enormous mus¬ 
cular power, he was surnamed tho Iron-handed, and the 
Strong. He is said to have lifted a trumpeter in full ar¬ 
mor, and to have held him aloft on the palm of his hand; 
to have twisted the iron balustrade of a stair into a rope, 
and broken ahorse-shoe with one graspof his hand, lie 
succeeded his elder brother in 1594, and obtained from 
the emperor the command of an expedition against the 
Turks, who threatened Hungary; this campaign w'as, 
however, indecisive. Owing to the death of John Solii- 
eski, in 1696, the crown of Poland became vacant, and A ., 
after many intrigues, was proclaimed king in 1697. Ho 
then formed an alliance with Peter the Great against 
Charles XII. of Sweden, but the latter hero defeated A. 
in a sanguinary battle at Pultusk, penetrated to Warsaw, 
and there caused Stanislaus Lecszinski to be elected king 
of Poland, in place of A. A long war followed, without 
advantage to A., until the overthrow of Charles, at Pul- 
towa, which event replaced him on the throne. The 
Poles regarded him as a foreigner and a usurper, and as 
the mere vassal of Russia. A. d. in 1733. His virtues 
and vices were equally extreme. Politeness and good 
sense, enormous strength and brilliant couragv, with a 
great taste for literature and art, were counter-balanced 
by sensuality, shameful ambition, and an utter disre- 

























AULD 


AUMA 


AUEA 


193 


gard of the most solemn obligations. A., it is said, was 
the father of 300 illegitimate children, one of whom was 
the famous Marshal de Saxe, by Aurora vou Kbnigs- 
marke, one of his many mistresses. 

Augustus III., Elector of Saxony, and King of Poland; b. 
at Dresden, 1696, was the son of Augustus II. He was 
an indolent, idle, and pleasure-seeking prince, and his 
politics were entirely dependent on Russia. His daugh¬ 
ter, Maria Josepha, was married to the dauphin of France, 
from which alliance sprung Louis XVI., Louis XVIII., 
and Charles X. D. 1763. 

Allli, n. [Lat. alca; Icel. aulka; Dan. al/.-e.] (Zool.) The 
common name of the Alcince, a division of the family 
Alculat, q. v. They are strictly sea-birds, and nestle on 
its borders, breeding in caverns and rocky cliffs, and lay¬ 
ing only one large egg. They obtain their food by div¬ 
ing, at which they are very expert; but the power of 
their wings is very limited; and when they peripateti- 
cize by land, which they do with swiftness, if pursued, 
their motions are the most awkward imaginable. They 
all feed on small fishes, Crustacea, &c .—The auks are di¬ 
vided into many genera, the type of which is the genus 
Alca, or Auk proper, consisting of several species ; more 
particularly the Great Auk (Alca impennis), and the 
Razor-bill, or common Auk, (Alca tarda.) The birds of 



Fig. 238.—the razor-bill, or common auk, ( Alca torda.) 


' this last species abound in the higher northern latitudes; 
they are, however, widely diffused ; and in England many 
precipitous cliffs, as the Needles, &c.,have a fair share of 
them. The Razor-bills are about 18 inches long, and their 
extended wings about 27 inches. They build no nests, 
but lay their eggs upon the bare edge of lofty rocks 
hanging over the sea, where they form a very grotesque 
appearance, from the singular order of the rows in which 
they sit one above another. Their [one] egg is dispro¬ 
portionately large, being three inches long, the color a 
greenish-white, irregularly marked with dark spots. 
Thousands of these birds are killed on the coast of Lab¬ 
rador, for the sake of the breast-feathers, which are very 
warm and elastic; and incredible numbers of their eggs 
are also collected there. 

Auk'ward, a. See Awkward. 

Au la Re'g-ia, or Aula Regis. [The king’s court.] 
(Hist.) A court established in England by William the 
Conqueror in his own hall. It was the great universal 
court, from the dismemberment of which are derived the 
present four superior courts in England, viz.: ttio “ High 
Court of Chancery,” and the three superior courts of 
common law, to wit, the “Queen’s Bench,” “Common 
Pleas,” and “ Exchequer.” It was composed of the 
king's great officers of state resident in his palace and 
usually attendant on his person. These high officers 
were assisted by certain persons learned in the laws, who 
were called the king’s justiciars, and by the greater bar¬ 
ons of parliament, all of whom had a seat in the Aula 
Regia, and formed a kind of court of appeal, or rather of 
advice, on matters of great moment and difficulty. 

Au'Iaf. the name of several Danish princes. See Of.AF. 

Aula'rian, n. [Lat., aula, hall.] The title given to a 
student of a hall in the university of Oxford, in England, 
in contradistinction to a collegian, or member of a college. 

—a. Relating or belonging to a hall. 

Auld, a . [Old.] A word peculiar to the Scottish idiom; 
as "auld carle”—i. e., an old man; used generally in a 
rustic sense. 

“ Auld nature swear*, the lovely dears, 

Her noblest work she classes, OI" — Burns. 

Auld Ane, (“Old One.”) A vulgar epithet applied 
to the devil, in Scotland, and the N. of England. — Auld 
Clootie, and A uld Hornie, are also Scottish synonyms for 
the same personage. 

« o thou! whatever title suit thee, 

Auld Hornie, Satan, Nick, or Clootie." — Bums. 

Auld'earn, a village and par. of Scotland, co. of Nairn, 
noted as being the spot where the famous Marquis of 
Montrose (q. v.) gained a great battle over the Covenan¬ 
ters, 9th May, 1645. ... 

Auld Iiang’ Syne. A Scottish phrase meaning, 
literally, “old long since;” hence, the days of yore, 
the times of long ago, Ac. 


“ Should auld acquaintance he forgot, 

And days of auld tang syne." — Burns. 

“I care not—‘tis a glimpse of auld lang syne.” — Byron. 

Auld Reekie. An epithet or sobriquet applied to 
Edinburgh, the Scottish metropolis, on account of its 
smoky appearance as seen from a distance; or, as some 
say, on account of the former uncleanliness of its public 
thoroughfares; a reproach now, happily, without rele¬ 
vancy. 

“ When my mind was made up to make Auld Reekie my head- 
quarters." — Sir Waller Scott. 

Auld'-Warld, a. [Scottish.] Old-fashioned; antique; 
ancient. 

Aulet'ic, a. [Lat. auleticus; Gr. auletikos, from aulos, a 
flute.] Pertaining to a musical pipe or pipes, (r.) 

Aulet'ta, a town of S. Italy, prov. of Salerno, on a hill, 
near the Negro, 36 m. E.S.E. of Salerno. This town is 
very ancient, having been founded by a Greek colony. 
Pop. about 4,600. 

Au'lic Coun'cil, n. [Lat. aula, a hall.] (Hist.) The 
name of a council of the old German empire, called in 
German, the Reichshofrath. It was next in power to the 
Imperial Chamber, which was the highest court in the 
empire. When the Estates obliged the emperor, in 1495, 
to establish the court of the Imperial Chamber, he 
still retained about his court persons for looking after 
the affairs of his crown-lauds, and for preparing matters 
for the Imperial Chamber. The members of the A. C. also 
came to take cognizance of judicial processes, and the 
Estates frequently complained of this after 1502. In 
1559, its organization was more determined, and by the 
peace of "Westphalia it was recognized as the 2d of the 
two supreme courts of the empire, and equal in dignity 
to the Imperial Chamber. It was composed of a presi¬ 
dent, a vice-president, and 18 councillors, all chosen and 
paid by the emperor; but a part of them, at least, were 
to be taken, not from Austria, but from the other States 
of the empire; and 6 were to bo Protestants. If the 
Protestant councillors were unanimous upon any point, 
the votes of the rest could not overthrow them. The 
Vice-Chancellor of the empire, appointed by the Elector 
of Mayence, had also a seat in the council, and a voice 
after the president. Under the exclusive jurisdiction of 
this court were: 1. All feudal questions in which the 
emperor was immediately concerned; 2. All questions 
of appeal on the part of the Estates, from decisions in 
favor of the emperor in minor courts; 3. All matters 
concerning the imperial jurisdiction in Italy. Its deci¬ 
sions were submitted to the emperor for his approbation, 
on which they became law. It did not in any way in¬ 
terfere in the political or state affairs of the empire. 
The council ceased at the death of each emperor, and 
had to be reconstructed by his successor It finally 
ceased to exist on the extinction of the German empire 
in 1806. 

Au'lich, Louis, a Hungarian general who distinguished 
himself in the war for the independence of his country, 
1848-9. His services against the Austrian general Win- 
dischgratz were acknowledged by Kossuth in the proc¬ 
lamation of Godbllo; and he won further honors in some 
of the most brilliant exploits of the war. A. succeeded 
Gorgey as secretary of war in July, 1849, surrendered 
with him to the Russians at Vilagos, and was executed 
at Arad, in October of the same year. 

Au'Iis. (Anc. Geog.) A seaport in Boeotia, on the strait 
called Euripus, between Bceotia and Euboea. Agamem¬ 
non (q. v.) assembled here the Greek fleet intended to 
sail against Troy. See also Iphigexia. 

Aiilla'gos, (Laguna de,) a lake of S. America, in Bo¬ 
livia, which lies in the valley of Desaguadero, at an alti¬ 
tude of about 12,800 ft. above the level of the sea. 

A I! I Itc’, a river of France, dep. of Finistere, navigable 
from Chateauneuf to Brest Roads, where it embouches 
into the Atlantic ocean. 

Aulo'na, or Avlo'na, (anc. Aulon,) a seaport of Tur¬ 
key in Europe, prov. of Albania, cap. of a sundjak, near 
the mouth of the Adriatic, on the E. side of a gulf of the 
same name, 54 m. E.N.E. of Otranto, in Italy; Lat. 40° 
27' 15" N.; Lon. 19° 26' 20" E. A. was taken by the 
Turks from the Venetians in 1691. It is a poor place, 
and very unhealthy in the summer. Pop. about 6,000. 

Aulos'toma, n. (, Zob'l.) A genus of Acanthopterygian 
fishes, closely allied to the Eistutaria, from which they 
are chiefly distinguished by having numerous free spines 
before the dorsal fin. The best known species is a na¬ 
tive of the Eastern seas. 

Au'llis <••‘11 ius, a Latin grammarian, b. at Rome, in 
the beginning of the 2d century, llis Nodes Atticce 
(“ Attic Nights ”) is a melange of notes on history, gram¬ 
mar, philosophy, &c.; and its principal value consists in 
its having preserved fragments of more ancient writers. 

Au'mackstbwn, in New Jersey. See Cedar Creek. 

Anniale', a town of France, dep. Seine Inferieure, on 
the Bresle, 14 m. E.N.E. of Neufchfitel. Henry IV. was 
wounded in an action with the Spaniards under the 
Prince of Parma, on the bridge of this town, in 1592. 
Pop. 2,321. 

Ainiiale', Counts and Dukes of. The name of several 
distinguished personages in French history; and nearly 
allied to the royal houses of Valois and Bourbon.—See 
Lorraine. 

Anniale', Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d’Orleans, 
Due d’, fourth son of King Louis Philippe, b. in 1822. 
Choosing the profession of arms, he served with some dis¬ 
tinction in Africaunder generals Bugeaudand Baraguay 
d’Hilliers. He married, in 1844, a Neapolitan princess. 
In 1847, he was appointed French governor-general in 
Algeria, and received the submission of Abd-el-Kader. 
After the revolution of 1848, he rejoined the members of 
the French royal family in England. A. is author ot 
Hist, of the House of Conde, (of which house he is heir 


under the will of the last Due de Bourbon.) A., after 

the downfall of the empire in 1871, returned to France, 
and was elected to the Legislative Assembly. In 1872 he 
was admitted to the French Academy, into whose hands, 
in 1886, he placed the domain of Chantilly, (q. v. p. 
623.) In 1886, he was, for political reasons, deprived 
of his military command by the French Republic, and 
exiled with other French princes. 

Annie', n. A Dutch wine-measure.—See Aam. 

Au'mery, n. See Almonrt. 

Au'inont, (i/maumg,) Jean d’, b. 1522. In 1579, Henry 
III. created him a marshal of France, and in 1589 he 
was appointed by Henry IV. governor of Champagne. 
He was at the battles of Arques and Ivry, and was after¬ 
wards governor of Bretagne, where he had to cope with 
the Leaguers under the Due de Mayenne. He was killed 
at the siege of Quimper, in 1595, alter having served six 
kings of France, viz., Francis I., Henry II., Francis II, 
Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry IV. 

Aums'ville, in Oregon, a post-village of Marion co. 

Aun'cel-Weight, n. A rude scale or balance for 
weighing, formerly used in England. 

—Meat sold by the hand without weighing by scale. 

Ali lie, (on,) n. [Fr. aunt ; 0. Fr. aulne, alne, from Lat. 
ulna, elbow, ell; Gr. oltne, elbow, armful.] A French 
cloth measure, of different lengths; that of Rouen being 
the same as an English ell: that of Paris, 0’95. These 
are now superseded by the metre. — See A l.vagk. 

Au'nis, a ci-devant prov. of France, now- forming, with 
Saintonge, the department of Charente-Inferieure. 

A nil oy, Marie Catherine Jumellede Bernevilli Com- 
tesse d’, b. 1650, was the author of Contes de Pies (Fairy 
Tales), and among them The yellow Dwarf, The White 
Cat, and Cherry and Pair Star, which, in their day, met 
with great success in France. Her style was easy and 
agreeable, but verbose. Her tales are often founded on 
fact. The critic cannot- pardon the insipid gallantry of 
many of her heroes. But that was the fashion of the 
time. Many of these pictures have been translated into 
English, and are eagerly read by school-boys. D. 1705. 

Aunt, (Unt,) n. [0. Fr. ante: Fr. (ante; I.at. amita.] A 
father’s or mother’s sister; correlative to nephew or 
niece. 

Au ra, n.; pi Aur.e. [Lat. from Gr. ao, to breathe.] (Med.) 
A vapor once supposed to emanate from any body sur¬ 
rounding it like an atmosphere. — In Pathology, aura 
means the sensation of a light vapor, whioh, in some 
diseases, appears to set out from the trunk or limbs, and 
to rise tOAvard the head. This feeling has been found to 
precede attacks of epilepsy and hysteria, and hence it has 
been called A. epileptica, and hysterica. 

An'ral, a. Pertaining to the air, or to an anra. 

Aurantia'ceae, Citron-worts, n. pi. (Rot.) An order 
of plants, alliance Rutales. — Diag. Consolidated, succie 



Fig. 239. — 1. common orange, (Citrus auranHum.) 

2. A flower, with calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil. 

3. An ovary cut through transversely. 

4. A calyx and pistil. 

lent, indehiscent fruit, imbricated petals, free or nearly 
free stamens, and dotted leaves. — They are trees or 
shrubs, almost always smooth, and filled everywhere 
with little transparent receptacles of volatile oil Leaves 
alternate, articulated with the petiole; sepals 3-5, united 
into a short, urseolate or campanulate cup; petals 3-5; 





















194 


AUEI 


AURI 


AURO 


stamens, as many as the petals, or some multiple of their] 
number, in a single row, hypogyuous; ovary compounded 
of several united carpels; style 1 ; fruit, a berry (orange), 
many-celled, pulpy, covered with a thick rind; seeds 
attached to the inner angle of each carpel. — Citron- 
worts are almost exclusively found in the E. Indies, 
whence they have spread over the rest of the tropics. The 
wood is universally hard and compact; the leaves abound 
with a volatile, fragrant, bitter, exciting oil; the pulp 
of the fruit is always more or less acid. The Orange, 
Eenton, Lime. Shaddock, Pompelmoose, Forbidden Fruit, 
and Citron, all Indian fruits, are the most remarkable 
products of the order, which includes 20 genera and 95 
species, cultivated in all civilized countries for their 
beauty and fragrance, both of flowers aud fruit. The 
genus citrus is the most important. 

Auran'tiiue, n. ( C/iem.) See Hesperidine. 

Aura ria, in Colorado , a village of Arapahoe co., on the 
South Fork of the Platte, about 6 in. from Denver. 

Aura'ria. in Georgia, a post-village of Lumpkin co., 
135 m. N.N.W. of Milledgeville. 

Au'rate, n. [Fr., from Lat. auratus, gilded.] A sort of 
pear. 

( Chem .) A saline combination of auric acid and abase. 

Au'ratetl, a. [Lat. auratus, from aurum, gold.] Re¬ 
sembling or containing gold; gilded; gold-colored. 

—[Lat. auris, an ear.] Having ears. 

%. u'ray, a seaport town of France, dep. Morbihan, cap. 
of a canton, on the Auray, 11 m. W. of Vannes. Charles 
of Blois was killed, and Du Gueselin made prisoner, in a 
battle fought here, 29th Sept., 1361. Pup. 1,247. Near 
the town is a celebrated chapel consecrated to the Virgin 
under the name of Notre Dame. D'Auray, which is visited 
by numerous pilgrims, many of them coming bare-footed 
from a distance of more than 100 miles. 

A lire, (Val d’,) in France, one of tire four valleys of Up- 
per Arinagnac, now dep. of Ilautes-Pyrenees. 

4u reate, a. [Lat. aureatus, aureus.] Golden; gilded. 

AurcMia, n. [Lat. aureus, golden.] ( Zool .) A name 
given to that state of an insect which is between the 
caterpillar and its final transformation, and is commonly 
called a chrysalis or pupa. The term aurelia was first 
applied by the Romans, and that of chrysalis by the 
■Greeks, to certain butterfly pupae which have a golden 
color.—See Chrysalis. 

—A genus of Acalephai, containing the common “Sun-Fisli,” 
A.Jlavidula, of the northern coast of N. America. 

Aure'lian, a. Pertaining to, or resembling, the aurelia. 

— n. An amateur collector and breeder of insects. 

Aure'lian, Lucius Domitius Valerius AurelianuS. A 
Roman emperor, the sou of a peasant, was b. in Pannonia, 
a. d. 212. He entered the ranks of the Roman army, 
and is said to have killed with his own hand nearly 1,000 
men in a single campaign against the Sarmatians. He 
rapidly rose to eminence, and in 257 obtained a signal 
victory over the Goths in Illyricum, for which he was 
made consul, and styled by Valerian, the “ liberator of 
Illyria and restorer of Gaul.” In 269, A. was commander- 
in-chief of the Homan cavalry. Ou the death of Clau¬ 
dius II., in 270, he ascended the imperial throne. He de¬ 
livered Italy from the German barbarians, and conquered 
Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, in 273. After these victories 
he devoted himself to the improvement of Rome, and 
the reformation of public morals. A. next led an expe¬ 
dition against Persia, but the harshness of his character 
caused a conspiracy to be formed by his officers against 
him, and he was assassinajed in Thrace, in 275 a. d. 

Aure'lius Antoni'nus. See Marcus Aurelius. 

Aure'lius, Victor Sextus, a Latin historian of the 4th 
century, who was governor of Pannonia under the Em¬ 
peror Julian, and consul with Valentinian. His only 
authentic work extant is De Ccesaribus, containing the 
biographies of the emperors from Augustus to Constan¬ 
tine. 

Aure'lius, in Michigan, a post-township of Ingham co., 
on Grand River, about 80 m. N.VV.by W. of Detroit, and 
12 S. of Lansing. 

Aure'lius, in New York, a post-township of Cayuga co., 
170 m.W. by N. of Albany, on the north end of Cayuga 
Lake. 

Aure'lius, in Ohio, a township of Washington co., about 
15 in. N. of Marietta. 

Aureo'la, n. [Lat., of the color of gold; Fr. aureole .] 
(Paint.) The glory with which ancient painters encircled 
the bodies of the Holy Family, saints, martyrs, and con¬ 
fessors, in their pictures. When encircling only the head, 
it is usually termed a Nimbus, q. v. 

Au'reus, or I>enarius Aureus. [Lat.] ( Numis .) 
The standard gold coin of Rome, which, according to Pliny, 
was first coined 62 years after the earliest silver coinage, 
that is, in b. c. 207. The lowest denomination was the 
scrupulum, which was made equal to twenty sestertii. 
The value of the A., according to the present worth of 
gold, is about $5.28; but its current value in Rome was 
different, since the relative values of gold and silver were 
not the same in ancient times that they are now. The 
A. passed for 25 denarii; therefore taking the denarius 
as 17 cents, the aureus was worth about $4.42. Alexan¬ 
der Severus coined pieces of one-half and one-third of the 
aureus, called semissis, and tremissis; after which time 
the A. was called solidus. 

Au'rie Ac'id, Teroxidf. op Gold. (Chem.) It is prepared 
from the solution of gold in Aqua regia, and has no prac¬ 
tical importance. Form. Au0 3 . 

Au'rieli. a town of N. Germany, in Hanover, cap. of W. 
Friesland, and 15 m. N.E. of Emden. The town is the 
seat of the provincial government, and has a Protestant 
consistory, &c. Pop. 5,101. 

Aurictuil'cite, n. [From Gr. orns, a mountain, and 
chalkns, copper.] (Min.) A mineral of acicular crystals. 
Lustre pearly; color, pale green, verdigris-green; some¬ 


times sky-blue. Streak, pale-greenish or bluish; trans¬ 
lucent. Comp. Carbonic acid 16'2, oxide of copper 29-2, 
oxide of zinc 44 7, water 9 - 9 =: 100. It is found iu the U. 
States, at Lancaster, in Pennsylvania. 

Au'ricle, n. [Lat. auricula, dim. of auris, the ear; Fr. 
irreillette. J The external ear, or that part which is promi¬ 
nent from the head. 

(Anut.) The auricles of the heart, (Fig. 201,) are two 
muscular bags, situated at the base, which in form re¬ 
semble the auricle of the ear, and cover the ventricles 
of the heart, like caps; they receive the blood from the 
veins, and communicate it to the ventricles.—See Heart. 

Au'riided, a. (Zolil.) Having appendages like ears. 
See Auriculida;. 

Aurie'ula. n.; pi. Lat. Auricula, pi. Eng. Auriculas. 
[See Auricle.] (Hart.) The A. ursi, or “Bear’s Ear,” a 
species of the genus Primula, q. v. It is a well-known 



Fig. 240. —auricula ursi, (The Bear's Ear.) 

small evergreen, herbaceous plant, which, though so 
common as to be seen in every cottage-garden, is always 
a universal favorite. The number of varieties is almost 
infinite. Every year, since the date of their cultivation 
by artificial process, appears to have produced new vari¬ 
eties differing from one another, especially in the shape, 
size, and color of the flowers. Miller, whom all old flor¬ 
ists still regard as an oracle, states, as the characters of 
a good A., that the stem of the flower should be lofty 
and strong, that the footstalk of the flower should be 
short, and the umbel regular and close,—that the pipe 
or neck of each flower should be short, and the flowers 
large, regularly spread, and disinclinable to cup, — that 
the colors be very bright and well mixed, — that the eye 
of the flower be large, round, and of a good white or 
yellow, — and that the tube or neck be not too wide. 
The flowers appear in April or May, and, when tolerably 
well assorted as to colors, have a most joyous appearance 
in the little flower-plots of the cottage, or the small 
flower-gardens of the farmery, — more so, to our taste, 
than when they fill beds or stages in the most luxurious 
modes of horticulture. The A. is easily propagated by 
lifting it in the first week of every August, cutting it 
into two or three by vertical sections of the root, and 
transplanting the parts into good garden soil, enriched 
with tolerably strong and well-rolled manure. Propaga¬ 
tion from seed is requisite, of course, for new varieties: 
but it is so troublesome and tedious as to be a proper 
employment for only the amateur, or the regular practi¬ 
cal gardener. A. is a native of Switzerland. 

A uric'ii la r. a. [Fr. auriculaire; Lat. auricular is.] 
Pertaining to the ear; belonging to the sense of hearing; 
as, auricular nerves. 

—Spoken, told, or whispered in the ear; private; secret; 
confidential; as, an auricular confession. 

—Known to, or perceived by, the sense of hearing; recog¬ 
nized by the ear; as, auricular proof. 

“And by an auricular assurance have your satisfaction.”-<S7iaI:s. 

—Traditional; known by report. 

“Auricular traditions, and feigned testimonies.”— Bacon. 

(Anat.) That which belongs to the ear; more especially 
applied to the external ear. — A. arteries, veins, and 
nerves. They are numerous, but their description would 
be useless to the general reader. — A. finger is the little 
finger, so called because, owing to its size, it can be more 
readily introduced into the meatus-auditorins. 

—n. (Zool.) The tuft of feathers around the orifice of the 
ears of birds. 

Auric'nFar Confession. See Confession. 

Auric'ularly, adv. In an auricular manner; pri¬ 
vately; secretly. 

Anric'ulate, Attric'ulated, a. (Rot.) A term applied 
to a leaf having two small ear-like lobes at the base. 
The leaf of the woody nightshade (Solarium Dulcamara) 
is an example. 


(Conch.) Having car-like appendages. These term* 
are used in describing certain bivulves, which have a flat 
angulated projection, or process, on one or both sides of 
the utnbones or bosses. 

Auriculi'clfe, n. pi. (Zool.) A family of mollusca; 
comprising gasteropods which have the shell spiral, with 
a horny epidermis, and the body whorl large. Fifty oi 
sixty species are known. The Auricula midcr is a hand 
some shell, native of the E. Indies; its figure is oval oi 
oblong; the mouth longitudinal, with a reflected lip. 



Fig. 241. — auricula mida;. 

(Midas’s Ear.) 

Aiiric'ulo-veuf ric'ular, a. (Anal.) That whici 

belongs to the auricles and ventricles of the heart. Tin 
communications between the auricles and ventricles art 
so called. The tricuspid and mitral valves are auriculo- 
ventricular valves. 

Au'riesville, in New York, a post-office of Mont gone 
ery co. 

Aurif erous, a. [Fr. aurifere; Lat aurifer, from 
aurum, gold ,fero, I yield.] (Geol.) A term used to sig¬ 
nify that certain rocks, veins, Bauds, &c., yield or contain 
gold; hence the terms, auriferous veins, auriferous 
sands, auriferous streams. 

Au'riflam'ina, n. (Hist.) See Oriflamme. 

Au riform, a. [Lat. auris. the ear, and forma, form, 
shape.] Ear-shaped; in the form of the human ear. 

Auri'ga, n. [Lat., a charioteer.] (Astron.) The Char¬ 
ioteer, a constellation situated between Perseus and 
Gemini. It is represented as a man holding a bridle in 
the right hand, and supporting a goat and kids on the 
left arm. The star in the body of the gout, called Ca¬ 
pelin (and Alioth by the Arabs), is of the first magnitude, 
and presents the best guide to the constellation. There 
is no satisfactory account of the mythology of this figure. 
It is said to have been tbe Horns of the Egyptians; 
among the Greeks, the human figure is by different 
writers called Erichthonius, Belleroplion, Hippolytus, 
<fec.: while the goat is Amalthsea, the foster-mother of 
Jupiter. But this explanation is even more unsatisfac¬ 
tory than most others, owing to the want of apparent 
connection between the figures of the group. The whole 
number of visible stars in A. is 66 . This constellation 
is on the meridian at 9 o’clock on the 24th of January. 

Auri'gal, a. Of, or belonging to a carriage or char¬ 
iot. (R.) 

Auriga'tion, n. [From auriga .] Act of driving char¬ 
iots. (R.) 

Anrig'ny. (Geog.) See Alderney. 

Aurillac, ( o-ree'yak,) a town of France, cap. of dep. 
Cantal, on the Sordane, 40 m. S.E. of Tulle. Though 
well built, it is gloomy aud disagreeable. Manf. Paper, 
lace, and tapestry. Pop. 12,598. 

Auriol, ( o’re-ole,) a town of France, dep. Bouches-du- 
Rhone, on the Veaune, 15 in. E.N.E. of Marseilles. It 
has inannf. of wool and tapestry, and valuable coal and 
copper mines are in the neighborhood. Pop. 5.427. 

A ur i pllry g'iate, a. [Lat. aurum, gold, and L. Lat. 
phrygiare, to deck with embroidery.] Laced, passe- 
mented, or embroidered with gold, (r.) 

Auripigmen 'uni. n. (Min.) See Orpiment. 

Au'riscalp, n. [From Lat. auris, ear, and scalpere, to 
scrape.] (Surg.) An earpick, q. v. 

Au'riscope, n. [From Lat. auris, and sknpeo, I view.] 
(Surg.) An instrument for exploring the ear. 

Au'rist. n. [Lat. auris, the ear.] (Surg.) One who stud¬ 
ies, and professes to cure, diseases of the ear. 

Au'rited, a. See Auriculate. 

Aurocepli'alous, a. [Gr. aumn, gold, and kephale, 
head.] (Zolil.) Having a golden-colored head. 

Au'roclis, n. [Lat. urns, a bison; Ger. ochs, an ox.] 
(Zool.) The European Bison priscus. — See Buffalo. 

Aurocy'antde, n. (Chem.) A compound of the cyan¬ 
ide of gold and a basic oxide. 

Anro'rti, n .; pi. Lat. Auho'r.f, ; pi. Eng. Auroras. [Lat., . 
from Gr. aurios, golden, and ora, hour.] The dawning 
light before sunrise; daybreak; the morning. 

( Myth.) [Gr. Eos.] Daughter of Hyperion and Tliia, and 
sister of Sol and Luna. She was one of tiie ancient god¬ 
desses of the race of the Titans, but retained her rank 
among the later race of gods. To the Titan Astraeus, son 
of Crius, she bore the Winds, Zepliyrus, Boreas, ar.d No- 
tus, the Morning-Star, and the Constellations. She rises 
from the ocean, drawn by the celestial horses Lampus 
and Phaeton, and with rosy fingers raises the veil of 
night, shedding light upon the world, until she flies from 
the splendor of day. Among the mortals whose beauty 
captivated the goddess, poets mention Orion, Tithonus, 
and Ceplialus. 

Auro'ra, a name common to several islands. 1. One of 
the Society Islands in the S. Pacific. Pop. 350. Lat. 15° 
50' S.; Lon. 148° 11' W. — 2 . One of the New Hebrides. 
Lat. 14° 56' S.; Lon. 168° 6' E.—3. One in the Red Sea, 
inhabited by Bedouins; Lat. 25° 30' N.; Lon. 36° 20' N. 

Auro'ra, in Alabama, a post-village of Baine co. 

Auro'ra, in Illinois, a city of Kane co., on Fox RiTer, 
40 miles W. by S. of Chicago. Exp. Principally grain, 
wool and pork. Pop iu IS'JO, 19,688; in 1897 (est.)25,000 
















AURU 


AUSO 


AUST 


195 


Auro'ra. in Indiana, a city of Dearborn co., on the 
Ohio, 86 m. S.E. of Indianapolis, and 25 m. W. of Cin¬ 
cinnati. Pop. (1898 ) 4,450. 

Atiro'ra, in Iowa, a post-village of Buchanan co., about 
15 m. N. of Independence. Pop. (1898) 110. 

Auro'ra Boreal is, and Auro'ra Austral'is, 

n. [Lat.j (Popularly called in this country Northern 
Lights. As, however, the phenomenon is seen emanating 
from the South Pole as well as from the North, neither 
of the above appellations is scientifically correct. Polar 
Lights is more expressive, and therefore to be preferred.) 
(Physics.) A beautiful and so far unexplained electro- 
meteoric phenomenon, often appearing in the heavens 
in middle and high northern and southern latitudes, 
hut never on or near the equator, its limits of visibility 
being eonfined to zones of about 60° radius surrounding 
either pole, and often simultaneously appearing at each. 
It exhibits itself underat least seven distinct forms—all 
of which are never observed at any single display— 
classified and described as follows (for northern hiti- 
tudes):—1. An evenly diffused luminosity, extending 
over the entire northern heavens, often reaching to the 
zenith and sometimes beyond, and in azimuth from tlie 
western to the eastern horizon, and unaccompanied by 
any of the other six forms into which the phenomenon 
may be divided.—2. A luminous arch whose crown is 
always in the meridian, the two ends resting on the 
northwest and northeast horizon. Frequently the sky 
beneath assumes an evenly diffused drapery of intense 
blackness. That it is not caused by contrast is evident 
from the fact that no blackness is visible above it. That 
it is not a cloud is also evident, as stars have been seen 
(with a telescope) through the vail, though greatly 
dimmed in brightness.—3. Resembling No. 1, with the 
difference that there are large patches of luminous 
clouds, generally white, but sometimes tinted with two 
colors of the spectrum, red and green. They are seen 
most frequently in the northwest and northeast, appear¬ 
ing and disappearing without motion of translation.— 
4. Dong, narrow, luminous rays or streamers, often 
reaching from the horizon, or from the arch to the 
zenith and occasionally beyond, meeting by perspective 
at the apex like the radii of a circle. They are seldom 
stationary, some moving to the right and others to the 
left, and frequently exhibiting pulsating tremors 
throughout their lengths. Like the luminous clouds 
(No. 3), the streamers also often emit the rainbow tints. 
The majestic, soldier-like movement of these long pen¬ 
dant beams of light is one of the most fascinating scenes 
this strange phenomenon presents to the beholder.—5. 
“ Merry Dancers : ” large, white, luminous clouds danc¬ 
ing with fearful rapidity up and down, often moving 
from the horizon to the zenith in a single second. These 
corruscations produce a series of celestial pyrotechnics 
of indescribable sublimity and grandeur—6. The 
Corona : a circle or crow r n of light of some six or eight 
degrees in diameter, always on the magnetic equator 
(some few degrees north of the geographic equator) 
and also on the meridian of the observer. It is toward 
the corona that the streamers trend and meet, from 
whatever direction they may appear to come. In a 
large majority of cases the corona is not formed, the 
streamers extending no further thau the zenith. On 
rare occasions the streamers have been seen all around 
the corona, extending to within ten degrees of the south¬ 
ern horizon.—7. Horizontal beam: This is the rarest 
of all the phenomena into which the auroral displays 
are divided. Probably not oftener than once in twenty 
years would it fall to the lot of a person to witness it. 
It consists of a bright, cigar-shaped beam, from two to 
three degrees broad, extending generally from the 
eastern to the western horizon ; and, though always at 
right angles to the magnetic meridian, it obeys no rule 
as to the distance north of the magnetic equator. It 
has been simultaneously seen from both continents, 
frequently deceiving the. “ very elect ” even to announc¬ 
ing it as the tail of an extraordinary comet. It cer¬ 
tainly does resemble the tails of the great comets of 
1843 and 1861. It appears to be an isolated phenomenon, 
never occurring coincidentally with the others. 

That the aurora borealis, considered as a whole, is of 
electric origin, is evident w hen it is considered that the 
corona is always found on the magnetic equator, and 
the beam at a right angle to the magnetic meridian; 
and also that, during the displays, magnetic needles and 
telegraph lines are more or less disturbed, sometimes so 
intensely as to work the telegraph instruments without 
any battery whatever. The boreal and austral aurora: 
must therefore be due to some form of electric energy, 
but are as yet involved in a halo ot mystery beyond the 
ken of human investigation. 

The sounds some think they hear during an auroral 
display are probably entirely due to the imagination. 

Spectrum analysis reveals the presence of six J’nes and 
two bands in the light of the aurora borealis, whose 
positions are as follows (as per Rowland’s scale): (1) 
bright baud in the red ; (2) brightest line in the citron; 
(3) very faint line in the citron; (4) fairly bright line 
in the green; (5) rather bright line in the green; (6) 
bright line in the green; (7) broad blue band, darker 
in the middle, extending from wave length 0-4695 to 
0 4630; (8) faint line in the violet. No. 5 is brightest 
only when No. 1 is visible, but at the same time No. 2 
is faintest. See Spectrum, Spectrum Analysis, Elec¬ 
tricity. 

Aurung-abad'. [The “ Place of the Throne ”] a large 
maritime prov. of the Deccan in Hindostan, comprised 
partly in the Brilish presidency of Bengal, and partly 
in the Nizam’s dominions; principally betw-een 18° and 
21° N. Lat., and 73° and 77° E. Lon. Bounded on the N. 
by the prov. of Gujerat, Candeish, and Berar; E. by 


Buffer; S. by Bejapoor; and on the W. by the Indian 
ocean. — Surface. Irregular, and mountainous toward 
the W., where the Ghauts attain a considerable height. 
That part of A. E. of the Western Ghauts is a table-land 
at a general elevation of 1,800 ft. above sea-level; it 
abounds with natural fortresses and strongholds. There 
are no rivers of any size.— dim. Admirably adapted for 
the production of European fruits, which come to greater 
perfection here than in any other part of India. The 
inhabitants are chiefly Mahrattas, but A. is thinly 
peopled, and the Mohammedans are to the Hindoos only 
as 1 to 20 .—Chief cities. Bombay, Aurungabad, Poonah, 
and Soolapoor. Many remarkable antiquities exist in 
this province, as the temples and caves at Salsette, Ele- 
phanta, Ellora, &c. A. was formerly called Ahmednuggur, 
and afterwards Dowletabad, from the cities so named 
being in turn its capitals, under two dynasties, previ¬ 
ously to A. D. 1635; at which period Shah Jehan finally 
conquered and annexed it to the Mogul empire. A. 
becoming eventually the favorite residence of Aurung- 
zebe, thus acquired its present appellation. 

Aurungabad, a city- of the Deccan, cap. of the above prov., 
within the dominions of the Nizam, on a tributary of 
the Godavery, 275 m. S.W. of Hyderabad, 176 m. E.N.E. of 
Bombay, and 140 m. N.E. of Poonah. It is an ancient and 
imposing city, and contains the royal palace of Aurung- 
zebe, and many other fine architectural remains of his 
dynasty. A. is now occupied by a British garrison. Pop. 
estimated at 60,000. 

Aiirungzebe, ( aw-rvng-zeeV,) known as the Great 
Mogul, or Emperor of Hindostan, b. 22. Oct., 1618. He 
was the son of Shah Jehan, and properly named Mo¬ 
hammed, but received from his grandfather that of A. 
(*• Ornament of the Throne”), by which he is known to 
history. After deposing and imprisoning his father, and 
putting his brothers to death, A., in 1658, was crowned 
sole monarch of the great Mogul empire. His long reign 
was more remarkable for its internal policy than for its 
outward events. In some respects it may be compared 
to the reign of Louis XIV. of France. Both reigns were 
i of unusual duration, and of unquestionable brilliancy. 
A . carried on many wars, conquered Golconda and 



Fig . 243. —TOMBS OF THE KINGS OF GOLCONDA. 


Beejapoor, and subjugated the Mahrattas. The Mussul¬ 
mans of India still regard him as the greatest of their 
sovereigns. A. died at Ahmednuggur, in the Deccan, 
21st Feb., 1709, master of 21 provinces, and of a revenue 
of about $200,000,000. 

Au Sa'ble, or Ausa'ble, in Illinois, a township of 
Grundy co. 

Au Sa'ble, or Ausa'ble, in Michigan, a city of 
Iosco co. It is situated on Lake Michigan, at the 
mouth of a river of the same name. Poptdation (1890) 
4,328. 

Au Sa'ble, in New Tori-, a river of Essex co., which 
enters Lake Champlain about 15 m. S. of Plattsburg. 

—A township of Clinton co. 

Au Sa'ble Forks, in New York, a small post-village 
in Jay township, Essex eo.,on Au Sable river, about 128 
m. N. of Albany. 

Aus'cultate, t>. a. [Fr. ausculter ; Lat. auscultare, to 
listen.] To practise auscultation. 

Ausculta'tion, n. [Fr.; Lat. auscultahn, act of listen¬ 
ing.] (Med.) A mode of appreciating the different sounds 
which can be heard in the chest, especially in diseases 
of the heart, lungs. &c. A., when done by application of 

the ear to the chest,is termed immediate A. It receives 
the name of mediate A. when performed by the aid of 
the instrument called a stethoscope, one extremity of 
which is applied to the ear, and the other to the chest 
of the patient. 

Aus'eultator, n. One who practises auscultation. 

Auscul'tatory, a. Belonging, or having relation to 
auscultation. 

Auso'nians. [Lat. Ausone-s.] (Hist.) An ancient people 
of the Italian peninsula, who appear to have been a 
branch of the great Oscan nation. According to Niebuhr, 
the Ausones and the Aurunci are identical. Suessa Au- 
runca, near the Liris, was in the centre of the country 
which they occupied. Cales (Livy. viii. 16), Ausona, 
Minturnae, and Vescia, were Ausonian cities. 

Auso'nius, Decimus Magnus, son of a physician of 
Bordeaux, was born in the beginning of the 4th century. 
He devoted himself to the cultivation of letters. In 
A. D. 369, his reputation caused him to be selected by the 
Emperor Valentinian as tutor to his son Gratian. In 
a. d. 377, he was appointed praetorian praefect of Italy, 
and of the Gauls in the following year, and made consul 


by Gratian in 379. His poetical talents were highly es¬ 
teemed during his life, (as indeed he is among the beet 
writers of that late era;) and the Emperor Theodosiug 
wished to obtain the same return of flattery from him 
which Augustus received from Horace and Virgil. But 
his style is vicious and full of conceits, and his subject# 
generally too trifling to retain any interest. 

Aus'pical, a. Fertaining to auspices (r.) 

AuSpicate, v. a. [Lat. auspicure — auspex, a bird-seer,’ 
and specere, spicere, to view.] To give a favorable turn 
to in commencing; — a sense taken from the Roman prac¬ 
tice of performing the auspicium, or inspection of birds, 
before they undertook any important business.- 

Aus'picatoi-y, a. Of, or having relation to, auspices. 

Au'spice, n. [Fr. auspice ; Lat. auspicium, from auspex — 
avis, a bird, and specw, to observe.] Omens drawn from 
observing the actions of birds; augury. — See Augury. 

—Favorable appearance ; patronage : protection; fortune; 
used generally in the plural; as, under happy auspices. 

Auspi'cial, a. Pertaining to auspices; relating to 
prognostics, (r.) 

Auspi'cious, a. Having or bringing auspices, or 
omens of success; favorable; fortunate; propitious; 
prosperous; happy; as, an auspicious day. 

Auspi'ciously, adv. Happily; prosperously; favor¬ 
ably; propitiously. 

Auspi'ciwusness, n. State or quality of being au¬ 
spicious; a state of fair promise; prosperity. 

Aus'sa, Au'sa, or Hawa'sa, formerly an important town 
of E. Africa, in the country of Adel, 85 m. S.W. of Zeyla, 
on the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. The learned sheiks of 
the Mudaito tribes reside here. Pop. 6,000. 

Aus'tell, St. See Austle, St. 

Aus'ten, Jane, a popular English novelist, b. in Hamp¬ 
shire, 1775. Her principal works, as Sense and Sensibil¬ 
ity, Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park, and Emma, 
present the delineation of character of every-day Eng¬ 
lish domestic life. D. 1817. 

Aus'ten, in Western Virginia, a post-office of Preston co. 

Aus'ter, n. [Lat. auster, the south; a dry, hot, south 
wind.] The south wind. 

Austere', a. [Fr. austere; Gr. austeros, from auo, azo, 
to dry, or parch up; Lat. ansterns] Making the tongu# 
dry and rough; contracting or affecting the tongue; 
rough; acrid; sour to the taste; with astringency to the 
palate. 

“ Th" austere and pon’drous juices they sublime.”— Blackmore. 

—Severe; harsh; stern; rigid; — in application to manner 
of judging, acting, living; as, an austere monk. 

“Austere Saturnius, say 

From whence this wrath ? or who controls thy sway? ”— Pops. 

Austere'Iy, adv. In an austere or rigid manner. 

14 Hypocrites austerely talk 
‘‘Of purity, and place, and innocence."— Milton. 

Austere'ness, n. Acerbity; roughness; acridity of 
taste. 

—Severity or harshness of manner; austerity; as, “Th’ 
austereness of my life.”— Shaks. 

Auster'ity, n. [Fr. austCritc; Lat. austeritus .] Au¬ 
stereness; severity of manners or life; strictness of dis¬ 
cipline ; rigor. 

“ Let not austerity breed servile fear.”— Lord Roscommon. 

Aus'terlitz, a small town of Moravia, on the Littawa. 
13 m. S.E. of Briinn; pop. 3,671. In the vicinity, on 
Dec. 2, 1805, was fought the famous battle that bears its 
name, between the French army of 80,000 men, com¬ 
manded by Napoleon, and the combined Russian and 
Austrian armies, numbering 84,000, under their respec¬ 
tive emperors; in which the former achieved a signal vic¬ 
tory. According to Alison, the allies lost 30,000 in killed, 
wounded, and prisoners, and the French, 12,000. The bat¬ 
tle was followed by an armistice, the terms of which 
were dictated by Napoleon; and immediately after, on the 
26th of December, by the treaty of Presburg, which 
disastrously affected Austria. The battle of A. is some¬ 
times called the Battle of the Three Emperors. — See 
Presburg, Napoleon, &c. 

Aus'terlitz, in Michigan, a post-village of Kent co., 
on Grand River, about 10 m. N.N.E. of Grand Rupids, 
and 178 W. by N. of Detroit.. 

Aus'terlitz, in New York, a post-village and township 
of Columbia co., 31 m. S.S.E. of Albany. 

Aus tin, St. See Augustine. 

Aus'tin, in Arkansas, a village of Lonoke co. 

Aus'tin, in Plinois, a township of Macon co. 

Aus'tin, in Indiana, a post-village of Scott co., 33 m. 
S. of Columbus. 

Aus'tin, in Iowa, a village of Fremont co., about 8 tn. 
E. of the Missouri River 

Aus'tin, in Michigan, a post-village of Oakland co. 

—A township of Sanilac county, situated near Lak# 
Michigan. 

Aus'tin, in Minnesota, a post-township of Mower co., 
containing Austin, the county seat. 

—A flourishing city, cap. of Mower co., on Red Cedar 
river, 90 m. S. of St. Paul, and 40 m. S.W. of Rochester. 
Pop. (1890) 3,901; (1898) 6,250. 

Aus'tin, in Mississippi, a post-village of Tunica co., on 
the Mississippi, about 50 m. S.W. of Memphis. 

Aus'tin, in Missouri,a village in Atchison co. 

—A post-village of Cass co., about 50 m. S.S.E. of Kansaa 
City. 

Aus'tin, in Nevada, a mining city, cap. of Lander co., 
about IbO m. E. of Virginia City, at the E. base of th# 
Toiyabe Mountain. 

Aus'tin, in Tennessee, a village of Wilson co. 

Aus'tin, in Texas, a county in the S.E. part of the State. 
Area, 950 sq. m. The Brazos river flows through th# 
county, which is also watered by the Bernard, East, W est, 
Middle, and Mill creeks. The soil is fertile toward th# 




















196 


AUST 


AUST 


AUST 


IT., but sandy in tlie S Prod. Cattle and sheep, butter, 
poultry, &c. Hogs are raised in large quantities, and 
almost without cost, owing to the abundance of leed. 
Cap. Bellville. 

Austin, capital of Texas, and seat of justice of Travis co., 
on the Colorado river, about 230 m. W.N.W. of Galveston. 
It is a picturesque city, rapidly increasing in wealth and 
population. Tne Capitol, situated upon an eminence, is 
a line Texas-marble structure. There are 7 churches, 
and IS schools. Pop. in 1880, 10,960; in 1897, 14,575. 

Aus'tinfourgh, in Ohio, a post-village and township 
of Ashtabula co., 50 m. E.N.E. of Cleveland, and 10 from 
Ashtabula Harbor on Lake Erie. 

Aus'tist's Mills, in Tennessee, a P.O. of Hawkins co. 

Ans'tintown, in Ohio, a township of Mahoning 
county. 

Aus tinvillc, in Missouri, a post-village of Livingston 
co., 140 m. N.W. of Jefferson City. 

Aus'tinville, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Brad¬ 
ford co., about 18 m. S. by W. from Elmira, in New York. 

Aus'tinville, in Virginia, a village of Wythe co., 15 
m. E.S.E. of Wytheville. 

Ans'tle, St.^or Austell, St., a town and parish of Corn¬ 
wall, England, 13 m. from Truro. Pop. about 11,000. In 
the neighborhood are extensive tin and copper mines. 

Aus'tral, a. [Fr.; Lat. australis — auster, the south.] 
Southern; lying in, or belonging to the south. 

Austral Signs. ( Astron .) An expression applied to 
the last 6 signs of the zodiac, viz.: the autumnal signs 
Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius; and the winter signs 
Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pisces; because they lie to 
the south of the equinoctial. 

Aiislrala sia. (“ Southern Asia,”) a term used by most 
modern geographers to denote the archipelago of islands 
lying between 35° N. and 56° S. Lat., and between 94° 
and 105° E. Lon.; the entire extent of which is estimated 
to be not much less than Europe, and forms the fifth 
great division of the globe. This term, however, is said, 
by some, to be both politically meaningless, and geograph¬ 
ically incorrect. It is used in Great Britain to express 
her antipodean possessions in the aggregate. In this 
sense it comprises Australia (or New Holland), Tasma¬ 
nia (or Van Diemen’s Land), New Zealand, New Britain, 
New Ireland, the Solomon Islands, &c. In the colo¬ 
nies themselves, the name A. is almost unknown, or 
when used, is intended to embrace Australia and Tas¬ 
mania, rather than Australia and New Zealand. The 
latter islands are as far apart from each other as England 
and Massachusetts; and the distance from Wellington, 
N. Z., to Sydney, (opposite ports,) is as great as that from 
Africa to Brazil. A. forms one of the three divisions of 
what is termed Oceanica: the other two being Polynesia, 
and Malaysia, or the Malay group of islands. For a 
general designation the British have adopted A ustralasia; 
the French, Oceanica; and the Germans, Australia .— 
The first discovery made by Europeans in this quarter 
of the globe was that of Papua (q. -«.), by the Portuguese, 
in 1512; and the first settlement that of the English, in 
1787. 

A uslralasian, a. Pertaining to Australasia. 

— n. A native, or an inhabitant of Australasia. 

Austra'lia, (the “ Southern region,”) formerly called 
New IIolland. The largest island in the world; so large, 
indeed, that it may be very properly termed a continent. 
It lies to the S. of Asia, between the Indian and Pacific 
oceans; and is bounded on the N. by Torres Straits, the 
Sea of Timor, and the Papuas, or islands of New Guinea; 
on the E. by the S. Pacific; on the S. by Bass’s Strait, 
Tasmania, and the S. Pacific; and on the W. by the In¬ 
dian ocean. A. lies between 10°39' and 30° 11)^' S. Lat., 
and extends from 113° 5' to 153° 16' E. Lon. Its average 
length and breadth may be estimated at 2,500 and 1,800 
m. respectively. Area, estimated at about 3,000,000 sq. 
m. The continent of A. is divided into a different states 
or territories, all belonging to Great Britain, — viz., S. 
Australia, IP. Australia (or Swan River), Queensland (or 
Moreton Bay), New South Wales, and Victoria. — Follow¬ 
ing out the plan laid down in our treatment of Asia (q. v.), 
we request the reader’s reference to those several divisions 
(as they shall appear in their due places), for such geo¬ 
graphical and physical peculiarities of configuration as 
may belong to them; contenting ourselves here with a 
panoramic view of the continent in its concrete form.— 
Topography. A. possesses a coast-line of 8,000 m., which 
forms a great series of promontories, the chief of which 
are, on the N., Capes Londonderry, Bougainville, Coburg, 
and Arnhem; N.E., York; E., Melville, Bedford, Town- 
ghend, Capricorn, Byron, Hawke, and Howe; S., Wilson’s 
Promontory, Capes Otway, Northumberland, Willough¬ 
by, Jervis, and Radstock; and on the W., Capes Leeuwiu, 
Naturaliste, Preston, and N.W. Cape. Notwithstanding 
the many excellent harbors found on its coasts, great 
indentations of the sea are in A. not numerous. Of such, 
the principal are the Gulfs of Carpen taria and Cambridge, 
on the N., and Spencer’s Gulf on the S. The first has a 
breadth of 400 miles, and penetrates inland for a distance 
of nearly 700, while the last-named is in no part wider 
than 80, nor extends inland further than about 180 m. 
Shark’s Bay on the W., and Harvey’s on the E., are of much 
smaller dimensions.— Straits. That of Torres, on the N., 
separates this continent from the island of New Guinea; 
on the S., Bass’s Strait intervenes tietween it and Tas¬ 
mania.— Desc. The interior of this vast country has been 
only partially explored, and therefore cannot be fully 
and accurately described. It is, so far, understood to 
form an immense plain, composed largely of sandy and 
stony deserts, though with large areas of some degree 
of fertility. Captain Sturt, who, in 1845, explored it as 
far as Lat. 25°33'S.,and Lon. 138°E.,describes the country 
as a series of sand-hills, of a fiery red color; hut later 
travellers give more favorable descriptions of the central’ 


expanse. It is on the S. and E. coast-land that the best 
soil, and most picturesque scenery, are found. In these 
portions of the continent are situate those extensive pas¬ 
ture-lands, called downs, which are somewhat equivalent 
to the American prairies; on these grassy plains thou¬ 
sands upon thousands of cattle and sheep are reared; 
while the river-bottoms, again, have an unsurpassed rich¬ 
ness of soil and vegetation, yielding abundant crops of 
grains and fruits. All these best lands of A. are already 
taken up by settlers; the continent has three-quarters 
the area of Europe, but it is doubtful if A. will ever be 
able to support a dense population throughout even half 
her limits. The central part of A., to the extent, perhaps, 
of half the entire continent, lies too far N. for winter 
rains, too far S. for tropical wet seasons, and in these vast 
solitudes agriculture may be pronounced impossible, and 
even sheep-farming difficult. Once in a while, a heavy 
winter rain falls in the interior; grass springs up, the 
gullies are filled, the up-country squatters make their 
fortunes, and all goes on prosperously for a time. Two 
or three years of drought then follow, and all the more 
enterprising squatters are ruined; with a gain, however, 
sometimes, of a few thousand square miles of country to 
civilization.— Mountains. The Australian Alps, or War- 
ragongs, the Blue Mountains, and the Liverpool Range, 
form the principal mountain-chain. This system extends 
from Wilson's Promontory on the S., and terminates at 
Cape York, on Torres Straits. The culminating point of 
the Blue Mountains is Mount York, an altitude of 3,292 
feet above the sea. The loftiest summits of the Liver¬ 
pool Range are computed at from 4,000 to 7,000 ft., while 
Mount Kosciusko, in the Australian Alps, at tains a max¬ 
imum elevation of 6,500 ft., commanding a coup d’ceil of 
7,000 sq. m. of country. On the S. coast, are the Austra¬ 
lian Grampians, connecting with the Australian Pyre¬ 
nees, which, starting from Portland Bay, and skirting 
the coast, take a course to the N., and ultimately form a 
junction with the Australian Alps. In the S., still 
another mountain-chain is found, which, rising at Cape 
Jervis, advances N., and becomes lost in the depression 
of Lake Torrens. Among these mountains are traced 
many evidences of an extinct volcanic system.— Rivers. 
Of these, the most noticeable are the Murray, which 
great stream receives the Darling, Castlereagh, Peel, 
Macquarie, Bogan, Lachlan, and Murrumbidgee. The 
extent of the basin drained by this fluvial system is not 
accurately known. Falling into the Pacific on the E. 
are the Hunter and Hawkesbury rivers; the Blackwood 
and Gienelg empty into it on the S.; while on the W., 
embouching into the Indian ocean, are the Swan and the 
Canning, with the Adelaide, the Liverpool, and the Alli¬ 
gator rivers on the N. — Lakes. The largest inland sheet 
of water is Lake Torrens in the S., which is estimated to 
have an entire length of 400 m., with an average breadth 
of from 15 to 20. In the dry season, however, this lake 
is little better than a salt-marsh. Lakes Victoria and 
Dambeling may also be mentioned; the first, traversed 
by the Murray river, being also in the S.; and the latter, 
(discovered in 1843,) in the W. division of the continent. 
Bot. Our knowledge of the Jim, of A. is, as yet, circum¬ 
scribed. Parts in the W. and S. may be found teeming 
with a luxuriant and even gigantic vegetation, forming, 
in places, bowers of almost tropical density of growth, 
and beauty of efflorescence. One of the finest orna¬ 
ments of the Australian forest is the fern-tree, which, 
when it has reached a height of 15 to 20 feet, throws out 
in every direction gigantic leaves measuring 4 to 5 feet. 
On the E. and N. shores, where the vegetation is more 
Indian-like, the palm flourishes in juxtaposition with the 
rarer examples of the tropical arboretum. It is affirmed 
that one-eighth of all the known species of vegetables 
are peculiar to A. — Zo'ol. The wild animals of the Aus¬ 
tralian continent are not so numerous as tiiey are pecu¬ 
liar: such as the kangaroo, wombat, dingo or wild dog, 
and the ornithorhynchus, which is one of the most re¬ 
markable animals in existence, being aquatic in its habits, 



Fig. 244. — THE ORNITHORHYNCHUS. 


and a layer of eggs. Within the decade beginning 1860, 
hares and rabbits were introduced from Europe; and the 
latter, especially, has become so acclimatized, that its 
fecundity has got to be, at the present time, a serious 
nuisance to the farming interest of the country. The 
domestic breeds of animals are much the same as those 
of Europe and America; sheep is, par excellence, the 
staple stock, producing annually vast quantities of the 
finest wool. The Alpaca has been introduced, and may 
prove a valuable addition to the ovine wealth of the col¬ 
onists. The birds of A. are almost as peculiar as some of 
the animals. Among them are the emu (Australian 
ostrich), the black swan, and a kind of thrush known as 
the laughing-jackass. Parrots of brilliant hues are numer¬ 
ous, and rivalling them in gorgeous plumage are the 
rifle-bird, the lyre-bird, and the ring-oriole. Game birds, 


as the pheasant and partridge.have become acclimatized. 
Of reptiles, the most formidable are a large lizard, many 
kinds of serpents, more or less vemonous, as the dia¬ 
mond snake, the black, gray, brown, yellow and whip 
snakes. There are also found scorpions, centipedes and 
tarantulas. Fish is found in great plenty all along the 
coasts.— dim. The climate is, in general, dry and healthy, 
except during the winter rains, which are of hut brief 
duration. Excessive droughts are, as before stated, the 
prevailing draw’back to the prosperity of the country. 
Prod. Sheep-farming is the staple industry of A., and is 
conducted on the most gigantic scale, some squatters 
owning as many as 500,000 sheep. As a necessary result, 
wool forms the leading article of export. Wheat, maize, 
fruits, tobacco, flax, sugar, grapes for wine making, Ac., 
are also extensively cultivated.— Mia. The great dis¬ 
coveries of gold in New S. Wales, in 1850, and in Vic¬ 
toria, in 1852, have eclipsed all other mining operations. 
The yearly value of gold exp., on av. of 40 years (1851- 
1890). has been $40,000,000. Silver, tin, lead, and copper 
abound; the Burra-Burra mines yielding annual!}’ large 
returns of the latter metal. Coal, slate, potter's clay, and 
statuary-marbles are also found in quantities. — lnhab. 
The aborigines are of the Papuan Negro race; of a deep 
coffee-color; nomad character; disgusting in their habits; 
and blindly superstitious,— believing in a kind of Feti- 
chism represented by two wooden deities, named Koyan 
(good), and Potoyan (bad), respectively. Like other sav¬ 
ages, they are frequently at war among themselves, 



Fig. 245. — NATIVE AUSTRALIAN. 


though they shrink from encountering even the smallest 
number of Europeans. Their weapons are, mostly, the 
spear, or assagai, and the boomerang (q. v.), a weapon 
of an entirely unique character. These natives are de¬ 
creasing in number; and will, without doubt, rapidly 
become extinct in the course of a tew years, before th'e 
steady advance of the European races. The colonization 
of A. has been extremely rapid. In 1830, her population 
was under 40,000; in 1870 it numbered 1,565,293, and 
3,832,750 by the census of 1901, the yearly increase dur¬ 
ing the last ten years being two per cent., without 
any marked tendency to a larger increase in years to 
come. Small as are the populated portions of Australia, 
when compared with the corresponding divisions of the 
United States, this country, nevertheless, is a vast one. 
The part of Queensland already settled is 5 times larger 
than Great Britain. South A. and West A. are each of 
them nearly as large as British India, while Victoria is 
only the 34th part of the continent; but of these colonies 
the greatest part is desert, and, owing principally to the 
want of water, the inner part of the country seems ab¬ 
solutely unfit for cultivation. Morally and intellectually, 
at all events, A. is thriving. A literature is springing up, 
and a national character is being grafted on the good 
English stock.— Religion. Of the religious aspect of A. 
little need be said. Wesleyanism, Catholicism, and Pres¬ 
byterianism, are stronger than all other forms of belief, 
and the general mingling of conflicting races extends to 
the religious edifices of this land. In Melbourne alone 
may be seen in close proximity to one another the grace¬ 
ful Wesleyan church, the Chinese Joss-house, and the 
Catholic cathedral. In A., the admixture of blood is as 
yet small. In S. Australia, where it is most to be found, 
the Catholics and Wesleyans divide between them the 
preponderance of inhabitants. The Church of England, 
or Anglicanism, is naturally strongest in New S. Wales, 
where the colonists are most exclusively of English ex¬ 
traction.— Com. The bulk of the trade of A. is with 
Great Britain, the exports reaching nearly $265,400,000 
yearly, the imports $300,000,000. The commercial inter. 






























AUSTRALIA 


Area sq. m. 

2,972 573 
Pop.3,771,715 


STATES. 

New South Wales 
H 6 

Area sq. m. 

310,700 

Pop.1,354,846 

Queensland ...G 4 
Area sq. m. 

668,497 

Pop.496,596 

South Australia 
F 5 

Area sq. m. 

903,690 

Pop.362,604 

Tasmania.D 7 

Area sq.m. 26,215 

Pop.172,475 

Victoria.G 6 

Area sq.m. 87,884 
Pop ,...l,201,07o 
Western Australia 
C 6 

Area sq. m. 

975,920 
Pop.184,124 















130 Longitude JK East 135 from. If Greenwich ItO''' 


Oulfof 

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TIMOR 


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irt Wore* 5j<£- — ^1 
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AUSTRALIA 


ITalat 


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rPort CL*lai*n 

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00 

»ng*» 


SECAETAilY 

RESOLUT 


ENGLISH STATUTE MILES 


’o MARIA I. 

, Tasman• 
Pen. 

C. Pillar 


ftlNOERs 


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'^k . 


U«tcu 
SOUANOEB I.* 

STEWART I. 


•M.groUF 7~ 


XEW ZEALAND 

Same scale as Australia 


Port \,A Ih 

SoulAtlesI % 

TASMANIA 

Same scale as Australia 


KILOMETERS 


South C, 


Ramnond’s 8x11 Map of Australia, 
C.S.Hammond Jc Co., New Yorl 























































































































































AUST 


AUST 


AUST 


197 


course of A. with the U. S. is relatively small, though it 
is steadily increasing, and promises eventually to become 
an important part of our foreign trade. Our exports 
thither are particularly on the increase. f It appears 
from a general view of Australian progress in the last 
20 years, that the provinces less rich in gold than Vic¬ 
toria have been enabled to advance in prosperity by 
other means. Wool continues the great staple of A. 
But New South \\ ales, possessing both coal and iron, 
is becoming a seat of manufactures; while Queensland 
is also favored with much mineral wealth, including 
tin. Meantime South A., besides its production of 
'.upper and a fair share of wool, has become the great 
wheat growing province of the continent.— History. 
The first authentic knowledge of A. was acquired in 
1606, from Torres, a Spanish voyager, who, passing 
through tlie strait that now bears his name, discovered 
the N. part of the continent. The Dutch continued to 
be the chief explorers for the next 40 years, and be¬ 
tween 1642 and 1644, Tasman Completed the discovery 
of a large portion of the A. coast, together with Van 
Dieman's Land, or, as it is now very properly termed, 
Tasmania. The Dutch gave to different sections of their 
newly louud country the names of Carpentaria, De 
Witt’s Laud, Arnhem’s Laud, &c. It was late before 
the English people entered on the path of Australasian 
discovery : but when they did, they followed it with 
Characteristic energy. Dampier, between 1684 and 1690, 
explored and completed a survey of the W. and N.W. 
coasts. Wallis, Carteret, and Cook succeeded to his ex- 
ploratorial career, and the latter, in 1770, traced the 
whole E. coast of the continent. In 1788, the British 
established a colony at Sydney, and also a penal settle¬ 
ment. During successive years, new discoveries in A. 
were made by quite a host of explorers, as Bass, Flin¬ 
ders, Oxley, King, Sturt, Mitchell, Urey, Eyre, Lander, 
Leiohardt, and Hoe. On the 8 th of May, 1851, Har¬ 
greaves discovered the existence of gold in Ophir, near 
Bathurst, in the colony of Victoria. The local govern¬ 
ment claimed the right of search for the precious metal 
on behalf of the crown on the 17th; and, before two 
days had elapsed, the Ophir diggings had a population 
of 600 miners. Dr. Kerr, in one day, July 14th, discov¬ 
ered a cwt. of gold, and at the end of 1857, the total 
value of the article derived from A. had amounted to 
$■‘130,677,420. From 1855 onward A. was further ex¬ 
plored by Gregory, Stuart, Warburton and various 
others, and 'knowledge of it greatly increased. The 
expedition 6 ent to Central Australia in 1895 by W. A. 
Horn made valuable scientific and geographical ob¬ 
servations. It was found that though wide areas were 
desert, yet that a vast tract of country is watered by 
streams which at times of flood overflow' their banks 
and produce a luxuriant growth of vegetation over broad 
regions. This country has been named the Australian 
Steppes. In 1864, the colonists obtained from the Eng¬ 
lish government the abolition of the penal system as re¬ 
garded the transportation of convicts to their country- 
The must important recent event was the formation of 
the federated Commonwealth of Australia, which came 
into existence on the 1st of January, 1900, embracing 
the five colonies of Australia and the island colony ol 
Tasmania. New Zealand declined to join it. The 
country has prospered politically and industrially under 
the new system. See Australia, South, New South 
Wales aud Queensland. 

Ausira lian, a, I’ertaining to Australia. 

— n. A native or denizen of Australia. 

Anis'tralize, v. n. To tend toward the south, as one 
pole of a magnet. 

Austr.i'sia, (the “East Kingdom.”) The name given, 
under the Merovingians, to the eastern possessions of 
the Franks, embracing Lorraine, Belgium, aud the right 
bank ot the Kliine. These districts, thickly inhabited 
by Franks, and forming the connection with the German 
mother-country, were of great importance at the time 
of the rise of tlie F’rankish power. A. was allotted to 
Thierry I. on the death of his father Clovis I., A. D. 511. 
Siegbert I. transferred the capital from Rheitns to Metz, 
in 561. It was united to Neustria by Clotaire II. in 
613, and separated from it by Dagobert I. in 622. Charles 
Martel annexed it to his dominions in 737. Carloman 
received A. on the death of Charles Martel in 741, and 
Charlemagne annexed it to his empire in 772. From 
this time the division of the F’rankish kiugdom into A. 
and Neustria lost its political importance. 

Austria (Archduchy of), or, as it is frequently 
termed, the “ Hereditary States,” forms the two prov¬ 
inces called, respectively, Upper Austria, and Lower 
Austria, belonging to the Austrian empire. It is bound¬ 
ed N. by Bohemia and Moravia; E. by Hungary; S. by 
gtyria and Carinthia; and W. by Bavaria and Salzburg. 
Tlie river Euus divides the two provinces into which A. 
is divided, and which have an area of 11,612 sq. m. A. 
(or Austria Proper) has a fertile soil, and is for the most 
part well cultivated, yielding excellent crops of wheat, 
oats, and barley. It also possesses large forests and 
vineyards,the latterproducingannually about 25,00U,U00 
gallons of wine.— Min. Gold,.silver, lead, copper, iron, 
alum, arsenic, and graphite.— Manf. Woollens, cottons, 
and fabrics of flax.— Chief Towns. Vienna (the capital of 
the empire), Linz, and Wieuer-Neustarlt. Pop. 5,-14■ ,630. 

Austria, or, more correctly, Austria-Hungary, 
an empire in the southern portion of Central Europe, 
lying between 9° and 26° E. Lon., and 42° and 51° N. 
Lat., and thui extending through 17 degrees of Ion. 
aud 9 degrees of lat. With the exception of the isl¬ 
ands in the Adriatic, and the narrow projecting tract 
of Dalmatia, it forms a compact region of country, but 
of an irregularshape. It rankssecond in extent among 
(he countries of Europe, exceeded only by Russia, 


and third in point of population (after Russia and' tlie 
German Empire). This empire—exclusive of the 
Turkish provinces which were annexed in 1878—is 
divided into 19 provinces, whose area and population, 
according to the latest official information, are as 
follows: 


Area in 
Enq.sq.m 

Population 

Capitals . 

7,654 

2,661,799 

Vienna. 

4.631 

785,831 

Linz. 

2,767 

173,510 

Salzburg. 

8,670 

1,282,708 

Gratz. 

4,005 

361,008 

Klagenfurt. 

3,856 

498,958 

Lay bach. 

3,084 

695,384 

Trieste. 

11,324 

928,769 

Innsbruck. 

20.060 

5,843,094 

Prague. 

8,583 

1,987 

2,276,870 

605,649 

| Briinn. 

30,307 

6,607,816 

Lemberg. 

4,035 

646,591 

Czeruowitz. 

4,940 

527,426 

Zara. 

87,043 

12,485,727 

Pe6th 

16,773 

2.200,977 

A gram. 

21,215 

2,746,432 

Klausenburg. 

6 

30,337 

Temesvar. 

240,943 

41,358,886 


16,417 

1,188,517 

Bosna-Serai. 

4,308 

197,574 

Mostar. 

3,572 

175,000 

Novi-Bazar. 

24,247 

1,561,591 



Provinces. 


German Monarchy: 

( CU-leithan countries.) 

Austria (Lower). 

Austria (Upper). 

Salzburg. 

Styria. 

Carinthia. 

Carniola. 

Coastlaud ; (Goj*:z, 
Gradisca, Istria, and 

Trieste). 

Tyrol aud Vorarlberg 

Bohemia. 

Moravia. 

Silesia.. 

Galicia. 

Bukowina. 

Dalmatia. 

Kingdom op Hungary. 

( Trans-leithan countries.) 

Hungary. 

Croatia and Slavonia 

Transylvania. 

Town of F’iume. 

Total. 

Former Turkish 
Prov. 

B. ■(' H. Annexed by 
Austria in 1908. 

Bosnia. 

Herzegovina. 

Novi-Bazar. 

Total. 


General Desc. —The empire of A. exhibits every vari¬ 
ety of surface; and the geographical features aud phys¬ 
ical characteristics of the many countries comprised 
within its limits are so various and individually peculiar, 
that w e shall here but group together the more salient 
features of their natural appearance as a W'hole. By 
referring the reader to the several divisions and states 
as they will appear under their alphabetical heads in 
this work, we shall better present a more intelligi¬ 
ble aud succint account of their special topograph¬ 
ical attributes.— Mountains. The principal mountain 
systems are : 1. The Hercyno-Carpal/ttan chain, which 
divides the regions of the German Ocean aud Baltic Sea 
from those of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Ris¬ 
ing in Switzerland, this range traverses the Vorarlberg 
and Bavaria to (he N.E. frontier of Bohemia, where it 
throws out an offshoot called the Erzgebirge, stretching 
into the latter country, aud into Saxony. Proceeding 
S.W., this chain runs, under the name of the Bohemian 
Forest, nearly to the Danube, where, dividing Moravia 
from Bohemia, it sends out a branch into Silesia, called 
the lliesengebirge. The central Carpathians extend 
through Hungary as far as the sources of the Save and 
Dniester, and their eastern link covers N.E. Hungary, 
the Bukowine, and Transylvania™ 2. The second moun¬ 
tain range, covering a larger tract of country, and pos¬ 
sessing more elevated summits than the Carpathian 
chain, divides the region of the Mediterranean from that 
of the Black Sea; it stretches in three chains from the 
frontiers of Switzerland and Italy, which, through the 
Tyrol, run nearly parallel to each other. Its summits, 
above the line of 8,000 feet, are covered with eternal 
snow. The central chain takes a N.E. direction through 
Styria into Hungary; the northern covers Northern Ty¬ 
rol and the greater portion of Austria Proper; the 
southern strikes out from S. Tyrol into Italy, and pass¬ 
ing through Illyria and Croatia, joins the Balkan in 
Bosnia. Three important branches spring from the lat¬ 
ter chain, one of which, called the Bakoriy Forest, pen¬ 
etrates Hungary; a 2d divides the region of the Drave 
from the valley of the Save; and the 3d, stretching 
along the Adriatic through Dalmatia, forms the range 
called Montenegro, from its black color.— Valleys and 
Plains. The chief valleys are situated in the S. prov¬ 
inces, principally in Tyrol, Salzburg, Styria, and Illyria. 
Large plaius are also found forming the basins ol the 
principal rivers, as those of Vienna, the two great plains 
of Hungary, and the plain of the Vistula in Galicia.— 
Rivers and Lakes. The more noticeable rivers are those 
of the Danube, with its numerous affluents; the Oder, 
Vistula, Dniester, and Adige. The Rhine hounds the 
extreme W. frontier of the empire for a small portion 
of its course. The principal lakes are those of Atter- 
Gmiinden or Traun, Hallstadt, and Augsee, Monelsee, 
and the Neusiedler and Balaton lakes in Upper Hun¬ 
gary.— Clim. Four distinct climates are found within 
the limits of this empire. The air is for the most part 
clear aud salubrious, but the heats of summer and the 
colds of winter are both in extremes. Heavy rains occur 
in Tyrol and Vorarlberg, while, on the other hand, 
Hungary and Dalmatia often suffer from excessive 
drought.— Nat. Prod, and Min. Gold aud silver, iron, 
coal, salt, titan, tellurium, precious stones; about 100 
kinds of marble; quartz, and porcelain clays. A. pos¬ 


sesses many famous mineral springs, as those of Carls¬ 
bad, Toplitz, Marienbad, &c.— Ziiol. All the common do¬ 
mestic animals are indigenous. The brown bear roams 
in the Alps and tlie Carpathians, along with the wolf and 
the lynx. Tlie chamois, red and fallow deer, wild boars, 
and many varieties of feathered game, are objects of 
the chase. Herds of small w ild horses formerly ranged 
in Hungary. The golden eagle inhabits Slavonia, and 
other large species are found in the Rhastian and Noric 
Alps.— Bot. and Veg. Prod. All kinds of Cereal and cul¬ 
tivated grasses, vines, flax, hemp, tobacco, hops, saffron, 
galls, and an immense variety of fruits, &c. The forests 
are of vast extent and great value. Beech, pine, larch, 
alder, and oaks of gigantic size abound.— lnhab. The 
Austrian Empire naturally com prises a greater variety of 
races, religions, and languages than, perhaps, any other 
of the great divisions of Europe. Of the first, we may 
mention Germans, Bohemians, Moravians, Flavacks, 
Magyars, Poles, Russians, Slavonians, Croats, Servians, 
Bulgarians, Italians, inclusive of Latins and Hiauls, 
Eastern-Romans, Jews, aud Gypsies. The state religion 
is the Roman Catholic, but there are, besides, vast num¬ 
bers who profess the doctrines of the Greek and United 
Greek churches, Lutheranism, Calvinism, Unitariauism, 
Judaism, <fcc. The German, Slavonic, and Hungarian 
(or Magyar), are the ruling languages, each with their 
distinct sub-languages or dialects Tlie most advanced 
of tlie populations are those of the German provinces, 
while the Dalmatians stand on the lowest footing of 
civilization in Europe.— Gov. Since the year 1867, the 
Austro-Hungarian monarchy forms a bipartite state, 
consisting of a German, or ‘ Cis-leitban,’ monarchy, and 
a Magyar, or ‘Trans-leithan,’ kingdom, the former 
officially designated as Austria, and the latter as Hun¬ 
gary. Each of the tw'o countries has its own parlia¬ 
ment, ministers, and government, while the connecting 
ties between them consists in the person of the heredit¬ 
ary sovereign, in'a common army, navy, and diplomacy, 
atid in a controlling body known as the Delegations. 
The Delegations form a parliament of 120 members, one- 
half of whom are chosen by and represent the legis¬ 
lature of Austria, and the other half that of Hungary. 
Their jurisdiction is limited to foreign aftais? and war, 
on which they have a decisive vote. Each of these has 
its own executive department, the finances of the two 
being in charge of a third. The constitution of Austria 
was put in force in Dec., 1867. Its main features are a 
double Legislature, consisting, first, of the Provincial 
Diets, representing the various states of the monarchy, 
and secondly, a Central Diet, called the Reichsrath, or 
Council of the Empire. The Provincial Diets are com¬ 
petent to make laws concerning local administration. 
The Reichsrath, or Congress, consists of an Upper and a 
Lower House. The Upper House (Herrenhaus) is 
formed, 1st, of the princes of the Imperial family who 
are of age; 2 d, of a number of nobles possessing large 
landed property, in whose families thedignity is heredi¬ 
tary ; 3d, of the archbishops, ten in number, and 
bishops, seven in number, who are of princely title, 
inherent to their episcopal seat; and 4th, of any other 
life-members nominated by tlie emperor, on account of 
being distinguished in art or science, or who have 
rendered signal services to Church or State. The Lower 
House (Abgeordnetenbaus), consists of about 350 mem¬ 
bers, elected for 6 years by tlie direct vole of all citizens 
possessed of a small property qualification.—The con¬ 
stitution of the eastern part of the Empire, or the 
Kingdom of Hungary, dates from the foundation of 
the kingdom, about 895. There exists no charter, or 
constitutional code, but in place of it are fundamental 
statutes, published at long intervals of time. The 
present sovereign, on the 8 th of June, 1867, swore to 
maintain the Constitution, and was crowned King of 
Hungary. The legislative power rests conjointly in the 
King and the Diet, or Reichstag. The latter consists 
of an Upper and a Lower House, the first known as the 
House of Magnates, and the second as the House of 
Representatives. The House of Magnates was composed 
of about 700 Princes, Archbishops, Bishops, Peers, and 
dignitaries of Hungary. The House of Representatives, 
consisting of about 450 members, of representatives of 
the nation, elected for3 years by the vote of all citizens, 
of full age, who pay direct taxes.— Fin. The revenue 
and expenditure of A. Proper are very intricate, aud 
show generally large deficits. In 1890 the totat amt. 
of the debt of A. —including that of the whole Empire, 
exclusive of the special debt of Hungary—was $2,028,410,- 
703, including a floating debt esti. at $325,000,000. The 
total annual interest was $66,648,000. To this Hungary 
contributed $15,087,635, as per agreement made in May, 
18G8, by the Delegations and the govt, of the A. and H. 
parts of the monarchy, by which H. had to pay 30 per 
cent, towaids tue common debt. From May, 1868, all 
loans were made separately by either A. or II. In 1906, 
the debt was: Austria, $1,092,863,255: Hungary, $818,- 
096,120; total, $1.810,959, *75.—A. and N. Tlie army, 
as actually organized, is- on a peace fooling, In¬ 
fantry, 189,084; Cavalry, 38,640; Artillery and other 
troops, 50,911; total, 279,285. War footing, 1908; 
Officers, 46,554 ; Non-com. officers and men, 2,540,000; 
total war forces, 2 586,0n0. Tlie army is founded on 
the principle of universal military service, embracing 
3 years of active duty aud 7 years in the reserve. The 
military forces of the whole empire are divided into the 
Line, the Landwehr (or militia), and the Landsturm, 
The regiments of the Line are under the control of the 
Minister of War of the empire, and the Landwehr under 
that of the Austrian and Hungarian ministers of war. 
A. has 24 fortresses of the 1st and 2d rank; of which 
Pola, on the Adriatic, is the chief naval fortress and 
arsenal of the empire. The navy consists of 15 armored 










































198 


AUST 


AUTE 


AUTH 


and 14 unarmored vessels, 28 gun boats, 77 torpedd 
boats, with store-, receiving-, and other ships. These 
carry a total of 871 guns, of which 181 are heavy and 
the remainder light guns. This navy is manned by 1,121 
officers and 12,590 men. Com. Nearly two-thirds of 
the commerce of the empire is carried on with Ger¬ 
many; next to which the chief share is absorbed by 
Turkey.— Exports. Grain and flour, hemp, tallow, beads, 
oil, quicksilver, wool, &c. — Imports. The principal are 
cotton, woollen, and other manufactured goods. Value 
of imports, $250,000,000; exports, $300,000,000. The 
chief articles of import are vegetable fibres and 
manufactures; exports, food-stufls, fuel, &c. The 
commercial intercourse of A. with the U. S. is very 
small; and it appears in the official returns even smaller 
than it is in reality, owing to the geographical position 
of the empire, which necessitates the transit of many 
American and Austrian goods through other countries, 
as the imports and exports of which they come to 
figure. The Austrian Lloyds, of Trieste (the principal 
seaport of the empire), absorbs the greatest part of 
the trade of A. with the East. This Go. owns a large 
fleet of steamers. The total length of railroads in the 
Empire, open to traffic and under construction, is 18,064 
m., of which about two-thirds the total are in A. 
proper. There are in Austria and Hungary more than 
40,000 m., of telegraph lines.— Hist. Noricum, border¬ 
ing on Pannouia, and made a Roman prov. b.o. 15, was the 
original seat of the Austrian empire. The two provinces 
of Noricum and Pannonia consisted of the extensive ter¬ 
ritories between the Inn, the Save, and the Danube. 
During the decline of the Roman empire, Noricum was 
overrun by various barbarian tribes, and one of these, the 
Avari, having penetrated into Bavaria, was defeated and 
driven across the Raal by Charlemagne, in 791 and 796. 
A colony was placed in the territory from which they 
had been driven, and it was called the Eastern Mark, or 
Ostreich, whence its present name. On the division of 
the empire, in 843, it was annexed to Bavaria. The 
Hungarians took it in 900, but it was wrested from them 
by Otho I. in 955. Leopold I., grandson of Adalbert of 
Bamberg, was made Margrave of Austria in 984; and 
one of his successors, Leopold III., obtaining Bavaria in 
1139, the two provinces were again united. Frederick I., 
(Barbarossa,)adding to it the province west of the Enns, 
erected it into a separate duchy in 1156, and bestowed it 
upon Henry IX., who had previously resigned his for¬ 
mer duchy of Bavaria. The extinction of the male branch 
of the ducal line in 1246 was the beginning of a long 
anarchy, which ended, on Nov. 25,1276, by the resigna¬ 
tion of Ottocar II., in favor of Rudolph of Hapsburg, from 
whom is derived the power of the great House of Haps¬ 
burg, which has ever since ruled Austria. In 1307, the 
Swiss revolted, and after a lengthened contest achieved 
their independence. The marriage, 18th Aug.. 1477, of 
Maximilian, son of the Emperor B'rederick III., with 
Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, the last 
Duke of Burgundy, brought to the House of Austria all 
the rich inheritance of the latter in the Low Countries, 
Franche Comte, and Artois. Another marriage opened 
to the House of Austria the succession to the Spanish 
monarchy, including its vast possessions in Italy and the 
New World. And Ferdinand I., having married, in 1521, 
Anne, sister of Louis, King of Hungary and Bohemia, 
succeeded, on the death of the latter at the battle of 
Mohacz, in 1526, to these States. Charles V., the most 
powerful monarch of this Imperial House, concluded, in 
1522, a treaty with his brother Ferdinand, by which he 
assigned to him the hereditary possessions of the family 
in Germany. The great power and ambition of the prin¬ 
ces of this race excited a well-founded alarm among the 
other European powers. For a lengthened period the 
whole politics of Europe, its alliances, and its wars, had 
little other object than the humbling of the Austrian 
power. This was the motive of the Thirty Years’ War, 
terminated by the treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, which 
secured the independence of the different States of the 
Germanic empire, and the free exercise of the Protestant 
religion. In 1699, the Turks were finally expelled from 
Hungary; and the genius of Prince Eugene gave the 
Austrians an ascendency over the Ottomans, which they 
have ever since preserved. On the 20th Oct., 1740, the 
male line of the House of Hapsburg terminated by the 
death of the Emperor Charles VI., whose only daughter, 
Maria Theresa (q. v.), gave her hand to Duke Francis I., 
of Tuscany, of the House of Lorraine; who thereby be¬ 
came the founder of the present dynasty of Hapsburg- 
Lorraine. Shortly after the accession of Maria Theresa 
and her consort, Frederick the Great, of Prussia, seized 
upon the greater part of Silesia. The recovery of this 
province was the principal object of A. and her allies in 
the Seven Years’ War. Silesia was, however, finally 
ceded to Prussia, 5th Feb., 1763. Joseph II. afterwards 
acquired Galicia from Poland, and Bukowina from Tur¬ 
key. It would be unnecessary, even if our limits ad¬ 
mitted of it, to detail the fluctuations of the Austrian 
power from the breaking out of the French revolution, 
in 1789, to the downfall of Napoleon I., in 1815. Suffice 
it, tlutf, on the establishment of the Confederation of the 
Rhine, in 1806, Francis I. laid down the dignity of 
German emperor, held by his family for 500 years, and 
assumed the title of “ Kaiser,” or Emperor of Austria. 
At the close of the great European struggle, in 1815, A. 
was left as powerful as ever, the loss of the Low Coun¬ 
tries being fully compensated for by the acquisition of 
the Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venice. In the 
revolutionary period of 1848-9, Hungary, aroused by the 
eloquence and energy of Kossuth, ( Fig. 246,) made a de¬ 
termined but unsuccessful attempt to recover its inde¬ 
pendence. In 1859, a short but sanguinary and decisive 
wsw broke out between A. and France and Italy; the re¬ 



sult of which, after the battle of Solferino, was the ces¬ 
sion by A. of her Lombard provinces to Italy, by the 
treaty of Villafranca, July 11th.—The death of Ferdi¬ 
nand VII., king of Denmark (Nov. 15th, 1863), gave rise 


Fig. 246. — kossuth. 

to a general ferment in Germany on the subject of the 
duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg. Not¬ 
withstanding the treaty of London (1852), which fixed 
the succession to the Danish crown, and was signed by 
Austria and Prussia, they laid claim to the duchies as 
part of Germany, and their troops crossed the Schleswig 
frontier (Feb. 1,1862.) The Danes, after a short but heroic 
stand, were forced to succumb.— Continued in Section II. 
Chronological Table of the Sovereigns of Austria, (House 
of Hapsburg.) 

DUKES OF AUSTRIA. 


1276. Rodolph I. 

1282. Rodolph II., and Al¬ 
bert I. 

1290. Albert I. (alone.) 
1308. Frederick I., and Leo¬ 
pold I. 

1326. Frederick I. (alone.) 
1330. Albert II., and Otto. 
1339. Albert II. (alone.) 
1358. Rodolph II. (IV.) 


1365. Albert III., and Leo¬ 
pold II. 

1386. Albert III. (alone.) 

1395. Albert IV., William I. 
and Leopold III. 

1404. Albert V., emperor of 
Germany in 1438, by the 
title of Albert II. 

1439. Ladislaus Posthumus. 

1458. FrederickllL. Albert 
VI., and Sigismund. 


ARCHDUKES OF AUSTRIA, AND EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 

1493. Maximilian I. 1705. Joseph I. 

1519. Charles I.“ the Fifth.” 1711. Charles II. 

1740. Maria Theresa. 

House of Hapsburg- Lorraine. 

1780. Joseph II. 

1790. Leopold II. 

1792. Francis I. 


EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA. 


1556. Ferdinand I. 
1564. Maximilian II. 
1576. Rodolph II. (V.) 
1611. Matthias. 

1619. Ferdinand IT. 
1637. Ferdinand III. 
1657. Leopold I. 


Moliere avec ses Amis, ou le Souper d Auteuil. — Whil* 
the physician Gendron was in possession of this house, 
he was visited by his friend Voltaire, who wrote the fol¬ 
lowing inscription for it: — Sous le nom de Boileau ces 
lieux virent Horace; Esculape y parait sous celui de Gen¬ 
dron. Madame Helvetius, finally, occupied it. Her even¬ 
ing parties here were celebrated. All who were dis¬ 
tinguished in the walks of literature or jof active life, 
were always welcome, whether French or foreigners. 
All were without restraint. Her society was therefore 
called La Societe libre des fgoisles. In 1798 or 1799, Bona¬ 
parte here became acquainted with several men of 
liberal minds, and often used to walk with the cele¬ 
brated owner in her garden. She soon perceived his 
soaring ambition, and said to him one day with a smile, 
“ Vous ne vous doutez pas combien on peut trouver d* 
bonheur dans trois arpents de terre.” 

Authen tic, Aut lien tical, a. [Fr. authentique, 
from Gr. authentikos, from authent-es, auto-entes, one who 
does anything with his own hand.] Having a genuine 
original or authority; having the author or authority 
clearly ascertained;—applied to things; as, an authentic 
document. 

" She joy'd th* authentick news to hear, 

Of wliat she guess'd before with jealous fear.'’— Cowley* 

—Not-counterfeit: of approved authority; trustworthy; 
genuine; true; warranted; as, an authentic writer. 

"But censure’s to be understood 
The authentick mark of the elect.”— Swift. 

Authentic Act. (Law.) An act which has been exe¬ 
cuted before a notary or other public officer authorized 
to execute such functions, or which is testified to by a 
public seal, or has been rendered public by the authority 
of a competent magistrate, or which is certified as being 
a true copy of a public register. 

Autlieil'tically, adv. In anautlientic manner; hav¬ 
ing the genuine authority. 

Autlien'ticalness, n. Authenticity; the quality of 

being authentic. (R.) 

Autlien'ticate, v. a. To render authentic. 

—To prove authentic: to establish by ascertaining the real 
or original author or authority; as, to authenticate a 
book. 

AnYlientiea'tion, n. Act of authenticating; confir¬ 
mation. 

(Law.) Acts done with a view of causing an instru. 
ment to he known and identified. Under the Constitu¬ 
tion of the U. States, Congress has power to provide a 
method of authenticating copies of the records of a State 
with a view to their production as ewdeuce in other 
States. 

Authenticity, n. [Fr. authenticitf.] Quality or state 
of being authentic, or of resting upon proper authority 

—Genuineness; the quality of being of genuine originality. 

Aiitken'tics, or Authentica, n. (Hist, of Law .) A bar¬ 
barous Latin version of the Novelise of Justiuian; so 
called by early writers on the civil law. from its being a 
literal translation from the original Greek. 

Au'thor, n. [Lat. auctor, from augeo, auctus, to in¬ 
crease; Fr. auteur.] One who increases, promotes, or fur¬ 
thers any tiling: one who produces, creates, or brings 
into being; the first beginner, framer, inventor, or 
mover; the efficient cause of a thing; he to whom any¬ 
thing owes its original. 

“Thus king Latinus, in the third degree, 

Had Saturn author of his family ." — Dryden. 

—The writer or composer of a book or original work, as 
distinguished from a translator or compiler. 


1804. Aug. 11, Francis I. cated the imperial crown 
resigned the title of Em- of Germany, 

peror of Germany, and 1S35. Ferdinand IV. 
assumed that of Emperor 1848. Dec. 2d, Francis Jo- 
of Austria. — Aug. 6th, seph I. 

1806, he formally abdi- 

Aus'tria, (House of.) See Austria. 

A us'tria, (Lower and Upper.) See Austria, 
Archduchy of. 

Aus'trian, a. [Ger. Oesterreich, Eastern kingdom.] Per¬ 
taining to Austria. 

— n. A native, or an inhabitant of Austria. 

Aus'tromaney, n. [Lat. auster , and Gr. manteia, 
prophecy.] Soothsaying, or predicting events from a 
study of the winds. 

An tail our'ry, or Autancuray, a seaport of British 
India, in the presidency of Madras. 11. m. E. of Ramnad. 

Autan'ga, in Alabama, a creek entering Alabama 
river from the N. about 12 m. W. of Montgomery. 

—A co., hounded S. and E. by Alabama and Coosa rivers, 
and also drained by Autauga and Mulberry creeks. Surf. 
generally jiilly; soil, fertile ; cap. Prattville. 

An tan'ca ville, in Alabama, a township of Autauga 
co.;pop. 2,387. 

Auteuil, (b-tweel',) formerly a small town of France, 
at the entrance of the Wood of Boulogne, near Paris, has 
been included, for some years past, in the boundary of 
the French capital. Men of literary reputation have 
often resided there. The country-seat of the poet Boileau 
is still shown, where the beaux esprits of France often ban¬ 
queted. On a certain occasion, heated with wine at a sup¬ 
per, Racine, Moliere, and Boileau complained of the de¬ 
generacy of the age, and lamented their misfortune in 
having been born at such a period. All agreed to plunge 
into the neighboring Seine, and the flower of the French 
writers were already on their way to the river, when the 
thought struck Moliere, that such an act, by such men, 
ought not to be performed in the darkness of night. 
His companions stopped, found he was in the right, and 
agreed to drown themselves at daybreak, after drinking 
the remainder of their wine. The ingenious Andrieux 
brought this anecdote upon the stage in the piece 


“In him an author's luckless lot behold, 

Condemned to make the books he once had sold.**— Byron. 

Au'tlioress, n. A female author. — Indifferently used; 
author being as commonly applied to a female writer, as 
to a male. 

A lit ho'rial, a. Pertaining or belonging to an author. 

(R.) 

Au'tJiorisin, n. Authorship, (r.) 

Authoritative, a. Having due authority; so estab¬ 
lished or expressed as to demand credit or acceptance. 

“ 1 dare not give them the authoritative title of aphorisms." 

Sir Henry Wotion. 

—Positive; peremptory; dictatorial; having an air or show 
of authority. 

“ The mock authoritative manner of the one." — Swift. 

Authoritatively, adv. In an authoritative manner. 

“ Till it be received, and authoritatively engrafted into the law 
of England."— Sir Matthew Hale. 

Autlioritativeiiess, n. The quality of being au¬ 
thoritative : acting by authority. 

Authority, n. [Fr. autorite; Lat. auctoritas, from 
auctor. ] The quality of a person, or tiling, by which he, 
or it, promotes anything; legal power; rule; sway; 
right; as, the authority of a parent over a child. 

“ But man, proud man, 
i>rest in a little brief authority." — Shake. 

—Government; body of men in power; persons in com¬ 
mand ; — chiefly used in the plural; as, the state author¬ 
ities, 

“ I know, my lord, 

If law, authority, and'power deny not, 

It will go hard with poor Antonio." — Shake. 

—Influence of character or office; mental or moral superi¬ 
ority; credit. 

“But authority arising from opinion, Is in those that govern.' 

Sir IT, Temple, 

-Testimony; witness; warrant. 

“ Dost thou expect th’ authority of their voices whose silent will 
condemns them ? " — Ben Jonson. 

—Precedent; official declaration, opinion, or saying worthy 
of being cited as a precedent; also a book containing 
them, or the name of its author. 










Modern Gasoline Limousine. n 

Modern Racing Machine. 


Modern Steam Touring' Car. 



Modern Gasoline Touring' Car. 

MOTOR 


Modern Gasoline Touring' Car. 

VEHICLES'AUTOMOBILES, etc. 












































AUTO 


AiFtliorizable, a. Having warrant; possessing au¬ 
thority. 

Ant lioriza't ion, n. [Fr. autorisation .] Establishment 
by authority; the act of giving legal power or authority. 
Au thorize, e. a. [Fr. autoriser. J To give authority to; 
u> empower; to give a right to act. 

“Deaf to complaints, they wait upon the ill, 

Till some safe crisis authorize their skill."— Dryden. 

—Co make legal; to legalize. 

“ Yourself first made that title which I claim. 

First bid me love, and authoriz'd my flame."— Dryden. 

•—To establish by authority. 

“ Authorized in a nation by custom and use.”— Sir IT. Temple. 
—To accredit; to countenance; to support; as, to author- 

Having authority; supported by 


AUTO 


AUVE 


199 


ize. a report 

Authorized, p. a. 

authority. 

Authorship, n. Quality or state of being an author. 
Auto, is a prefix which enters into the composition of 
many English words derived from the Greek pronoun 
autos, sell; as autocrat, autobiography. In some cases it 
i3 applied to the subject, as autocrat, automaton; in oth¬ 
ers, to the object, as autobiography, autocratic ; and some¬ 
times it denotes a mere reference to the subject, as au¬ 
tochthon. These differences of meaning sometimes lead to 
ambiguity; as in autograph, which means either a ma¬ 
chine that writes of itself, or a writing done by one's 
own hand. 

Autohiogt'rapher, n. One who writes his own life 
or biography. 

Autobiographic. Autobiographical, a. Per¬ 
taining to, or containing autobiography. 

“ Traits of the autobiographic sort.”— Carlyle. 

Autobiographically, adv. In the way or style of 
autobiography._ 

Autobiog raphy, n. [Gr. autos, one’s self, and biog¬ 
raphy, from Gr. bibs, life, and graphu, to write.] Biog¬ 
raphy, or memoirs of one's life, written by one's self. 
Autocar'pous, a. [Gr. autos, and tarpos, fruit.] (Rot.) 
Applied to a fruit not adhering to the calyx; superior.— 
Sidney. 

Autoch thon, n.;pi. Autocu'thones. [Lat. autochthon; 
Gr. autochthon, from the land itself—from autos, self, and 
chthon, gen. chthonbs, earth, land.] One who is supposed 
to spring from the land ho inhabits; an aboriginal; a na¬ 
tive. Several ancient nations assumed this name, to in¬ 
dicate the antiquity of their origin: e.g. the Athenians. 
—That which is derivable from, or original to, a particular 
country. 

Autoc racy, n. [Fr. autocratic; Gr. autos, selt, and 
kratos, power.] A form of government in which the 
sovereign exercises uncontrolled power, uniting in him¬ 
self the legislative and executive powers of the State. 
Russia, and almost all the Eastern states, have this form 
of government. 

(Philos.) A term used by Kant to denote the mastery 
of (he reason over the rebellious propensities. 

( Med.) Independent force; action of the vital principle, 
or of the instinctive powers, towards the preservation of 
the individual. 

Au tocrat, n. [Fr. autocrate\ Gr. autokrates, autokra- 
tor, from autos, self, and kratos, strength; kratiin, to be 
strong, to govern.] A person vested with absolute inde¬ 
pendent power; asovereign who rules despotically. The 
title was first given by the Athenians to a commander- 
in-chief vested with undisputed powers, and not liable, 
like others, to be called to account at the expiration of his 
office. The title was afterwards assumed by the By¬ 
zantine emperors, and at the present time the emperor 
of Russia uses it, as A. of all the Russias. 

—A person invested with unlimited power, which renders 
his actions unaccountable; as, “The autocrat of the 
breakfast-table.”— H"lmes. 

Autocrat ic, Autocratical, a. Pertaining to au¬ 
tocracy ; absolute. 

Au to tia Fe, [Pg..] or Au to <!e F€, [Sp.,] n.; pi. 
Au'TOS da F£. [" Act of Faith,” from Lat. actus, act, and 
/vies, faith.] (Eccl. Hist.) This was, in certain Catholic 
countries, a solemn day formerly held apart by the In- 
quisitiou for the punishment of heretics, and the abso¬ 
lution of accused persons found innocent. Thousands of 
persons perished in this manner in Spain, Portugal, and 
their colonies. It was instituted in Spain in 1556, and 
the first instance occurred in 1560, at Valladolid. An 
A. was held at Lisbon so late as the 20th Sept., 1761, 
when Gabriel Maiagrida, an old man of 70, was burned 
alive for his supposed heretical notions; 54other persons 
also suffered at the same time. A nun was burned at 
Seville, 7th Nov., 1680. —See Inquisition. 

A si tograph, n. [ Fr. autographs; Gr. autos, one’s sell] 
and graph-e, writing.] A person's own handwriting ; an 
original manuscript or signature, as opposed to an apo¬ 
graph or copy.—Autographs, particularly of celebrated 
persons, have in recent times become of eager pursuit, 
and form a distinct branch of literary trade. In general, 
tlie value of an A. depends upon the eminence of the 
individual, the scarcity of specimens of his handwriting, 
and the contents of the writing. An original Bible, in the 
handwriting of Wickliffe, the early Reformer, was sold in 
London, in March 1869, for $5,000. Lithography lias been 
very useful in affording the means of making tac-similes 
of autographs. Among the best works of this class are, 

“ Autographs of Royal, Noble, Learned, and Remarkable 
Personages conspicuous in English History from the Reign 
of Richard II. to that of Charles II.,” by John Gough 
Nichols, folio, 1829; “ Iconographie des Hommes Cilebres,” 

3 vols., Paris, 1828-30, and Supplement, 1839; ” Auto- 
graphen Pracht-Album zur 200-jahngen Geddchtnissfeier 
dies 'GiSijdh'Xlev. Friedensschlusses,” folio, Leipzig, 1848. 


Lava ter believed that the character of an individual was 
shown by his handwriting; and of late years persons 
have professed to be able to determine characters in this 
way. There are, however, generally so many circum¬ 
stances that have an influence in forming one's handwrit¬ 
ing that it is but seldom that it can afford much insight 
into character. 

Autol'ycus, (Myth.) a son of Mercury, by Chione, a 
daughter of Dasdalion, and one of the Argonauts. His 
exploits as a thief have been greatly celebrated. lie 
stole the flocks of his neighbors, and mingled them witli 
his own, after he had changed their marks. He ap¬ 
propriated some of those of Sisyphus son of iEolus; but 
Sisyphus knew his own by a mark which he had made 
under their feet, which piece of cleverness greatly 
pleased Autolycus. 

Automat ic, Automat ical, a. [Fr. automatique] 
Belonging to an automaton; self-acting or moving; as, 
an automatic operation. 

—Not depending on the will; self-regulating or adjusting, 
as certain machines; carried on by such machines. 

Automatic Actions. (Psychol.) A term applied to cer¬ 
tain muscular movements which are influenced simply 
by sensation, and not by the will, as winking. 

Autom'atism, n. The power of self-motion; automatic 
action. 

Autom'aton, n.; pi. Lat. Automata ; pi. Eng. Autom¬ 
atons. [Fr. automate; Gr. automates — autos, self, and 
mud, to move; Lat. automation.] A self-moving machine, 
or one which moves by invisible machinery; a self-regu¬ 
lating machine; ingenious mechanical toys. TheChinese 
long ago contrived to impart motion to puppets by means 
ot quicksilver; and several specimens of A. constructed 
by the Greeks are mentioned by different authors. The 
wooden pigeon made by Archytas of Tarentum, about 
B. c. 400, though it could fly, was not able to resume its| 
flight when it had once settled. In the 13th century | 
Albertus Magnus is said, after 30 years’ labor, to have 
constructed a speaking head, which so frightened Thomas 
Aquinas that he shattered it to pieces. These accounts, 
however, liko that of John Muller’s, or Molitor’s (Regie 
montanus), artificial eagle, which it is alleged flew to 
meet Maximilian on his arrival at Nuremberg. 7th June, 
1470, more than 20 years before he ascended the throne, 
are not supported by satisfactory evidence. Beckmann 
has no doubt that in the 14th and following centuries 
several A. were made. The Emperor Charles V., during 
his cloister life, amused himself with contrivances of this 
kind. Vaucanson exhibited at Paris, iu 1738, a flute- 
player sitting, who performed 12 tunes; another that 
played upon a shepherd's pipe and a drum at the same 
time; and a duck that imitated all the motions of the 
living animal. Du Moulin, iu 1752, produced similar A. 
The "Anthropoglossus,” an automaton speaking and sing¬ 
ing machine, in the shape of a human head, was exhibited 
at St. James Hall, London, during the winter of 1864-65: 


and the Sphynx, at Egyptian Hall, London, 1865-6. 

Auto-mobile, (mb'bil.) [Gr. A ntos, self, and 
mao, to move.] A self-moving vehicle, or one pro¬ 
pelled by other than annual power ; differing 
from the locomotive in the fact that it is de¬ 
signed to tra\el on common roads, not on roads 
with rails, and from both locomotives and traction 
engines in the fact that it carries loads instead of 
drawing them. The earliest .4. of which there is any 
authentic record was made by Ccugnot, a French in¬ 
ventor, in 1770, and it is of interest to know that this, 
a crude, heavy steam carriage, is still iu existence, pre¬ 
served iu Conservatoire dos Arts et Metiers, at Paris. 
Many others, varying in form, motor, and speed, have 
been invented since that date, but it is only of recent 
years that automobiles have become specially popular. 
This is mainly duo to improvement in motors. Those 
now usually employed comprise electric motors, steam 
motors with gasoline fuel, compressed-air motois, and 
explosive-gas motors. In the last named naphtha or 
gasoline is fed iuto the cylinder a drop at a time, here 
it vaporizes, mixes with air, and is fired by an electric 
spark or by yther means; the resulting explosion yield¬ 
ing an expanding gas that moves the piston. In the 
A. driven by steam, often called locomobile, the use of 
gasoline fuel much reduces the weight of tho motor. 
Iu the electric motor vehicles the necessary current is 
supplied by storage batteries. We will take the four- 
wheel electric A. as a typical form. It is guided l y a 
steering-handle, which acts to turn the front wheels, 
the rear wheels being the driving ones. The motor 
rests on the rear axle and acts upon the wheels, being 
connected with these by a balance or compensating 
gear, so that, when turning, one wheel may bo made to 
revolvo more slowly than the other. This prevents 
slipping of the wheels in a quick turn. The power is 
derived from a battery of storage cells, which are so 
coupled that certain portions or the whole of them may 
be brought into play at wilt by a controller under the 
vehicle, which is shifted by a hand-lever and connect¬ 
ing gear. In this way the strength of current may be 
varied as desired, and various speeds obtained. The 
same principle is employed in operating the motor of 
a trolley car. Variations of speed are obtained in the 
other varieties of automobiles by the use of a change 
gear between the motor and the driving wheels, by 
choking the supply of gases to or their exhaust from 
the engine, and by other methods. Brakes of all kinds 
have been employed for quick stopping, these being 
usually worked by a foot lever. They act on revolving 
surfaces of the gears attached to the driving wheels. 
There are also means provided for reversing the motion 
if necessary. The electric vehicles are provided with 
meters for measuring the current, and with electric 
lights and gongs. While there are several points iu 


favor of the electric A., the great weight of the battery 1 
is a serious defect. Edison, however, is said to have 
invented a storage battery of much less weight, in 
which nickel and iron replace the usual lead, and if 
this proves satisfactory in its performance the use of 
the electric motor is likely to be much increased. The 
A. now' in use are of many forms, and differ much in 
size and weight, some being adapted to ordinary family 
use, others to great speed ; w itli the latter speeds of more 
than 60 miles an hour have been attained. Vehicles for 
freight traffic of various forms and sizes are also in use. 
In addition to the ordinary four-wheeled vehicle, men¬ 
tion should be made ot the three-wheeled, or auto¬ 
tricycle, and the two-wheeled, or auto-bicycle. Other 
names employed are Electric A., Compressed-Air A., 
Petroleum A., and Steam A. The recent development 
of the A. largely took place iii'Franco, but it has grown 
to be popular elsewhere, and many improvements have 
been made upon it in the United States. One important 
effect of the elastic rubber tire ordinarily used is a 
greatly' decreased wear upon roadways. 

Autonom'ic, a. Possessing, or pertaining to autonomy, 
or the pow'er of self-government. 

Auton omy, n. [Fr. autonomie; Gr. autnnnmia, from 
autos, self, and nomas, law.] (Politics.) That form of 
government in which the citizens of a State make their 
ow’n laws and manage their own public affairs. The 
term A.is principally used to designate the characteristics 
of the political condition of ancient Greece, where every 
city or town community claimed the right of independent 
sovereign action. 

(Philos.) This term was used by Kant to denote the 
sovereignty of reason over all our actions, as opposed to 
heteronomy, in which our actions are directed by motives 
or desires contrary -o the dictates of reason. 

Au'topsy, n. [Fr. autopsie: Gr. autnpsia, from autos, 
one's self, and opsis, sight.] Personal observation.— Ap¬ 
plied to the knowledge which one acquires by Ocular 
observation, in contradistinction to that which is com¬ 
municated to him by the accounts of others. 

(Med.) Autopsia cadaverica, attentive examination 
after death,—practised for the purpose of investigating 
the causes and seat of an affection of which a person may 
have died, or for medico-legal purposes; called, also, Exp 
a initiation post-mortem. 

Autumn, n. [Fr. aitlomnc; Lat. autumnus, from auc• 
tus, from augeo, to increase.] The name given to the fall 
of the year, or that one of the four seasons in which the 
fruits of the earth are gathered in. Astronomically 
speaking, it is the period during which the sun is passing 
from the autumnal equinox to the winter solstice, (from 
23d Sept, to 21st Dec.) Tho inhabitants of tho southern 
hemisphere have spring, when those of the northern 
have autumn. 

Autum'nal, a. [Fr. aulomnal; Lat. aidumnalis.] Be¬ 
longing, or peculiar to autunm; produced in autumn; 
as, autumnal fruits. 

—In the third stage of life; past the grand climacteric. 

“ No spring or summer’s beauty hath such grace, 

As I have seen iu one autumnal face."—Donne. 

— n. A plant that flowers in autumn. 

Autun, (o-tAjon',) a city of France, dep. Saone-et-Loire, 
on tho Arroux, 43 m. S.W. of Dijon, on the railroad to 
Nevers. It is picturesquely situated, but the city has 
generally a mean appearance. The church of St Martin, 
built by Queen Brunehaut, and containing her tomb, 
furnishes a variety of architectural styles. A. has manf. 
of cotton-velvet, hosiery, and coarse stufls. A. is one of 
the ljiost ancient French cities, and was made a Roman 
colony by Augustus, from whom it derived its old name 
of Augustodunum. Pop. 13,593. 

Auvergne, (o-taira',) an ancient and central province 
of France, now divided into the dep. ot Puy-de-DOme, and 
Cautal. — Between the Allier and the upper course of 
the Dordogne and the Lot, A. rises into a highland re¬ 
gion, having Bourbonnais, Limousin, aud Rouergue, as 
terraces of descent into the western plains, while on the 
east it joins the Cevennes and the southern highlands. 
Not only do the cone and dome-like shapes of the sum¬ 
mits betray a volcanic formation, but also the great 
masses of basalt and trachyte that break through the 
crust of granite and gneiss, render it probable that this 
was a chief focus of plutouic action. A. tails naturally 
into two divisions— Upper A., to the south, and Lower 
A., to the north; in w hich last the valley of Limagne, 
on the left hank of the Allier, is distinguished for extraor¬ 
dinary fertility. The lava-colored plateaux are desert; 
hut the pulverized volcanic earths that cover the slopes 
and valleys form a rich and fruitful soil, as is show’ll by 
the crops of grain, garden produce, fine fruits, wine, 
abundance of chestnuts in tho south, aud of walnuts iu 
the north, as well as by extensive thriving forests, along 
with flax and hemp fields, arid meadow lands, iu the 
poorer districts. Agriculture is in a rather neglected 
condition; but the breeding of cattle, especially of mules, 
is well managed. A. produces iron, lead, copper, anti¬ 
mony, and coal, and is rich in mineral springs. — The 
country derived its name from the Averni, who long de¬ 
fended their fastnesses against Caesar, as later against 
tlie Goths, Burgundians, and Franks, with whom they at 
last coalesced. — The Auvergnese are a highland people, 
rude in their manners, poor, ignorant, but at the same 
time honest and kind. They live by cattle-keeping and 
agriculture, and by going to Paris as laborers. Domestic 
manufactures, therefore, remain confined to weaving, 
tanning, and paper-making. A. has, however, produced 
distinguished men. It was the native place of statesmen, 
and w'arriors of the 15tli and 16th centuries; and also of 
the Arnauld family, so distinguished in the history of 
Port-Royal and of Jansenism. In more recent time^ 



















200 


AYA 


AVAR 


AYEL 


Lafayette and Polignac may be named. Chief towns, 
Clermont and Auvillac. 

Auvergne, Counts and Dauphins of. This title was, 
about the middle of the 8 tli century, conferred on Blau- 
din, who served the Duke Waifre in his opposition to 
Pepin le Bref, founder of the Carlovingian dynasty.— 
The name figures through a great part of early French 
history. 

Auvergne, Latour d’. See Latour D’Auvergne. 

Anx-Cayes, a seaport of the W. Indies, in the island 
of Hayti, on its S. coast, 92 m.W.S.W. of Port-au-Prince, 
or as it is now called, Port Republican. It is one of the 
most flourishing towns in the Haylien republic, is a 
bishop’s see and the seat of various provincial, civil and 
criminal courts. 

Atixerre, (o-eair',) the anc. Antissiodurum, a town 
of France, cap. of dep. of the Yonne, on the Yonne river, 
93 m. S.E. of Paris. It is pleasantly seated on a hill, but 
is generally a gloomy and ill-built place. The cathedral 
is one of the finest Gothic edifices in France. — Manuf. 
Calicoes, woollens, hosiery, earthenware, &c.; and it has 
a considerable trade in wines, of which good descriptions 
are produced in its vicinity. Pip. 16,154. 

Auxet'ic, a. [Gr. auxetikos .] Increasing; amplifying; 
enlarging. 

Ail xil'iar, Auxiliary,a. [Ft. auxiliaire; Lat. aux¬ 
iliaries, from auxilium, from augeo, to increase, to 
strengthen.] Augmenting: strengthening; helping; aid¬ 
ing ; subsidiary; as, an auxiliary force. 

“ And from his brother of the seas he craves, 

To help him with auxiliary waves." — Vryden. 

Attxil'iarly, adv. By way of help or auxiliary. 

Auxiliary, n. ; pi. Auxiliaries. A helper; an assist¬ 
ant; a confederate in an enterprise; used in the plural 
generally to denote foreign troops in the service of a 
nation engaged in war. 

“ There are, indeed, a sort of underling auxiliaries to the diffi¬ 
culty of a work, called commentators and criticks." — Pope. 

(Gran.) Auxiliary verbs are distinguished from other 
verbs in the following way: Verbs express the notions 
of action; auxiliary verbs, though they originally ex¬ 
pressed notions-of action, only express relations of action, 
when considered as auxiliary verbs, and are accordingly 
employed, in connection with other verbs, to give to them 
certain relations called by grammarians tense, mood, and 
voice. The modern languages, and our own more partic¬ 
ularly, abound in such forms, as, have, be, can, do, must, 
shall, will; in French, avoir and etre; in Italian, avere 
aud essere; in Spanish, haber and estur. 

(Math.) Auxiliary quantity is a quantity introduced 
for the purpose of simplifying some mathematical opera¬ 
tion. The practice of employing A. quantities in solving 
groups of operations, is often of great utility. 

(Anat.) Auxiliary muscles are those which concur is the 
same movement. Some anatomists have applied the term 
to several ligaments, as well as to the fleshy fibres, 
which hang from the sacrospinalis muscle. 

Aux'is, n, (Zoiil.) A fish belonging to the Scamberidce 
or Mackerel family, found in the Mediterranean. 

Auxoiine', a fortified town of France, dep. Cote d’Or, 
on the Saone, 18 m. E. S. E. of Dijon.— Manuf. Cloth, 
serges, and muslins. Pop. 7,597. 

Anzo'nia, in Louisiana, a hamlet of Claiborne par. 

Auxout, (n-zoo',) Adrian, a French mathematician; in¬ 
ventor of the micrometer, which is still in use among 
astronomers to measure the apparent diameter of celes¬ 
tial bodies. lie was the first who thought of applying 
the telescope to the astronomical quadrant. D. 1691. 

A'va, a fortified city of Burmah, in Farther India, and 
formerly the capital of the Burmese empire. It is seated 
on the Irrawaddy, 350 m. N. of Rangoon, in Lat. 21° 51' 
N.; Lon. 95° 58' 10" E. A. consists of an outer and an 
inner city, each surrounded by walls. The inner is al¬ 
most entirely occupied by the royal palace and its gar¬ 
dens. The houses are generally mere huts, thatched 
with grass. The markets are supplied with British and 
Chinese manufactures, but there is comparatively only a 
meagre trade carried on. In 1839, A. was almost entirely 
destroyed by an earthquake, since which event the seat 
of government has been transferred to Mandalay. Pop. 
about 30,000. 

A'va, in Illinois, a post-village of Jackson co., on M. & 0. 
R.R., 75 m. S.E. of St. Louis, Mo. Pop. (1898) 1,U0U. 

A'va, in New York, a post-village and township of Oneida 
co., 50 m. N.E. of Syracuse. 

A'va, in Ohio, a post-office of Noble co. 

A'va, Ar'va, or Ca'va, an intoxicating liquor used by the 
South-Sea Islanders. In Tahiti, the use of it is said to 
have swept away many of the inhabitants. In the Ton¬ 
ga Islands it is prepared and drunk on every festival; 
and in the Feejee Islands the preparation of the king’s 
morning drink of A. is one of the most solemn and im¬ 
portant duties of the courtiers. The use of A. was for¬ 
bidden in the Sandwich Islands some years ago. The 
liquor is prepared by a very disgusting process from the 
root of the intoxicating long-popper shrub, the Macro- 
piper methysticum. The root, either fresh or dried, hav¬ 
ing been scraped clean and cut into small pieces, is 
handed to the A.-makers, who at once commence to chew 
it with great formality. The pulp obtained by the 
chewers, who are required to have good teeth and clean 
mouths, is thrown into a bowl and mixed with cold 
water. After this mess has stood for a little while, the 
liquor is strained from the chewed fibre through cocoa- 
nut husks, and is then ready for use. Professor John¬ 
ston, in describing the preparation of A., suggests that 
the saliva may produce a chemical change in the ingre¬ 
dients of the root, and that the intoxicating properties 
of the liquor may depend, in some measure, on such 
change. — See Macropiper. 


Avail', v. a. [Fr. valoir, from Lat. valeo, to be strong.] 
To be strong for: to be serviceable or efficacious to; to 
be profitable or beneficial to: to profit;—used reflexive]y 
with of before the thing used; as, let me avail myself 
of his chance. 

•• Then shall they seek t’ avail themselves o/ names, places, 
aud titles."— Milton. 

—To assist, promote, or aid; to benefit. 

“ Of Jove on high Dodone’s holy hill, 

What means might best his safe return avail "— Pape. 

— v. i. To have power or efficacy; to be of use or advan¬ 
tage ; to answer the purpose; as, this method will not 
avail. 

‘‘ Nor cau my strength avail, unless, by thee 
Endu'd with force, I gain the victory."— Vryden. 

Avail', n. Profit; advantage; use; benefit; service. 

" For all that else did come were sure to fail; 

Yet would he further none but for avail." — Spenser. 

— pi. Proceeds; profits; as, the avails of their own indus¬ 
try. 

Availabil'ity, n. Quality or state of being available; 
state of suitability to a certain purpose. 

Avail'able, a. [0. Fr. available.] That one may avail 
one’s self of; profitable; advantageous. 

—Having efficacy ; able or sufficient to effect the object; 
valid. 

‘‘Drake put one of his men to death, having no authority nor 
commission available." — Sir IF. Raleigh. 

Av ail'ableness, n. State or quality of being available. 

—Competent power; legal force; validity. 

Availably, adv. In an available manner; validly; 
profitably. 

Aval', n. [Fr.] (Law.) In French, and in Canadian law, 
an aval is an act of suretyship, or guarantee on a prom¬ 
issory note. 

A'va I Island. See Bahrein. 

Avalancbe, ( dv-a-ldnsh ',) n. [Fr., from O. Fr. avaler, 
to descend; but. vallen ; A.S. feallen, afeallan, to fall.] 
A large body of snow or ice descending from the precip¬ 
itous slopes of a high mountain into the valley below. 
Avalanches generally result from the partial melting of 
the snow in spring. The earth, warmed by the sun’s 
rays, melts the under layer, and thus destroys the adhe¬ 
sion of the mass to its surface. The least agitation of 
the air will sometimes cause the fall of an A.; and for 
this reason, experienced Alpine travellers generally pre¬ 
serve strict silence when in the neighborhood of danger¬ 
ous masses of snow. In Switzerland, avalanches are 
common, and sometimes destroy entire villages. Four 
kinds of avalanches are distinguished.—A drift A. con¬ 
sists of loose and powdery snow, set in motion by a 
strong wind; a rolling A. is that produced by a detached 
mass of snow rolling down the steep, and licking up the 
snow over which it passes; a sliding A. consists of an 
immense mass which lias lost its adhesion to the surface 
through partial melting; lastly, a glacial A. is that 
made up of masses of frozen snow, and ice, from the 
higher regions of the mountain. 

Av'alanche, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Vernon co. 

Av'alon. (Lit.) In mediaeval romances, A. is the name 
of an island in the ocean, possessing a castle of load¬ 
stone. It is most fully described in the old French ro¬ 
mance of Ogier le Danois. — A., as the abode of King 
Arthur, the old British hero, is generally identified with 
what is called the “Isle of Glastonbury,” in Somerset¬ 
shire, England. 

Av alon, or Av'allon, ( av'a-long,) (anc. Aballa.) A 
handsome, and ancient town of France, dep. Yonne, cap. 
of an arrond. on the Cousin, 25 in. S.S.E. of Auxerre. 

A v'alon. in New Jersey * a seaside resort of Cape May co. 

Av'alon, a large peninsula of Newfoundland, in its S.E. 
part, between Trinity Bay on the N., and Placentia Bay 
on the S. 

Av'alon, in Maryland, a village of Baltimore co., on the 
Patapsco river, about 10 m. W.S.W. of Baltimore. 

Av'alos, a noble Neapolitan family of Spanish origin, 
of whom we mention: — A., Ferdinand n’, Marquis de 
Pescara ; B. at Naples in 1490. lie served with distinc¬ 
tion in the army of Charles V., and was taken prisoner by 
the French at the battle of Ravenna, in 1512. lie be¬ 
guiled the hours of captivity by writing a Dialogue on 
Lave, which he dedicated to bis wife, the beautiful and 
accomplished Vittoria Colonial. He soon recovered his 
liberty, and subsequently displayed extraordinary ability 
in the wars of Charles V. The honor of the battles of 
Biocca and Pavia was due to A. alone; lie was severely 
wounded in the latter engagement, and died in conse¬ 
quence, 1525. 

Avant, (ii-vdng ',) a French preposition answering to our 
before. It is found in many French compound words; 
as, avant-gnut, fore-taste, pregustation; avant-propos, 
preliminary matter, preface. 

Avant-courier, (U-vong'-kot/reer,) n. [Fr. avant-cou- 
reur.] A messenger sent in advance of a person, or com¬ 
pany of persons, to announce his, or their approach. 

A van t'-yuard, n. [Fr. avant-garde.] (Mil.) The van, 
or advanced body of an army.—See Vanguard. 

A van 4 turine, n. (Min.) See Aventurine. 

Avar'es, or Avar'i. (Hist.) The name of a Mon¬ 
golian race that, about 100 years after the Bulgarians, 
made their appearance in Europe, in the countries about 
the Don and Volga. They have been surmised to be the 
Aorsi, or Adorsi, of Strabo. A portion of them re¬ 
mained at the Caucasus, while another portion of them, 
about the middle of the 6 th century, passed on to the Dan¬ 
ube, and settled in Dacia. Here they served in Justini¬ 
an’s army, assisted the Lombards to destroy the kingdom 
of the Gepidte, and gradually conquered, toward the end 
of the 6 th century, under the powerful Khan Bajan, the 
region of Pannonia. Afterwards they conquered Dal¬ 
matia; devastated Germany as far as Thuringia; made 


incursions into Italy, where they combated the Franks 
and Lombards; and extended, finally, their dominion 
over the Sclavonians dwelling on the Danube and north¬ 
ward, as well as over the Bulgarians on the Black Sea. 
At length, these various tuitions confederated against 
the A., aud, in 640, drove them out of Dalmatia. Con- 
fiued to Pannonia, they were subjugated by Charlemagne 
in 796, and were afterwards nearly extirpated by the 
Moravians and Petsclieneges. After 827 they disappear 
from history. 

Avar'es, Awares, or Oar, a town, and political division 
of the prov. of Leghistan, in the Caucasus, under nomi¬ 
nal subjection to Russia. Area, 2,287 sq. in. Its surface 
is wild and mountainous, aud its inhabitants are all 
nomad and predatory tribes, who live by plunder and the 
chase. Pop. of the prov. about 25,000. 

Av'arice, n. [Fr. avarice; Lat. avaritia, from avarus, 
aveo, to strive after, to covet; from Gr. ad, aud, to blow, 
to breathe.] An eager pan ting after; covetousness; greedi¬ 
ness ; c upidity; inordinate desire for procuring and board¬ 
ing up wealth. 

“ So for a good, old, gentlemanly vice, 

I think I must put up with avarice." — Byron. 

Avari'eious, a. [Fr. avaricieux.] Covetous: greedy of 
gain; niggardly ; sordid; insatiably desirous ol wealth. 

“ Luxurious, avaricious, false, deceitful."— Shake. 

Avari'ciously, adv. In an avaricious manner; cov¬ 
etously. 

Avari'ciousness, n. Quality of being avaricious; 
avarice ; an immoderate lust for gain. 

Avarie', n. (French Mar. Law.) The loss and damage 
suffered in the course of navigation; — the same as the 
Eng. Average, q. v. 

Ava'si, Avad si, in Japan. See Awadsi. 

Avast', n. [A.S.] (Mar.) An order to stop or pause in any 
exercise or operation; thus seamen use the phrase 
“ avast heaving," to desist from drawing in the cable 
or hawser by means of the capstan. • 

Ava'^av, n. [Skr. avatdra, a descent, or the act of de¬ 
scending.] (Hindoo Myth.) A term applied to tlie incar¬ 
nations of the Hindoo deities, or their appearance, in 
some manifest shape, upon earth. It appears that the 
doctrine of the Avatars belongs to a comparatively 
recent period. Those portions of the Vedas or sacred 
writings of the Hindoos, to which, from the style and 
structure of their language, the highest antiquity may 
witli safety be attributed, inculcate the worship of 
elements and deified natural powers, but do not allude 
to those apparently more spiritualized deities that re¬ 
quire to be invested with a bodily frame to operate in the 
material world. The number of the Avatars mentioned 
in the Purauas, or legendary poems of the Hindoos, is 



Fig. 247. —trimOrti, (the. Trinity of the Vedas.) 

(From Moore's “ Hindoo Pantheon.") 

very great. Those of Yishnu alone, who is distinguished 
by the character of Preserver in the TrimUrti, or triad of 
the principal Hindoo deities, are stated to be endless. 
The principal are Matsya, Rama, Krishna, and Buddha, 
q. v. See also Manu, TrimOrti, Vishnu, &c. 

Avat'clia, or A v atch'ka, (a-vat’cha,) a spacious bay of 
Asiatic Russia, in Kamtschatka, on its E. coast, into which 
the rivers Avatcha and Paratonuka empty. Lat. 53° 15' 
N.; Lon. 158° o ' E. There is also a volcanic mountain 
of the same name here, which burst into eruption in 
1827; its height is 9,000 ft.—Here, also, stands a town 
formerly called A., and now Petropaulovski. 

Avaunt', interj. [Fr. avant, before, from avancer, to 
advance; from Lat. ah, from, and ante, before.] Go for¬ 
ward 1 depart! begone! — used in a sense of contempt 
or abhorrence. 

•‘ Conscience avaunt I Richard ‘a himself again."— Shahs. 

Ave'bury, or Abury, a village of England, in Wiltshire, 
29 tn. from Salisbury. In the vicinity are found some 
of the largest Druidical temples, cromlechs, and barrow# 
in Europe. 

Aveiro, (a-vai-e'rn.) a seaport of Portugal, prov. of 
Beira, 34 m. N.N.W. of Coimbra. Lat. 40° 38' 24" N.; 
Lon. 8° 37' 54" W. The harbor is full of shifting sands. 
Pop. 5.340. 

A vei'ro, a town of Brazil, prov. of Para, on the Tapajos, 
70 m. S.E. of Santarem. Lat. 3° 28' S.; Lon. 55° 25' N. 

A'velglieni, a town of Belgium, prov. W. Flanders, on 
the Scheldt, 9 m. E.S.E. of Courtrai; pop. 4,981. 

Avella, (a-rej'a.) (anc. Abella,) a town of S. Italy, prov. 
Avellino, 5 m. N.E. of Nola, in a charming situation, 
commanding a view of Naples. 

Av'ellane, n. [Fr. aveline; Lat. aveUana, a filbert-nut.] 
(Her.) The name given to a peculiar form of cross, com¬ 
posed of 4 hazel-nuts or filberts enclosed in their peri- 
spermium or shell. 













AVEN 


AYER 


AYER 


201 




i 




: 



Avelliuo, (a-vel-e'no,) a town of S. Italy, prov. Prin- 
cipato Ultra, 28 m. E. ot Naples. Mawuf. Paper, woollens, 
&c. A. suffered severely from earthquakes in 1694 and 
1731. Near this place is the Veil di Gazzano, where the 
Samnites gained a victory over the Romans, 321 b c 
Fop. about 16,500. 

A've Mari a, n. [Lat. Ilail, Mary!] (Ecd. Hist.) A 
prayer of the Roman Catholic Church to the Virgin 
Mary, so called from the words with which it commences. 
It is also called Angelica Salutatio , or the Angelic Salu¬ 
tation; these words being the beginning of the salutation 
which tt>e angel addressed to Mary, when he announced 
to her that she was to be the mother of the Saviour. The 
invocation was first used by the priests during mass on 
the 4th Sunday after Advent, by an ordinance of Gregory 
I. With the extended worship of the Virgin since the 
11 th century, the A. has come to be a lay prayer nearly 
equal in use with the Pater-Noster, and was sanctioned 
as such at the end of the 12th century. In the first half 
of the 16th century, the prayer came generally to receive, 
as a conclusion to the earlier formula, the words, “ Holy 
Mary, mother of God , pray for us sinners now and at the 
hour of our death. Amen.” —John XXII., in 1326, or¬ 
dained that every Catholic should, at the ringing of the 
bells, morning, noon, and night, repeat 3 Aves, which 
prayer is called Angelus. The Aves are reckoned by the 
small beads of the rosary, which are hence called Ave 
Marias, while the large beads are used in the Hater Hos¬ 
iers. —As in Italy, according to the division of time pecu¬ 
liar to the country, the close of the 24th hour coincides 
always with sundown, — when the bells call pious per¬ 
sons to prayer,—it was usual, and it is even now very eom- 
Bion to say, at Ave Maria, instead of at 24 o’clock. To 
this custom Byron alludes in these fine lines: 

“ Ave Maria l blessed be the hour ! 

The time, the clime, the spot where I so oft 
Have felt that moment in its fullest power 
Sink o'er the earth so beautiful and soft, 

While swung the deep bell in the distant tower. 

Or the faint dying day-hymn stole aloft. 

And not a breath crept through the rosy air, 

And yet the forest-leaves seem'd stirr’d with pray'r." 

Don Juan, Canto III. 

A'ven, (Loch,) in Scotland, a lake in the county of Banff, 
surrounded by the great mountains of Cairngorm, and 
Ben-Macdhui. 

A'ven, or A'von, a name common to some English 
and Scottish rivers. — -See Avon. 

Ave'na, n. ( Bot .) The Oats, a genus of plants, order 
Graminacese, including the genus Arrhenatherum of 
Palis.— Char. Spikelets 2-5-flowered; glumes 2, loose 
and membranaceous, sub-equal, longer than the flow¬ 
ers ; pale® 2, mostly hairy at base, the lower one 
bifid, with a twisted or bent arm at the back. The 
common oat, A. sativa, is that which is most gener¬ 
ally cultivated for the use of man; like most other ce- 
roal plants, its na¬ 
tive country is un¬ 
known. It is said to 
have been first dis¬ 
covered in the is¬ 
land of Juan Fernan¬ 
dez. — Tlie Tartar¬ 
ian oat, A. nricnla- 
lis, is considered a 
distinct species, on 
account of its more 
compact and one¬ 
sided panicle, and of 
both its florets hav¬ 
ing a beard; it is, 
however, doubtful if 
it can be regarded as 
anything more than 
a variety of A. sati¬ 
va. —The naked oat, 

A. nuda, so called 
because its grain is 
loose in the husk, is 
found wild in many 
parts of Europe, and 
by some is thought 
to be a mere degen¬ 
eration of the com¬ 
mon oat. Its grain 
is small and not 
much esteemed.—■ 

The Chinese oat. A. 

Chinensis, is another 
species, the grain of 
which is loose in the 
husk; it is said to 
have been procured 
by the Russians, 
from the north of 
China, along with 
their tea. This spe¬ 
cies is the most pro¬ 
ductive of all the 
known kinds, every 
flower producing Fig. 248. — a vena orientalts. 
from three to five (0?.t of Tartary.) 

grains, which are 

large and of excellent quality. It is. however, said to 
be difficult to harvest, on account of the grains not ad¬ 
hering to the husks, but being very easily shaken out. 
It is known in England under the name of Avenacea fa¬ 
rina. Besides the species cultivated for the grain which 
they yield, there is another that deserves to be noticed, 
on account of its remarkable hygrometrical action. 
This plant, the animated oat of gardeners, A. sterilis, is 
tomewhat like the common oat when young; but when 


ripe, its grains are enclosed in hard, hairy, brown husks, I 
from the back of which rises a stout bent and twisted 
awn; usually two such husks grow together, and sepa¬ 
rate from the stalk by a deep oblique scar. Taking the 
scar for the head of an insect, the husks, with their long 
stiff brown hairs, resemble its body, and the two bent 
awns represent its legs. In this state, fishermen use a 
smaller but nearly allied species, called havers (A. fa- 
tua), instead of artificial flies, for catching trout. When 
the animal oat is ripe, it falls out of its glumes, and in 
warm dry weather may be seen rolling and turning 
about on its long ungainly legs, as they twist up in con¬ 
sequence of their hygromelrical quality. It necessarily 
advances as it turns over, because the long stiff hairs 
upon its body catch against every little projecting point 
on the surface of the soil and prevent its retreat. No¬ 
thing can be more curious than to see the path of a garden- 
walk covered with these things tumbling and sprawling 
about in different directions, until their awns are so 
twisted that they can twist no further. They then re¬ 
main quiet till the dews fall, or they are moistened by a 
shower, when they rapidly untwist and run about with 
renewed activity, as if they were anxious to get out of 
the way of the wet. The animated oat is a native of 
Barbary, and is only cultivated as a curiosity. 

Avena'ceous, a. Belonging to, or resembling, oats. 

Avenelies, (a-vanzh',) (anc. Aventicum,) a town of 
Switzerland, canton of Valid, 18 m. of Berne. A. was for¬ 
merly the capital of the Helvetii, and afterwards a flour¬ 
ishing Roman colony, destroyed by the Huns in 447. 
Pop. about 1,500. 

A'vemlale, in Scotland. See Avondale. 

Ave neie, n. pi. (Bot.) A tribe of plants, order Grami- 
nacece. — Chau. Inflorescence paniculate. Spikelets soli¬ 
tary, few-flowered. Glumes and pale® of similar texture. 
Upper flowers generally pedicellate, witli awn-like pro¬ 
cesses or abortive rudiments between the upper and the 
lower ones. Upper palea with two keels. Arena is the 
principal genus of this tribe. 

Avenge', v. a. [Fr. venger; Lat. vindicare, from rin- 
dica, to assert authority or power.] To take or inflict 
vengeance on; to take satisfaction for an injury by pun¬ 
ishing the offender; to vindicate; to defend; to punish; 
as, to avenge a wrong. 

“ Till Jove, no longer patient, took his time 
T' avenge with thunder your audacious crime.” — Dryden. 

Avenge'inent, n. Punishment on a wrong-doer; sat¬ 
isfaction for injury, (r,.) 

“ That he might work th’ avengement for his shame.” — Spenser. 

Aven'ger, n. One who avenges or vindicates; a vindi¬ 
cator. 

“ Time, the avenger, unto thee I lift 
My hands, and eyes, and heart, and crave of thee a gift."— Byron. 

Avenger of Blood. See Blood, (Avenger of.) 

Aven'ine, n. ( Chem .) The casein of the oat-seed (Are¬ 
na sativa). 

Av 'enor, or Avener, n. [O. Fr. avennier, from avene, 
from Lat. arena, outs.] Au officer belonging to the royal 
stables, whose duty it was to provide oats lor the horses. 

Av'ens, n. (Bot.) See Geum. 

Av'entaile, Av'entaille, n. [O. Fr. aventail; N. 
Fr. ventail, from Lat. ventus, wind.] The movable part 
of a helmet in front; the ventail. 

Av'eiitine, a. Pertaining to Mans Aventinus, one of the 
7 hills of ancient Rome.— See Rome. 

Aven'ture, «. [Fr. aventure.) (0. Law.) A mischance 
whereby a man’s death is occasioned without felony; as 
when he is drowned or burnt, or has fallen from the roof 
of a building. 

Aven'turine, n. [Fr.] (Min.) A variety of quartz, of a 
brownish-red color, due to spangles of mica. A success¬ 
ful imitation of this mineral was accidentally discovered 
at Venice during the Middle Ages, by a workman who 
let some copper filings fall into colored glass in a state 
of fusion. This process, improved by Fremy and Cle- 
mandot, was superseded in 1865 by Pelouze,who obtained 
beautiful specimens of A. by fusing sand, carbonate of 
soda, carbonate of lime, and bichromate of potash. 

Av enue, 71. [B’r., from d, to, and venir, to come; Lat. 
ad, and venin. to come.] An opening, entrance, or pas¬ 
sage, by which anything may be introduced. The term 
is also used in landscape-gardening,'in order to distin¬ 
guish the path leading from some other road, and form¬ 
ing the direct approach to a house. Any broad walk or 
road, bordered on either side by trees, is also called an 
A. In the latter case, the trees may be either in rows or 
on the sides, or in clumps at some distance from one an¬ 
other. The trees mostly used in England for avenues 
are the English elm, the lime, the horse-chestnut, the 
common chestnut, and the beech. — A broad, straight 
street is also called an A. in most of the principal cities 
of the U. States; as Fifth Avenue in New York. 

Aven'zoar, or, to give his complete name, Abu-Merwan- 
Mohammed-ben-Abdalmalec-ben-Zohar. An Arabian 
physician of the 12th century, born at Seville, In Spain, 
where his father practised medicine. He became emi¬ 
nent in his profession, travelled much, and passed 
through many adventures, among which was a long im¬ 
prisonment at Seville. He had the care of an hospital, 
and composed a work entitled At Theiser, containing a 
compendium of medical practice, and including many 
facts and observations not found in preceding writers, 
which were probably the result of his own experience. 
He died at Morocco, in 1169. The report of his having 
lived to the age of 135 is probably an error arising from 
his having been confounded with his son, of the same 
name and profession, who lived at Morocco, and was the 
author of a treatise on the regimen of health. 

Aver', v. a. [Fr. avSrer, from Lat. verus, true.] To declare 
to be true; to affirm confidently; to declare positively; 
to assert. 


“ The reason of the thing is clear; 

Would Jove the naked truth aver.”—Prior. 

(Law.) To avouch; to verify; to offer to verify.— 
See Averment. 

Av'erage, n. [0. Fr. average; Fr. moyenne; L. Lat. 
averagium, the service which a vassal or tenant was 
bound to render to his lord with his uveria, or horses, 
oxen, carriages. Averia signifies generally goods, pos¬ 
sessions, money, from Fr. avoir, from Lat. habere, to 
have.] A mean proportion, medial sum or quantity, 
made out of unequal turns or proportions: as. A pays 
25 dollars, B 50, and C 75, forming a total sum of 150, 
of which the average is 50. 

—Any general estimate or medial statement, formed from 
a comparison of diverse specific cases. 

(Mar. Law.) [Fr. avarie.\ Damage sustained-by goods in 
transportation; money contributed by those concerned, 
in proportion to their respective interests, to make 
good a specific loss. General A., is the quota or propor¬ 
tion which each proprietor in the ship or cargo is ad¬ 
judged, upon an approximate estimate, to contribute 
in order to make good any damage, loss, or extraneous 
expense (arising from sea-risk) which has been incurred 
by any one for the general good. Particular A., is 
the specific amount of loss or damage arising to any 
individual interest or interests, and indemnifiable by 
the underwriters on such particular risk or risks 
only. 

Av'erage, a. Medial; containing a mean proportion; 
as, an average harvest. 

(Com.) According to the laws and customs of average; 
as, the loss must be made good by average contribution. 

Av'erage, v.a. To find the mean of unequal sums or 
quantities; to reduce to a medium. 

— v. i. To form a mean or medial sum or quantity; as, 
these spars average ten feet in length. 

Av'erage Adjuster or Stater, n. (Mar. Law.) A 
person employed to adjust all claims for loss or damage 
arising from marine insurance risks, and whose duty it 
is to prepare a judicial statement of the same, as an im¬ 
partial decision on the conflicting interests at stake. 

Av'erage Bond, n. (Com.) A deed or instrument 
drawn up by a public notary, and subscribed to by the 
persons concerned in a case of general average, whereby 
they agree to refer it for adjustment to an average stater 
or adjuster. The latter will decide what proportion of 
tlie general loss shall attach to the pro raid value of 
each individual intei'est involved. 

A'verasboro’, (Battle of.) See Averysborough. 

Aver'eest, a town of the Netherlands, prov. ot Over- 
yssel, 21 m. E.N.E. of Kampen; pop. about 4,000. 

A'verill. in Vermont, a township of Essex co., 35 m. N. 
by E. of Guildhall. 

Aver ment, n. [0. Fr. averement; L. Lat. averamen- 
tum. ] That which is averred; affirmation; positive as¬ 
sertion. 

—Verification ; substantiation by evidence. 

“ For averment of the continuance of some estate.”— Bacon. 

(Laxv.) In pleading, a positive statement of facts, 
as opposed to an argumentative or inferential one. 
There must be an A. of every substantive material fact 
on which the party relies, so that it may he replied to 
by an opposite party. 

Aver'nian, a. Pertaining to Averno or Avernus. 

AverilO, (a-rair'no.) [Lat. avernus, without a bird.] 
A lake in the neighborhood of Naples, about 'V/% m. N.W. 
of Puzzuoli, and near the coast of Baise, the waters of 
which were so unwholesome and putrid, that no birds 
ever visited its banks. The ancients made it the entrance 
of hell, by which Ulysses and iEneas descended into the 
lower regions. In the time of Virgil, a communication 
between it and the neighboring Lucrine lake was made 
by Agrippa; but, in 1538, the latter was filled by a vol¬ 
canic eruption, when Monte Nuovo rose in its place, 
rendering the Averno again a separate lake. On its 
banks, instead of pestilential marshes, are now beauti¬ 
ful gardens and vineyards. The grotto of the Cumasan 
sibyl is still to be seen here.— It may be observed, that 
all lakes whose stagnated waters were putrid and offen¬ 
sive to the smell, were Indiscriminately called Averna. 

Averrho'a, n. [From averrhoes .] (Bot.) A gen. of 
plants, order Oxalidacece. It consists of two species, 
both of which form small trees in the East Indies. They 
are remarkable for their leaves, which are pinnated, 
possessing, in a slight degree, the kind of irritability 
found in the sensitive plant; and for their fleshy oval 
fruits with five thick longitudinal wings. — In the Car- 
ambola (A. aciambola), the leaves are smooth, the flow¬ 
ers of a violet purple, and the fruit about the size of a 
goose’s egg; it is of a pale yellow color, and is said to be 
agreeably acid in the East Indies. — The other species, 
called the Blimbing (A. bilimbi), has downy leaves, and 
fruit resembling a small cucumber. The latter is in¬ 
tensely acid, and cannot be eaten raw. It is pickled or 
candied, or a syrup is obtained from it by boiling with ( 
sugar, and its juice is found an excellent agent for re¬ 
moving iron-moulds or other spots from linen. To thq 
Malays it answers the same purposes as tlie citron, the 
gooseberry, the caper, and the cucumber of Europe. 

Averro'es, or Averrho'es. [Corrupted from Ebn or 
Ibn Roshd or Rushd.] A famous Arabian philosopher 
and physician, b. 1120. He succeeded his father in the 
chief magistracy of Cordova, capital of the Moorish do¬ 
minions in Spain, was afterwards nominated chief judge 
in Morocco, and having there appointed deputies to his 
office, he returned to Spain. The liberality of his opin¬ 
ions, however, caused him to be persecuted by the more 
orthodox Moslems, and he was imprisoned ; but after do¬ 
ing penance and making recantation, he was liberated. A. 
greatly admired Aristotle, and his commentaries on the 
writings of that philosopher procured fur him the title 



















202 


AYER 


AYIG 


AYOC 


of the Commentator. Of the personal character of A. 
almost nothing is known, lteuau says, with perfect 
truth, that neither by his studies nor his character does 
he appear to have departed much from the type of the 
“learned Mussulman.” He knew what the others knew: 
in medicine, Galen; in philosophy, Aristotle, or his 
translators; in astronomy, the Almagest. Like every 
Mohammedan, he cultivated jurisprudence; and, like 
every distinguished Arabian, he was devoted to poetry. 
D. at Morocco, 1198. 

Averrun'cate, Averun'cate, v. a. [0. Fr. averrtm- 
quer; Lat. ah. and eruncare, to weed out.] To root up ; 
to tear up by the roots, (r.) 

“ Unless by providential wit, 

Or force, we averruncate it.”—Butler, 

Averrnnca'tor, n. See Averuncator. 

A versa, ( a-vair'sa ,) a town of Italy, in the Terra di 
Lavoro, 10 m. S. of Capua. It is situate in a very fine 
plain, revered with vineyards and orange-trees, and is a 
sort of nursery for the artists and artisans of the king¬ 
dom. Its sweetmeats are in great repute in Naples. 
This place had formerly a castle, which served for an 
occasional palatial residence of the kings of Naples; it 
was replaced by a convent, in which Andreas of Hun¬ 
gary, the husband of Queen Joanna I., was strangled, in 
September, 184'). Pop. (1895) 21,173. 

Averse', a. [Lat. aversus, from avertn — ah, and rerto, 
to turn.] Having a repugnance of mind to; having a 
feeling of disinclination, dislike, ill-will, hatred, or loath¬ 
ing towards; unfavorably inclined to. 

“ Averse alike to tiatter, or offend, 

Not free from faults, nor yet too vain to mend.”— Pope. 

Averse'ly. adv. In a backward manner; with aversion; 
unwillingly. 

A verse'Jiess, n. Quality of being averse; repugnance 
or opposition of mind; dislike; unwillingness; back¬ 
wardness. 

Aversion, n. [Fr. aversion; Lat. arersio.] A turning 
away from; repugnance of mind; dislike; ill-will; hatred; 
antipathy; disinclination; reluctance; disgust. 

“ He died of the slow fever call’d the tertian. 

And left his widow to her own aversion." — Byron. 

—-Contrariety or antagonism of nature; applied to inani¬ 
mate substances. 

—The cause or object of aversion or dislike. 

“ For which they were the aversion of the gentlemen of the 
long robe.” — Arbuthnot'e History of John Bull. 

(Med.) Extreme repugnance for anything whatever. 
It is also, in Therapeutics, a synonym of revulsion or de¬ 
rivation; meaning the action of medicines which turn 
the afflux of fluids from one organ, and direct them to 
others. 

A ver'sively, adv. With aversion; in a reverse direc¬ 
tion. 

Avert', v. a. [Lat. averto — ah, and verto, to turn.] To 
turn from; to turn aside or away from; to keep off or 
prevent. 

“ Thro’ threaten’d lands they wild destruction throw, 

Till ardent prayer averts the public woe."— Prior. 


— v. i. To turn away. (R.) 

“ By averting them from their company.”— Government of the 
Tongue. 

A vert'er, n. One who, or that which averts. 

Av'ertin, n. [Fr., from Lat. avertere, to turn away.] 
(Med.) A disease of the mind, which renders the patient 
obstinate and furious. — Also a disease in sheep, like the 
vertigo. 

Avertinca'tor, n. [See Averruncate.] (Ifort.) An in¬ 
strument for pruning from 
the ground, trees, whose 
branches are beyond 
reach; it operates by 
means of a level moved 
by a cord and pulley. An 
A. of large size cuts off 
easily branches of an inch 
and a half in diameter. 

The .1. is also used for 
gathering fine fruits which 
when cut fall into a bas¬ 
ket attached to the in¬ 
strument when used for 
tins purpose. 

A very, in Illinois , a post¬ 
village of Jo. Daviess co. 

A very, in Iowa, a village 
of Monroe co., about 100 
m. W.N.W. of Keokuk. 

—A township of Hancock 
co. 

A'very, in Michigan, a 
village of Berrien co., 19 
miles E.N.E. of Michigan 
City. 

A'very, in Missouri, a vil¬ 
lage on the line dividing 
Phelps and Maries coun¬ 
ties, about 10 m. N.N.E. 
of ltolla. 

A'veryslior'oush, in North Carolina, a village of 
Cumberland co, on Cape Fear river, 40 m. S. of Raleigh. 
On the 16th March, 1865, a battle was fought here be¬ 
tween the Union troops (four divisions) under General 
Sherman, and the Confederates estimated at 20,000 men, 
under Hardee: after a severe action, the latter retreated 
with a loss of about 500 killed and wounded; the Union 
loss was about equal. 

—A post-office of Harnett co. 

A'very’s Greek, in North Carolina, a village of 
Buncombe co. 



A'very's Gores, in Vermont, the name given to tracts 
of land granted to Samuel Avery in 1791. One of these 
forms the township of Avery Gore, in Franklin co., about 
45 m. N. by W. of Montpelier. 

A'ves, plural of Avis. 

Aves, ( ai’veee ) or Bird Islands, a small group of islands 
of the W. Indies, in the Lesser Antilles, belonging to 
Holland. Lat. 15° 30' N.; Lon. 63° 15' W. The islands 
are named from the vast numbers of birds frequenting 
them. They are inhabited by a few fishermen only. 
Avesnes, (a-vain’,) a fortified town of Fiance, dep. of 
Nord, 60 m. S.E. of Lille. It is ill-built and dull. The 
cathedral has a spire 300 feet high. Here is made the 
cheese of Marolles. Pop. about 4,000. 

A'vestad, a town of Sweden, on the Dal, 35 m. S.E. of 
Falun. Here are extensive copper-smelting and iron 
works. Lat. 60° 7' N.; Lon. 16° 9' E. 

Aveyron, (a-vai-rong 1 ,) a dep. of France, separated from 
the Mediterranean by the dep. of Herault, between N. 
Lat. 43° 41' 30", and 44° 55' 25"; and E. Lon. 1° 50' 15" 
and 3° 20'. Area, 3,429 square miles. A. is one of the 
most mountainous dep. of France, a branch of the Ce- 
veunes passing through it. Soil, fertile in the valleys, hut 
agriculture still in a backward state. Sheep are numer¬ 
ous. At Roquefort, the famous cheese known by that 
name, is made. The coal and iron mines of A are among 
the most important in France. Manf. Cotton, hosiery, 
hats, leather, Ac. — Principal Towns. Rliodez (cap. of 
the dep.), Milhau. Villefranche, Espalion, and St. A ffrique. 
Pop. 400,070. This dep. takes its name from the river 
Aveyron, which rises near Severac-le Chateau, and after 
a course of 90 in. falls into the Tarn, below Montauban. 
Avczztt'iiA, a town of S. Italy, prov Aquila, about 1 m. 
from Lake Fucino. There is a castle hero belonging to 
the Colonna family. Pop. 4,927. 

Avia'no, a town of N. Italy, 30 m. W. of Udine, near 
Monte Cavallo; pop. about 5,000. 

A'viary, n. [Lat. aviarium. from avis, a bird.] A build¬ 
ing or enclosure for keeping birds. A bird-cage is an A, 
on a small scale. 

Avicen'na, (corruption of Ibn Sina,) the most cele¬ 
brated of Arabian physicians, and the greatest Eastern 
philosopher of that race. I!, at Afschena, in Bokhara, 
980 A. D. In his 22d year ho composed his great work 
the Canon of Medicine, which carried his name through 
Europe as well as Asia, and sustained his reputation for 
several centuries. Ho settled at Ilamudan in Persia, at 
which court he was made vizier, and there composed his 
greatest production, the “ Al-Schefd.” D. 1037. — The 
philosophy of A. was the Peripatetic, although several 
elements are found in it which Aristotle would have dis¬ 
owned. He certainly inclined towards the Pantheism 
peculiar to the East. He also held firmly by the person¬ 
ality of the human soul, and its indestructibility apart 
from the body. History must award to A. the merit of 
having first explained to modern times the nature of the 
Stagyrite philosophy. 

Avi'cula, n. (Zodl.) A genus of molluscs, fam. Avicu- 
lidce, q. v. 

Avieula'ria, n. (Bot.) A name of the gen. Polygo¬ 
num, q. v. 

Avicu'lidrc, n. pi. (Pearl-Oyster Family.) (Zodl.) A 
family of the order Lamellibranchiates, embracing aceph¬ 
alous molluscs which have the valves unequal and very 
oblique. They inhabit tropical and temperate seas, and 
yield the mother-o’-pearl and the Oriental pearls, so 
highly prized. There are about 100 living and 600 fossil 
species. — See Pearl. 

Av'i»l, a. [Fr. avide; Lat. avidus, from avere, to long.] 
Greedy; eager; appetitive. 

Avid'tiously, adv. Eagerly; greedily; insatiably. 
Avidity, n. [Fr. avidite ; Lat. aviditas; from aveo, to 
desire eagerly, to covet.] An eager desire for something; 
greediness; strong appetite; eagerness; desire; as, to 
seize with avidity. 

Aviga'to, n. See Alligator Pear. 

Avigliana, (a-veel'ye-a-na,) a town of N. Italy, prov. 
of Turin, 14 in. W. of Turin. Manf. Cotton and silk. 
Pop. about 4.000. 

Avigl'iano, a town of S. Italy, prov. Potenza, 11 m. 
N.N.W. of the latter city. In 1824, a great land-slip de¬ 
stroyed much of the town. The surrounding country 
produces the finest oxen in Italy. 

A vign'«ii-I!erry, n. [From thecity Avignon.] (Chem.) 
The common name of the fruit of the Rhamnus infec- 
torius, saxatilis, and amygdalinus. It is a small berry, 
bitter, astringent, and of a yellowish-green color. It is 
used by dyers and painters for coloring yellow. 
Avignon, (a-veen’ynng,) (anc. Avenioi) A celebrated 
city of France, cap. of the dep. of Vaucluse, on the left 
bank of the Rhone, 76 m. N.N.W. of Marseilles, on the 
railway to Paris. A. was for a long time the residence of 
the popes, and accordingly filled with convents, churches, 
&c., many of which are now in decay. It is situated in 
a fine plain, and is surrounded by high walls, flanked 
with numerous towers. The promenades along the walls, 
aud the quays along the river, are both very fine. The 
streets are, in general, narrow and glootny. The ancient 
palace of the popes stands on the declivity of a rock. 

It is a Gothic building of different periods, and of vast 
extent, and now sel ves as a prison, military depot, and 
barracks. The cathedral church of Notre Dame des 
Dons is very ancient, as is also the spire of the Church 
of the Cordeliers. The latter church contained the 
tomb of “Laura,” immortalized by Petrarch. — Manf. 
Silk stuffs and velvets, woollen and cotton fabrics, Ac.— 
A. existed before the Roman invasion, and afterward 
became a Roman colony. In 1309, Clement V. trans¬ 
ferred thither the abode of the popes, who continued to 
reside here till 1377, when they returned to Rome; but 
two schismatical popes, or popes elected by the French 


cardinals, resided at A. till 1409. A. and its territory 
remained the property of the Holy See until 1797, when 
it was incorporated with France. Pop. 36,407. 



Fig. 250. — palace of the popes. 
(Avignon.) 


Avila, (a-ve’la,) a province of Spain, in Old Castile, 
near the centre of the peninsula. Area, 4,917 sq. m. 
Desc. Level in the N., and mountainous in the S.— 
Rivers. The Alherche, Adaja, and several smaller 
streams. — Prod. Grapes, mulberries, and other fruits, 
and the usual cerealia. A great many sheep, pigs, and 
horned cattle are reared. — Min. Not plentiful; hut sil¬ 
ver, copper, lead, iron, and coni are found and partially 
wrought.— Manf. Linen, silk, cloth, paper, earthen¬ 
ware, hardware, and leather. Pop. 133,000. 

Avi a, cap. of the above province, on the Adaja. 64 m. 
W.N.W. of Madrid. It was formerly a flourishing place. 
Pop. 6,970. 

Avi'1st, Juan de, a celebrated Spanish preacher, com¬ 
monly called the “-Apostleof Andalusia,” was B. at Altno- 
davar del Campo in 1500. Ilis missionary labors in An¬ 
dalusia were prosecuted with untiring zeal and singular 
success, until he arrived at the age of 50. when, with a 
worn-out constitution, he was obliged to desist. I). 1569. 
His Cartas Espirituales (“Spiritual Letters”) have been 
translated into most European languages. 

Avi'la y /.nn ilia. Luts de. a Spanish historian aud 
diplomatist, who was ambassador to the courts of popes 
Paul IV. and Pius IV., and afterwards followed Charles V. 
into Germany, lie commanded the cavalry at the siege 
of Metz, and published, after his return to Spain, an ac¬ 
count of Charles’ wars in Germany, in the years 1546 
and 1547. 

Avil'la. in Indiana, a post-village of Noble co., 24 m. 
N. by W. of Fort Wayne. 

Avil'Ia, in Missouri, a post-village of Jasper co. 

A'viill, or A'vites, (Scrip.) were descendants of Canaan, 
(Gen. x. 17,) who occupied a portion of the coast of 
Palestine from Gaza towards the river of Egypt, hut were 
expelled and almost destroyed by the invading Philis¬ 
tines orCaphtorim, before the time of Moses (Dcwt-ii. 23). 
Some yet remained in the time of Joshua (Josh. xiii. 3). 
They were idolaters, worshipping Nibliaz and Tartak, 
and are probably the same with the Hivites. 

A vin'culo matrimo'nii. [Lat., from the bond 
of matrimony.] A Latin sentence expressing dissolution 
of the marriage relation, or a total divorce. 

A'vis, n.; pi. Aves. [Lat., a bird.] (Zodl.) See Bird. 

Av'iston, in Illinois, a post-village of Clinton co., about 
80 m. S. of Springfield. 

Avi'tus, Marcus MiEcraus, an emperor of the West. He 
was of a Gaulish family in Auvergne, and gained the 
favor of Constantins, the colleague of Honorius, and of 
Theodoric, king of the Visigoths. He served with dis¬ 
tinction under JEtius, became prefect of Gaul, and con¬ 
cluded a favorable treaty with the Gottis. Ho after¬ 
wards retired into private life until the invasion of 
Attila, when he induced the Goths to join the Romans 
against the common enemy. A. was proclaimed emperor 
in 455. took for his colleague Marcianus, uud D. the year 
following. 

A'viz, (Order of,) an institution created in 1147, by 
Alphonso I., the founder of the Portuguese monarchy, 
and raised by him, in 1162, to the rank of an ecclesias¬ 
tical order of chivalry. The knights were then called 
“Knights of Evora,” lint took their present title in 1287, 
from their gallant defence of the fortress of A viz against 
the Moots. The order was changed from an ecclesiasti¬ 
cal to a civil institution in 1789. The king of Portugal 
is the Grand Master of the Order. 

Av'lona, in Turkey in Europe. See Aulona. 

Avo'ca, or Ovo'ca, a beautiful valley and river of Ire¬ 
land, near Glendalough, in the co. Wicklow, and cele¬ 
brated as being the scene which gave rise to one of the 
finest of Moore’s Irish Melodies ; 

“ Sweet vale of Avoca ! how calm could I rest. 

In thy bosom of shade with the friends I love best,” Ac. 

Avo'ca, in Alabama, a village of Lawrence co. 

Avo'ca, in Illinois, a township of Livingston co., on the 
S. Fork of Vermilion River, distant N.E. from Spring- 
field 98 miles, and from Pontiac 10 miles south¬ 
east. 

Avo'ca, in Missouri, a post-village of Jefferson co.. about 
14 m. W.S.W. of the Mississippi. 

















































AVON 


AVUL 


AWAY 


203 


Avo'ca, in Xebraska, a post-village of Cass co. 

Avo'ca, in Xew York, a post-village and township of 
Steuben co., on Conhocton Creek, 225 m. W. by S. of 
Albany, 

Avo'ca, in Wisconsin, a village of Fond du Lac co., 80 in. 
N.E. of Madison. 

—A post-village of Iowa co.. 43 m. W. by N. of Madison. 

Avoca do Pear, n. (Hot.) The fruit of the J'ersea gra- 
tissima. — See I’f.rsea. 

Av'ocat, n. The French name for an Advocate, q. v. 
See also I1 arre.au. 

Avoca tion, n. [Lat. avocalio, from avoco — ah, and vn- 
co, to call.] A calling aside or away from ; as, “The aro- 
calinns of our senses.”— Glanville. 

—Business, engagement, or employment which calls one 
aside, or which demands time and attention. 

“By the secular cares and avocations which accompany mar¬ 
riage."— Alterbury. 

Avoid', v. a. [Fr. eviter; Lat. evitare.] To separate or 
go away from ; to shun; to escape from ; to eschew. 

“ The wisdom of pleasing God. by doing what he commands, and 
avoiding what he forbids." — TiUotsun. 

—To annul; to set aside; to make void. 

(Law.) To render void. 

— v. i. (Law.) To become vacant, void, or empty. 

Avoid';! Die, a. That may be avoided; liable to be an¬ 
nulled ; susceptible to vacation. 

“ The charters were not avoidable for the king’s nonage."— Hale, 

Avoid ance, n. Act of avoiding; shunning of a person 
or thing. 

—The state of being vacant; used specifically in an eccle¬ 
siastical sense; as, “ Avoidance of .'t. Peter's chair.” 

—The act of annulling; the course whereby anything is 
drained off. 

“For avoidances and drainings of water, where there is too 
much, we shall speak of." — Bacon. 

(Law.) A making void, useless, or empty. 

A voider, n. One who avoids or shuns.—Any person 
who carries a tiling away, or the vessel in which things 
are carried away. 

Avoidless, a. Inevitable; that which cannot be 
avoided. 

“ That avoidless ruin in which the whole empire would be in* 
voived.” — Dennis. 

Avoirdupois', or Averdupois', n. [Fr. avoir du pnids, 
to have weight.] (Com.) The name given to the system 
of weights used both in England and the U. States, for 
general commerce. The ounce contains 437% grains, 
whereas the ounce in both troy and apothecaries’ 
weights, contains 480 grains. There is but one grain 
which was, or may be taken as, a common unit in com¬ 
paring the three systems of weights used here and in 
Great Britain. The value of the grain is set forth by 
Act of Parliament in these words:— “A cubic inch of 
distilled water, weighed in air by brass weights, at the. 
temperature of 62° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, the ba¬ 
rometer being at 30 inches, is equal to 252 grains and 
458,000 parts of a grain.” The pound A. contains 7,000 
such grains. The lowest term in-4, weight is the drachm, 
which contains 27 grains. The drachm is, however, sel¬ 
dom, if ever, useanow, small weights being expressed 
either in grains or in fractions of the ounce. The fol¬ 
lowing table displays the comparative values of the dif¬ 
ferent denominations in A. weight: 

Ounces. Pounds. Quarters. Cwts. Ton. 

16 = l 

448 = 28 = 1 

1,792 = 112 — 4 =1 

35,840 = 2,240 = 80 = 20 = 1 

The usual contractions are as follows: — ounce, oz.; 
quarter, qr.; pound, lb.; hundred-weight, cwt. 

A vo la, or Au la, a seaport of Sicily, prov. of Syra¬ 
cuse, 12 in. S.W. of Syracuse. It is a clean and well-built 
town, prettily situated, and lias a large trade. Pup. 11.324. 

Avola'tion, n. [L. Lat. avolatio .] The act of flying 
away; flight, (r.) 

“ Hindering the avolation of the favillous particles.”— Browne. 

A'von, the name of several English and Scottish rivers. 
We may mention of these that A. which rises in North¬ 
amptonshire, and flows into the Severn at Tewkesbury, 
after a course of 100 m. On its banks is Stratford-on- 
Avon, (q. v.,) the birthplace and abode of the immortal 
Shakspeare, who has hence been styled the “ Bard of 
Avon.” 

A'von, a river of W. Australia, in Swan River Colony, 
which, after a N.W. course, joins the Swan River at 
Northam. 

Avon, in Connecticut, a post-township of Hartford co., 9 
m. W. by N. from Hartford. 

A'von, a v. of France. Dep., Seine-et-Marne. 

A'von, in III., a p.-v. of Fulton co. 

—A village of Kane co., about 48 m. W. of Chicago. 

—A township of Lake co. 

A'von, in Iowa, a post-village of Polk co., on the right 
hank of the Des Moines river, about 8 m. from lies 
Moines City. 

A'von, in Kansas, a township of Coffey co. 

A'von. in Maine, a post-township of Franklin co., on 
Sandy River, 40 m. N.W. of Augusta. 

A'von. in Michigan, a township of Oakland co.; also 
the name of prosperous v. in Ind., Ya., and \\ is. 

A'von, in Minnesota, a village of Dodge co., about 35 m. 
W. by N. of Rochester. 

A'von, in Missouri, n post-village of St. Genevieve co., 
about 15 m. S.W. of Mississippi river. 

A'von, in Xew York, a post-village of Avon township, 
Livingston co., beautifully situate on the E. bank of the 
Genesee river, 18 m. from Rochester. Near this place 
utv celebrated mineral springs, much resorted to for the 


efficacy of their waters, and the beauty of the surround¬ 
ing country. There are three sulphuro-saline, and one 
iodine, springs. 

A'von, in Ohio, a post-township of Lorain co., about 20 
m. E. by S. of Cleveland. 

A'von, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Lebanon co. 

A'von Centre, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Rock co. 

A'vontlale, a par. of Scotland, in the county of Lanark. 
Area. 40,000 acres. At the battle of Drumclog, fought 
near this place, 1st June, 1679, Grahame of Claverliouse, 
the famous Viscount Dundee, was defeated by the forces 
of the Scottish Covenant. A graphic description of this 
battle is found in Sir Walter Scott's Old Mortality. 

A vondale, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Chester 
co., 38 m. W.S.W. of Philadelphia. 

A'von ILake, in Ohio, a post-village of Lorain co. 

Av'oset, or Av'ocet, n. [Fr. avocette.] (Zobl.) The com¬ 
mon name of the Recurvirostra, a genus of birds, family 
Recurvirostridte. The A., whose great singularity is in 
the form of its hill, is aquatic, the shores of the ocean 
being its favorite haunts. It is about 18 inches in 



Fig. 251. — AMERICAN AVOSET. 


length ; very erect, and has legs unusually long for its 
size. The hill of the Recurvirostra avocetta, or common 
A., a species widely diffused through the temperate 
climates of Europe and Asia, is 3% inches in length, 
turns uplikea hoop, and is flat, thin, sharp, and flexible. 
The American A. (R. Americana ) has the bill less re¬ 
curved, but its habits are similar to those of the common 
A. The plumage, in both species, is black and white, 
the tail consisting of twelve white feathers; the legs are 
of a fine blue color, naked and well calculated for wad¬ 
ing, the feet are palmated, but not so much adapted for 
swimming as for supporting the bird upon the mud. It 
feeds on worms, <£e., which it scoops out of the mud with 
its bill; and it lays two eggs, which are greenish, spotted 
with brown and black. 

Avouch', ti. a. [O. Fr. voucher ; Fr. avouer; Lat . advo- 
care —- ad, and voco, to call.] (Originally, to call upon a 
feudal lord to defend a tenant’s right when impugned ; 
to acknowledge, as a tenant, the right of the lord.) To 
avow; to vouch; to affirm; to warrant; to defend or 
maintain; to acknowledge; to confess to be; to take as 
one’s own. 

“ They boldly avouched that themselves only had the truth.” 

Hooker. 

Avouch'able, a. That may he avouched; capable of 
being vouched for. (r.) 

Avotldl'er, n. A person who avouches. 

Avow', v. a. [Fr. avouer; Lat. votum — vorere, to vow.] To 
admit; to declare strongly or openly: to acknowledge or 
confess frankly ; as, he avowed his crime. 

“ Then'blazed his smother’d flame, avow'd aud bold."— Thomson. 

(La w.) To acknowledge the commission of an act, and 
claim that it was done with right. 

Avow'able, a. That may be avowed. 

Avow'ably, adv. In an avowable manner. 

Avow'al. n. An avowing; an open declaration; a frank 
acknowledgment; as, “Tbe avowal of such principles.”— 
Hume. 

Avow'anee, n. The act of avowing; avowal. 

Avow'ant, n. (Law.) One who makes au avowry. 

Avow'etlly, adv. In an open manner; with frank ac¬ 
knowledgment. 

“ Wilmot could not avowedly have excepted against the other." 

Lord Clarendon. 

Avowee', n. [Fr. avoue.] One who has a right of pre¬ 
sentation to a benefice; a patron of a living; an ad¬ 
vowee.— See Advowson. 

Avow'er, n. A person who avows. 

“ Virgil makes-Tineas a bold avower of his own virtues."— Dryden. 

Avow'ry, n. [O. Fr. avourie; L. Lat. advnearia.] (Law.) 
The answer of a defendant in an action of replevin 
brought to recover property taken in distress, in which 
he acknowledges the taking, and, setting forth the cause 
thereof, claims a right in himself or his wife to do so. 

A voyel les, in Louisiana, a parish at the mouth of the 
Red River. Area, about 800 sq. m. It is bounded E. by 
Red River and the Atchafalaya, and N.E. by the Saline 
Bayou. The E. part is periodically inundated, but the 
Vi. consists of fertile prairies. Cap. Marksville. Pop. 
in 1890, 25,112 ; in 1897, about 26,200. 

Avranelies. (av’ranzh,) (anc. Ingena.) a town of 
France, dep. Manche, cap. of an arrond.,32 m. S.S.W. of 
St. Lo, and 3 m. from the sea. This is a very ancient 
town. Its cathedral, consecrated in 1121, is now in 
ruins. In it, in 1172, Henry II. of England did penance, 
and received absolution for the murder of A’Beckett. 
Pop. 9,397. 

Avulsed', a. [Lat. avnlsuo — avellere, to tear off, from 
ab, a, from, off, and vellere, to pluck.] Pulled off; torn 
from. 


Avul sion, n. [Lat. avulsio, from avellere, to tearaway.] 
A pulling or tearing from or asunder; a rending, or 
forcible separation. A piece or fragment torn off. 

(Law.) Lands torn off by an inundation or current 
from property to which they originally belonged, and 
gained to the estate of another; or, where a river changes 
its course, and, instead of continuing to flow between 
two properties, cuts off part of one and joins it to the 
other property. The property of the part thus separated 
continues to belong to the original proprietor, in which 
respect A. differs from alluvion, q. v. 

Avuil'cular, a. [From Lat. avunculus, uncle.] Of, or 
pertaining to an uncle. 

Await', v. a. [a and wait. See Wait.] To be on th» 
watch, &c.; to watch for; to wait for: to look for or ex¬ 
pect ; to observe. 

“ Even as the wretch, condemn’d to lose his life, 

Awaits the falling of the murd’ring knife."— Fairfax. 

—To be in store for; to attend upon. 

“ An eternity of torments awaits the object of his displeasure. 

Rogers. 

Awake', v. a. [A.S. awacian, wacian , or weccau. — See 
Wake.] To rouse from sleep; to awaken. 

“ Take heed, 

How you awake our sleeping sword of war ."—Shahs. 

—To put into action; to rouse from a state of torpor, in¬ 
action, or stupor. 

“ Nor mote my shell awake the weary Nine 

To grace so plain a tale — this lowly lay of mine."— Byron. 

— v.i. To break from sleep: to wake; to be in a state 
of vigilance; to revive, or be aroused from a state of in¬ 
action or torpor. 

“ Alack, I am afraid they have awak'd, 

And ’tis not done! ”— Shaks. 

Awake', a. Not sleeping; in a state of vigilance or 
action. 

“ But wide awake she was."— Byron. 

Awaken, v. a. and i. To awake; to rouse from sleep or 
torpor. Used generally in a moral or religious sense. 

“ Their consciences are thoroughly awakened." — Tillotson. 

Awak ener, n. He who, or that which, awakens. 

Awak'eniug, p. a. Awaking; rousing from sleep or 
torpor. 

— n. Act of awaking; most frequently used to denote a 
restoring to a sense of religion. 

Awak'eningly, adv. In a manner to awaken. 

A wake nine nt, n. Au awakening, or rousing, (r.) 

Awant'ing, a. Wanting; missing. 

Award, v.u. [Prov. eswarder; Fr . regarder; ft. guar- 
dare, to look at, to look upon.] To look at; to consider; 
to give by sentence or judicial determination; to assign 
by sentence. 

“ A pound of that same merchant's flesh ts thine ; 

The court awards it, and the law doth give it."— Shaks. 

— v. i. To make an award; to judge; to determine. 

“ Th’ unwise award to lodge it in the tow’rs, 

An off’ring sacred.”— Pope's Odyssey. 

Award'. ». [From Lat. awarda, awardvm .] (Law.) 

The judgment or decision of arbitrators or reterees, on a 
matter submitted to them. — The writing containing 
such judgment. — An A. is a final and conclusive judg¬ 
ment between the parties on all the matters referred by 
the submission. It transfers property as much as the 
verdict of a jury, and will prevent the operation of the 
statute of limitations. — It may he enforced by an action 
at law, which is the only remedy for disobedience when 
the submission is not made a rule of court, and no stat¬ 
ute provides a special mode of enforcement. Under a 
rule of court, an A. may be enforced by the court issuing 
execution upon it as if it were a verdict of a jury, or by 
attachment for contempt..— A court has no power to 
alter or amend an award; hut may recommit to the 
referee, in some cases. — An A. may not be disturbed, 
except for very cogent reasons. It can be put aside for 
misconduct, corruption, or irregularity of the arbitrator, 
which has, or may have, injured one of the parties; lot 
error in fact, or in attempting to follow the law, appar¬ 
ent on the face of the A.; for uncertainty or inconsist¬ 
ency; for an exceeding his authority by the arbitrator; 
when it is not final and conclusive, without reserve; 
when it is a nullity ; when a party or witness has been 
at fault, or has made a mistake; or when the arbitrator 
acknowledges that he has made a mistake or error in his 
decision. Prominent among historical awards is the 
Geneva Award, or decision of the tribunal of arbitration 
which sat at Geneva, Switzerland, for the settlement of 
the Alabama Claims (q. v.). 

Awarcl'er, n. A person who awards; one who assigns 
by sentence or judicial decision; a judge. 

Aware', a. [A.S. gavarian, to take care; from warian, 
to beware, to guard, to ward off. See Ware.] On guard ; 
on the watch; vigilant; cautious; informed; apprised; 
conscious; made acquainted. 

“ Ere I was aware, I had left myself nothing but the name of a 
king.”— Sir P. Sidney. 

“And she glides 

Into his darker musings with a mild 
And gentle sympathy that steals away 
Their sharpness ere he is aware." — Bryant. 

Awarn', v. a. To caution; to warn, (o.) 

Away', adv. [A. S. aweg; from a, from, and wceg, way.] 
Out of the way; absent; gone; at a distance; in a state 
of absence. 

—Used to imply a departure, or going from: in motion from, 

''Away, old man ; give me thy hand; away; 

King Lear hath lost.”— Shaks. 

—By degrees; in continuance. 

“ Summer suns roll unperceiv’d axcay*—Pope. 

—On the way; on the road. 

“ Sir Valentine, whither away so fast? ShaJ*. 


















204 


AWN I 


AXIO 


AXLE 


—Used in an exclamatory sense; depart; begone. 

** Away, ye gay landscapes, ye gardens of roses 1 Byron . 

— Out of one’s own hands ; as, to transfer away. 

—To throw a thing off in a trifling manner. 

“ It concerns every man who will not trifle away his soul.” 

Tillutson. 

Away with, as applied to a person or thing, signifies 
to take him, or it, away. 

“If you dare think of deserving our charms, 

Away with your sheephooks, and take to your arms.”— Dryden. 

To make away with, to kill; to remove; to destroy. 

To throw away, to throw out of one's reach, so as to lose. 

Awe, n [A.S. aga, eye; probably allied to Gr. a-ge, won¬ 
der, from agarnai, to wonder, to be astonished.J Fear; 
dread; terror; fear, or dread, mingled with reverence or 
submission. 

“ It was awe without amazement, and dread without distrac* 
tion."— South. 

— v. a. To strike with fear and reverence; to influence by 
fear, terror, or respect. 

“ Heav'n that placed this island to give law, 

To balance Europe, and her states to awe." —I Valter. 

A we, (Locu,) a lake of Scotland, in Argyleshire,18m. N.W. 
of Inverary. It is 23 m. long, by 3 broad. On one ot its 
many islands stand the magnificent ruins of Kilchurn 
Castle, for centuries the baronial fortress of the Camp¬ 
bells, Earls of Breadalbane. In allusion to the vast ter¬ 
ritorial possessions of this family, extending over a tract 
of country for 100 miles, there is a saying in the High¬ 
lands—“ It is a far cry to Loch Awe.” This lake receives 
the river Urchan; and at its N.W. extremity rises the 
great mountain of Ben Cruachan, 3,670 feet in height. 

A-wea'rj r ,o. [Prefix a, and weary, q. v.J Weary, (o. 
and r.) 

" She only said, 

I am a-weary ,—I would that I were dead 1 ”— Tennyson. 

A-weath'er, n. [A. S.j (Mar.) A term signifying that 
the situation of the helm is to the weather side of the 
ship, in contradistinction to a-lee. 

A-weig^ll', adv. (Naut.) Noting the position of an anchor, 
when just loosened from the ground, and hanging verti¬ 
cally in the water; a-trip. 

Awe some, a. Fearful or appalling; respectful; capa¬ 
ble of inspiring awe ; as, an awesome being. 

Awe'-strnck, a. Impressed or struck with awe. 

Aw'flll, a. Full of awe; that strikes or tills with awe, 
terror, or dread ; dreadful; terrible; solemn. 

“ Thy awful brow, more awful thus retir'd, 

Fairest resemblance of thy Maker fair 1 ’— Milton. 

—Detestable; ugly; unsightly; used in a vulgar sense; 
as, an awful hat. 

.Aw'fully, adv. In an awful manner; apprehensively. 

Aw'fulness. n. Qualifv or state of being awful. 

“ Night heightens the awfulness of the place.”— Addison. 

Awhile', adv. [a, and while, time or interval.] A time; 
a space of time; for some time; for a short time. 

“ The wary fiend 

Stood on the brink of hell, and look’d awhile." — Paradise Lost. 

Awk, a. [Properly equivalent to left; e. g., on the 
left hand; abbreviated from 0. Eng. gauk; Fr. gauche .] 
Awkward; clumsy; odd; out of order, (r.) 

“And professors ringing as awk as the bells to give notice of 
the conflagration.”— L'Estrange. 

Awk ward, a. [0. Eng. awk, odd, clumsy, awkward, 
unhandy, and A.S. weard, towards.] Inclined to the left 
hand; wanting dexterity; unhandy; inexpert; clumsy. 
“So true, that he was awkward at a trick.”— Dryden. 

—Inelegant; ungraceful in manner; ungainly. 

“They are judged of by their handsome or awkward way of ex¬ 
pressing themselves in it.”— Locke. 

—Perverse; untoward; difficult to manage or control; — 
used vulgarly; as, ait awkward customer. 

Awk'wardly, adv. In a rude or bungling manner; 
badly; inelegantly. 

"Awkwardly gay. and oddly merry; 

Her scarf pale pink, her head-knot cherry.”— Prior. 

Awk'wartlness, n. State or quality of being awk¬ 
ward ; want of grace or dexterity. 

Awl, n. [A.S. erf; Ger. ahl; Fr. ail.] A pointed iron 
instrument for piercing small holes in leather or wood. 

Aw'less, a. [From awe and less.] Wanting reverence; 
void of respectful fear. 

“ The awless lion could not wage the fight.”— Shaks. 

—Without the power of causing reverence, or exciting awe. 
“ Insulting tyranny begins to jut 
Upon the innocent and awless throne.”— Shaks. 

Awi'-shapetl, a. Having the shape of an awl. 

(Bot.) Narrow and terete, or nearly so, and tapering 
to a point, as the leaves of the Juniper. 

Awl'-wort, n. (Hot.) The common name of the aquatic 
plants Subularia aquatica, from its awl-shaped leaves.— 
See Subularia. 

Awm, Auiii.n. (Com.) See Aam. 

Awn, n. [Icel. ogn; Dan. awne; Sw. agn; A.S .egla; 
Gr. ach-ne, chaff.] That which comes off the surface of 
anything; a scale or husk.— (Bot.) A stiff and pointed 
bristle which occurs in the flowers of many grasses, 
forming the extremity of a glume or palea, as the 
beard of wheat and barley. The flowers of some 
grasses are awnless. 

Awn ing, n. [Low D. havenung, from haven, a shelter,or 
place of shelter, with ing annexed.] A covering of can¬ 
vas spread over the deck of a vessel, or other roofless 
place, as a shelter from the weather. 

“ Of these boards I made an awning over me.”— Defoe. 
(Mar.) On ship-board, the A. is generally supported 
by araugeof light posts, called stanchions, erected along 
both sides of the ship; in the middle it is supported by 
* complication of small cords called a crow's-foot. This 


name is also applied to that part of the poop-deck which 
extends forward from the bulkhead of the cabin. 

Awn'less, a. Without an awn or beard. 

Awn'y, a. Having awns; full of beard. 

Awoke'. The preterite and past-participle of Awake, q.v. 

A work', Awork'ing, adv. [a and work.] At work in, 
or into; a state of working or action, (o.) 

Awry', a. or mil). [A.S. writhan, to writhe.] Writhed, 
turned, or twisted toward one side; distorted; crooked; 
asquint; with oblique vision; as, her bead-dress is awry. 

“ With jealous eyes has looked awry." — Sir J. Denham. 

—Perversely; deviating from right reason. 

“All awry, and which wried it to the most wry course of all.” 

Sir P. Sidney. 

Ax, a town of France, dep. of Ariege, 20 m. from Foix. 
It is much resorted to on account of its sulphurous 
springs, the temperature of which varies from 77° to 
162° of Fahrenheit. Pop. about 2,500. 

Ax'al, a. The same as Axial, (r.) 

Axajacatl, or Axayacatzlin, emperor of the Az¬ 
tecs or ancient Mexicans, who flourished in the 15th 
century. He was the father of the famous Montezuma, 
and was himself one of the greatest monarclis of his 
race, having subdued many nations, and added 37 prov¬ 
inces to his empire. D. 1477. 

Axe, (aks,) n. (Often, but, we believe, incorrectly, written 
Ax in the U. States.) [A.S. ax, eax, acas; Gr . axi-ne, 
probably from agnumi, axo, to break.] An iron instru¬ 
ment generally used with holh hands in hewing timber 
and chopping wood. It consists of a head with an arch¬ 
ing edge, and a handle. There are several forms of the 
A., the two principal being the broad A. for hewing, and 
the narrow A. for cutting and rough-hewing. The 
hatchet is a smaller form of the A., and is used with one 
hand. The Franks in their expedition into Italy, in the 
6th century, made use of an A. with a large blade. This 
was termed francisca. The principal weapons of this 
kind were the taper A., the broad A., and the double A. 
The pole A. and the adze A. were varieties of these. The 
Lochaber A. was used in Scotland in the 16th century. 

—An axis, (r.) See Axis. 

Axe, v. a. and i. Vulgarly used for to ask; to inquire, or 
inquire of. 

“ The king axed after your grace’s welfare.”— Pegge. 

Axe'-form, Axe'-sliaped, a. (Bot.) Dolabriform; 
having a resemblance to an axe or hatchet. 

Ax'elsen, or Ax'elsen Tott, a powerful Danish 
family who flourished in the latter half of the 15th cen¬ 
tury, and the members of which figured in the wars of 
Christian I. and John IV. of Denmark; and Karl Knutsen, 
and Eric the Pomeranian, kings of Sweden. Peter A. 
was the head of the family. Of his 9 sons, the eldest, 
Olaf, made himself master of Gothland; the 2d, Iver, 
retained that possession, and became a corsair; the 3d, 
Eric, was governor of Stockholm; and the 4th, Aage, 
became a Danish councillor of state. 

Axe'-stone, n. (Min.) A green variety of jade found in 
New Zealand, and on the banks of the Amazons, and used 
by the natives for making Hatchets. 

Ax'lsolme, (Isle of,) a fertile district of England, in 
the county of Lincoln, insulated by the rivers Trent, 
Idle, and Don. It contains 47,800 acres. 

Ax'ial, a. Pertaining, or having resemblance to, an axis. 

Ax'ially, adv. In relation to, or in a line with, an axis. 

Axifernus, a. [Lat. axis, and ferre, to bear.] (Bot.) 
Applied to plants which have an axis or stem. 

Ax'il, Axilla. n. [Lat. axilla, the armpit; Fr. aisselle.] 
(Anat.) The cavity under the upper part of the arm, 
called the arm-pit. It is covered with hair, contains 
much areolar membrane, lymphatic ganglions, important 
vessels and nerves, and numerous sebaceous follicles, 
furnishing an odorous secretion. 

(Bot.) The angle formed by the branch and stem of 
a plant, or by the leaf with either, on the upper side. 

Ax'ile, a. (Bot.) Belonging to the axis. 

Ax'illar, a. Same as Axillary. 

Ax'illary, a. (Anat.) Of or belonging to the axilla; as, 
the axillary arteries, nerves, or veins. 

(Bot.) Belonging to or growing in the axil; as,an ax¬ 
illary bud. 

Ax'im, a town of W. Africa, on the Guinea coast, 73 m. 
W. of Cape Coast Castle. A. was taken by the. Portu¬ 
guese in 1642, and restored to the Dutch (its original 
possessors) by the treaty of Westphalia. The Dutch 
have a garrison here. 

Ax'inite, n. [From Gr. axine, an axe.] (Min.) A tri¬ 
clinic mineral, so named from the resemblance of its 
crystals to an axe. Sp. gr. 3'271. Streak white; lustre 
vitreous; commonly splendent; very fragile; transpar¬ 
ent, often translucent. It is chiefly composed of silica, 
alumina, lime, and peroxide of iron. b.b. it melts into a 
green glass, which becomes black in the oxidizing flame. 

Axiom, (ak’se-um,) n. [Fr . axiome; Gr. asdoma, from 
axio-o, to deem worth}' of, to assume.] (Philos.) A uni¬ 
versal proposition, which the understanding must per¬ 
ceive to be true as soon as it perceives the meaning of 
the words, though it cannot be proved, because it is im¬ 
possible to make it plainer. It is therefore called a self- 
evident truth. To these propositions belong, indis¬ 
putably, those in which the subject and predicate are 
either the same, or are only expressed in different words, 
since we cannot think a thing is really different from 
itself; for instance. A is A ; Every quantity is like itself; 
A thing is like itself; A thing cannot, at the same time, oe, 
and not be; &c. To axioms belong also propositions, of 
which the predicate expresses only some idea which 
enters necessarily into our conception of the subject. 
Such is the proposition, A triangle has three sides, because 
the subject, triangle, cannot be conceived otherwise than 
three-sided. All reasoning must start from axioms. 


There has been much dispute as to what proposition is 
to be regarded as absolutely first in all human knowledge. 
Some have considered as such the position ; It is impos¬ 
sible for a thing to be and not to be at the same time; 
others, Whatever is, is; others, Everything either is or is 
not: others, the principle of the sufficient reason. We 
cannot regard any thing as true without proofs, or any 
thing false against established proofs. All these positions 
are tuudamental truths. They all have this in common, 
that we cannot help regulating our thoughts, in the 
judgment of truth, conformably to them. They are all 
necessarily believed to he true. Many principles, how¬ 
ever, are esteemed, by one class of men, self-evident, 
which another will not admit. There can never, there¬ 
fore, exist perfect uniformity in human reasoning. 
There is only one science which starts from axioms ac¬ 
knowledged by all mankind, and which, therelore, is of 
a more general character than any other — viz., mathe¬ 
matics. But about some principles of every other sci¬ 
ence, which are generally considered axioms, great doubts 
have existed. Thus it is regarded as an axiom of moral 
philosophy, that There exists a distinction, in the nature 
of things, between moral good and evil. This cannot be 
proved, but it is generally admitted; and all c*ur social, 
political, and religious relations are regulated by this 
principle; yet there have existed men of acute minds, 
who have disavowed this A. altogether, and made interest 
the sole rule of conduct. It has always been a great 
question in Philosophy whether these axioms are innate, 
or drawn from experience. 

(Math.) Some of the most, useful of the axioms em¬ 
ployed in mathematical reasoning are these : 1. A w hole 
is greater than any of its parts.—2. A whole is equal to 
the sum of all its parts.—3. Things which are equal to 
equal things are equal to each other.—4. Tilings which 
are like parts of equal things are equal to each other.— 
5. If equals be multiplied or divided by the same quan¬ 
tity, the products or quotients will be equal.—6. If 
equals beadded to equals, the sums will he equal.—7. If 
equals be subtracted from equals, the remainders will be 
equal.—8. The like powers of equals are equal. 

Axiomat'ic, Axiomatical, a. Pertaining to an 
axiom. 

Axiomat'ically, adv. By the use of axioms. 

Axis, (aks'sis,) n.; pi. Axes, ( aks'ez.) [Lat.; Fr. axe ; A.S. 
cex, eax; Gr. axijn, an axle, probably from ago, to drive 
or impel; Slcr. achsha.] This word presents a variety of 
forms of acceptations, inasmuch as it is used in all 
sciences, from each of which it derives a more or less 
precise signification, according as the science is in itself 
more or less exact. Nevertheless, whatever may be 
the use to which this term is applied, it resolves alw'ays, 
to a certain point, the principle of its origin, (aw axle.) It 
may thus he generally defined as a line which traverses 
the centre of any object. 

(Geom. and Meek.) When used by itself, A. generally 
means either an A. of Potation, ox of Symmetry. An A. 
of rotation, or revolution, is the line about which a body 
turns; an A. of symmetry is a line on both sides ol which 
the parts of the body are disposed in the same manner, 
so that to whatever distance it extends in one direction 
from the A., it extends as far in the direction exactly 
opposite. Or, if perpendiculars to the A. be drawn 
from all points and in all directions through the body, 
tlie whole of each perpendicular which is within the 
limits of the body will be bisected by the axis. Such 
is the middle line of a cone, any diameter of a sphere, 
the line drawn through the middle of the opposite laces 
of a cube, Ac. 

i (Astron.) The A. of the earth is the imaginary line 
drawn through its two poles and its center.— A. of the 
ecliptic, horizon, Ac., is a straight line passing through 
its center and perpendicular to its plane. 

(Phys.) The word is used in many different senses. 
The A. of a lens is an imaginary line joining the centres 
of the two opposite surfaces of the glass. The A. of a 
telescope, or microscope, is a right line which passes 
through the centres of ail the lenses in the tube. The 
A. of the eye, or visual A., is the right line passing 
through the centres of the pupil and crystalline lens.— 
The axes of a crystal are imaginary lines about w hich 
the planes are symmetrically arranged. The A. of ro¬ 
tation is the line around which a body turns when re¬ 
volving. The A. of oscillation is a line passing through 
the point about which an oscillating body—a pendulum, 
for instance—makes its vibrations. 

(Bot.) The term A. is applied to the central part, both 
above and below ground, around which the whole plant 
may be said to be arranged. The stem is called the 
ascending A.; the root, the descending A. 

(Crystal.) The hypothetic lines connecting the oppo¬ 
site sides of a crystal. 

(Anat.) The second vertebra of the neck. 

Ax'is, n. (Zonl.) The Cervus Axis, a species of Indian 
deer, of w’hich there are three varieties. 1. The Common 
Axis is about the size of a fallow-deer, and of a light- 
red color. Its body is beautifully marked with white 
spots; its horns are slendei and tri-forked. It is extremely 
docile, and possesses the sense of smelling in an exquisite 
degree. Though it is a native of the hanks of the Ganges, 
it appears to bear the temperate climates without injury. 
2. The Great Axis. This animal, native of Borneo and 
Ceylon, is about the height of a horse, and of a reddish- 
brown color. The horns are trifurcated, thick, strong, 
and rugged. 3. The Lesser Axis is a gregarious animal, 
inhabiting Java, Ceylon, Borneo, Ac. It is hunted with 
ardor, the sport affording the highest diversion, and the 
flesh being esteemed excellent. 

Axle, Axle-tree, (aks'l, aks'l-tre,) n. [A. S. cbx, axis.] 
The shaft or pole on which a wheel turns, or which 
drives or impels the wheels of a vehicle. 






AYE 


AY MO 


AYUN 


205 


Axle-box, n. The journal-box of an axle, more espe¬ 
cially a railway axle. 

Ax'led, a. Furnished with an axle or axles. 

Ax'minster, a town of England, in Devonshire, 147 m. 
from London, noted for the beautiful carpets which are 
made there, and woven all in one piece. Pop. 5,000. 

Axoto’mous, a. (Min.) A term applied to miuerals 
cleavable in the direction of their axis. 

A xil in. ( aks'um,) or Axoom, (anc. Auxume.) The an¬ 
cient capital of Abyssinia, in the prov. of Tigre. It is 
situate about 85 m. from Antalo, but few remains now 
exist of its former importance. A fine obelisk is still 
seen here. Adulis, on Aunesley Bay, in the Red Sea, was j 
anciently the port of A ., and a great mart for the trade 
of Ethiopia, Egypt, Arabia, &c., more especially in slaves. 
A. was founded about b.c. 650. Justinian formed an alli¬ 
ance with the Axumites, A. d. 533. Gibbon is of opin¬ 
ion that the Axumites, or Abyssinians, as he calls them, 
were a colony of Arabs, and there can be no doubt that 
the Arab element is blended with the Ethiopian in their 
composition. They were converted to Christianity in the 
4th century; and in its defence came into collision with 
the Moslems, who deprived them of their possessions and 
destroyed their commerce. The Chronicles of Axurn, a 
kind of history of Abyssinia, a copy of which the travel¬ 
ler Bruce brought to England in 1744, are deposited in a j 
Christian church in A., built about 1657. A. was made a j 
bishopric about 330, and Frumentius was the first bishop. 

Ay, Aye, («,) adv. [Sw., Ger., and Dan. ja ; A.S. ja; 
Fr. oui, perhaps allied to Lat. aio, I say.] Ye3; yea; a 
word expressing assent, or an affirmative answer to a 
question; indeed. 


“ What sayest thou ? Wilt thou be of our consort? 

Say ay, "and be Ihe captain of us all? ' — Shaks. 

Ay, or Ai, (at,) a town of France, dep. of Marne. 15 m. S. j 
of Rheims; pop. 3,486. It is famous for its wine, the best | 
of the vins mousseux of Champagne. Dr. Henderson says, 
that, “ It is unquestionably an exquisite liquor, being 
lighter and sweeter than the Sillery, and accompanied 
by a delicate flavor and aroma, somewhat analogous to 
that of the pine-apple. That which merely creams on 
the surface (demi mousseux) is preferred to the full froth¬ 
ing ( grand mousseux) wine.” (History of Wines, p. 154.) 

Ayacucho, (a-ya-kot/chn,) a pruv. of S. Peru, between 
Lat. 12° and 16° S., and Lon. 72° and 76° W., bounded 
N. by Junin, E. by Cuzco, and on the S. and W. by the 
Andes. — Eitim. area , 33,2S0 sq. m.— Chief rivers, the 
Apurimac. with its many tributaries. — Towns. Hua- 
manga, (the capital,) Huancavelica, and Ayacucho. At 
the latter place, the combined Colombians’and Peruvi¬ 
ans utterly defeated the Spanish forces, 9th Dec., 1824, and 
so put an end to Spanish rule on the American continent. 

A'yall, n. [Hindoo; Sp. aya, a governess, ayo, a tutor: 
It. aja.ajo. J In India, the name given to a waiting-maid, 
or to a nurse having the charge of children. In the lat¬ 
ter capacity they are singularly remarkable for their fi¬ 
delity of attaciiment to the youthful objects of their care. 

Ayala, ( a-ya'la ,) Pedro Lopez de, a Spanish chroni¬ 
cler, b. in Murcia, 1332. He was taken prisoner by the 
Black Prince, at the battle of Najera in 1367, and sent to 
England. After his release he became councillor to 
Henry of Trastamara. .4. died in 1407. Ilia works gave a 
marked impulse to Spanish literature, and his History 
of Castile is one of the most valuable records that have 
come down to us from the Middle Ages. 

AyaillOllte, (a'ya-mon'tai,) a fortified town of Spain, 
prov. of Seville, on the E side of the embouchure of the 
Guadiana, 25 m. of Huelva. Lat. 37° 13' N.; Lon. 7° 19' 
15" W. Pop. 6,497. 



Ay ant Cause, n. [Fr., concerned in the cause.] (Law.) 
A French legal term, used in Louisiana. It signifies one 
to whom a right has been assigned, either by will, gift, 
sale, bill of exchange, or the like; an assignee.— An 
ay ant cause differs from an heir who acquires the right 
by inheritance. 

Ayasalouk', in Asia Minor. See Ephesus. 

Aye'-Aye', n.; pi. Aye-Ayes. (Zodl.) The Cheiromys 
Madagascariensis, a sin¬ 
gular quadruped (which 
in some descriptions has 
been confounded with 
the Ai, or Sloth, whose 
habits it somewhat re¬ 
sembles.) It is placed by 
Cuvier in the order Ro- 
dentia, but other natu¬ 
ralists have classed it 
with the Monkey tribe, 
from the hand-like struc¬ 
ture of its hinder feet. 

It is a native of Mada¬ 
gascar; it burrows un¬ 
der the ground, is very 
slothful, and is alto¬ 
gether a nocturnal ani¬ 
mal. It has large flat 
ears, like those of a bat, 
and a tail resembling a 


squirrel’s; but its most Rig. 252. — aye-aye. 
distinguishing peculiar¬ 
ity is the middle toe or finger of the fore-foot, the two 
last joints of which are very long, slender, and destitute 
of hair. It measures about eighteen inches from the 
nose to the tail; and its general color is a pale ferrugi¬ 
nous brown, mixed with gray. 

Aye, adv. [A.S. aa, a. or awa; Gr. aei. ever, forever; 
allied to aion, a lifetime, an age. eternity; Lat. crvum.] 
Always: ever; continually; for an indefinite time. 

For aye, always; eternally: forever. 

“The soul, though made iu time, survives for aye; 

And, though it bath beginning, sees no end." — Davies. 


13 


Aye, n.; pi. Ayes. An affirmative: one who votes in the 
affirmative; as, “the ayes have it.” This expression is 
more particular!}' applied to the voting of the members 
of the English House of Commons, whose affirmative 
voices are called “Ayes;" their negatives, “ Noes." In 
the U. States Congress, the demonstration by votes bears 
the correlative denominations of “ lea,” and “Nay." 

Aye -green, n. (Bot.) The House-leek, Sempervivum 
arboreum. — See Sempervivum. 

Ayers'burgh, iu Kansas, a post-village, former cap. 
of Ottawa co. 

Ayers'ville, in Missouri, a post-office of Putnam co. 

Ayers'ville, in North Carolina, a P 0. of Stokes co. 

Ayers'ville, in Ohio, a post-office of Defiance co. 

Ayeslia, (ai-e’sha,) or A'iXA, one of the wives of Mo¬ 
hammed, the daughter of Abu-Beker, the first caliph, and 
successor to the prophet. She was only 9 years of age 
when she married her husband. The latter loved A. 
deeply, although she bore him no issue: and he died in 
her arms. After the death of the prophet, she became 
venerated by the Moslems, who styled her “Mother of the 
Faithful." A., after an eventful life, D. in the 5Sth year 
of the llaegira, 677 A. d., aged 67. 

Ay isli Bayou, in Texas, a small stream of San Augus¬ 
tin co., intersecting it from N. to S., and emptying into 
the Angelina river. 

Ayle, n. [0. Eng. ayel, aiel; 0. Fr. ayle; Fr. ayeul, a'ieul; 
Lat. avoluavus, grandfather.] (0. ting. Law.) A grand¬ 
father.—See Besayle. 

Ayles'bury, a borough and par. of England, in the co. 
of Buckingham, 38 m. N.W. of London. It is a flourish¬ 
ing town, situate in the centre of the celebrated Vale of 
Aylesbury, one of the richest pasture and dairy districts 
in the kingdom. A. is celebrated for its ducks, of which 
vast numbers are sent to the London markets. 

AylesTortl, a town and par. of England, in the co. of 
Kent, 3 m. from Maidstone. In its vicinity is the re¬ 
markable monument called Kit’s Oity House, a kind of 
Druidical cromlech of which the origin is obscure, and 
much contested among antiquaries. 



Pig. 253. —kit’s coty house, (a Druidical cromlech.) 


Ay'lett’s, in Virginia, a post-village of King William’s 
co. on the Mattapony river, 25 m. N.E. of Richmond. 

Ayl'mer, John, an English prelate, who was tutor to 
Lady J ane Grey. On the accessi onofMary,hewas forced 
to leave his country, but found a quiet retreat amid the 
beautiful scenery of Zurich. When Queen Elizabeth 
came to the throne, he returned to England; and in 1576 
was made bishop of London. He was a very diligent 
prelate, and severe against the Puritans, for which he 
lias been severely censured by their writers; but it is 
said that he was learned in the languages, a deep divine, 
and a ready disputant. B. in Norfolk. 1521 : D.at Fulham, 
1594. An instance of the humor with which this prelate 
roused an inattentive audience while preaching, is given 
by Wood. “ When his auditory grew dull and inatten¬ 
tive, he would, with some pretty and unexpected conceit, 
move them to attention. Among the rest was — he read 
a long text in Hebrew; whereupon all seemed to listen 
what would come after such strange words, as if they 
had taken it for some conjuration; but he showed their 
folly, that, when he spake English, whereby they might 
be instructed and edified, they neglected and hearkened 
not to it; and now when he read Hebrew, which they 
understood no word of, they seemed careful and atten¬ 
tive.” 

Ayl'mer, a lake in the Northwest Territories, about 
80 m. N. of the N.E. end of Great Slave Lake. Its 
length is about 50 ra.; its breadth, 30 m. 

Ayl'mer, a post-town of Quebec, former cap. of Ottawa 
co., on Chaudiere Lake, 8 m. from Ottawa. 

Ayl'mer, a post-village of Ontario, co. of Middlesex, 
i37 m. W. S.W. of Toronto, and 30 m. from London. 

Ay me ! interj. Used instead of Ah met —In Spanish, Ay 
di mi! as, “ Ay di mi, EspaBa! ” 

Ay'mon, the surname of four brothers, called respec¬ 
tively Alard, Richard, Guiscard, and Renaud, sons of Ay- 
mon or Haimon, Count of Dordogne, who figure among 
the most illustrious heroes of the chivalric poetry of the 
Middle Ages; but their historic existence must be con¬ 
sidered problematical, as the deeds attributed to them 
possess in so large a measure a miraculous character. 
Their career belongs to the cycle of marvels of which 
Charlemagne is the central point, and their adventures 
furnished rich material to the romantic narratives of 
Italy in the 15th and 16th centuries, and, in fact, were the 


exclusive subject of some of these. A novel, entitled 
Les Quatre Pits Aymon, by liuon de Villeneuve, a 
French poet of the age of Philip Augustus, details very 
minutely their exploits. Finally, Ariosto conferred' a 
poetical immortality on the family by the publication of 
his Roland, in which Renaud, the bravest of the four 
brothers, plays continually the most distinguished part. 

Ayo'las, Juan d’, a Spanish adventurer, b. about 1480. 
Accompanying Don Pedro de Mendoza in the discovery 
of the river La Plata, he occupied Buenos Ayres with a 
number of Spaniards. Germans, and Flemings, and was 
named governor of the settlement. In an expedition up 
the La Plata. A. was informed by Gonzales Romera. a 
Portuguese survivor of Sebastian Cabot’s expedition, that 
a rich country was to be found iu the interior, and hs 
accordingly set out with 400 men’to explore the Para¬ 
guay. He took possession ot Lampere, and named it 
“Assumption,” remaining there for 6 months on friendly 
terms with the Carios Indians. He then penetrated 80 
leagues further into the country of the Payagoes, and is 
supposed to have been murdered by them. 

Ayo'ra, a town of Spain, on a river of the same name, 
in the prov. of'Valencia, 52m S.W. of Valencia; pop. 5,840. 

Ayotitan, a village of Mexico, dep. of Jalisco, 120 m. 
S.W. of Guadalaxara. 

Ayot'la, a town of Mexico, 20 m. E. of the city of Mexico. 

A.v'oubiles, or Ayyubites, the Saracenic dynasty 
founded by Saladin, which in Egypt supplanted the Fati- 
mite caliphs, about A. i). 1171. Several of the descend¬ 
ants of Saladin, known as A., afterwards ruled in Egypt, 
Syria, Armenia, and Arabia Felix. In the 13th century 
their power was destroyed by the Mamelukes. 

Ayr, (air,) a river of Scotland, wRich rises on the borders 
of Lanarkshire, and after flowing W. lor 30 m. empties 
into the Frith of Clyde, and forms the harbor of Ayr. 
This river is celebrated in the poems of Robert Burns, 
the Scottish Anacreon. 

Ayr, a county of Scotland, bounded N. by Renfrew, E. 
by the counties of Lanark and Dumfries, S.E l.y those 
of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown, and W. by the Irish 
Channel and Frith of Clyde. Area, 650,156 acres. It is 
divided into the 3 districts of Carrick, Kyle, and Cunning¬ 
ham. Soil, fertile, and producing excellent grain-crops. 
This county is especially famous for its breed of milch 
Cows. Iron and coal are abundant, and exported in great 
quantities. JYin. towns. Kilmarnock, Ayr, Ardrossan, 
Largs, Mauchline, Maybole, and Irvine. 

Ayr, a seaport and borough of Scotland, and cap. of the 
above co. is 65 m. S.W. of Edinburgh, and 30 S.S.W. of 
Glasgow. It is a fine and prosperous town. Manf. Cot¬ 
ton and carpets; iron foundries and tanneries are also 
in full work. There is here a splendid monument to the 
Scottish hero 'Wallace, consisting of a tower 115 feet 
high. Near Alloway Kirk, is still seen the cottage in 
which the poet Burns was born. (See Alloway.) A. is a 
very ancient borough, and possesses a good and com¬ 
modious harbor, with an extensive coasting-trude. Pop 
about 24.000 iu 1897. 

Ayr, in Minnesota, a post-office of Goodhue co. 

Ayr, in Pennsylvania, a township of Fulton coun¬ 
ty- 

Ay'rao, a town of Brazil, prov. of Para, 110 m. N.W. of 
Rio Negro. 

Ayr, (Point of.) the N. promontory of the Isle of Man, 
in the Irish Sea: Lat. 54° 24' 59" N.; Lon. 4° 21' 59" W. 
There is a lighthouse here with a revolving light in its 
lantern, 106 leet above the sea. 

Ay'rer, Jacob, next to Hans Sachs the most prolific and 
important German dramatic writer of the 10th century. 
His history is involved in obscurity; but it is known 
that he was a citizen of Niirnberg in 1594, and a pro¬ 
curator in the courts of law. It was not till after his 
death, in 1605, that a collection of his pieces was pub¬ 
lished, consisting of 66 tragedies, comedies, and carnival 
plays (Niirub. 1618.) A. has the same garrulous breadth 
of dialogue as Ilaus Sachs, but is inferior to him in wit 
and humor. 

Ay'ry, n. A hawk’s nest. See Aerie. 

Ayscue, or Ayscough, (ais'ku,) Sir George, an Eng¬ 
lish admiral in the service of the Commonwealth, and 
Charles II. He captured Barbadoes in 1651, and in 1658 
entered the service of the King of Sweden. Returning 
to England, he commanded in the batt.es tonglit against 
the Dutch; and in the attack on Van Tromp, lost his 
ship, and was taken prisoner to Holland. His after fate 
is unknown. 

Ay th'ya, n. (Zodl.) The Pochards, a gen. of ducks, sub¬ 
family Anatina;. It comprises two American species: 
the He- 1 -Head, A. Americana, and the Canvas-Back, A, 
vaUisneria. 

Ay ton, or Ay'toun, Sir Robert, an English poet, b. 
1570. lie was employed both by James I. and Charles I 
Burns founded his famous song of A aid Lang Syne v.por 
one of A.’e poems. D. 1638. 

Ay'toun, William Edmonstoune, d.c.l., an eminent 
English poet and dramatist, n. at Edinburgh in 1813. H« 
was called to the Scottish bar in 1840, and in 1845 was 
appointed Professor of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres in 
the University of Edinburgh. He was for years one ol 
the most brilliant contributors to “Blackwood’s Maga 
zine: ’’ but his fame rests oliiefly on his celebrated poems 
the Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers, and Bothwell. Thest 
have the true ring ofi the old martial spirit of his coun¬ 
try, and have gone through edition after edition. A. was 
also, in conjunction with Theodore Martin, one of tin 
authors of the famous Bon Gualtier Ballads, and also ol 
Pirmilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy, in which he ably satir 
ized the modern spasmodic school of poetry. D. Aug 
4, 1865. 

Ayniitamien'to, n. vl [Sp. from juntar, to join.] 
(Pol.) A name given in Spain and Spanish America te 




























206 


AZAL 


AZIM 


AZOR 


the corporations or municipal bodies of their cities, 
towns, and villages. This has ever been the most cher¬ 
ished and carefully preserved institution of the Spanish 
people, and its existence may be traced to the earliest 
period of their history. 

Ayu'tliia, in Siam. See Yuthia. 

Aziul'erine, n. ( CUem .) An alkaloid found in the root 
of the Milled azadirachta , which is useful in levers, and 
forms a crystalline salt with sulphuric acid. 

Aza'lea, n.; pi. Azaleas. [Gr. azaleas, dry, in allusion to 
its growing in dry places.] {But.) A genus of plants, 
order Ericacese, consisting of shrubs remarkable for 
the beauty and fragrance of their flowers, on which 
account they are generally cultivated. By some botanists, 
the genus is esteemed the same as Rhododendron; and 
it must be confessed that it is difficult to point out any 
positive character, except the thin and generally decidu¬ 
ous leaves, by which the A. may be distinguished from 
the Rhododendron. It will, however, bo more conform¬ 
able to popular usage if we speak of them apart; and 
as the subject is of general interest, we shall do so at 
some length. — The species are not very numerous; but 
the varieties have of late years been so exceedingly mul¬ 
tiplied, and rendered so excessively intricate, as to be 
almost bewildering. No fancy ornamental shrub has 
been more profusely kaleidoscoped by the recent and 
powerful appliances of scientific culture. The Clammy 
species, A. viscosa, formerly called the white A., and of 
which we have about 100 varieties, is a native of N. 
America, and is found in rocky woods from Canada to 
Georgia. From its root rise several slender brown stems 
to the height of about I feet. I ts leaves are spear-shaped, 
narrow at the base, rough in the border, and grow in 
clusters. Its flowers come out between the leaves, and 
terminate the branches: they diffuse an agreeable fra¬ 
grance; they closely resemble in their form the flowers 
of the honeysuckle, each having a tube of nearly an 
inch in length, divided at the top into 5 segments, 2 of 
which are reflexed; they are white, with a yellowish 
exterior in the normal plant, but are red in two of the 
varieties, and variegated in some others, and they bloom 
in July.—The Naked Flowered species, A. nudijiora, for¬ 
merly called the Red A., is also a native of N. America, 
and is widely spread over forests throughout the U. States. 
About 50 varieties are known. Its stems rise, and its 
flowers are formed like those of the preceding species; 
its leaves are oval, smooth, and entire, and are placed 
alternately on the branches; and its flowers appear in 
May and June, are produced in clusters on long, naked 
footstalks, from the sides of the branches, and are red 
in the normal plant, but exhibit the various hues of 
pink, scarlet, blush, and even white in the several vari¬ 
eties.—The Marigold-like species, A. calendulacea , about 
4 feet high, and with twelve varieties, produce severally 
yellow, orange, saffron-colored, or red flowers in May 
and June. — Thu Pontic species, A. pontica, is a native 
of Turkey, is 6 feet high, and has about 10 varieties. 
It produces yellow, white, and copper-colored flowers, 
some in May and June, and others from March till May. 
The Canescent species, A. canescens, grows to the height 
of 3 feet, and produces red flowers. The Arborescent, 
A. arborescens, produces red flowers in July, and attains 
a height of 10 to 20 feet. The Showy species, A. speciosa, 
has been multiplied into a number of varieties, most of 
which carry red, scarlet, or orange-colored flowers. All 
the preceding species are hardy and deciduous, and, ex¬ 
cepting the Pontic, are natives of N. America. But the 
Indian species, A. indica, is an evergreen, and a native 
of China, and requires, in temperate countries, a green¬ 
house culture. — The Chinese species, A. sinensis, is also 



a tender evergreen, and produces yellow flowers. An¬ 
other, and a more recently introduced species, which has 
been called Banielsiana, is also an evergreen, and a 


native of China, and produces flowers of a carmine color. 
The Indian and the Shining species are propagated from 
cuttings in peat and loam, aud all the other species are 
propagated from layers, or by the dividing of the root. 
The young shoots selected for layers must be slit and 
laid down, in the same manner as the layers of carna¬ 
tions : when the layers have struck good root, they may 
be removed into the nursery, and planted in lines at a 
small distance from each other, there to stand during at 
least one year preparatory to final planting. The best 
season for layering is autumn. After a plant has stood 
during a few years, it throws up many stems, aud some 
of these may easily be taken off with a portion of root 
at each, and planted either in the nursery ground, or in 
places where they are to remain. All the A. love a dry 
situation, and they are most at home in a soil of peat 
and loam or sandy peat. 

Aza lia, in Indiana , a post-village of Bartholomew co., 
on the E. fork of White River, 51 m. S.S.E. of Indianapolis. 

Azanior', a fortified seaport of Morocco, on the Atlan¬ 
tic, 122 m. N.N.W. of Morocco; at the mouth of the 
river Morbeya, 8 m. N.E. of Mazagau. Lat. 33° 17' 37" 
N.; Lon. 83 la' W. Pop. about 2,000. 

Aza'ni, an ancient city of Phrygia, on the Edrenos, 
(RUyudacus.) The small modern village of Tjandere- 
Hiss ir, 22 in. W. by S. of ICutalch, is built on its ruins. 
The latter, which are very fine, consist of two bridges 
connected byasuperb quay, with a temple and a theatre, 
the latter being 232 ft. in diameter. 

Aza'ra, Don Felix i»e, a Spanish author and traveller, 
b. 1746. His work entitled Descripcion y Hisloria del 
Paraguay, y del Rio de la Plata, was published at Mad¬ 
rid, in 2 vols., 1847. It is considered an authority on the 
natural history of Paraguay, aud of the countries on the 
Plate. D. 1811. 

Azari'all, a king of Judah (2 Kings xv. 1-7), also called 
Uzziah (2 CUr. xxvi.) He began to reign at 10 years of 
age, B. c. 806. The first part of his reign was prosperous 
and happy; but afterwards, presuming to offer incense in 
the Temple, he was smitten with leprosy, and continued a 
leper till his death (2 CUr. xxvi. 1(1-23).—This name was 
very common among the Jews, and was borne by many 
who are briefly referred to in Scripture. 

Az'arole, n. [Fr. azerole.] {Bot.) The Cratcegus azarolus, 
a shrub of the genus Crat^gus, q. v. 

Azcoi'tia, a town of Spain, prov. of Biscay, 20 m. from 
Tolosa. Pop. about 4,000. 

Aze'g-lio, Massimo Taparelli, Marquis an Italian 
author, artist, diplomatist, aud statesman, b. at Turin, 
1801, was the descendant of an ancient aud noble Pied¬ 
montese family. At the age of fourteen ho was excom¬ 
municated for an assault upon his teacher, who was an 
ecclesiastic. In 1816 he accompanied his father to Rome, 
and there occupied his time principally with painting 
aud music. Ho was already favorably known as a 
painter, when, in 1830, he went to Milan, married the 
daughter of Manzoni, the great novelist, and wrote sev¬ 
eral romances. The earliest of these was Ettore Pieru- 
mosca, published in 18o3, which, conceived in the style 
of Manzoni, and full of patriotic sentiments, was re¬ 
ceived with great enthusiasm. His next romance, JVic- 
colij de’ Lapi, published eight years afterwards, became 
equally popular, and is esteemed, by Italian critics, the 
best historical novel in any language. Deeply imbued 
with the spirit of Italian nationality, in 18-t2 A. aban¬ 
doned his favorite pursuits, and with his friends Balbo 
and Gioberti lie made a tour through the provinces 
of Italy, awakening the revolutionary spirit which 
troubled the last years of Gregory' XVI. After the revo¬ 
lution of 1&48 he supported the cause of (he king of Pied¬ 
mont, and, at the head of tho Papal troops, fought 
against the Austrians at Vicenza, where ho was wounded. 
In 1849, Victor Emmanuel appointed him president of the 
cabint t of ministers, an office he undertook solely out of 
love for his king and country, and which ho resigned in 
1852 to his political adversary Count Cavour. In 18o9, 
alter the peace of \ illafranca, lie undertook a confiden¬ 
tial mission as ambassador-extraordinary to England; 
aud was afterwards appointed governor of the city of 
Milan. Ilis failing health, his love of art, and some dif¬ 
ferences of opinion with his colleagues, caused him, how¬ 
ever, to withdraw finally from public life. D. Jan. 15,1806. 

Azeliah, (Anc. Ceng.) a town of Judah, lying in the 
low land, near Socoli. (Jos. xv. 35). Between A. and 
Socoh the Philistines encamped before the battle in 
which Goliath was killed (1 Sam. xvii. 1). It was forti¬ 
fied by Rehoboam (2 CUr. xi. 9), was still standing at the 
invasion of Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. xxxiv. 7), and was re¬ 
occupied by the Jews after the captivity (A’e/i. xi. 30). 
The site of A. is possibly found at Tell-zakartya, a hill 
near Ain-shems (Beth-Shemesh). 

Azerbi'Jan, in Persia. See Aderbeitzan. 

A'zergue. See Azrek. 

Azeve'cio-Contin'lio, Marcos, a Brazilian traveller, 
b. in the 16th century, lie was an intrepid explorer of 
the virgin solitudes of Brazil; and, in 1596, is said to 
have discovered the famous emerald mine, during an ex¬ 
pedition known under the name of Jornada das Esme- 
raldas. D. in the early part of the 17th century. 

Az'iin-E<l-I>o\vlali-Iialia<loor'. the last titular 
Nabob of the Carnatic, in Hindostan; B. 1770; d. 13th Aug., 
1S19. 

Azirtigliiir, ( a'zim-gur’,) an inland town of Hindos¬ 
tan, in the British presidency of Bengal, prov. of Allaha¬ 
bad, cap. of a district of its own name; 40 m. N.N.E. of 
Benares, in 26° 6' N. Lat.; Lon. 83° 10'. Cotton stuffs are 
largely fabricated here. A. was ceded to the English by 
the Nabob of Oude, in 1801. 

Azimuth, n. [Ar. As-samt; from al, the, and samt, 
way, road, path, tract, country, quarter.] {Astrnn.) The 
A. of a body is an arc measured on the horizon, in¬ 


tercepted between the meridian or circle through the 
zenith of the place and the poles, aud a circle through 
the zenith, the nadir, aud the given body. The altitude 
of the body is measured along this circle, upwards from 
the nearest point where it meets the horizon. It is evi¬ 
dent. that, when we have given the altitude and A. ol a 
star at any given moment, we shall be able to point out 
its exact position in the sky.— A. Circles are those which 
extend from zenith to nadir, cutting the horizon at right 
angles, or those in which all the points have the same 
Azimuth.— For A. Compass and A. Dial, see Compass and 
Su'’-Dial 

Azimuthal. a. Relating to the azimuth. 

Azlncotirf, in France. See Agincodut. 

Azniei'i^iiii^e, ( az'mer-i-goonj an inland town ol 
Hindostan, in the British presidency and prov. of Bengal, 
beyond the Brahmapootra, in the district of Sylhet, 55 
in. N.E. of Dacca; Lat. 24° 33' N.; Lon. 91° 5' E. 

Azo'pt>enzi<lc, n. (CUem.) A red oil, solidifying to a 
crystalline mass; obtained at the close of the distillation 
of uitrobenzole with water, iron filings, and acetic acid. 
Form. C 12 H 5 N. 

AzobenzoitC'ine, n. (CUem.) Colorless, transparent, 
oblique crystals; nearly insoluble in alcohol, and little 
soluble in ether. Obtained by acting for some time in 
distilled bitter almonds with ammonia. 

Azabenzoi'lide, n. (CUem.) White powder or plates, 
obtained by heating oil of bitter almonds with ammonia, 
and treating the brown viscid mass formed with alcohol 
and ether. This compound remains : Form. C 28 H 11 N,N 2 . 

Azobenzoyle', n. (CUem.) White tasteless powder; 
soluble in luo boiling alcohol; insoluble in water; ob¬ 
tained by adding to crude oil of bitter almonds an equal 
volume of caustic ammonia, and allowing it to stand for 
a month; a yellow resinous mass results. Boiling ether 
takes up hydrobenzamide. and leaves azobenzoyle and 
801116 azotide of beuzoyle, which is separated by boiling 
alcohol. Form. C^IIigNg. 

A'zof, Az'off, Az'opf, or Az'ov, (Sea of.) (anc. Palus 
Ma'olis,) an inland sea in the S.E. quarter of Europe. It 
communicates by the narrow sea of Yenikali (anc. Bos¬ 
phorus CimmeriusK with the N.E. angle of the Black 
Sea, and is everywhere else surrounded by the Russian 
territories. It is of very irregular shape, its greatest 
length being about 235 m. from N.E. to S.W., with a 
maximum breadth of 110. Area, 14,000 sq. m. Where 
deepest, it has abuut 7 fathoms water. A. teems with 
fish, the trade in which is both extensive and valuable. 

'J he navigation opens early in April, and terminates at 
tbo end of Nov. During the rest of the year it is ice¬ 
bound. The coasting trade of this sea has nearly trebled 
itself since the Crimean war. During this war, A. was 
the scene of some important naval operations. An allied 
expedition, 15.000 strong, composed of English, French, 
and Turkish troops of all arms, with 5 batteries of artil¬ 
lery, arrived oil' Kertch, on the 24tli May, 1855. The 
Russians blew up their fortifications on both sides of the 
Straits, destroyed 3 steamers, and several heavy-armed 
vessels, aud large quantities of ammunition, provisions, 
and stores. The chief Russian positions were captured, 
a small garrison was left at Kertch and Yenikale, and the 
expedition returned to Sebastopol on the 12th June.— 
See Putrid Sea. 

A'zof, a town of Russia in Europe, prov. of Ekaterinoe* 
lar,near the N.E. extremity of tlie above sea, to which 
it gives its name, and about 20 111 . from the mouth of the 
Dun. It is the anc. I'anais, a Greek colony mentioned by 
Strabo. In the Middle Ages it was called Tuna by the 
Genoese, and received its present name from the Turks, 
who took possession of it in 1474. A. lias been in the 
possession of Russia since 1774. The sand and mud of 
the liver having obstructed its port, the trade of A. lias 
been transferred to Taganrog, and it is now but a poor 
place. It was bombarded by an allied French and Eng¬ 
lish squadron in 1855. Pop. (1895) 18,738. 

Azoic, a. [Gr. a, priv., and zoe, life.] Destitute of or¬ 
ganic lile. The azoic period of the geologists is that be¬ 
fore any living being appeared. 

Azo'leic Aeid. (CUem.) An oily fluid, insoluble in 
water; soluble in boiling nitric acid, and re-precipitated 
by water. Obtained from the oily substance which swims 
after the treatment of olive oil with nitric acid, by boil¬ 
ing with alcoholic sulphuric acid. 

Azolit'mine, n. (CUem.) A dark-red substance, which 
is the principal coloring matter of the litmus. It differs 
from orceine by its insolubility in alcohol. Form. Ci 8 Hi 0 
NOiq. 

Azolla, n. [Gr. azo, to make dry, and oUymi, to kill; 
as the plants speedily die when taken from the water.] 
(Bot.) A genus of plants, ord. Marsiteacece. The species 
A. Carnliniana is a small plant, resembling some of the 
mosses, floating in still or sluggish waters; found in the 
Northern and Western States. Its leaves are arranged in 
two rows upon the rhizona, imbricated, spreading, fleshy; 
the floating ones reddish underneath. 

Azoodyna'mia, n. [Gr. a, priv., zoe, life, and dtp 
namis, strength.] Privation or diminution of the vital 
powers. 

Azores, (The,) ( d-zores ',) or Western Islands, an ar¬ 
chipelago of nine islands, belonging to Portugal, from 
which it is about 100 m. distant, occupying a line of 
about 100 leagues from E.S.E. to W.S.W.. between 36° 
59' and 39° 44' N. Lat., ami 31° 7' and 25° 10' W. Lon. 

It is divided into 3 subordinate groups, forming a super¬ 
ficies of 715 sq. in. The 1st, lying at the W.N.W. ex-i 
treinity of the archipelago, includes Flores and Corvo; 
the 2d. or central, Fayal, Pico, St. George, Graciosa, and 
Terceira; and the 3d, at the E.S.E. extremity, St. Mi¬ 
chael’s, (the largest of the whole,) and St. Mary’s. The 
name ( llhos Uos Azores) is said to be derived from the 
vast number of hawks, (J'ulco milvus,) called by the 













AZTE 


AZTE 


AZZ A 


207 


satires afor, by which they were frequented at the period 
of their discovery. These islands seem to be of compara¬ 
tively recent formation. Their general aspect is pictu¬ 
resque and bold, presenting for the most part an irregu¬ 
lar succession of isolated, conical, or acuminated hills, 
with table-lands rising from 2,000 to 5,000 ft. in height. 
The former are separated by valleys, and the latter by tre¬ 
mendous chasms or ravines. The whole are bounded by 
magnificent natural precipices rising abruptly from 
the sea. The Peak of Pico, 7,613 feet above the sea, is 



Fig. 255. — peak of pico. 


the highest elevation in these islands. When seen from a 
distance at sea, it appears like an isolated cone in the 
midst of the ocean. The A. are subject to severe earth¬ 
quakes, but the climate is, on the whole, excellent. The 
finest oranges and fruits are produced, as well as all sorts 
of cereals, sugar-canes, coffee, tobacco, Ac. Industry and 
agriculture are, however, but little practised, owing 
partly to the indolence, as well as ignorance, of the na¬ 
tives. The principal exports are oranges, wine, brandy, 
Ac. The A. are governed by a Portuguese viceroy, 
whose seat of government is at Angra, in Terceira, al¬ 
though Ponte Delgada, in >t. Michael’s, is the principal 
town. The chief port of the A. is Fayal. Pop. 313,572. 
The A. are said to have been discovered about 1430: and 
in 1448 they were taken formal possession of by Prince 
Henry of Portugal. Alphonso V. gave them, in 1466, to 
his sister, the Duchess of Burgundy, and they were then 
colonized by the Dutch. In 1580, they were surrendered 
to Spain. The English, under the Earl of Essex and Sir 
Walter Raleigh, failed in an attempt to capture them in 
1597. In 1640, they reverted to Portugal, in whose pos¬ 
session they remain. 

Azo'rian, n. A native or an inhabitant of the Azores, 
or Western Islands. 

—a. Pertaining to the Azores, or to their inhabitants. 

Azote', n. [Gr. a, not, and zoe, life.] ( Chem.) The old 
name tor nitrogen. Nitrogen was so called from being 
destructive to life; but as numerous other gases have 
the same properties, the word has been almost given upf 
by English chemists, except in such words as azotizexl, 
azobenzole, Ac. The French, however, still use A., azo- 
tique, azotate, Ac., for nitrogen, nitric acid, and nitrate. 
See Nitrogen. 

Azote'a. n. [Sp.] (Arch.) The name given to the flat 
roof which characterizes the house-tops in Mexican and 
Spanish-American cities. 

Azot ic, and Azo'tous Acids. ( Chem.) Synonyms 
of Nitric and Nitrous Acids, q. v. 

Az'otite, n. (Chem.) A Nitrite, q. v. 

Az'otizc. v. a. To impregnate with azote, or nitrogen. 

Az'otized bodies. (Chem.) Substances.containing 
nitrogen. 

Azpeytia, or Azpeitia, ( ath-pi'te-a ,) a walled town of 
Spain, prov. of Guipuscoa, 15 m. S.W. of San Sebastian. 
Man/. Iron utensils, and shoes. Jasper quarries lie in 
the vicinity. About a mile from A. was born Ignatius 
Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits, or Order of Jesus. 
Pop. about 5,0i;0. 

Az'rael, n. The name given to the Angel of Death by 
the Mohammedans. 

Az'rclt, (Bahr-El,) or the Blue River, the principal 
stream of Abyssinia, which, after a winding course 
through Abyssinia and Sennaar, falls into the Nile above 
Gerri. 

Az'tnlan, in Wisconsin, a post-village and township of 
Jefferson co., on Rock River, 50 m. W. of the city of 
Milwaukee. 

Az'tecs, n. pi. The name of the predominant tribe in 
a powerful Indian confederacy which, at the period of 
the Spanish conquest, controlled the inhabitants of the 
Valley of Mexico and had extended its conquests over 
a wide exterior territory. According to tradition, they 
migrated from Aztlan, somewhere in the North, to 
Mexico, where they conquered the earlier and more 
advanced Toltecs, and about 1325, or perhaps a century 
eailier, founded the city of Tenochtitlan (Mexico). 
Here they made considerable progress in the arts of 
civilization, derived in part from the Toltecs. In con¬ 
federation with the Tezcucaus and the Tlacopans (hey 
entered upon a career of conque.-t, and were rapidly 
extending their dominion at the time of the Spanish 
invasion, the territory subject to them reaching from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific. In 1519 they were assailed 
by the Spaniards under Cortez, their capital occupied, 
their monarch, Montezuma II, taken captive and killed, 
and their whole country made a Spanish province. 
Under the Spanish rule ilie peculiar civilization of the J 
people quickly disappeared, and the hieroglyphic manu¬ 


scripts, which they possessed in great numbers, and 
which might have proved of great archaeological value, 
were nearly all destroyed. The 
Aztecs were fierce in war and 
cruel in their religious obser¬ 
vances, the object of their wars 
being largely the capture of 
prisoners, whom it was their 
custom to offer in sacrifice to 
their stern God of War. The 
victim was stretched on a huge 
altar-stone, his breast cut open 
and his bleeding heart torn 
out and cast at the feet of the 
deity to whom the temple was 
consecrated. The body of the 
j* victim was served up by his 
captor in an entertainment to 
his friends. This cruel custom 
rapidly grew, till in the end it 
is said that from 20,000 to 
50,000 prisoners were sacri¬ 
ficed anuually. It is prob- From, old Mexican painting. 
able, however, that these 

numbers are exaggerated.— Government. The govern¬ 
ment was an elective monarchy, the new sovereign 
being selected from the brothers or nephews of the 
deceased king. The kingship was thus confined to one 
family.— Industries. The Aztecs were active agricultur¬ 
ists, cultivating in particular maize and the agave plant, 
which supplied them with food, drink and clothing. 
They had no animals of draught, yet had considerable 
proficiency in the art of cultivating the ground. Iron 
was unknown to them and was replaced by bronze, 
of which their tools and weapons were made. The 
mechanic arts were considerably advanced, and they 
showed much skill and dexterity in the working of the 
precious metals. They were skilled, also, in the making 
of pottery and of woven fabrics, while in their splendid 
feather work the gorgeous plumage of tropical birds 
was effectively laid on cotton cloth, in tasteful and 
brilliant designs. Some of their metal vessels imitated 
natural forms so neatly that the feathers of a bird, or 
the scales of a fish, were reproduced by alternate layers 
of gold and silver. Mining was largely conducted; 
silver, lead, tin and copper being obtained from gal¬ 
leries sunk into the rocks. Though iron ore was 
abundant, that metal was unknown, but their bronze 
was made so hard that it served many of the purposes 



AZTEC TEMPLE SCULPTURE. 

of steel .—Arts and Sciences. The picture-writing prac¬ 
ticed by many American tribes had become, in the 
hands of the Aztecs, a low form of hieroglyphic writ¬ 
ing, inferior to that of the Egyptians in development. 
Their paper was prepared from cotton cloth and from 
a composition of silk and gum, but was principally a 
fine fabric made from aloe leaves, which was softer and 
more beautiful than parchment. The characters w p ere 
made by persons instructed in the art, the manuscripts 
being formed into volumes somewhat like a book in 
shape. Multitudes of these were destroyed by the Span¬ 
ish priests, very few escaping their destructive hands. 
The Aztecs had a simple system of notation, the larger 
numbers being reckoned by twenties, with separate 
signs for the square and the cube of twenty. But it 
was in chronology that they had made the most pro¬ 
gress, the true length of the year being calculated by 
them with great precision. Their year was divided into 
eighteen months of twenty days each, with five com¬ 
plementary days to complete the full number. The 
month was divided into four weeks of five days each. 
This left each year a loss of nearly six hours, but of 
this they were well aware, and at the end of every 
fifty-two years they!added thirteen (or, more probably, 
twelve and a half) days. This made their calendar so 
nearly correct that it would lose only one day in more 


than five centuries. This fifty-two year period was a 
solemn religious era to them, and its eud was made the 
occasion of a remarkable festival. They feared that 
the world would be destroyed at the end of some one of 
these epochs, and when the five “unlucky days” that 
closed the year arrived they gave themselves up to grief 
and despair, breaking the images of their household 
gods, permitting the holy fires to go out in the temples, 
destroying their garments and furniture, and otherwise 
preparing for the expected coming of the evil genii. 
On the waning of the final day the priests moved in 
solemn procession to the top of a neighboring moun¬ 
tain, taking with them a noble victim, whom they 
sacrificed at the exact hour of midnight. Sticks were 
placed on his breast, and by the rubbing together of 
these a new fire was kindled. By this was lighted a 
funeral pyre, on which the body of the victim was 
placed. As the flames flashed up and met the eyes of 
the countless multitudes who gazed from afar upou the- 
mountain summit, wild shouts of joy rose upon all 
6ides. The hour was past, the sacrifice accepted, all. 
was well again. Couriers, lighting torches at this holy 
flame, bore it with all speed throughout the kingdom, 
and long before the sun arose the new fire was blazing, 
on altar and hearthstone long miles away from the 
temple of sacrifice. The succeeding thirteen days were 
given over to thanksgiving and festivity, it being felt 
that the world had won a new lease of existence.— 
Sctdpture and Architecture. The Aztecs had marked pro¬ 
ficiency in the arts of sculpture and architecture, their 
sculptures in particular being so numerous that we are 
told that the foundations of the cathedral in the great 
square of Mexico are entirely composed of them. The- 
forms of animals were delineated with great accuracy, 
but the human figure was represented by them in gro¬ 
tesque or hideous forms. The most remarkable exist¬ 
ing example of Aztec sculpture is the great Calendar- 
stone, an immense block of carved stone dug up in the- 
great square of Mexico in 1790. The theory that the 
inscriptions on this stone represent the Aztec calendar 
ia now questioned, it being considered simply a votive 
offering. Of their architecture few traces remain. Some 
of the bases of their temples exist, they being solid 
structures of stone or brick, somewhat like the Egyp¬ 
tian pyramids in form. They were in four or five 
stories, with a terrace at the base of each story, while 
temples and altars crowned the lop. Oue of these, at 
Cholula, is 1400 feet square at the base and more than 
160 feet high. The Aztec state was a mere aggregation of 
conquered tribes, held together by terror. This was the 
main cause of its rapid fall, the Spaniards gaining allies 
among the tribes, whom they reduced to servitude after 
their conquerers had been subjugated. Thus was estab¬ 
lished that heartless despotism which in afew centuries 
destroyed every trace of a once flourishing civilization 
and reduced its subjects to a state of abject slavery. 

Azuu I VaI <U), (a’zu(r)n), a lovely valley in the S. of 
France, termed the Eden of the Pyrenees, reaching the 
base of the Pic du Midi, and crossing by an important 
road into Spain. 

Azure, (dzh'ur or d'zhur,) a. [Fr. azur, from Ar. azrak, 
or Per. azruk, blue.] Uf alight clear blue; sky-colored; 
cerulean. 

— n. The fine blue color of the sky. — See Set. 

—Poetically, the sky itself; the blue vault above. 

(Paint.) A sky-colored blue, a color made of lapis- 
lazuli, called ultramarine, and held in great estimation 
by painters. — See Ultramarine. 

(Her.) The blue color represented in engravings by 
lines drawn horizontally on the escutcheon, and paraiiel 
to the chief, as seen in the escutcheon of the house of 
Bourbon, which occupies the centre of the armorial es¬ 
cutcheon of Spain, in fig. 193. — Azure signifies justice, 
perseverance, and vigilance. French heralds rank thi* 
color before gules. 

Az'ure, v. a. To color blue. 

Az'ured. p. a. Colored blue; as, “The pure azured 
heaven.” 

Az'ure Spar, n. (Min.) See Lazulite. 

Az'urine, a. Azure. “ Dark azurine.” — Hackluyt. 

Az'urite, n. (Min.) A monocliuic mineral, lustre vit¬ 
reous, almost adamantine. Color. Various shades of 
azure-blue, passing iuto Berlin-blue. Streak, blue 
lighter than the color. Transparent, subtranslucent. 
Couchoidal fracture, brittle. Found in the U. States. 
Comp. Carbonic acid 25 6, oxide of copper 69-2, water 
6-2 = 100. 

Az'ygos, Azygous, a. [Gr. a, priv., and zygos, a 
yoke; i.e., that has no lellow.j (Anat.) A term applied 
to several single muscles, veins, bones, Ac.; as the A. 
uvulae, a muscle inserted into the tips of the uvula, the 
use of which is to raise the uvula upwards and forwards, 
and to shorten it; and the A. vein, situated in the right 
cavity of the thorax, upon the dorsal vertebra. It re¬ 
ceives the blood from the vertebral, intercostal, bron¬ 
chial, pericardial, and diaphragmatic veins, and evacuates 
it into the vena cava superior. 

Az'ynte, Azy'mus, n. [Gr. azymos, without ferment, 
unleavened.] (Fed. Hist.) A term much used in the 
violent controversies between the Roman and Greek 
Catholics, the former of whom contend that the bread, 
in the mass, ought to be azyinus; a very important 
matter indeed! 

Az'yinite, «. [Fr. azymite.] (Eccl. Hist.) One of a 
Christian sect who administered the Eucharist with un¬ 
leavened bread. 

Az'ymoiis, a. Unleavened; unfermented. 

See Azyme. 

Az'zah. (Anc. Geog.) The same as Gaza, q. v. 

Azzano (Castcl «’), (ath-a'no,) a village of N. Italy,. 
5 m. from Verona, where, in May, 1799, the French d*- 
feated the Austrians. 




















































A—SECTION II. 


ABER 


Abbe, Cleveland, M.A., t’li.l)., LL.D., meteorologist 

‘ and astronomer, born in New York City, Deo. 3.1838; 
studied engineering and astromony at Ann Arbor; was 
aide on the coast survey under Dr. B. A. Gould, 1860- 
64; and studied at the Pulkowa Observatory, Russia, 
1864-66. On his return he assisted at the Naval Obser¬ 
vatory, Washington; in 1868 became director of the 
'Grucinnati Observatory; and in 1871 entered the 
'Weather Bureau, under Gen. Meyer. In this service he 
has since continued. He devised the present system 
■of standard time His scientific writings have been 
numerous and valuable, and he is a member of the 
National Academy and other learned bodies. 

Abbey, Edwin Austin, painter and illustrator, born in 
Philadelphia in 1852, and studied in the Academy of 
Tine Arts of that city. He has been prolific as an illus¬ 
trator of books and periodicals, and is noted as a story- 

i 'teller in illustration. Is also skillful as a water-color 
msioter. He has resided in England since 1883. 

Abbot, Henry Larcom, U. S. Army officer, born at 
Beverly, Mass., Aug. 13, 1831, graduated at West Point 
1854, and served through the civil war. In 1865 he was 
made brevet colonel and brigadier-general U. S. A., and 
brevet major-general U.S.Y. After the war he engaged 
in active engineering service, and became a member of 
the leading scientific associations of this country. Re- 

T ceived the degree of LL.D. from Harvard in 1886. 
Retired for age Aug. 13,1895. 

Abbott, Emma A., a popular opera singer, b. in Chi¬ 
cago, Dec. 9,1849. Became soprano in a church in New 
York, which sent her to Paris for study of singing and 
acting. Here she married E. J. Wetherill in 1874. On 
her return to the U. S. she organized the “Emma 
Abbott Opera Company,” which travelled widely and 
had great success. She died Jan. 5,1891, at Salt Lake 
City, while on a professional tour. 

Abbott, Jacob, a popular writer, b. at Hallowell, Me., 
Nov. 14, 1803; graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820, 
and in theology at Andover in 1824. He was occupied 
in educational duties till 1834, and as pastor of the Eliot 
Church in Roxbury till 1836. His subsequent life was 
spent in the writing of juvenile fiction, of which Ins 
most popular productions were The Rollo Books and 
The Franconia Stories. D. at Farmingham, Me., Oct. 
31,1879. 

Abbott, John Stevens Cabot, brother of Jacob, was 
born at Brunswick, Me., Sept. 18,1805, was graduated 
at Bowdoin in 1825 and in theology at Andover in 1829. 
He wrote a number of popular historical works, of 
•which the best known is his eulogistic History of Napo¬ 
leon Bonaparte. D. at Fair Haven, Conn., June 17,1877. 

Abbott, Lyman, a nephew of the preceding, h. at Rox¬ 
bury, 1835, graduated at N. Y. University in 1853, aban¬ 
doned the legal profession for that of theology, and 
after filling two pastoral charges in the Congregational 
Church and serving for two or three years as Genpral 
Secretary of the Freedmen’s Commision, he relinquished 
the duties of the ministry in 1869, and devoted himself 
to literary pursuits. Among his chief writings are an 
elaborate life of Christ under the title of Jesus of Nazareth 
41869); Old Testament Shadows of New Testament Truths 
(1870); and Morning and Ereuing Exercises (1871). In 
1870 he commenced the editorship of the Illustrated 
Christian Weekly , and in 1876 of The Christian Union, 
now The Outlook. In 1888 he resumed his pastoral 
duties, succeeding Henry Ward Beecher as pastor of 
Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. He edited Beecher's ser¬ 
mons in 1868, and in 1883 published a sketch of the 
life of Henry Ward Beecher. In 1890 he published a 
series of Lowell lectures on The Evolution of Christianity. 

Ab'ercrombie, John Joseph, soldier, b. in Tennessee, 
1798; graduated at West Point, 1822; served in the 
Black Hawk, Seminole and Mexican wars, and in the 
civil war as brigadier-general of volunteers. Breveted 
brigadier-general, U. S. A., in 1865, and retired from 
active service. D. at Roslyn, N. Y., Jan. 3,1877. 

Aberdeen', in South Dakota, a city, cap. of Brown co. 
The trade centre of a rich agricultural district. Has a 
water power from artesian wells, and various industries. 
Pop. (1898) 3,520. 

Aberdeen', in Washington, a town of Chehalip co., 
Lumbering and salmon fishing are important in¬ 
dustries. Pop. (1898) 2,100. 

Ab'ernetby, James, F. R. S. E., civil engineer, horn at 
Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1815. From 1842 to 1852 he was 
surveying officer to the Admiralty, and reported upon 
many important engineering works. Hydraulic power 
wa° first applied by bim in the working of lock-gates 


at Swansea, and in 1850, as chief engineer, he completed 
the Birkenhead docks, built Laird’s ship-building yards, 
&c. He subsequently performed various important works 
of engineering iu Europe and England, including the 
Hull docks iu the Humber. In 1877 lie directed the 
works at Lake Aboukir, Egypt, by which 20,000 acres 
were reclaimed. In 1882 he became consulting eu- 
gineer of the Manchester Ship Canal, whose construc¬ 
tion he had advised. He became a member of the 
Institute of Civil Engineers in 1844 and its president 
in 1881. 

Ab'ilene. in Texas, a flourishing town, cap. of Taylor co. 

Pop. in 1890, 3,194; in 1897, over 6,000. 

Ab'ilone. ». (Zonl ) A gastropod shell-fish of the order 
Haliotis, which has au ear-shaped, flattened, slightly 
spiral shell, with a series of perforations toward the 
outer edge of the back. The shell is used largely for 
inlaying, and for making buttons, beads, &c., while the 
animal is dried and used for food. 

Abiogenesis, n. (a-be-o-f in' e-sis.) [From Gr. a, priva¬ 
tive, bios, life, and genesis, generation.] (Physiol.) A 
mechanical theory of life, or of spontaneous generation, 
as often connected with the Darwinian doctrine of evo¬ 
lution, which has been stated as follows by Prof. Ernst 
Haeckel, of Jena. “1. The forms of organisms, and of 
their organs, result entirely from life, and simply from 
the interaction of two physiological functions, heredity 
and adaptation. 2. Heredity is a part of the reproduc¬ 
tion ; adaptation,on the other hand,apart of the main¬ 
tenance of the organism. These two physiological 
functions depend, as do all forms of vital activity, on 
the character of the physiological organs through 
which they come into play. 3. The physiological or¬ 
gans of the organism are either simple plastids (cytods 
or cells), or they are parts of plastids (e. g., nuclei of 
cells, cilia of protoplasm), or they are built up of nu¬ 
merous plastids (the majority of organs). In all these 
cases the forms and actions of the organs are to be 
traced back to the forms and actions of the individual 
plastids. 4. Plastids are either simple cytods (struc¬ 
tureless bits of protoplasm without nuclei)or cells; but 
since these last have originally arisen from cytods by 
a differentiation of the inner ‘ nucleus ’ and the outer 
‘protoplasm,’ the forms and vital properties of all 
plastids can be traced back to the simplest cytods as 
their starting-point. 5. The simplest cytods, from 
which all other plastids (cytods and cells) originally 
have arisen by heredity and adaptation, consist essen¬ 
tially and absolutely of nothing more than a bit of 
structureless protoplasm — an albuminoid, nitrogenous 
carbon compound: all other components of plastids 
have been originally formed secondarily from proto¬ 
plasm (plasma products). 6. The simplest independent 
organisms which we know, and which, moreover, can 
he conceived, the monera, consist, in fact, while living, 
of nothing else but the simplest cytod, a structureless 
bit of protoplasm ; and since they exhibit all forms of 
vital activity (nutrition, reproduction, irritability, 
movement), these vital activities are here clearly 
bound on tc structure’ess protoplasm. 7. Protoplasm, 
or germinal matter ( Bildungsstnff), also called cell-sub¬ 
stance or primitive slime ( Urschleim), is therefore the 
single material basis ( materielle Grundlage) to which, 
without exceptiou and absolutely, all so-called ‘vital 
phenomena’ are radically bound. If the latter are re¬ 
garded as the result of a peculiar vital force indepen¬ 
dent of the protoplasm, then necessarily also must the 
physical and chemical properties of every inorganic 
natural body hi? regarded as the result of a peculiar 
force not bound up with its substance. 8. The pro¬ 
toplasm of all plastids is, like all other albuminoid 
or protein bodies, composed of four inseparable ele¬ 
ments— carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, to 
which often, though not always, a fifth element — 
namely, sulphur — is added. 9. The forms and vital 
properties of protoplasm are conditioned by the pecu¬ 
liar manner iu which carbon lias combined itself so as 
to form a highly developed compound with the three or 
four other elements named. Compounds devoid of car¬ 
bon never exhibit those peculiar chemical and physical 
properties which exclusively belong to only a part of 
the compounds of carbon (the so-called ‘ organic com¬ 
pounds’); on this account modern chemistry has re¬ 
placed the term ‘organic compounds’ by the more sig¬ 
nificant term ‘carbon compounds.’ 10. Carbon, then, 
is that element, that indivisible fundamental substance 
which, in virtue of its peculiar physical and chemical 
properties, stamps the various carbon compounds with 


ABVA 


their peculiar orgarric character; and in chief fasMonij 
this protoplasm, the‘matter of life’ (Lebensstoff) so 
that it becomes the material basis of all vital phe¬ 
nomena. 11. The peculiar properties which protoplasm 
and the other component tissues and substances of the 
organism derived secondarily from it exhibit, especially 
their viscid condition and aggregation, their continual 
change of matter (on the one hand their facile decom¬ 
position, on the other their facile power of assimila¬ 
tion), and their other‘vital properties’ are therefore 
simply and entirely brought about by the peculiar and 
complex manner in which carbon under certain condi¬ 
tions can combine with the other elements. 12. The 
entire properties ot the organism are therefore ulti¬ 
mately conditioned with equal necessity by the physi¬ 
cal and chemical properties of carbon, as are the entire 
properties of every salt and every inorganic compound 
conditioned by the physical and chemical properties of 
its component elements.” See Biology, Spontaneous 
Generation, &c. 

Abipo'nes, w. A tribe of Indians of the Gran Chaco, 
Argentine Republic. They are tall in stature, swim 
well, and use iron-pointed arrows and lances as weapons. 
Their numbers have decreased within a century from 
5,000 to 100. 

About, (a-boo’) Edmund, a French novelist and essayist^ 
b. at Dieuze, Feb. 14,1828. He published in 1855 La Greet 
Contemporaine, a much admired work on modern Greece. 
Of his numerous novels Le Itoi des Montagues is one of 
the best. He wrote a political treatise on The Roman 
Question in 1860, and in 1868 contributed a series of 
witty aud satirical papers to the Gaulois, which caused 
that paper to be suppressed. In 1870 lie was appointed 
councillor of state, and in 1872 was arrested by the 
Germans, but was soon afterward released. Died Jan. 
17, 1885. 

Ab'Hinthism. n. (Med.) A diseased condition arising 
from over-iudulgeuce iu absinthe, its symptoms being 
vertigo and epileptiform convulsions, hallucinations, 
and tremors confined chiefly to the muscles of the 
upper extremities. The cervical portion of the spinal 
cord is principally affected. 

Absolute Brig'lltness. (Ash) An expression used 
by astronomers to distinguish between the total amount 
of light received from a celestial body and the intrinsic 
lustre of the body’s surface. Tlius the absolute bright¬ 
ness of Jupiter would be spokeu of as nearly equalling 
that of Venus and surpassing that of Sirius, though 
the intrinsic brilliancy of Jupiter’s light is far less than 
that of Venus, and not comparable with the sun-like, 
intrinsic brilliancy of the light of Sirius. 

Abstinence, Total, a term applied to abstinence 
from the use of intoxicating liquors. Total abstinence 
was observed in ancient times by the Nazarites and 
Rechabites, anil was enjoined upon his followers by 
Mohammed. After the discovery of alcohol, about 
1000 A. I)., the evil of intemperance greatly increased, 
and during the eighteenth century and first part of the 
nineteenth drunkenness became very prevalent in this 
country. A society was formed in 1808 in Saratoga 
county, N. Y„ which advocated total abstinence from 
all distilled spirits and wines. In 1813 the “Massachu¬ 
setts Society” was formed, and in 1826 the “American 
Temperance Society,” but it was not until 1836 that 
“total abstinence from all that may intoxicate” was 
adopted as a principle of the temperance societies. It 
was given a great impetus by the “Washingtonian” 
movement, beginning in 1841, and is sustained by the 
several flourishing temperance associations now exist¬ 
ing. It was advocated at a national temperance meeting 
in England in 1834, and Father Matthew effectively 
inculcated it in Ireland; but it failed to make the prog¬ 
ress anywhere in Europe that it has in this country, 
where prohibition of the manufacture and sale of in¬ 
toxicating liquors has become a constitutional provision 
in several states. See Abstinence, p. 18. 

Abt, Franz, the most popular song writer of Germany, 
was born at Eilehberg, Dec. 22, 1819. He studied 
theology at Leipsic, but eventually devoted himself to 
music. His reputation was made by his world-famed 
song, When the Swallows Homeward Fly, which M as suc¬ 
ceeded by multitudes of others. In 1872 he visited the 
U. S. and conducted concerts in the principal cities. 
His songs are remarkable for melody, and continue 
popular. D. March 31,1885. 

Abvacuatio, (db-vdk-u-a'she-o.) [Lat., from ab, and 
vacuare, vacualum, to empty.] (Med.) An excessive or 
colliquative evacuation. 





A.CET/ 


[SECTION II.] 


ACET 


209 


Abyssinia,— Continued from Sec. I., 
resisted. In 1889 Menelek, King of Shoa, established 
himself, with Italian aid, as emperor, succeeding John 
II. A treaty with Italy followed, by which that country 
acquired a large district bordering on the Red Sea and 
a normal protectorate oyer the whole kingdom. But sub¬ 
sequently Menelek (the Negus Negusti, to give him his 
home title), repudiated the treaty, and Russia and 
France refused to acknowledge the protectorate. Italy 
held a coastal territory named Erythria, (or Eritria) 
whence, in July, 1894, an army under Gen. Baratiera 
advanced into the Soudan, defeated the dervishes, and 
occupied Kassala. Thence Baratiera marched into 
Tigre, a northern district of A., whose governor, Ras 
Mangascia, was advancing against him. Ras was de¬ 
feated (Jany. 1895), and part of Tigre occupied. Mene¬ 
lek soon after took part in the war, and in March, 
1896, the Italian army met with a defeat so disastrous 
as to enforce a relinquishment of all designs of con¬ 
quest and occupation. A treaty of peace was signed in 
November, 1896, in which Italy acknowledged the com¬ 
plete independence of A. The prisoners remaining in 
the hands of Menelek, about 1,500 in number, were 
afterward released, Italy paying all the costs of their 
maintenance. 

Acartlionervia, (a-kdr-de-o-nur' ve-ah.) [From Gr. 
kardia, the heart, and neuron, a nerve.] (Path.) Want 
of nervous action in the heart, as indicated by the 
sounds ceasing to be audible. 

Ajcataposis, (a-kdt-cupo'sis.) [From Gr., a, priv., and 
kataposi s, deglutition.] (Path.) Difficulty of swallow¬ 
ing, which affection may result from spasm of the mus 
cles, or be caused by a thickening of the mucous mem 
brane, or enlarged tonsils. When the affection is spas¬ 
modic, warm fomentations and warm hip-baths are in¬ 
dicated. In the other cases a plain and very abstemi¬ 
ous diet, and a daily ablution, are the essentials of 
treatment. 

Acatastlltic, (a-kat-a-stht'ik.) [From Gr. kadistemi, 
to determine.] (Path.) An epithet given to fevers, &c., 
when irregular in their periods or symptoms. 

Acaulosia. (ak-au-lo'-zhah.) [From Gr. a, priv., and 
kaulos, stalk ] (Bot.) A diseased condition of plants, 
in which the stem is imperfectly developed or wholly 
wanting. Its formation may, however, be retarded by 
the main powers of vegetation being directed to some 
other quarter, as in turnips to the formation of an 
enormous root. There may moreover be stemless vari¬ 
eties of some particular Bpecies; the primrose repre¬ 
senting, for instance, a form of the cowslip in which 
the axis is reduced to little more than a point. The 
common hyacinth sometimes flowers imperfectly with¬ 
out any elongation of the stem, a state which arises 
from injury or decay of the roots; and from similar 
affections a like condition may be easily produced by 
heat. 

Accelerom'eter, n. ( Mech .). An apparatus designed 
to register the speed of propulsion developed by the 
explosion of a charge of gunpowder, or other ex¬ 
plosive, in a gun, at any position of the projectile in 
the bore. 

Ac'cident Instir'ance, (Fin.). A form of insur¬ 
ance providing indemnity for injury or loss of life 
as a result of accident. This form of insurance 
began in England in 1845, and made rapid progress in 
that country. It was introduced into the U. S. in 1803, 
the Traveller's Insurance Company, the first organization, 
meeting with great success. It paid $5,000 in case of 
death by accident, and $25 a week for 20 weeks in case 
of disability. The United States Mutual Accident Associa¬ 
tion, the first mutual or assessment company, was 
founded in 1877, its method being to collect an assess¬ 
ment of $2 from its members as often as was necessary 
to pay claims and meet expenses. There are many com¬ 
panies now in existence, with more than $2,01)0,000,000 
of insurance in force in this country. The system is 
also very active in Great Britain, and of growing im¬ 
portance in France, Germany, and other European 
countries. 

Accumulated Force (ak-ku'mu-ldt-ed.) [Lat. ac¬ 
cumulate) heap up, from cumulus, a heap.] (Phys.) The 
power of a moving body to overcome resistance. When 
a force acts on a body so as to produce in it motion, the 
force must be iu excess of the resistances to the motion, 
consequently power is imparted to the body at each in¬ 
stant, which is not absorbed by the resistances; this 
power is stored in the moving mass to overcome any addi¬ 
tional resistance which may be opposed to it; thus the 
accumulated force at any instant is measured by the 
momentum of the moving body. The efficacy of ham 
mere, pile-driving machines, fly-wheels, and similar 
contrivances depends on accumulated force. 

Aceull'alocyst, n. [From Gr. a, priv.,kephale, head, 
and kystis, bladder.] (Zodl.) An entozoa most frequently 
found in the liver, bnt sometimes in other organs and 
parts of the body. It is an hydatiform vesicle, without 
head or visible organs. The only assignable cause is 
gross alimentation, and the only remedy, a return to 
pure aud simple food. But it happens unfortunately 
that its presence is seldom known except in post¬ 
mortem examinations. 

Acerato'sis, w. [From Gr. keras, gen; kertos, horn.J 
(Path ) Defective development of the corneous tissue. 

Acet nlion't id ine, n. (Chem.) a compound of pheuo- 
tidine and acetyl, analogous in composition to acetanil¬ 
ide, occnring in colorless or reddish needles, easily 
soluble in alcohol or dilute acetic acid, but not i u watei. 
It is given in 3 Co 8 grain doses to reduce temperature 
in fever In large doses it produces sleepiness,vomiting, 
and eventually blueness of the mucous membrane of the 
mouth. 


Acet'ylene, n. (Chem.) A hydrocarbon, with the 
formula C a H„ which came into prominence in 1895-96 
from its remarkable light-giving powers when used as 
an illuminant. An important source of this gas has 
lately been found in carbide of calcium, and active 
efforts have been made to render it useful as a source of 
light for domestic and other purposes. Carbon unites 
with nearly all the metals, forming chemical compounds 



Pig. 2646.— experimental acetylene lamp. 


which are known as carbides. Of those the alkaline 
and alkali-earth carbides are readily decomposed by 
water, with the emission of acetylene gas. By the aid of 
the electric furnace the union of carbon and calcium is 
easily aud cheaply effected, the result being a carbide 
of calcium, which has come into use as an abundant 
and cheap source of A. It is now produced largely at 
the electric works at Spray, N. C., and is a greenish- 



Fig. 2647.— TEOtrvf'S ACETYLENE LAMP. 


gray, stone-like substance, resembling common serpen¬ 
tine rock and with an odor suggestive of garlic. The 
discovery of its abundant yield of A. gas was made 
accidentally, through plunging some of it in water, from 
which a gas immediately arose, whose character and 
illuminating powers were quickly learned. Carbide of 
calcium, CaC a , when in contact with water, decomposes 


it, A. being evolved and lime formed. The chemical 
transformation may be thus expressed: CaC a -)- OH a =• 
C a H a -(-CaO, or A. plus lime. A. is a constituent of coal- 
gas, and may be otherwise formed by the direct union 
of carbon aud hydrogen at the high temperature of the 
electric spark. It is a colorless gas, slightly soluble in 
water, and under ordinary conditions burns with a 
bright, smoky flame. Its specific gravity is 0.92. When 
passed into ammouiacal solutions containing copper or 
silver it unites with those metals, forming insoluble 
acetylides, which when dry explode violently on the 
application of heat. When A. is burned iu a flat flame 
gas burner it yields a light greater than that of any 
other known gas, its illuminating capacity for 5 cubic 
feet per hour being 240 candles. This is more than 12 
times the power of ordinary illuminating gas, it being 
estimated that 70 cubic feet of A. gas is equal in light- 
yielding powers to 1,000 cubic feet of ordinary coal gas. 
—Acetylene lamps. The earliest A. lamp used for experi¬ 
ment was a very simple one, its principal elements 
being a battery jar and a lamp chimney. This apparatus, 
of which an illustration is given, was constructed aa 
follows: To the upper opening of the lamp chimney a 
cork was tightly fitted, through a central perforation iu 
which a tube was inserted, fitted with a stop-cock anil 
gas burner, the latter the smallest size fish-tail burner 
made. Another small tube was made through the 
cork, in which a wire was fitted so tightly as to have a 
frictional resistance to movement up and down. Its 
lower end formed a hook, on which was hung a little 
wire-gauze basket. To operate the lamp, the chimney 
was placed upright in the jar, which was then filled 
with water to within an inch or two of the top. A 
piece of calcium carbide was placed in the basket^ 
and as this gave off gas the pressure of the latter 




forced down the water until it fell below the leve? 
of the basket. On now opening the stop-cock and ap¬ 
plying a light to the burner, an A. flame was obtained 
which lasted five or ten minutes. As the pressure 
decreased the water rose in the chimney, wet again the 
carbide, and the evolution of gas was resumed. Other 
apparatus have been devised for this interesting experi¬ 
ment. A lamp, suited for continuous light-giving, was 
devised in 1895 by G. Trouve, a well-known French 
scientist. This is a simple but effective apparatus, con¬ 
sisting of two glass vessels, one fitting within the other, 
and of a metal part closing the top, to the centre of 
which is connected the jet or burner tip. Internally the 
vessel practically consists of a large necked bottle, within 
which is suspended a little metal basket containing 
carbide of calcium. The bottle has a conical opening 
in its bottom for the entrance of water from the larger 
surrounding vessels. As acetylene in this process 
depends upon water for its formation, the exhaling gas 
carries off a quantity of water vapor, which needs to be 
instantaneously condensed to prevent its interference 
with the action of the lamp. To perform this an appara¬ 
tus is employed of which a diagram is here given. Twa 
concentric tubes, a e, are employed, cut off obliquely 
and connecting with the cock r. At first the gas makes 
its way through both tubes to the burner, as shown by 
the arrows. But as the vapor condenses in the central 
tube, it seals this and acts as a syphon, while the A. 
gas continues to ascend to the burner through the 
exterior tube, passing through the littlo holes x, y, &. 


















































































210 


ACUP 


[SECTION II.] 


AEKO 


j 

As the syphon action is automatic, the internal tube 
carries off constantly the condensed water. A disk, c, 
of large area, soldered to the tube a, condenses the first 
vapor earned off by the gas. Arrangements are added 
to make a uniform production of gas. This lamp con¬ 
sumes on an average about 3% oz. of calcium carbide 
for 38 candle hours.— Liquified Acetylene. A. gas, when 
subjected to a pressure of about 50 atmospheres, assumes 
the liquid state, with a great reduction in volume, and 
it is with liquid A. that its practical employment is now 
attempted. Cylinders of this liquid can be conveyed 
to houses or stores and connected with the ordinary 
gas pipes, into which the gas given off from the sur¬ 
face of the liquid passes, and may be burned in suitable 
burners replacing the ordinary gas burners. As the 
gas is thus consumed, the pressure is reduced and new 
gas given off till the liquid is entirely volatilized. This 
is found to take place regularly, so that the burner 
pressure remains unchanged. One volume of liquid A. 
at 64° gives 400 volumes of gas, of which 34 34 cubic 

foot per hour is sufficient for a single gas burner. The 
light emitted is remarkably brilliant, throwing a 
ghadow not only from a gas flame but from an incan¬ 
descent electric bulb. The availability of A. as a 
practical source of illumination is, however, not yet 
demonstrated. Many efforts have been made to bring 
it into ordinary use, but the possible danger of explo¬ 
sion and other difficulties as yet stand in the way of 
accomplishment,— Hydrocarbon products. A. is interest¬ 
ing and useful in another way, since from it can be 
built up an extraordinary number of hydrocarbon 
products, with the aid of heat and of sulphuric and 
hydrochloric acids, potash, ammonia, and other reagents. 
If passed through a tube heated to just visible redness 
it is rapidly converted into benzole and at a higher 
temperature yields napthalene. By the action of 
nascent hydrogen it yields ethylene and ethane. From 
its derivative benzole may be produced aniline and 
the whole series of aniline coloring matters. Ethylene 
can readily be converted into ethyl alcohol, from which | 
again an enormous number of organic substances can ; 
be produced. Among the derivatives may be named I 
benzine, nitro-benzine, carbolic, picric and other acids, 
antifibrin and aldehyde, these being but a few of the 
possible products of this interesting gas. 

Acliinese, n. ( dk-i-neez'). A native, or the people col¬ 
lectively, of Acliin (or Acheen), in northwestern Suma¬ 
tra. Also the language of this people, a form of speech 
belonging to the Malayan stock. 

Aclioristus, ». (ak-o-rU'tds). [From Gr. achdrizo, I sep¬ 
arate.] (Path.) Any sign which necessarily accompanies 
a state of health or disease. 

Achroinatop'sy, ». [From Gr. a, priv., chroma, 
color, ontomai, I see.] Inability to distinguish colors. 

Achromato'sis, n. (Pathol.) Any form of disease 
which is characterized by a lack of coloring matter in 
the skin or hair. 

.ichronarcot'ic, n. Any narcotic poison which is also 
irritant, as aconite and some others. 

— a. Possessing both irritant and narcotic properties. 

A'th'ronism, n. The absence of time; the state of 
timelessness. 

Achroph'ony, n. The use of the hieroglyph or picture 
symbol of an object to represent the initial sound of the 
name of that object. One of the first steps in the change 
from hieroglyphic to written language. 

Acid'ities, [From Eng. acid.] (Med.) Sourness of 
the stomach, the result of indigestion, indicated by acid 
eructations, <tc. The affection is very common in chil¬ 
dren, and must be obviated by absorbents, as magnesia, 
chalk, &c., and by regulated diet. 

Acineti'na, n. pi. An order of infusorians which have 
no mouths, but draw in their food through tubular ten¬ 
tacles with a knobbed sucker at the end; the Suctoria. 

Ackley, in Iowa, a post-town of Hardin co., on Iowa 
Cent, and Illinois Cent. R.Rs. Pop. (1898) 1,540. 

Acosta, Joachim, (ah-kos'tah) a colonel of engineers in 
the service of the U. States of Colombia, and a distin¬ 
guished geographer and historian, served in 1831 in the 
Colombian army. In 1834, with the botanist Cespedes, 
he undertook a scientific expedition, extending from the 
valley of Socorro to that of the Magdelena, and seven 
years later traversed the country from Antioquia to An- 
serma. A. afterwards repaired to Europe and resided in 
Spain for several years. He published an excellent map 
of the territory of New Granada (now Colombia). His 
most important publication, however, was the Discovery 
and Colonization of Dew Granada. 

Acou'clii Resin, n. (Chem.) The inspissated juice of 
the plant Icica heterophylla. It is highly odoriferous, 
and is employed as a vulnerary. 

Ac'rimony, n. [From Gr. acer, acrid, and aids, a point.] 
(Path.) An impure condition of the blood, resulting from 
retained bilious and other effete matters. The ancients, 
adopting the humoral pathology, conceived that an 
“acrimony of the humors” was the cause of many dis¬ 
eases. The moderns have unfortunately rejected this 
doctrine, and instead of seeking to eliminate the impur¬ 
ities, they counteract or subdue the remedial effort with 
narcotics, stimulants, alteratives, &c. The wet-sheet pack 
and the warm bath are the best detergent processes. 

Aerol ogy, n. The science of initials, which includes 
(1) acrophony (q. v.), (2) giving to letters names which 
begin with these letters, (3) denoting objects by signs 
taken from the first letter or letters of their names. 

Acroniphalon, n. (dk-rdm'fah-ldn.) [From alcro, and 
Gr. omphalos, the naval.] (Anat.) The extremity of the 
umbilical cord, which remains attached to the foetus 
after birth. 

Acupressure^ (dknt-prcsh'iir) n. [From L. acus, a 
needle, and premere, preesum, to press.] (Surg.) A process 


for arresting hemorrhage, proposed by Prof. Simpson, of 
Edinburgh, which consists in passing an appropriate 
needle or pin twice through the substance of a wound, 
so as to compress aud close, by the middle portion of 
the needle, the tube of the bleeding vessel a line or 
two, or more, on the cardiac side of the bleeding point, 

Acutor'sion, n. (Surg.) A mode of acupressure by 
twistin' a wounded artery with the needle to stop 
bleeding. 

A'rta, in Ohio, a town of Hardin co. Here is located the 
Ohio Normal University, with over 3,000 students. Pop. 
1890, 2,079. 

Adams, Charles Francis, Jr., grandson of John 
Quincy Adams, born at Boston, May 27,1835, graduated 
at Harvard in 1855, and served as a cavalry officer in 
the civil war, gaining the brevet rank of brigadier- 
general. Afterward became a prominent writer on 
economical and political questions, and was president 
of the Union Pacific railroad for several years, resigning 
in 1890. 

Adams, Charles Kendall, A.B., A. M., LL. D., was 
born at Derby, Vt., Jan. 24, 1835, educated at the Uni¬ 
versity of Michigan and in Europe, served as assistant 
professor of History aud Latin in the University of 
Michigan 1863-67, and as professor of History 1867-85. 
From 1881 to 1885 he was non-resident professor of 
History in Cornell University, and its president 1885-92, 
in which latter year he became president of the 
University of Wisconsin. In 1890 he became president 
of the American Historical Association. He is the 
author of a number of historical works and of a large 
number ot papers contributed to the leading review 
periodicals. 

Adams, Edwin, a popular and versatile actor, was born 
in Medford, Mass., Feby. 3, 1834, and made his first 
appearance on the stage at Boston in 1853, in The 
Hunchback. In 1866 he made a tour as a star actor, and 
in 1867 became a leading actor in Booth’s theatre, New 
York. In the part of Enoch Arden he became a great 
favorite. D. in Philadelphia, Oct. 25,1877. 

Addison'ian, a. Of, or relating to, Joseph Addison, an 
English author famous for his style; especially, like 
him in purity of style, clearness of diction, Ac. 

Adelaster, n. (ad-e-lds'tur.) [Gr., something un¬ 
known.] (Bot.) A name proposed for those garden 
plants which, having come into cultivation without 
their flowers being known, cannot be definitely referred 
to their proper genus. All A. are therefore provisional 
names, to be abandoned as soon as the true names of 
the plants so called can be ascertained. 

Ad'ler, Felix, ethical reformer, was born at Alzey, 
Germany, Aug. 13,1851, graduated at Columbia College, 
and subsequently obtained the degree of Ph.D. at Heidel¬ 
berg. From 1874 to 1876 he was professor of Hebrew 
and Oriental literature at Cornell University, and in 
1876 founded “ The Society for Ethical Culture,” at 
whose head he still remains. Under his direction the 
society has founded a system of district nursing, a home 
for neglected children, a free kindergarten, and a work¬ 
ingman’s school. 

Ad'onai, (Old Text.) Lord; a name for God. 

— (Occult.) The Great Spirit; a symbol of faith; in the 
cabalistic system, a glyph of “ existence, ” capable of 
twelve transpositions, all meaning “ to be.” 

Adra'dial, a. Adjacent to a ray; said of the third 
series of tentacles in certain hydrozoons. 

Advancement of Science: See American Asso¬ 
ciation aud British Association. 

Advent Christians, or Adventists, also called 
Second Adventists. (Eccl. Hist.) Various relig¬ 
ious societies holding a belief in the speedy second ad¬ 
vent of Christ. Their churches are congregational, the 
ordained preachers being the highest officials. Their 
conferences are not legislative to the churches, but are 
for mutual church and ministerial co-operation. They 
meet to worship on the first day of the week. Their 
religious faith comprehends belief in the divinity of 
Jesus Christ, atonement through his blood alone, the 
resurrection of the dead as a necessity to bring eternal 
life to the sleeping saints, the second personal 1 advent of 
Christ as near at hand, the total destiuctiou of all 
unregenerated beings, and the renewed earth as the 
inheritance of the saints. They hold to the literal 
understanding of the Scriptures as the word of God, 
rather than to a mystical interpretation. They teach 
that the second advent of Christ is the objective point of 
Christian hope, as prior to that event there is no eternal 
life, but at that time eternal rewards and punishments 
will be giveD, and the kingdom of God established on 
the earth. They teach that the wicked will “be pun¬ 
ished with everlasting destruction from the presence of 
the Lord, and from the glory of his power.” 2 These. 1.9. 
They do not, as a body, set any definite time for the 
second advent, but they teach it as an impending event, 
there being no prophetic event to intervene in fulfilment. 
They have formerly called attention to definite dates for 
the second advent, thinkingthey understood the definite 
time, but now acknowledge their mistake in this respect. 
The Advent Christians have an annual meeting of a body 
of delegates chosen by their conferences, to consider all 
necessary business coming before the denomination. 
This body is called the Second Advent Christian Asso¬ 
ciation of America. The history of this people in the 
U. S. dates back to about A. D. 1839, when Wm. Miller 
(see Millerites) and others preached the doctrine of 
the second advent being near at hand. They have 
undergone some changes since then, and were not an 
organized people to any extent until about 1860. 
Several journals are published advocating their doc¬ 
trines. The sect is divided into several branches, dif¬ 
fering somewhat in belief.—The Seventh Day Adventist* 


observe the seventh day of the week as a Sabbath. Ths 
general beliefs of this sect are substantially as above 
described. They set no time for the coming of Christ. 

Advent'uress, n. A woman adventurer. The word is 
generally used in a disreputable sense. 

Aerated Bread, a bread in which no ferment is 
used, carbonic acid being directly introduced. The 
acid is thoroughly' mixed with the flour and water in 
air-tight vessels, the bread produced being as light as 
fermented bread. 

Aeroin'eter, n. (Phys.) An apparatus for weighing 
and estimating the tension of air and other gaseous 

gjjj )sta,nc6S 

Aeronant'ics,the science of sailing through the air. 
See Aeroplane aud Balloon. 

4er'ophone, n. (Phys.) An instrument for amplifying 
jound waves, without lessening distinctness. It consists 
of a diaphragm vibrated by the voice, and controlling 
the escape of compressed air from a receiver, which in 
its turn vibrates a larger diaphragm. Also, an instru¬ 
ment to assist hearing, consisting, in essential principle, 
of a horn to speak into and two connected ones to apply 
to the ears. 

Aer'ophore, n. (Phys.) A device for permitting respira¬ 
tion under water, in air charged with smoke, &c. In 
this potassium hydroxide or other substance is employed 
to absorb the waste products of respiration, aud to serve 
as a receptacle and revivifier of vitiated air. 

Aer'oplane. n. A machine heavier than the air it 
displaces, which by means of planes of greater or less 
superficies sustains itself aud one or more passengers in 
the air. 

For centuries, in fact since the beginning of history, 
men have had the desire, and made attempts, to fly 
through the air like a bird, but it is only within recent 
y T ears that such attempts have been successful. The 
history of serious trials goes back to 1450, when Dante 
of Peruga made some gliding flights ot undoubted 
authenticity. Since then the following events go to 
make up the evolution of aviation, (q. v.): 

1450.—Leouard de Yinci invented the oruithopter, 
the helicopter (q. v.) and the aeroplane. 

1679.—Besnier: first known French aeroplanist. 

1741. —Blanchard: horseless carriages with sails and 
helicopter. 

1742. —De Bracqueville: glidiug flights above the 
Seine. 

1842. —Phillipps:—first helicopter with a motor rising 

under its own power, but without a pilot. 

1843. —Heisen: monoplane type of aeroplane with a 
steam engine and wheels for starting. (Did not succeed 
in having the ground.) 

1843.—Stringfellow: invented the triplane. 

1855.— Letur: originated the word “aeroplane” in an 
application for a patent. 

1857.—du Temple Brothers: studied a monoplane type 
of aeroplane for twenty years, equipped with a steam 
engine, propellers and starting wheels. 

1869-1865. — Pontom Amecourt et de laLandelle; 
Nadar: numerous experiments with different types of 
flying machines. 

1868-1884.—De Louvrie: made close studies of glid¬ 
ing flights. 

1868.—First aeronautical exhibition at Loudon. 
1868-98.—Ilureau de Yilleneuve: founded the maga¬ 
zine ! Aeronauts. 

1871-95.—A. Penaud: constructed a large number of 
model aeroplanes aud invented the elastic motor. 

1874-1900.—Tatin: numerous experiments with arti¬ 
ficial birds. 

1877.—Forlanini: successful steam helicopter. 

1891.—Trouve: numerous artificial birds. 

1891- 96.—Lilienthal: first scientific attempts at glid¬ 
ing flights with both monoplane and biplaue types of 
machines. Put into practice the principles of Louvrie 
without knowing them. 

1892- 97.—Aden built the “Avion,” first mechanically 
driven aeroplane to fly. 

1896.—S. P. Langley: numerous flights with a small 
steam-driven model aeroplane over the Potomac River. 

1896-1900.—Clianute : took up in America the ex¬ 
periences of Lilienthal, and also published a work on 
aviation. Chanute and Lilienthal are the pioneers of 
the present movement, their experiments being the 
starting point of the work of the Wright Brothers in 
America, of Ferber and Voisin in France. 

In 1902 Wilbur aud Orville Wright made their first 
glidiug trials at Kilty Hawk and were looked upon as 
madmen. The L T . S. Government refused to consider 
the statements of a “couple of cranks,” but alter a talk 
with the young inventors, Mr. Charles R. Flint, of New 
York, provided the money necessary in order to take 
out patents and build machines. In 1907, the British 
Government refused to consider the purchase of the 
Wright aeroplano for 81,000,000, though a flight of 200 
miles was the proposed condition and Charles Flint of¬ 
fered to deposit 150,000 as a guarantee of a successful 
demonstration. In the meanwhile France was awak¬ 
ening to the possibility of the aeroplane, although the 
Government of that country had also broken off nego¬ 
tiations, nearly completed, with Ader, whose Avion flew 
330 yards at the military camp of Satory on October 14, 
1897. The following flights might be said to mark the 
history of modern research along the lines of mechani¬ 
cal flight: 

Oct 14,1897. Ader flew 300 meters. 

Nov. 13, 1906. Santos-Dumont flew 220 meters in 
his aeroplane, 14 bis. 

Oct. 26,1907. Henri Farman attempted a turn after 
a flight of 771 meters. 

Jan. 13, 1908. Henri Farman won the Deutsch-Arch- 











Farman Biplane. 


Anzani Three Cylinder, 50 H. P. Gasolene Engine. 


“Willard” Flying Over Mineola, Long Island. 



—— I ——— IrTA^vTtr P* 

Dirigible Balloon "Clement-Bayard.” 


_ f 


: ■ i 




Spherical Balloon “ Ville de \V inner G 0r don-Bennett Cup. 

AERONAUTICS (AEROPLANES, DI^iq IBle BALLOONS, ETC.) 


Dirigible Balloon “ Zeppelin I "-Length 460 Feet 
































































AERO 


[SECTION II.] 


AERO 


211 


deacon prize of $10,000 by flying a kilometer in a closed 
circuit. 

‘’July 6,1908. Farnian won the Armengaud prize for 
a flight of longer than 15 minutes. He remained aloft 
for 19 minutes. 

Aug. 8, 1908. Wilbur Wright in France at the invi¬ 
tation of a French syndicate made his first flight at Le 
Mans; Height, 26 feet. Time 45 seconds. 

Sept. 11, 1908. Orville Wright at Fort Myer, Vir¬ 
ginia, established a record by remaining in the air 1 
hour 11 minutes at a height of 210 feet. 

Sep. 12,1908. Orville Wright made the first flight 
with a passenger. Duration 9 minutes 6 seconds. 

Sept. 17, 1908. Orville Wright and Lieut. Selfridge 
were dashed to the ground through the rupture of one 
of the propellers. Lieut. Selfridge was killed and 
Wright severely injured. 

Oct. 6, 1908. Wilbur Wright made the first fight of 
more than one hour with a passenger, Arnold Fordyce 
of the Paris Journal, staying up 1 hour 4 minutes. 

Oct. 30, 1908. Farman made the first cross-country 
flight, leaving his shelter at Chalons and coming down 
at Rheims, 20 miles away, in 17 minutes. 

Dec. 31, 1908. Wilbur Wright won the Michelin 
prize for the longest distance flown before midnight of 
the last day of the year, with a flight of 95 miles, and 
2 hours 18 minutes duration. 

June 10, 1909. Presentation of commemoration 
medals by President Taft to the Wright brothers at the 
White House. 

July 25.1909. Louis Bleriot on his monoplane No. 
XI crossed the Straits of Dover, from Baraques, near 
Calais, to the Dover cliffs in 31 minutes. He was 
treated as a national hero by the Freneh Government 
anil was accorded a Royal reception by the English 
authorities. 

July 31,1909. Wright machine was definitely' ac¬ 
cepted by the United States Government after a mag¬ 
nificent 10-mile flight with a passenger from Fort 
Myer, Va., to Shuter’s Hill, near Alexandria, and 
return. The speed averaged 42.6 miles and surpassed 
the required minimum by 2.6 miles. The Wright 
brothers received $25,000, plus a bonus of $2,500, for 
each mile over 40, making a total of $30,000. Lieut. 
Foulois was the passenger on this historic occasion. 
Orville Wright was the pilot. 

Aug. 22, 1909. Opening day' of the first properly 
organized aviation meeting ever held. Rheims, France. 

Aug. 28, 1909. First Gordon-Bennet Aviation Cup 
taken to America by Glenn H. Curtiss, who flew 20 
kilometers at an average speed of 46 miles an hour. 

Oct. 18,1909. First flight over a city in aheavier-than- 
air machine by Count Charles de Lambert in a Wright 
aeroplane. He flew from the aerodrome at Savigny- 
sur-Orge, rounded the Eiffel Tower at an average 
height of nearly 1,500 feet, and returning to the aero¬ 
drome, making the journey of nearly 50 kilometers in 
as ntauy minutes. 

Nov. 4, 1909. Henri Farman on his own biplane 
took the Michelin Cup away from Wilbur Wright, 
who flew' 95 miles in 2 hrs. 18 min., with a flight of 
145 miles in 4 hrs. 17 min. 

Nov. 30, 1909. Hubert Latham, on an Antoinette 
monoplane, flew up to a height of 1640 feet in a gale 
blowing50 miles an hour. 

Jan. 7, 1910. Hubert Latham at Mourmelon, France, 
broke all records for height having made a flight 
reaching 3,600 ft. in his aeroplane. 

Jan. 11, 1910 at Los Angeles, Cal., Glenn H. Curtiss 
made a record-breaking flight in his aeroplane with a 
passenger, at the rate of 55 miles an hour. 

For documentary purposes the following data con¬ 
cerning the Wright machine are of interest: There are 
two superimposed bearing surfaces, 41 feet in length, 
and 52 inches in w'idth. The angles are rounded off, 
the curve being much greater at the rear than at the 
front, and the two bearing surfaces are separated one 
from the other by eighteen uprights 70 inches in height. 
Each plane is curved by means of 34 curved ribs, and 
the spruce framework is covered with canvas stretched 
tight aud tacked or sewn in position. The central up¬ 
rights, made of drawn steel tube, are fixed rigidly; all 
the others, made of spruce, are pivoted in an ingenious 
manner shown in illustration. It is this hinging of the 
uprights that allow the wing tips to be deformed, and 
provides one of the most characteristic features of the 
aeroplane. When it is desired to turn to the left, for 
instance, the pilot pushes his lever forward, and at the 
same time to the right, the first movement pulling the 
rear rudder over towards the left and the second lower¬ 
ing the left wing-tips while raising the opposite side. 
The manner in which this is obtained will be readily 
understood by a reference to the illustration. Ahead of 
the two bearing surfaces are two smaller planes having 
an upward and downward movement controlled by a 
simple lever held in the pilot’s left hand. If it is 
desired to rise, the two planes are made to point up¬ 
wards; to descend they are placed in the contrary posi¬ 
tion. This arrangement is simplicity itself. 

The engine, a four-cylinder of about 25 horse-power, 
is carried on the lower plane, slightly out of the centre 
line. On the rear of the main shaft are two equal-sized 
piuions, each carrying a bicycle chain connecting up to 
a larger pinion on the propeller shafts. One chain, 
being longer than the other, is crossed, thus causing 
the propellers to turn in the opposite directions. Each 
chain runs in a tightly-fitting tube. The engine is 
started by means of swinging round the propellers, 
and once started runs at a constant speed until slopped. 
There is a slight spark advance, but no throttle, thus 



Scheme of the double movement effected by 
the lever L. L. Steering lever, u.v., Wires 
acting on the horizontal i udder F. t, t, Stays 
supporting the horizontal rudder. R. Tiller 
which operates the warping of the wing tips 
by its rotation on itself, m.n. Pulleys over 
which the warping wires x, y, pass. G. H. J. K. 
the heads of the movable stanchions Y. 


weight aeroplane. Showing how the movement of the rudder and wing tips is obtained. 




A. Upper sustaining plane. B. Lower sustaining plane. C. Elevating and depressing planes. D. Pilot's and 
passenger’s seats. F. Rudder. G.H. Movable wing tips (principal features of the Wright machine). 

M. Motor. N. O. Propellers. P. Runners, (bottom of frame). Q. Lever for steering 
purposes and controlling the movable wing tipis. 



































































































































212 


AERO 


[SECTION II.] 


AFRI 


the engine is either running at full speed or is stopper 
entirely, this latter operation being performed by cut¬ 
ting out the ignition. The engine is water-cooled, with 
circulation assured by a pump on the main slmtt, the 
water supply being contained in twenty-four vertical 
aluminum tubes attached to the uprights of the appa¬ 
ratus. Lubrication is by a gear-driven pump witliiu 
the crank case, and petrol supply by direct injection, 
the pump also being within the crank chamber. All 
valves are in the head, the inlets being automatic and 
the exhaust mechanically operated by a single camshaft 
and overhead rocker arms. The initial speed necessary 
to start is obtained by mounting the aeroplane on a 
wooden truck running on a low rail. The truck is 
attached by means of a cord to metal discs hoisted to 
the top of a pyloue, the release of the weights shooting 
the machine along the rail acting like a catapult. It 
is possible, however, to start from the rail without 
weights. 

Recently M. Marcel Desprey has shown by a series ol 
laboratory experiments that the entire question of aerial 
locomotion is in accordance with natural laws, ano 
not contrary to them, as many supposed. He took a 
equate plane and pinned it on a standard carried on a 
small frame on wheels. The Irame was then allowed 
to run down an incline with the square plane inclined 
in the opposite direction. As the frame was descending 
a current of air was directed from behind at a slightly 
upward angle. Immediately, in accordance with the 
law of the parallelogram of forces that when a force is 
applied beneath an inclined plane it encounters a re¬ 
actionary force perpendicular to that plane, the frame 
carrying the plane ran up the incline in the direction 
of the wind. The two lines of force, the vertical one 
which raises the plane and the counter-force from the 
side of the parallelogram and the diagonal respectively. 
We need only complet- the parallelogram of which the 
base line represents the force which drives the plane 
horizontally. This latter force is of course much smaller 
than the lift-up and counter forces, but still strong 
enough to enable the | lane to travel against the wind 
more or less in proportion to its inclination. The 
greater the incline the broader is the piaiallelogram 
and the longer the base line. In further pursuit of this 
theory M. Marcel Desprey sought to provide a counter¬ 
force to this horizontal force in order to keep the planes 
stationary. He took a square steel of aluminum, bend 
ing down one edge to represent a bird with its tail 
The wind acts upon this as explained above. The wind 
is, however, striking at the same time against the bent 
edge of the plane or tail with a force which, equalizing 
the bottom line of the, parallelogram, nullifies it, mak¬ 
ing it impossible for the plane to run at all. Following 
up the principle as applied to practice and in view ol 
the fact that birds do not offer flat plane resistances to 
the wind, except the tail. 

The French scientist, realizing that a bird's w ings are 
concave, used such concave planes and obtained aston¬ 
ishing results from directing a current of air against, 
them at different angles. As a consequence of these 
experiments, M. Desprey asks if it is not a mistake to 
fit motors to areoplanes at all, and believes that better 
results will be obtained when this theory of his has 
been applied to aerial dynamics. There has been some 
discussion of the suitability of the term “aeroplane'’ as 
applied to the heavier-tlian-air flying machines, and it 
is significant of the modem trend of thought that many 
of the famous members of the French Academy have 
suggested words to replace it. As some day one of these 
words may be adopted it is well to record them. M. 
Richepin proposes “Alerion ” (in poetry a winged 
monster); M. de Vogue, “Icarian” (from Icarus, of 
classic mythology; hence high-flying); M. Hanotaux, 
“Aeromobile”; M. Brazin, “Autoplaneuse”; M. Lave dan, 
“Aero”; M. Claretie, “Aeronef”; and M. Loti, “Sky- 
fish” (an antithesis of sea-fish). Among the other 
terms proposed by “immortals” were “Aerophile,” 
“Aerostat,” “Helicoplane,” “Aviat,” “Avion,” “Aero- 
fere” and “Aeroauto.” See Aviation, Balloon, Heli¬ 
copter, Ornithoptf.r. Arthur Bi.es, Officer of the 
French Academy. Editor, Automobilia and Fight. 
Afghan (h silent), n. A native or inhabitant of Afghan¬ 
istan, particularly one of the dominant race of that coun¬ 
try.—The language of the dominant race, belonging to 
the Aryan type and akin to Persian.—A knitted or cro¬ 
cheted blanket or coverlet, made of soft wool. 

African Exploration. Recent. Under the sub¬ 
ject of Africa (?. v.), the story of African exploration 
down to a somewhat recent period has been epitomized. 
It is desired here to state briefly what has more lately 
been accomplished in that field. The close of the older 
period of African research may be held to date from 
the death of Livingstone; the later period fairly begins 
with the adventurous march of Stanley, in 1871, from 
Zanzibar to Ujiji, in search of that intrepid traveler. 
Since that date travelers have been numerous in Africai 
and the “ dark continent ” is rapidly being opened up toj 
the light of modern research. While Stanley was seek-1 
ing Livingstone, Dr. Naclitigal was following the path' 
of Dr. Barth across the Sahara, and Dr. Schweinfurth 
was journeying into unknown regions of the Soudan.I 
Cameron (1873-75) emulated Livingstone in crossing 
the continent, being second to perform that feat. He 
surveyed the lower end of Lake Tanganyika, and traced 
its outflow' to the westward. The third to cross the con¬ 
tinent was Stanley (1874-77), in that most notable of 
j recent explorations, in which he identified the Lualaba 
i with the Congo, and first showed the vast extension 
and importance of that mighty stream. In 1878 Joseph! 
j Thomson followed a new route to the north end of Lake I 


Nyassa and explored the coun¬ 
try between this lake and Tan¬ 
ganyika, whose outflow he 
traced. Serpa Pinto, a Portu¬ 
guese explorer, crossed the 
continent from west to east, in 
1877-79, reaching Durban, in 
Natal; and about the same 
time two French travelers, De 
Brazza and Ballay, explored 
the Ogowe district, north of 
the Congo. Various other ex¬ 
peditions at about the same 
period aided in opening up 
new sections of country, one 
being sent out in 1878 by the 
Belgian International Society, 
from Zanzibar into the in¬ 
terior, while Stanley (1879-84) 
entered from the w est coast to 
cooperate with the Belgians in 
establishing the Congo Free 
State. In 1881-82 Wissmann 
crossed southern Africa, and 
in 1884 Thomson made a mem¬ 
orable journey from Mombesa 
across Masai Laud to the Vic¬ 
toria Nyanza, passing Mounts 
Kilima-Njaro and Kenia, the 
former of which was ascended 
the same year by II. II. John¬ 
ston to a height of 16,200 feet. 

In 1886 the great river Welle, 
which had been discovered by 
Schweinfurth, was traced al¬ 
most to the U-bangi, the great 
northern tributary of the Con¬ 
go, and the identity' of these 
two streams has since been 
proved. The great southern 
tributary, the Kwa, and its af- Fig. 2654.— bishari 
fluents, the Kwango, Kassai warrior. 

and Sankuru, have been tra¬ 
versed by Pogg, Wissmann and 

Wolf, and on the Sankuru Wolf found the pigmy 
Batwas, a tribe of that dwarfish race which is now 
known to extend over a broad area of interior Africa. 
Dr. Oscar Lenz in 1881 crossed from Morocco to Tim- 
buctoo, and did some excellent surveying work in the 
western Sahara. At a later date (1885-86) he ascended 
the Congo to Nyangwe, and crossed the continent to 
the Zambesi delta, being the tenth to accomplish that 
feat. Among his predecessors, in addition to those 
named, were Arnot, Capello and Ivens, and several 
others. At the period we have now reached a new 
incitement to African exploration arose in the conquest 
of the upper provinces of Egypt by the forces of the 
Mahdi, which left Emin Pasha, the governor of the 
most southern province, isolated on the upper Nile. 
An expedition from the east for his relief, under Dr. 
G. A. Fischer (1885-86), reached Lake Baringo. In 
1887-89 Stanley attempted the same feat from the west, 
following an affluent of the Congo and penetrating n 
great interior forest to the lake region. He succeeded 
in finding and rescuing Emin, returning with him to 
Zanzibar in 1890. Meantime in the south, in 1886, Dr 
Holub penetrated from the Cape northward to and 
beyond the Zambesi, and in eastern Africa during the 
same period, Count Telelci, a Hungarian traveler, dis¬ 
covered a great lake, some 300 miles northeast of the 
Victoria Nyanza, which he named Lake Rudolph. Its 
native name was Sambara. In 1888 Dr. Hans Meyer 
ascended Kilima-Njaro, and F. S. Arnot completed a 
double crossing of the continent, starting from Natal, 
reaching the western coast and recrossing to the east. 
By these and later explorations the blank places on the 
map of Africa were rapidly filled up, until a fairly 



t 



Fig. 2655.— Mozambique negro. 


satisfactory typographical chart of that once unknown 
continent could be made. Of the many more recent 
explorations several of importance may be mentioned. 
Joseph Thomson, in 189(1-92, traveled inland to Lake 
Bangweolo and explored the unknown region beyond, 
and during the same period J. Theodore Bent made an 
exploration of Mashonaland and studied the remark¬ 
able ruins of that locality, the remains of ancient 
massive structures supposed to have been erected by 
gold seekers of the remote past. In 1894-95 Dr. A 


Donaldson Smith made an adventurous journey through 
Somali Land to Lake Rudolph, crossing much unex¬ 
plored country. Belgian officers explored the country 
between the Congo and Nile basins, and an intrepid 
woman traveler, Mrs. French Sheldon, penetrated 
deeply into the continent and visited, unharmed, the 
country of the warlike Masai. Of the several expe¬ 
ditions of 1896, the most uotable was that of two 
French travelers, Versepuy and Baron de Romans, 
who crossed Africa from east to west via Lake Albert 
Edward Nyanza, traversing in a reverse direction 
the vast forest which Stanley had crossed eight years 
before.— Railways. In addition to the movements of 
travelers, who have been too numerous of late years 
for us to mention even their names, other effective 
6teps have been taken towards opening up the con¬ 
tinent. Great Britain, France and Germany have 
pushed far inland, taking possession of provinces of 
lato discovery. The officials of the Congo Free State 
have established steamboat service on the great inland 
waterway's of their domain; a highroad is being built 
through British East Africa to the Victoria Nyanza, 
and railways have been opened or are in process of 
construction in various regions of the continent. Of 
the proposed railways, two are designed to extend 
inland to the Victoria Nyanza, one through British 



Fig. 2656.— manganya woman with lip ornament. 

and the other through German East Africa, and on© 
through the latter to Ujiji, on Lake Tanganika. Portu¬ 
guese East Africa has a road completed from Fontis- 
ville, at the head of navigation on the Pungue, for 119 
miles inland. It is designed to reach Salisbury, three 
times that distance. From Delagoa Bay another road 
runs inland to Pretoria, the Transvaal capital, which 
is also reached by a road running through Natal to 
Johannesburg, and one extending north from Cape 
Town. British South Africa is, indeed, traversed by 
several railways, opening ready access to the gold and 
diamond fields. In Portuguese West Africa a railway 
191 miles long extends inward from St. Paul de Loando 
to the vicinity of Ambaca, and its extension 120 miles 
further inland is contemplated. Of railway enterprises 
in Africa an important one is that which has been 
built up past the rapids of the Congo River to the 
highlands, extending from the head of navigable water 
below to the beginning of navigation on the upper 



Fig. 2657.— hut on the Niger. 

stream. This is of great benefit as affording easy access 
trout the ocean to the Congo Free State. Tnis state 
possesses in all about 400 miles of railway. In the 
British dominions on the Gulf of Guinea there are 
several railways, and the French have a road inlahd 
from the head of steam navigation on the Senegal. 
The French are also building a railway from Algeria 
into the Sahara, which will probably ire in time ex¬ 
tender across the desert to Timbuctoo or Lake Tchad. 
The total length of railway in French Africa is 4628, 
in Egypt, (except the Soudan) 3,392, and in British 
Africa8840 kilometers, (a kilometer being 0.620 mile). 
It was a cherished project of Cecil Rhodes to build 



















AGNO 


[SECTION II.] 


AGRI 


213 


a railway traversing the entire length of Africa, and 
much has been done towards this by the extension 
of railway N. from Capetown and 8. from Cairo. See 
Africa. 



Fig. 2658. —negro of Portuguese east coast. 

Af'ter-birtta, n. (Anaf.) The membrane in which the 
foetus is involved, which is brought away after delivery. 
The placenta. 

Af'ter-elap, n. An unexpected incident after an affair 
is supposed to be ended. 

After-comer, n. A successor. 

Af'ter-cost, «. Expenses which are incurred after the 
original bargain or plan is finished. 

Af'ter-crop, n. The second crop or produce of a ground 
in the same year. 

Af'ter-tlanip, n. The familiar term for the suffocating 
gas, consisting chiefly of carbonic acid, which remains 
in a coal-mine after an explosion of fire-damp.—See 
Fire-damp. 

Afterglows, n. pi. ( Phys .) Brilliant twilight colors 
after sunset. Those seen before sunrise are called fore¬ 
glows. In these red colors predominate, but rich yellow 
and other lines are seen. They are caused by reflection 
of the sun’s rays from highly attenuated matter in the 
upper atmosphere. The most remarkable instance of 
afterglow was that succeeding the great volcanic erup¬ 
tion of Krakotoa in 1883, when this phenomenon was 
of striking brilliancy and duration, and annually 
reappeared for a number of years. It is believed to 
have arisen from the vast volumes of fine volcanic dust 
flung into the upper atmosphere and carried by air 
movements around the earth. 

Agamogen'esis, n. (Biol, i The act of reproduction 
without the union of opposite sexual elements. This is 
seen in the budding of the higher plants, and the cell- 
division of lower organisms. Opposed to gamogenesis, 
or sexual reproduction. See Alternation of Genera¬ 
tion and Generation. 

Agassiz, Alexander, LL.D., son of the famous Louis 
Agassiz, born at Neuchatel, Switzerland, Dec. 17,1835; 
brought to this country by his father, and graduated at 
Harvard in 1855. In 1857 he went to California as an 
assistant on the coast survey, and from 1860 to 1865 was 
an assistant in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at 
Harvard. In 1865 he engaged in coal-mining, and this 
led to his ventures in copper-mining, in which he 
developed the Hecla and Calumet mines of Lake Super¬ 
ior, the richest copper mines in the wofld. On the 
death of his father, in 1873, he succeeded hint as curator 
of the Museum of Comparative Zoiilogy, from w hich he 
retired in 1885 in consequence of ill health. He has 
done much to develop the Museum, and has enriched 
it with the results of his deep sea dredgings, made on 
the Atlantic ami Gulf coasts in connection with the 
coast survey. He has written much upon scientific 
subjects, and prepared several monographs of the deep 
sea animals obtained in his dredging operations. 

Agassiz Lake, (Geog.) The name given to a sup¬ 
posed former lake of the pleistocine geological period, 
extending along the Red River of the North through 
Minnesota and North Dakota and into Canada. Its 
dimensions, as indicated by existing shore lines, were 
about 400 miles length and 30 to 100 breadth, its depth 
from 200 to 400 feet. Its northern boundary is believed 
to have been the ice sheet of the glacial period, the 
lake disappearing with the melting of this icy barrier. 
Similar lakes, caused by the retreating ice sheet, prob¬ 
ably existed in other localities. 

Agnew, Daniel Hayes, M. D., a distinguished surgeon, 
born in Lancaster co.. Pa., Nov. 24,1818. He gained a 
world-wide reputation for his skill in surgery, and 
when President Garfield was shot he was called as the 
chief consulting surgeon. He founded the Philadel¬ 
phia School of Operative Surgery and the Pathological 
Museum of the Philadelphia Hospital, and after filling 
several professorships, w r as in 1870 appointed Prof, of 
Operative Surgery in the University of Pennsylvania 
and in 1871 Prof, of the Principles and Practice of 
Surgery in that institution, and of Clinical Surgery in 
the University Hospital. He wrote voluminously on 
medical subjects, his best work being an exhaustive 
treatise on operative surgery. Died at Philadelphia, 
Mar. 22,1892. , ^ . 

A-nos'ticism, n. ( Ch. nisi.) The doctrine main¬ 
tained by the Agnostics, or those who believe that man 
can know nothing not within the range ot his experi¬ 
ence, and therefore is necessarily ignorant concerning 
the existence of God and the ultimate nature of mattei 
and force. It declares that we can know nothing of 
the Infinite, and that human belief cannot safely be 


carried beyond the limit of things open to scientific 
investigation and demonstration. The term Agnostic 
was first suggested by Prof. Huxley in 1869, and was 
based on St. Paul’s mention of the altar to the “Un¬ 
known God.” 

Agrapli'ia, n. (Pathol.) A form of cerebral disorder 
in which exists an inability to express ideas by written 
symbols. It is a counterpart of Aphasia (</. v.) as regards 
speech. 

Agricultural Chemistry. The study of the 
chemistry of plants and soils, and of the chemical sub- 
stances best adapted to produce fertility in,the soii.—As 
plants contain from 40 to 90 per cent, of water, this is 
obviously the most essential of all the elements of plant 
growth. Of the organic substances yielded by our 
staple crops, the most important are: the amyloids, com¬ 
pounds of carbon with hydrogen and oxygen in the 
proportions necessary to form water,—viz., wood-fiber, 
starch, sugar, aud gum; the pectoids, other compounds 
of the above elements, embracing pectose—the hard 
pulp of fruits and roots—and other substances; the 
organic acids—oxalic, malic,citric,aud tartaric; the albu¬ 
minoids, including albumen, casein, fibrin, &c., which 
contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, with 
a small proportion of sulphur. In the ash of plants 
various other chemical substances appear, such as iron, 
sodium, calcium, phosphorus, silica, Ac. Most of those 
substances are obtained from the soil. Water yields the 
requisite oxygen and hydrogen, the carbon is obtained 
by a reduction of the carbonic acid gas of the atmos¬ 
phere, aud nitrogen comes chiefly from the nitrates of 
the soil. Recent experiments on nitrification, by which 
free or elementary nitrogen existing in the soil is con¬ 
verted into nitric acid and thus made assimilable by 
plants, have yielded very important results. It is be¬ 
lieved this action is caused by the action of bacteria in 
the soil, or in some cases by similar bacteria in the roots 
of plants. Only a small proportion of any soil is of use 
in the growth of plants, and experiment has shown 
that 140 lbs. of ash elements may be extracted from 
1,000,000 lbs. of soil of which only 186 lbs. are soluble, 
and therefore in a condition to serve as plant food. 
But as those soluble materials are removed, other con¬ 
stituents of the soil are rendered soluble by material 
agencies, so that some degree of supply is constantly 
provided—largely, in some soils. But, for the large de¬ 
mands of agriculture, manures in some form are usually 
necessary, to replace the ingredients removed from the 
soil by the growth of plants. Phosphates and assimilable 
nitrogen are the most necessary of these. The former 
is usually the least abundant ingredient of soils, while 
the latter is rapidly removed by rain-water, and carried 
in great quantities into streams. The action of fertilizers 
is not alone to feed plants directly, but they exert a 
beneficial chemical effect upon the soil. Thus, salt, 
gypsum, and other saline matters may convert insoluble 
potash and magnesia into soluble forms, and thus adapt 
them to assimilation. By constant addition of the best 
suited fertilizers, the same crop might indefinitely be 
taken from a chosen piece of land; but it is found much 
more economical to have a judicious rotation of crops, 
since each finds elements in the soil not needed by 
others, and after a few years the soil regains the con¬ 
ditions necessary to the profitable cultivation of some 
former crops. By letting fields lie fallow, or unworked, 
for a number of years, as in the old system of agricul¬ 
ture, the same result is produced. The study of this 
subject has been actively prosecuted for many years 
back, and though much remains to be learned, many 
important results in agricultural economy have been 
attained. Of useful books on A. C., those of Liebig and 
Boussiugault stand first, though the subject has been 
much advanced in the hands of more recent writers. 
See Agriculture, Nitrification. 

Agricultural Colleg'es. Institutions of learning 
whose purpose is to teach and promote knowledge in 
the various arts and sciences that relate in any way to 
agriculture.—Colleges of this character are recent in 
institution. Agricultural schools were established in 
Europe early in the nineteenth century, but it was not 
until Liebig published his celebrated work on agricul¬ 
tural chemistry, in 1840, that any active impulse was 
given to them. They are now numerous and important. 
Prussia has four A. C. of the highest grade, with about 
forty lesser schools, all with model farms; and similar 
encouraging progress has been made thoughout Ger¬ 
many, in France, and in some other countries. The 
benefit derived from these schools is best shown in the 
steady increase of crops per acre of soil where scien¬ 
tific agriculture is most fully taught and practiced. 
In England the first school of this character was the 
Royal Agricultural College, founded near Cirencester 
in 1845. It is now known as the Royal Agricultural 
College of England. Later examples are the Aspatria 
Agricultural College, near Carlisle, and the Minto 
House, at Edinburgh. The first A. C. in this country 
were established before 1850, but they received their 
first useful impetus from the passage by Congress of 
the Land Grant Act of 1862. By this act Congress 
granted for school purposes to every State and territory 
land scrip representing 30,000 acres for each senator 
and representative. This was for the purpose of pro¬ 
viding schools which, while not including general 
scientific and classical studies, should be particularly 
devoted to such branches of learning as are related to 
agriculture aud the mechanic arts. The total area of 
land thus granted amounted to 9,597,840 acres, the sale 
of which produced an endowment fund of §15,866,371. 
In 1890 Congress passed a supplementary act, giving 
to each State, for the endowment of the colleges estab¬ 
lished, a sum of §15,000 for the first year, and increas¬ 


ing by SI.000 annually until 825,000 was reached, which 
sum should alterwards be the annual appropriation. 
In 1892 there were 48 such colleges in existence, of 
which 32 reported in the census year had an income 
of §1,407,242. The instruction given in these institu¬ 
tions is both theoretical and practical, general studies 
being introduced, but particular attention lieing given 
to those branches which relate to the interests of the 
farming community. The colleges are all connected 
with experimental farms, on which the students may 
study the results of rotation of crops, the effects of 
different fertilizers, the breeding and care of domestic 
animals, the dairy processes, and, in short, everything 
bearing upon the successful pursuit of agriculture. 
The outcome of these studies cannot but prove of 
great eventual advantage to the farming interests of 
this country. 

Agricultural Ffiperiment Station. An 

establishment devoted to the purpose of acquiring infor¬ 
mation that will be of advantage to the farming interests. 
—Scientific experiment in agriculture began at Roth- 
amsted, England, in 1843, at the experiment station of 
Mr. John Lawes, and was carried on with very impor¬ 
tant results. To the influence of this station and its 
fruitful experiments is believed to be due the fact that, 
while the average yield of wheat in England in 1840 
was about 13 bushels per acre, in 1885 it had increased 
to more than 31 bushels per acre. The growth of hay 
has doubled in quantity. Agricultural experiment 
has been still more fully carried on in Germany, and 
Europe now has more that 100 such stations. The first 
station in the U. 8. was established in 1875, at Middle- 
tow u,Conm In 1880 there were four in operation. At 
present every State has at least one station, and some 
have more than one. Experiments of a practical char¬ 
acter are steadily prosecuted at these stations, and 
results of great economical value have been produced, 
while still greater ones may confidently be looked for. 

Agricultural Maeliincry. Nothing in inventive 
genius has yielded more practical and important results 
than the progress that has been made in machine tools 
for use on the farm within the nineteenth century, by 
the aid of which the drudgery of farm life has loen 
greatly reduced and the productiveness ot the ground 
much increased, w hile great progress has been made in 
the saving of labor. It is estimated that the mowing 
aud reaping machines alone, which are now in use, 
annually save the labor of 2,000,000 men in the harvest 
season. These tools are indispensable on the great 
farms of the West, which are often of many sq. miles 
in area, while human labor is so scarce that their culti¬ 
vation by the old method would 1 e impossible. Hence 
the old plows have been replaced by steam and sulky 
plows; the seed, formerly sown by hand, is now planted 
by horse-drawn machines; while mowers and reapers 
are similarly worked by steam or horse power. The 
service of the modern plow is far in advance of that 
of the old, the new r harrows are far more efficient in 
turning and pulverizing the earth, and the use of grain¬ 
planting machines is attended with great advantages. 
Instead of the irregular broadcast sowing of old times, 
these place the seed more evenly and at more uniform 
depths, a smaller quantity of seed is required, and the 
speed of planting is greatly increased. F'or sowing in 
drills and rows the saving in labor is great, the old 
laborious hand dropping and covering with the hoe 
being avoided, while the speed is vastly greater. Many 
such grain drills are now in use, whose performance is 
almost magically perfect. The regularity with which 
the seed is placed in the ground also permits the use of 
horse-drawn cultivators, where formerly the hoe had to 
be laboriously used. In cutting grass and grain equal 
progress has been made. The old methods with the 
scythe and sickle entailed the severest labor, which ia 
now avoided by the use of mowing and reaping 
machines, which are among the most efficient of labor- 
saving implements. In the invention of these machines 
the United States stands at the head of the world, and 
has produced reaping machines whose performance is 
almost incredibly complete. The most recent of these 
machines not only cuts the standing grain, but by a 
raking attachment gathers it into bundles, and by a 
binding device ties these bundles neatly with twine and 
casts them off complete aud of uniform size. A single 
man driving the horses can do all this work, and can 
at will regulate the size of the bundles aud the tight¬ 
ness with which they are bound. When we consider 
that more than 100,000 of these machines are made 
and sold annually, and that they consume over 30,000 
tons of twine in binding a single year’s crop, we may 
estimate the saving, which is equal to from 6 to 10 per 
cent, in the cost of the wheat. As regards the grass 
harvest, the hay tedder tosses up the hay so that it may 
be quickly and evenly dried, and the hay carrier greatly- 
expedites the unloading and stacking. By its aid a 
man, and a boy to drive the horse, can unload a ton of 
hay in five minutes. The thrashing machine is another 
ot the important labor-saving devices, while the horse 
powers and steam motors, now so widely in use on farms, 
still further expedite and make easy the work of the. 
farmer. This description of A. M. is necessarily brief 
and incomplete, and yields but a glimpse of the marvela 
that have been accomplished in that field of enterprise. 

Ag-ricnlture. Department of. A newly organ¬ 
ized department of the U. S. Government, which had 
its origin in an agricultural commission established at 
Washington in 1862, and which was changed by Con¬ 
gress to a Government department in 1889, its t «ad, 
or Secretary, becoming a member of the President’s 
cabinet.—This department has under its care all sub¬ 
jects relating to the wide-spread agricultural interest* 


















214 


AIRB 


[SECTION II.] 


ALAB 


of the country, and by the aid of monthly and annual 
reports disseminates information of great value to those 
interests. It buys seeds and plants, experiments with 
them in propagating,gardens and distributes them to the 
farming community of the country, one of its purposes 
being the introduction of new and useful plants in the 
U. S. Its building stands west of the grounds of the 
Smithsonian Institution in Washington, embracing two 
bureaus, one of Ammai Industry and one of the Weather, 
and possessing an office of experiment stations, a her¬ 
barium, museum, library, chemical laboratory, and 
propagating gardens. The monthly reports of this de¬ 
partment on the condition and prospects of the staple 
crops of the country and the different States are especi¬ 
ally valuable, alike to the commercial and the agricul¬ 
tural population. 

An MinaHlu, Emilio, a Filipino general, was born 
March 22, 1869, at Cauit, in the Province of Cavite, 
Luzon. He was of good family and well educated, and 
became a schoolmaster in Silan. In 1896 he was active 
in the founding of the Katipunan Society and in the 
rebellion which it organized against the Spaniards; 
in which he became the leading spirit. In December, 
1897, the rebels being bought off by Spain, Aguinaldo re¬ 
tired to Hong Kong with a large part of the cash con¬ 
sideration. He returned to Luzon in 1898 in one of Ad¬ 
miral Dewey’s vessels and revived the insurrection. 
He aided the Americans by investing Manila, but in 
1899, on the plea that the Americans had broken faith 
With the Filipinos, he attacked them and a severe war 
began, A. leading’ the Filipinos with much skill and per- 
sistence. ‘ After the dispersion of his army, he carried on a 
guerilla warfare until captured by Geul. Funston Mar. 23, 1901.” 

As'iir (ah-goo'. J ), a town of Hindostan, 41 m. N. E. of 
Kota; pop. (1895) 80,000. 

Aitlt'-de-Camp, ( dd'-d'-cawng.) n. [Fr.] (Milit.) A 
confidential officer selected by a general to assist him in 
his duties. Each general officer has a number of these 
aides, the group being called his staff. They are attached 
to his person, receive his orders, and convey them, when 
necessary, in writing or verbally, to different parts of tbe 
army in times of battle or manoeuver. In the U. S. ser¬ 
vice an aide-de-camp ranks as assistant adjutant-general. 
There are allowed 6 (colonels) to a general; 2 and a 
military secretary (lieutenant-colonels) to a lieutenant- 
general ; 3 (captains or lieutenants) to a major-general; 
and 2 (lieutenants) to a brigadier-general. 

Ai 1 ii i'ois, n. ( Zool.) A genus of carnivorous animals 
of the family Procyonidm. Tbe Ailwrus fulgens, allied to 
the raccoon, is found in the mountains of Nepal. It is 
of the size of a large cat, has a short head and a thick 
muzzle, and is remarkable for the richness and beauty 
of its fur, which is mostly bright chestnut in color, 
but deepens to a rich black on the chest and outer part 
of the legs. Cuvier considered the panda—its native 
name—as the most beautiful of quadrupeds. It lives at 
considerable mountain altitudes, its food being chiefly 
fruits and vegetables. 

Ain'lium, re. (Pathol.) A peculiar chronic disease, 
said to be confined closely to the negroid race, resulting 
in the dropping off of the smaller toes. 

Ai' nos, re. pi. (Anthrop.) The aborigines of Japan, an 
uncivilized race, now found only in Yezo, Saghalien and 
the Kurile Islands, but once occupying the whole archi¬ 
pelago, whence they were driven by the advancing Jap- 
aneer, who seem to have entered the country from the 
southwest. It is believed by some that the A. came 
originally from Kamtchatka. They are markedly dif¬ 
ferent from the surrounding Mongolians, having features 
resembling those of the Aryans, heavy beards and very 
hairy bodies. They are low in stature, but strongly built. 
Their chief occupations are hunting and fishing,while in 
disposition they are mild and tractable. Their grade of 
mental development is low, and tlieir religious ideas not 
above those of fetishism, yet the Japanese are gradually 
educating them into a higher stage of civilization. They 
number in all about 15,000. Complete vocabularies of 
their language have been made, but its affinities have 
not yet been traced. 

Air'-ba??, n. ( Mech.) A bag made generally of some 
rubber compound and inflated with air; the larger 
sizes are often used to buoy up a sinking vessel or raise 
one that has sunk. For this purpose the bags, when in 
a collapsed state, are attached to the sunken hull, and are 
then inflated by means of tubes connecting with pumps 
at the surface of tiie water. 

Air-Bladder, or Swim-Bladder, re. (M.). 
An organ somewhat generally possessed by fishes, 
though absent in many cases, consisting of a large sac 
filled w ith a gas largely composed of nitrogen, which is 
secreted into the bladder from its walls. The bladder 
varies considerably in size and shape, being sometimes a 
small and simple sac, and at other times large and com¬ 
plex in structure. In some cases it opens by a tube into 
the air-passages. It is probably useful to some extent 
in swimming, but seems to be a surviving remnant of 
the cellular air-bladder found in the ganoid fishes, 
from which, also, the lung of air-breathing animals is 
supposed to have been derived. Very probably, the 
original form of this organ was developed as a primitive 
lung, which in one direction unfolded into the existing 
lung, and in the other degenerated into the air-bladder, 
and in many instances completely disappeared. This 
hypothesis was originally suggested by Prof. Charles 
Morris, in a paper published some years ago in the 
Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
Philadelphia, in which the probable origin of the 
bladder in a primitive air-breathing invagination of 
the sesophagus, which developed into a lung-like organ, 
Tras suggested and sustained by facts and reasonings. 
X*»is view was widely accepted by scientists as a very 


probably correct explanation of the origin of this organ. 
See Air-Bladder. 

Air'-blast, re. (Phys.) A current of air forced upon a 
fire to stimulate combustion,or on a dynamo-commutator 
to prevent sparking. 

Air'-bound, a. (Mech.) Prevented from acting 
normally by the presence of air, as occasionally occurs 
in tiie use of suction pipes, etc. 

lir-brake. (Mech.) Tiie necessity of having some' 
effective means of stopping railroad trains was felt as 
soon as it was found possiLde to run them at any con¬ 
siderable speed. The problem of how to stop .a, train 
was therefore presented simultaneously with the intro¬ 
duction of locomotives. As the speed and length of 
trains increased, the importance of placing them under 
tiie control of the locomotive runner became with each 
accident and its accompanying horrors more evident. 
For years, therefore, inventors have been exercising, 
more or less successfully, their ingenuity in endeavor¬ 
ing to devise some means which would enable the man 
who runs tiie engine to apply tbe brakes instantly on 
tiie whole train behind him. The first system, how¬ 
ever, which may be said to have come near to fulfill¬ 
ing the requisite condition of an automatic brake, is 
the Air-brake , or Atmospheric-brake, invented aud pat¬ 
ented in 1869 by Mr. George Westingliouse, and manui 
factured in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It may be sum, 
niarily described as follows: On the right side of the 
locomotive, and in full view of the engineer, an air- 
pump is fastened to the locomotive frame. It is pro¬ 
pelled by steam drawn from the boiler, is self-acting, 
and is motionless only when the expansive force of the 
compressed air in the reservoir, which hangs beneath 
the cab (a cylinder of boiier iron suitable to the dimen¬ 
sions of the locomotive), becomes equal to that of tbe 
steam. Thus as tbe pressure of steam increases, the 
air-pump works, and the expansive force of compressed 
air is augmented. When the steam is high, and the 
possible demand for great force of the brake conse¬ 
quently increased, tiie pressure of steam and air in the 
reservoir must correspond. This relation of expansive 
force is always maintained. Pipes to convey the com¬ 
pressed air extend from the reservoir beneath the loco- 
motive-cab back under the whole train. Midway beneatli 
each car is a fixed cylinder with piston so contrived as 
to act directly on the lever of the ordinary hand-brake, 
aud does not prevent tiie use of the latter brake in con¬ 
junction with the air-brake, or separate from it if re¬ 
quired. Tiie continuity of air-pipe between the cars is 
preserved by heavy rubber-hose connected by a most 
ingenious brass coupling, so devised that, when coupled, 
valves are open and tbe compressed air can move from 
the reservoir unimpeded to exert its force; if any cars are 
detached, thereby sundering the connecting pipe after 
tho force lias been applied, the coupling accommodates 
itself to the exigency by unjointing, valves instantly 
close, precluding the escape of the compressed air, and 
the brake remains effective on each separate car. When 
the engineer applies the brake (by opening a valve and 
permitting tiie escape of the compressed air from the 
reservoir through the conducting pipes) its force is ex¬ 
erted simultaneously aud equally upon every wheel of 
the train. The engineer has entire control of the quan¬ 
tity of force exerted, and can graduate it to satisfy the 
demand. The term Vacuum Brakes is used to distin¬ 
guish that particular class of brakes which are operated 
by atmospheric pressure from those operated by com-j 
pressed air. Both are, properly speaking, air-brakes, 
the atmosphere being tiie means employed to convey 
the power used in both cases, vacuum-brakes operating 
by external, and air-brakes, so called, by internal pres¬ 
sure. The Eames vacuum-brake cousists of a steam 
ejector, located upon tho engine, aud diaphragms upon 
the cars. The ejector, which the inventor of the brake, 
Mr. F. W. Eames, has greatly improved over the before 
existing patterns, is operated by steam directly from 
the boiler, through a graduating valve, making it pos¬ 
sible to admit as little or as much steam as may be de¬ 
sired, the valve being controlled by a lever within con¬ 
venient reach of the engineer. The essential part of 
the ejector consists of a double tube, the outer space of 
which communicates with tbe steam valve, and the in¬ 
ner with the train air pipes. Steam being admitted to 
the outer space, it escapes past the end of the inner 
tube in such a way as to form an approximate vacuum 
at that point, which tiie air from the train pipes con¬ 
stantly rushes to fill, and the steam and air are thrown 
out together at the top of tbe ejector. Tbe Eames 
ejector produces, at sea level, a vacuum corresponding 
to 24 inches of mercury, or, approximately, a pressure 
of 12 pounds to tbe square inch. Immediately below 
the air tube above described is a check-valve, to prevent 
the inflow of air, and the consequent destruction of the 
vacuum, until such time as the engineer desires to re¬ 
lease his brakes. He does this by means of another 
valve, called the release valve, the handle of which is 
placed in near proximity to that which controls the 
admission of steam. These three valves—the steam, re¬ 
lease, and check valves—are the only moving parts of 
the ejoctor, the two former only requiring to be operated 
by band, and it is therefore a very simple piece of mech¬ 
anism, and not likely to get out of order. The dia¬ 
phragm is made of rubber, suitably strengthened by 
cloth insertion, and moulded to proper shape. It is 
clamped by the edges to the diaphragm shell. The lat¬ 
ter is of cast iron and approaches a hemisphere in shape, 
over the open side of which the rubber diaphragm is 
fastened. The air being exhausted from this shell, the 
diaphragm will be pressed in with a force proportionate 
to the area of the diaphragm. The Eames diaphragm 
is furnished in different sizes, according to the service 


required, for light or heavy cars, and varying in area 
from 180 to 500 square inches. The diaphragm shell is 
preferably fastened to the truck of the car, its propor¬ 
tionately large area and short stroke peculiarly fitting 
it for this place. The diaphragm has an eye-bolt at¬ 
tached to its centre, by which motion is communicated 
to the brake lever. For connecting tho ends of the air 
pipes between tbe cars, rubber suction hoso is used, 
each piece of hose being provided with a coupling of 
peculiar construction, also an invention of Mr. Eames. 
The two halves of this coupling are exactly alike, and 
consequently any single half coupling will couple with 
any other one. The coupling is provided with a valve 
which closes automatically in case of the separation of 
the train, thus making such portion of the train as may 
be still attached to the locomotive as fully under con¬ 
trol of the engineer as before the separation. Tiie first 
railroad fitted with the Eames brake was tiie Callao, 
Lima, and Oroya, of Peru, S. A., which crosses the 
Andes at an elevation of 15,645 feet above the sea. The 
grade averages nearly 3}^ feet in every hundred, and in 
some places is 4% feet. The requirements of a train 
brake were therefore very severe. The Eames brake 
was applied on this road in 1876, and lias since been 
constantly in use there. At a trial made on that road 
in August, 1876, a train consisting of locomotive, ten 
der, aud three cars, moving down a grade of four feet 
in a hundred, at the rate of 20 miles per hour, was 
stopped in 17 seconds’ time and 380 feet distance 
after the brakes were applied. The elevated railroads 
of Now York city are entirely equipped with the 
Eames brake, it having been found to best answer the 
requirements. Tbe service is very severe, the number 
of stops made by all the engines in a month aggregate 
ing more than a million. The Eames brake has also 
been applied to horse, cable, and electric cars. It is 
slower in action than the pressure brake, but has com¬ 
pensating advantages, and is largely used in foreign 
countries. The Westinghouse brake is almost univers¬ 
ally used in the U. S., and to a large extent abroad. 
The Westinghouse quick-acting freight train brake, 
perfected in 1887, will stop a 50 car train in 320 to 350 
feet. Passenger trains moving 40 m. an hour can be 
stopped in 600 feet, and those of 60 m. an hour ’n from 
900 to 1,000 feet. By a law of the U. S., passed in 1803, 
power brakes and automatic couplers are required for 
freight cars. Brakes are applied not only to the wheels 
of the cars, but also to the driving and tender wheels of 
locomotives and sometimes to those of the engine trucks. 
In addition to air power, brakes to operate by steam, 
hydraulic power, weights, springs, and electricity have 
been invented, but the air-brake still continues tbe one 
chiefly used. 

Air'-sliip, n. (Mech.) A machine devised for aerial 
navigation. The most promising attempls to effect this 
purpose have employed an elongated balloon for tbe 
purpose of support, with motors and steering apparatus 
of various kinds. Some progress has been made in (be 
effort to produce a dirigible air-ship, but much remains 
to lie done. See Aeronautics. 

A i zn'n i, an an ancient town of Asia Minor, now in ruins. 

Ak'su (ahk-soo'), a town of Central Asia, in Chinese 
Turkestan, near the S. base of the Thian-Shan Mts., 260 
m. N. E. of Yarkand. It is a leading commercial entre¬ 
pot between Russia, China, and Tartary, and the head¬ 
quarters of a Chinese military dept. Pop. about 30,000. 

Alabama Claims, (The.) (Am. Mist.) Under 
this title, an international dispute involving questions 
of the gravest political importance sprung into exist¬ 
ence alter the close of tho Civil War in 1865, between 
this country and Great Britain; and remained as a 
source of growing irritation until 1872, in which year 
it was satisfactorily set at rest by tbe decision of arbi¬ 
trators assembled in conference at Geneva, as will be 
seen later on. The name “ Alabama ” was adopted to 
denominate certain claims advanced by tiie U. S. govt 
against Great Britain, for indeirnification of AmericaD 
citizens for marine losses caused by Confederate cruis¬ 
ers during the war aforesaid, several of which were 
built and equipped in England, including the notorious 
privateer Alabama, and, from tiie depredations com¬ 
mitted by tbe latter upon American commerce having 
been the most serious in extent, her name became ac¬ 
cordingly attached to tiie issues which had arisen out 
of the proceedings of herself and consorts. The ‘‘Ala¬ 
bama” was a screw steam-sloop of 1,040 tons register, 
built by Messrs. Laird of Birkenhead, Eng., for the 
Confederate govt. Constructed of wood, and adapted 
more for speed than durability, she was bark-rigged, 
fitted with two engines of 350 horse-power each, and 
pierced for 12 guns, having besides carrying capacity 
for two heavy pivot-guns amidships. Her cost, inclu¬ 
sive of her equipment, was $258,580. At tiie time of 
her launching she had not been christened, (being 
known as “290,” the builders’ number,) neither was her 
destination known, although it was suspected by the 
agents of the United States in England. In June, 1862, 
Capt. Semmes of the Confederate navy,—who had previ¬ 
ously commanded the “ Sumter,” a vessel condemned at 
Gibraltar as ^nseaworthy,—arrived to take charge; and, 
on the 31st July, despite an effort made by tbe American 
minister to detain her, the “ Alabama” put to sea. Ar¬ 
riving at Terceira, in the Azores, on the 13th Aug., she 
there was joined by Capt. Semmes and his officers, the 
former of whom there produced bis commission, gave 
the vessel her afterwards notorious name, and hoisted 
the Confederate flag, after having previously received 
by means of a ship from London, which also joined 
her there, her armament, munitions of war, and storea 
together with a supply of coal. Her crew consisted or 











ALAB 


[SECTION II.] 


ALEC 


215 












80 men, all told, and her armament or „<ght 32-pound¬ 
ers. Proceeding to sea again, the “Alabama” made 
her first capture on Sept, 5th, and within the space of 
eleven days following, had destroyed quite a number of 
American merchantmen. Failing, through want of 
coal, to make of New York harbor a cruising-station, 
Semmes’ next exploit was the overhauling of the mail- 
steamer “Ariel,” plying between Aspinwall and New 
York, on which occasion he captured a number of U S. 
officers on board, along with 140 marines. Releasing 
the “Ariel ” after exacting a heavy bond from her, pay¬ 
able on the conclusion of the war, the “Alabama,” on 
Jan. 11,1863, while cruising off Galveston, encountered 
and sunk the U. S. gunboat “ Hatteras.” After captur¬ 
ing in all 65 vessels, and destroying American prop¬ 
erty to the estimated amount of $4,000,000, she cruised 
in the Indian Ocean, and returned thence to Europe, 
where, on June 11, 1864, she entered the French port 
of Cherbourg, in order to refit. While lying there, the 
U. S. steam corvette “ Kearsarge,” Capt. Winslow, made 
her appearance, upon which the “Alabama” challenged 
her to an action in the roads. The “ Kearsarge ” over¬ 
matched her adversary in respect of crew, armament, 
speed, and general fighting condition, besides being 
protected amidships by chain-armor. On the 10th, the 
two ships met, and a naval duel immediately com¬ 
menced, w'hich, after the lapse of an hour, ended in the 
sinking of the “Alabama ” by her antagonist, her offi¬ 
cers and crew being rescued from drowning in part by 
the boats of the “ Kearsarge,” and the rest by an Eng¬ 
lish yacht which had witnessed the whole affair. Among 
the latter was Captain Semmes himself, the English 
yachtsman refusing to deliver up those whom he had 
saved, and whom he hastened to place under neutral 
protection. The career of the “Alabama,” and of the 
“ Florida,” “ Shenandoah,” and other vessels, built and 
equipped in England, had the effect of almost annihi¬ 
lating the mercantile marine of the U. States, so that by 
the consequent transfer of the American carrying-trade 
to bottoms under foreign flags, and the enhanced pre¬ 
miums of insurance demanded on war-risks, that coun¬ 
try’s commercial losses had been proportionably great, 
and the feeling of irritation against Great Britain for 
having afforded such succors to (he South, accordingly 
became deep and universal, Then followed a diplo¬ 
matic correspondence between the American and Brit¬ 
ish govts., introductory to negotiations entered into 
for a settlement of the claims preferred by the former, 
and resulting in a treaty formed in 1868, by the U. S. 
minister at St. James’, lion. Reverdy Johnson, for the 
adjustment of outstanding differences. This treaty, 
however, proved entirely unsatisfactory to the govt, of 
the U. States, and it was ultimately rejected by the 
Senate. After this, the “Alabama Question” remained 
in abeyance till 1871, when, on Feb. 27, a Joint High 
Commission, composed of an equal number of members, 
representing the two countries at issue, met at Wash¬ 
ington, with the object of agreeing upon and estab¬ 
lishing a basis for the complete adjustment of these 
international differences. On the 8th of May follow¬ 
ing, a treaty was signed, by the tenor of which Eng¬ 
land admitted her liability to a certain extent, leaving 
only the amount of damages to be arrived at, and 
which it was agreed to refer for settlement to arbitra¬ 
tors respectively appointed by the Brazilian, Italian, 
Swiss, American, anil British governments, their award 
to be final. Accordingly, this court of arbitration com¬ 
menced its sittings at Geneva early in 1872, and con¬ 
tinued its sessions, with occasional intermissions, until 
September, on the 14th of which mouth the Tribunal 
of Arbitration published its award, an abstract of 
which is as follows: 

That in the case of the “Alabama,” Great Britain 
failed to use due diligence in the fulfilment of her du¬ 
ties of neutrality. Ayes, 4; Noes, 1. 

That with respect to the “ Oreto,” or “ Florida,” the 
same decision applied. Ayes, 4; Noes, 1. 

That Great Britain had not failed in her interna¬ 
tional obligations as regarded the “ Shenandoah ” prior 
to her entry into the port of Melbourne. Unanimous. 
But that she had made herself responsible for the ves-? 
sel’s acts after her departure from that port on Feb, 
18th, 1865. Ayes, 3 ; Noes, 2. 

That in the cases of the “Tuscaloosa,” the“CIar 7 
ence,” and the “Tacony,” aiders or tenders to the 
“ Alabama ” and “ Florida,” the same decision is ap¬ 
plied as in the cases of their principals. 

That as related to the privateer “ Retribution,” Eng¬ 
land was absolved of all responsibility for that vessel’s 
acts. Ayes, 3; Noes, 2. 

That in reference to the “ Georgia,” “ Sumter,” “ Nash¬ 
ville,” “Tallahassee.” and “ Chickamauga,” the Court 
was unanimously of opinion that Great Britain had 
not failed in her duties as prescribed by international 

law. 

Such is a resumS of the disposal of the cases brought 
under the jurisdiction of the Arbitrators, and it re¬ 
mains only to be stated that a sum in gross amounting 
to $15,500,000 (gold) was awarded as the indemnity to 
be paid by Great Britain in full satisfaction of all 
claims preferred by the American govt., the Arbitra¬ 
tors rejecting as inadmissible certain claims for com¬ 
pensation for indirect damages and prospective injuries 
arising in connection with the matter of the “ Ala¬ 


bama” and her sister privateers. 

Al'abaster, in Michigan, a township of Iosco coun¬ 
ty. 

Alacnl'sa, in Georgia, a district of Murray coun¬ 
ty. 

Aladin, ( ah-lad'in,) in Pennsylvania, a village of Arm¬ 
strong ca 


Alaiedon (ah-la'e-don), in Michigan, a township of 
Ingham co. 

Alamosita ( dl-ah-mo-se'lah), in New Mexico, a town¬ 
ship of Soccorro co. 

Alba ( dl'bah ), [anc. Alba Pompeia], an ancient city of N. 
Italy, prov. Cuneo, on the Tanaro, 31 m. N. E. of Turin. 
It has an extensive trade iu agricultural products and 
cattle. Pop. (1895) about 9,000. 

Albacete (dl-bahsa'ta), a 8. E. Prov. of Spain, in Mur¬ 
cia. Area, 5,966 sq. in. Its surface is generally moun¬ 
tainous, but is diversified with fiue plains and fertile 
valleys, highly productive of grain, wine, hemp, to¬ 
bacco, saffron, and fruits. Cattle-rearing is largely en¬ 
gaged in. Cap. Albacete. Pop. 221,444.— Albacete, a 
manuf. town, cap. of above prov., 138 m. S. E. of Madrid, 
is a well built place, and carries on a considerable trade. 
Pop. (1895) 12,531. 

Alban'i, the stage name of Marie Emma La Junesse, a 
famous soprano singer, b. at Chambly, near Montreal, 
iu 1851, removed to Albany in 1864, and made her debut 
as an opera singer at Messina in 1870 under a pseudonym 
taken from the name of Albany. She made a great suc¬ 
cess in the character of Mignon at Florence in 1872, 
sang throughout Europe, and made a tour of the U. S. 
in 1883. Married Ernest Gye, the operatic manager, in 
1878. One of her favorite role is Senta in “ The Flying 
Dutchman.” 

Al'bany, in Minnesota, a township of Stearns co. 

AI bee, in Michigan, a township of Saginaw co. 

Albert, Friedrich Rudolph, Archduke of Austria, b. 
Aug. 3,1817, was the son of the late Archduke Charles 
by his wife, Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg. He 
married in 1844, and was the father of two daughters. 
At an early age he entered the army, commanded a di¬ 
vision in Italy in 1840, took an important part in the 
battle of Novara, received at the end of the campaign 
the command of the 3d corps d’armee, and was after¬ 
wards appointed Governor-General of Hungary. Dur¬ 
ing a leave of absence awarded to Field Marshal Beue- 
dek, in 1851, he was appointed to the command of the 
Austrian troops iu Lombardy and Venetia. In the 
campaign of 1866, he gained a victory over the Italian 
army at Custozza, and, after the battle of Sadowa, was 
made (July 13, 1S66), Commander-in-Chief of the Aus¬ 
trian army, which office he retained till March, 1S69, 
when he exchanged it for that of Inspector-General of 
the Army. He published, in 1869, a work on “Respon¬ 
sibility in War.” D. Feb. 18,1895. 

Alber'la, a province of Canada formed in 1905, in 
common with Saskatchewan, out of the former dis¬ 
tricts of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Athabasca and Assin- 
iboia, (he latter two being absorbed by the new prov¬ 
inces. Its former area of 106,500 sq. m. was thus 
increased to 253,540. Pop. 72,841. A. consists ot 
great plains, which gradually rise westward to the eleva¬ 
tion of 2,000 to 4,000 feet, and culminate in the Rocky 
Mountain ridge—here not very high. The country is 
very cold in winter, and is subject to blizzard and 
chinook winds. Its principal industry is grazing, the 
stock needing to be fed and housed in winter. Chief 
towns: Edmonton, Lethbridge, and Banff. The last 
named is a health resort at the foot of the mountains. 

Albert Edward Nyauza, an African lake, one 
of the sources of the Nile, discovered by Stanley in 
1876. It lies in Lat. 1° S., Long. 30° E., about 100 m. 
N. W. of Victoria Nyanza, and is about 40 m. broad, 
and crescent shaped, being 50 m. from point to point. 
It drains, by the Semliki river into the Albert Nyanza, 
the Ruzenwori Mountains, 18,000 feet high, lying be¬ 
tween. These Stanley believes to be the ancient “ Moun¬ 
tains of the Moon.” 

Al'bert Nyanza (ne-ahn'zah), a large lake of E. Cen¬ 
tral Africa, and one of the basins of the Nile, 80 m. W. 
of the Victoria Nyanza, was discovered by the English 
explorer, Sir S. W. Baker, in 1864. It lies bet. N. Lat. 
45° and 2° S. Lat., and is thus crossed by the equator. 
Its length is 300 m., and its maximum breadth 92 m. 
It stands at an elevation of 2,720 ft. above sea-level, is 
very deep towards the centre, and is skirted on the E. 
by precipitous cliffs rising into mountain peaks, vary¬ 
ing from 5,000 to 10,000 ft. in height. The N. and W. 
sides of this lake are hemmed in by a high range known 
as the Blue Mountains, culminating in summits some 
7,000 ft. in elevation. The scenery around the A. N. is 
of a most picturesque character, and the lake itself re¬ 
ceives the surplus rain-fall of a great equatorial mountain 
by range. It connects with the Lake Victoria Nyanza 
Somerset river, Murchison Falls lying between the two. 

Albina, in Oregon, a former city of Multnomah co., on 
Willamette river, opposite Portland, with which it was 
consolidated in 1891. Pop. (1890) 5,129. 

Al'bine, in Minnesota, a township of Brown county. 

Al'bolite, n. An artificial stone, or cement, used for 
fireproof coating, ornamental mouldings, Ac. Comp., 
calcined magnesite mixed with infusorial earth and 
chloride of magnesium. 

Albosfan ( dl-bo-stahn'), a town of Turkey in Asia, 
pashalic, and 39 m. N.N.E. of Marash; pop. 10,000. 

Al briglifs, in North Carolina, a township of Ala¬ 
mance county. 

Al'bronze, n. ( Metallur.) [Contr. of Alumininium 
bronze.] An alloy of aluminium and copper, of very 
durable character, which is used for telescope bear¬ 
ings, Ac. 

Albuminuria ( dl-bn-min-u’re-ah ), [From Eng. albu¬ 
min, and Gr. ouron, urine. (Path.) A disease of the 
urinary organs, characterized by the presence of albu¬ 
men in the urine, and indicated by its coagulation on 
the application of adequate heat. It is generally at¬ 
tended with ulceration or fatty degeneration of the 
kidneys. It is regarded as a very dangerous disease. 


Alcohol. —Continued from Sec. I. 

In addition to ordinary or ethyl alcohol there is a 
large class of bodies to which the term alcohols is 
applied, from their resemblance, in certain chemical 
reactions, to ordinary A. These are all compounds of 
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and hear a certain rela¬ 
tion to ethyl alcohol in chemical composition. Many 
of them are produced along with ordinary A, iu the 
process of fermentation. Of these may be named 
amylic alcohol (fusel oil) and butyric alcohol. They 
are chiefly characterized by producing neutral bodies, 
called ethers, when heated with acids, water being also 
produced. This numerous class of bodies is divided 
into monatomic and polyatomic alcohols, which are also 
classed, in accordance with their behavior on oxida¬ 
tion, into primary', secondary, and tertiary’. These 
distinctions, however, are too intricate to be dealt with 
here. Monatomic alcohols (which includes ordinary 
alcohol) are more abundant than the polyatomic, and 
are divided into several series, of which the most 
important are those whose radical is of the same type 
as that of ethyl or ordinary alcohol (as methyl, CH S ; 
ethyl, C a II 5 ; propyl, C 3 H 7 , Ac.; each increasing by the 
addition of CII a ). Of these substances the most impor¬ 
tant commercially is methyl (or wood) alcohol, which is 
obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of sugar 
and also by the dry distillation of wood. The ordinary 
wood spirit is a limpid liquid, having an unpleasant 
smell, and not adapted to serve the purpose of a bever¬ 
age, though it has a somewhat wide use in the arts. It 
is used by cabinet makers as a solvent for varnishes, to 
burn in lamps, and for various other purposes. Its 
comparative cheapness has caused it to replace ordinary 
A. in cases where the latter would be the better adapted; 
and it is, in consequence, manufactured at present on a 
large scale in tbe United States. 

( Tax). The production of A. in the United States has 
long been subject to a heavy internal tax, mainly in¬ 
tended to discourage its use as a beverage. But the 
great demand for it as a force-producing fuel and for 
other industrial purposes, led to the removal of this tax 
in 1906 on all denatured A., that is, on A. made unfit 
for drinking purposes by mixture with wood A. or 
other substances repugnant to the taste. 

Al'cobolisin, n. A rerm applied to the series of morbid 
phenomena arising front the use of alcoholic liquors. 
These differ if the trouble is due to a large quantity 
taken at one time, or to smaller quantities taken habit¬ 
ually', the former being termed Acute, the latter Chronic 
Alcoholism. Acute A. includes rapid catarrh of the 
alimentary mucous membrane, switt coma, and some 
cases of delirium tremeusand of acute insanity. Chronic 
A. yields prolonged congestions, most cases of delirium 
tremens, tissue degeneration in the various organs, and 
other disorders. 

Aleoide'a?, n. pi. ( Omith.) A species of marine birds, 
which embraces the loon and auk families. 

Alcorno'que, n. [Span.] ( Bot .) The bark of a South 
Americau tree, once thought to be useful as a remedy 
for pulmonary consumption; also, the bark of the cork¬ 
tree, or Quercu* suber. 

Al'cott, Amos Bronson, an educator and philosopher 
of generous culture and wide reputation, father of 
Louisa M. A. His Concord Days is a work of personal 
reminiscences. Born in 1799; died in 1888. 

Al'cott, Louisa May, authoress of Little Women (1867), 
An Old Fashioned Girl (1870), Little Men (1871), Aunt 
Jo's Scrap-Bag (1872), Work (1873), Ac. B. 1832 ; d. 1888. 

Al'cott, William A., an American social and educational 
reformer, born in Conn., 1798, co-edited the Annals of 
Education, and w rote much on matters of domestic 
economy, educational progress, Ac. Died in 1859. 

A lcyon'il’orin, a. [Fr. alkydn, the kingfisher.] Re¬ 
sembling the kingfisher either in form or appearance. 

Al'deliyde, n. ( Chem.) The vinic or acetic aldehyde 
may be recognized by its peculiar acrid odor, which 
affects tiie eyes, as well as by its volatility and inflam¬ 
mability'. It absorbs oxygen from air even at the ordi¬ 
nary temperature, and is gradually converted into acetic 
acid. Its attraction for oxygen enables it readily to 
reduce the salts of silver to the metallic state, a property 
which lias been utilized for silvering the inner part of 
glass vessels. A dissolution of nitrate of silver with the 
addition of some ammoniac is ponred in the vessel to 
be silvered, some drops of aldehyde are alterwards 
added, and the mixture then stirred. The nitrate of 
silver is decomposed, and the metal deposits itself on 
the glass, in a continuous and bright layer. 

Al lien, in Minnesota, a township of Freeborn co. 

Al'den. James, naval officer, burn at Portland, Me., 
Mar. 31,1810. He was engaged under F’arragut in the 
Civil War, was promoted rear admiral, and was ap¬ 
pointed chief of the Bureau of Navigation in 1869. He 
commanded the Brooklyn in the battles of Mobile Bay 
and Fort Fisher. He died Feb. 6, 1877. 

Al'den, John (aul'dn), one of the “Pilgrim Fathers,” 
was one of the earliest settlers at Plymouth, Mass. He 
figures as a conspicuous character in Longfellow’s fiue 
poem, Miles Standish's Courtship. Died in 1687. 

Al'dol, n. (Chem.) A bitter, transparent liquid derived 
from aldehy de by the process of polymerization. Form., 
C 4 II 8 0 2 . 

Aldox'im, n. (Chem.) One of the derivatives of 
ethyl aldehyde; a clear liquid having the fbrmulaj C a 
H 5 N0. 

Al'drich, Thomas Bailey, an American poet, born at 
Portsmouth, N. H., 1836; been connected with The 
Atlantic and several other periodicals; author of The 
Belts, Course of True Love, Marjorie Daw, <tc. D.1907. 

Alec'itbal, «. A term used in Embryology to denote 
the absence of yolk food, or its scanty and imperfect 










216 


ALTZ 


[SECTION II.] 


ALLO 


distribution; it is descriptive of certain ova,—of or per¬ 
taining to ova of that description. 

Alep'po e'vil, «. (Path.) A sort of virulent carbuncle 
or ulcer, often of syphilitic character, which affects both 
man and beast; so called because of its alleged origin 
on the borders of the Mediterranean, where it is said 
to be more prevalent than elsewhere. 

Alexander. Archibald, an American Presbyterian 
clergyman, B 1772. Author of Outlines of the. Evidences 
of Christianity, Treatise on the Canons of the Old and 
New Testament, Hist, of the Patriarchs, Essays on Re¬ 
ligious Experience, Hist, of the Jsraelitish Nation, “Moral 
Science &c. 1). 1851.—II. James Waddel, son of the 
above, b. 1804, author of Discourses on Christian Faith and 
Practice, Ac., editor of the Presbyterian newspaper, 
Professor of Ecclesiastical History at Princeton, N. J. 
D. 1859.—III. Joseph Addison, brother of the preceding, 
b. 1809, Professor of Biblical Criticism and Ecclesiastical 
History at Princeton, author of The I^salms Translated 
and Explained, The Prophecies of Isaiah, Ac. D. 1860. 

Alexander, Stephen, an American astronomer, b. at 
Schenectady, N. Y., 1806; graduated from Union Coll., 
1821; entered Princeton Theological Seminary, N. J., 
1832; in 1834, elected Adj. Prof, of Mathematics; and in 
1877, Prof, of Astronomy ; at the time of his D. in 1883, 
was Emeritus Professor. He has published numerous 
papers on Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics, Ac., which 
have attracted the attention of eminent astronomers in 
Europe and America. Among these may be mentioned: 
Physical Phenomena Attendant upon Solar Eclipses, Fun¬ 
damental Principle of Mathematics, On the Origin of the 
Forms and the Present Condition of some of the Clusters of 
Stars, and Harmonies in the Arrangement of the Solar 
System, which seem to be Confirmatory of the Nebular 
Theory of La Place. Hied June 6, 1883. 

Alex'ia, n. [Gr. a, priv., lego, Bpeak.J (Pathol.) Word- 
blindness, or an unnatural inability to read written or 
printed words correctly, said to be due to a morbid state 
of the visual nerve centers. 

Alex'in, n. [Gr. alexb, to read off.] (Histol.) An 
albuminous element in certain fluids, which possesses 
the power of weakening, destroying, or neutralizing 
pathogenic germs. 

Ale*e',n. (Surg.) A sheet composed of cotton or linen, 
or of some waterproof material, employed in surgical 
operations to receive the bloody discharges, to support 
an injured member, or to control an unruly patient. 

A1 Cal'fa, n. ( Bot .) The Spanish name used in California 
for lucerne (g.v.), a leguminous forage plant much prized 
in that and other States of the West and South. 

AH' ger, Russf.li, Alexander, born at Lafayette, 0., Feb. 
27,1836, admitted to the bar 1859, and entered the Union 
army as a private on the outbreak of the war. He rose 
to the rank of brevet major-general of volunteers in 1865. 
He subsequently engaged in the lumber business in 
Michigan, and was governor of that State 1885-87. In 
1889 he was elected commander-in-chief of the Grand 
Army of the Republic, and in 1897 became Secretary of 
War in President McKinley’s Cabinet. During his 
Secretaryship the Spanish War took place, and he was 
accused of supplying the soldiers in Cuba with beef 
unfit for eating. These and other charges caused him 
to resign in July, 1899, though he defended himself 
later in a book called “ The Spanish-American War.” 
He was appointed U. S. Senator in Sept., 1902, and 
elected to that office in 1903, declining a re-election in 
1906. He died at Washington Jnnv. 24, 1907. 

Al ger. William Rounseville, divine and author,born 
at Freetown, Mass., in 1823. He became a Unitarian 
minister of great popularity. As an author be showed 
much research and ability, his works including Symbolic 
History of the Cross of Christ , Ac. Died Feb. 7, 1.905. 

Al go'inn, a district of Ontario, Canada, which formerly 
occupied the entire northwestern extermity of that 
country, from about 81° W., but now extends only to 
85° W. Ion. It reaches from the North Channel, Lake 
Huron, to Albany river on the N. It is a well wooded 
country, rich in minerals but very sparsely inhabited. 

Alg'onkian Period (Geoi.). Au American geolog¬ 
ical period coming between the Ar. haian and the Cam¬ 
brian. It is almost anterior to tlie fossil period, though 
some obscure fossils resembling worm tracks have been 
found in its rocks, while there are abundant carbon¬ 
aceous and calcareous deposits of possible organic origin. 
As the succeeding Cambrian contains fossils of some¬ 
what advanced structure, it is not improbable that 
Algonkian faunas may yet be found. The A. rocks are 
many thousands of feet in thickness, and are divided 
into several unconformable series, some consisting of 
unchanged sedimentary rocks, others of rocks which 
have been much changed by the action of heat and 
pressure. A. rocks are most abundant in the Lake 
Superior region, where they have a total thickness of 
42,000 feet. They also occupy large areas in Canada, 
and occur in many localities in the U. S. and Europe. 

Aliz'arin, n. ( Chem.) The coloring matter of madder. 
It was discovered in 1824 by Robiquet and Colin, by 
treating madder with strong sulphuric acid, and is 
largely used by calico printers in the form of a yellowish- 
brown paste, which is known as “madder extract;” 
also in the form of a dry power. Compounds of A. 
with metallic bases yield turkey-red, madder-pink, and 
the various shades of purple and chocolate on calico.— 
Artificial Alizarin, In 1869 an important chemical tri¬ 
umph was attained in the production, by Gracbe and 
Lieberman, of artificial alizarin. This was performed 
by a series of chemical processes having as their bases 
anthracene, which can be abundantly produced from 
the refuse coal-tar of gas works, and which was changed, 
by this result, from the rank of a chemical curiosity to 


an article of commerce. By combining A. with several 
chemical compounds a number of new dyestuff's have 
been produced, including alizarin carmine, orange, and 
blue. Madder was formerly largely cultivated in Hol¬ 
land, Alsace, Italy, aud the Levant, its annual con¬ 
sumption exceeding 110,000,000 in value. It yielded in 
addition to A., alcohol and sugar. Its production has 
been greatly decreased through the important discovery 
named. 

Al'len, Elizabeth Akers, a poet, born at Strong, Me., 
Oct. 9, 1832. Her maiden name was Elizabeth Chase; 
sho married tiie sculptor Akers, and afterwards E. M. 
Allen, of New York. Her poems were published under 
the pseudonym of “ Florence Perry.” She has published 
several volumes of poetry, and contributed much to 
periodical literature, her most popular production being 
the song entitled Rock me to Sleep, Mother. 

Al'len. Harrison, M.D., b. in Philadelphia, Pa., April 
17, 1841; graduated at the University of Pennsylvania 
in 1861, and was in the U. S. service as assistant sur¬ 
geon 1862-65. From 1865 to 1868 he was professor of 
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania, and afterward Professor of Physiology in the 
same institution. He lias also filled the chair of Anatomy 
and Surgery in the Philadelphia Dental College, and 
lias served as surgeon in the Philadelphia Hospital. 
Ho has now retired to private practice, and has recently 
given much attention to the study of crania. He has 
published Outlines of Comparative Anatomy (1867); Sys¬ 
tem of Human Anatomy (1880); and numerous papers 
on mammalian anatomy. Died Nov. 14,1897. 

Al'len, Horatio, was born at Schenectady, N. Y., 
1802, graduated at Columbia College in 1823, and adopted 
the profession of civil engineer. In 1828 he went to 
England to purchase locomotives for the Del. and Hud. 
Canal Co., and in 1829 operated at Honesdale, Pa., the 
“Stourbridge Lion,” the first locomotive ever run in 
America. He served successively as chief engineer of 
the South Carolina Railroad, assistant engineer of the 
Croton Aqueduct, and president of the N. Y. and Erie 
R. R. During 1872-73 he was president of the Amer¬ 
ican Society of Civil Engineers. D. Dec. 31,1889. 
Al'len, Jerome, Ph. D., born at Westminster West, Yt.. 
July 17,1830; educated at Amherst College, and served 
from 1853 to 1889 as professor in various institutions of 
learning. In 1889 he was appointed Professor of Peda¬ 
gogy in the University of New York. Author of a 
number of useful school books. D. May 26,1894. 
Al'len, Joel Asaph, born at Springfield, Mass., July 19, 
1838, studied geology in the Lawrence Scientific School, 
Cambridge, in 1862, and from 1865-69 was a member of 
various scientific expeditions to the Rocky Mountains, 
Florida, and Brazil, on the results of which he pub¬ 
lished a series of papers. In 1873 he was chief of a 
scientific party which accompanied the Northern Pacific 
R. R. surveying expedition, and published a report on 
the natural history of this region. In 1870 lie was 
made assistant in Ornithology at the Museum of Com¬ 
parative Zoology, Cambridge. He prepared monographs 
of North American rodents and pinniped crabs, and 
became editor of the Auk. 

Al'len, William, an American divine, b. in Mass, 1784, 
filled the presidential chair at Bowdoin Coll., 1820-39; 
and s. Dr. Channing in the regency of that of Harvard. 
As a writer he is best known by his American Biograph¬ 
ical Dictionary (1809, 3d ed., 1857). D. 1868. 

Allen, in Ark., a twp. of Pope co.; in Ills, a twp. of 
McLean co.; in Mo., a twp. of Worth co.; in W. Va., 
a twp. of Morgan co. 

Allen’s, in Ala., a twp. of Winston co.; in Ga., a dis¬ 
trict of Walton co.; in Ky., a precinct of Clay co. — A 
twp. of Floyd co. 

Allen’s. in Tennessee, a township of Haywood co.—A 
township of Sumner co. 

Allen’s, in Texas, a township of Panola co. 

Allen’s Factory, in Alabama, a township of Marion 

co. 

Allen’s CJrovc, in Illinois, a township of Mason 
co. 

Al'lensville, in North Carolina, a township of Person 
co. 

Al'leytown, in Texas, a township of Colorado coun¬ 
ty. 

Allibone, Samuel Austin, ( dl'lebon,) an American lit- 
erateur, b. in Philadelphia, 1816; has based his reputa¬ 
tion on a very excellent Critical Dictionary of English 
Literature and British and American Authors (Piiila., 
1858); the 2d volume was issued in 1868, and the 3d in 
1871.; also author of Poetical Quotations, Great Authors of 
all Ages, &c. D. 1889. 

Al'ligator.in North Carolina, a township of Tyrrell co. 
Alligator, in South Carolina, a township of Chester¬ 
field co. 

Al'lingliam, William, poet, journalist and play¬ 
wright, born at Ballysliannou, Ireland, in 1828. He 
was at one time editor of Fraser's Magazine, and pub¬ 
lished several volumes of poetry, including Day and 
Night Songs, The Music Master, &c. His most popular 
pieces are Mary Donnelly and The Fairies. 

Al'lison, William B., born at Perry, 0., Mar. 2,1829; 
educated at the Western Reserve College, 0.; studied 
law, and practiced till the beginning of the war, when 
he served on the staff of the Governor of Iowa in organ¬ 
izing volunteers. Was elected to Congress during the 
war, and served as Representative for four terms. In 
1873 he was elected a Republican member of the U. S. 
Senate, in which be has since remained. In 1892 he 
was a delegate from the U. S. to the International Mon. 
etary Congress at Brussels. Died 1908. 

Al'lison, in Illinois, a township of Lawrence county. 
Al'lison, in Kentucky, a precinct of Hardin county. 


Allison’s Mills, in Alabama, a township of Jackson 

county. 

Al'lisonville, in Indiana, a village of Marion county. 
Alloys. (Chem.) At the present time the number of 
alloys in use are very large, and new and important 
combinations are being constantly discovered. The 
metals most in use are, excluding platinum, eleven in 
number. They may be divided into 5 classes, according 
to their physical properties: 


Metals. 

Hardness. 

Melting- 

point. 

Tenacity 
in pro¬ 
portional 
numb. 

Spe¬ 

cific 

Grav* 

ity. 

I. — Brittle 





Metals. 





Antimony. 

Scratched by 

A little ] 



r 6-76 


glass. 

above red 






heat. 







Almost nil. 

. 




below red 





heat. 




Bismuth. 

Scratched by 

256° C. . 



gas 


carbon, oflime. 




II. — Interme- 





diary Metal. 





Zinc. 

Scratched by 

370° 

4-9 

V 


glass. 




III. — Ductile 





Metals. 





Iron. 

Scratched by 

13(P Wedgw. 

24- 

7-78 


glass. 

Pyrometer. 



Gold. 

Scratched by 

32° 

6-80 

19-25 


carbon, oflime. 




Copper. 


21° 

13- 

8-89 

Silver. 


20° 

8-5 

10-47 

1Y. — Soft 





Metals. 





Lead. 

Scratched by the 

822° C. 

1- 

11-35 


finger-nail. 




Tin. 

Scratched by 

210° C. 

1-50 

7-29 


carbon, oflime. 




Y. — Liquid. 





Metal. 





Mercury. 




13-56 


ALLOYS OF METALS WITH THE BRITTLE METALS. 


With 

Arsenic. 

Antimony. 

Bismuth. 

Zinc. 

Difficult of pre 
paration. Very 

brittle. Of little 
interest. 

Very brittle 

Steel-gray. Harr 
and very combus 
tible. 

Unknown. 

Iron. 

Whitening, 
hardening, and 
rendering it sus¬ 
ceptible of a fiue 
polish. Much 

used for steel 
ornaments. 

70 of antimony 
and 30 of iron are 
somewhat fusible 
Very hard anc 
white. An alloj 
of 2 of iron aud ] 
of antimony more 
hard. 

Doubtful. 

Gold. 

Gray metal. 

Very brilliant. 

Antimony has a 
great affinity for 
gold; the slightest 
fumes of it are suf¬ 
ficient to alter the 
ductility of that 
metal. The alloys 
are pale-yellow, 
with a fracture 
like that of porce¬ 
lain. 

Similar to thal 
of antimony, Of 
a yellow - green 
color. 

Copper. 

62 parts of cop¬ 
per aud 57 of ar¬ 
senic. A gray, 
brilliant, brittle 
metal. Fusible at 
red heat By iu- 
creasing the quan¬ 
tity of copper it 
becomes white and 
somewhat ductile. 
Used in making 
buttons, inderthe 
name of white 
copper or tombac. 

Rapid combina¬ 
tion by the fusion 
of the two metals. 
The alloys are 
brittle. * Those 
formed with equal 
parts of the two 
metals are of a 
beautiful violet 

color. 

Alloys brittle* 
Pale red color. 

Silver. 

85 parts of silver 
and 14 of arsenic. 
Grayish-white 
brittle metal. 

Takes a high pol¬ 
ish. 

Have a very 
great affinity. Al¬ 
loys always brit¬ 
tle. 

Alloys brittle 
and lamellated. 
Rather white in 
color. 

Lead. 

Arsenic renders 
lead brittle. The 
combinations are 
grayish-white. 

Nat decomposed 
by heat, proving 
close atomic com¬ 
bination. 

Antimony gives 
hardness to lead. 
76 parts of lead 
aud 24 parts of an¬ 
timony appear the 
point of saturation 
of the two metals. 
Very much harder 
thau lead. When 
the proportions of 
antimony are in¬ 
creased, the alloy 
becomes very brit¬ 
tle. 

The alloys of 
bismuth and lead 
are less brittle and 
more ductile than 
those with anti* 
mony, but less 
hard also. 3 of 
lead and 2 of 
bismuth has n col¬ 
or intermediary 
between tin and 
lead. It is very 
ductile. Very fu- 

Tin. 

Gray, lamellat- 
ed. Less fusible 
than tin. 

The alloys of an¬ 
timony and tin are 
as white as tin, 
much harder, and 
less ductile. They 
become brittle 

when the arsenic 
is in a large pro¬ 
portion. The al- 
oy formed by 80 
parts of tin and 20 
>f antimony may 
be made into 
>lates sufficiently 
lard to engrave 
music upon. 

*in and bis¬ 
muth unite easily 
in all proportions 
by fusion. The 
alloys are harder 
and more fusible 
thau either of the 
two separate met¬ 
als. 

Mercury. 

Without inter¬ 
est. 

Without inter¬ 
est. A white grit¬ 
ty metal. 

Mercury dis* 
solves a large 
quantity of bis¬ 
muth without losi¬ 
ng its fluidity. 
The alloy of 1 of 
bismuth and 4 of 
mercury very fnab 
fie. 


















































ALMU 


\ [SECTION II.] 


ALTE 


217 


Antique bronze sword. 

Bronze for Statues. 

“ for Medals.... . 

“ for Cannon. 

“ for Gilding.. .. 

Speoulum Metal . 

Bra9» for Sheet. 

Gilding-Metal. 

Pinchbeck .. 

Dutch Metal.... . 

English Wire. 

Mosaic Gold.. 

Gun-Metal . 

Muntz’s Metal. 

Good Yellow Brass.. 

Babbit’s Metal for Bushing 
Bell-Metal for Large Bells. 

Britannia Metal. 

Nickel Silver (English). 

“ (Parisian). 

German Silver. 


Copp’r. 

Zinc. 1 

Tin. 

87-000 


13 000 

91-400 

5-530 

1-700 

90-000 


10 000 

90000 


10-000 

82-257 

17-481 

0-238 

66-000 


33-000 

84-700 

15-300 


73-730 

27-270 


80-200 

20 000 


84-700 

15-300 


70-290 

29-260 

0T7 

66-000 

33 000 


90-300 

9-670 

003 

60-000 

40-000 


66-000 

33-000 


8-300 


8300 

80-000 


20 00 

1-000 

2-00 

81-00 

60-000 

17-8 


50-000 

136 


50-000 

25-0 



In addition to the alloys here named and described, an 
Interesting series have somewhat recently come into use, 
which in some instances are of considerable importance. 
These are the alloys of aluminium, a metal formerly too 
costly to be of much use in the arts, but now coming into 
extensive employment. Of the several alloys of alum¬ 
inium, those with copper are of most practical importance. 
Aluminium forms with copper several light, very hard, 
white alloys, and a yellow alloy closely resembling gold 
in color, but much lighter in weight. Copper alloyed with 
2% per cent, of aluminium yields an A. of a deep red color. 
As the aluminium is increased, up to 10 or 12 per cent,, the 
color changes, becoming a yellowish gold tint, while the 
hardness lessens. With more aluminium the product be¬ 
comes brittle, and the color changes to w hite. This alloy, 
known in commerce as aluminium bronze (albronze),has 
highly useful qualities. The 10 per cent, albronzes have 
100,000 lb. tensile strength per sq.inch, an elastic limit of 
60,000 lbs., and with at least 10 per cent, elongation in 8 
inches. The 5 to 7 per cent, bronzes have 70,000 to 80,000 
lb. tensile strength, an elastic limit of over 40,000 lbs., and 
an elongation of over 30 per cent, in 8 inches. These lat¬ 
ter can be rolled and hammered at a red heat, and worked 
in almost every way that steel can, while they have the 
advantage of greater combined strength and ductility and 
are much less subject to corrosion. They form a metal of 
remarkable rigidity under transverse strain and of excel¬ 
lent anti-friction qualities. Albronze has come into use 
for field guns and shaft bearings, and its rich gold color 
makes it useful for watch chains, table plate, carriage 
mountings, Ac. “Silver bronze,” containing 18 manga¬ 
nese, 1.20 aluminium, 5 silicon, 13 zinc, and 67.5 copper, is 
employed as a substitute for German silver. Its tensile 
strength is large, and its electrical resistance is probably 
greater than that of any other known material which is 
capable of being drawn into strong, tough wire for resist¬ 
ance coils. A number of useful alloys can be made by 
mixing albronzes with nickel in varying proportions. 
These are very durable, and have a tenacity of 75,000 to 
100,000 lbs. to the sq. inch. An addition of a small quan¬ 
tity'of aluminium to brass greatly increases its tenacity 
and resistance to corrosion. An alloy of aluminium and 
tin is nsed in optical instruments, and one with silver, 
called “ tiers argent,” for spoons and forks. An alloy 
with chromium is as hard as steel, and one with 70 per 
cent, of iron is said to be hard enough to scratch glass. 
In the casting of iron and steel, aluminium is ot much 
value. When added in the proportion of from 2 to 5 lbs. 
per ton it has the important property of increasing the 
rapidity with which iron passes from the solid to the 
liquid state. It is still more important from its beneficial 
effect on steel castings through its property of quieting 
the molten steel in pouring. From 5 to 15 oz. are used 
per ton of steel. The addition of % lb. of aluminium to 
10 tons of spelter is also found to improve the surface 
finish of iron or steel sheets in galvanizing. 

All-sided. a. Presenting, pertaining to, or developed 
on, all sides; that may be approached from all sides; as, 
an all-aided controversy. Also, broad-minded; capable of 
seeing and recognizing all phases of an object or sub¬ 
ject; as, an all-sided man.—In a bad sense, given to 
duplicity; attempting to assume various relations of be¬ 
lief or loyalty at once; as, an all-sided politician. 

Al'iirti Ma ter. [Lat., fostering mother.] A term 
used by students to designate the college or university 
where they were educated, or whence they graduated. 

Al'nia-Tsid'ema, Lawrence 11. A., a distinguished 
painter, born in the Netherlands, 1835, settled in Lon¬ 
don, 1873. Among hi? works are The Emperor Hadrian 
Visiting a British Pottery (1884); The Woman of Amphissa 
(1887). He is an officer of the Legion of Honor, and a 
member of the Academies of Berlin, Munich, Amster¬ 
dam, Vienna, Madrid, and Stockholm. His work is 
marked by archaeological correctness and a high order 
of technical excellence. 

Almi'rah, «. An East Indian term for a sort of 
bureau, or case of drawers and closed shelves, used in 
Indian dwellings. Sometimes spelled almurah. 

Alniucan'tai', n. (Astrom.) A word of Arabic origin, 
used to denote a circle of the celestial sphere parallel to 
the horizon, or a parallel of altitude. It lias also been 
applied to an instrument consisting of a telescope 
mounted on a stand and floating on the surface of mer¬ 
cury, so that, as it is turned, it always points to a fixed 
altitude. It is of use in testing the equal altitudes of 
two or more heavenly bodies at given moments. * 


Al'nager, n. Formerly, an English revenue officer, 
whose duty it was to inspect woolen fabrics, then meas¬ 
ured by the ell, for the purpose of computing the legal 
taxes thereon. 

Alo'g-ia, n. [Gr. a, priv., logos, reason.] (Pathol.) Im¬ 
pairment of the power of speech by reason of mental 
failure or incapacity; a form of aphasia associated with 
idocy or insanity. 

Alope'coicl, a. [Gr. aldpex, fox, eidos, form.] Per¬ 
taining to or resembling the fox, and therefore descrip¬ 
tive of a series of canine carnivores in which frontal air 
sinuses are lacking. 

Al'pen-horn, n. A long,very’ sonorous horn, of slightly 
curved shape, used by cowherds on the Alps. It w as 
formerly used by Swiss soldiers, and also as a musical 
instrument. 

AIpes-Maritimes ( ahlp-mar'e-tem ), a S.E. dept, of 
France, bordering upon Italy, and washed on the S. by 
the W’aters of the Mediterranean, while on the N. it is 
bounded by the Alpine chain from w’hich it takes its 
name. Its surface is generally hilly, but with lovely 
and fertile valleys intersticed between the spurs of the 
mountain ranges. Chief rivers, the Loup, Paillon, and 
Var. It has many forests, and pasturage is plentiful; 
wine, fruit, honey, and tobacco are extensively grown, 
an the rearing of silk-w’orms is an object of much 
atten u. Cap. Nice. This dept, w’as formed in 1860 oi 
the ancient, co. of Nice, then ceded by Italy to France, 
and of part of the dept. Var. Pop. 1891, 258,571. 

Alphantl, Jean Charles Adolphe, a civil engineer b. 
at Grenoble, France, Oct. 26,1817, entered the Polytech¬ 
nic School in 1835, and the school of Pouts et Chaussees 
in 1837. He graduated in 1843, and became an engineer 
at Bordeaux, whence in 1854 Baron Haussmann called 
him to Paris, and appointed him chief engineer of the 
projected improvements of that city. In 1871 President 
Thiers appointed him director of works in Paris, and in 
1878 he was made director of w’ater supply and drainage. 
During the Franco-Prussian war he w as colonel of a 
corps of engineers, in charge of the works defending 
the city. The expositions of 1867, 1878, and 1889 were 
under his direction. In 1882 he was made grand officer 
of the Legion of Honor, of w’hich he had been a mem¬ 
ber since 1852. Modern Paris, though designed by 
Haussman, owes its character to Alphand, who con¬ 
tinued his labors of improvement after the overthrow 
of the empire. Died Dec. 6,1891. 

Alps-inalay'an. a. (Geog.) An unusual term of 
recent coinage referring to the entire Eurasian moun¬ 
tain system, which includes the Himalayas as well as 
the Alps and the Pyrenees. 

Al'silte, «. [Sw.] (Bot.) A forage plant ( Trifolium 

hybridum) of considerable value as fodder for cattle or 
sheep; also called A kike clover, and Swedish clover. It 
has a white flow’er tinged with pink. 

Al'tamont, in Illinois, a town of Effingham co., laid 
out in 1870. It is a grain shipping point and has 
several manufacturing industries. Pop. (1890) 1,044. 

Altar-boartl, n. A highly ornamented recess or 
panel in or upon a church altar, to receive the vessels 
employed in the eucharistic service. 

Altar-fire, n. Literally, a fire on an altar; a sacri¬ 
ficial flame. Hence, figuratively, religious fervor, or 
any other deep sentimental emotion having the essence 
of devotional zeal. 

Alternation of Generation. (Physiol.) A term 
under which it is here proposed to explain in detail the 
phenomena of non-sexual reproduction generally. This 
title does not correctly embrace all the phenomena of 
reproduction without'the direct influence of the male, 
but until a more comprehensive geueral term be em¬ 
ployed, it is certainly most convenient to describe these 
changes under the present head. It is in the lower ani¬ 
mals only that we find the ordinary sexual reproduo 
tive process superseded by the non-sexual production 
of individuals. Even in these the phenomena are com¬ 
paratively rare. Nevertheless they are by no means 
accidental, but,as Von Siebold remarks, have a definite 
position in the history of the development of organic; 
beings, being especially manifested in the Ccelenterata; 
the cestode and trematode Entozoa, and in certain fami¬ 
lies of Insecta. Perhaps the true relation of the direct 
and indirect processes of generation will be better under¬ 
stood by presenting all the phenomena of development 
in a tabulated form, as has been done by Prof. Huxley, 
thus: 

f Growth. 

Metamorphosis. 

; Gemmation 
[ (without fusion). 

, . f Metagenesis. 

Discontinous f AgamogeiiGSis-.- "j parthenogenesis. 
(Gemmation -c 

.with fusion). (Gamogenesis. 


Continous. 


By gamogenesis is understood “sexual reproduction: 
by agamogenesis, the non-sexual process. When the 
producing individual (or protozooid) has no sexual or¬ 
gans. Prof. Owen’s term metagenesis may be employed; 
but when there are sexual organs, and the buds resem¬ 
ble ova, then Prof. Huxley adopts the term Parthe¬ 
nogenesis in its restricted sense. The essential nature of 
the phenomena of alternate generation has been most 
ably described by Prof. Allen Thomson, of Glasgow, who 
observes that it consists in this, namely, that in some 
animals “ the body or individual which is developed im¬ 
mediately from the ovum is not, in general, itself the 
bearer of the sexual organs, but nevertheless maintains 
for a time an independent existence, or presents the 
structural and functional characters of a separate or 
distinct individual, these characters often differing re¬ 
markably from those of the sexual individuals fromj 


which the ovum derived its origin • and that »nbse» 
quently this individual, or one or other of its successor^ 
has formed in connection with it, either internally ot 
externally, and without sexual organs, a new progeny, 
which may consist of one or of many individuals, which 
have each of them more of the structure and properties 
of independent animals, and which, however variable 
their organization may be, present this in common, that 
they are sexually complete and renew the true genera¬ 
tive act by the formation of fecundated ova. In some 
animals it is the immediate offspring of the individual 
developed from the ovum which resumes the sexual 
functions; in other animals this offspring bears a 
second brood, or a third, and even more successive 
generations, before the return is made to sexual repro¬ 
duction.” Such being a general statement of the facts 
representing so many links, as it were, in the compli¬ 
cated chain of phenomena of non-sexual reproduction, 
we now proceed to adduce a selection of illustrations 
by which this interesting law of alternate generation 
may be clearly understood. Probably the most practi¬ 
cally useful exemplification which can be brought for¬ 
ward, is that which we derive from a consideration of 
the development of a cestode parasite or Eutozoon 
which, unfortunately, infests the human body. In this 
view, therefore, we particularly invite attention to the 
natural history of the common Tape-worm, or Ttenia 
solium. The Solitary Tape-worm (so misnamed from the 
false notion that only one lives in the same person at 
once), in the full-grown condition, is not, strictly speak¬ 
ing, a creature or animal, but rather a great many crea¬ 
tures attached to 
one another, so as 
to form a colony, 
or, more scientifi¬ 
cally, the Strobila. 

(See Strobila, be¬ 
low.) This colony 
is usually com¬ 
posed of several 
hundred joints, 
and each of these 
joints represents 
an individual 
worm ( pmglottis ) ; 
those which are 
nearest to the low¬ 
er end (or so-called 
tail of the Tape- 
worm)being sexu¬ 
ally mature. They 
are indeed herma- 
p h r o d i t i c, i. e. 
having both male 
and female repro¬ 
ductive organs. 

Those feebly de¬ 
veloped joints Fig. 2659.—tape-worm. 

which form the 8®- a, single joint or proglottis ; B, head of 
called neck of the the colony, or Strobila. 

worm are imper¬ 
fect or immature individuals; whilst the little head is 
nothing more than a single individual (equivalent to a 
joint or proglottis) irregularly modified, and furnished 
with an apparatus by which the strobila or colony is, as 
it were, securely anchored to the walls of the bowel of 
the unhappy person which the Tape-worm infests. The 
man, woman, or child thus infested, or harboring the 
parasite, is technically said to be the host, because he 
or she entertains its presence. Looking, therefore, at 
the mature proglottis as the adult individual worm, we 
have now to consider the manner in which it repro¬ 
duces itself. After the proglottis (which is furnished 
with male and female reproductive organs) has under¬ 
gone impregnation by contact with another proglottis, 
there results from this the formation of eggs within it, 
which eggs, whilst still within the body of the parent, 
develop into embryos, the latter still retaining the egg 
coverings. At this time the proglottis is about to un¬ 
dergo a passive migration, for having detached itself 
from the strobila, it is soon expelled from the bowel of 
the host, and therefore finds its way into some cesspool, 
or it may be into the open fields. The proglottides 
move about for a time, but the growth of the multi¬ 
tudes of embryos within causes the proglottis sooner 
or later to burst, and the embryos thus become dis¬ 
persed; some are thus conveyed down drains or sewers, 
others are lodged by the roadsides in ditches and waste 
places, whilst multitudes are scattered far and near by 
winds or insects in every conceivable direction. Each 
embryo is furnished with a special boring apparatus, 
having at its anterior end three pairs of hooks; the en¬ 
tire group or family, therefore, of any single proglottis 
is called the “six-hooked brood.” After a while, by ac-, 
cident, as it were, a pig comes in the way, either of 
these embryos or of th9 proglottides, swallows them 
along with other matters taken in as food. The em¬ 
bryos, immediately being transferred to the digestive 
canal, escape from the eggshells and bore their way 
through the living tissues of the animal, and having 
lodged themselves in the fatty parts of the flesh, they 
there rest to await their further transformation or des¬ 
tiny. The animal thus infested becomes measlecl, and 
thus it is that we are acquainted with measly pork. In 
this situation the embryos drop their hooks or boring 
apparatus, and become transformed into the Oysticercus 
cellulosie. A portion of this measled meat being eaten 
by ourselves,either in a raw or imperfectly cooked con¬ 
dition, transfers the Oysticercus to our own alimentary 
canal, in which situation the Oysticercus attaches itself 
to the wall of the human intestine, and, having secured 








































































218 


ALTE 


[SECTION II.] 


AMAD 


k pood anchorage, begins to grow at the lower or caudal 
extremity, producing numerous joints or buds to form 
the 6trobila or Tape-worm colony. Thus the cycle of 
life-development is completed, and we have a simple 
alternation of generation in which the immediate pro¬ 
duct c/f the proglottis (or sexually mature individual) 
is a six-hooked brood; by metamorphosis the latter be¬ 
comes transformed into the Cysticercus, having a head 
with four suckers, and a double crown of hooks; and 
by gemmation the latter gives rise to a whole colony 
(strobila) of individuals, the greater part of which 
are destined to become sexually mature individuals, 
or proglottides. It will be observed, therefore, that 
the product of a single ovum is in the first instance 
a single non-sexual embryo (or protozooid); in the 
second phase it becomes a non-sexual Cysticercus 
(or dentozooid); in the third change it gives off, by 
budding, numerous gemmules (or tritozooids), most of 
them destined to be sexually mature individuals, and 
in this way to resemble their original parents. A more 
complicated alternation of generation occurs in the 
Coelenterata, especially in that division which we call 
the Hydrozoa. Thus the common zoophyte Campanu- 
laria may be taken as an example. Certain polyp¬ 
like cells or gonoblastidia (/, Fig. 2660) of the polyp 
colony contain ova ( g ), which latter, after contact with 
spermatozoa developed from other cells, form ciliated 
embryos (t and c). These, having escaped from 
their gonoblastidium, swim about for a time, and, 
losing their cilia, ultimately settle down on some weed 
or rock, where, undergoing a change of form, they 
sprout upwards to 
form a young polyp- 
idome (or cceno- 
sarc). By a process 
of gemmation nu¬ 
merous polyp-heads 
(polypites) are pro¬ 
duced, and also at 
intervals other 
modified polypites, 
which are con tai ned 
in similar capsules 
or liydrothecse (k 
and f). Some of 
these capsules give 
rise to medusoids ( l) 
by a process of bud¬ 
ding, and these lat¬ 
ter are capable of 
producing ova by an 
ordinary sexual pro¬ 
cess (gamogenesis). 

Others form the 
gonoblastidia above 
mentioned, while 
the embryonic 
products of both 
these modified indi¬ 
viduals form new 
polyp colonies in 
the way wo have 
just described. If 
space admitted, wo 
should be glad to 
enter into minute 
details of this curi¬ 
ously complicated 
process, a modifica¬ 
tion of which is 
seen in the develop¬ 
ment of certain Me¬ 
dusa;, such as Chrysaora. From these sexually mature 
forms Prof. Thomson has described the process as fol¬ 
lows:— “The fecundated ova which they produce are 
first developed into aciliated moving animalcule (aaud 
b, Fig. 2600), somewhat like a polygastrican. This crea¬ 
ture. after undergoing a slight change of form, fixes 
itself by the narrowest end, and acquires tentacles like 
a polyp at the other (c, d, and «), amounting for some 
time to eight (f). In this condition it appears to be 
capable of multiplying itself, or producing other similar 
attached polyps by gemmation from its side or base, or 
from a running stolon below' it ( g ). The subsequent 
change of each of these polypoids is remarkable. It 
has been described by Sars and Dalyell as follows: — 
The body undergoing some elongation becomes par¬ 
tially divided by transverse grooves (//, i) into a range or 
column of imperfect Medusae, attached still to each 
other by their adjacent surfaces, but presenting at their 
borders, in various degrees of advancement, the division 
into rays or lobes which belong to the Medusae, the up¬ 
per or terminal one having developed upon it a set of 
radiated processes distinct from the tentacles of the 
polyp, and much longer than those of the rest (li). The 
young Medusa are successively separated from the 
stock by the deepening of the transverse clefts between 
them (1). They then move about as independent ani¬ 
mals, and proceed in their further growth and develop¬ 
ment to sexual and other completeness ( m , n). These 
bodies, therefore, are subject to two kinds of multipli¬ 
cation, which are very different: by simple gemmation 
a number or a colony of strobilae may be produced, and 
by transverse fission and development a number of 
Medusa; may be thrown off from each strobilu.” In the 
Tape-worm colony, as we have seen, the individuals of 
the strobila attain their sexual maturity while still as¬ 
sociated together; but here, in the Medusae, the Me¬ 
dusas are very small and immature at the time of their 
separation. A still more startling modification of the 
non-sexual process of reproduction is seen in the Plant- 



Fig. 2660. 

DEVELOPMENT OF CHRYSAORA. 


lice or Aphides. In these tiny though highly organ¬ 
ized insect members of the animal kingdom, whole 
generations, sometimes eleven in succession, are repro¬ 
duced from sexual parents,all of them being the product 
of a single ovum. This is brought about by a process of 
internal budding in the parents, the extruded vivipar¬ 
ous young being developed internally from egg-like 
bodies, which are not true ova and have never under¬ 
gone impregnation. The distinguished author above 
quoted describes the course of the generative process as 
follows: — “ Perfect male and female winged insects are 
observed only towards the autumn season. These fly 
about in great quantities; the impregnated females de¬ 
posit their eggs, covered with a protecting case of mu¬ 
cus, in the axils and other recesses of plants, where 
they remain during the winter. In spring there are 
developed from these ova a brood of larvae, or imperfect 
female Aphides, which soon produce, by an act of vivip¬ 
arous generation, and without any concurrence of the 
male sex, a progeny of a similar kind; and this is re¬ 
peated in successive generations for nine or ten times in 
the common species, or for ten or twelve week^ during 
the summer, at the end of which time the last brood 
brings forth male and perfect female individuals, both! 
of which die after having provided, by the production 
of fecundated ova, for the continued generation ^^ring 
the next season.” In Fig. 2661, a shows the ‘permato- 
zodn fertilizing the ovum (6), which gives rise to d, the 
first embryo or viviparous larva. This larva gives 
origin to eight somewhat differently formed larvae (e), 
while each one of 
these in their turn 
produces eight 
others, and so on, 
until the succes¬ 
sive progenies are 
completed; the 
last giving birth 
to true sexual in¬ 
dividuals, a pair 
of which are here 
drawn, h being 
the male and i the 
female. The mul¬ 
titudes of larval 
Plant-lice thus 
produced from a 
single ovum, 
though not defy¬ 
ing calculation on 
paper, yet almost 
defy the imagina¬ 
tion to conceive. 

This process, 
while it consti¬ 
tutes a true par¬ 
thenogenesis (q. V. 
below),is not only 
remarkable as oc¬ 
curring in crea¬ 
tures so high in 
the scale of ani¬ 
mal organization, _. 

but also on ac- 2661. 

count of the ve.-v ILLUSTRATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF 

close resemblance campanulas and aphis. 
which obtains in the mode of the formation of the 
young of these viviparous larva; as compared with the 
mode of formation of the eggs within the body of the 
true sexually mature female. In both creatures thes 0 
are special organs which give rise to the germs; but in 
the non-fertilized broods, or viviparous larvae, they may 
be compared to a multitude of buds capable of attain¬ 
ing the development and appearance of full-grown in 
sects, which latter differ from the perfect insect chiefly 
in their usually not possessing any wings, and having 
imperfect reproductive organs. 

Altitude and Azintiutl) (or Alt-Azimuth) In¬ 
strument. (Asf.) A telescope so constructed as 
to be movable primarily about a vertical axis, and 
secondarily about an horizontal axis, at right angles to 
the tube of the telescope. Such a telescope may be di¬ 
rected towards a celestial object by two movements. 
Thus, suppose the telescope directed in the first instance 
horizontally towards the north, and that the object to 
be observed lies towards the SAW, and at an elevation 
of forty-five degrees. Then the telescope must first 
be turned about the vertical axis towards the W. and 
through an angle of 135 degrees, then on the Azimuth 
of the object (see Azimuth), the latter its altitude (see 
Altitude) ; and the instrument derives its name from 
the fact that it is brought to bear on objects by motions 
affecting these relations. For scientific purposes, the 
alt-azimnth has not been much used. The altitude and 
azimuth of every celestial object are continually chang¬ 
ing, so that an object can only be kept in the field of 
an alt-azimuth by a continual and variable process of 
double motions, which no machinery can impart. The 
alt-azimuth has been used at Greenwich for determining 
the elevation of the moon when due east or west. 

Alt-Ofeu, (ault-o'feu,) an ancient town of Hungary,on 
the Danube, 2 m. of Buda. Roman remains are found 
here. Once the cap.of Attila,kingof the Huns. P.11,730. 

Al'tiscope, n. ( Optics.) A device made up of lenses and 
mirrors in a vertically extensible telescope tube. These 
are so arranged as to enable an observer to see over inter¬ 
vening objects. It is used chiefly for military purposes. 

Altri'ces, n. [Lat. altrix, nurse.] ( Ornith.) A name 
designating certain birds which remain for some time 
in the nest after being hatched. 

Altrop'athy, n. Sympathy or deep regard for other 



people, even exceeding, perhaps, that for one’s self. Ob 
viously, an unusual thing in real life. 

Al'truism, n. (Ethics.) A term signifying the benev¬ 
olent instincts of man. It stands in contrast with 
egoism, or the selfish instincts. The word was sug¬ 
gested by Comte, the French positivist philosopher, and 
the principle signified is regarded by Herbert Spencer 
as an essential element of all organized society. The 
utilitarian doctrines of political economy have heen 
considerably modified under the influence of altruistic 
sentiment. 

Al'truistic, n. (Ethics.) Tending towards pity, chanty 
benevolence; unselfishness; the opposite of egoistic. 

Altru'ize, v. t. To overcome or banish selfishness.— 
To change into another person or thing. 

Aluminium.— Continued from Sec. I- 
covered. He had used potassium as the reducing agent, 
and also, in common with Bunsen, employed the gal¬ 
vanic battery; but in the same year he adopted sodium 
as the reducing agent, and so fully developed the pro¬ 
cess that it continued in use for several years, when it 
was superseded by the electrolytic process. Several 
works for the manufacture of A. were started, of which 
that at Salindres, France, originally established by 
Deville, long yielded the purest and largest quantity of 
A. in the world. The first produced in this country 
was made in 1856 by Alfred Mounier, at Camden, N. J. 
Works were started in England and other countries, 
the cost of production being gradually reduced, until 
the price, which was about $30 a pound in 1857, and $17 
in I860, had fallen to $12 in 1885. In 1886 H. Y. Castner, 
of New York, succeeded in reducing the cost of sodium 
from $1 to about 20 or 25 cents per lb., a result which 
greatly reduced the cost of producing aluminium. A. 
was first manufactured on a commercial scale in the 
United States by William Frishmuth, of Philadelphia, 
who in 1884 produced the metal used in the aluminium 
cap of the Washinton Monument. The sodium process, 
which was being rapidly developed, was replaced in 1886 
by the electrolytic process, Dr. E. Kleiner having suc¬ 
ceeded in producing A. from molten cryolite by sending 
a powerful current through carbon poles. By this 
method the cost of manufacture was greatly reduced, 
and in a few years the price had fallen to less than 60 
cts. per lb. The Pittsburg Reduction Company, founded 
in 1888 became the principal manufacturing concern 
in this country, the prodact growing from 900,000 lbs. 
in 1895 to 5,200,000 iu 1900 and has since increased to 
20,900,000 and at an equal ratio in Europe. The great 
electrical power plant at Niagara has been in part 
applied to the A. manufacture, and by its cheapness 
has reduced the cost of A. to about 40 cents per lb. 
Clay or kaolin, despite its abundance, and the large 
amount of A. it contains, is not available as a raw 
material on account of its great amount of silica. 
Beauxite and cryolite, which are much purer sources 
of the metal, are the minerals principally employed in 
its manufacture. Beauxite is abundant in our Southern 
States while cryolite is mined in large quantities at Ivig- 
tut, in West Greenland.— Properties. One of the most 
important properties of A. is its lightness; it is very 
much lighter than any other of the commercial metals. 
Its specific gravity is about 2'60, soft steel being nearly 
3 times, copper 3 6 times, silver 4 times, lead 4 8 times, 
and gold 7 7 times as heavy. It is not, however, a very 
strong metal, it having less than half the strength of 
wrought iron. Some of its alloys are very hard, partic¬ 
ularly the copper alloy above mentioned. A., when 
alloyed with 5 per cent, of silver, is much increased in 
elasticity and hardness, with no loss of malleability, and 
this alloy is likely to have a large use iu the arts. An 
addition of a small percentage of A. to molten iron and 
steel is found to be of great advantage in casting.— 
Uses. A. is coming largely into use for many purposes 
in which lightness and resistance to corrosion are advan¬ 
tageous. Numerous small utensils are made of it, and 
its resistance to the action of organic secretions has 
brought it into wide use for surgical instruments and 
apparatus. For structural purposes the most striking 
instance of its use as yet is its employment as an 
external covering for the great tower of the Philadel¬ 
phia City Hall, its utility in this case being due both to 
its lightness and resistance to oxidation. It has been 
used extensively as a substitute for iron, lead and copper 
in piping, and has been employed in the manufacture 
of bicycles, racing boats, and other cases w-here light¬ 
ness is a desideratum. Its utility as a covering for ships’ 
bottoms, however, is adversely affected by the small 
quantity of sodium it contains, and which is attacked 
by the salt water. The manufacture and application of 
A. are yet in their infancy, and we may look confidently 
to a considerable further reduction in its cost and its 
very wide employment for industrial purpose. 

Al'vord, Benjamin, a soldier in the U. S. service, born 
at Rutland, Vt., Aug. 18,1813, and graduated at West 
Point in 1833. Reserved in the Florida and Mexican 
wars and in frontier duty, and was chief paymaster, in 
1854-62, of the department of Oregon, which he com¬ 
manded as brigadier-general of volunteers in the civil 
war. He was subsequently promoted brevet lieutenant- 
colonel, colonel and brigadier-general in the regular 
service; was paymaster in New York city, 1865-67, 
chief paymaster at Omaha and Nebraska, 1867-72, and 
paymaster-general 1876-80. Retired 1880, and died Oct- 
17, 1884. Author of some mathematical papers and 
numerous essays and reviews. 

Amador de los Rios, Jose, a Spanish literary 
historian, born at Baena, in 1818. In 1841—42 he trans¬ 
lated Sismondi’s Literatures du Midi de VEurope into 
Spanish ; in 1848 published a work concerning the Jews 
in Spain, and subsequently began the work by whick 
















AMER 


[•SECTION II.] 


AMER 


219 


h« is principally known, Historia Critica He la LUeratura 
Etpailola, of which but seven volumes were completed 
before his death. This work was laid out on a scale too 
extensive for the labor of any single man, and the part 
completed is often diffuse and inaccurate. He published 
other historical works, and died in 1878. 

Am'bler, in Pennsylvania, a borough of Montgomery 
county, 16 m. N. of Philadelphia. Pop. 1890,1,073. 

Amblyop'sis, n. ( Ichthy.) A genus of fishes of which 
only a single species (A. speUeus) is known, in the caves 
of Kentucky and Indiana. It is blind, and seemingly 
eyeless, though the eyes exist in a rudimentary state, 
hidden under the skin. It is about 5 inches long, trans¬ 
lucent, and partly covered with scales. The A., though 
blind, has acute hearing, and flees at any noise. It feeds 
principally on crayfish, though to some extent on other 
fish, which it actively pursues. The family Ambly- 
opsidse has three genera, two of which are blind and 
confined to caves, and the third has well-developed eyes, 
and is found iu swamps from Virginia southward. 

Amenorrhoea ( dm-'n-dr-re'ah), n. [From Gr. a, 
priv., menes, the menses, and rUeo, I now.] (Path.) 
Obstruction of the menstrual or monthly flow. It is 
most commonly symptomatic, and hence the chief at¬ 
tention must be paid to the cause. Usually, there is an 
atonic state of the system generally, and hence chaly- 
beates and other tonics are advisable. 

America's Cup, The. A cup won by the yacht 
America in 1851, in a race around the Isle of Wight, in 
which 14 British yachts contested for the prize. The 
cup was brought to this country, where it has since re¬ 
mained, a succession of British yachts having contested 
for it in vain. During the period in question great 
progress has been made in the performance of yachts, 
their speed and sailing qualities being much improved, 
but in alk contests hitherto the American boats have 
maintained the supremacy shown in 1851, and the cup 
has grown unions as a practical symbol of American 
supremacy fn th9 art of yachting. The first effort to 
retrieve the defeat of 1851—iniwhich the America held 
her own against a fleet of crack British yachts, beating 



them all by 8 minutes in spite of the loss of her jib- 
boom—was made in 1870, when the Cambria crossed the 
ocean to contest for the cup, and was distanced by no 
less than 9 American boats, of which the old victor, 
America , was one. In 1871 the Livonia was defeated by 
the Columbia and th e Sappho —in one race by more than | 
30 minutes. The next race took place in 1876, the 
Canadian yacht Countess of Dufferin now contesting for 
British honor. She was beaten by the Madeleine, in 
two races, one by 11 and the other by over 27 minutes. 
In 1881 Canada entered the field again, this time with 
the centreboard yacht Atalanta. Slio was badly beaten 




t>y the Mischief and Grade. I it 1885 a challenge was re¬ 
ceived by the New York Yacht Club in behalf of the 
British yacht Genesta, a fast representative of the ex¬ 
treme cutter type. Two yachts were built to defend the 
cup, the successful one, the Puritan, being a centreboard 
yacht with a deep outside keel of lead and a cutter rig. 
in 1886 the Galatea, a sister ship of the Genesta. was de¬ 
feated by the Mayflower, and in 1887 the Thistle, fitted 
with all the recent improvements, was badly beaten by 
a new champion, the Volunteer, a still deeper centre¬ 
board yacht. The next challenge for the cup in 1893, 
in which the Vigilant, a boat with a deep keel and a 
centerboard weighing 4 tons, defeated the British cutter 
Valla/rie LI., a boat of the same length, but of nan-ower 
'team and deeper draught. In 1895 the Dari ol Dun- 


raven, the owner o f the 1893 contestant, had a larger 
yacht, the Valkyrie III., built for the race, a boat ot 90 
feet water-line, 26 feet beam, and 20 feet draught. 
Only one yacht was constructed to meet her, the De¬ 
fender, of 90 feet water-line, 23 feet beam, and 19 feet 
draught. These boats approached somewhat closely in 
formation, both having extreme draught and small area 
of midship section, of the fin-keel type. The Defender 
was built of steel framing, with manganese bronze 
plating below the water and aluminium bronze above. 
Her deck beams were alternately of steel and aluminum, 
causing a reduction of top weight, while her rigging 
and spars were remarkably light. The Valkyrie III. 




was of composite construction, consisting of elm plank¬ 
ing on nickel steel frames, and was painted with a 
patent enamel said to give a remarkably smooth sur¬ 
face. She was more stoutly rigged than the Defender, 
and in every respect a heavier boat. Three races, or 
the best two, were to be sailed. In the first the Defender 
won by a handsome margin. Iu the second the Val¬ 
kyrie HI. was disqualified on account of a foul, while 
tiie Defender was given the race by the verdict of the 
club officials. In the third race both yachts started, but 
the Valkyrie III. was withdrawn after she had crossed 
the line, Lord Duuraven’s reason for this being that the 
club had refused to impose new conditions to govern 
this third race. Lord I)u nraven subsequently brought 
charges of unfairness against the owners of the Defender, 
which were considered by an investigation committee 
of the New York Yacht Club and dismissed as un¬ 
founded. The sporting world both in this country and 
Great Britain supported this decision, and blamed 



Fig. 2667.—race of 1903. 


Dunraven for his action and charges. Sir Thomas 
Lipton, in 1899, was the next challenger, with his 
yacht. Shamrock. This boat was beaten in two races by 
the Columbia —second of the name. In 1901 Lipton 
challenged again, with the Shamrock II. The Con¬ 
stitution, built for this race, not proving fast enough, 
the Columbia was used again, and won by narrow 
margins in three races—21 seconds in the final race. 
In 1903 Lipton challenged with a third boat, Shamrock 
III, the RelUmee being built to meet her. Lack of wind 
caused six futile attempts to bo made, the Iteliance 
winning by 7 m. 3 s. on Aug. 22, and by 1 m. 19 s. on 
the 25th. The final race took place on Sept. 3, the 
Reliance winning again. Shamrock III. failed to cross 
the line on account of a heavy fog, in which she lost 
the course. Losing as he did, Sir Thomas won in the 
American heart by his unfailing courage and courtesy, 1 
and though he failed to carry home the cup, he took 
with him a valued testimonial of American respect 
and admiration. 

American Association for the Advance¬ 
ment of Science. This scientific society, based 
on the British Association for the same object, grew 
out of the Association of American Geologists, which 
met at Philadelphia in 1S40, and which two years later 
adopted the title of Association of American Geologists 
and Naturalists, and, at a meeting held in Boston in 
1847, adopted the above title. This society is a migrat¬ 
ory one, meetings being held every summer in some 
American city and continuing for a week. 






American Hereditary Patriotic Socie< 

ties. At the close of the war of the Revolution the 
officers of the Continental Army organized the Society 
of the Cincinnati. Membership was restricted to offi¬ 
cers who had served for three years and on their death 
it passed to their eldest male descendant. By this 
restriction much adverse criticism was created by many 
(including John Adams and Benjamin Franklin) who 
saw in the new organization an attempt to form an 
aristocracy. To counteract this tendency the Society of 
Tammany was organized in New York City in 1798. As 
the original members grew older the annual meetings 
of the Cincinnatijapsed and many of the State societies 
ceased to exist. The coming of Lafayette in 1824 
revived it somewhat and again it flourished only to 
return to a state of quiescence out of which it has 
recently emerged into a new and healthful life. Organ¬ 
izations of a somewhat similar character were formed 
at the close of the War of 1812 and the war with Mex¬ 
ico. Subsequent to the centennial celebrations of tha 
battles ot Lexington and Bunker Hill, efforts were mada 
to induce the Cincinnati to so amend its constitution as 
to admit all descendants of those who participated in 
the military events of the war of the Revolution. This 
proved unsuccessful and the societies of the Sons of 
Revolutionary Sires and Sons of the Revolution were 
organized. Other societies commemorating historical 
periods in American history were formed, and later, 
owing to the nnwillingness of the male societies to 
admit women, the Colonial Dames and the Daughters 
of the American Revolution came into existence. Each 
of these societies has an elaborate insignia including a 
badge and ribbon (most of which by act of Congress 
may be worn on occasions of ceremony by officers and 
enlisted men of the U. S. Army and Navy), together 
with a button decorated with tho colors that belong 
especially to the order. Annual meetings are held on 
the anniversary of some patriotic event, and periodic 
dinners or functions are given in honor of some great 
historical occasion. A vast amount of genealogical and 
historical research has resulted, and much permanent 
good has ensued by the preservation of historical sites 
and their marking by bronze tablets or other means. 
The date of tho organization, principal object, eligi¬ 
bility, and number of members of the leading societies 
are herewith given. 

Tho Society of the Cincinnati, founded in Newburg, 
N. Y., on May 13, 1783, by American and foreign officers 
that served for three years in the Continental Army, has 
for its object the perpetuation of the mutual friend¬ 
ships that were foimed under tho pressure of common 
danger in the war of tho Revolution. Membership de¬ 
scends to the eldest lineal male descendant, and in 
failure of direct male descendant, to male descendants 
through interveningfemale descendants. Of the original 
thirteen State societies, those iu Georgia and New Hamp¬ 
shire no longer exist. Membership, 637.—The Society 
of the IFor of 18IS, instituted in New York City on Jan. 
30, 1826, has for its purpose the inspiration of the mem¬ 
bers and of the American people with the patriotic 
spirit of the men who, during the War of 1812, de- 
iended their country against hostile encroachments on 
its rights and interests. It admits to hereditary mem¬ 
bership descendants of commissioned officers who actu¬ 
ally served in the War of 1812. It absorbed the Veteran 
Corps of Artillery in 1848, and iu 1892 adopted its 
present name. Membership 93.—The General Society of 
the War of 1812 was organized in Philadelphia, Pa., on 
January 8,1891, by the Pennsylvania Association of tha 
Defenders of tho Country in the War of 1812 (organ¬ 
ized in 1854), and the Association of the Defenders of 
Baltimore in 1814 (organized in 1*42), and now includes 
State societies iu Massachusetts, Connecticut, Ohio, Dis¬ 
trict of Columbia, and New York. Its objects are to 
perpetuate the memory and spirit of the men who com¬ 
pleted the war of the Revolution by the victories of tie 
War of 1812. Membership is open to any male person 
above the ago of twenty-one yeais who participated in, 
or who is a lineal descendant of, one who served during 
the War of 1812. Membership about 800.—The Aztec 
Club of 18U7, founded in the city of Mexico on Oct. 13, 
1847, has for its object to keep alivo the tiaditions that 
cluster about the names of those officers of the army 
aad navy and marine corps who took part in the Mexi¬ 
can War of 1840-48, and admits to membership as 
primary members officers who participated in the war, 
and, as associate members, a son or a blood relative. 
Membership 245.—The Society of the Sons of the Amer¬ 
ican Revolution, organized iu San Francisco, Cal., on 
Oct. 22, 1875 (as the Sons of Revolutionary Sires which, 
on April 30. 1889, became one of the state societies of 
the Sons of the American Revolution), of which there 
are State societies in Arkansas, California, Connecticut, 
Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Illinois, Indi¬ 
ana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Mary¬ 
land, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, 
Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, 
New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, 
Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Wisconsin, Washing¬ 
ton, and the Hawaiian Islands. Its chief object is to 
perpetuate the memory of the men who, by their ser¬ 
vices or sacrifices during the war of the American Revo¬ 
lution, achieved the independence of the American peo¬ 
ple. It admits to membership any lineal male descend¬ 
ant of an ancestor who was at all times unfailing in his 
loyalty to, and rendered actual service in, the cause of 
American independence. Membership, 8,779.—The 
Society of the Sons of the Revolution was organized in 
New York City on Feb. 22, 1876. Its objects are to 
perpetuate the memory of the men, who in the mili¬ 
tary, navai, or civil service of the Colonies, and of tha 












































220 


AMER 


[SECTION II.] 


AMHE 


Continental Congress, and who, by their acts or counsel, 
achieved the independence of the country. Member¬ 
ship is permitted to any male person who is descended 
from one who as a military, naval, or marine officer, 
Soldier, sailor, or marine, was in actual service under 
the authority of any of the thirteen Colonies or States, 
or of the Continental Congress and always loyal to such 
authority. There are State societies in New York, 
Pennsylvania, District of Columbia, Iowa, New Jersey, 
Georgia, Massachusetts, Colorado, Maryland, Minnesota, 
Ohio, California, Connecticut, New Hampshire, North 
Carolina, Illinois, Missouri, Florida, Alabama, West Vir¬ 
ginia, Tennesee, South Carolina, Kentucky, Montana, 
Texas, Washington, and Virginia, with a total member¬ 
ship of 5,330.—The National Society of the Colonial Dames 
of America organized in New York City on May 23,1890, 
has among its objects to collect manuscripts, traditions, 
relics and mementoes of by-gone days, for preservation, 
and to commemorate the success of the American Revo¬ 
lution and consequent birth of our glorious republic. 
It admits to membership (on invitation only) women 
Who are legitimately descended in their own persons 
from some ancestor of worthy life who came to reside 
in an American colony prior to 1776. This society has 
but one organization, with members chiefly in New 
York City and Albany. Membership, about 150.—The 
Naval Order of the United States was organized in Boston, 
Mass., on July 4,1890. It has for its chief objects the 
encouragement of research and the publication of data 
pertaining to naval art and science, and to establish libra¬ 
ries in which to preserve all documents, rolls, books, por¬ 
traits and relics relating to the navy and its heroes at 
all times The companions of the first class include 
commissioned officers who took part in the navy in the 
war of the Revolution, the war with France, the war 
with Tripoli, the War of 1812, the war with Mexico, or the 
Civil War, or their eldest male lineal descendant, or in 
default of a lineal descendant, one collateral represent¬ 
ative. There are State commanderies in Massachusetts, 
New York, Illinois and the District of Columbia. Mem-1 
bership, 250.—The Society of the Daughters of the A meri- j 
can Revolution was organized in Washington City, on 
Oct. 11,1890. Its objects are to perpetuate the memory 
and spirit of the men and women who achieved Ameri¬ 
can independence, by the acquisition and protection of 
historical spots and the erection of monuments, <fcc., and 
to carry out the injunction of Washington in his fare¬ 
well address. Any woman who is of the age of eighteen 
years, and who is descended from a man or woman who 
with unfailing loyalty rendered material aid to the 
cause of Independence is eligible to membership. The 
membership is 18,228, distributed in the States and 
Territories of Alabama, Arkansas, California, Colorado, 
Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, 
Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Indian Territory, 
Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, 
Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Mis¬ 
souri, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New 
Mexico, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, 
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South 
Dakota, Tennessee, Texas and Utah, each of which is 
under the jurisdiction of a state regent,—The Daughters 
of the Revolution, organized in New York City on Aug. 
20,1891, has for its objects to keep alive among the 
members and their descendants, and throughout the 
community, the patriotic spirit of the men and women 
who achieved American independence. It admits to 
membership any woman above the age of 18, who is a 
lineal descendant of an ancestor who was loyal to the 
colonies and was in actual service during the war of 
the Revolution. There are State societies in New York, 
Massachusetts, Connecticut, NewHampshire, NewJersey, 
Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Colorado, Ohio, Indiana, 
Washington, Wisconsin and Texas. Membership, 2,100. 

.—The Society of the Colonial Dames of America was organ¬ 
ized in Wilmington, Del., on May 19, 1892. Its objects 
include the collection and preservation of manuscripts, 
traditions, relics, and mementoes of by-gone days, the 
preservation and restoration of buildings connected 
with the early history of our country, and the creation of 
a popular interest in our colonial history. Membership 
is limited to women (on invitation only) who are de¬ 
scended in their own right from some ancestor of worthy 
life who came to reside in an American colony prior to 
1750. State societies exist in Pennsylvania, Maryland, 
Delaware, New Jersey, District of Columbia, Rhode 
Island, Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, South Caro¬ 
lina, Connecticut, Georgia, New Hampshire, and North 
Carolina, with a total membership of 2,050.—The Society 
of Coloniai Wars was instituted in New York City on 
Aug. 18,1892, and has for its objects to perpetuate the 
memory of those events, and of the men, who in 
military, naval, and civil positions of high trust and 
responsibility, by their acts or counsel assisted in 
the establishment, defense, and preservation of the 
American colonies. Male descendants of the above 
persons are eligible to membership. State societies 
extet in New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Massachu¬ 
setts, Connecticut, District of Columbia, New Jersey, 
Virginia, New Hampshire, Vermont, Illinois, Missouri, 
Ohio, Nebraska, Minnesota, Kentucky, California, Colo¬ 
rado, Iowa, and Georgia. Membership upwards of 2,000. 
—The Society of the United States Daughters, 1812, was 
founded in Cleveland, Ohio, on Sept. 19,1892, and has for 
its objects to secure the geneaologies, facts, and tradi¬ 
tions of the founders of America, where they came 
from, the vessels they arrived in, their descendants, and 
record of service in the French war, in the Revolution, 
and War of 1812. It admits to membership any woman 
over eighteen years of age who is a lineal descendant 
of an ancestor who assisted in establishing American 


independence during the War of 1812. There are state 
societies in Ohio, Louisiana, Texas, New York, Mary¬ 
land, and Pennsylvania. Membership 450.—The Society 
oj Mayflower Descendants was organized in New York 
City on Dec. 22,1894. Its objects are to preserve the 
memory, the records, the history, and all facts relating 
to the Mayflower pilgrims, their ancestors, and their 
posterity. It admits to membership any lineal descend¬ 
ant, either man or woman, over eighteen years of age, 
of any passenger of the voyage of the Mayflower which 
terminated at Plymouth, Mass., in Dec., 1020, including 
all signers of the compact. State societies exist in New 
York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Connecticut. 
Membership 200.—The Military Order of Foreign Wars 
was instituted in New York City on Dec. 27.1894, as the 
Military and Naval Order of the United States, but on June 
21,1895, assumed the above name. It has for its objects 
the commemoration of the efforts of the forces engaged 
in establishing and maintaining the principles contended 
for by the American Colonies, and later by the United 
States in the war of the Revolution, the War of 1812, 
the war with Tripoli, and the Mexican War. It admits 
to membership commissioned officers who participated 
in any of these foreign wars as veteran companions, and 
direct lineal descendants in the male line of the fore¬ 
going as hereditary companions. Commanderies exist 
in New York, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Illinois, Cali¬ 
fornia, Massachusetts, Florida, Ohio, Maryland, and the 
District of Columbia. Membership 150.—The Daugh¬ 
ters of the Cincinnati was incorporated in New York City 
on Dec. 28,1894. It has for its objects to renew and foster 
among its members the friendships formed and cemented 
amid the trying ordeals of the war of the Revolution in 
the camp and on the battle-field, by their ancestors, who 
by wise leadership and study achieved the independence 
of the American colonies and established the govern¬ 
ment of the United States. This society admits to mem¬ 
bership (on invitation only) women who are direct 
lineal descendants of officers of the American army or 
navy who took part in the Revolutionary struggle with 
Great Britain and who were entitled to original mem¬ 
bership in the Society of the Cincinnati. Membership less 
than 100.—The National Society of New England Women 
was organized in New York City on Jan. 24,1895. It 
has for its objects to promote social and intellectual 
intercourse among its members, and to offer advice and 
assistance to women of New England extraction resid¬ 
ing in other portions of the United States. It admits 
to active membership any woman over eighteen years 
of age who is a native of New England or one of whose 
parents and whose husband are or were natives of New 
England. Descendants of active members may become 
associate members. Membership 372.—The Society of 
the Children of the American Revolution was organized in 
Washington City on April 5,1895. Among its objects 
are the acquisition of knowledge of American history, 
the saving ot the places made sacred by the American 
men and women who forwarded American indepen¬ 
dence ; and to find out and to honor the lives of ch?’- 
dren and growth of the Colonies and of the American 
Revolution. Membership is extended to any boy or 
girl who is descended from a man or woman who with 
unfailing loyalty rendered material aid to the cause of 
Independence. There are nearly 100 local societies, 
with a total membership of 2,200, distributed in the 
States of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, 
Washington, Rhode Island, Kentucky, Ohio, Vermont, 
New York, Tennessee, California, Maryland, Minne¬ 
sota, Illinois, Louisiana, Texas, New Jersey, Maine, 
Georgia, South Carolina, and the District of Columbia.— 
The Dames of the Revolution was organized in New York 
City in August, 1896. It was established for the pur¬ 
pose of perpetuating the memory of those ancestors to 
whose sacrifices and labors we owe the existence of this 
great Republic and to preserve the recorQo of these men 
in the war of the Revolution. It admits to membership 
any woman above eighteen years of age who is 
descended in her own right from an ancestor who, 
either as a military, naval or marine officer, soldier, 
sailor, marine, or official in the service of any one of the 
thirteen Colonies, assisted in establishing American 
Independence during the war of the Revolution. Mem¬ 
bership 60.—The Order of the Founders and Patriots of 
America was incorporated in New York City on March 18, 
1896. It has among its objects to teach reverent regard 
for the names and history, character and perseverance, 
deeds and heroism of the founders of this country 
and their patriot decendants. Its members, called 
Associates, must be lineally descended in the male 
line of either parent from an ancestor who settled in 
any of the colonies now included in the United States 
from the settlement of Jamestown, May 13,1607, to May 
13, 1657, and whose immediate ancestors, at the call of 
its colonists, adhered as patriots to this cause through 
the Revolutionary War that followed. Membership, 
100.—The Order of the Old Guard was organized in 
Chicago, Ills., on Oct. 15, 1896. It has for its pur¬ 
pose the establishing of a military society, with State 
organizations, to which any male descendant, of twenty- 
one years, of a patriot who served in the Colonial war, 
war of the Revolution, or War of 1812, is eligible. The 
object is to organize a three-company battalion, the first 
company of which will wear Colonial uniforms, and 
the second the uniform of the war of the Revolution, and 
the third the uniform of the War of 1812. State socie¬ 
ties in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut. Mem¬ 
bership, 100.—Also of general interest are the following 
societies: The Colonial Order, of New York City, which 
admits, on invitation only, male descendants in the 
male line of ancestors, resident, prior to July 4,1776, of 
those Colonies that became the thirteen original States; 


s the Colonial Society of Pennsylvania, which admit! 

descendants of persons who settled in Pennsylvania 
I prior to 1700; the Descendants of Colonial Governors, of 
; Covington, Ky., which admits to membership male or 
) female descendants of Colonial governors who are mem- 
; bers of the Society of Colonial Wars or Society of 

■ Colonial Dames; the Holland Society of New York City, 

which admits male descendants in the direct male line 
, of a Dutchman resident in America prior to 1675; the 
Huguenot Society of America, which admits descendants 
of Huguenot families who came to America prior to 
1787; the Order of Washington, which admits to mem¬ 
bership male descendants of those who held civil or 
i military office betweeen 1750 and 1783; the Pilgrim 
Society, of Plymouth, Mass., which admits to membership 
descendants of the Pilgrim Fathers; the St. Nicholas 
Society, of New York City, which admits to membership 
male descendants of natives of the State ot New York 
prior to 1785 ; and the Society of Holland Dames, of New 
York City, which admits to membership, on invi¬ 
tation only, women who are descendants of the 
early Dutch settlers who came to New York.— 
Besides the foregoing there are a number of societies 
that have been organized by the survivors of the Civil 
War and certain of their relatives. Best known perhaps 
among these societies is the Military Order of the Loyal 
Legion, in which membership is divided into Com¬ 
panions of the first class, consisting of officers who par¬ 
ticipated in the Civil War, and companions of the second 
class, consisting of the eldest sons of original Com¬ 
panions. The membership is about 9,000 divided among 
twenty State commanderies.—As tlie Loyal Legion is 
comparable of the Cincinnati, so the Grand Army of the 
Republic is similar to the two sous Societies of the 
Revolution; for it admits to membership any partici¬ 
pant iu the Civil War between April 16, 1861 and April 
9, 1865. Its membership is 340,610.—The Grand Army 
has an auxiliary known as the Woman's Relief Corps, iu 
which the membership is composed of mothers, wives, 
daughters, and sisters of Union soldiers. Its member¬ 
ship is 138,444.—The society of the Sons of Veterans 
admits to membership male descendants of veterans of 
the Civil War.—The Union Veteran Legicm is restricted to 
veterans who served their full term of enlistment of two 
or more years and wdio volunteered prior to July 1, 
1863. Its membership is over 11,000.—The Union Veteran 
Union requires six mouths service and au honorable 
discharge for admission. Its membership is said to be 
65,000. It has an auxiliary body, the Homan’s Relief 
Union, and for the junior members there is the Loyal 
Guard. —Of more recent origin are the following whose 
character is indicated by, their name, viz.: Comrades of the 
Battlefield —with a junior organization called The Grand 
Order of Descendants of the Comrades of the Battlefield, to 
which both male and female descendants of the first 
named are admitted; the Medal of Honor Legicm; Society 
of Sons of War Veterans; National Association of Naval 
Veterans, and many other special societies such as the 
'/Society of War Correspondents, Society of Army Surgeons, 
and Society of Prisoners of War. The Society of the Army 
of Tennessee, the Society of the Army of the Cumberland, 
and the Society of the Army of the Potomac, into which 
was merged the Society of the Army of the James, confine 
their membership to those who served with honor in 
the foregoing armies although in the first named mem¬ 
bership may descend to a son or a daughter according 
to the expressed wishes of the member.—In the 
Southern States there was organized iu 1889 the United 
Confederate Veterans, with State organizations called 
Divisions and a membership of about 40,000. The 
United Daughters of the Confederacy, organized in 1894, is 
composed of the widows, wiv;es, mothers, sisters and 
lineal female descendants of those who served in the 
South during the Civil War There are 90 Chapters of 
this society, with a membership of abont 5,000 women. 
The Children of the Confederacy has been organized for 
the younger generation. 

Ames, Charles Gordon, D.D., a Unitarian clergyman 
and editor, born at Dorchester, Mass., Oct. 3,1828. For 
three years he studied and taught in Grange Seminary, 
Ohio, and was for ten years a Free Baptist preacher in 
Minneapolis. He subsequently joined the Unitarian 
Church, organized churches in several States, and held 
pastorates at Albany, Philadelphia, and Boston, where 
he is at present pastor of the Church of the Disciples. 
He edited the Minneapolis Republican in 1854, and the 
Christian Register, 1877-80. Is an able preacher and 
deeply interested in all social and philanthropic ques¬ 
tions. In 1897 he was given the degree of D. D. by 
a college of his original denomination, the Baptist. 
Author of George Eliot's Two Marriages, and The Ethics 
of George Eliot. 

Ames, in Iowa, a city of Story co., 37 m. N. of Des Moines; 
seat of State Agricultural College. Pop. (1898) 2,160. 

Ametrom'eter, «. (Optics). An instrument employed 
in testing the refractive qualities of the eye, for the 
purpose of detecting and studying Ametropia. 

Vmetro'pia. n. (Pathol.) An abnormal condition of 
the refracting parts of the eye, which gives rise to con¬ 
fused or imperfect vision. 

Am herst College, one of the leading American 
colleges, at Amherst, Mass., founded in 1821, and pos¬ 
sessing at present 12 edifices and property valued at 
$2,000,000, including a valuable scientific and archae¬ 
ological museum. This embraces the Hitchcock Ichno- 
logical Cabinet, the Adams Collection in Conchology, 
the Shepard Meteoric Collection and the Mather Art 
Collection. It had, in 1896, 450 students and a faculty 
of 34 instructors, while the graduates since its organiza¬ 
tion number 3,760. The Massachusetts Agricultural 
College, organized at Amherst in 1867- is its offspring, 










ANCO 


[SECTION II.] 


ANAT 


221 


though an independent institution. This is a thriving 
college, with numerous buildings and instructors, and 
an experimental farm of 300 acres. 

jkmicis. Edmondo de, an Italian traveller and author, 
born at Oneglia, Oct. 21,1848, and educated in the mili¬ 
tary college of Modena. He took part in the expedi- 
tiour against the Sicilian brigands and in the war 
against Austria in 1866. After writing some successful 
military sketches he travelled extensively, and wrote 
a number of descriptive works in which he showed an 
unusual ability to depict the life and manners of foreign 
peoples. His works of travel have been frequently 
translated and are much admired. They include travels 
in Holland, Spain, Morocco, Constantinople, &c. His 
II Iiomanzo d'un Maestro (1889) vividly describes the 
condition of education iu Italy. 

Amiel, Henri Fu£o£ric, a Swiss poet and thinker, was 
born at Geneva, Sept. 27,1821. Educated in Geneva and 
Heidelberg, he traveled considerably, and in 1849 ac¬ 
cepted a professorship in the Academy of Genova. He 
wrote little, his works consisting of some essays and 
small volumes of poems, but after his death (May 11, 
1881) he was found to have left a voluminous private 
journal (17,000 folio pages of manuscript) in which for 
years he had recorded his thoughts and experiences. 
A volume of extracts was published from this in 1882, 
and was at once recognized as a very remarkable work. 
A second volume was issued in 1884. 

Amine (dm'in), a. (Chem.) A compound of ammonia, 
in which one or more atoms of hydrogen are replaced 
by base radicals;—thus we have potassamine, ethyla- 
mine, <fec. 

Am ite City, in Louisiana, a town, cap. of Tangi¬ 
pahoa parish. Pop. 1890,1,510. 

Am'men, Daniel, rear-admiral U.S.N., born in Brown 
co., O., May 15,1820, and entered the navy as a midship¬ 
man in 1836. He took an active part in the civil war, 
commanding the gunboat Seneca during 1861 and 1862, 
and the monitor Patapsco in the attack on Fort 
McAllieter, March, 1863, on Fort Sumter, April, 1863, 
and on Fort Fisher, Dec. 1864 and Jan. 1865. In 1869 
he was appointed chief of the Bureau of Yards and 
Docks. He designed the Ammen life raft, and in 1889 
Congress ordered the construction of a twin-screw 
harbor defence ram, the K-itahdin, designed by him. 
He retired from service in June, 1*78 Died 1898. 

Amo'miim, n. (Bat .) A genus of aromatic herbs, be¬ 
longing to the Zingiberacese or Ginger family. The 
rootstocks are jointed, creeping; the leaves placed in 
two rows, sheathing at the base, lance-shaped, and un¬ 
divided at the margin. The flowers, in a spike or 
cluster, are provided with bracts, and but little raised 
above the ground; there is but one stamen, whose fila¬ 
ment is prolonged beyond the two-celled anther, so as 
to form a more or less lobed crest; the capsule is three- 
celled, and opens, when ripe, by three pieces, so as to 
liberate the numerous small seeds. These plants are 
natives of India, 
the islands of the 
Indian Archipel¬ 
ago, &c. Their 
seeds are aromat¬ 
ic and stimulant, 
and form, with 
other seeds of 
similar plants, 
what are known 
as Cardamoms, of 
which there are 
many kinds. At- 
tare," Malaguett, 

Pepper, orGrains 
of Paradise, are 
the seeds of one, 
perhaps two, spe¬ 
cies of this genus, 

A. Grana Para- 
disi, (Fig. 6,) and 
A. Mdegwtta. — 

They are import¬ 
ed from Guinea, 
and have a very 
warm, slightly 
camphor-like taste. These seeds are made use of il¬ 
legally to give a fictitious strength to spirits and beer, 
but they are not particularly injurious. 

Amj>liiartliro«is , ( dm-fe-dr-thro’sU ,) n. [From 
ampin, on all sides, and Gr. arthrosis, arti'ulation.] 
(Med.) A mixed articulation, in which the correspond 
ing surfaces of bones are united in an intimate manner 
by"an intermediate body, which allows, however, of 
some slight motion. Such is the junction of the bodies 
of the vertebrae by means of the intervertebral car¬ 
tilages. 

An'aliolism, n. (Biol.) Constructive metabolism; a 
series of changes by which the simple and comparatively 
stable materials of food are built up into the complex 
and unstable living materials which make up the tissues 
of a cell or organism. 

Anach'aris, n. (Bot.) The North American water- 
weed (.4. Canadensis), a submerged herb, with elongated 
branching stem, which was introduced into Great 
Britain in 1847, where it spread rapidly, filling ditches, 
ponds, rivers, &c. In the U. S. it is also called ditch- 
moss. 

Anaeon'da, in Montana, a city of Deer Lodge co., 
founded in 1884 in consequence of the establishment 
there of the Anaconda Mining Co.’s copper smelting 
works These employ about 1,500 men. Pop. in 1890, 
3,975; in 1897 (est.) 5,000. 

Aucor'tcs, in Washington, a town of Skagit co., in an 

14 



Fig. 2668. 

AJIOMOI GRANA PARADISI. 


agricultural, lumbering, and fishing district. Pop. 

(1890) 1,131. 

Anaesthesia,— Continued from Sec. I. 
portion of 8 to 1. It produces its effects in from one to 
two minutes, while ether may require from three to 
ten.—The discovery of amesthesia has conferred an un¬ 
parallelled boon upon the human race. Lives have been 
saved and operations done, which, prior to their intro¬ 
duction, could not for one moment have been considered. 
The frequency of serious accidents from the use of 
chloroform has led to its being largely superseded in 
this country by ether. All anaesthetics agents must be 
administered by a person skilled in their use, who will 
devote himself carefully and thoroughly to observation 
of the patient and the manner in which the anaesthetic 
acts. Danger is indicated by breathing of a stertorous 
character, or by suspended, enfeebled, or irregular heart 
action, by a dusky discoloration of the skin, indicating 
deficient elimination of carbonic acid, or by profound 
pallor. Chloroform, particularly, should be administered 
with a judicious mixture of atmospheric air. The rapid 
administration of this drug, with the exclusion of air or 
oxygen, may lead to so profound a narcotic effect upon 
the sympathetic nerves as to immediately extinguish 
their vitality, causing paralysis of the heart. In the 
administration of chloroform, the head of the patient 
should be lowered, as this agent produces an anaemic 
condition of the brain. Arrested breathing, enfeebled 
pulse, profound pallor, should be indications for at once 
lowering the head of the patient and the practice of 
artificial respiration. The respiratory centers may be 
stimulated by grasping and making strong traction upon 
the tongue, when at once there will be a gasping in¬ 
spiration which will fill the lungs. Vaporizing chloro¬ 
form by passing through it a 6tream of oxygen, thus 
forming a mixture for inhalation, will do much toward 
eliminating its dangers. 

Local.— Local A. has been long practiced. It may be 
accomplished by freezing the surface w r ith ice or salt, or 
by throwing upon it a spray of ether or the chloride of 
ethyl, the rapid evaporation of which causes the sur¬ 
face to be frozen. Hypodermic injections of cocaine 
have been practiced, but are not free from danger.— 
It has been recognized that pressure exercises an in¬ 
fluence in establishing A. This may be accomplished 
by hypodermic injections of liquids into the skin 
structure, whereby the sensitive nerve filaments are 
compressed. Effective agents are cold water, salt solu¬ 
tion, or, more efficient, a combination of narcotics. 
Schleich has recently accomplished local loss of sensation 
by the use of a mixture of morphine, cocaine and salt 
solution. Small quantities of these agents in solution, 
throwm under the skin in such a way as to make pres¬ 
sure upon the nerve filaments, enable operations to be 
accomplished without the patient experiencing any 
pain during such procedure. This method of A. has 
the disadvantage that the patient is conscious of every¬ 
thing that iij being done, and consequently suffers from 
more or less nervous shock. It affords a means, how¬ 
ever, of doing various operations in cases in which 
employment of the more powerful anaesthetics would 
not be advisable. 

Ail;tgTyj>'{<>£• rapls, n. An instrument for copying 
medallions in lines on flat surfaces, making the lines 
farthest apart where the light strikes the original most 
•strongly and thus giving the effect of relief. Also an 
engraving made by this process. 

Analepsia (dn-ah-lep'shah), n. [From Gr. ana, again, 
and lambanein, to take.] (Path.) Restoration to strength 
after disease.—A kind of sympathetic epilepsy (q. v.) 
originating from gastric disorder. 

— (Surg.) The support given to a fractured extremity. 

Anal'og'isni, n. (Logic.) The process of reasoning from 
analogy; reasoning from cause to effect. 

—( Med.) Diagnosis from analogy. 

Analogous Pole. (Elec.) A term used in describ¬ 
ing the phenomena of pyro-electricity. Certain crys¬ 
tals while being heated exhibit electric polarity, one 
end assuming the positive state, and the other the 
negative. While cooling, the polarity changes, the 
end which during the heating became positive now 
becoming negative, and vice versa. The end which be¬ 
comes positive as the temperature increases, and neg¬ 
ative while it decreases, is called the analogous pole; 
the end which becomes negative while the temperature 
increases, and positive while it decreases, is the anti- 
logons pole. The names are, however, but little used. 

Anal'ysis, Organ'ic. This takes two forms, con¬ 
stituting proximate and ultimate analysis. The former 
seeks to determine the proximate constituents of vege¬ 
table and animal substances and products; that is, the 
important organic compounds which make up the 
varied tissues and structures of vegetable and animal 
organisms and their fluid contents. The latter 6eek to 
reduce these compounds to their ultimate, elements. It 
may, therefore, be appropriately termed the ultimate 
analysis of hydrocarbon compounds, since carbon and 
hydrogen are important constituents of the great major¬ 
ity of substances derived from organic tissues. 

Anal'ysis, Volumet'ric, n. ( Chem.) A branch of 
chemical analysis in w'hich the substance treated is sub¬ 
jected to characteristic reactions, for which solutions of 
known strength are employed. From the quantity of 
these that is required, the quantity of the substance 
sought can be determined by aid of the fixed laws of 
equivalence. These processes usually require less time 
and less elaborate apparatus than the ordinary methods 
ot analysis by weight, and as the results are equally if 
not more accurate, they are well adapted for technical 
purposes, as when the valuation of commercial products 
is sought. As an example we may mention the method 


of estimating silver by aid of a solution of common 
salt. In the ordinary method of analysis, a known 
weight of the silver-containing substance is dissolved 
in nitric acid. Then, by the addition of hydrochloric 
acid, an insoluble chloride of silver is formed and pre¬ 
cipitated. This, after being separated by filtration, is 
washed, dried, fused, and carefully weighed. As the 
composition of silver chloride is well known, tlue 
amount of silver present in the precipitate can then be 
easily calculated. In V. A., a solution of common salt, 
of known strength, is slowly added to the nitric acid 
silver solution until the precipitate ceases to form,when 
the process is stopped, and the exact quantity of the 
salt solution added is ascertained. As it is known that 
58.5 parts by weight of salt (sodium chloride), will 
convert 108 parts by weight of silver into silver chlo¬ 
ride, it become easy to determine the weight of silver 
present in the precipitate. This operation can be 
completed in half an hour, while the former would 
occupy half a day; it is also more nearly accurate in 
result. In addition to analysis by precipitation, alki- 
metric and acidimetric methods are employed, and also 
analysis by oxidation or reduction, in which the same 
principle of employing a known quantity of acid or 
alkali, or of a reducing agent, is employed, and the 
result estimated as before. 

Aii'alyzer, n. (Opt.) The Nichol prism, slice of tour¬ 
maline, or crystal of herapathite, which is placed next 
the eye in a polariscope, and serves to analyze the beam 
which has passed through the polarizer and doubly 
refracting substance. 

An'arohist, n. (Social.) A member of a society which 
advocates the abolition of government, as a method of 
doing away with inequality in human conditions and 
the political evils thence arising. Proudhon may be 
regarded as the founder of this system of anarchism, 
but the philosophical ideas advanced by him have given 
rise to much mischief in the hands of those who have 
sought to realize them by a forcible overthrow of gov¬ 
ernment. Anarchism was taken up actively by the 
Russian Nihilists, and made its way widely through 
Europe. It is particularly active in Spain, and largely 
in France and Italy. The International Workingmen’s 
Association, founded in 1864, was composed of Anarch¬ 
ists and Socialists, who worked together, but sought 
diametrically opposite ends, the former advocating the 
overthrow, the latter the complete supremacy, of gov¬ 
ernment. This unnatural union broke up in 1872, and 
since then the two societies have worked each for its 
own end. The Russian anarchist, Bakunin, w iehed to 
have society reorganized on the basis of communistic 
associations of workingmen, formed freely and natur¬ 
ally, and relieved from all political compulsion or con- 
tool. The ideal, as shown by Krapotkine and other 
leaders, is a subdivision of society into groups, with 
only power granted by each individual, which can be 
withdrawn at any moment. “ Free contract, ever revis- 
able and dissoluble." “We wish liberty, but its existence 
is incompatible with that of any power.” To produce 
this result some of the leaders of the movement disclaim 
violence, wishing to let their ideas work themselves out 
gradually and peacefully. A larger and stronger body 
of the society, eager for an immediate realization of 
their views, have kept up an active and dangerous agi¬ 
tation, which on many occasions has led to outrage and 
bloodshed. There have been many instances of this 
kind abroad and a notable one in this country, in the 
Chicago riot of 1886. The leading agitator in this coun¬ 
try if Johann Most, who has advocated his doctrines in 
the paper named Freiheit (Freedom). American Anarch¬ 
ists are almost entirely foreign born, and their main 
strength seems to be in the city of Chicago. Various 
outbreaks of anarchistic violence have taken place of 
recent years in France and Spain, in which a free use 
of dynamite has been made. The most notable exam¬ 
ples of the application of the anarchistic doctrine of 
progress through assassination lie in the murder of 
President Carnot of France in 1894, of King Humbert 
of Italy in 1900, and of President McKinley of the 
United States in 1901 by Anarchists—the last by a 
young man named Czolgosz, of Polish descent, who 
was excited to violence by the incendiary speeches ot 
Emma Goldmann, an anarchist orator. Stringent laws 
for the suppression of this murderous sect have been 
passed in several European countries, and similar ones 
will doubtless be enacted in the United States. 

Anat'omy, Compar'ative. The study of the 
structure of animals, including man, and the comparison 
of the various organs with one another. In this respect it 
differs from Descriptive Anatomy, which is the investiga¬ 
tion and description of organs without reference to their 
relations in different animals; while Physiology treats of 
the functions or uses of organs. The term was formerly 
used to denote the study of the structure of the lower 
animals in contrast to the study of the structure of man, 
but in this sense it is now practically obsolete. Various 
terms are given to those branches of anatomy which 
treat of particular classes of organs. Thus, the Btudy of 
minute structures, or parts of organs, which necessitates 
the use of the microscope, is called Histology; and, though 
this is sometimes spoken of as a separate branch of re¬ 
search, it cannot properly be so considered. The study 
of the nervous system constitutes Neurology; of the cir¬ 
culatory system, Angiology; of the viscera, Splanchnology; 
of the joints, Syndesmology; of the muscles. Myology; of 
the teeth, Odontology; and of the bones, Osteology. —Com¬ 
parative Anatomy in its widest sense may be considered 
as of very modern origin; for, while Aristotle is gener¬ 
ally regarded as the founder of this branch of science, 
from his day until the time of Cuvier it progressed but 
slowly, although tor practical reasops much was done 











222 


AN AT 


[SECTION II.] 


ANAT 


In human anatomy. Thus the familiar terms, Eustach¬ 
ian tube, Graafian follicles, Malpighian corpuscles, and 
Wolffian bodies, are all commemorative of the discoverer 
of these parts in man. Moreover, the greater part of 
the work done by the earlier anatomists was purely 
descriptive anatomy, and it remained for Cuvier to 
develop the comparative method of research. He was 
almost the first to recognize that anatomy is the basis 
of a proper understanding of the relationship of ani¬ 
mals, and that without a knowledge of their structure 
they cannot be properly classified. He was the founder 
of the science of paleontology; and while others had 
somewhat hesitatingly recognized that fossil bones were 
the remains of extinct quadrupeds, it remained for 
Cuvier to demonstrate that their forms and affinities 
could be deduced from a study of the anatomy of exist¬ 
ing species. This he did by hi* “ law of the correlation 
of growth,” the principle that certain modifications of 
structure will be found associated with others; that, for 
example, the teeth of a ruminant would be found in 
company with hoofs and not with claws, and that con¬ 
versely the teeth of a carnivore and the limbs of a 
ruminant would not be found in the same animal. In 
the light of our more complete knowledge of fossil 
forms, we know that Cuvier ti-usted too implicitly to 
this principle, which loses somewhat of its force as we 
go backwards in time; but with the mammals of the 
Paris Basin, with which Cuvier largely dealt, the 
“ law ” holds good. There is even to-day much popular 
misconception as to the possibilities of restoring ani¬ 
mals from teeth or fragments of the skeleton, or of 
reconstructing a fish from a scale; but while in certain 
cases much may be done with a single tooth, in others 
the task may be difficult, or practically impossible, even 
when a goodly portion of the skeleton is available. 
Comparative anatomy often touches physiology closely, 
especially' in studying the lower or simpler forms of 
life, where the use of an organ may determine its 
homologies, or identity with organs of other animals, 
as well as its relation to other parts. On the other 
hand, an acquaintance w r ith the functions and relations 
of a given part in one animal may enable the physiolo¬ 
gist to judge of its importance in another, or even in 
man, and to determine on the possibility of operating 
upon or removing it in case of disease.—Two other 
branches of science are so closely allied to Comparative 
Anatomy that at times a knowledge of one is needed 
for a proper interpretation of the facts of the other. 
These are Embryology, the study of the development 
of animals from the egg onwards, and Palaeontology, 
the study of extinct animals. Our entire knowledge of 
■jxtinct vertebrates practically depends on the study of 
their skeleton and teeth, particularly the latter, since 
the teeth, being the hardest parts of the body, are often 
preserved when all other portions have disappeared. 
And, on the other hand, an acquaintance with extinct 
forms is needed for the correct understanding of the 
meaning of many structures found in existing species; 
therefore, palasontoiogy may almost be considered as a 
branch of comparative anatomy. It will indeed be 
found that authorities are not agreed as to the exact 
limits to be set on the scope of anatomy, as was noted 
w’hen speaking of histology; but this is not surprising 
when it is considered how intimate are the relations 
existing betw'een it and other divisions of science. The 
relation of Comparative Anatomy to the theory of evolu¬ 
tion is very obvious and direct; for, if existing animals 
have descended from common ancestral forms, we 
ought to find them connected by a structural thread, 
as it were, and be able to trace certain resemblances in 
their various parts. We should also meet with differ¬ 
ences due to departures from the original form, and 
many of these should be clear 1 ’ due to adaptations of 
the same organs to different uses. Finally, by the aid 
of fossils, it should be possible to trace the relation¬ 
ship of animals whioa now seem widely separated 
through the intermediate forms having become extinct. 
We should also expect, if the theory of evolution be 
true, that as w«, went backward in time we should find 
that the differences betw een animals were less sharply 
marked than at the present day; that, as the zoologist 
puts H, they were more “ generalized,” or built more 
according to one plan And this is exactly what we 
do find, for the palaeontologist, and the palaeontologist 
is merely a comparative anatomist who deals with 
extinct animals, has discovered many fossil forms in 
which are combined characters which are not found 
associated in living animals. One of the most notable 
triumphs of the anatomist was the finding of Phenaeo- 
dus in the Eocene deposits of the western United States. 
This mammal has very diverse relationships, having on 
the one hand affinities with the hoofed quadrupeds and 
on the other, though distantly, relations w’ith the car¬ 
nivores and lemurs. The discovery of the animal was 
predicted by Cope, Marsh, and Kowalesky, from the 
fact just mentioned, viz., that specialized forms have 
been proceeded by those of a more generalized structure; 
so that, with a knowledge of existing animals and some 
of their predecessors, it was possible to go a step farther 
and say what in turn should have proceeded these.—The 
bearing of Comparative Anatomy on the classification 
of animals is quite as plain as its bearing on the ques¬ 
tion of evolution. The object of zoological classifica¬ 
tion is to arrange animals as nearly as possible in a 
natural manner, and to express their relations to one 
another; it is simply a sorting over of animals and 
pla cing together those which are alike, just as in 
arranging a library we w r ould keep together books that 
treated similar subjects. It is clear that the more 
closely .wo animals resemble one another in structure, 
the greater are the chances of their being related; and 


that the more they differ in structure, the more widely 
should they be separated.—Formerly, animals were 
classified by their external appearance, or even by 
their habits; and this resulted in whales being grouped 
with fishes, and some lizards with snakes—mistakes 
which even a slight knowledge of anatomy would 
have prevented, since investigation shows that in 
every part of their anatomy whales and fishes are 
widely different, while comparison shows that in its 
structure the whale resembles the other mammals, 
that great group of vertebrates to which man him¬ 
self belongs. To-day, classification rests on a solid 
foundation of comparative anatomy; and animals, like 
books, are sorted according to their contents and not 
according to their bindings, being divided into groups 
distinguished by the possession of some structural 
feature in common. We are thus enabled not only to 
classify or arrange existing animals, but those wdiich 
long ago became extinct. External characters are 
still employed, but mainly in the determination of the 
smaller divisions, and especially species, which are the 
ultimate divisions or units of classification.—By com¬ 
bining our knowledge of the anatomy of existing and 
extinct animals and noting the changes that have 
taken place in the structure of the various groups as 
they have succeeded one another in time, we have an 
idea of their lines of descent, or phylogeny. Uniting 
comparative anatomy, palaeontology and embryology, 
we obtain our fullest knowledge of the structural rela¬ 
tions of animals to one another; and this constitutes 
morphology (the science of structure), in distinction to 
physiology (the science of the use of structure). Since 
morphology rests on a foundation of anatomy, the 
difficulty 01 drawing any sharp line of demarcation 
between them can be readily seen. But, in a general 
way, it may be said that it is the province of anatomy 
to furnish facts and the province of morphology to 
interpret them. The one traces the modifications of a 
given organ, or series of organs; the other explains 
their bearings on the relationships of animals.—In 
order to better illustrate the scope and methods of Com¬ 
parative Anatomy, it will be well to examine and com¬ 
pare the variations of some organ, or system of organs, 
as shown by the great divisions of the animal king¬ 
dom. The digestive apparatus is a good one for this 
purpose, not only because its modifications can be 
readily followed and their differences readily appreci¬ 
ated, but because the function of nutrition is perhaps 
the most important of all. A creature may exist with¬ 
out any obvious nervous or circulatory system, but it 
must eat in order to live. Of necessity this will be, 
indeed, but the briefest glance at the subject, since to 
describe the digestive apparatus as it is found even in 
the larger groups of animals, uoting the variations in 
structure, the apparent exceptions to the general plan 
and the simplification of parts brought about through 
degeneration, would be to usurp the functions of a text 
book. The primary divisions, or branches, of the 
animal kingdom are termed the phyla, and are based on 
the common possession of some fundamental anatom¬ 
ical feature. Authorities are not agreed as to the 
exact number of even these primary divisions, but 
that most generally accepted is eight, although as our 
knowledge of extinct forms and of the embryonic 
changes undergone by various animals increases, it is 
entirely probable that this number may also be in¬ 
creased. It is quite probable, too, that there may be 
more or less shifting about of forms, and that animals 
now placed in one category may be transferred to 
another. Formerly the animal kingdom was divided 
into the two groups of Invertebrates and Vertebrates, 
but anatomy long ago showed that this arrangement 
was by no means as natural as it seemed; that some of 
the so-called Invertebrates were really Vertebrates, and 
that several distinct plans of structure prevailed among 
the others. The eight phyla are as follows: 

I. Protozoa. —Minute (often microscopic) animals, 
consisting of a single cell, destitute of blood, nerves 
and other organs differentiated for the various func¬ 
tions of life. They include the Foraminifera, Infusoria 
and similar low animals. 

II. Porifera. —Fixed, aquatic, compound animals, 
composed of numerous individuals disposed about a 
common cavity through wdiich water flows in and out. 
The body wall is often composed of two layers only— 
ectoderm and endoderm—and there are no tentacles. 
Reproduction may take place, as in the Protozoa, by 
division; or young may be developed from eggs. This 
division comprises the Sponges. 

III. CffiLENTERATA. —Animals composed of numerous 
cells, usually arranged in two layers only; body cavity 
formed entirely by the digestive tube, which has but a 
single opening; no circulatory nor excretory system. 
Ten tacks, for grasping food, are present, and in some 
species a rudimentary peripheral nervous system. To 
this group belong the jelly-fishes, sea anemones, and 
corals.l 

IV. Vermes.—B ody usually elongate, often segmented; 
digestive system distinct, sometimes forming the sole 
body cavity, sometimes suspended in a separate cavity; 
circulatory system imperfect or wanting; nervous sys¬ 
tem, a ring about the mouth and accessory gangiia. 
This branch contains the worms, in the widest sense of 
the word. 

V. Echinodermata. —Digestive system distinct from 
the general body cavity; circulatory system imperfect, 
largely distinct; nervous system, a ring about the 
mouth with radiating branches; integument entirely 
or partly calcified. This division contains the star¬ 
fishes, sea-urchins, and sea-cucumbers. 

VI. Arthropoda. — Digestive system complete and 


distinct; circulatory system, a central contractile orgaa, 
with branches open at the ends; nervous system, a ring 
about the gullet, and usually a line of ganglia along 
the under side of the body; body segmented and pro¬ 
vided with jointed legs or appendages. Crustacea, 
insects, spiders, &c. 

VII. Mollusca.—D igestive apparatus complete and 
distinct; circulatory system incomplete through the 
opening of the ends of the branches; nervous system, 
a ring about the gullet, with accessory ganglia and con¬ 
nected with another ganglion on the lower side; body 
not segmented, and usually covered with a hard, cal¬ 
careous shell. The shell-fish, in the broad acceptation 
ef the w'ord. 

VIII. Vertebrata. —Digestive and respiratory appa¬ 
ratus distinct and complete; circulatory system form¬ 
ing a complete circuit; nervous system lying along th« 
dorsal side of the body (spinal cord) and usually 
having an enlargement (brain) at the anterior end; an 
internal cartilaginous or bony skeleton present. Till 
vertebrates, or back-boned animals, including some very 
simple primitive and degenerate forms, recognizable a4 
vertebrates only through careful study of their anatomj 
and development. 

Starting with those simple animals which consist ot 
but a single ced, it is found that in many food may b« 
taken in and the digested material rejected at any part 
of the body; neither is there any distinct digestive ap¬ 
paratus, food being assimilated freely by the contents 
of the cell. But even in some of these low forms—the 
Infusoria, for example—w r e find the starting point of an 
alimentary canal, since food is taken in at one definite 
point and the waste produces of digestion rejected at 
another. A step above these, in such animals as the 
sea anemones, there is a pocket-like cavity in which 
digestion takes place, material which is not assimilated 
being cast out by the way it entered. The w'alls of this 
primitive stomach also serve for purposes of respiration, 
and there may be a suggestion of the more complicated 
organs of higher animals in the shape of finger-like 
projections w hich serve toconvey nutriment into various 
parts of the body. Among worms we, for the first 
time, meet with an alimentary canal in the form of a 
tube, often much convoluted, opening at either end of 
the body and often having a certain amount of division 
into three portions; a hint of the gullet and stomach ; 
and the small and large intestine of vertebrates. Hard, 
tooth-like bodies are also frequently present in the 
mouth; while in this group, too, we meet with addi¬ 
tional glandular structures, which may be regarded as 
the forerunners of such organs as the salivary glands 
and liver of still more specialized forms. By no means 
all worms have so good an alimentary canal as this, for 
some species have merely a tube with various branches 
penetrating the soft substance of the body, the same 
opening serving for ingestion and excretion; while in 
some degenerate parasitic forms there is no canal what¬ 
ever, food being directly absorbed through the surface 
of the body. Although the alimentary canal of the 
Echinodermata—the star-fishes, sea-urchins, and sea- 
cucumbers—is in itself quite simple, it shows a decided 
advance of structure, in the fact that it is not a mere 
cavity in the general substance of the body, but an 
independent tube suspended in a body cavity. As in 
previous instances, part of the digestive tube serves for 
purposes of respiration, but in the sea-cucumbers there 
are certain curious structures attached to its hinder 
portion which seem to be also connected with locomo¬ 
tion. These structures are hollow, branching, tree¬ 
like organs, which can at will be filled with water, and 
when this is done, it renders the back part of the body 
somewhat rigid, thus affording a point of support from 
which the body can be pushed forward. So in these 
creatures the alimentary canal performs the three 
functions of digestion, respiration, and locomotion. In 
Arthropods there is a still farther advance in the diges¬ 
tive system, for not only are the functions of the ali¬ 
mentary canal strictly confined to digestion, but parte 
of it are so differentiated as to perform special duties; 
thus, the interior portion is mainly concerned in swal¬ 
lowing and preparing food, the middle portion doing 
the main work of assimilation, the hinder portion 
being charged with getting rid of waste products. In 
this group a crop, or dilatation of the front part of the 
digestive tube, is often present, serving to retain the 
food in order that there may be more time to prepare it 
for digestion. Many arthropods, and particularly in¬ 
sects, have appendages which serve as salivary glands, 
while a liver is quite generally represented; organs re¬ 
garded as connected with the products of excretion 
being also present. There is much difference in the 
length and complexity of the digestive tube among the 
members of this group, according to the character of 
their food, and the direct relation between the two is 
well shown by the fact that when the caterpillar trans¬ 
forms to a butte-fly great changes take place in the 
organs of digestion in order that they may be adapted 
to the new conditions of life. Among mollusks the 
digestive tube is quite distinct from the general cavity 
of the body, and, as it is always longer, fonns several 
coils or loops. It is also more or less clearly divided into 
three separate regions, and there is frequently an en¬ 
largement of the gullet to form a crop in which food is 
temporarily retained before passing to the stomach 
proper. In many species the mouth is provided with 
an elaborate arrangement of horny teeth, while the 
Cephalopoda (squids, &c.), have a beak suggestive of 
that of a parrot. Sometimes the stomach is strong 
and muscular, acting as a gizzard to grind food, 
and sometimes it is divided into two or more por¬ 
tions, one of which acts as a gizzard, the others treat* 








ANDE 


[SECTION n.] 


ANGE 


223 


Tng the food chemically by the admixture of secretions 
similar to the gastric juice. The salivary glands and 
liver are well developed, and on the whole the di¬ 
gestive system shows a great advance in complexity. 
Vertebrates vary greatly in the development of the di¬ 
gestive system, and there is a wide difference between the 
Bimple tube of the lancelet ( Branchiostoma ) and the com¬ 
plex apparatus of a mammal; but in all the following 
di visions of the alimentary canal may distinguished, 
viz.: mouth, gullet, stomach, small and large intestine. 
There may also be present salivary, mucous, thyroid 
and thymus glands, liver and pancreas, while the sur¬ 
face of the digestive tract may be further extended by 
folds and its effectiveness increased by numerous small 
glands in the stomach and intestine, any one of which 
is a more complicated structure than one of the simple 
animals with which we started.—There is indeed a vast 
distance between the Amoeba and Man, and it is 
the province of Comparative Anatomy to furnish 
the facts with which to bridge over the gap, to show 
how the simplicity of the one may be connected with 
the complexity of the other, and to trace the various 
steps by which such great structural differences are 
brought about.—From the comparative study of the 
digestive apparatus we learn that there is no constant 
and regular advance in passing from group to group, 
but that in some species of a division the system may 
be less developed than in some members of the group 
immediately lower in the scale. In other words, there 
is some “ overlapping.” Nevertheless, on the whole, 
progress is from simplicity to complexity; so that start¬ 
ing with such a form as Amoeba, in which food enters 
at any part of the body and is digested at any point 
within, we finally reach the complex digestive system 
of mammals, where one portion of the alimentary canal 
is devoted to preparing food for digestion, another to 
the extraction ofthe nutritious portion, and still a third 
to removing waste products. So, too, we find that while 
in the simpler animals respiration is more or less per¬ 
formed by the digestive apparatus, and that it may even 
aid in locomotion, in its more perfected state it is 
devoted to digestion only. Not only this, but as we 
come upwards we find organs, such as the salivary 
glands and liver, added to the digestive tube in order 
that it may the better perform its work. These facts 
not only show that the same organ may differ some¬ 
what in its function in different animals, but also that 
the progression is from generalization to specialization; 
that while in the simpler animals the same part may 
serve for varied uses, in the higher forms the various 
functions of life are performed by special organs or sys¬ 
tems of organs. And this is why the zoologist speaks 
of animals as being “ generalized ” or “ specialized ” in 
structure; although it must be remembered that, while 
an animal may be generalized as regards its entire 
structure, it may be highly specialized in some way in 
order to adapt it to a certain mode of life. It will also 
be found, although little stress has been laid on the 
fact in this brief review, that there is a direct relation 
between the nature of the food and the character of the 
digestive apparatus, and that differences between the 
organs of different species of animals may be due to 
adaptations for some particular use and not to any real 
fundamental difference in plan of structure.. With 
all these problems of structure, modification and func¬ 
tion, anatomy is more or less intimately connected; and, 
while their final solution may rest with some other 
branch of science, the work must rest upon a founda¬ 
tion of Comparative Anatomy. Works of reference: 
Lessons in Elementary Anatomy , St. George Mivart (Lon¬ 
don, 1873); Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals, T. H. Huxley 
(New York, 1878) ; Comparative Anatomy and Physiology 
of Vertebrates, Richard Owen (London, 1866-1868, three 
Vols.); Elements of Comparative Anatoniy, Carl Gegen- 
baur (London, 1878) ; Comparative Anatomy of Verte¬ 
brates, Robert Wiedersheim (London, 1886) ; Text Book 
of Comparative Anatomy, Arnold Long (London, 1891— 
1896, two vols. Does not in«£5de vertebrates). 

^lat'ropal, n. (Rot.) An ovule which is turned 
down upon itself, so that the foramen, or true apex, 
points to the base, and the chalaza is at the apex. 

Anchor Ice. Ice which forms at the bottom of 
streams or lakes; also ice below the surface of water. 
The former sometimes lifts anchors with it when it 
rises; the latter often clogs water wheels, pipes, &c. It 
is formed when the bottom of a body of water is below 
the freezing point; and also when the whole body of 
water is below this point, though wind keeps ice from 
forming on the surface, while it is free to form below. 
At other times ice is formed by eddies below the surface, 
or small masses of snow form nuclei for the formation 
of ice in water of low temperature. 

An'derson, Mart, an actress, b. at Sacramento, Cali¬ 
fornia, July 28,1859. She was educated at the Drsuline 
Convent, Louisville, Ky., and determined at the age of 
13 to devote herself to the art of acting. She was 
encouraged in this by Charlotte Cushman, the trage¬ 
dienne, took lessons in New York, and on Nov. 27, 1875, 
made her detnit at her native place, with great success, 
in the character of Juliet, After appearing in all the 
principal cities of the U. S., she made a very successful 
tour of England. She was married in 1890 to A. F. de 
Navarro, and retired from the stage. 

An'derson, Rasmus Bjorn, an author of Norwegian 
ancestry, born at Albion, Wis., Jan. 12, 1846. He was 
educated at Luther College and the University of Wis¬ 
consin, in which latter he was Prof, of Scandinavian 
Languages and Literature, 1873-84; subsequently be¬ 
coming U.S.minister to Denmark, 1885-89. His works 
include Norse Mythology; America not Discovered by 
Columbus; The Younger Edda, and numerous transla¬ 


tions, both in English And Norwegian. Most impor¬ 
tant of these is a translation of the works of Bjorusen, 
in 7 vols. 

An'derson, Robert, born near Louisville, Ky., June 
14, 1805; graduated at West Point, 1825; perfoimed 
various military duties until the outbreak of the Civil 
War, in particular participating in the battles of Scott’s 
campaign in Mexico, where he was severely wounded 
and made brevet major. In the winter of 1860-61 he 
was in command of Fort Moultrie in Charleston har¬ 
bor, whence he removed to Fort Sumter, which he 
was forced to surrender after a heavy bombardment, 
April 13, 1861. He was made brevet major-general, 
but ill-health prevented him from taking an active part 
in the war. He rehoisted the flag he had lowered on 
Fort Sumter over the walls of that fort on April 13, 
1865, on the 4th anniversary of its fall. D. Oct. 26,1871. 

An'derson, Rufus, D.D., LL.D., b. at North Yarmouth, 
Me., Aug. 17, 1796; graduated at Bowdoin College in 
1818, and studied theology at Andover 1819-22. He 
became assistant secretary to the American Board of 
Foreign Missions iu 1824, and its corresponding secre¬ 
tary in 1832, which position he very ably filled for 
thirty-four years. On his resignation he was presented 
with $20,000, contributed by New York and Boston 
merchants. This sum he made over to the Board, 
reserving the right to draw from it for his support. 
His publications on the subject of missions were numer¬ 
ous. Died May 30, 1880. 

An'derson, William, D.C.L., a civil engineer, born in 
in St. Petersburg, of British parents, Jan, 5,1835, and 
educated at the High Commercial School of that city, 
where he graduated with distinguished honors. He 
subsequently, in 1851, graduated from King’s College, 
London, and entered upon an active course of engineer¬ 
ing duties, becoming in 1863 President of the Institu¬ 
tion of Civil Engineers of Ireland. In 1889 he was 
made Director-General of the royal ordnance factories 
of Great Britain and Ireland. The honorary degree of 
D.C.L. was conferred upon him by the University of 
Dublin. He translated, from the Russian, several im¬ 
portant works on steel working, and published lectures 
on the Generation of Steam ; The Conversion of Heat into 
Work. etc. 

Andkhuy, (and'ki,) a town in Afghanistan, stormed I 
and plundered by Mohammed Khan in 1840, since 
when it declined in importance. Hop. 15,000. 

Andrassy, Julius, Count, ( ahn-drahs'se,) an Austrian 
statesman, b. at Zemplin, Hungary, 1823. He was re¬ 
turned by his native town to the Diet of 1847, where he 
rose to distinction in consequence of his oratorical 
powers and political tact. To the revolutionary move¬ 
ment of 1848 he lent all his influence; and, after the 
Hungarian Government had fled to Debreczin, iu 1849, 
he was dispatched on a mission to the Porte. On the 
defeat of the revolution he went into exile, and resided 
in France and England until the general amnesty of 
1857 enabled him to return to his native country. Be¬ 
ing elected a member of the Hungarian Diet in 1860, he 
gave a hearty support to the Deak party, and was nomi¬ 
nated Vice-President. On the reorganization of the 
Austrian Empire, and the constitution of an Hungarian 
ministry in 1867, he was appointed Prime Minister of 
Hungary, and charged with the department of the de¬ 
fence of the country. Among the principal events of 
his administration were the civil and political emanci¬ 
pation of the Jews, and the raising of a large sum of 
money to extend and complete the railway system in 
Hungary. At the general election of 1869 he was 
unanimously returned by the electors of Pesth to the 
Hungarian Chamber of Representatives. Count An- 
drassy succeeded fount Beust as Minister for Foreign 
Affairs in Nov., 1871, when he retired from the post of 
President of the Ministry at Pesth. D. 1890. 

Andrie, S. A. A distinguished Swedish civil engi¬ 
neer and scientific aeronaut, who has made himself 
famous by his effort to reach the North Pole in a bal¬ 
loon. His plan, which was first made public in 1895, 
was to construct a balloon sufficiently impervious in 
texture to hold gas without serious loss for 3 months, 
with provision to manufacture new gas, and refill, if 
necessary, in the Arctic Circle. He proposed to make it 
buoyant enough to carry 3 persons, with provisions and 
apparatus, the whole to weigh 3 tons. Though trusting 
to the winds, M. Andree hoped to gain some steerage 
power by the aid of guide ropes dragging on the ground, 
and attached to different points around the circumfer¬ 
ence of the car. A sail attached to the balloon aided in 
this result. Experiments made with this end in view 
proved that he could turn 27° aside from the direction 
of the wind. The balloon being constructed and all 
arrangements made, M. Andree conveyed it, in the sum¬ 
mer of 1896, to one of the small islands north of Spitz- 
bergen, hoping to avail himself of the southerly winds 
which often blow for a long time together over that 
region, and by their aid to reach the polar district in a 
brief journey. Unluckily for his project, the winds 
proved adverse and the effort was not made. In the 
summer of 1897, he repeated the attempt, and this time 
found the winds favorable to his daring enterprise. 
Cutting loose on July 11, the bold aeronaut, with his 2 
companions floated north at a speed of 22 miles an hour, 
before a southwest wind, and soon disappeared from 
sight. This perilous enteiprise had an unfortunate end¬ 
ing, the adventurers never returning and all attempts 
to find them proving futile. See Polar Research. 

Ail'd rew, John Albion, lawyer and statesman, born 
at Windham, Maine, 1818, graduated at Bowdoin College, 
and became a member of the Boston bar in 1840. He 
early distinguished himself by his anti-slavery views, 
and in 1860 was chosen governor of Massachusetts, and 4 


times re-elected to the same office in succetsflon. He 
nobly responded to the call made upon his State for vol¬ 
unteers during the Civil War, and died in 1867. 

An'drews, Elisha Benjamin, D.D., LL.D, born at 
Hillsdale, N. H., Jan. 10, 1844; entered the army as a 
private iu 1861 and served till 1864, when he retired as 
second lieutenant, being wounded and losing an eye. 
He graduated at Brown University in 1870, and. at 
Newton Theological Institute in 1874, and after filling 
several positions as pastor, professor, Ac., became Pro¬ 
fessor of History and Political Economy at Brown 
University in 1882: of Political Economy and Finance 
at Cornell University in 1888; and President of Brown 
University, 1889-98. He was superintendent of the 
Chicago public schtols 1898-1900, and became chan¬ 
cellor of the University of Nebraska in 1900. He is the 
author of Institutes of Constitutional History and other 
works iu history and economics. 

An'tlrews, Stephen Pearl, an American philosopher 
and linguist, born in Mass, in 1812. He acquired the 
philology of some 30 languages, including Latin, 
Greek, Sanskrit, Chinese, and several other oriental 
tongues, and prepared a system of instruction in 
French,which for many years was a standard text-book. 
He was a prolific writer, a frequent contributor to 
magazines and a firm believer in Spiritualism, on 
which he wrote voluminously. What he considered 
his most important work was the creation of a uni¬ 
versal language, to replace all existing languages and 
dialects. This artificial language he called Alwato. 
He wrote many pamphlets concerning it, but without 
the desired effect. Died in 1886. 

Androma'nia, n. A disposition in certain women 
to imitate the actions and characteristic habits of men. 

— (Med.). The same as Ntmphomania (q. v.) 

Anem'ograph, n. (Physics.) An instrument that 
makes, by tracing a curved line, an automatic record of 
the force, direction, and velocity of the wind. 

Anemom'eter, Electrical. (Meteor.) A form 
of anemometer, invented by Mr. J. E. H. Gordon. 
It consists of an ordinary pair of Beckley fans and a 
set of revolving cups, fixed in any convenient situa¬ 
tion, and connected by insulated wires with a galvanic 

j battery and with a recording apparatus. There is no 
limit to the length of the connecting wires. The re¬ 
cording instrument itself consists of a clock, a wind- 
dial, a reel of paper, and an endless baud carrying a 
carbon paste for printing. The dial indicates the direc¬ 
tion of the wind, and the printing band prints this di¬ 
rection every half hour. The same band records every 
quarter of an hour of time and every completed mil© 
that the wind has traversed. The slip of paper issued 
by the machine is about an inch broad, and it receives 
the time on its left-hand margin, the direction of the 
wind on its right-hand margin, and a dot for each mile 
on a central line, so arranged as to be comparable with 
the time record. The number of dots marked ou the 
paper between 10 and 11, for example, indicate the ve¬ 
locity of the wind during that period of time, and the 
dots become crow ded as the velocity increases, and stand 
farther apart as it decreases. The battery is composed 
of zinc and carbon elements with dilute sulphuric acid, 
and will work for six months without attention. The 
reel of recording paper holds a supply for three months, 
and the clock can be made to run this length of time 
without winding; so that the whole apparatus would 
be as nearly as possible self-acting. Ordinarily, how- 
aver, it would be desirable for tho attendant in charge 
of it to date the recording slip every 24 hours, and an 
eight-day clock would be sufficient for the requirements 
of most observers. The great advantage of the instru¬ 
ment is in the character of its records, and in the fact 
that the electrical communication does away with the 
use of cranks and shafting, which are not only costly 
and heavy and far less delicate, but which also render 
it necessary that the recording instrument should be in 
the immediate neighborhood of the fans. 

Anem'oseope, n. An instrument to indicate the 
direction of the wind, as a weather-cock. 

Anemo'sis, n. [From Gr. anemos, wind.] ( Bot.) The 
condition known in timber by the name of wind-shaken. 
A runk vhich is apparently sound externally, proves, 
wnen felled, to have given way in the direction of the 
concentric layers of which it is composed, so that the 
connection between them is more or less completely 
broken. This occurs in many kinds of exogenous 
timbers, and is no less common in foreigD woods than 
in those of native growth. Some have supposed it to be 
due to the pressure of extremely violent gales. This, 
however, is very doubtful, the effect being more probably 
due to frost or lightning Wind, however, may be 
injurious to trees without producing absolute fractures 
or separation of parts, by causing too rapid evapora¬ 
tion and in consequence chilling the tissues to such a 
degress as to retard development, or induce an un¬ 
healthy condition, or temporary sterility. 

An'etliol, n. ( Chem.) An organic compound, formula 
C 10 H 12 0, which forms the essential constituent of the 
oils of anise, fennel, and tarragon. At ordinary tem¬ 
peratures it occurs as a solid (anise-camphor, solid 
anelhol), at higher ones as a volatile liquid (liquid 
anethol). Also better designated as methyl ally phenol. 

An'gell. James Burrill, LL.D., born at Scituate, R. I, 
Jan. 7, 1829; graduated at Brown University, and 
studied for two years in Europe. From 1853 to 1800 he 
was Professor of Modern Languages and Literature at 
Brown University; editor of the Providence Daily Journal, 
1860-66; President of the University of Vermont, 
1866-71; and since 1871 has been President of the Uni¬ 
versity of Michigan. He served as U. S. minister to 
China 1880-82; and in September, 1887, was appointed 











S24 


ANIL 


[SECTION II.] 


ANTH 


a member of the U. S. Fishery Commission and Regent 
of the Smithsonian Institution. Appointed Minister to 
Turkey (1897), but the appointment seemed to be ill- 
received by the Turkish government. 

An'g'elus, n. [Lat.] ( R. Cath. Oh.) A devotion in 
memory of the Annunciation, named from its opening 
words Angelus Domini , “Angel of the Lerd.” It con¬ 
sists of three descriptive scriptural texts, alternating 
with the salutation Ave Maria, “ Hail Mary.” A bell is 
rung at morning, noon, and evening to indicate the 
hour for tire devotion. The sound of the Angelus bell 
reaching workmen in the fields forms the subject of a 
celebrated painting by Millet. 

Angl'iia Pector'is, n. (Pathol.) An intense pain in 
the region of the heart, occuring in paroxysms. It is 
also called Breast Pang and Heart Stroke, and is at¬ 
tended with a sense of suffocation and faintness and 
an apprehension of sudden death. It is usually con¬ 
fined to persons having an organic disease of the heart, 
and frequently arises from a sudden emotional disturb¬ 
ance, particularly in men over fifty years of age. 
Death sometimes occurs in the paroxysms. Morphia, 
nitrate of sodium, nitrate of amyl, and other sedatives 
are usful as remedies. 

Angiotrnic, (dn-je-dt'en-Vc.) a. [From Gr. aggeion, i 
vessel, and trinein, to stretch.] (Med.) An epithet given 
to inflammatory fever, owing to its action seeming to 
be chiefly exerted on the vascular system. 

Angostura Bark. (Med.) The bark of Galt pea 
cusparia, used as an aromatic or stimulant tonic. Dr. 
Hancock, who had large experience of its use in tropi¬ 
cal South America, even preferred it to cinchona in the 
treatment of fever. In this country it is but little used, 
being deemed inferior to other remedies, and possibly 
from the fact that a false Angostura bark was at one 
time, through inadvertence or cupidity, substituted for 
the genuine bark. 

Antiinga. (an-hing'gah.) or Wiiite-bellied Darter, n. 
(Zobl.) The Plotus anhinga, a very elegant species of 
the Colymhulse, or Diver family, common in some 
parts of Brazil. Its body is about the size of a tame 
duck’s, but its length, from the tip of the beak to that 
of the tail, is nearly three feet. It has a long, slender 
bill, yellowish at the base; a small head; the neck long, 
round, and slender,and covered with soft downy feathers 
of a rufous gray color; while those on the breast, belly, 
and thighs are of a silvery whiteness. The plumage at 
the beginning of the back is brown, each feather having 
.an oblong spot of whitish yellow in the centre, so that 
it appears speckled ; the rest of the back is black ; and 
the tail consists of shining black feathers tipped with 
gray. The legs are remarkably short, the thighs 
feathered, and the claws very sharp and crooked. The 
A. builds its nest on trees, on which it roosts at night 
and when not on the water, being very rarely seen on 



Fig. 2669. — plotus anhinga. 


the ground. It feeds upon fish, which it catches most 
dexterously, darting upon them with great rapidity. 
These birds delight to sit in little communities, on the 
dry limbs of trees, hanging over still waters, with their 
wings and tails expanded. When any one appioaches. 
they will drop oft the limb into the water as if dead, 
and for a minute or two are not seen ; when on a sud¬ 
den, at a great distance, their long slender heads and 
necks only appear, so that while swimming they greatly 
resemble snakes, no other part of them being visible, 
except occasionally the tip of the tail. 

Anhy'driil, Anhy'dride, n. (Chem.) An oxide which 
becomes an acid on the addition of water, or one which 
is looked upon as an acid which has been deprived of 
water, and which combines with basic oxides to form 
salts. 

Aii'ilinc Colors, n. (Dyeing.) Coloring substances 
derived from aniline (q. v.). The first of these, a 
violet-blue color, was discovered by Runge in 1835, by 
treating aniline with chloride of lime. In 1835 Beissen- 
liirtz obtained a blue color from the action upon aniline 
of potassic dichromate and sulphuric acid. This color 
was isolated in 1856 by W. II. Perkin, and named by 
him mauve. He showed that it could be used as a dye. 
Since then chemists have produced, from aniline, colors 
of almost every tint and shade, many of which are 


used in dyeing and calico printing, taking* the plaice of 
the previously used vegetable and animal colors. The 
chemical composition of many of these colors is known, 
and important conclusions have arisen from their study. 
Aniline reds, or rosaniline salts, are the most important 
(./ t K e aniline colors. They yield brilliant tints, and 
constitute the base from which many of the other 
colors are prepared. In addition we may name aniline 
violets, blues, greens, browns, maroons, and greys. No 
good black dye has as yet been derived from aniline, 
though in calico-printing blacks of great intensity and 
durability have been discovered and are now used 
almost exclusively. Aniline colors are also used for 
inks and for coloring leather, soap, candy, ivory, horn, 
etc. Their high cost is more than balanced by their 
brilliancy of tint and the simplicity in the process of 
dyeing which they permit. 

Aii'inius, n. Theanimatingthoughtorpurpose; spirit; 
intention; hostile feeling or intent;.as, “the animus of 
the speech was partisan.” 

An Kyloylossia, (Jng-kil-o-glos'shah,) n. [From Gr. 
ankyle, a curve, and glossa, the tongue.] (Surg.) Im¬ 
peded motion of the tougue in consequence of adhesion 
between its margins and the gums, or in consequence 
of the shortness of the ffsenmn; the latter affection 
constituting Tongue-tie. It merely requires the frsenum 
to be divided with a pair of scissors. 

An'naly, in California, a township of Sonoma co. 

An niston, in Alabama, a city of Calhoun co., which, 
from its manufacturing activities, has grown with great 
rapidity. Its population in 1880 was 942; in 1890,9,998; 
and is now considerably increased. It is the industrial 
and commercial centre of one of the richest iron dis¬ 
tricts in the world, is surrounded by a fertile agricul¬ 
tural country, and is among the most progressive manu¬ 
facturing communities in the South. 

An'nulus, n. [Lat. annulus, a little ring.] A ring-like 
figure or body. Geometrically, it signifies the area be¬ 
tween the circumferences of two concentric circles. 
Botanically. it indicates the elastic ring of cells which 
surrounds the sporangium in ferns, and certain other 
ring-like cell layers. In astronomy, it is the visible 
edge of the sun’s disk which appears around the body 
oi the moon in an annular eclipse. Also, in general, 
any ring-shaped structure, marking, &c. 

An'steil, David Thomas, F.R.S., an English geologist, 
born in London about 1814, and educated at Cambridge 
University. In 1840 he was appointed Professor of 
Geology in King’s College, London, and afterward 
travelled widely in America and elsewhere, engaged in 
geological research. His pnblislied works on geology 
are numerous, including The Ancient World; The 
Great Stone Book of Nature; The World We Live In, and 
other popular productions. D. May 20,1880. 

Antananarivo, the capital and chief city of Mada¬ 
gascar, situated in a mountainous region in the central 
portion of the island, about 5,000 feet above the level of 
the sea, from which it is 110 miles distant. It was 
reached and occupied by the French army of invasion 
on Sept. 30, 1895, and now forms the centre of the 
French protectorate established in the island. Pop. 
estimated at 100,000 in 1897. 

All t ajioil'osis. n. [From Gr. antapodidomi, I return 
in exchange.] (Pathol.) The succession and return of 
the febrile periods. 

Antarc'tlc Sea, The. (Geog.) For a number of 
years scientific inquiry was rite towards and in the 
Antarctic Circle, discovery following discovery in quite 
rapid succession. The most brilliant period was that 
extending from 1838 to 1843, when three great national 
expeditions, under the command of Admiral D’Urville 
for France, Sir James Ross for England, and Captain 
Wilkes for the U. States, prosecuted their researches. 
It is hardly necessary to attempt a summary of what 
was accomplished by these intrepid navigators, or to 
discuss the question as to whether the lands discovered 
by Captain Wilkes were continental or insular. One 
discovery of great moment, by Sir James Ross, was that 
of active volcanoes in South Victoria Land having a 
height of 12,000 feet, access to which was barred by a 
wall of solid ice 200 feet in height, along which he sailed 
for hundreds of miles without finding a favorable 
opportunity to penetrate farther into the interior. 
Of late years, renewed attention has been directed 
towards the Antarctic lands, largely in consequence of 
the publications of the Meteorological Institute of the 
Netherlands, in which it is shown that the current of 
warm water which comes from the Straits of Mozam¬ 
bique, and is known further S. as the Agulhas Stream, 
does not, as originally supposed, continue around the 
Cape of Good Hope, but at the southern point of Africa 
bends around towards the E., and unites with the waters 
that strike along the coast of Australia, and in the re¬ 
gion of Kerguelen Land turns more and more to the 
S., having been traced in that direction as far as the 
fiftieth degree of S. Lat. How much further it goes 
has not yet been ascertained ; but it is extremely prob¬ 
able, judging from the analogies of the currents of the 
northern hemisphere, that this may penetrate to quite 
a high latitude, and that it is along its path that re¬ 
searches are to be prosecuted which will lead more or 
less near to the heart of the mystery that now sur¬ 
rounds the south pole. The discoveries of Ross and 
Weddell are really due to their persistency in follow¬ 
ing the warm currents—the first from New Zealand, 
and the other to the S. of Cape Horn. There is the 
more hope of a satisfactory result in this experiment, 
as little special effort hitherto has been made in that 
direction. It is quite probable that one result of a suc¬ 
cessful exploration would be to limit very materially 
the supposed mass of land, as many of our best geog¬ 


raphers maintain the existence of an archipelago, of 
islands firmly united by bands of ice. rather than a 
continent. Iu 1893 Larsen penetrated in the Graham 
Land region to lat. 68° lO 7 , and on Seymour Island din 
covered a number of Tertiary fossils and an abundance 
of fragments of coniferous wood, these being indicative 
of a former higher temperature and the presence of 
organic life in these regions. Two Norwegian ex¬ 
plorers, Kritensen and Borchevink, following Ross’s 
path in the steamer Antarctic, reached lat. 74°, and saw 
open water still ahead, but were forced to retuin on 
account of deficiency in food supply. They landed on 
what was either the mainland or a main island, being 
thus the first to set foot on the supposed continental 
mass of the Antarctic land. The most important result 
of their journey was the finding of some shreds of 
lichen on Possession Island, being the first living 
organic material ever found within the Antarctic Zone. 
Since 1900 there have been several expeditious to this 
region, the British Antartic Expedition of 1901-03, 
under Captain Scott, wintering 400 miles farther south 
than any previous expedition. From this point, Cap¬ 
tain Scott sledged 94 miles southward, reaching 8U C 17' 
S. lat. But the most successful expedition was that 
of Lieutenan Shackleton, 1907-09, which reached the 
high latitudeof 88° 23', a point only 111 miles from the 
South Pole. The south magnetic pole was discovered in 
lat. 72° 25' and E. Ion. 154°. See Arctic Exploration. 

Antever'sion, n. [Lat. ante, before, and vertere, ver¬ 
sion, to turn.] (Path.) Displacement cf the uterus, in 
which the fundus is turned towards the pubes, while its 
orifice is towards the sacrum. It may be caused by ex¬ 
traordinary size of the pelvis, pressure of the viscera on 
the uterus, <Stc., and is recognized by examination per 
vaginam. A simple forward inclination of the bod}’ of 
the uterus, without the os uteri being carried much 
backwards, is termed anteflexion of the uterus, antefleris 
uteri. Not infrequently, iiow'ever, it is used synonym¬ 
ously with retroversion of the uterus. 

An'therozoid, ». (Bot.) The male fecundating body 
in cryptogamous plants. It is a minute mass of pro¬ 
toplasm, usually naked, provided with vibritile cilia, 
and has its origin in an antheridium, the male sexual 
organ of these plants. 

An'thony, Henry Bowen, b. at Coventry, R. I., April 
1,1815; graduated at Brown University in 1833, and 
was editor of the Providence Journal 1838-59. In 1849 
he was elected Governor of Rhode Island, and in 1869 
became U. S. Senator from that State, remaining iu the 
Senate until his death, Sep. 2, 1884. In 1883 he was 
elected president pro tem of the Senate, but declined on 
account of ill health. 

An'thony, Susan Brownell, b. at South Adams, 
Mass., Feb. 15,1820. For fifteen years she was a teacher 
in New York, and since 1852 has been one of the most 
active and influential advocates of woman’s rights, par¬ 
ticularly of woman’s suffrage. The temperance and 
anti-slavery causes also had her earnest advocacy. She 
was long distinguished for zeal and eloquence in these 
movements. Died Mar. 13.1906. 

An'thony, iu Kansas, a city, cap of Harper co. Pop. 
in 1890,1,806; in 1897, about 2,150. 

Anthracene, (dn’thrah-seen.) or Paranaphthaline, n. 
(Chem.) A hydrocarbon obtained from the heavier por¬ 
tions of the tar produced in the dry distillation of wood 
and coal. It forms small colorless plates, which melt 
at about 415° to a colorless liquid, and distils at a tem¬ 
perature above 572°. It is insoluble in water, but 
easily so in hot alcohol, ether, and benzol. The com¬ 
position of A. is C 14 IIi 0 ; it is now of considerable im¬ 
portance. as it is the starting-point in the manufacture 
of artificial alizarin. According to Dr. J. Gessert, the 
best method of preparing A. is as follows; A. is found 
in that portion of the distillation of coal-tar, com¬ 
monly called “green grease,” which is composed of 
about 80 per cent, of the heavy oil naphthaline, and 20 
per cent, of A. The semifluid grease is first placed in 
a centrifugal machine in order to expel, mechanically, 
as much as possible of the oil; the residue is heated to 
40°, and pressed, preferably between hot plates. The 
cake thus obtained (crude A., containing 60 percent, 
of that substance) is purified by boiling with light tar- 
oil (coal-tar naphtha), or with petroleum naphtha. 
The pasty mass is again placed in the centrifugal ma¬ 
chine to remove the last traces of heavy oil, and the 
material next submitted to sublimation. In order to 
test the green grease for the quantity of A., from 5 to 
10 grins, of that substance are taken, placed between 
folds of filtering-paper, and pressed between hot plates; 
the remainder of the substance is repeatedly boiled 
with alcohol, washed with cold alcohol upon a filter, 
and next dried and weighed. The fusion-point of the 
mass should be, as near as possible, 210°. The author 
says that sulphide of carbon is not well suited for the 
purification of A., because that substance is too readily 
soluble in that fluid. One hundred parts of alcohol 
dissolve, when cold, 0-6 parts of A.; 100 parts of cold 
benzol dissolve 09 parts of A.; and 100 parts of sul¬ 
phide of carbon dissolve l - 7 parts of A. 

Anthracia, (dn-thra'she-ah,) n. [From Gr. anthrax, 
coal.] An eruption of tumors, imperfectly suppurating, 
with indurated edges, and, for the most part, a sordid 
and sanious core. 

Aii'thraeitc, n. [From Gr. anthrax, charcoal.] (Min.) 
A variety of mineral coal which is distinguished by its 
high specific gravity, its semi-metallic lustre, and its 
burning without emitting smoke, while yielding an 
intense heat. It differs from bituminous coal in its 
harder and denser character and greater proportion of 
carbon, of which that of Pennsylvania contains from 
85 to 93 per cent, and that of Wales from 88 to 95 per cent 











ANTH 


[SECTION II.] 


APAR 


225 


ft occurs In strata like other coal and is believed to have 
had a similar vegetable origin, it having been changed 
from the bituminous to the anthracite variety by the 
actiuu of underground heat, occasionally by the influ¬ 
ence of intrusive igneous rocks. Anthracite may be of 
any geological age. The coals of China, which embrace 
much anthracite, are of Mesozoic age, while in New 1 
Mexico, Colorado, Queen Charlotte Island, Ac., very: 
recent coal has been converted into A. by the action ot 
volcanic outbursts. A. also occurs in Wales and in some 
other parts of Europe, but far the most productive beds 
of it are those of Pennsylvania, where it occurs in great 
abundance and is of the highest industrial importance. 
The A. region extends through much of northeastern 
Pennsylvania, covering an area of about 1,700 sq. miles, 
of which nearly 500 are underlaid by workable coal beds. 
At Tamaqua there are 21 coal veins whose aggregate 
thickness is 126 feet, the Mammoth vein being, near this 
locality, 114 feet thick. At Pottsville there are 28 beds, 
with 154 feet in thickness of coal. Pennsylvania A. 
varies in hardness from the semi-bituminous of the 
western to the very hard Lehigh coal of the eastern 
portion of the field. Anthracite is the favored domes¬ 
tic coal, wherever obtainable, tor its cleanness and free¬ 
dom from smoke, though in many places it is considered j 
less desirable than bituminous for steam-making pur-1 
poses. Attempts to mine the Pennsylvania anthracite 
were made in 1793, but no regular shipments were made 
until 1820, and it did not come into use for manufactur¬ 
ing purposes until after 1830. The mining and use of it 
have steadily increased until the product of the Penn¬ 
sylvania mines has become enormous in quantity and 
widespread in distribution. In 1901 the total output 
was 67.538.536 tons, valued at the mines at Si 12,70-1,1)55. 
See Coal Period and Mineral Coal. 

AIItllraro'sis ( dn-thra-ko'sis ). [From Gr. anthrax, 
charcoal and ottts, morbid condition.] (Pathol.) A species 
of carbuncle which affects the eyelids and globe of the 
eye. The term is also applied to the “black lung” of 
coal-miners, an affection induced by an accumulation of 
carbonaceous particles in the lungs. Sometimes ulcera¬ 
tion results from this cause, and the malady is theu 
termed black phthisis. 

An'thrax, n. [Gr., charcoal.] (Path.) A name for¬ 
merly applied to the painful eruption known as car¬ 
buncle, but now used for a widely distributed aud very 
destructive disease, most common among sheep aud 
cattle, but occasionally attacking man. It is now known 
to be due to the action of a special micro-organism, the 
bacillus anthracu, and is of interest as being the first 
disease traced to this cause, and as giving rise to the 
Germ Theory of Disease (q. v.). It has been known 
by many names, including Splenic Apoplexy, Splenic 
Fever, Siberian Plague, Charbon, Ac., ami in man as 
Maliguant Pustule, Wool-sorter’s Disease, Ac. In addi¬ 
tion to cattle and sheep, it is very destructive to horses 
and camels, attacks many of the smaller herbivorous 
mammals, and may be contracted by domestic fowls. 
In the most acute cases the auimal falls as if it had re¬ 
ceived a severe blow, and goes into convulsions; death 
soon following. Even when less acute, it is apt to recur 
after seeming recovery, and death frequently follows 
within two days’ time. Man is not very susceptible to 
it, but is occasionally attacked when exposed to its in¬ 
fluence, as in the case of the affection known as wool- 
sorter’s disease, a rapidly fatal illness which attacks 
those working among wool. It takes the form of a 
malignant eruption, or a gangrene, attended with dau- 
gerous internal disorder of the system. The bacillus 
anthracis is a minute, rod-shaped organism, of persistent 
vitality and very rapid increase, multiplying in the 
blood of affected animals. 

Aiitliropogenia, ( dn-thro-po-je'ne-ah) n. [From Gr. 
anlhropos, man, and genesis, generation]. (Biol.) The 
knowledge, or study, or phenomena of human genera¬ 
tion. 

Anttiropol'ogy, n. The science of man. It may 
be divided into three departments, viz.: biology, the 
the study of man as an animal; psychology, the study of 
human mind and its development ; and ethnology, the 
study of man in his social, industrial, racial and politi¬ 
cal relations. It has to do with questions concerning 
the origin of man, and with all the stages of his devel¬ 
opment from the primitive to the most recent period. 
Two main views exist as to man’s origin—one based on 
a literal interpretation of Scripture, which regards man 
as a separate creation, distinct from and superior to the 
animal kingdom in general; the other founded on 
recent scientific research and theory, which considers 
man to be a lineal descendant of the lower animals. 
As an argument in support of the latter view, is 
advanced the fact of the discovery of very ancient 
human remaius and implements, indicating a progress 
from very inferior conditions of art and industry'; While 
the former is favored by the fact that no direct and 
indubitable connection of man with the lower animal 
kingdom has yet been demonstrated. The subject of 
human development is far too extensive to he treated 
here, but its separate branches are well treated in various 
articles throughout this work. It must suffice to say 
that man is cosmopolitan, being distributed over all the 
regions of the earth and haring succeeded in adapting 
himself to all the variations of natural conditions; and 
that he is divided into a number of distinct races, such 
as the African, the Aryan, the Mongolian, the Ameri¬ 
can Ac., which show' no tendency to merge, and each 
of which is treated in this work under its appropriate 

AntViropoin'etry, tt. The measurement of the 
human body, to discover its exact dimensions and pro¬ 
portions, for the comparison of race characteristics. 


Anthropologists have long depended on the measure¬ 
ment of the skull as a leading element in the classifica¬ 
tion of races, but it is found that measurements of all 
parts of the body are important in this determination. 
French anthropologists have been particularly active in 
this direction, and have made more than 100 measure¬ 
ments of a siugle individual. Sculptors have also 
adopted certain rules of measurement, for the purpose 
of obtaining a canon of proportion for the most har¬ 
moniously developed human body. As regards the 
measurement of human height, nearly 200,000 persons 
were measured at draft stations during the American 
civil war, while the Anthropometric Committee of the 
British Association have collected simiiiar measure¬ 
ments of peoples from all parts of the earth. In addi¬ 
tion to height, taldes are given of weight aud of various 
dimensions of the body, the observations having growu 
more miuute and varied as their scientific value has 
become more evident. In 1882 a collection of data of 
this character was begun in the French prisons, as a 
means of identification of criminals, in connection 
with photographs of the various parts of their bodies. 
This system has much developed, and promises to render 
absolute the detection of any suspected peison, of whom 
measurements exist. In the U. S. Army the use of 
tattoo marks, vaccination marks or other scars, etc., in 
connection with height and color of hair aud eyes, are 
depended upon for the detection of deserters. A 
method in anthropometry, long practiced in China, and 
coming into use elsewhere, is the taking of impressions 
of the fine lines and circles at the extremities of the 
thumbs and fingers. These seem to be alike in no two 
individuals, aud in the East are used as seal marks ou 
important documents. 

Authropon'omy, n. [From Gr. anlhropos, man. and 
nomos, a law ] ( Biol.) A know ledge of the special laws 

which preside over the functions of the human body. 

An'tical (dn'te-kul), a. (Bot.) Placed in front of a 
flower, the front being regarded as the part most re¬ 
mote from the axis. Thus, the lip of an Orchis is antical. 

Anticryp'tic, a. [From anti, and Gr. kryptos, hidden.] 
A term employed to designate a color in animals suit¬ 
able to conceal them for aggressive purpose. As an 
example may be mentioned the large South American 
frog, which buries its body in the ground, while its 
head agrees in color with its surroundings. 

Anti-cyclone (4 n'-U-si-kldn'), n. ( Meteorol .) An at¬ 
mospheric condition opposite to that of a cyclone. It 
is characterized by high barometer, gentle winds out¬ 
flowing from a center, clear skies and dry state of the 
atmosphere, in contrast to the low' temperature, inflow¬ 
ing winds, and storm conditions of the cyclone. A. 
conditions cover wide areas, aud are apt to follow 
cyclonic conditions, moving eastward with some slow¬ 
ness and usually yielding cooler weather, and in winter 
often producing cold waves. A long-continued A. is a 
season of draught. In meteorological science, in the 
A. the upper air gently sinks to the surface, bringing 
down dry conditions, which are widely extended as the 
descending air flows out, carrying with it the cool 
temperature brought down from the higher atmosphere. 
Tlie clearness of the sky makes the day warm by un¬ 
interrupted sunshine, while the freedom of radiation 
chilis the air at night and often produces killing frosts. 

Antifeb'rin, or Acetan'ilid, n. (Med.) A substance 
introduced in 1886 as a febrifuge, in substitution for 
quinine, it having the favorable features of cheapness 
and rapidity of action. It is a white powder, with burn¬ 
ing taste, and almost insoluble in water, though soluble 
in alcohol. It is derived from and closely allied to ani¬ 
line. Its general action resembles that of antipyrin, 
and when given to fever patients, in doses of fiom 10 to 
15 grains, it produces in an hour’s time a fall of tem¬ 
perature often accompanied by a profuse perspiration. 
In poisonous doses it may yield wide-spread paralysis 
with convulsions, and death in collapse. It often affords 
a great relief in nervous pains, such as nervous or sick 
headache, Ac. 

An'tigo. in Wisconsin, a city, cap. of Langlade co. Has 
wood-working and agricultural interests. Pop. in 1890, 
4,424; in 1897, over 5,000. 

Anlilep'sis, a. [From Gr. antilhmbano, I take hold 
of.] (Burg.) The mode of attaching a bandage over a 
diseased part, by fixing it upon the sound parts. The 
mode of securing bandages, Ac., from slipping.—Treat¬ 
ment by revulsion or derivation. 

Antil'ogsons Pole. See Analogols Pole. 

Antipyret ie, n. [Gr. anti, against, and Eng. pyretic, 
from Gr. puretos, heat.] (Med.) A remedy against 
fever. 

—a. Having power to reduce bodily heat or fever. 

Antipyriii, (dn-ti-per'in), n. (Med.) A white powder, 
obtained trom the coal-tar products. In doses of 15 to 
30 grains, it reduces the temperature 2° to 3° in an 
hour, and is of great value as a febrifuge. It is the 
most serious rival to quinine, but not being an anti- 
periodic, it cannot take its place in intermittent fevers 
and ague. It is not, except in very large doses, depress¬ 
ing to the heart, though there is an occasional collapse 
in fever due to some indirect influence. The habitual 
use of A. is deleterious to the general health, and yields 
a livid color from its action on the red blood corpuscles. 

Antisep'sis, n. (Surg.) The exclusion of microbic 
organisms that cause putrefaction, esDeciallv from sur¬ 
gical wounds.—Also, antiseptic measures aud agents, 
collectively. 

Antisep'tic, a. [From Gr. anti, against, and septikos, 
putrefying.] Opposed to or preventive of septic action 
or putrefaction. The word is applied to all substances 
which act to check or prevent the decay or putrefaction 

of organic materials. One of the simplest antiseptic 


processes is the exclusion of air and moisture, both ot 
which are necessary to putrefaction. This is commonly 
done by the preservation of food substances in air¬ 
tight vessels of glass or tin. If the air is exhausted, or 
if the microbes which it may contain are destroyed by 
heat and the intrusion of others prevented, decay or de¬ 
composition is permanently prevented. Cold" has a 
powerful antiseptic action, it preventing decay in the 
most readily putrefying substances. It has, therefore, 
come greatly into use for the purpose of food preserva¬ 
tion, cold-storage warehouses being provided in our 
larger cities where meats and provisions can be kept 
unchanged for an indefinite period. Cold storage is also 
in use on ship-board and in cars, for the preservation of 
perishable organic freight. Timber is often treated 
with corrosive sublimate, chloride of lime, heavy oil of 
tar, Ac., to prevent decay. By charring the surface of 
posts, thus providing them with a coating of charcoal, 
the like effect is produced.—The chemical substances 
exerting an antiseptic effect are numerous. Among the 
more important may be named alcohol, wood-sp>irit, 
creasote, carbolic acid, sugar, glycerin, salt, sulphurous 
acid, charcoal, nitre, alum, chloride of zinc, and sulphate 
of iron. This is an incomplete list, there being many 
other substances at times employed. They differ in 
action, sulphurous acid deoxiding the substance, sugar 
uniting with its water, others combining with the sub¬ 
stance itself aud forming non-putrescent compounds. 
Antiseptic processes are very largely used in modern 
industries, particularly for food-preservation; air-tight 
cauuing, cold-storage, and drying having became among 
the most extensive aud important of industrial processes. 

—n. Any agent which has an antiseptic effect; as cor¬ 
rosive sublimate, iodoform, Ac. 

Antisep'tic Sur'gery, or Listerism. (Surg.) The 
modern mode ot treating surgical wounds, introduced 
by Sir Joseph Lister, and founded on his recognition of 
the fact that sepsis, or putrefactive action, is the chief 
danger against which the surgeon has to contend in 
dealing with wounds. This method is now in almost 
universal use by surgeons, it having become clearly 
evident that putrefactive changes in the tissues are due 
to the action of microbes, and that the entrance of these 
to wounds can be prevented by simple and easily- 
applied methods. Pysemia, septicaemia, gangrene, and 
erysipelas,—microbic diseases which were once the 
scourge of surgical hospitals, aud whose origin was 
quite unknown,—have now become of rare occurence, 
the result being a great reduction in mortality among 
hospital patients. For the purpose in question, anti¬ 
septic substances are used. Until recently, carbolic 
acid was the favorite agent for this purpose, but various 
others are now in use, including thymol, oil of euca¬ 
lyptus, boric and salicylic acids, iodoform and corrosive 
sublimate. An aqueous solution of the last named is 
now very generally employed, in common with carbolic 
acid, they being used whenever the presence of harm¬ 
ful germs is suspected .—Mode of Operation. In a surgi¬ 
cal operation as now conducted, the skin of the part to 
be acted on, the hands and clothing of the surgeon and 
his assistants, and also the instruments, are first care¬ 
fully cleansed and purified by washing in the antiseptic 
solution, and during the operation the atmosphere 
around the wound is kept impregnated with a spray ot 
carbolic acid, or the wound irrigated with the corrosive 
sublimate solution. The sponges, ligatures, Ac., em¬ 
ployed are kept in carbolic acid until needed. When 
the operation is completed and the wound closed, it is 
covered with a specially prepared oil-silk, to prevent 
irritation by the antiseptic dressing. This consists of 
muslin, impregnated with a mixture of carbolic acid, 
resin and paraffin; or of fine cotton wadding im¬ 
pregnated with corrosive sublimate or salicylic acid. 
Whenever the dressing is changed, the same precautions 
as to purification of hands, utensils, A«., are needed. 
Ordinary wounds are carefully washed out with a 
searching antiseptic, and theu treated as above. If 
taken in time, putrefaction in these can be usually pre¬ 
vented. The results of these operations are strikingly 
favorable in preventing the diseases mentioned, pain in 
the wound, fever, and formation of pus, healing being 
rapid and continuous. By the aid of antiseptic methods 
it is now often possible to save a limb where amputa¬ 
tion was formerly deemed necessary; mortality from 
injuries and operations is greatly diminished, and many 
operations are fearlessly and safely undertaken which 
were formerly often followed by death, or were deemed 
too dangerous to be ventured upon. 

Aiit ■ tox/in, n. (Med.) A substance capable of com¬ 
batting the poison of microbes or micro-organisms. It 
has been found that the deleterious action of bacteria 
is indirect rather than indirect, they yielding certain 
toxic substances from which the poisonous effects of 
infectious diseases arise. The toxins of different bac¬ 
teria differ widely in action, and yield diseases of 
greatly varied character. Eventually tire bacteria yield 
products antagonistic in action to the toxins, and which 
have been called antitoxins. Both toxins and anti¬ 
toxins are found in the blood, and the latter are now 
obtained from the blood of animals which have been 
treated with constantly increasing doses of the toxins 
of the disease-producing bacteria. An increasing quan¬ 
tity of antitoxin is in this manner produced in the 
blood, and is finally isolated by bleeding the animals 
and separating the serum from the other constituents 
of the blood. This serum is used in the method of vac¬ 
cination. It has been successfully employed for the 
cure of diphtheria and tetanus, and with some degree 
of success in other diseases. See Bacteria. 

Apart'inent-lionse, «. (Build.) A building con¬ 
taining a number of families under one ••oo*', but differ 









22tJ 


APPE 


[SECTION II.] 


AEBO 


ing from a tenement house in providing more space 
and comfortable surroundings for its inmates. Such 
buildings have long been common in Europe, but are 
of recent introduction in the U. S. They are mainly 
due to the high price of building lots, the relative econ¬ 
omy of living in ilats, and the greater comparative 
profit to be obtained from many-storied buildings. By I 
the use of passenger and freight elevators the disad- j 
vantage of height is avoided, while the employment of 
speaking tubes, electric bells, ash shoots, trunk rooms, 
combined laundries and other conveniences add to the 
comfort of life in such edifices. In Paris, the social 
standing of a family diminishes in proportion to the 
height of the floor it occupies, but in the U. S. this dis¬ 
tinction is avoided by the use of elevators. Some 
American apartment houses, especially in New York, 
are remarkable for their size, some of them being nine 
or more stories high, and with very numerous suites 
of apartments. 

Apha'sia, n. [Gr. aphasia, speechlessness.] (Path.) 
A medical term applied to loss or disorder of the power 
of speech due to brain disease. It is distinguished 
from aphonia, in which the same effect arises from disease 
of the vocal chords or some other internal part.—The 
function of speech seems to have its seat in a portion of 
the left side of the brain, and whenever this is diseased, 
aphasia results. The disorder may vary from a slight 
difficulty in speaking to entire speechlessness. In some 
cases it takes the form of inability to speak correctly, 
the words of a sentence being misplaced. In others 
they are improperly applied, as when a chair is called a 
table, or the like. This is not due to lack of intelligence, 
as the patient may be fully aware of his mistake in 
speech, but unable to avoid it. There is one curious 
form in which the patient cannot speak his thoughts, 
but can easily repeat poems, declaim or sing. There 
are other varieties of aphasia, not yet fully understood. 
In some cases where the speech centre is diseased 
beyond cure, a new centre of speech has developed in 
the brain and the lost power of speech in part recovered. 

A'picnlture. See Bee Culture. 

Aplanat'ic I<ens, n. (Optics.) A lens which causes 
all the rays of light which fall upon it to converge to a 
single point or true focus. Such a lens must be of the 
form necessary to prevent aberration of light, and 
must also be formed of different transparent media, so 
as to be achromatic. These conditions cannot be 
perfectly obtained in actual practice. 

Apomorphia, (dp-o-mor'fe-ah.) [From Gr. apo, 
from, and morphia,) n. (Chem.) An organic base dis¬ 
covered by Dr. Matthiessen ana Mi-. Wright. It is pre¬ 
pared by the action of hydrochloric acid on morphia at a 
high temperature The physiological effects of A. are 
those of a non-irritant emetic and powerful anti-stimu¬ 
lant, the action, however, rapidly passing off, leaving 
no after ill effects. Form. C 7 H 1? N0 2 . According to 
Dr. Gee, A. always produces favorable effects when em¬ 
ployed, and by a single dose As the salt is free from 
any alcoholic irritant preparation, it can be used hypo¬ 
dermically. A very small dose is one-fifth of a grain 
by the mouth, or one-tenth by hypodermic injection 
(which answers the purpose much more rapidly and 
freely). 

Apostax is, ( a-pds'tdks-is .) [Gr., from aposlazo, I distil 
from.] ( Bot.) Unusual discharge of the juices of plants. 
This may arise merely from an extreme abundance of 
fluid, which is in consequence discharged, as in Indian 
shot or the vine, from the point, or serrated top of the 
leaves. If, however, it is elaborated sap which flows 
out, either from injury or weakness of the tissues, the 
effect may be injurious. And this is exactly the case in 
what is called gumming: a condition which may be in¬ 
duced artificially, by allowing water to drop constantly 
over a branch. This always proceeds from injured or 
diseased tissues, and is with difficulty arrested when 
once set up, aud, if so, is the certain forerunner of fatal 
canker. In some cases, as in the tragacanth plant, the 
gum is organized, and is derived apparently from the 
medullary rays. In conifers, a flow of resin is often at¬ 
tended with the same fatal results as gumming in plums 
and other allied plants. In this case it seems to arise 
generally from root-confinement and a consequent 
check of circulation. 

Aplysi'itlw, n. pi. (Conch.) A family of slug-like 
gastropods, with epipodia recurved on the back, form¬ 
ing two ear-like lobes, aud with an internal lamellar 
shell; the sea-hares. 

Appendici'lls, (V-tis, or -e'-tts) n. [From Lat. ap¬ 
pendix; suff. ills, inflammation.] (Pathol.) Inflamma¬ 
tion of the vermiform appendix (q. v.) of the ca.-cum. 

•—This term, which came suddenly into general use 
about 1894-5, is a specialization of those inflammatory 
abdominal disorders formerly generalized as typhlitis 
and perityphlitis.— Causes. The causes of A. are various, 
exposure to cold or dampness, or some indiscretion in 
diet, being the most usual. It was popularly believed, 
at first, that A. was caused by the lodging of some 
small foreign body, as a grape-seed, in the appendix. 
This supposition has been effectively disproved by care¬ 
ful clinical observations. In come 3,000 consecutive 
surgical cases, of which a careful record was kept at a 
leading Western hospital during 1895-96, less than 5 
per cent, proved to be complicated with grape seeds or 
similar small objects, and in no case were these thought 
to be the prime cause of the trouble. The original 
' ^animation is almost always of a catarrhal type; but 
jvt many cases foreign substances, especially fecal con¬ 
cretions, seem to be active factors in the development 
of the disease when a catarrhal condition of the mucous 
membrane already exists. In the absence of such con¬ 
dition, foreign bodies may be present and cause little or 


no disturbance; but should the membrane become 
inflamed, they add to the irritation by occluding the 
lumen of the appendix, thus favoring pus formation, 
ulceration ot the walls, perforation, or even gangrene of 
the whole organ. Several forms of A. are now recog¬ 
nized, as acute, chronic, and recurrent; also rheumatic 
A., which is observed iu cases presenting a rheumatic 
or gouty diathesis. Acute, severe attacks occur when 
the bacillus communis coli is present in a virulent form ; 
and if this condition be associated with a fecal concre¬ 
tion or other foreign body causing pressure, the danger 
rapidly increases, and, in the absence of prompt relief, 
death may speedily ensue. Chronic A. is marked by a 
constantly inflamed condition of the appendix and its 
immediate surroundings, causing more or less distress 
and some intestinal irregularities. It may continue, iu 
various degrees of intensity, for an indefinite time; or, 
owing to the irritation caused by a cold, the pressure of 
an unemptied cmcurn, etc., may swiftly develop into the 
acute form. Recurrent A. is that form in which attacks 
of moderate severity occur at intervals, with interven¬ 
ing periods of comparative (or entire) freedom from 
recognizable intestinal lesion.— Symptoms. The onset of 
acute A. and of the periodical attacks of recurrent A., is 
marked by intense cramp-like pains in the abdomen. 
These pains are not always located, at first, iu the right 
iliac fossa, but may be in the left side or the upper cen¬ 
tral abdominal region; eventually, however, the pain 
becomes localized directly over the inflamed organ, 
which may generally be lelt by deep palpatio.. Ex¬ 
treme local tenderness at this spot is a valuable diag¬ 
nostic sign, distinguishing A. from general peritonitis. 
In most cases there is vomiting, but not always nausea ; 
the abdominal walls are rigid, especially on the right 
side aud before the pain is localized; constipation is 
almost always present, but occasionally there is diar¬ 
rhoea. Other common symptoms are intense thirst, a 
disposition to flex the thighs upon the abdomen, aud 
the absence of abdominal respiration. In moderately 
severe cases, pulse-rate and temperature are not seri¬ 
ously affected, but a sudden fall in temperature often 
indicate perforation, and is therefore a suspicious symp¬ 
tom.— Treatment. Medical treatment, directed to the 
cleansing of the cascum aud large intestine, with local 
and general methods of allaying the inflammation, 
very frequently results in speedy cure, if begun in time. 
This plan of relief is growing in favor, as a result of 
experience, although some practitioners recommend 
excision of the appendix as the only positive cure and 
also as a preventive. This operation, which is effected 
by means of an incision about inches long, is now 
performed with great success by antiseptic methods, the 
rate of mortality being only 2 or 3 per cent., exclusive 
of cases in which surgical interference is made during 
an acute attack, or as a last resort, when the mortality 
is much greater—perhaps 15 to 20 per cent. It is held 
by some that, inasmuch as the vermiform appendix is 
thought to be an almost functiouless organ iu man, its 
removal is eminently desirable as a guard against 
possible disease, whether it has ever shown signs of 
inflammation or not; but this view is not generally 
endorsed, nor could such an operation be advisable in 
every case, since complete natural obliteration of the 
lumen of the appendix has been frequently observed, 
resulting in a spontaneous cure and a condition of 
presumably permanent immunity from attack. See 
Vermiform Appendix. 

Ap pleton, Samuel, an American philanthropist, born 
in N. H., 1766, became a wealthy merchant of Boston, 
and devoted as much as $25,000 of his yearly income to 
works of benevolence; gave $10,000 to Dartmouth Col¬ 
lege, and by his will left $200,000 to literary and charit¬ 
able institutions. Died in 1853. 

Applique' ( dp-pli-kd'), n. [Fr.] Any ornament cut 
out and applied to another surface, in cloth, wood or 
metal. Also, a piece of work thus ornamented. 

Aqna'ria, n. pi. Iu addition to small aquaria, described 
under Aquarium, there have been instituted in modern 
years numerous public and scientific aquaria which call 
for some further mention. The first of these was that 
erected at the London Zoological Gardens in 1852. 
Many others have succeeded, usually in the vicinity of 
the ocean, but sometimes inland, as in the case of the 
Berlin Aquarium, in which a large collection of marine 
animals is maintained at a considerable distance from 
the sea. The aquarium connected with the Naples 
Zoological Station has been of particular value, in 
enabling students of science to investigate the habits 
and life histories of marine plants and animals. The 
aquarium in the Jardin d’Acclimation at Paris, con¬ 
structed iu 1860, is 150 feet long and 36 feet wide. 
Among the most notable of European aquaria are those 
at Amsterdam and at Brighton, England, in which large 
collections of fish and other marine creatures are well 
displayed. In the U. S. a notable aquarium was exhi¬ 
bited in 1893 in the Fisheries Building, at the Chicago 
Exposition, 1000 miles inland. In 1896 one was opened 
in New York, on the old Castle GardeD site, which, 
from its proximity to the sea, is likely to become of 
much public and scientific interest. 

Aquilariacea* (uk-wil-a-ri-a'se-e), n. pi. (Bot.) An 
order of plants, alliance Bhamnales, characterized by a 
top-shaped leathery calyx, downy externally, whose 
limb is divided into five small oblong, reflexed seg¬ 
ments; from the throat of the calyx project ten woolly 
scales, which adhere to the whole length of the interior 
of the calyx tube, and alternate with the ten stamens, 
the filaments of which also adhere for nearly their 
whole length to the calyx tube, and are attached to the 
back of the anthers below their middle. Aquilaria 
Agallocha, a large tree, inhabiting Silhet, and provided 


with alternate lance-shaped stalked leaves, furnishes aa 

odoriferous wood, called Aloes-wood, or Eagle-wood, sup¬ 
posed to be the aloes-wood of Scripture. The wood con¬ 
tains an abundance of resin, and an essential oil, which 
is separated, and highly esteemed as a perfume. The 
Orientals burn it in their temples for the sake of its 
slight fragrance, on which account also it was used in 
the palace of Napoleon I. It has been prescribed in 
rheumatic affections in Europe. 

Aquiparous, ( dlc-wlj/dr-Ht ,) a. [Lat. aqua, water, and 
pario, I bring forth.] (Med.) An epithet for glands, 
which, like the parotid, secrete much water, in contra¬ 
distinction to the submaxillary glands, which are muci¬ 
parous. 

Ara, n. (Ast.) The Altar, ono of Ptolemy's southern 
constellations. According to Aratus, the Centaur was 
conceived by ancient astronomers as in the act of plac¬ 
ing an offering on the altar; but bya6trange mistake 
the altar is represented in all modern star-maps in an 
inverted position. It seems not improbable that the 
ancient astronomers recognized in the strangely com? 
plex parts of the Milky IVay which lie to the north of 
this constellation 6ome resemblance to smoke from an 
altar. 

Ar'abi I*aslia' (Ahmed-el-Uraby), the leader in tha 
Egyptian revolutionary movement of 1882. Born at 
Tan tab, on the Nile delta, about 1835, worked as a 
laborer, and was afterwards for twelve years a private 
in the Egyptian army. Later became lieutenant, and 
rapidly advanced to colonel, minister of war, and pasha. 
A rebellious feeling arose i. the country in consequence 
of the pledging by the Khedive of all the revenues to 
pay foreign bond-holders and the filling of all positions 
of trust with English and French officials. Arabi headed 
the party in rebellion, was joined by thousands of 
natives and proclaimed a holy mission, the motto of 
which was “ Egypt for the Egyptians.” He took posses¬ 
sion of Alexandria, where his forces massacred many 
foreign residents, and where they were bombarded by 
the British fleet, July 11 and 12, 1882. Driven from 
Alexandria, Arabi was followed and his army was totally 
defeated at Tel-el-Kebir, Sept. 13, 1882, by the British 
forces under General IVolseley. Arabi surrendered and 
was sentenced to death, but his sentence was changed 
by the Khedive to life exile and he was sent to Ceylon. 
He has recontly been relea-ed. 

Ar'bitrage, n. (Com.) The buying and selling of the 
same thing simultaneously in different markets, as New 
York and London, so as to gain a profit from the differ¬ 
ence between quotations in such markets. It is chiefly 
used in relation to such traffic as exchange, stocks and 
bonds. 

Arbitration, International. Arbitration, in 
addition to its use in the settlement of private disputes, 
is coming more and more into employment in the solving 
of' questions between states, war having more than 
once been averted by it, while it is full of encouraging 
promise for the future. There are several ways in winch 
international disputes or difficulties can be settled, w ith¬ 
out recourse to w ar, the first and simplest of these being 
diplomatic negotiations; the second, mediation, iu which 
a third power offers its sendees to settle a difficulty be¬ 
tween two states; and the third, arbitration, in which 
the points in dispute, which cannot be settled by negotia¬ 
tion, are submitted to the decision of a third party or 
parties, with the definite understanding that the decision 
of the arbitrator or arbitrators shall be binding. It ha* 
been particularly within the nineteenth century that 
this wise and economical method of settling national 
disputes has come into vogue, and several notable in¬ 
stances of it have taken place, particularly between 
Great Britain and the U. S. The first of these of high 
importance was tire settlement by arbitration of the 
Alabama Claims (q. v.), which was followed by an 
arbitration settlement of the fishery dispute. More 
recent instances of importance have been the settlement 
by arbitration of the Bering Sea seal fishing difficulties, 
and the formation of a I oard of arbitration, through the 
intervention of the U. S., to decide the long disputed 
boundary question between British Guiana and Vene¬ 
zuela. In 1883 Switzerland proposed a general arbitration 
agreement to the U. S. and other republics of America, 
aud some instances of the incorporation of this prin¬ 
ciple in treaties exist. In the Pan-American Congress 
of 1889-90 an earnest effort was made to have the prin¬ 
ciple of arbitration adopted for the settlement of all tli* 
controversies that might arise between any two Amer¬ 
ican states. Though no decisive action was taken, tli# 
proposition was favorably received by the members of 
the Congress. The most recent and most inqiortant ex¬ 
ample of the adoption of such a general principle is in 
the treaty of general arbitration arranged by the 
diplomatic representatives of the U. S. and Great Britain 
in 1897, with the desirable purpose of averting all dan¬ 
ger of war between those two countries for the five 
years contemplated by the treaty, and for an indefinite 
period thereafter. It may bo said in conclusion that the 
principle of I. A. has made great progress within the 
quarter of a century since the submission of the Alabama 
Claims to such a tribunal, and will certainly, in the 
near future, greatly decrease the danger of war between 
the civilized nations of the earth. 

Arbor I>ay. A day set apart in most of the States of 
the American Union for the voluntary planting of trees 
by the people, its object being to encourage tree plant¬ 
ing and arouse a public interest in forestry. The day is 
made a school holiday and efforts made to interest school 
children in its observance, for the purpose of infusing a 
sentiment in favor of forest preservation, in the minds 
of the rising generation. Arbor Day w,as inaugurated 
in 1874, by the Nebraska State Board of Agricultur* 






ARCH 


[SECTION II.] 


ARCT 


227 


»t the suggestion of Hon. J. Sterling Morton, then 
Governor of Nebraska and subsequently Secretary of 
Agriculture during Mr. Cleveland’s second term. At 
present the holiday is kept in 44 States and Territories, 
usually in April or May; but it occurs in the winter 
season in some of the Southern States. 

Arbo real, a. Of or pertaining to trees; arborescent, 
as an arboreal growth. Also living or situated among 
trees, as arboreal animals; arboreal habits. 

Ar'boriculture, n. A term signifying the cultiva¬ 
tion of trees, but generally restricted to the planting 
and management of timber trees, and excluding the 
cultivation of fruit trees, which is a branch of horti¬ 
culture or the gardening art. See Forestry. 

Area'llum, in Ohio, a village ot Darke co. Pop. (18901, 
1,134. 

Arcli, Joseph, an English reformer, born at Barford, 
Warwickshire, Nov. 10,1826, and brought up as a farm 
laborer. Gaining some education, he became a Primitive 
Methodist preacher, and subsequently organized a union 
of the agricultural laborers of England. From this move¬ 
ment arose, in 1872, the National Agricultural Laborers’ 
Union, of which he became president, and in whose in¬ 
terest lie visited Canada in 1873, to investigate the labor 
and immigration questions. He was elected to Parlia¬ 
ment in 1885 for Northwest Norfolk, was defeated in 
1886, and was re-elected in 1892 and again in 1895. He 
continues the leader in the movement for bettering the 
condition of the rural laboring population. 

Archse'an, a. ( Geol.) Pertaining to or characteristic of 
the oldest geological period containing stratified rocks, 
those being granitoid gneisses and crySalline schists. 
It is sometimes divided into the Azoic and the Eozoic 
periods, the former being without fossils, the latter con¬ 
taining what may be the earliest fossils, though their 
fossiliferous character is greatly doubted. It is also 
divided into the Laurentiau and the Huronian periods, 
including all stratified rocks earlier than the Cambrian. 
The Upper Huronian rocks are now called Algonkian 
(q.v.) by the U. S. Geological Survey, the term Archaean 
being restricted to rocks of earlier date. 

Arcliteorogy, ». The study of the ancient relics of 
human art. It may be divided into three branches, 
written, monumental, and traditional A., the first in¬ 
cluding writing in its ancient forms, inscriptions, and 
manuscripts; the second including works of art and 
industry in a vast variety of forms; the third embracing 
the oral literature of peoples, covering all the various 
forms of traditional thought and customs which are 
understood under the term folk-lore. The study of A. 
was long confined to the antiquities of the classic 
nations, Greece and Rome, but has been extended to 
embrace the antiquities of all peoples, savage and 
civilized alike. The reading of the Rosetta Stone in¬ 
scription has led to remarkable progress in the study of 
Egyptian A., and the discovery of the cuneiform writing 
has been equally prolific in increasing our knowledge 
of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities; while the field 
of archaeological research has been widened to embrace 
India and China, Africa and America, and has been ex¬ 
tended backward through time to take in the relics of 
prehistoric man, now so abundantly collected. Despite 
this widening of the field, special interest still attends 
research in classic lands and in the regions of the earlier 
neighboring civilizations, and remarkable progress has 
been made in recent years in the investigation of the 
antique remains of Greece, Italy, Egypt, Syria, and 
Babylonia. In Italy, the excavations at Pompeii, Rome, 
and in ancient Etruria have been prolific in results; 
Cyprus yielded to Cesnola a remarkable series of relics 
of ancient art; and the investigation of the sites of 
Eleusis, Olympia, Delphi, and other localities in Greece 
have been rife with important additions to our knowl¬ 
edge. Schleimann, in his work on the site of ancient 
Troy and among the ruins of prehistoric Mycene, was 
admirably successful; while the explorers in Egypt, from 
Marietta to Petrie, have enormously added to our knowl¬ 
edge of the remote civilization of that land ot wonders. 
Still more interesting are the recent researches in Baby¬ 
lonia, particularly those made on the site of the very 
old city of Nippur by che University of Pennsylvania 
Exploring Expedition. [See Babylonia.] In brief, the 
results of modern A. have gone far to unfold to us the 
conditions of the ancient world, from the most primitive 
period to that of classic civilization, while many museums 
of archaeological relics now in existence have opened 
the study of human antiquities to the students of all 
lands. As regards the literature of the subject, it is 
enormous in volume, embracing a considerable library 
of works on the various branches of this multifarious 
theme. 

Archteop'terix, n. (Paleontol.) A remarkable fossil 
bird of the Jurassic geological period, the oldest bird 
known to exist, aud of special interest in the strikingly 
close relation between birds and reptiles which it indi¬ 
cates. It was about the size of a crow, with a tail 8 or 9 
inches long, composed of vertebrae (uulike other birds), 
with feathers arranged in pairs corresponding to each 
vertebrae. It was provided with teeth, and the three 
fingers of its wing terminated in claws. Two specimens 
of this interesting fossil exist, both found in the litho¬ 
graphic limestone of Solenhofen, Bavaria. The head, 
chest and forelimbs were reptilian, while the hind ex¬ 
tremities were like those of birds of prey. 

Archegone ( dr-chiPo-ne ), n. (Bot.) A term applied to 
the long-necked cellular sacs which occur in the higher 
or acrogenous cryptogams, and which are analogous to 
the pistils of phasnogams. They contain at the base of 
their cavity a sac which is analogous to the embryo sac 
of phsenogams, and which is impregnated by the 
agency of spermatozoids. Within this latter sac, either 


the young plant, as in ferns, or the capsule, as in 
mosses, is formed by mean* of cellular division. 

Arctic Exploration. The hyperborean regions of 
the earth have attracted the energies of adventurous 
explorers since the earliest times, in spite of the adverse 
physical conditions which discourage the pursuit of 
knowledge amid such inhospitable surroundings. Mod¬ 
ern research has established the fact that the Norsemen 
visited the coasts of Greenland and North America 
during the tenth and eleventh centuries. In historical 
times, the Cabots (1497) are credited with the discovery 
of the mainland of North America; and Sebastian Ca¬ 
bot, in 1498, is known to have penetrated northward 
along the coast as far as Hudson Strait. During the 
subsequent 400 years Arctic Exploration has steadily 
progressed; and, at the cost of much heroic sacrifice, 
the limits of the unknown have been gradually circum¬ 
scribed. Incentive is not lacking, however, even now, 
for further research in the North; and it is reasonable 
to assume that, with many problems connected with 


terrestial magnetism, meteorology, and oceanography 
unsolved, with a circumpolar area of over 3,000,000 
square miles unexplored, and the geographical pole un¬ 
attained, the spirit of modern scientific research and 
adventure will not rest content until the utmost limits 
of the globe have been conquered by man.—In the desire 
to find a short route to the Orient and to share in its 
commerce, is found the primary motive for the long 
series of voyages wherein successive expeditions sought 
to reach the shores of Asia by means of the Northeast 
and Northwest Passages. The expeditions of the Cabots, 
and of the Cortereals (Portuguese navigators, 1500-02), 
were fruitful in extending knowledge of the new conti¬ 
nent, but failed 'in their avowed object, viz., the dis¬ 
covery of a route to Cathay. Hence, the same spirit of 
commercial enterprise which fostered the voyages to 
the American coast, now found expression in efforts to 
reach Asia by expeditions along the northern limits of 
Europe and Asia, known as the Korlhcatl pauaye. Sir 


Hugh Willoughby was sent out with two ships in 1553* 
and sighted Nova Zembla, whence he retreated south¬ 
wards and perished while wintering on the coast of Lap- 
land. His companion, Chancellor, passed the winter in 
Russia, and was instrumental in establishing a profit¬ 
able trade between England and the north of Europe. 
The three voyages of the Dutch navigator Barents 
(1594-96), resulted in the discovery of Spitzbergen 
and the acquisition of definite knowledge about Nova 
Zembla. English attempts to discover a Northeast Pas¬ 
sage virtually ended in the voyage of Pet and Jackman 
in 1580, although a final unsuccessful effort was made 
in 1666 in the expedition under Wood and Flaws. 
Russian traders and explorers, during the eighteenth 
century, conducted important voyages with the view te 
determine the northern outlines of Asia aud the com¬ 
mercial possibilities of the Siberian coast. Cape Chel¬ 
yuskin, the most northern point of Asia (77° 41' N. 
Lat.), was reached in 1742 by the man whose name it 
perpetuates. The systematic survey of the Asiati* 


coast by the Russians began in 1725 and continued till 
1742. Vitus Bering, a Danish sailor in the Russian 
service, made important discoveries in the North Pacifie 
Ocean. He traversed the strait which bears his name 
in 1728, and explored the northwest coast of North 
America in 1741. Although Bering was probably antici¬ 
pated in discovering the Alaskan coast of America by 
Gwosdef (1731), to him is given the credit of demon¬ 
strating the separation of the continents of Asia and 
America. In connection with the Northeast Passage^ 
Parry’s north-polar expedition may be considered. 
This experienced Arctic explorer arrived north of Spitz¬ 
bergen in 1827, and, leaving his vessel, made a weari¬ 
some journey over the drifting ice to 82° 45' N. Thi* 
high latitude was not exceeded for 48 years. It was 
reserved for the last quarter of the nineteenth century 
to witness the accomplishment of the Northeast Pas¬ 
sage. Baron A. E. Nordenskjnld, the distinguished 
Swedish explorer, whose scientific training and.” varied 



Fig. 2670. —chart or the north polar region. 

Th* itarrsd line shows course of driftwood from the Jeannette, upon which Nansen's theory was based; 
the dotted line indicates the course which Nansen expected to follow. 

(By Permission of the French Geographical Society.) 
























228 


ARCT 


[SECTION II.] 


ARCT 


Arctic experience especially fitted him tor the task, 
Bailed from Tromsoe on July 21, 1878. His vessel, the 
Vega, a steam whaler of 300 tons, was fitted out with a 
complete scientific equipment and a crew composed of 
twenty-eight officers and men. Preliminary voyages 
undertaken by Nordenskjiild had demonstrated the 
practicability of summer cruises to the mouth of the 
Yenesei by way of the Jugor Strait and Kara Sea. 
Pursuing this course, the Vega reached Dickson Harbor, 
at the mouth of the Yenesei, on August 6, 1878. Pro¬ 
ceeding to the northeast along the coast of Asia, Cape 
Chelyuskin was rounded on August 19th, and after 
compassing many obstacles, the Vega arrived otf Cape 
Serdze Kamen, only 120 miles from Bering Strait, 
where, unfortunately, sire encountered close pack-ice 
which barred further progress and compelled the ex¬ 
pedition to go into winter quarters for ten months. 
The ice released Nordenskjiild on July 18,1879, and two 
days later, after passing through Bering Strait, he had 
the satisfaction of rounding Capo East, the most eastern 
poiut of Asia, thus achieving the purpose of three 
centuries of maritime effort.—The attempt to discover a 
route to Asia along the Arctic seacoast of North America, 
otherwise known as the Northwest Passage, was probably 
responsible for a greater expenditure of life and money 
than any other Arctic problem. Frobisher determined 
the existence of Frobisher Strait in 1576. The illus¬ 
trious navigator, Davis, in three voyages (1585-86-88) 
discovered the strait which bears his name, traversed 
the west coast of Greenland as far north as Sanderson’s 
Hope, 72° 12' N., and examined the American shore 
from Cumberland Island to Labrador. Hudson, who 
had previously visited Spitzbergen and discovered the 
island of Jan Mayen (1607) in his search for a North¬ 


east Passage, sailed under English auspices in 1610, 
and, passing through Hudson Strait, discovered the 
great bay which commemorates his name. Misled by 
the vast size of this inland sea, Hudson believed he had 
entered the Pacific. Button, who visited the region in 
1612, disproved this theory. One of the most remark¬ 
able voyages in Arctic annals was undertaken by 
William Baffin in 1016. Sailing from England in the 
Discovery, a craft of only 55 tons, this intrepid navigator, 
favored by an open season in the North, passed the 
greatest northing of his predecessor, Davis, and suc¬ 
ceeded in reaching the surprisingly high latitude of 
77° 45' N., a position which remained unsurpassed in 
that region for 236 years. After the unproductive voy¬ 
age of Fox and James in 1631, the North American 
coast was neglected for over a certury. The reign of 
George III. witnessed a revival of interest in northern 
exploration in England. In 1773, Phipps sailed for 
Spitzbergen on a north-polar expedition, and attained 
80° 47' N., surpassing the record of another famous 
English navigator, Cook, who, passing through Bering 
Strait in 1778, was unable to proceed beyond 70° 44' N. 
To stimulate Arctic research, the English Government 
had meantime offered a reward of £5,000 to any one 
reaching the 89th parallel of north latitude. No im¬ 
portant sea-voyages to the North were undertaken at 
this time; but land journeys, to find an outlet to the 
Pacific, were pushed with great energy. Hearne, in 
1772, made an overland journey across the territories of 
the Hudson Bay Company to the mouth of the Copper- 
mine river, and was followed by Mackenzie, who, in 
1789, traversed the region between Port Chipewyan and 
the delta of the Mackenzie river. Sir John Franklin 
(eee Franklin, Sib John), whose fame is inseparably 


connected with Arctic exploration, made two notable 
journeys, the first, 1819-21, and the second, 1825-26, in 
conjunction with Richardson. By these journeys, a 
large stretch of the Arctic coast of North America east 
of the Mackenzie river was delineated. To this period 
also belongs the work of Wm. Scoresby, who explored in 
1822 the oast coast of Greenland between Lat. 69° 30' 
and 72° 30' N., and by his publications added largely to 
the knowledge of the physical phenomena and natural 
history of the Arctic regions. The east coast of Green¬ 
land was subsequently examined by Clavering (1823), 
by Graah (1828), aud by De Blosseville (1833). The 
extreme point on this coast reached by Koldeway, of 
the German north-polar expedition (1870), was 77° 01' 
N., which was not exceeded until Peary leached Inde¬ 
pendence Bay in 1892.—The systematic exploration of 
the present century may be said to have begun with 
the despatching of Ross and Parry in 1818 to find the 
Northwest Passage. They explored Lancaster Sound, 
and were the first Europeans who encountered the 
primitive Eskimos of Cape York. The following year 
Parry penetrated Lancaster Sound and discovered an 
extensive archipelago and the communicating water 
passages—Prince Regent Inlet, Barrow Strait, and Mel¬ 
ville Sound. Continued explorations of this region were 
conducted by John Boss in an expedition which ex¬ 
tended during five years (1829-33). Among the results 
of this voyage were: the discovery of Boothia Felix, 
the most northern land of the American continent, and 
the location, by James Clark Ross, of the North Mag¬ 
netic Pole on its western coast. By land journeys under 
Dease and Simpson, in 1828, knowledge of the Arctic 
coast was extended for about 100 miless beyond Poiut 
Turnagain. The successful journeys of Dr. John Rae 


completed the delineation of the greater pari, of the 
coast. In 1S46-47, while exploring Boothia Gulf, he 
proved that Boothia Felix was a peninsula; and subse¬ 
quently, in 1851, he surveyed the coast from the Mac¬ 
kenzie river to King William’s Land. Awakened inter¬ 
est in the possibility of a Northwest Passage was 
aroused by Ross’ discoveries, and led to the fitting out 
of the expedition under Sir John Franklin, which W'as 
so tragic in its ending and so important from the geog¬ 
raphical discoveries which the various search expedi¬ 
tions effected. On May 19,1845, Franklin sailed with 
the ships Erebus and Terror, with orders to reach the 
Pacific by way of Lancaster Sound and its western 
extensions. In September, 1846, his ships were beset 
north of King William’s Land, and, on June 11,1847, 
Franklin died. The remaining officers and men aban¬ 
doned their ships in the spring of 1848, aud all perished 
in an attempt to reach Back’s Fish river. The search 
expedition under Collinson and M’Clure sailed for Be¬ 
ring Strait in 1850. The two vessels searched indepen¬ 
dently. Collinson returned to England in 1855 without 
solving the mystery of the disappearance of the Frank¬ 
lin party. M’Clure reached Barrow Strait in his east¬ 
ward voyage, where his vessel was imprisoned by the 
ice for two winters. Rescued by Belcher in the spring 
of 1853, M’Clure aud his men accompanied Belcher on 
his return to England, and were thus the first to make 
the Northwest Passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic. 
No less than six expeditions started in 1851 to seek for 
the Franklin party; but definite knowledge of its 
fate was finally secured by M’Clintock, who had been 
sent out by Lady Franklin in 1857. This able com¬ 
mander secured, from the Eskimos, many relics of the 
party, and found a record left by the survivors on the 



northwest coast of King William’s Land. The re¬ 
searches of Hall in 1869 confirmed those of M’Clintock. 
Another American sledge expedition, under Schwatka 
and Gilder, visited the region in 1879-80. They learned 
further details of the movements of the Franklin party 
and found evidence that Franklin had completed the 
discovery of the Northwest Passage.—The Smith Sound 
region, unvisited since the time of Baffin, now received 
attention as offering a route to the Pole. Inglefield, in 
1852, entered its southern confines and surveyed the 
adjacent coast. The American expedition under Dr. B. 
K. Kane (1853-50) attracted world-wide attention by 
its achievements, and made a record for the highest land 
yet seen, by reaching Cape Constitution, 81° 22' N. Dr. 
1.1. Ilayes, the surgeon of Kane, surveyed part of the 
coast of Grinnell Land in 1800-61, and gave further 
currency to the theory of an “ open polar sea.” Later 
expeditions which have reached higher latitudes in 
Smith Sound have proved the fallacy of this contention. 
Capt. C. F. Hall, in 1870, pushed his vessel, the Polaris , 
through Kane Basin and Robeson Channel to the very 
confines of the Polar Ocean (82° 11' N.), a position by 
ship which remained unexcelled until surpassed by the 
British North-Polar Expedition of 1875-76, under Nares. 
This well-equipped expedition surveyed the coast of 
Grinnell Land to Cape Columbia, extended geographical 
knowledge of north Greenland, reached a higher lati¬ 
tude in the Alert than heretofore attained by ship, and 
by a sledge journey under Commander Markham 
advanced the English flag to the lartliest point north 
to that time: 83° 20' N.—To this period belongs the 
ill-fated expedition in the Jeannette, under Commander 
G. W. DeLong, which sailed in 1879, and, passing 
through Bering Strait, was caught and held in the 
pack near Herald Island, whence she drifted westward 
until crushed (77° 15' N., 155° E.) on June 12,1881. In 
their retreat by boat aud sledge to the Lena delta, one 
boat, under Lieutenant Chipp, foundered in a storm; 
and the remaining two, under DeLong and Melville, 
became separated. The latter officer, by heroic efforts, 
reached an outlying Russian settlement where ho 
obtained assistance. DeLong landed in safety but was 
forced to abandon his boats, and, encumbered w ith dis¬ 
abled men, succumbed to starvation with eight of his 
party before November 1,1881. Melville recovered tlio 
bodies of his companions early in the spring of 1882. 
DeLong’s expedition discovered Jeannette and Henrietta 
Islands, aud demonstrated that the Siberian Polar Sea 
is shallow.—Through the efforts of Lieutenant Wey- 
preclit, international action was secured in establishing 
a series of fifteen circumpolar stations (1881-83) for 
the purpose of securing simultaneous observations in 
meteorology aud terrestial magnetism. One American 
station was established at Point Barrow. Alaska. The 
command of the other American expedition was en¬ 
trusted to Lieutenant A. W. Greely, who established his 
party of four officers, nineteen men, aud two Eskimos 
(in August, 1881) at Lady Franklin Bay, on the west 
side of Robeson Channel. By various sledge journeys 
the interior of Grinnell Land was explored and its 
western coast surveyed from Archer to Greely Fiord. 
New laurels were won for America by Lockwood and 
Brainard, who, traversing the north shore of Green¬ 
land, reached (May 13,1882) Lockwood Islund, 83° 24' 
N., thus securing the honors of the highest North. 
Two relief expeditious failed to bring succor, aud 
Greeley’s party—provisioned only to Aug., 1883—found 
itself in the desperate position of facing the rigors of an 
Arctic winter with only about forty days’ rations, and 
in a region which yielded (no game. Greely, having 
failed to reached the Greenland shore, accepted the in¬ 
evitable with heroic fortitude and continued his scien¬ 
tific observations to the last. When the relief expedi¬ 
tion underSchley arrived in June, 1884, death by starva¬ 
tion had claimed all but the leader and five of his men. 
—American zeal in Arctic exploration found expres¬ 
sion in later years in the voyages of Lieut. R. E. 
Peary, whose researches in North Greenland in¬ 
volved the despatching of three main expeditious 
and a like number of auxiliary expeditions to the Ingle¬ 
field Gulf region. Convinced, from a preliminary 
examination of the Greenland ice-cap, in 1886, that the 
inland ice afforded a suitable highway for a properly 
equipped sledge party, he established himself at Mc¬ 
Cormick Bay in Aug., 1891, and the following spring, 
with Astrup, made a brilliant sledge journey of 650 
miles over the great snow mantle ot the interior to 
Independence Bay on the unknown northeast coast of 
Greenland, 81° 37' N., 34° W. A subsequent attempt 
to extend his discoveries on the north and northeast 
coast, in 1894, failed, owing to unprecedented w r eather 
conditions arid the consequent loss of dogs and disabil¬ 
ity of men. Peary, having remained over another 
winter, succeeded with two men and native aid in again 
reaching Independence Bay in May, 1895. Failure to 
locate his caches on the inland ice endangered the 
lives of Peary and his two companions on this last 
journey; and the courage and physical endurance 
shown under the most trying circumstances makes this 
one of the most notable sledge journeys in Arctic annals. 
Walter Wellman, an American journalist, attempted to 
reach the Pole in 1894 by the Spitzbe/gen route. His 
supporting ship was crushed in the ice; and, after 
almost reaching 81° N. by sledge and boat, he was 
forced to retreat,—The Austro-Hungarian expedition 
(1872-74) under Weyprecht and Payer, discovered a 
new land within the Arctic circle—Franz Joseph Land. 
Payer partially explored the region, which consisted of 
an archipelago, with land masses, which, he asserted, 
extended northward beyond the 83rd parallel. Leign 
Smith, by expeditions in 1880 and 1881-2, explored the 

























AKDM 


[SECTION II.] 


ARME 


229 


oatlying islands on the south coast and extended the 
hunts of Franz Joseph Land to the northwest. These 
explorations drew the attention of geographers to this 
archipelago as a promising base from which to conduct 
extended operations to the northward, and an expedi¬ 
tion under Frederick G. Jackson sought that locality in 
1894. remaining there for three years and finally res¬ 
cuing the intrepid Nansen, whose explorations are 
described below. For an account of tlie later success¬ 
ful expeditions of the Duke of the Abruzzi and Lieut. 
Peary, see Polar Research. Mr. Jackson found that 
the main mass of the Franz Joseph Land Archipelago 
does not extend as far northwaid as heretofore sup¬ 
posed. The Zichy Land, of Payer, was discovered to 
be a chain of islands, and the existence of Petermaun 
Laud was doubted. The scientific world and the gen¬ 
eral public were thrilled by the announcement, in 
August, 1896, that Dr. Fridtjof Nansen (see Nansen) 
had arrived at Vardo, Norway, a passenger on board 
the Jackson-Harmsworth relief ship Windward. Dr. 
Nansen—a man of scientific attainments aud ideal 
physical endowments, already famous for his crossing 
of the inland ice of Greenland in 1888—had sailed from 
Christiana in June, 1893, with twelve companions, in 
the Fram , a vessel specially constructed to resist the 
pressure of the ice floes. The novelty of this last 
attempt to reach the Pole consisted in the dependence 
on a drift current, running from the Siberian coast 
across the polar basin, and thence through the sea 
between Spitzbergen and Greenland. Nansen was 
convinced of the existence of this current from the 
massive character of the east Greenland ice aud the 
finding of an Alaskan throwing-stick aud some relics 
of the Jeannette on the Greenland coast. Disregarding 
the tenets of Arctic navigation, after arriving off the 
New Siberian Islands he thrust the Fram into the ice¬ 
pack, on Sept. 22, 1893; and, provisioned for five years, 
resolved to surrender his vessel to the mercies of the 
ice floe. The general drift of the imprisoned party was 
to the northwest; and during her long besetmeut their 
vessel justified the confidence of her designer and 
withstood the severest pressures. By March 14.1895, 
their vessel had reached s3° 59'. Not satisfied with his 
progress, Nansen, with one companion, Johansen, now- 
left their ship to make a sledge journey towards the 
Pole. After enduring great hardships, they reached 
( April 7, 1895) 8 1 ° 14' N., the farthest north to that 
time attained. The roughness of the ice-pack pre¬ 
vented further advance. After an eventful journey 
over the ice-pack, the explorers reached an island of the 
Franz Joseph Land archipelago, where they passed the 
winter of 1895-96 in a stone hut, subsisting on bear 
meat. A start for Spitzbergen was made on May 19, 
1896, and when off Cape Flora they providentially 
encountered the members of the British expedition 
under Jackson, who provided them with some creature 
comforts to which they had long been strangers, and 
furnished them with passage in the Windward to their 
native land. By a happy coincidence, Capt. Sverdrup 
and the Fram reached the coast of Norway within a 
week after Nansen’s arrival, and the entire party was 
reunited. The results of this expedition, while some¬ 
what negative in a geographical sense, are most inter¬ 
esting and suggestive in their bearing on the conditions 
which subsist in the regions nearest the Pole. Noland 
was seen during the long drift of the Fram, making it 
probable that the Pole itself is situated in an ice- 
covered area. The existence of a deep sea basin in the 
circumpolar region, from 1,800 to 2,000 fathoms in 
depth, was demonstrated. In this deep sea basin a 
stratum of comparatively warm water was reached, 
and covering the entire region a restless, drifting mass 
of ice was found, where heretofore an immovable 
mantle of ice was supposed to exist The Nansen 
expedition marks an epoch in Arctic exploration. 
Never, since the voyages of Barent, in the latter part 
of the sixteenth century, had a single expedition made 
an advance of 200 miles beyond the borders of the un- 
kuown. Nansen’s success closed the record of 19th 
century progress, except that of the Duke of Abruzzi in 
the last year of the century. For20th century progress 
see PoLar Research. 

Aretis'ca. n. pi. ( Comp. A not. ) An order, usually re¬ 
ferred to the Arachnida aud including the bear-animal¬ 
cules. They have a worm-like body, a suctorial mouth, 
and four pairs of short legs. 

Arc'tiani, ». (Bot.) A genus of biennials of the Aster 
family ( Oompositse), and includingthe common burdock. 

^rcte'tis, n. (Bot.) A plant of the Aster family, in¬ 
digenous in Southern Africa, but now cultivated to 
to some extent here and in Europe. The flower is 
usually a deep yellow, and in massive heads or clusters. 

A.r<len'nite, n. [From Ardennes, in France.] (Min.) A 
yellow or brownish-yellow silicate, seemingly combined 
w ith vanadium, occurring in orthorhombic crystals. 

Artlis'ia, ». (Bot.) An extensive genus of small trees 
or evergreen shrubs of the family Myrsinacese, several of 
which are frequently seen in gardens and greenhouses. 
The flowers are white or pinkish in tint. 

A rd i'ti, Luigi, an Italian musician, conductor, and 
composer; was born Jv 1 v 16, 1825, at Crescentino, in 
Piedmont, and became tne leading conductor of Italian 
opera. Has visited America frequently in his pro¬ 
fessional capacity. His compositions include many 
popular songs and several orchestral numbers of some¬ 
what unpretentious character, all of which are written 
according to the modern Italian melodic school. He 
has spent a great deal of time in London, engaged in 
musical enterprises. 

Ar«l 'more, in Pennsylvania, a suburban village of 
Montgomery co., 6 m. N. W. of Philadelphia. 


^reameter, (a-re-am'e-tiir.) [From area, and Gr. 
metron, measure.] (Surveying.) An instrument in¬ 
vented by Mr. James R. Maxwell for calculating cross 
sections of embankments and cuts. It consists (Fig. 
8) of a board, e, r, w ith a groove, g. g, in each side To 
this board is attached a piece of ordinary cross-section 
paper, d, d. On this the slopes of a cut, 2, 2, and em¬ 
bankment, 1, 1, are laid off of any required size and in¬ 
clination. /,/, is a brass frame which slides in the 
grooves, g, g. To this frame is attached a revolving rim 



of the same metal, graduated in degrees to correspond 
with the surface slopes, the line of which is represented 
by a thread, s, s. stretched across its centre. In using 
it. the frame,/,/, is moved up or down in the slides un¬ 
til the thread, s, s, cuts the elevation of slope or em¬ 
bankment at centre. The rim, p, p, is then turned un¬ 
til the thread corresponds to the angle of the surface 
of the slope. The horizontal width is then seen at the 
intersection of the thread with the side-slope lines of 
the diagram. 

Arecibo, (ah-ra-the’bo,) a seaport of Porto Rico, W. In¬ 
dies, C. of a p. of same name, on the N. coast of the 
island. It carries on a considerable trade. Pop. 11,187. 

Argrelancter, Frederich Wilhelm August, ( ahr-ja - 
land'ur.) a German astronomer, B. at Memel, in Prussia, 
1799, was appointed Professor of Astronomy in the 
University of Bonn, 1837. He published, about 1830, 
the results of his observations at Abo, viz., A Catalogue 
of 560 Stars, with Observations upon their Motions, a work 
which obtained a prize from the St. Petersburg Acade¬ 
my of Sciences. At Bonn he continued the great work 
of Bessel, and determined principally the position of 
the stars found in the zone of 45° to 80° declination. 
The results o'" his labors were published in 1846, in his 
Observations in the Observatory of Bonn, a work which 
contains the positions of 22.0OU stars. D. 1873. 

Argentett il, a S.W. county of Canada, province of 
Quebec. Pop. (1898) 15,950. 

Argen'tine, in Kansas, a city of Wyandotte co. Here 
is a smelter employing a large number of men, and 
treating gold, silver, copper and lead. Street car lines 
extend to Kansas City, 4 m. distant. Pop. (1898) 6,100. 

Ar'S’on, a constituent of the atmosphere, discovered in 
1895 by Lord Rayleigh and Prof. William Ramsay, 
through a critical investigation of atmospheric nitro¬ 
gen. It was learned, as the result of an extended series 
of experiments, that atmospheric nitrogen had a higher 
specific gravity than chemically prepared nitrogen, and 
the suspicion arose that some other, as yet unknown, 
atmospheric substance gave this extra weight to the 
nitrogen examined. This element, which was evidently 
heavier than nitrogen, was finally isolated by several 
methods and its characteristics investigated. It was 
found to have a density of about 20, that of nitrogen 
being 14, and when examined hy the method of spec¬ 
trum t lalysis was perceived to have a spectrum different 
from th t of nitrogen, or ot any other known substance. 
Another marked characteristic was its remarkable chem¬ 
ical indifference, it refusing to combine with any sub¬ 
stance with which it was brought into chemical contact. 
For this reason it w as given the name of Argon, signify¬ 
ing idle or inactive. Bertholet, however, has caused A. 
to combine with benzine, under the influence of the elec¬ 
tric spark; and the first notions as to its chemical indif¬ 
ference may hereafter be further modified by experiment. 
A. composes nearly one per cent, of the atmosphere, 
but >erlorms no function in respiration. It is found 
in no organic tissue, but has been detected in meteoric 
iron. It is ea.-ily soluble in water; liquifies at 186°C. under 
a pressure of 38 atmospheres, and solidifies at about 
190°t'. In 1698 three new elements were rliecovercd in 
liquid argon, named re-pe lively Neon, Krvpton, and 
Xenon. These were distinguished from A. by their spec¬ 


tra. each of which had peculiar bright lines, and by theix 
distinct freezing or boiling points. Little is known 
about them, except that they are very rare atmospheric 
gases. At the time of its discovery the Smithsonian 
Institution had offered a prize, under the Hodgkins be¬ 
quest, of §10,000 for the most important new discovery 
respecting the atmosphere. This prize was awarded to 
the discoverers ot A., as having added materially to our 
knowledge of the constitution of the atmosphere. 

Arid Region. The name given to a broad western 
area of the U. S. in which so little rain falls as to render 
it incapable of cultivation except by irrigation, and 
much of whicli is a waterless desert. This legion in¬ 
cludes the whole of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, 
Utah, New Mexico, Nevada and Arizona, part of North 
and South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, California, 
Oregon and Washington, aud nearly the whole of Idaho, 
its total area being 1,340,000 sq. m. Irrigation Iroka 
rivers, mountain streams, and artesian wells has 
rendered a small proportion of this great region culti¬ 
vable, and by a full use of the mountain waters, through 
the aid of reservoirs aud distributing canals, the area 
open to irrigation may be greatly extended. Under the 
National Irrigation Act, passed in 1902, important pio- 
gress lias been made in this direction, several great 
dams having been built and large irrigation reservoirs 
formed. By this w ork, many millions of arid acres will in 
time be reclaimed into fertile plaius. See Great Basi.v. 

Arkansas City, in Kansas, a city of Cowlev co.. on 
Arkansas river, the A., T. A S. Fe, Mo. Pae., and St. L. 
& S. F. K.Rs., 14 m. S. of Winfield; has some manat 
and an extensive dirtributing trade. Pop. (ls9S) 7.550. 

Armaged don, the great battle-field of the Apoca- 
lypse, in which the final struggle between the powers 
of good and evil is to he fought. 

Armenia,— Continued from Section I. 

Within the past few years Armenia has been the seat 
of many remarkable events, which have brought the 
empire of Turkey to the verge of dissolution and 
threatened to involve the nations of Europe iD a general 
war. These eveuts may be beld to have bad their 
inception in the independence of Bulgaria, which 
roused a strong desire in the Christian ponnlation of A. 
to be similarly relieved from Turkish rule,and gave rise 
to a revolutionary agitation which has led to a most 
sanguinary and deplorable result. This agitation was 
largely carried on by Armenians in other countries, but 
its influence was felt in A. itself, and led to outbreaks 
and hostile relations which reached a bloody culmina¬ 
tion in 1895-96. By the terms of the treaty of Berlin 
the Porte agreed to carry out, and without delay, certain 
reforms—an agreement to which but little subsequent 
attention was paid. In 1894 an attempt was made to 
assassinate the Armenian patriarch at Constantinople. 
This aroused indignation in Armenia, a eollision w ith 
the police followed, and the trouble spread till fears of 
an armed insurrection of the Christian population 
arose, leading to a conflict with a Kurdish regiment in 
which a body of 750 Armenians were slaughtered. Ex¬ 
aggerated reports of the revolt of the Armenians reached 
Constantinople, and orders seem to have been sent to 
the Turkish authorities in Armenia to surpress it with 
merciless severity. These orders were carried out t« 
the letter. For eight years previously hostile relations 
had existed between the Kurds and Armenians, and in 
August, 1894, a force of Kurdish irregulars attacked 
Sasun, overcame the resistance of the Armenians, pur- 
sued them into the woods and mountains, and slaugh¬ 
tered them without mercy. Uniformed troops followed 
the irregulars, who destroyed over 40 villages, while from 
3,000 to 5,000 Armenians are said to have been massacred. 
In January, 1895, another massacre took place, and 
nearly 3,000 Armenians were seized and imprisoned in 
Constantinople and Asia, As the news of this reign of 
massacre and outrage spread over Europe and America 
great indignation was excited, and some of the leading 
powers intervened, insisting on a cessation of the out¬ 
rages and the adoption, in the Armenian administration, 
of a system of reform which would prevent their recur¬ 
rence. The Porte prevaricated and protracted the 
negotiations, while jealousy between the powers pre¬ 
vented any steps of coercion being taken. In the 
midst of the negotiations the massacres were resumed. 
In September, 1895, a body of 3,000 Armenians assem¬ 
bled at the Cathedral in Constantinople, and attempted 
to march to the palace to present a petition to the Porte, 

A collision with the police followed, and a riot arose in 
which many Armenians were killed, while others took 
refuge in their churches, whence they were driven by 
the police. When the news of this riot reached Arme¬ 
nia the Kurds rose again and the slaughters were 
resumed, 7,000 or 8,000 innocent villagers beiDg killed. 
Iu Zeitun the Armenians broke into open revolt, and 
held the town vigorously against their foes, though the 
neighboring country was desolate and 20,000 of the 
inhabitants slain, while several hundred thousand were 
left destitute. Zeitun was evacuated on Dec. 24.1895. 
hut its defenders were saved from massacre by the inte* 
vention of the powers, whose ambassadors arranged t 
capitulation. Iu the spring of 1896 it was estimated 
that in all no fewer than 80.000 Armenians had t>eeB 
slain. In Ang., 1896, a new outbreak occurred. Certain 
members of an Armenian society seized the Ottor—x 
Bank in Constantinople, and held it for some hours as 
a protest against the inactivity of the European Power*. 
The results of this ill-advised act were deplorable. The 
mob rose and killed thousands of Armenians in th* 
streets of the city, the police and troops not interfering, 
while in the following month the massacres begs* 
again in Armenia. The Sultan further ordered th* 

















































































230 


ARMO 


[SECTION II.] 


ARMO 



deportation of nearly 30,000 Armenians from Constan¬ 
tinople. During this long reigu of slaughter the 
powers protested and threatened, while their fleets 
gathered in the waters of the Levant; bat no decided 
action was taken, and the Sultan remained master of 
the situation. Mutual jealousy, fears of a general war, 
and other influences kept the leaders of European 
diplomancy inactive, and though the massacres ceased, 
none of the promised reforms were instituted, and des¬ 
titution and misery reigned unchecked through the 
desolated country. There are in all probably 2,400,000 
Armenians in the world, of whom over 1,300,000 are in 
Armenia, in which country a Mohammedan popul tion 
of nearly 4,000,000also resides. In April and May, 1909, 
another massacre took place, arising from the excite¬ 
ment produced by the attempt of the Sultan to overthrow 
the constitution. During this more than 30,000 
Christians were slain iu Adana and neighboring cities. 

Ar' mislead, Walter Keith, an American general, 
born in Va., in 1780, graduated at West Point, became 
chief engineer in the war against England in 1812-13, 
and commanded the army sent out against the Indians 
in Florida, 1836-37. Died in 1845. 

Armor Plate. The word armor, in recent times, has 
come into use in a new significance, it being applied to 
an iron or steel covering for ships and fortifications as 
a protection against -cannon projectiles. The idea of 
protecting ships in this manner originated with Amer¬ 
ican engineers—particularly with Robert Stevens, of 
Hoboken, N. J., who in 1842 presented to the Govern¬ 
ment plans for an armored vessel having a sloping 
battery protected by iron. His plans were accepted, 
and iu 1844 the keel of the famous Stevens battery was 
laid. The uextstep was taken in 1854, when the French 
and English began to construct iron-clad naval batteries, 
covered with 4- and 4%-in. iron respectively. In the 
following year the French batteries, the first finished, 
silenced the Russian forts at Kinburn, in the Crimea. 
In 1860 the French ship La Gloire was covered with 
iron plates of 4% in. thickness, a protection which 
proved superior to the attack of the smooth-bore 68- 
pounder, then the most powerful naval gun in use. In 
1862 took place the first contest between armored vessels, 
in the famous combat in Hampton Roads between the 
Monitor and the Merrimac. Iu the former of these the 
revolving turret system was first introduced; the latter 
was a naval battery, with sloping, iron-clad roof. The 
result of this battle proved conclusively that the day of 
wooden war vessels was at an end; and, during the re¬ 
mainder of the American Civil War, a number of iron¬ 
clad monitors, gun-boats, and floating batteries were 
brought into active service. This practical demonstra¬ 
tion was followed by a period of inactivity on the part 
of the U. S. Government, but of active operations in 
iron-clad construction by Great Britain and other 
European powers, with the result ot an enormous ad¬ 
vance in the resisting power of ships and a correlative 
advance in the penetrating power of guns. The 4%-in 
plates of 1860 soon proved useless against the powerful 
rifled guns later brought to bear upon them, and a con¬ 
test between the penetrative power of projectiles ana 
the resistance of armor began, which has continued 
up to the present time. Iu 1867—the heaviest reliable 
plate that could then be made being 6 or 7 inches—a 
eysrem was adopted of superposing several thick plates. 
By 1872 it had become possible to produce 12-in. plate 
Of good quality, but by this time the power of guns 


a 4-in. colid plate, readily passed through 6 in. of 1-in, 
plates laid together. Iu 1876 the Italian government, 
having resolved to build iron-i lais surpassing any pre¬ 
viously produced, called for a competitive test of 22-in. 
plates of various materials. The result was instructive, 
proving that solid steel plates alone was capable of re¬ 
sisting the force of impact from the 100-ton i itied Arm¬ 
strong gun then in use. Plates of this kind, though 
wrecked, kept out all shot, while the iron targets were 
pierced. The result of this trial practically put an end to 
the use of wrought-iron armor, steel taking its place in 
subsequent operations. Compound plates (consisting of 
wrought iron with a steel face), were manulactured in 


at short range successively by a 10-in., 12-ln. and 13-i», 
gun. The 10-in. gun, with a 500-lb. shell and a striking 
velocity of 1,856 feet per second, caused a penetration ot 
11 inches, but no cracks were developed and the backing 
remained sound. The 850-Ib. projectile of the 12-in. gun, 
with a velocity of 1,800 feet per second, was destroyed 
after it had penetrated 17 inches; the plate was cracked 
but the backing held firm. The great 13-in. gun, with 
a striking velocity of 1,800 feet and energy ot 24,736 fool 
pounds, sent its 1,100-lb. shell through the entire target 
and two 16-in. oak timbers, after which the shell buried 
itstdf 12 feet in the sand. The resistance to 4 shots o( 
such energy and striking within so limited aspace, stiowf 


Fig. 2674. —unfinished revolving turret, showing mode of construction. 


1877, but their resisting power was put to a severe test in 
1882, again at a trial instituted for the Italian govern¬ 
ment. Two plates were offered, one a compound, the 
other of solid steel, each 18.9 in. thick. The compound 
plate was wrecked by two shots from the 100-ton gun, 
while the steel plate continued partly intact after three 
shots. When, in 1886, the U. S. came into the market 
for heavy armor of home manufacture, only steel plates 
were ordered; and in 1890 a new material, steel alloyed 
with nickel (first made at the Krupp works in Germany , 
was made at Annapolis and showed a remarkable power 
of resistance. In the same year was tested a steel plate 
surface-hardened by a new process of carbonization 


Fig. 2673.— the gruson revolving chilled iron turret—exterior. 


bad so increased that even this thickness would be 
pierced by projectiles, and new progress in armor plating 
became necessary. The British ship Dreadnought had 
her turrets covered with two 7-in. plates, separated by 
9 in. of teak, and backed by 6 in. of teak and two %-in. 
skin-plates. But the rifled gun soon gained the su¬ 
premacy o*et this weight of armor, and the Indexible was 
covered wiia two layers of 12-in. plate, separated by 
11 in. of teak and backed by 6 in. of teak and two 1-in. 
akin-plates. Continued tests, however, have rendered 
it evident that armor made up of several superposed 
thin plates has much less resisting power than solid 
plates of the same thickness, and the latter only is now 
ased. Thus a SO-ib. round shot that failed to penetrate 


(called Harveyized steel), which showed striking resist¬ 
ance to impact. Plates of these kinds are now alone used 
on American ships, and are in general use in Europe. 
In 1891 it was shown that plates could be produced by 
the rolling process equal in quality to those made by 
the much more costly process of hammering, an im¬ 
portant step in the direction of economy. During the 
years that have elapsed since that date many instructive 
tests of nickel steel, surface-hardened plates have been 
made, both in this country and abroad, with the result 
that at present armor seems to have the best in the con¬ 
test between the penetrating force of projectile and the 
resistance of steel plates. At a test made in 1895, a 16-in. 
steel plate, with 36 inches of oak backing was attacked 


remarkable toughness in the Harveyized nickel steal 
plate. In actual warfare no single plate is likely tc 
receive such a battering, particularly at such short 
range. In another test in which the powerful 13-in 
gun was employed, the projectile haring a striking 
energy of 25.000 - foot pounds, the shell was completely 
destroyed, after penetrating 10 inches into the plate, and 
considerably splitting the oak backing of the target— 
Mode of Applying Armor. The Warrior, the first British 
ironclad, had her ends unprotected and her steering gear 
exposed. She was provided with masts and a full spread 
of canvas. The Minotaur and Agincourt, which followed, 
were protected from end to end, and the Achilles wai 
provided with a complete belt at the water line. Various 
other methods were adopted, with the view of gaining 
the best protection with the least weight. In 1893 the 
Italian ironclad. Duilio, was provided w ith a water-line 
belt of armor, while a curved protected deck was built 
below the water line, so that a large 6liare of the armoi 
might be used to protect a citadel rising from the deck 
in the centre of the ship and containing the engines anc 
boilers. On the top of this citadel stood two turrets, eacl 
containing two 100-ton guns. This arrangement per 
mitted the use of 22-in. armor over the whole citadel 
Since then the curved protected deck, from which pro 
jectiles are expected to glance, has come into general 
use. Under water little protection is needed, and th« 
weight of armor is placed above. The turret system ii 
now much used, the English sea-going ships of thij 
type elevating the turret breastwork deck to 11 or 11 
feet above the water line, while the tipper deck is gen 
erally raised to the same height by means ot lightly 
built superstructures. American monitors are less lofty 
in build. See Battleship, Cruiser, Steel, &c. 

Armored Fortifications. For years past armoi 
plates have been used on land fortifications, it being 
impossible to build walls thick enough to resist the 
terrible force of the new guns brought into use; or, if so. 
walls of such immense thickness would have been 
needed that the. depth of the embrasures would have 
limited the range of the guns behind them. Armor 
plates like those used on vessels were therefore enr 
ployed on the walls of forts ; but this was subsequently 
replaced by chilled iron armor of a weight that ren¬ 
dered it impracticable for vessels but made it very effec¬ 
tive in destroying the striking energy of projectiles. 
Armor of this character is used for stationary parapets^ 
for batteries, and for revolving turrets. Where a largn 
range is to be covered, armored turrets are used, which 
are made to revolve so that the guns can be fired in 
all direction. Chilled iron armor of the type used foi 
vessels is employed for these turrets, which at first 
resembled those used on monitors, but subsequently 
were made by Gruson of a new type, in which the cylin¬ 
drical form with a flat or arched top was abandoned, 
and the whole turret given a cupola-like arrangement 
presenting no vertical surface. In this way the action 





























































A Compressed Steel Ingot. 


Bending- an Armor Plate for a Conning Tower. 

making and testing 


Forging an Armor Plate. 


Testing an Armor Plate. 

STEEL ARMOR PEATES«. 


Heating an Armor Plate | ngo t. 


Machining an Armor Plate — Drilling the Bolt Holes. 


Planing an Armor Pla< e - 









































































































































































































































































































































AREA 


[SECTION II.] 


ARTI 


2 - 3-3 


of the striking projectile was very much weakened. As 
only long canon for direct fire can be employed in 
euch revolving turrets and batteries, cupolas for howit¬ 
zers and mortar; hsve to be differently arranged. These 
weapons being always fired at the' same angle, the 
cupola which turns in the circular glacis can be quite 
flat, and, on account of its light weight, be rigidly con¬ 
nected with the carriage, which revolves on a central 
pivot. For the shorter mortars the cupola is contracted 
to a sphere inclosing the mortar, so that only a small 
portion of the cupola about the opening extends from 
the glacis. The revolving turret was succeeded by 
the introduction of disappearing turrets for small and 
medium-sized guns, these yielding greater safety than 
those which simply revolved to turn their portholes 
away from the enemy. Subsequently, disappearing tur¬ 
rets for heavier guns were built in France by Galopin. 
In these the moving part, cylindrical in shape and 
covered with a slightly arched hood, has a sinking as 
Well as a turning motion, and can be lowered until its 
top is on a level with the glacis, so that when loading 
there is no opening exposed to the enemy and the tur- 


cal axle standing in the centre of the pit, or vat, on the 
floor of which the ores, Ac., are placed for grinding. 

Artenins Ward. See Brownf., C. F. 

Arteriver'sion, n. ( Surg .) In amputations, the 
method of closing the mouths of severed arteries, by 
folding over their ends. 

Artesian Well, —Continued from Sec. I. 

The sinking of Artesian wells for the purpose of irri¬ 
gation has come greatly into vogue within the last two 
decades, and with results of immense importance. We 
have already spoken of their employment for this pur¬ 
pose in the Sahara, where they are now very numerous 
and have added greatly to the habitability of that vast 
desert region. In the United States, A. IF. for this pur¬ 
pose were first sunk in California, and with such suc¬ 
cess that their use has been extended widely through 
the arid region, in much of which water is found in 
large volumes at a depth of 800 to 1000 feet. They are 
particularly abundant in South Dakota, along the 
course of James river, which seems underlaid by a 
great subterranean lake or stream, whose waters come 
to the surface with such force as to yield abundant 



Fig. 2675.— armored fortifications or France and roemania. 


ret itself is scarcely visible. In many cases, especially I 
in vast fortifications, overhead covering to the fort is 
not deemed necessary; and in these the barbette turret, j 
in which the guDS fire over a stationary ring of armor, I 
or the disappearing carriage (designed by Moncreiff 
and completed by Armstrong and others) has been 
adopted. In the former the gunners are protected by a 
shield connected with the carriage mounted on a turn¬ 
table. In the disappearing carriage the gun also stands 
on a turntable in a basin of masonry or armor, which 
is provided with a perfectly flat, armored top, which 
cannot be seen from a distance. When such an invis¬ 
ible turret is brought into action, the barrel of the gun 
is raised by a pneumatic device, and appears at an 
aperture in the roof, which is opened at the proper 
time; ana after firing the gun is returned automati¬ 
cally, by recoil, to the protected loading position. 
Armored fortresses now exist on the coasts of all mari¬ 
time civilized countries, the chilled iron turrets being 
preferred in Germany and Italy, the disappearing car¬ 
riage in England and the United States. Immense 
inland fortresses exist in Roumania, on the Russian 
frontier, and armored fortifications are found inland 
in many other countries, as on the eastern frontier of 
France. As will be seen, the development of projectile 
power lias made armor more and more indispensable, 
the competition between shot and armor being no 
longer a feature of naval warfare only, but of war on 
land as well. 

Armstrong, Samuel Chapman, born at Wailuka, in 
the island of Maui, Sandwich Islands, Jan. 30, 1839, 
being the son of a missionary; was educated at Wil¬ 
liams College, Mass., where he graduated in 1862. He 
entered the army as a captain in a New York regiment, 
and in 1863 was made lieutenant-colonel of the 9tli 
U. S. colored infantry. He left the service in 1865 as 
brevet brigadier-general, and at once applied for a posi¬ 
tion that would enable him to work among the freed- 
men. He was put in charge of the Freedmeu's Bureau 
work at Hampton, Va., with the supervision of 10 
counties in eastern Va. At his suggestion the Ameri¬ 
can Missionary Association bought land in that locality, 
and in 1868 opened the Hampton Normal and Agricul¬ 
tural Institute for negroes, under the management of 
General Armstrong. Indians were subsequently intro¬ 
duced into this institute, and he devoted the remainder 
of his life, with the highest success, to the important 
work which he had thus undertaken, D. May 11, 1893. 

Arnold. Sir Edwin, an English poet, born at Roch¬ 
ester, June 10,1832; graduated at Oxford in 1854, and 
was subsequently appointed principal of the Govt. Sans¬ 
krit College at Poona. India. He resigned in 1861, and 
became an editor on the London Daily Telegraph. He 
was made knight commander of the Order of the 
Indian Empire by the Queen in 1888, lectured in the 
U. S. in 1889, and afterward visited Japan, whence he 
wrote letters to the Daily Telegraph, which were subse¬ 
quently published in book form. His epic poem. The 
Light of Atria, has run through many editions. He also 
wrote The Light of the World, and many other poems, 
with various works in prose, descriptive of India and 
Japan. Pi"d Mar-h 24, 1904. 

Arras'fra, n. (Meoh.) A sort of rude grinding mill, 
used in Spanish America for crushing ores, etc., and 
consisting essentially of one or more heavy wheels pro- j 
pelled by a horizontal beam that revolves about a verti-, 


power for manufacturing purposes. Many square miles 
of desert land have already been reclaimed in this coun¬ 
try through irrigation from A. IF. In June, 1890, the 
census showed that over 8,000 wells were then in use 
in the Western States and Territories, of which nearly 
4,000 were utilized for irrigation, about 52,000 acres 
being thus reclaimed; 2,000 of these were in California. 
The average discharge of these wells was about 78,000 
gallons a day. Since that date the number of such 
wells has greatly increased. But their use is approach¬ 
ing a limit, the discharge from the wells in many cases 
equalling the supply entering the underground reser¬ 
voirs. A. W. for other purposes are very abundant in 
the U. S., and furnish in the aggregate a large amount 
of water for domestic and municipal purposes, for cat¬ 
tle, Ac. In nearly every large city deep wells have 
been sunk to obtain water for industrial purposes, and 
often with much success. The water of many of these 
is clear and pure, though in some cases it is saline, and 
in others it is rendered useless for drinking purposes 
by sulphuretted hydrogen. On low lands along the 
coast, where the surface water is undrinkable, A. IF. 
have proved of the greatest benefit. In addition to 
A. IF., for the purposes indicated, great numbers have 
been sunk for the purpose of tapping the reservoirs of 
petroleum and natural gas. In the range of States 
from western New York to Kentucky and Tennessee, 
probably more than 5,000 wells, 1,000 to 2,000 feet in 
depth, have been sunk for this purpose. Salt water 
would flow from many of these if not prevented, and 
in every respect of structure and method of drilling 
they are A. IF. As regards the depth of wells in this 
country, there is one in St. Louis of 3,843 feet, and others 


has greatly reduced this flow. There are many others 

of enormous outflow. 

Artlirop'oda, n. [From Gr. arthron, a joint, pons, 
podos, foot.] ( Zobl.) One of the great divisions of the 
animal kingdom, formerly included in the Articulata 
of Cuvier. The A. are made up of closely similai joints 
or segments, each of which may bear a pair of jointed 
feet, whence the name. They include three divisions, 
the Crustacea, breathing by gills; the Arcchnida, or 
spiders, mites, Ac., breathing by gills, lungs or air- 
tubes ; and the Insecta, or true insects, breathing by 
air-tubes. The A. are very numerous, the Insecta in 
particular, having several thousand distinct species. 

Arthrosia, (ur-thrc/shah.) [From Gr. arthron, a joint.] 
(Path.) A generic term applied to painful inflammatory 
swellings of the joints. It induces many forms of gout 
and rheumatism. 

Arthur, Chester A., 21st President of the U. S. Born 
in Vermont, Oct. 5,1830. His father, a Baptist minister, 
emigrated to the U. S. from Antrim, Ireland. A. was 
educated at Union College, and taught school for two 
years in Vermont, then removed to New York and prac¬ 
ticed law. During the Civil War, he was Quartennaster- 
General of the State of N.Y. In 1872, appointed by Grant, 
Collector of the Port of N.Y., from which he was removed 
by Hayes in 1878. Elected Vice-President of the U. S. in 
1880, upon the Republican ticket with Garfield, and by 
the assassination of the latter. A., by virtue of his office, 
became President of the U. S. on Sept. 19,1881. Died 
Nov. 18, 1886. 

A rtliur, Timothy Shay, an American author, born near 
Newburgh, Orange co., N. Y., in 1809. In about 1835 he 
became assistant editor of a newspaper at Baltimore, and 
commenced the publication of works of fiction having a 
special moral purpose. He continued his connection 
with the periodical press from that time until his death, 
he having removed, in 1841, to Philadelphia, where he 
became the editor of Arthur's Magazine and of the Chil¬ 
dren's Hour, a juvenile monthly. His popular tales, or 
novelettes, which were very numerous, were directed to 
the moral improvement of some classes of society and 
attained an immense circulation. His temperance tales. 
Ten Nights in a Bar Room, Lights and Shadows of Real Life, 
Tales for Rich and Poor (6 vols. I, Library for the Household 
(12 vols.), and Good Time Coming, have been sold by the 
hundred thousand, and many of them reprinted in Eu¬ 
rope, and translated into other languages. Died 1885. 

Artificial Limbs. The origin of the manufacture 
of A. L. goes back to a very early date, and in Fare’s 
work on Surgery, of 1579, he describes and illustrates 
an artificial arm and leg, rude in construction, but 
fairly well adapted to their purpose. Others are spoken 
of at intervals down to 1800, when one became cele- 



Fig. 2677.— artificial foot and ankle — steel. 

brated as the “Anglesea leg,” it being worn by the 
Marquis of Anglesea. Others were patented in this 
country, though as a rule only the rude “ wooden leg ” 
was in use until after the American Civil War, when 
the purpose of the government to supply mutilated 
soldiers and sailors with artificial limbs led to many 
useful inventions in this direction. These veterans are 
supplied once in every five years, and the demand for 



Fig. 2676.— artesian well—water-bearing strata. 


in the oil region still deeper. One at Wheeling, W. Va., 
4,500 feet deep, did not encounter water below 1,600 
feet. Others have been driven to nearly 5,000 feet. 
There are several wells in Germany over 4,000 feet 
deep, but the deepest drilled excavation in the world is J 
probably that at Scliladebach, near Kbtschan, Prussia, 
which was sunk in a search for coal; the extreme depth 
reached was 5,740 feet. As regards the flow of water 
from such wells, one sunk at Passy, near Paris, yielded J 
at first 4,400,000 gallons a day, but obstruction by sand i 


these and others who have lost their limbs makes a 
large market for A. L. in the United States, and has 
greatly stimulated inventive talent. Such limbs are 
now brought to a remarkable degree of perfection, per¬ 
sons wearing them being able to walk almost without 
detection, even in cases where both legs are artificial. 
The joint movements are admirably simulated, sitting 
and rising are satisfactorily provided for, and limbs ol 
this character are so cheaply produced that the rude 
stump-form wooden leg of the past has almost vanished 























































234 


ASPH 


[SECTION II.] 


ASSY 


from sight. The manufacture of A. L. has been brought 
to such perfection that an arm and baud ot less than a 
pound weight can now be made, with which all the 
ordinary motions, such as holding a hat, using a pen, 
&c., can be satisfactorily performed, while invention 
has be£n so active that the U. S. Patent Office records 
more than ISO patents for this purpose, being more 
than double all the European patents for artificial 
limbs. Among the latest improvements is the intro¬ 
duction of au universal motion at the ankle-joint. 
Another improvement, of no less importance, is in the 
knee joint provided in the case of thigh amputation, 
which is so arranged that when sitting the cord and 
spring are completely relaxed, thus doing away with 



Fig. 2678.— artificial knee-joint — stxel. 


strain and pressure; while, on rising, they are again 
brought into their proper positions without strain, no 
extra attachments being needed for this purpose. 
Another field in which American inventors have pro¬ 
duced strikingly useful results is in the production of 
artificial arms, and extension apparatus for short legs. 
The articular surface of the joints of the A. L. are of 
steel, playing in smoothly pressed leather sockets. The 
knee joints consist of two steel braces, which are riveted 
firmly to each side of the lower leg. By the use of steel 
the modern A. L. is made a model of lightness, which 
may in the future be much increased by the substitution 
of aluminium bronze. 

Asep'sis, ». (Pathol.) Absence of blood poisoning; 
exemption from putrefaction and its consequences. 

Asep'tin, or Sepan, n. ( Chem.) A substance intro¬ 
duced as a preservative material for milk, meat, &c. It 
is said to be simply boracic acid, or borax; the double 
A. consisting of 
two parts of borax 
to one pound of 
alum. Putrefac¬ 
tion is said to be 
prevented by the 
addition of this 
preparation, b u t 
mouldiness in ani¬ 
mal substances is 
not. 

As' eroe ( ds'ar-o ), 
n. (Bot.) A gen. 
of phalloid Fungi, 
distinguished by 
the bifid rays of 
the receptacle 
(Fig. 2679). The 
species,which may 
probably be re¬ 
duced to three, 
are of a delicate 
pink or green. 

They vary greatly 
in the degree to 
which tlie rays Fig. 2679. — asekoe pentactina. 

are divided. Like 

others of the group, they are very fetid when tresh. 
They are confined to the islands of the Southern 

hemisphere. 

Ash Grove, a town of Missouri. Pop. in 1890,1,350. 

Ash'land, a town of New Hampshire. Pop. in 1890, 
1,193. 

Ash'land, in Oregon, a town of Jackson co. Numerous 
mineral springs are here and in the vicinity. Pop. in 
1890, 1,784. 

Asti'ley, in Pennsylvania, a borough of Luzerne co., 3 
miles from Wilkesbarre. Pop. (1890) 3,192. 

As'pen, in Colorado, a city, cap. of Pitkin co. It is 
situated at an elevation of 7,700 feet, and is in the 
vicinity of some of the most productive silver and lead 
mines of the State, About $10,000,000 worth of silver 
is produced here annually. Pop. (1890) 5,108; (1897) 
est. at 8,000. 

As'pbalt, Asplial'tmil,— Continued from Sec. I. 

Asphalt occurs in America in an immense number of 
places. The asphalts from the various localities are 
without exception the more or less perfectly solidified 
residual products of the spontaneous evaporation of 
petroleum, but exhibit great diversity of physical char¬ 
acter, and some of chemical composition. These differ¬ 
ences are, doubtless, in part due to differences in the 
petroleums from which they have been derived. The 


greatest noticeable diversity is, however, probably due to 
difference of age, and is a record of the slow but constant 
changes which time effects in these, as in other organic 
compounds. Among the most important of our asphal¬ 
tic minerals are the Albertite and Grahamite. The first 
from New Brunswick, the second from W. Virginia. 
Both these are found filling fissures, opened across their 
bedding, in strata of carboniferous age; which fissures 
mark liues of disturbance, where the strata are more or 
less tilted and broken, and where oil-springs abound. 
There is little room for doubt that in each instance, the 
fissures which contain the A. have afforded convenient 
reservoirs into which petroleum has flowed, and from 
which all the lighter parts have been removed by evap¬ 
oration. A large number of similar deposits, though of 
less magnitude, are known, all presenting the same gen¬ 
eral features. Among these may be mentioned a nearly 
vertical bed in the mountains W. of Denver, in Colorado. 
On the banks of the Arkansas, S. from Denver City, a 
number of smaller fissures cutting cretaceous rocks, are 
filled with a similar asphaltic mineral. In the great 
Devonian black shale of Ohio and Kentucky (Huron 
Shale) fissures cutting across the bedding of the forma¬ 
tion filled with Albertite, occur near Avon Point,Lorain 
co., Ohio, and Liberty, Casey co., Kentucky. Petro, 
leum flows from this formation nearly everywhere 
along its line of outcrop. The A. from all the above 
localities is hard, bright, and brittle, and seems to be 
the product of very long continued and complete spon¬ 
taneous distillation and oxidation. In Butler co., Ken¬ 
tucky, the central member of the Lower carboniferous 
group is saturated with petroleum. This flows out 
from the cut edges of the formation in the valley of 
Green River and its branches, forming sheets of mineral 
tar and ultimately asphaltum which cover the exposed 
surfaces on the rock. The quantity of asphaltic mate¬ 
rial in this vicinity is large, and it may sometimes be 
utilized for road-making in the same manner as the 
Syssel A. In S. California, the accumulations of A. on 
the coast at Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, Ac., have 
attracted the notice of all travellers who have visited 
that region. The A. is here plainly inspissated petro¬ 
leum. It drips from the cliffs at many points aud forms 
a scum on the ocean off the coast. There it is evapo¬ 
rated and oxidized, then thrown upon the beach by the 
waves, where it accumulates in large masses, generally 
mingled with sand aud other foreign matter. When 
pure, the A. of California resembles that from Trinidad, 
and is beginning to be used for the same purposes, roof¬ 
ing, paving, lining-of cisterns, &c. The wants of the 
entire W. coast can be easily supplied from this source. 
About Chicago, Illinois, the Niagara limestone is in 
some localities completely saturated with a thick petro¬ 
leum, which on exposure is converted by evaporation 
into A. There are no important asphaltic accumula¬ 
tions here, and it is perhaps a little doubtful whether 
the hydrocarbon which fills the limestone is not too 
oily to serve the same purposes as the bitumen in the 
limestone of Val de Travers. The above list includes 
all the most important deposits of A. in our country of 
which anything definite is known. At various points 
in the far West occur what are known as “ tar springs,” 
really oil-springs,around which more or less asphaltum 
accumulates as the result of evaporation. In Texas, 
S. from Shreveport, a pitch 1 .ke is spoken of, in which 
are said to occur large quantities of bitumen; but of 
this almost notning is known. A., supposed to have 
originated in petroleum, is also found in enormous 
deposits in Mexico, the most noted being at Tamaulipas, 
on both sides of the river Thamesi. A small mountain 
near the village of Moloasan, Vera Cruz, is largely com¬ 
posed of asphalt. A. is found in many other parts of 
the world, and lakes of it occur near San Timolis, 
Venezuela, and in the island of Trinidad, each of which 
is about three miles in circumference. The depth of 
the Trinidad lake has been found to be 18 feet near the 
sides and 78 feet in the centre, and it is estimated to 
contain 6,000,000 tons. The A. of commerce is largely 
obtained from this lake; and also from Cuba, Dalmatia, 
and Syria; while asphaltic limestone of high quality is 
procured at Seyssel and Val de Travers, Switzerland.— 
Uses of Asphalt. A. is a dry solid, with a glossy black 
surface and conchoidal fracture. It is easily melted, is 
very inflammable, and leaves little residue. It is very 
brittle at low temperatures, and may be broken when 
warmed, but at the same time is soft enough to yield to 
the heat. It is largely used for various purposes, such 
as varnish-malting, water-proofing, insulation, cement¬ 
ing, roofing, and paving, being very extensively em¬ 
ployed for the last named purposes. Varnish into 
whose composition A. enters is known as black varnish, 
and used principally on structures of iron. A. is em¬ 
ployed in the manufacture of mastics and cements 
which are chiefly used for the purpose of underground 
insulation. It is also used to make constructions water¬ 
proof, brick or stone foundations saturated with dissolved 
A. being laid in asphaltic cement. Foundations of this 
character are highly durable. Its resistance to water 
is shown in the La Salle Street tunnel of Chicago, 
which continues dry, while tunnels finished with hy¬ 
draulic cement all admit some water. Trinidad A. 
is very largely used in the manufacture of roofing 
materials, felt in several thicknesses, saturated with a 
mixture of A., coal-tar, pitch, and petroleum residue 
being laid on the roofs and covered with sharp sand 
or screened gravel. The use of A. for paving purposes 
has grown enormously of recent years, these being 
largely composed of Trinidad aspluilt and sand, while 
in Europe the bituminous limestones of Switzerland 
are employed in connection with Trinidad asphalt. In 
most of the large modern cities many miles of streets 


of asphalt pavement now exist. In the IT. S. more 
than 200 miles of such street pavement existed in 1890, 
and since then this has been very greatly increased, the 
streets of some of our cities, as Philadelphia and Wash¬ 
ington for example, being largely laid with this admir¬ 
able material for light driving use. 

Assin'iboia. (Geog.) A district of the Northwest 
Territories of Canada, bounded by Saskatchewan on the 
N.. Manitoba on the E., Alberta on the W., and North 
Dakota and Montana on the S. It forms part of the 
great plains east of the Rocky Mountains, but haa 
many hills. It is well-watered and possesses numerous 



Fig. 2680.— assiniboian woman and child. ,, 

small lakes. The climate is severe, though ohinook 

winds often soften the winter temperature. Wheat 
is extensively grown, and large numbers of cattle, 
swine, Ac., are raised. In 1905 this district was 
absorbed by ihe new provinces of Saskatchewan and 
Alberta. 

Association of Ideas. (Psychol.) A natural ten¬ 
dency of the mind, in the event of its becoming conscious 
of any thought, idea or new sensation, to call up into 
consciousness, through the principle of association, some¬ 
thing that has previously been connected with it, either 
in nature or in the mind. 

Assyrian Explorations. Modern exploration in 

the ruins of the great cities of Assyria has yielded 
abundant and highly valuable information in regard 
to the arts, customs, and history of that interesting 
country, of which little was known previous to the 
time of Layard, but concerning which we now posses* 
an extensive store of information. The former concep¬ 
tions of Assyrian history, as derived from Greek history 
and other sources, we have given under Assyria (q. v.). 
We may say here that records reaching back to nearly 
2000 B. C., are now known and the list of kings and the 
story of their doings have been corrected and extended 
until it is somewhat complete from the 16tli century, 
B. C., down to the fall of the Assyrian empire. Asshnr- 
banipal (the misconceived Sardanapalus of classic tradi¬ 
tion), the most eminent of the rulers of Assyria, was a 
great patron of letters, and gathered in his palace at 
Nineveh a large library of clay books, which, fortun¬ 
ately, has been in great measure recovered, and which 
has yielded highly important information of the most 
varied character concerning this once almost unknown 
empire of the past. Assyrian exploration began with 
excavations into the ruins of Nineveh, the former great 
capital of the empire, by r. E. Botta, French consul at 
Mosul, on the Tigris, in 1842. He discovered at Khorsa- 
bad, a few miles from Nineveh, the ruins of the palace 
of Sargon, a great Assyrian king, and obtained from it 
many interesting antiquities. His results led A. H. 
Layard, an English investigator, to take up this im¬ 
portant work, which he prosecuted with the greatest 
energy and success, far surpassing Botta in the value of 
his results, and enriching the British Museum with 
stupendous and very numerous examples of Assyrian 
art. His explorations, extending from 1845 to 1847, and 
resumed in 1849, are very interestingly described in his 
Nineveh and its Remains, and Nineveh and Babylon. Many 
other explorers followed, but their work was largely 
given to the ruins of the older kingdoms of Babylonia, 
and will be described under that heading. Among them 
may be particularly mentioned George Smith, of the 
British Museum, who was particularly successful in 
reaching the clay tablets recovered from the library of 
Assliurbanipal, and discovered on them a traditional 
record of the deluge sufficiently similar to that of the 
Scriptures to excite the greatest attention .—Art and 
Literature. The literature of Assyria is written in pectv 











ASSY 


[SECTION II.] 


ASYS 


235 


Jiar wedge-shaped characters, known as cuneiform, the 
books consisting of clay tablets, on which those charac¬ 
ters were stamped while soft and moist, the tablets being 
afterwards sun- or heat-dried and stored away in succes¬ 
sive layers in library halls. Many of these are broken, 
but much success has been attained in fitting the frag¬ 
ments together; while the discovery of the secret of the 
language, through the finding, in Persia, of a trilingual 



Fig. 2Gsl.— common dress of Assyrians. 

cuneiform inscription, has rendered their decipherment 
comparatively easy, and diligent students of Assyrian 
and Babylonian literature have restored to us much of 
the ancient history of the interesting Mesopotamian 
region. The art relics from the Assyrian palaces consist 
largely of sculptured slabs of alabaster and limestone, 
which formed a wainscoting of some 8 feet in height 
around the brick, walls of the apartments. They repre- 



Fiy. 2G82. 

ASSYRIAN PRIME MINISTER AND ROYAIi OVERSEER. 

gent, in low relief, scenes of war and the chase, mythol¬ 
ogical subjects, .fee., and are full of curious information. 
More striking than these are the great sculptured ani¬ 
mals found at the portals of the palaces, winged and 
human-headed bulls, and lions of great size and striking 
aspect, several of which have, with great difficulty, been 
transported to the British Museum. In addition to 


these, very numerous other relics of Assyrian art are in 
existence, teaching us mucli about the manners and 
customs of the ancient dwellers on the Tigris. The 
palaces were erected on enormous terraces of brick¬ 
work, and were themselves of brick, the country being 
largely destitute of stone and affording but little timber. 
To hide the crude brick walls the stone wainscoting 
mentioned was employed, while above this they were 
plastered and painted, or ornamented with enameled 
tiles in symbolical or conventional patterns of various 
colors. In addition, the Assyrians were expert in the 
arts of weaving, embroidering and bronze-working, 
and showed much skill and artistic taste in the engrav¬ 
ing of gems, of which many examples exist. The use of 
the arch was known, but it was little employed, the 
rooms being made narrow and spanned by timber. The 
column, so common in Egypt, was little utilized in 
Assyrian palace architecture. See Babylonia. 

Astli'ma, n. [Gr. asthma, laborious breathing; Fr. 
asthmei] (Pathol.) A disease of the lungs, characterized 
by a difficulty of breathing, which comes in paroxysms, 
accompanied by a wheezing noise and a feeling of tight¬ 
ness across the chest. The fit occurs mest frequently 
during the night, suddenly awaking the patient from 
sleep, who is obliged to assume an upright posture to 
prevent suffocation, and to struggle and pant for breath 
while the paroxysm continues, which is usually two or 
three hours. Though a distressing, it is seldom, in itself, 
a fatal disease. It is frequently hereditary, or it may 
arise from some affection of the respiratory organs. 
Among the other causes that may give rise to it, are, 
dwelling in a moist or impure atmosphere, cold, indiges¬ 
tion, mental anxiety. The paroxysms are generally 
preceded by languor, flatulency, headache, sickness, a 
feeling of anxiety, and a sense of tightness and fullness 
about the chest. Physicians usually distinguish three 
kinds of A. t the humid, dry, and spasmodic, according 
as they are, or are not, attended with cough and expec¬ 
toration. During the paroxysms, gentle aperients, and 
anti-spasmodic medicines are recommended. A blister 
on the chest, bathing the feet in hot water, a cup of 
hot coffee, or the smoking of stramonium, are frequently 
of use. To prevent the return of a paroxysm, the excit¬ 
ing causes are to be avoided; the bowels kept gently 
open, the food to be light and nourishing, regular and 
moderate exercise taken, and a change of climate or 
of situation to be tried. As regards this last, it has 
been found that some have been least subject to A. in 
the country, others in the centre of a town. 

Astragalus, (ds-lrah-ga'lus.) (A»tiq.) From the 
earliest times, the huckle-bones of sheep and goats have 
been used by women and children to play T at a game 
which consisted in throwing those bones into the air, 
and catching them ci the back of the hand. Where 
these bones were without any artificial marks, the garie 



Fig. 2683.— the astragalus game. 

was entirely one of skill; when the sides of bones were 
marked like dice, it became a game of chance. This sub¬ 
ject is frequently represented in ancient art. Our figure 
is copied from a Greek painting discovered at Resina. 

As'trolafre, n. ( Astron .) An instrument, often in the 
form of an armillary sphere, which was formerly used 
in navigation to obtain the altitudes of stars and 
planets. Also a projection of the sphere upon the plane 
of the equator, or of any great circle of the earth. 

Astronomy, —Continued from Sec. L 
who translated it into "their language in 821, and 
which, as the Ptolemasan system, notwithstanding its 
many errors, has maintained its value down to the latest 
times. The Arabians continued for many ages to direct 
their attention to astronomical science: and though they 
confounded it with the dreams of astrologers, they', nev¬ 
ertheless, deserve the regard of all who came after them, 
by their valuable observations. Among the Christian 
nations at this period a profound ignorance generally 
prevailed; but in the 13th cent. A., as well as other arts 
and sciences, began to revive in Europe, particularly 
under the auspices of the emperor Frederick II., who, 
in 1230, caused the works of Aristotle and the Almagest 
of Ptolemy to be translated into Latin. King Alphonso 
of Castile, about the same time, invited to his court sev¬ 
eral astronomers, and commissioned them to prepare a 
set of new astronomical tables, which under the name 
of Alphonsine Tables have acquired much celebrity, but 
which in the 17th cent, differed a whole degree from the 
true situations of the celestial bodies. We now ap¬ 
proach the era of reviving science. Many astronomers 
of inferior note paved the way, by various isolated ob¬ 
servations, for the great restorer of A., Copernicus, who, 
at the beginning of the 16tli cent., gave the science an 
entirely different aspect, exploded the Ptolemaean hy¬ 
pothesis. and in its stead substituted the Copernican 


system of the world, which, with a few modifications; 
is now universally acknowledged to be correct. His 
system did not, however, immediately’ meet with a gen- 
eral reception; and among his opponents was Tycho 
Brahe, a Dane, who asserted that the earth is immova¬ 
ble, in the centre of the universe, and that the whole 
heavens turn round it in 21 hours; an opinion which he 
supported principally by the literal sense of various 
passages in the Bible, where a total absence of motion 
is ascribed to the earth. His pupil and assistant Kep¬ 
ler, however, found that all the planets revolve in ellip¬ 
tical orbits, in one of the foci of which the sun is placed; 
and he moreover demonstrated that, in each elliptical 
revolution of the planets round the sun, an imaginary 
straight line, drawn from the latter to the former, called 1 
the radius vector, always describes equal areas in equal 
time, and, lastly, that in the revolutions of the planets 
and satellites, the squares of the times of revolution are 
as the cubes of the mean distances from the larger body. 
These great discoveries paved the way for views still 
more comprehensive. The Italian Galileo, b. 1564, in¬ 
vented the telescope, and his discovery of the value of 
the pendulum as a recorder of time, rendered also in¬ 
valuable services to A. To Newton belongs the glory 
of having established the law of universal gravitation 
in its entire generality, and applied it with demonstra¬ 
tive evidence to all the movements within the solar sys¬ 
tem. Descartes had sought the cause of the motion of 
the planets around the sun, and of the satellites around 
the planets, in the rotatory motion of a subtile matter. 
But Newton and Kepler have rescued the laws of the 
material universe from the thraldom of a false philoso¬ 
phy, and left to later times merely the development of 
the truths which they established. Passing over the 
names, however illustrious, of Halley, Bradley, William 
Herechel (who discovered in 1781 the planet Uranus), 
Laeaille, Lalande, Delambre, Pia£zi, Clairaut, D'Alem¬ 
bert, &c., we come to Lagrange, who immortalized his 
name by several great discoveries, the most remarkable 
being that of the invariability of the mean distance 
of the planets from the sun (1776). With the name ol 
Lagrange is associated that of Laplace, their rival labors 
dividing the admiration of the scientific world during 
half a century’. The researches of Laplace embraced 
the whole theory of gravitation; and he had the liigk 
honor of perfecting what had been left incomplete by 
his predecessors. By the brilliant discoveries of La¬ 
place, the analytical solution of the great pioblem of 
physical astronomy was completed. The principle of 
gravitation, which had been found by Newton to con¬ 
fine the moon and the planets to their respective orbits, 
was shown to occasion every apparent irregularity, how¬ 
ever minute, in the motions of the planets and satel¬ 
lites; and those very irregularities, which were at first 
brought forward as objections to the hypothesis, have 
been ultimately found to afford the most triumphant 
proofs of ils accuracy, and have placed the truth of 
the Newtonian law beyond the reach of all future cavil. 
The 19th century’ opened with the discovery of the four 
small planets—Ceres, in 1801, by Piazzi; Pallas (1802) 
and Vesta (1807), by (fibers; ami Jun •, by Harding, in 
1804. In 1845, Hencke discovered the 5th of this 
group, revolving between Mars and Jupiter, to which 
the name of Astrtea was given; and up to the present 
time (1897) upwards of 425 asteroids have been discov¬ 
ered. The great events of the century are, perhaps, the 
discovery by Leverrier of the planet Neptune in 1846, 
the application of photometric analysis to the measure¬ 
ment of the light of the sun and stars, and the use of 
the spectroscope in determining their composition with 
very promising results; but astronomical discoveries 
in recent times, both in Europe and America, have bees 
so brilliant and numerous, and the progress in ever} 
department is so rapid, and involves so many details, 
that it would be impossible to give here even a condensed 
account of that progress, to which Young, Arago, Lever¬ 
rier, Adams. Kirchoff, Huggins, Secclii, Zollner, Lockver, 
Respighi, Janssen, Rowland, Pickering, New’comb, Swift, 
Young, Gould, Burnham, Barnard and many others have 
contributed. But notwithstanding the relative perfec¬ 
tion to which the theory and other departments ol 
astronomy have been brought,the science is still far from 
having reached the limit beyond which further refine¬ 
ment becomes superfluous, and numerous portions still 
remain to be discussed, the solution of which will occupy 
and reward the future labors of astronomers, and in 
w b li much progress lias been made during the present 
cei ,ury by means of the powerful instruments now 
employ’ed at the great observatories of every civilized 
country, and the improved methods of analysis brought 
to bear upon the results of observation. See Asteroids, 
Attraction, Circle, Comet, Constellation, Equatorial, 
Force, Gravitation, Fraunhofer’s Lines, Kepler’s 
Laws, Lunar Theory, Meteors, Nebula, Nutation, 
Parallax, Planets, Precession, Sextant, System, Spec¬ 
troscope, Stars, Telescope, Transit Instrument, &c. 

Astropbotog'rapliy, n. The art or practice of 
photographing stars or other heavenly bodies. 

As'tro-pliotom'eter, n. (Ast.) An instrument 
described by Zollner for measuring the intensity of the 
light of celestial bodies. 

Astu'rian, n. One of the inhabitants of Asturia, in 
Spain. 

—<i. Pertaining or belonging to the Asturias. 

Astll, (a'sool ) (Bot.) The Arabic name of Tamarix 
orientalis. Also an Indian name for Tamarix ferax, a 
nut-gall tree. 

Asys'tele, n. (Pathol.) A stage or condition in dis¬ 
ease of the heart, in which the muscular contraction of 
the organ is insufficient to drive the blood freely from 
the ventricles. 







































































236 


ATLA 


[SECTION II.] 


AURO 


Atamas'co, n. The Indian name of a plant of the 
amaryllis family (Zephyranlhes atamasco), having narrow 
leaves of bright green and a .large pink and white 
flower. 

A'tavisin, n. (Biol.) Tendency to recur to an ancestral 
type, or to any ancestral deformity or disease, after its 
disappearance for one or more generations; reversion 
in heredity. It signifies the appearance in men or 
animals of traits which belonged to ancestors, but which 
did not appear in their immediate parents. 

Athabas'ca, a district of the Northwest Territories of 
Canada, bounded on the S. by Alberta, on the W. by 
British Columbia, and on the N. and E. by the undis¬ 
tricted part of the N. W. Territories. The N. boundary 
is nearly 60° N., and the E. boundary is principally 
formed by the Athabasca and Great Slave rivers. Great 
Slave lake lies to the north and Athabasca lake is on the 
eastern border. The surface consists of wooded plains 
alternated with low mountain ranges. Wheat, barley, 
and potatoes can be raised in favorable situations, but 
fur burning is the principal industry at present. In 
1905 this district was divided between the newly 
organized provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan and 
ceased to exist. 

Athapas'can Indians. This title has been applied 
to a family of North American Indians extending from 
Canada and Alaska to Mexico, and including the 
Apaches, Navalios, and Lipans of the U. S. In Canada 
its tribes extend along the Arctic Ocean and from Hud¬ 
son Bay westward, including the Umpquas, Tinnes, 



Fig. 2684.—ATHAPASCAN WARRIOR. 


Bog Ribs, Beavers, &c. The total numbers are estimated 
at over 30,000. This name is also given to a single tribe, 
the Athapascan Indians proper, who dwell along Slave 
river and around Athabasca lake. The name is derived 
from this lake, and is said to signify “ place of hay and 
seeds.” 

Atll'ermancy, n. [From Gr. a, priv., and therme, 
heat.] (Phys.) A term introduced by Melloni to desig¬ 
nate the property of stopping the passage of radiant 
heat. It is thus the opposite of diathermancy, and 
corresponds to opacity in the case of light; in fact, an 
athermanous substance is sometimes spoken of as being 
opaque to heat. 

At' kinson, Edward, Ph.I)., LL.D., an economist; b. 
at Brookline, Mass., Feb. 10, 1827; educated at Dart¬ 
mouth College, and widely known as a writer on econo¬ 
mic subjects. His large works include The Distribution 
of Products; The Industrial Progress of Nations; and 
The Science of Nutrition. He organized a fire insurance 
company on new principles, and is the inventor of an 
improved cooking stove. 

Atlan'ta, in Texas, a post-town, former cap. of Cass co. 

Pop. (1898) 1,800. 

Atlan'ta Exposition. Of all the Souther) cities 
none have shown more enterprise and rapidity of level- 
opment than Atlanta, the capital of Georgia, the largest 
city in the State, and the leading railroad center of the 
South. The first house was built there in 1836, the 
place being known by the name of Terminus until 1843 
and Marthasville until 1847, when it was incorporated 
as the city of Atlanta, it having then a population of 
about 2,500. At the beginning of the Civil War, it 
was made a Confederate manufacturing center and 
d§pot of supplies. In 1864, when besieged and taken 
by Sherman, it was found to have 30,000 inhabitants. 
When the Union Army left it on its “ March to the 
Sea,” Atlanta was set on fire and practically destroyed. 
After the war it was rapidly rebuilt, and developed 
active manufacturing industries, which have increased 
until it is now a flourishing center of production and 
trade, its manufactories including a number of large 
cotton and furniture factories, over 25 foundries, ma¬ 
chine shops, and agricultural implement works, and a 
considerable number of cottonseed-oil mills, fertilizer, 
glass, and ice factories. In the surrounding districts 
are many populous suburbs, and market gardening is 
actively pursued. Shortly after the close of the Colum¬ 
bian World’s Exposition, at Chicago, a desire was mani¬ 


fested in the South for a more adequate display of its 
products, and Atlanta was selected as the site of the 
Cotton States and International Exposition, which was 
opened on September 15,1895. The locality chosen for 
the Exposition was Piedmont Park, two miles from 
the center of the city, 189 acres in area, and admirably 
adapted by nature for scenic effects. The Park being 
bordered by elevated ground, sloping down to a low 
level in the centre, afforded opportunity for a large 
central lake, on whose border was planted a garden of 
Southern flowers. The buildings were erected on the 
elevated ground surrounding, and so artistically grouped 
that all the structures were visible at one glance, while 
the central lake and garden gave a beautiful effect from 
every point of view. The edifices, which were of strik¬ 
ing and effective architecture, included structures w ith 
the following specific titles: Manufactures and Liberal 
Arts, Machinery, Mining, Transportation, Horticulture, 
Electricity, Fine Arts, Minerals and Forestry, Govern¬ 
ment, Woman’s, Negro, Tobacco, Administration, and 
various smaller buildings. The one devoted to the 
Negro industries was an interesting innovation, and 
contained an important exhibit of the productions of 
the colored people of the South. Exhibits were made 
by most of the Northern States, by Mexico and the 
other American republics, and by a number of Euro¬ 
pean countries. The enterprise proved highly success¬ 
ful, and was largely attended, there being on some days 
more than 100,000 people present. It closed December 
31, 1895. 

Atlan'tic, in Iowa, a city, cap. of Cass co. It has 
numerous manufacturing industries and is the commer¬ 
cial center of a rich agricultural district.. Pop. in 1890, 
4,351; in 1897, abt. 7,500. 

Atmolyzer. (dt-mo-li'zur.) [From Gr. atmos, vapor, 
lysis, a losing.] An instrument devised by Mr. Graham, 
late Master of the English Mint, to illustrate the appli¬ 
cation of diffusion through a porous septum as a prac¬ 
tical analytical method of separating mixed gases. The 
apparatus is thus constructed : — The stalk, about two 
feet long, of a Dutch tobacco-pipe, having an internal! 
diameter of about 2-5 millimetres, is fixed by means ot 
perforated corks within a glass or metallic tube some 
inches in length, and about an inch and a half in diam¬ 
eter tw, i), as in the construction of a Liebig condenser. 
Another quill tube (a) is inserted inoneof the endcorks, 
affording the means of communication between the an¬ 
nular space and the vacuum of an air-pump. The ex¬ 
ternal surface of the corks and those portions of the 



coated with varnish, to render them impermeable to air. 
A vacuum is next obtained within the large outer tube, 
and the mixed gas is then made to enter and pass 
through the porous tobacco-pipe. A portion of the gas 
is drained off through the porous tube and pumped 
away, while another portion passes on through the 
other extremity of the clay tube, where it may be col¬ 
lected. The stream of gas diminishes as it proceeds. 
The lighter gas is drawn most largely into the vacuum, 
leaving the denser gas in a more concentrated state to 
pass away through the exit end of the clay tube. The 
more slowly the mixed gas is moved through the tube, 
the larger will be the proportion of light gas which has 
been drawn off into the vacuum, and the more concen¬ 
trated will the heavy gas become. The rate of flow of 
the mixed gas can be regulated by discharging it from 
a gas-holder or drawing it into a gas-receiver under as¬ 
certained pressure. In his communication to the Royal 
Society, Mr. Graham gave the following, among other 
results: — A mixture of 1 measure of oxygen and 2 of 
hydrogen w'as passed at the rate of 9 litres per hour; O'45 
litre of the mixed gas was collected. Before traversing 
tho A. it contained 0 33-3, II 6u-7; after traversing the 
apparatus it contained O 90'7, II 9'3. The result of this 
experiment was very striking, as the mixture before 
traversing the tube was explosive, but after its passage 
through the porous aperture it ceased to be so, and a 
lighted taper burnt in it as in pure oxygen. 

Atrowli (dt-ro'le), a flourishing town of British India, 
N. W. Provinces, pres. Bengal, dist. of Allygurh, 63 m. 
N.N.E. of Agra. Pop. (1895) 12,722. 

At'tala, in Alabama, a town of Etowah co., 56 m. from 
Birmingham. It has a large cotton trade and is sur¬ 
rounded by iron-ore deposits, in which it has a 
considerable shipping trade. Pop. (1890), 1,254. 

Au'burn, in Nebraska, a city, cap. of Nemaha co. Pop. 
(1890), 1,537. 

Au'hurndale, in Ohio, a, village of Lucas co. Pop. 

(1890), 1,609. 

Aucliom'eter, n. An instrument to measure and 
record the acuteness of hearing; a combination of the 
telephone, microphonic key, and battery. 

Aml'iphone, ». A device of fan-like shape, usually 
made of hard rubber, to aid the hearing by collecting 
the vibrations of sound and directing them through the 
teeth and the bones of the head to the auditory nerve. 

Atnlito'riuin, w. (Arch.) That part of a theatre, 
church or other public building occupied by the aud¬ 
ience ; also a building especially intended for public 
meetings.—The reception-room of a monastery. 

Audu'bon, in Iowa, a town, cap. of Audubon co., on 
C. & N. W. and C., R. I., & P. R.Rs. Pop. (1898) 1,740. 


Au'dnbon, in Dew Jersey, a post-village of Camden cot, 

Aiiersperg, ADOLPn Wilhelm Daniel, Prince von, 
(ow'urz-perg.) Prime-Minister of Austria, son of Prince 
Wilhelm von A., b. 1821. His political career commenced 
in Feb., 1867, when he was returned as member of the 
Bohemian Diet ( Oberstland Marschall), continuing in 
that office till 1870, and distinguishing himself by 
competent and energetic administration, siding, how¬ 
ever, strongly with the Germans. In Jan., 1869, he 
was nominated life member of the Upper Chamber, in 
the discussions of which he has since taken a conspicu¬ 
ous part. His appointment to the governorship of 
Salzburg (Mar. 17, 1870; caused great dissatisfaction to 
the allied party of federalists and clericals, who em¬ 
phatically demanded his dismissal, lie was appointed 
President of the Austrian ministry on the retirement 
of Count Beust in Nov., 1871, which position he held till 
Aug. 14,1879, when, on the disintegration of the Consti¬ 
tutional party of which he was the head, he resigned, 
and was succeeded by Count Edward Taafle. His bro¬ 
ther, Prince Carlos, had been Prime M'uister before him. 
D. Jan. 5, 1885. 

Atigits'la, in Kansas, a city of Butler co. Pop. (1890) 

1,343 

Aura electrica. (aw'rah e.-llk'tre-kah.) [Lat., Electric 
breeze.J (Elect.) A name sometimes applied to the cur¬ 
rents of air which proceed from a point connected with 
a charged body, such as a needle attached to the prime 
conductor of an electric machine which is being worked. 
The existence of these currents of air can be easily felt 
on bringing the hand or the face near to the point, or 
shown by placing a lighted candle in front of it. The 
flame is powerfully repelled, and the candle may even 
be blown out. Several electric toys are constructed to 
take advantage of these currents. Thus, in the electric 
mill, a small wheel, furnished with paper waves, is 
turned by means of it; or a piece ot wire, with its 
points bent at right angles, and balanced on a point 
upon the prime conductor, revolves on the same prin¬ 
ciple as does Barker’s hydrostatic reaction wheel. 

An routine. (aw'ran-teen.) (Chens.) A new dye-stuff, 
which occurs in the form of a brownish-yellow powder, 
wholly organic in its nature, neutral, and not very solu¬ 
ble in water A given weight of it communicates to 
mordanted print cloths a rich persistent orange color 
(or yellow if a lesser amount be used), and is equal in 
this respect to three and one-half times its weight in 
Flavine, or four and one-lialf times its weight of the 
best Persian Berries. The process of manufacturing 
this coloring matter is — it is understood—kept a 
strict secret, but it is certain that it is tint an aniline 
product. 

Aurine, (aw'rTn.) (Chem.) A coloring-matter discovered 
bv Kolbe and Schmitt in 1861,and which is now known 
in commerce under the names of yellow coralline, or 
rosolic acid. The commercial product, which is obtained 
by treating phenol with oxalic and sulphuric acids, is a 
mixture of different bodies, from which these chemists 
have isolated the pure coloring matter by dissolving 
the crude aurine in alcohol, and treating this solution 
with ammonia. A crystalline precipitate then separates, 
which is a compound of aurine and ammonia, and the 
other bodies present remain in solution. They next 
wash this ammonia compound with alcohol by means 
of Bunsen's filter pump, decompose it with dilute acetic 
acid, and render the aurine thus obtained still more 
pure by repeated crystallizations from strong acetic 
acid. They find that aurine retains water and acetic 
acid most obstinately, and that the color of the rhombic 
needles or prisms, with which it crystallizes, varies very 
considerably, according to the concentration of the acid. 
They have obtained it in needles having the color of 
chromic acid, with a diamond brilliant lustre ; at other 
times the crystals have been dark red of varying shades, 
with a steel blue,greenish blue, or splendid beetle-green 
reflection. From concentrated hydrochloric acid, aurine 
crystallizes in fine, hairlike red needles, which, dried at 
110°, coutain a large quantity of hydrochloric acid. 
They tried also to obtain this compound pure, by pre¬ 
cipitating from a dilute alkaline solution, with weak 
hydrochloric acid, but this product also, in spite of 
most careful washing, contains hydrochloric acid, 
which it only parts with at temperatures above 110°. 
By spontaneous evaporation of an alcoholic solution, 
aurine is obtained in dull red crystals, with a green 
metallic lustre. Dried at 110°, this body contains no 
alcohol, but still retains water, which only escapes at 
140°-180°, the crystals not changing their appearance 
at all. The authors find that, contrary to Fresenius’ 
observation, aurine crystallized from alcohol does not 
melt at 156°. The analysis of aurine dried at 200°, 
which they believe to be pure aurine, gave number* 
agreeing with the formula CjoH^Oa. 

Auro'ra, in Kansas, a village of Cloud co., about 120 m. 
N.W. of Lawrence. 

Auro'ra, in Kentucky, a post-village of Marshall co. 

Auro'ra, in Maine, a post-township of Hancock co., 
about 106 m. E.N.E. of Augusta. 

Auro'ra, in Minnesota, a township of Steele co., 55 m. 
S.S.W. of Red Wing. 

Auro'ra, in Missouri, a city of Lawrence co., in a lead 
and zinc mining district. Pop. (1898) 3,880. 

Auro'ra, in Nebraska, a city, cap. of Hamilton co., on 
C., B. & Q. R.R., 24 m. W. of York. Pop. (1898) 2,320. 

Auro'ra, in Nevada, a town, former cap. of Esmeralda 
co., about 100 m. S.E. of Carson City, 7,450 feet above 
the level of the sea. See Esmeralda. 

Auro'ra, in New York, a post-village of Ledyard town¬ 
ship, Cayuga co., on the E. side of Cayuga lake, 170 m. 
W. of Albany. 

■ —A township of Erie co. 


















AUST 


[SECTION IT.] 


AZZU 


237 


<-* village, also, of the above township, on Cazenove 
creek. 

Anro'ra, in Ohio, a post-township of Portage co.. about 
25 m. S. E. of Cleveland. ^ 

Anro'ra, in Texas, a village of Jefferson co., on the W. 
side of Sabine Lake, about 70 m. N. E. of Galveston. 

Anro'ra, in Wisconsin, a post-township of Washington 
county. 

—(Formerly Sacramento), a township of Waushara 
county. 

Anro'ra Cen'tre. in Minnesota, a village of Steele 
co., 27 m. S. by E. of Faribault. 

Anro'ral, a. Belonging to, or resembling the aurora, 
or aurora borealis. 

Anro'ra ^lills, in Oregon, a post-village of Marion 
co., about 30 m. N. N. E. of Salem. 

Anro'raville, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Wau¬ 
shara co., 16 m. E. by S. of Wantoma. , 

Auro-tel'lnrite, n. (Min.) An ore of tellurium, 
containing gold and silver. 

An' ruin, n. [Lat.] Gold. This name was applied by 
alchemists and chemists to many substances resembling 
gold in color or virtues. The most celebrated was aurum 
potabile, or gold dissolved and mixed with oil of rose¬ 
mary, to be drunk,, and esteemed a sovereign remedy 
for curing all diseases. 

Aurum fulminans. See Fulminate. 

Aunt in. Alfred, an English poet; b. at Headingly, 
near Leeds, May 30, 1835. He graduated at the Uni¬ 
versity of London in 1853, and was called to the bar of 
the Inner Temple in 1857, but has devoted his life to 
literature. His poems include The Seasons: A Satire; 
The Human Tragedy; The Golden Age; Savonarola; 
English Lyrics, and various other volumes. In addition, 
he has written three novels and many political articles. 
He was appointed Poet Laureate Jan. 1,1896, an appoint¬ 
ment which drew much ridicule from the critics, who 
did not consider Austin’s p retry as worthy of this honor. 

Aus'tin, in Pennsylvania, a borough of Potter co. Pop. 
(1890) 1,679. 

Australian Bal'lot. A system of secret voting 
first adopted in Australia, but since introduced widely 
into the U. S. This system, or some modification of it, 
is now the legalized system in very nearly all the States. 
A list of candidates is furnished the voter, who is in¬ 
structed to erase the names of candidates for whom he 
does not wish to vote, or to indicate by a cross-mark 
those whom he prefers; differing methods being in use 
in different States. A private room or stall is provided, 
where the voter can mark and fold his ballot unobserved. 
See Ballot Reform. 

Alis'tria ,—Continued from Sec. I. 

A treaty of peace was shortly afterward signed at 
Vienna (Oct. 30, 1862), by which Denmark made 
over Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg to A. 
and Prussia. But A. speedily suffered terrible retribu¬ 
tion for the part she had taken in this affair. By in¬ 
ducing Austria to join with her, Prussia succeeded in 
removing part of the odium of the proceeding front her¬ 
self, and she also succeeded in obtaining the aid of a 
rival power to secure territories which she had pre¬ 
viously determined to appropriate as her own. A., 
desirous of the formation of the duchies into a separate 
state, supported the claims of the duke of Augusten- 
bnrg to them. This was strenuously opposed by Prus¬ 
sia, who regarded the public meetings that, were per¬ 
mitted to be held in Holstein in support of this as a 
breach of agreement. A. referred the question to the 
Frankfort diet, which decided in favor of the duke. 
Prussia, which had long looked with jealousy upon the 
power of A., and considered a war with that country 
for the supremacy of Germany as sooner or later a neces¬ 
sity. entered into an alliance with Victor Emmanuel 
(March 27th, 1866), the latter undertaking to declare 
war against A. as soon as Prussia commenced hostili¬ 
ties, while the former engaged toseoure Venetiafor her 
Italian ally. A. was in an unprepared state when the 
war actually broke out, but the Prussian forces, on the 
other hand, were thoroughly equipped. On June 16th 
three Prussian armies entered Saxony and then Bohe¬ 
mia. On Jo le 26th a first engagement took place at 
Podol, and on the following days the Austrians, under 
command of General Benedek, were defeated in varions 
engagements, with a total loss ot 30,000 to 40,000 men. 
On June 30 the king of Prussia joined the army, and 
the decisive battle of RoDiggrktz, or Sadowa, was 
fought and lost by the Austrians on July 3d. (See 


Sadowa.) The archduke Albert, who had the command 
of the army in Italy, with which he had inflicted a 
severe defeat on the Italians at Custozza, was recalled 
to take the chief command in place of Benedek; but the 
emperor of A. seeing the disastrous state of his affairs, 
claimed the mediation of the emperor Napoleon, 
through whom an armistice was agreed upon. July 22d. 
A treaty of peace was signed at Prague. Aug. 23d, by 
which ,4. gave up to the kingdom of Italy Venetia and 
the fortresses of the quadrilateral, namely, Peschiera, 
Mantua. Verona, and Legnano; recognized the dissolu¬ 
tion of the late German Confederation, and consented to 
a new formation of Germany, in which she should have 
no part; gave up all claim to the duchies of Holstein 
and Schleswig; and agreed to pay a war indemnity of 
40,000,000 thalers, less 20,000,000allowed her on account 
of the duchies. Having thus obtained peace, the 
emperor now turned his attention to home affairs, his 
first effort being to conciliate Hungary, which was still 
in a very troubled and dissatisfied state. At the open¬ 
ing of the diet on Nov. 19, 1866, an imperial rescript, 
signed by the emperor, was read, in which he promised 
to do justice to the claim of Hungary for self-govern¬ 
ment so far as it would not affect the unity of the 
empire and the position of A. as a great European 
power; on June 8, 1867, the emperor and empress were 
crowned king and queen of Hungary at Pesth. On 
May 25,1868, marriage was made a civil contract; and 
on July 30,1870, the concordat with Rome was declared 
to be suspended in consequence of the promulgation of 
the doctrine of Papal inlallibility, and it was abolished 
in 1874, measures being at the same time adopted for 
restricting th<-powers of the clergy. In 1873 an Inter¬ 
national exhibition was held at Vienna. In 1878, by the 
treaty of Berlin, the government of Bosnia and Herze¬ 
govina was confided to A. On July 31 of that year, the 
Austrian troops crossed the Herzegovian frontier, and 
the news roused the Mohammedan fanatics to desperate 
efforts, but their ineffectual efforts at resistance were 
soon crushed, and the occupation was completed before 
the end of the year. Since that period A. has been con¬ 
cerned in sustaining pacific working relations with 
Germany and Russia, espe.ially in regard to the Eastern 
Question, and in seeking to reconcile the conflicting 
claims of her varied pe- pies. But in 1908 her annexa¬ 
tion of the administered Turkish provinces of Bosnia 
and Herzegovina brought threats of war from Servia, 
whioh couut'-y was pacified with difficulty. 

Au'toplasty, n. (Surg .) An operation for the repair 
of lesions made by wounds or disease, by replacing the 
lost tissue with healthy parts taken from the patient 
himself, usually from the close vicinity of the lesion to 
be repaired. Different names, in accordance with the 
locality affected, are given to those operations; as, 
cheiloplastic, where the lips are treated; rhinoplastic, for 
the nose, &c. 

Au totype, n. ( Engr.) A photographic process by 
which pictures are produced in monochrome in a carbon 
pigment.—Also, a print so produced; a facsimile. 

Av'enue. in Pennsylvania, a village of Alleghany co. 
Pop. (1890), 1,453. 

Aviation, n. (Lat. avis, a bird). The science of mov¬ 
ing through the air like a bird. It is applied to the art of 
flying iu heavier-than-air machines exclusively. Early 
ideas were iu the direction that man could fly t>y means 
of wings actuated by himself, Imt it was soon seen that 
the muscular power required was greater than man 
possessed. Bv d grees modern aeroplanes were evolved. 
See Aeroplane, Balloon, Ornithopter, Helicopter. | 

Aviator, n. A flyer; one who makes a flight iu an 
aeroplane or other flying machine. See Aeroplane,! 
Helicopter. Orntttiopter. 

A togadro’s Law (av-o-gah'dro). (Phys .) This 
law asserts that equal volumes of different gases, at the 
same pressure and temperature, contain an equal num¬ 
ber of molecules. It was propounded by Signor Avo- 
gadro, whose name is also well known in connection 
with experiments on the tension of the vapor of mer¬ 
cury. More recently, Professor Neumann deduced the 
law mathematically from the first principles of the 
mechanical theory of gases. 

Av'on, in Massachusetts, a town of Norfolk co. Has shoe 
manufacturies. Pop. (1890), 1,384. 

Av'ondale, in Alabama, a town of Jefferson co. Pop. 
(1890), 1,642. 

Av'ondale. in Ohio, a residence suburb of Cincinnati. 
Pov. (1890), 4,473, 


Ay 'er, in Massachusetts, a tow'n of Middlesex co., formerly 
known as Groton Junction. Pop. (1890), 2,148. 

Ay' ers, Romeyn Beck, an American soldier; b. at East 
Creek, N. Y. Dec. 20, 1825; graduated at West Point, 
1847; and served through the Civil War, serving in 
many engagements, and being successively promoted, 
till he reached the rank of brevet major-general of 
volunteers, Aug. 1,1864. He was given the same rank 
in the regular army on Mar. 13, 1865. Died at Fort 
Hamilton, N. Y., Dec. 4,1888. 

Az'ariu, n. (Dyeing.) A coal-tar coloring matter, 
bright red to crimson in tint, used as a dye for cotton 
fabrics. 

A'zo-, a word derived from azote (nitrogen) and used 
as a combining prefix in organic chemistry, or used 
separatively as an adjective form, as azo compounds. It 
is applied to compounds containing nitrogen, as nitric 
acid; and to those substitution derivatives of the aro¬ 
matic hydrocarbons in which two atoms of nitrogen 
connect two similar hydrocarbon radicals of the benzene 
series, as azo-benzene. It is used to designate many of 
the coal-tar colors, as azo-blue, azo-diphenye, &c. 

Azo-colors, n. pi. (Dyeing.) An important class of 
artificial dye stuffs that have become prominent within 
recent years, belonging to a chemical group known as 
azo-compounds, of which the simplest in composition is 
azo-benzene. The formula of benzene is C 6 H 6 ; that of 
azo-benzene, C 6 H 6 N 2 C 6 H S . The group of derivatives 
is somewhat numerous. Both acid and basic azo-colors 
dye wool and silk readily, but need a mordant to dye 
cotton; but secondary azo-colors show strong affinity 
for cotton and can be used without the mordant. 
Benzo-purpurin is the most extensively used of the 
azo-colors. 

Azotized Bodies. A name frequently given to sub¬ 
stances which contain, among their constituents, azote 
or nitrogen, and which occur in animals or plants as 
part of their living tissues, or are found among the 
substance during their decay. Among the most im¬ 
portant of these bodies is albumin, which occurs in 
white of eggs and forms an essential part of the juices 
of organizea bodies. In addition to the general form 
of albumen, it is found in special varieties, of which 
may be named globuline or crystalline, which is present 
in the crystalline lens of the eye; and vitelline, of which 
the yelk of the egg is principally made up. Other 
azotized bodies are fibrine, an abundant constituent of 
the muscles of animals and the seeds of plants; caseine, 
found in milk, and which is the basis of cheese; legumine, 
a variety of caseine which is common in the seeds of 
leguminous plants, such as peas and beans; gelatine, an 
important constituent of the skin and bones of somv 
other parts of animals; chondrine, a variety of gelatin* 
which finds its seat in the permanent cartilages and 
the cornea ol the eye; isinglass, a secoud variety of 
gelatine, whose source is the swim bladder of many of 
the fishes; and glue and size, secondary forms of gelatine. 
Urea, uric acid, and hippuric acid, found iu the urine of 
the higher animals, are azotized substances resulting 
from the first steps of tissue degeneration. In addition 
may be named kreatine and kreatinine, which occur in 
in the juice of flesh; urinary cidculi, occurring as stone# 
in the bladder; and the very numerous and important 
class of substances containing nitrogen which are known 
as alkaloids, and include strychnine, morphine, quinine, 
and many other derivatives of plants. Nitrogen i s 
present as an element iu many other chemical com* 
pounds arising from the transformation of organic sub- 
| stance or decay of organisms, but the above named are 
the most important of their class. 
lAz'urine, n. (Ichth.) A fresh-water fish (Leueiscut 
cseruleus) belonging to the same genus as the chub, 
and resembling the red-eye, or rudd (L. crythrophthaX- 
mus), except that it has a white abdomen and fins, 
and bluish slate-colored back. 

Azzarkal, an Arabian mathemetician who flourished 
during the 11th century and was the royal astronomei 
of Al-Mamoun, the king of Toledo. His inventions 
included an improved astrolabe, an elaborate water- 
clock, and various mathematical devices. 

Azznbeydi, Mohammed el 11 assa n, an Arabian lexico¬ 
grapher, born in Seville in 927 His writings included 
a notable work on Arabian syntax, a grammar, and an 
abridgment of Khalil’s exhaustive biography of Spanish 
grammarians. He was cadi of Seville, and instructs* 
of the Sultan’s son, Hischeam. 





BAAS 


B. 


BABE 


B The second letter and first consonant fn the English, 

and in all languages derived from the Hebrew or 
• Phoenician alphabet. It is formed in the voice by 
a stray and quick expression of the breath, and a sudden 
opening of the lips; it is therefore called a labial. It 
readily interchanges with the letters of the same organ, 
principally with v; as, habere, Latin, avere, Italian. In 
Spain, and the parts of France bordering on Spain, the 
letter b will be often found in words which, in the kin¬ 
dred languages, prefer then;—and withp, an interchange 
of which the pronunciation of the English lauguage by 
some of the natives of Saxony presents sufficient exam¬ 
ples.— IS is often used as an abbreviation for Bachelor; 
as B.A., Bachelor of Arts, B. D., Bachelor of Divinity, 
Ac.; and for before, as, B. ft, Before Christ. — B, as a 
numeral among the Romans, stood for 300; with a dash 
over it, for 3,000, and with a sort of accent under it, 200. 
Among the Greeks and Hebrews, B signified 2. — In 
chronology, B stands for one of the Dominical letters.— 
In chemistry, B is the symbol of the metal Boron. 

(Mas.) B is the seventh note in the natural diatonic 
scale of ft (or ft major), answering to the SI of the 
Italians and French. In harmony it is called the major 
seventh. B\) stands for B flat, the tone or half-tone, or 
semi-tone lower than B. — In Germany it always signi¬ 
fies B flat, B natural there taking the name of H. 
Baa, ( bd,) n. The cry or bleating of sheep. 

•—». i. To cry or bleat like sheep. 

“ Or like a lamb whose dam away Is set. 

He trebles baas for help, but none can get."— Sidney. 

Baad'stwl, Batsted, or Bastad, (bad'sled,) a seaport 
town of Sweden, 60 ni. W.N.W. of Christianstadt; Lat. 
56° 28' N.; Lon. 12° 45' E. 

Baagoe, (ba'gn,) two small islands of Denmark, in the 
Baltic; Lat. 54° 56' N.; Lon. 12° 3' E. 

Baal, ( bai'al .) [Heb., lord, master, possessor.] (Myth.) 
The supreme male divinity of the Phoenicians and Car¬ 
thaginians. The cruel worship of Baal, together with 
that of Ashtoreth, was frequently introduced among the 
Israelites, especially at Samaria. The plural Baalim was 
applied to different modifications of the divinity. The 
temple and altars of B. were chiefly built on the tops of 
hills under trees, and on the roofs of houses. The wor¬ 
ship of Baal gave employment to a numerous priesthood, 
who burned incense, sacrificed children, danced round 
the altar, and if their prayers were not speedily heard, 
cut themselves with knives and lancets till the blood 
gushed out upon them. Through all the Phoenician colo¬ 
nies we find traces of the worship of this god, in names, 
as Asdru-6at, llarmi-6«/, &c., and in inscriptions; nor 
need we hesitate to regard the Babylonian Bel or Belus 
as identical to B., though perhaps under some modified 
form. The same perplexity occurs respecting the con¬ 
nection of this god with the heavenly bodies, as in re¬ 
gard to Ashtoreth. The more common opinion has been, 
that B. is the sun; and that, under this name, this lu¬ 
minary received divine honors. We find the worship of 
B. established among the Moabites in the time of Moses, 
(Num. xxii. 41,) and through these nations the Israelites 
were seduced to the worship of this god, under the par¬ 
ticular name of Baal-peor ( Num. xxv. 3—10; Dent. iv. 3). 
Notwithstanding the fearful punishment which their 
idolatry then brought upon them, the succeeding gener¬ 
ations returned often to the worship of B. 

TBaal'bec. See Balbec. 

Baalism, n. Worship or adoration of Baal or of idols; 
idolatry. (R.) 

B«al-pe'or. [Heb., Lord of opening.] (Myth.) One of 
the names under which thf Jews worshipped Baal. The 
narrative (Num. xxv.) seems clearly to show that this 
form of Baal-worship was connected with licentious 
rites. B. P. was identified by the Rabbis and early 
Fathers, with Priapus. the god of procreation. 
Ba'alzebttb. See Beelzebub. 

Ba'ar«l,«. (Naut.) A sort of sea-vessel or transport-ship. 
(Sa'asSia, son of Ahijah, and commander of the armies 
of Sadab, king of Israel. He killed his master treacher¬ 
ously at the siege of Gibbethon, and usurped the king¬ 
dom r. o. 913, which he possessed 23 years. He exter¬ 
minated the whole race of Jeroboam, as had been pre¬ 
dicted: but by his bad conduct and idolatry incurred 
God’s indignation. (I Kings xv-xv i. 1-7,12.) God sent him 
» warning • >v the mouth of Jehu the prophet; which 

238 


was fulfilled in the extermination of the family two 

years after his own death. 

Bab, n. See BXbism. 

Ba'ba, a Turkish word signifying father, originating, like 
our word papa, in the first efforts of children to speak. 
In Persia and Turkey, it is prefixed as a title of honor to 
the names of ecclesiastics of distinction, especially of 
such as devote themselves to an ascetic life; it is often 
affixed in courtesy, also, to the names of other persons, 
as h\i-Baba. 

Ba'ba, Cape, (in Turkish, Baba-Bouri»ou,)is the Cape Lec- 
tum of the Greeks. It is a rocky bold headland of Ana¬ 
tolia, north-west of the northern extremity of the Gulf 
of Adramati, the ancient Adramyttium, and between the 
islands of Lesbos (now Mityleno) and Tenedos, which 
preserves its ancient name. The cape, which is scarcely 
twelve miles distant from the northern extremity of 
Lesbos, is in 39° 30' N. Lat., and 26° E. Lon. — A small 
town, called by the same name, and sometimes St. 
Mary’s, stands on a shelving point of Cape Baba, imme¬ 
diately above the sea. 

Baba-Dagh, (ba'ba-da,) a town of European Turkey, 
93 m. N.E. of Silistria. It has several mosques, and a 
considerable trade through the port of Kara Kerman, 
ceded to Roumania under Berlin treaty, 1878. P. 7,000. 

Bab'bage, Charles, p. r. s., an eminent English ma¬ 
thematician and mechanical inventor; b. 26tb Dec., 1792. 
The laborious calculations necessary in constructing ta¬ 
bles of logarithms, early called his attention to the value 
of any invention which should substitute for mental 
calculation the more precise principle of mechanism. 
He commenced observations and experiments on this 
subject, and made a tour to the continent of Europe, 
with the view of studying the various pieces of mech¬ 
anism employed in the arts. On his return he pub¬ 
lished his Economy of Manufactures and Machinery. 
This work Blanqui, the French economist, has described 
as a hymn to machinery. In 1828, B. was appointed 
Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge University. In 
1833, he introduced his calculating machine, which Wits 
at once adapted both to calculating and printing, and its 
value may be better estimated from the fact, that a table 
of logarithms of all natural numbers, ranging from 1 to 
100,000, was produced, free from error, by its agency. B. 
is a member of nearly all the learned societies of Europe 
and America. His great work, already referred to, hits 
been translated into most European languages, and has 
been reprinted in the U. States. B. was one of the 
founders of the Royal Astronomical Society, and of the 
British Association for the Adv. of Science. D. 1871. 

Babahoyo, (ha'ba-ho’yo,) a town of S. America, in 
Ecuador, 20 m. N. of Guayaquil, on the Caracol. 

J3ab-at-tlie-Bow'ster, n. (Pastimes.) An old Eng¬ 
lish dance, which somewhat resembles the cushion- 
dance, q. v., save that a bolster, as the name indicates, 
supplies the place of the pillow. It is still danced in 
Scotland, and is always the winding up at “ Kirns,” and 
other merry-makings, as, in England, is Sir Huger De 
Cnverley, that well known country-dance. 

Bab'bitt-met'al, n. A soft alloy of copper, zinc, and 
tin, used for the bearings of journals, Ac., to diminish 
the friction. It takes its name from the inventor. 

Bab'ble, v.i. [Fr. babiller: Du. babbelen; from Heb. Ba¬ 
bel, confusion.] To talk confusedly, indistinctly, or unin¬ 
telligibly, like the prattling of a child. 

“My babbling praise, I repeat no more.** — Prior, 

—To talk irrationally, or inconsiderately; to prate Idly; 
to talk much; to tell secrets; to utter thoughtlessly. 

" There is more danger tn a reserved and silent friend, than in 
a noisy babbling enemy.’* — L’Estrange-* 

—To give a murmuring sound; as the noise of water rip¬ 
pling over stones. 

—v. a. To prate; to utter. 

“ Let the silent sanctuary show. 

What from the babbling schools we may not know."— Prior. 

—n. Idle talk; senseless prattle. 

“ With volleys of eternal babbit. 

And clamour more unanswerable.”— Butler’s Budibras. 

Bab'blement.n. Idle talk; unmeaning words; sense¬ 
less chatter, (r.) 

“Deluded all this while with ragged notion and babblement." 

Milton. 


BabThler, n. One who babbles; an idle talker; an irr* 

tional prattler; a teller of secrets. 

“ We hold our time too precious to be spent with such a babbler." 

Shales. 


(Tool.) See Timai.in.e. 

Bab'cock Hill, in New Tori-, apost-vill. of Oneidactx 
Bab'cock’8 drove, in Illinois, a post-office of Du 

Page co. 

Babe, n. [Swed. and Goth, babe; W. haban; Syr. babia.] 
An infant: a child of either sex who is able to say ba-ba, 
or pa-pa, father; a baby. 


“The babe had all that infant care beguiles. 

And early knew his mother in her smlleB." — Dryden. 

BaThel, n. [Ileb., confusion.] Confusion of sounds; in¬ 
termixture or disorder of lingual utterances; as, “Lo» 
don is a perfect Babel.” 

Tower op. The name of a lofty tower, only men¬ 
tioned once in Scripture (Gen. xi. 4-9), and then as 
incomplete. Much controversy has been excited respects 
ing its exact position. It is now generally believed 
that Babylon was built upon the site of the tower, which 
was afterwards finished and consecrated to the worship 
of Belus. The stupendous and surprising mass of ruins 
situated about 6 m. S.W. of Ilillah, called by the Arabs 
Birs-Nimmud, and by the Jews Nebuchadnezzar's Prison, 
Is supposed to be the ruins of Babel’s Tower. The Birs- 
Nimroud is a mound of an oblong form, the total circum- 



Fig. 256. — birs-nimrocd. 


(Supposed to be the remains of the Tower of Babel.) 

ference of which is 762 yards. At the eastern side it is 
cloven by a deep furrow, and is not more than 50 or 60 
feet high; but at the western side it rises in a conical 
figme to the elevation of 198 feet, and on its summit is 
a solid pile of brick, 37 feet high by 28 in breadth, di min* 
ishing in thickness to the top, which is broken and ii> 
regular, aud rent by a large fissure extending through a 
third of its height. It is perforated by small square 
holes disposed in rhomboids. The fine burnt bricks of 
which it is built have inscriptions on them, and so 
excellent is the cement, which appears to be lime- 
mortar, that it is nearly impossible to extractone whole. 
The other parts of the summit of this hill are occupied 
by immense fragments of brickwork of no determinate 
figure, lying tumbled together and converted into solid 
vitrified masses, the layers of brick being perfectly dis¬ 
cernible. These ruins stand on a prodigious mound, the 
whole of which is itself a ruin,channelled by the weather 
and strewed with fragments of black stone, sand-stone; 











iiABI 


BABI 


BABI 


239 


and marble. In the eastern part, layers of unbnrnt 
brick, but no reeds, are to lie seen. On the north side may 
be seen traces of building exactly similar to the brick 
pile. At the foot of the mound, a step may be traced 
scarcely elevated above the plain, exceeding in extent, 
by several feet each way, the true or measured base.— 
See Babylon. 

iBab-el-Mamleb, (bab'el-man'deb.) [Ar., the “Gate of 
Tears.”J The name of the straits by which the Red Seaor 
Arabian Gulf is joined to the Bay of Aden and the Indian 
Ocean. It is formed by two projecting angles of the 
Asiatic and African continents, or, more precisely, the 
two angles of Arabia and Abyssinia. From the Arabian 
shores a cape of moderate height projects, which is 
called likewise Cape Bab-el-Mandeb. Opposite Cape B., 
the coast of Abyssinia may be distant upwards of 15 or 
16 miles, and here both continents approach nearest one 
another and form the straits. Within the straits, hut 
much nearer to the Arabian shores, is the island of 
Ptrim. The 6trait to the E. of this island is called the 
Little Strait, and that to the W. of it the Large Strait. 
The Little Strait, four miles wide, is most frequented by 
vessels on no other account but because its moderate 
depth allows anchorage, if circumstances render it neces¬ 
sary. The depth here varies from nine to fourteen fath¬ 
oms. The island of Perim is rocky and low, with a gentle 
declivity from the middle toward the extremities. It is 
barren and uninhabited. On the S.W. side it has an 
opening into an excellent harbor or cove, which affords 
shelter against nearly every wind, and a good anchorage 
in from four to six or seven fathoms water. This island 
is from four to five miles long. The Large Strait is from 
nine to ten miles wide, and to the south of it, near the 
coast of Africa, are eight small islands, or rather rocks, 
called the Bight Brothers. In the midst of the strait, no 
soundings are found with a hundred fathoms of line. 
The Eight Brothers are of moderate height, rocky and 
barren. Cape Bab-el-Mandeb (12°40' N. Lat.) projects a 
great way from the main land, which here is low, so 
that when seen from a distance it has the appearance of 
an island. It rises to no great height, but is rocky and 
scraggy on its southern side, and extremely barren. 

Babeltllnap. (bai'bet-thu'ap.) The largest of the 
Pelew Islands, in the Pacific; circumf. about 50 m.; Lat. 
7° 30' N.; Lon. 134° 40' E. 

Ba ber, (or “the Tiger,”) the historical surname of 
Zehir-ed-din-Mohammed, the conqueror of Hindostan 
and founder of the so-called Mogul dynasty. B. was of 
mixed Turkish and Mongol origin, being descended from 
Timour the Great on the father's side, and from Genghis 
Khan on the mothers. In feeling, as in personal charac¬ 
teristics, he was a Tartar (Turk), and often in his memoirs 
speaks most contemptuously of Mongols or Moguls. Yet 
Hindoo ignorance has designated the throne which he 
established in India, as that ofthe Great Mogul (Mongol). 
Baber was B. on 14 th Feb., 1483, and at the age of] 2, on his 
father’s death, ascended the insecure throne of Ferghana 
in Turkestan; soon after lie was attacked on all 6ides by 
his uncles and other neighboring princes, which obliged 
him, in his turn, to assume the aggressive. Accordingly, 
at the age of 15, B. seized on Samarcand, the capital of 
Timour. but while thus engaged, a revolution at home 
deprived him of his sovereignty. After many years of an 
adventurous and romantic career, he raised an army, 
■entered Ilindostan, and was met by Ibrahim the rul¬ 
ing sultan of that country. The two armies fought the 
battle of Paniput, which decided the fate of India, on the 
21st April, 1525. B.. with his army of 12,000 men, com¬ 
pletely' overthrew that of Ibrahim, numbering 100,000, 
and entered Delhi in triumph. Difficulties and fresh 
foes had still to be encountered and mastered, but in the 
battle of Sakri, in Feb., 1527, B. utterly defeated the 
opposing Hindoo princes, and then proclaimed himself 
padisha/t or emperor of Hindostan. After a rule of 4 
years, he n. near Agra, on 26th Dec., 1530.— B. was a 
man of noble character, simple in his habits, and a lover 
of nature and of literature. His Memoirs , written by 
himself, were translated by Leyden and Erskiue, and 
published in London in 1826. 

Ba'beuf, or Ba'boeuf, (ba'buf.) Francois Noel, a 
French writer and political theorist, b. at St. Quentin, 
1764. He was one of the earliest and fiercest partisans of 
the first French revolution, and defended and propagated 
its most incendiary principles in a journal called Le Tribun 
du People, founded in 1794, in which he wrote under the 
pseudonym of “ Caius Gracchus,” taking for his motto the 
maxim of Rousseau, that “ the end of society is the public 
good.” In this publication he promulgated the doctrines 
of absolute equality, which he soon after endeavored to 
reduce to practice. In March, 1796, B. and his clique 
formed themselves into a secret committee of the Societi 
du Pantheon , a society supposed to number about 16,000 
members. Plans were formed by'this body to seize Paris, 
which might probably have been successful, but being 
betrayed by one of their number, the chief leaders were 
arrested and brought to trial. This trial lasted for 3 
months, at the close of which, on 24th May, 1797, B. and 
Darthe, a fellow-conspirator, were condemned to death; 
upon sentence being pronounced, however, they stabbed 
themselves in the very presence of the judges, and, like 
Robespierre, were dragged in an expiring state to the 
scaffold, 25th May. 

■Ba'bery, n. Finery to please a babe. 

fiabia'iia, n. (But.) A genus of Cape plants, order 
Jridacece. It derives its singular name from Babianer, 
by which the Dutch colonists call these plants, because 
their round subterranean stems are greedily eaten by 
baboons. It differs from Gladiolus in its round, leather- 
coated seeds, and in the flowers having the tube of Jxia; 
and from Ixia in their having the irregular limb, of 
<31»' J 'olus. Fourteen or fifteen species are known, among 
15 


which are some of the handsomest of the Cape bulbous 
plants, as they are commonly, though incorrectly, called. 

Bab'illard, n. ( Zool.) The French name of the Bab¬ 
bler.— See Timali.n^e. 

Babilleinent. n. [From ba-ba. the earliest infantile 
attempt at talking. — babbling.] Loquacity. 

Bab'ine Republic, or Respublica Bi.nepsis. {Hist.) 
The name of a so-called society established in Poland in 
the 14th century. It was founded by a noble named 
Psomka, belonging to the court of Sigismund, in concert 
with Peter Cassovius, bailiff of Lublin. Its charac¬ 
teristics extended to Germany, where it was denominated 
The Order or Society of Fools. 

Bab ing ton, Anthony, an English gentleman who was 
distinguished by his attachment to the cause of the un¬ 
fortunate Mary, Queen of Scots. He was a wealthy 
landed proprietor in Derbyshire, and a zealous Roman 
Catholic. Having in conjunction with others entered 
into a conspiracy for tie liberation of Mary, and the as¬ 
sassination of Queen Elizabeth, he was arrested, tried, 
found guilty, and finally executed, on the 20th Sept., 
1586. 

Bab'ingtonite, n. {Min.) A triclinic mineral; lustre 
vitreous; color dark, greenish-black; faintly translu¬ 
cent; fracture imperfectly conchoidal; sp. gr. 3-35-3-37; 
comp. Silica 501, sesquioxide of iron 11-1, protoxide of 
iron 10 0, protoxide of manganese 7-4, lime 21 - 4 ~ 100. 
b.b. it fuses at 2-7 to a black magnetic globule. In the 
U. States it is said to coat crystals of felspar, at Gouver- 
neur, St. Lawrence co., N. Y. 

Bib'ism, n. Under this name a new religion, first 
arising in Persia during the year 1843, has made im¬ 
mense strides among the peoples of Eastern Asia, as 
well as penetrated into India and Turkey; founded on 
elevated principles of morality, it offers a direct con¬ 
trast to the Mohammedan doctrines. The founder of 
this modern faith, named Mirza-Ali-Mohammed, was a 
youth of eighteen, born at Shiraz, of parents in the 
middle class of society. Possessed of some education, 
Mirza in early youth made a pilgrimage to Mecca, 
where it is supposed his mind received such new im¬ 
pressions as to cause him to conceive the idea of sub¬ 
stituting for Islamism another and more progressive 
form of religion. Accordingly he, about the year 1843, 
on his return from the holy city, composed and pub¬ 
licly read a first commentary on the “Soufat”of the 
Koran, called Joseph, which made a deep impression 
upon his auditory. His discourses did not directly 
impeach Mohammedan doctrines, although he vaguely 
and adroitly sapped their very foundations by contrast¬ 
ing their teachings with the lamentably irreligious and 
immoral state of humanity at large. The new relig¬ 
ious system thus outlined made numberless proselytes, 
and the fame of Aii-Mohammed penetrated all Persia. 
His eloquence was both brilliant and convincing—so 
much so, indeed, as to arrest the attention, and excite 
the admiration even of Mussulmen the most bigoted. 
Assuming a title of apostolic import, Ali next declared 
himself to be the Bub, i. e. the “ door,” by which alone it 
was possible to enter the presence of God. The ortho¬ 
dox Moslems, incited by the priesthood, strove to sum¬ 
marily extinguish the new' doctrine, but their designs 
were arrested by the Shah, who adopted a temporizing 
policy, either through a fear of popular tumults or 
because he himself secretly favored Babism. His con¬ 
verts daily increasing, and in large numbers, Ali-Mo- 
harnmed soon declared himself to be, not the Bdb, as 
he had before believed, but the Point, that is, the 
generator of truth, a divine presence, an embodied 
manifestation of omnipotence. He now dispatched 
missionaries far and wide to extend the propaganda of 
the new faith. One of these was a young and beautiful 
female, who quitted her home and family to publicly 
preach the tenets she had espoused, denounce polygamy, 
and taboo the use of the veil by her 6ex. The death 
of the Persian Shah, Mohammed, was an inauspicious 
event for the Babists. His successor, Nasr-ed-Deen, 
discountenanced their doctrines, so that they rose in 
insurrection against his government. That revolt 
was suppressed, not without taxing, however, the 
utmost powers of the executive. Still Babism flour¬ 
ished ; it was therefore deemed necessary to strike at 
the root of the so-called heresy in the persoh of the 
Bdb himself. The latter thereupon was arrested, and. 
heavily ironed, was, with two of his disciples, taken to 
Tabreez, where they were brought up for trial before a 
tribunal of state. When before his judges, the Bdb 
sustained a severe examination at their hands, refuted 
the arguments urged against him. and also exposed the 
falsity of the cardinal principles of the Islamitic creed. 
Refusing to return to the orthodox faith, the B&b was, 
with his companions, then condemned to death, and 
they suffered martyrdom accordingly, in 1850.—Babism, 
however, was not uprooted by the death of its prophet, 
inasmuch as the devotees of the religion elected a suc¬ 
cessor to him, one Mirza-Yahara, a youth of sixteen, 
who assumed the title of Hetret-l-Ezel, or “Eternal 
Highness.” In 1852, an attempt made by the Bdbists 
to assassinate the Shah, was the cause of fresh arrests 
and the infliction of further death-penalties among these 
religionists. Among the sufferers on this occasion was 
the young female apostle before mentioned: she died 
with fortitude, and maintained to the last the infalli¬ 
bility of the faith she had 60 enthusiastically embraced. 
Since that period Babism has made further progress, 
but its adherents maintain their faith in secret, fearing 
to incur new persecution by overt profession of it. At 
the present day, therefore, it is believed that Bdbism 
obtains among all classes cf society in Persia, and 
among all religious oects, excepting the Nossayrii 
and the Christians. Its professors write much, and 


their works — which are widely but secretly dis¬ 
seminated—are eagerly read and esteemed as fresh 
polemical evidences against the old Mohammedan 
orthodoxy. — The rapid expansion of Babism is cer¬ 
tainly an extraordinary fact, and it appears the mor* 
so if we consider, that, in the first Bab’s lifetime 
very many of the professors of the new religion 
even among its most convinced and devoted sectaries 
never personally knew their prophet, and do not seem 
to have conceived it of vital importance to receive hie 
instructions orally. The success of Babism must there¬ 
fore be looked for in a study of its doctrines, and their 
comparative superiority over Mohammedanism. — In 
1848, Ali Mohammed, the Bdb, digested his tenets in a 
book to which he gave the name of Biyy.in ( the Exposi¬ 
tion), that is to say, an elucidation of all that it is im¬ 
portant to know. It is from this work Chat we shall 
endeavor to give a succinct idea, or rationale, of the 
theory of Babism, setting aside all its mystical forms, 
adapted to Oriental taste, but which possess no interest 
for us. — “ There is but one God, immutable, eternal; He 
is without a fellow.” This is the Mussulman formula, but 
with a different meaning. By it the Moslems under¬ 
stand that Christ is not God, and that the divine essence, 
concentrated in itself, is an absolute uuity; whereas, 
Babism means only that there are not two distinct*. Gods; 
and it is easy to see that it conceives divine unity as a 
thing very different from a self-concentrated individual¬ 
ity. God is essentially Creator because He is the Life, be¬ 
cause He expands it, and that the only method of expand¬ 
ing life is to create. All the attributes of excellence that 
we may imagine belong to God; but, in the act of creating, 
He makes use of only seven of them, viz., strength, 
power, volition, action, condescension, glory, and rev¬ 
elation. God may. at His will, either partially or 
wholly communicate His attributes without diminu¬ 
tion of His divinity, but that which emanates from 
Him cannot convey the smallest portion of the divine 
emanation; and this is the difference between God anil 
His creature. But the creature, who is not God, from> 
not possessing the plenitudeof His attributes, and, above 
all, that of expansion, is not, nevertheless, entirely sep¬ 
arate from God, from whom he came, because—“ there is 
nothing out of Him,”—and God says Himself, “ In truth, 
O my creature, thou art Myself!” and further, “all 
that which has the name of a thing is a part of the 
creation, and there is nothing intermediate between 
that thing and Me; ” so that all which exists, all possess¬ 
ing a shape, all that bears a name, is in God, emanated 
from Him, but inferior to Him, less powerful and less 
complete, a mere accidental being that has position only 
in time and space. “At the day of the last judgment 
everything will be annihilated, save the divine nature.” 
That is to say, all the imperfections resulting from the 
fact of emanation, or separation, although but tempo¬ 
rary, from the pure essence, — and it is in this that wq 
must look for the causes of wrong-doing in this world,— 
shall disappear in the day of the last judgment, and 
God will draw unto Him all that which is from Him. — 
From this brief analysis, it results that the God of Bab- 
isn. is not a new personification of the Almighty, but 
rather the God of the Chaldatan and Alexandrian schools 
of philosophy, of the Mystics, and, in short, of all the 
varieties of Oriental religious speculation. He is not 
the God of the Pentateuch, but He is veritably the God 
of theGemara and the Talmud; not Him that Islamism 
has endeavored to define from its deductions from Mo¬ 
ses and Christ; but, undoubtedly, He is the God of all 
the philosophers, and critics produced by the Islamitic 
schools. Babism has done nothing more than draw 
this God out of p;ist obscurity, and restore and present 
Him. But this has been performed in a manner not 
wanting in amplitude and strength. The Bab did not 
assert that he was introducing a new conception of the 
Divinity, as the only true one, nor that he was able to 
give a full and entire definition ofthe Creator. He said 
that he, himself, was a new step to the knowledge of 
the divine nature; that all prophets have said more 
than their predecessors were entitled to do; that hi* 
mission was to be more complete and extended than that 
of Mohammed, who had been more realistic in his upos- 
tleship than Jesus, who, in his time, had surpassed all 
his predecessors. But the Bab adds, that we ought not 
to flatter ourselves with the idea of a possible advance¬ 
ment into the knowledge of God; for He will remain 
unknown till the day of the last judgment. Conse¬ 
quently, to devote one's life to this chimera, is not the 
aim that man ought to propose to himself. To obey 
God, to love Him, to aspire to Him: these things are 
those which he ought to do, instead of trying to pene¬ 
trate into mysteries inconsistent with his human state. 
God will never ask for an account of our endeavors at 
knowledge in that matter; therefore, it behoves man 
to direct his mind and moral strength to other and more 
fruitful subjects. That which is unveiled of futurity is 
enough for the want of every period. Now—and this is 
one of the most original features of the new creed—the 
Bab, while being the prophet for this time, and all-pow¬ 
erful as he may be, is, in reality, only a part, and not 
the whole of the actual prophetizing entity. The cabal¬ 
istic number of Babism is 19; and the unity of the 
prophecy requires 19 personal manifestations, of which 
the Bab is the Point. These 18 manifestations, which, 
with the Bab, will constitute the prophetic number, are 
not inferior to him, because no relations of superiority 
and inferiority exist in the nature of God; but they ha vs 
other and lesser things to accomplish; wherefore Aeis the 
Print, i. e. the centre, apex, or light of the new proph¬ 
ecy. Now', what is the effect produced by death among 
the members possessing in common the prophetic affla¬ 
tus t It is this : The Bab suffers martyrdom, whereupon 







240 


BABO 


BABY 


BABY 


the essence of prophecy departing from him is trans¬ 
fused into the spirit of one of the remaining prophets, 
who therefore, in his turn, becomes the “Point,” and so 
preserves the unity intact. After the death of the first Bab 
the power of the Point , in the unity of 19, was transmitted 
*o t.he Eternal Highness. — We now come to the last im¬ 
portant feature of Babism, which is, that the Bab, and the 
unity of which he is the Point, do not, in themselves, 
constitute a definite revelation; and the founder of 
Babism has been very anxious to make this clearly 
known. The Byyan, being the Holy Book par excel¬ 
lence, ought necessarily to be constituted in the divine 
number; or, in other words, in the number 19. There¬ 
fore, on this principle, it is divided into 19 distinct uni¬ 
ties or chapters, which are again sub-divided, each into 
19 paragraphs. Of these 19 unities, 11 only have been 
written by the Bab, the 8 remaining being left for the 
true and great revelator, who will complete the doctrine, 
and to whom the Bab is, what John the Baptist was to 
Christ. The Bab’s own doctrine is merely transitional, 
serving to prepare men for what will come later; it 
opens the way, it is tentative, but it is not conclusive. 
For instance, the Bab abolishes the Kiblah, or mode of 
turning to a certain point of the horizon, adopted by 
ooth Moslems and Jews, when praying; and it can 
be surmised that neither Mecca nor Jerusalem have 
any particular devotional attraction for the Babists. 
But he does not substitute a new Kiblah in place of 
the one he has abolished, and declares that in this mat¬ 
ter ho has nothing to command, it being a question 
which the future revelator will himself decide upon.— 
Marriage is considered by Ali Mohammed as a thing of 
the highest importance, not from the Mohammedan 
point of view, which considers it merely with regard to 
the propagation of descendants, but taking a loftier 
sight, the reformer’s aim is to constitute family ties, the 
great desideratum of Asiatic society, where they exist 
only in exceptional cases. Upon a man being first 
married, the Bab will tolerate his taking a second 
wife, but he does not urge or command the so doing; on 
the contrary, such is his manifest repugnance to polyg¬ 
amy, that BSbists hesitate to use the toleration permit¬ 
ted them concerning a duality of wives. Concubinage 
is absolutely forbidden. The Bkb has taken another 
step toward civilizing the East, by forbidding divorce, 
which is the greatest social disease of the Persian people. 
The facility for discarding a wife at any moment, and 
under the most trifling pretext, has done even more than 
polygamy for degrading women, and has so depraved 
society as to make a true and lasting union almost an 
impossibility. It is, indeed, in Persia, a rare occurrence 
to find a woman of 22 to 24 years of age, who has not 
already had two or three husbands.— To conclude, what 
is little less important is, that the Bab has forbidden 
the use of the veil, which isolates women from the 
-amenities of social life, and covers an existence of in¬ 
trigue, indecorum, and disorder. 

Bftb'ist, n. A follower of the doctrines of the “Bab.” 
A devotee of Babism, q. v. 

Bab'Iatl, n. (Chem.) The brown fruit or seed of the Mi¬ 
mosa Arabica, or M. c.inerea, from India and Senegal. It 
contains gallic and tannic acids, and is used in calico print¬ 
ing to give different shades of brownwithan alum mordant. 

Baboon', n. [Fr. babouin; It. habuino.] (Zoijl.) The 
common name of the Cynocephalus, a genus of quadru- 
mana which forms the hist link that unites the Simiadce 
with quadrupeds; comprising a large, fierce, and formi¬ 
dable race of animals, who, though they in a slight degree 
partake of the human conformation, as seen in the orang¬ 
outang, &c., are in their habits, propensities, and dispo¬ 
sitions the very reverse of gentleness and docility. In 
Apes and other quadrumana which have the head and face 
round, the nose is flat, and the nostrils are situated about 
half-way between the mouth and the eyes; but in the B. 
this organ is prolonged uniformly with the jaws, and the 
nostrils open at the end of it, exactly as in the dog. In 
short, the most distinctive peculiarity of the genus is the 
marked resemblance which the head and face of these 
animals bear to a large dog. They have, moreover, long 
and truncate muzzles, cheek pouches, tails, and sharp 
claws. Yet, notwithstanding this close approximation 
to the shape of the dog’s head, the form and position of 
the eyes, combined with the similarity of the arms and 
hands, give to these creatures a resemblance to humanity 
as striking as it is humbling and disgusting. — Possess¬ 
ing strength, furnished with dangerous natural weapons, 
and being wild, restless, and impetuous, this animal, in 
its native haunts, proves itself to be one of the most for¬ 
midable of the savage race; nor can it be restrained, even 
when in confinement, any longer than coercion is con¬ 
tinued: allowed to have its own will, its savage nature 
gains the ascendency, and its actions are gratuitously 
cruel, mischievous, and destructive. But there is nothing 
bo revolting as their lascivious habits, which they in¬ 
dulge to such a degree that it is unsafe and highly im¬ 
proper for females to visit exhibitions of animals where 
these beasts form a part of the number. In their native 
haunts they subsist on roots and berries, and partly on 
eggs, insects, and scorpions; but in cultivated districts 
they make incursions into the fields and gardens, where 
they commit the greatest depredations on the fruit and 
grain. They congregate in troops, and are bold and skil¬ 
ful in their predatory excursions, maintaining their 
ground even against large parties of men; and it is re¬ 
marked that “a troop of them will sometimes form a 
long chain, extending from the vicinity of their ordi¬ 
nary habitation to the garden or field which they happen 
to be engaged In plundering, and that the produce of 
their theft is pitched from hand to hand, till it reaches 
its destination in the mountains.” The B. can never be 
taid to be thoroughly tamed, how long soever his con¬ 


finement may have endured. As he advances in age, all 

his worst qualities become more strongly developed, and 
the expression of his physiognomy bears ample testimony 
to the fierceness and brutality of his disposition. The 
common Baboon, C. papio, is a native of the coast of 
Guinea, and is the one most commonly exhibited by itin¬ 
erant showmen. Its appearance is at once grotesque and 
formidable: its nervous limbs and compressed form indi¬ 
cate great force and agility; the anterior parts especially 
being extremely strong and muscular. It is of a uniform 
yellowish-brown color, with a shade of light red upon 
the head, shoulders, and extrenjities; the face, ears, and 
hands naked, and entirely black. The cheeks are con¬ 
siderably swollen below the eyes; after which the face 
contracts suddenly, which gives the nose the appearance 
of having been broken by a violent blow. It is furnished 
with whiskers, which have a backward direction, but do 
not conceal the ears. While young, this Baboon is gentle 
and familiar; but as it approaches adult age, it displays 
all therepulsive manner, and the ferocity and intractabil¬ 
ity common to the rest of its kind. The Mandrill, or varie¬ 
gated Baboon, C. maimon, is the most remarkable of the 
wholo genus for brilliancy and variety of color, while for 
size it is unequalled by any other baboon, its height when 
standing upright being upwards of five feet. The limbs 
are large and muscular, the body thick and robust; the 
head large, face long, scarcely any forehead, and the snout 
ending abruptly; the eyes small and deeply sunk in the 
head; the cheek-bones enormously swollen, and marked 



Fig. 257. — mandrill, (Cynocephalusmaimon.) 


with several deep furrows of violet-blue, purple, and scar¬ 
let; and the muzzle and lips large and protuberant. The 
hair of the forehead and temples rises in a remarkable 
manner into a pointed form, which gives the head a tri¬ 
angular appearance; and a small pointed orange-yellow 
beard adorns the chin. Round the back of the neck the 
hair is long, and inclines forward, somewhat in the man¬ 
ner of a wreath. On the loins the skin is almost bare 
and of a violet-blue color, gradually altering into a bright 
blood-red, which is more conspicuous on the hiuderparts, 
where it surrounds the tail, which is very short, and 
generally carried erect. In most of its habits the Man¬ 
drill resembles the other Baboons, especially in its grow¬ 
ing more morose as it advances in age, and in becoming 
offensively libidinous. — The Derrias, C. hamadryas, in¬ 
habits the mountains of Arabia and Abyssinia, and was 
probably the species known to the ancients, and sculp¬ 
tured on Egyptian monuments. It measures upward of 
4 feet when standing erect. The face is extremely long, 
and of a dirty flesh-color, with a lighter ring surround¬ 
ing the eyes. The general color of the hair is a mixture 
of light green and cinereous. While young, it is gentle 
and playful, but as soon as it has arrived at a mature age, 
it becomes sulky and malicious. — The Chacma, or Pig¬ 
faced baboon, C. porcarius, nearly equal in size, and much 
superior in strength, to a common mastiff, inhabits the 
.mountains in the neighborhood of theCapeof Good Hope, 
associates in families more or less numerous, and oc¬ 
casionally levies contributions on the gardens of Cape 
Town, which it performs in a very adroit and regular 
manner. — There are several other species which our 
limits forbid us to more than merely mention; as, the 
Drill, the Wood-baboon, the Pigtail, the Crested, the Yel¬ 
low, the Cinereous, &c. 

Babuyanes) ( ba-boo’ya-nes ,) or Madjicosima Islands, 
a number of islands lying about 30 m. N. of I.uzon, and 
generally considered the most northern of the Philip¬ 
pines. They are subject to the Loo-Choo islands; aggre¬ 
gate pop. about 12,000. Lat. 18° 58' to 19° 42' N.; Lon. 
121° 15' to 122° 5' E. 

Ba'by, n. A little babe; an infant or young child of 
either sex; — synonymous with Babe, q, v. 

“ The baby beats the nurse, and quite athwart 
Goes all deco rum." — Shafts, 

—A doll; a small image or effigy of an infant, for girls to 
play with. 

“And it was the part of children to fall out about babies."—Bacon. 

— a. Like a baby, or young child; pertaining to an infant. 

— v. a. To treat or caress like a young child. 

Ba'byl»oo«l, n. State of being a baby. 

lia'by-liouse, n. A place for children’s dolls and dolls’ 
furniture. 

Ba'byish, a. Like a baby; childish. 

Ba'byishness, n. The characteristic quality of a 
baby: childishness. 

Ba byism, n. State of being babyish; babyhood, (r.) 

Ba'by-jumper, n. A frame and seat suspended from 
theceiling by some elastic medium, and so disposed that 
a baby may be secured in it, and allowed to jump up 
and down. It is so constructed as to render the child’s 
falling an impossibility. 


Bab'ylon, (Anc. Geog.) The chief city of Babylonia 
( q. v.), on the Euphrates, and on the site of which the- 
modern town of llillah occupies a small part. It was for 
many centuries the most important city of Western Asia. 
Regarding its earliest history we are ignorant, the tradi¬ 
tions concerning it being fabulous. Many cities prob¬ 
ably preceded it in ancient Babylonia, and its rise to 
the chief position seems to have been about 2300 b. c. 
Of its history for many centuries we know little. 
Herodotus, who visited B., says it was the most cele¬ 
brated city of Assyria. The kings of rhe country made 
it their residence after the destruction of Nineveh. 
The city, situated in a great plain, was of a square form, 
each side 120 stadia in length, which makes the circuit 
480 stadia. It was so magnificent that none could be 
compared with it. It was, moreover, encompassed with 
a wide ditch, deep, and full of water. Besides this- 
there was a wall, 50 royal cubits thick, and 200 high. 
As soon as the earth was dug out to form the ditch, 
it was made into bricks, which were burnt in fur¬ 
naces. Hot bitumen was used to cement them together, 
and at every thirty layers of bricks a layer of reeds was 
placed. The sides of the ditch were first built in this 
manner, and then the walls above them; and upon the 
edges of the wall they erected buildings, with only one 
chamber, each opposite the other, between which there 
was space enough left for a chariot with four horses. 
In the wall there were a hundred gates made of brass, 
as well as the jambs and lintels. The Euphrates ran 
through the city, and divided it into two parts. Each 
w-all formed an elbow, or angle on the river, at which 
point a wall of baked bricks commenced, and the two, 
sides of the river werelined with them. Thehouseswere 
built of three and four stories. The streets were straight, 
and intersected by others which opened on the river. 
Opposite the end of the streets small gates of brass were 
formed in the walls which lined the river. By these- 
gates there was a descent to the river, and there were 
as many gates as there were transverse streets. The 
external wall served for defence: there was also an 
internal wall which was not less strong, but narrower. 
B. was taken by Tiglath-Pileser I., of Assyria, about b c. 
1110, and by Cyrus, about b. c.550 (538, according to the 
best authorities). Iiuri ng the present century, many en¬ 
terprising travellers, among whom may be mentioned 
Rich, Ker, Porter, Layard, Fraser,Chesney. Bot ta, I.oitus, 
and Rawlinson, have, by their explorations among the 
ruins of the ancient city, thrown considerable light upon 
the history of B. — See Babylonia, and Babylonian' 
Architecture. See also Hanging Gardens. 

Bab'ylon, in New York, a seaport village of Suffolk 
co., near South Bay, 35 m. from New York city. It has 
two churches and two schools. It is a summer resort of 
some popularity. Pop. about 3,500. 

Baby lo'nla, the name given to a very ancient kingdom 
which occupied the territory traversed by the lower 
Tigris and Euphrates, extending from about the situa¬ 
tion of Bagdad to the Persian Gulf, bounded on the- 
E. by the mountains of Elam and on the W. by the 
desert of Arabia. Much of this region has been won 
from the sea by the long-continued deposits of the 
rivers, which seem, at present, to produce about a mile 
of new territory every 70 years, and may have acted- 
still more rapidly in the past. Rawlinson believes that 
within 4,000 years these rivers have won from the gulf 
a tract of land 130 miles long by 60 or 70 broad. The- 
plain is low and flat, the gulf shallow, the rivers swift 
and well charged with alluvium, so that the process of 
silting up has been undoubtedly very rapid. In former 
time the Tigris and Euphrates discharged by separate 
mouths into the gulf, but they have long since joined 
their waters, the united stream, under the name of the 
Shat-el-Arab, being 90 miles in length. Formerly, the 
region surrounding was traversed by an extensive sys¬ 
tem of irrigating canals, which made the country highly 
productive, and enabled it to sustain a dense population. 
Some of these canals were utilized for commercial pur¬ 
poses, and large cities stood on their banks. All this 
has long passed away. During centuries of misrule, the 
canals have been neglected, the desert has encroached- 
upon the former fertile land, and the broad region, 
once marvellous for its productiveness, is now a thinly 
peopled waste, covered during part of the year with 
marshes and lakes, whose exhalations make it a fever- 
ridden land, while during the rest of the year it is a- 
desert, whose sands are driven in clouds before the 
winds. The country on the Tigris, north of the junc¬ 
tion of the rivers, was the seat of the kingdom of 
Assyria, while the much older Babylonia occupied the 
Euphrates region and the country bordering on the 
Persian Gulf. The region between the rivers gained, in 
later historical times, the name of Mesopotamia. The 
great antiquity of the Babylonian civilization wae 
formerly but little appreciated, but late research has 
shown its very remote extension into past time. Once 
supposed to be considerably later than Egypt in origin, 
it was shown to be probably of equal antiquity, and the 
latest results seem to indicate that it may have been the 
first seat of human civilization, its origin dating back 
to more than 10,000 years ago. The reasons for this 
conclusion will be considered under Babylonian Ex¬ 
ploration (q. r.). This antique civilization seems to 
have arisen among dwellers on the shores of the Persian 
Gulf, when these shores were possibly several liundref 
miles further inland than at present, the Babylonians 
following the gradually receding waters of the gulf. 
Whence these people came we do not know. What wo 
know of their language and physiognomy goes to indi- 
cate that they did not belong to the Semitic race, their 
affinities being rather with the Turanian peoples o4 
northern Asia. They possessed, apparently, a system of 













BABT 


B ACC 


BACC 


241 




hieroglyphic writing, which very early developed into 
the method known as cuneiform, or wedge-shaped,which 
existed at the remotest date to which research has gone, 
and ot which a vast s ore of examples have been found. 
These consist of sun-dried or burnt clay tablets, the 
books of the Babylonians, on which the characters were 
impressed while soft and moist. The wedge-shaped 
instrument used to impress these characters in the clav 
gave the peculiar character to the writing, which per¬ 
sisted until a somewhat late date. Semitic people occu¬ 
pied Babylonia as early as 4000 B. c., or perhaps earlier, 
subduing the lormer inhabitants and accepting their 
civilization, which later became impressed on the Assy¬ 
rians, who were an outgrowth from the Babylonians. 
From the cuneiform tablets, much concerning the 
history of this ancient civilization has been learned, 
though much still remains obscure. Previous to the su¬ 
premacy of the city of Babylon (about 2300 B. c.) other 
cities, of which scant ruins remain, preceded it, each 
perhaps the capital of a small kingdom, though occasion¬ 
ally combined into larger kingdoms. These cities bore 
the names of Ur, Nisiu, Nippur (Niffer), Uruk (Erech, 
Warka), Larsa, Ax., some of w hich rose to dominion at 
a period extremely remote. Something is now known 
of monarchs whose period, in the opinion of explorers, 
may have been 7000 or 8000 b. c. About 3800 b. c. two 
conquering kings arose, Sargon, and his son, Naram-Sin. 
Their date is founded on an inscription made by Nabu- 
Na’id, a king who reigned 555-538 b. c., and who states 
that while restoring the temple of the sun-god at 
Sippara, he found a record deposited by Naram-Sin 3,200 
years before. As the Babylonians kept a strict record 
of their kings, this date is believed to be authentic. 
Sargon and his sou were conquerors, who widely ex¬ 
tended the dominion of Babylonia. He is called the 


i 1 


Fig. 258. 

NORTH FACE OF THE KASR OR PALACE OF NEBUCHADNEZZAR, 

King of Agade, at that time the ruling city and state. 
At a later date Ur (the Biblical “Ur of the Chaldees”) 
became supreme, its most prominent king being 
Duugi. Subsequently the seat of power shifted to other 
cities, after which Ur again become the ruling city, its 
dynasty being finally overthrown by an invasion from 
Elam. Soon after Khammurabi, King of Babylon, re¬ 
pulsed Rim-Siu, the invader, and united all Babylonia 
under his dominion. From that time forward Babylon 
continued the seat of government, gradually expanding 
into a great and splendid city, and coming into warlike 
contact with the Assyrians, and later with the Persians, 
by whom the Babylonian kingdom was at length over¬ 
thrown. Of the ancient kings of Babylonia, the names, 
and some facts of the reigns, of a large number are 
known, but as yet it is impossible to give a consecutive 
list of reigns, though research is steadily adding to our 
knowledge concerning this interesting seat of ancient 
culture. Perhaps the most remarkable fact in the his¬ 
tory of B. is great slowness of development, and the 
political stagnation, which is only paralleled in the his¬ 
tory of China, and is certainly extraordinary when 
contrasted with the rapidity of western progress. Dur¬ 
ing a career of possibly 7,000 years in duration, the 
conditions and methods of government remained prac¬ 
tically unchanged. There may have been more change 
in religion, literature, social relations, Ac., but these 
also varied very slowly, and if we compare this stagna¬ 
tion with the rapid progress of Europe within the past 
thousand years, the difference seems phenomenal, and 
almost as if the men of Europe and Asia were unlike 
beings. See Babylonian Exploration. (Sec. II.) 

Babylon'ic, Babylon'ical, a. Pertaining to Baby¬ 
lon ; or after the fashion of Babylonia. 

: ^-Tumultuous; disorderly. 

Bal»ylo'nish, a. Relating to Babylon. 

B. Captivity. This captivity, foretold by Isaiah (xxxix. 
6). and Jeremiah (xxv. 9-11), lasted from b. c. 604 to b. c. 
536. It commenced under Jehoiakim (2 Chron. xxxvi. 
9,10), and terminated with the decree issued by Cyrus, 
granting permission to the Israelites to return to their 
country. The Jews were not in a state of intolerable 
servitude during this period, but many of them rose to 
offices of high standing and honor in the court of Baby¬ 
lon, as may be learned from the histories of Daniel, Es¬ 
ther, Mordecai.and others.—See Babylonia, Jerusalem. 

Bab'y Ionite, n. The arrow-headed or cuneiform Baby¬ 
lonish characters of inscription. 

Babyrr.n ssa, n. (Zool.) The Susbabi/roussa is a spe¬ 
cie** of wild hog which inhabits the woods of Java, Cele¬ 
bes, Ac. It is sometimes called the Horned ling, from the 
great length and curved form of its upper tusks, which 
pierce through the upper lip and grow upward and back¬ 
ward like the horns of the Ruminantia. It has been 
likewise called the Stag-boar, from its more slender pro¬ 
portion? and longer limbs compared with other species 



of the same genus. Its food is vegetable, and its flesh, 
according to travellers, is superior to dairy-fed pork. 



Fig. 259. — babyroussa, (Horned Hog of Java.) 


Ba'byship, n. The state or condition of a baby. 

Bac, Back, n. [Fr. bac, a ferry-boat; Du. bak, tray, bowl.] 
A large tub or vessel into which the wort, Ac. is drawn 
for the purpose of cooling, straining, mixing, Ac. It has 
different names, according to its position and use; as, 
under-back, jack-back, spirit-back, wash-back. 

—A broad, flat-bottomed boat, or barge, employed for con¬ 
veying horses, cattle, carriages, Ac. over a ferry; it is 
hauled from one side to the other by means of a rope 
stretched across. 

Ba'ca, n. [Heb., weeping, lamentation.] (Scrip.) A valley 
somewhere in Palestine, through which the exiled Psalm¬ 
ist sees in a vision the pilgrims passing in their march 
toward the sanctuary of Jehovah at Zion. (Ps. Ixxxiv. 6.) 

Bac'alar, a town of Yucatan, Central America, 80 m. 
from Belize; pop. about 5.000, chiefly Indians. 

Bac'alliao, an island off theS.E. coast of Newfoundland; 
Lat. 48° 9' N.; Lon. 52° 52' IV. It is high, about 4 m. 
long, and 1]^ broad, and about 1 ni. from the main¬ 
land. 

Bae'ea, n. [Lat.] (Bnt.) The technical name by which 
botanists distinguish the fruit, commonly called a berry. 
The term, nevertheless, is restricted to those fruits only 
which have a thin skin, are pulpy internally, and have 
several seeds finally lying loose in the pulpy mass: such 
are the gooseberry', currant, grape, potato-fruit, Ac. 
When a fruit has only a fleshy rind, without any internal 
pulpiness, as in the Capsicum, it is not called a berry, but 
a berried capsule. 

Baccalau reate, n. [Fr. baccalaureat; N. Lat. bacca- 
laureatus, from baccalaureus, a bachelor of arts, from Lat. 
bacca lauri, bay-berry, from the custom of a bachelor 
beingcrowned with a garland of bay-berries.] The degree 
of B. A. or Bachelor of Arts, the first or lowest academ¬ 
ical degree conferred by universities in the United States, 
England, and France. 

— a. Pertaining or relating to a Bachelor of Arts. 

Baccara, (ba'ka-ra,) n. [Fr.] (Games.) A French game 
of cards which somewhat resembles lansquenet. It offers 
no intricacies, and its only interest depends on the money 
at stake. At the head of a long table, divided into 2 parts 
by a line drawn lengthwise, a person, who is called the 
banker, sits with several packs of cards in his hands. 
The players, or, more properly speaking, the bettors, staud 
around. The banker draws cards, putting one for the 
bettors on the right, another for himself on the left; 
and the party' wins whose card or cards bring 9 points, 
or the nearest number to it; each party having, of course, 
the privilege of calling for supplementary cards to im¬ 
prove his number. Also spelled Baccarat. 

Bac'carat, a town of France, dep. of Meurthe, 15 m. 
from Luneville; pop 4,216. 

Bac'cate, a. [Lat. baccatus, from Lat. bacca , berry.] 
(Bnt.) Having a pulpy nature like a berry. 

Bac'catctl, a. Having many berries. 

Bac'elianal, Bacchana lian, n. [Lat. Bacchus; 
Gr. Bacchos, the god of wine.] One who indulges in 
drunken revels; a drunkard; a bacchant. 

— a. Revelling in intemperate drinking; riotous; noisy. 

Baccliana'liaiily, adv. In the manner of bac¬ 
chanals, , 

Bac chanals, Bacchana lia, n. pi. (Myth.) Feasts 
held in honor of Bacchus, and said by Herodotus to have 
been of Egyptian origin, (see Dionysia ;) these, as prac¬ 
tised at Rome and in other parts of Italy, led to such 
abuses, that they were suppressed by a decree of the 
senate, b. C. 186. This decree, engraved upon a brazen 
table, was discovered at Bari in 1640, and is preserved in 
the imperial collection at Vienna, 

Bacchant', n. [Lat. bacchans, p.pr. of bacchari, to cele¬ 
brate the festival of Bacchus ] A priest of Bacchus. 

— A bacchanal: a reveller: a drunkard. 

Bacchante', n. [Fr.] A priestess of Bacchus.— A fe¬ 
male bacchanal. 

Bacchantes, (hdk-dn'tes,)n. pi. [Lat.] (Myth.) Priest¬ 
esses of Bacchus, represented at the celebration of their 
orgies as almost naked, with garlands of ivy. a thyrsus, 
and dishevelled hair. Their looks are wild,and, uttering 
frantic cries, they clash various musical instruments to¬ 
gether. They are also called Thyades and Mcenads. 

Bacchi&'lionc, (ba'keel-ye'o-nai,) a navigable river of 
Upper Italy, rising in Vicenza, and, after a course of 55 
m., falling into the lagoons of Venice. 

Bac'chinst, and Bi'thus, two celebrated gladiators 
of equal age and strength; whence the proverb to ex¬ 
press equality, Bithns centra Bacchium 

Bncchiiis. pi. Bicchii. [Lat.; Gr. baccheios.) 

(Pros.) A foot composed of a short syllable and two 
long ones; as in dvdri. 


Baceha'ris, n. [From Bacchus; its fragrance resent, 
bling that of wine.] A ge¬ 
nus of the ord. Asteracece. 

They are shrubby plants 
with alternate leaves 
and white flowers. The 
Groundsel-tree, B.halimi- 
folia,(Fig. 260.) is a large 
rambling shrub, found 
from Maryland to Florida, 
on the sea-coast; height 8 
to 10 feet. Its white flow¬ 
ers, which blossom in 
Sept., have a tint of pur¬ 
ple, and resemble those 
of the groundsel, but are 
larger. It grows in any 
common soil that is toler¬ 
ably dry, and forms a 
large, loose-headed, ro¬ 
bust-looking bush. 

Bac'cliic, Bac'chi- 
cal, a. [Lat. bacchicus.] 

Relating to Bacchus; used 
generally to denote jovial 
intoxication; drunken 
revelry. 

Bacclii'tlcs, a general 
of Demetrius Soter, and 
governor of Mesopota¬ 
mia, who lived in the 2d 
half of the second century 
B. c. He invaded Judaea, 
for the purpose of reinstating Alcimeus in the priest¬ 
hood; and Judas Maccabeus having attacked him with 
inferior forces, perished in the contest; B., however, was 
forced by Jonathan to quit Judtea. 

Bacchus, (bdk'kus.) [Lat.; Gr. Dionysos.] (Myth.) The 
god of wine, born ol a mortal mother, yet one of the im¬ 
mortal gods. The common story of the birth of Bacchus, 
his mother Semeles fatal wish, his imprisonment in the 
thigh ot his father Jupiter, and the various adventures 
attributed to him, are too well known to need descrip¬ 
tion ; and it would take up more space than the nature 
of this work allows, to discuss the inferences drawn from 
the old traditions by modern mythologists. These de¬ 
ductions, and especially the description of the mystical 
character of B. as distinguished from his worship as the 
god of wine, may be 6een fully developed by Creuzer 
(Symbnlik, Theil HI., pp.83,260; pp. 319-366,) whose the¬ 
ory, however, of the Indian origin of the Bacchic rites, 
though abundantly ingenious, does not appear to be es¬ 
tablished by sufficient external evidence. The southern 
coast of Thrace seems to have been the original seat of 
this religion, and it was thence introduced into Greece 
shortly after the colonization by the ,Eolians of the 
Asiatic coast of the Hellespont. The admission of the 
identity of Osiris and Dionysus by Plutarch and other 
mythological theorists, as well as Herodotus's simple 
statement of the assertions of the Egyptian priests to 
that effect, is no proof of the common origin of the wor¬ 
ship of this divinity in Egypt and Greece; but there is 
no doubt that certain modifications of the Dionysiac rites 
took place after the commencement of the intercourse 
of the Ionian? with the Egyptians. — The worship of 
Bacchus is intimately connected with that of Demeter; 
under the name of Iacclius he was worshipped along with 
that goddess at Eleusis, (see Demeier.) Virgil invokes 
them together (Georgies, i. 5) as the lights ot the uni¬ 
verse. According to the Egyptians, they were the joint 
rulers of the world below, ( Her ml. ii. 123.) Pindar calls 
Dionysus “ the companion of Demeter,” and in a cameo 
he is represented sitting by the goddess in a chariot 
drawn by male and female centaurs. — On the form and 
dress ot Bacchus almost all the ancient testimonies have 
been collected by F. G. Schon in an ingenious disserta¬ 
tion on the costume of the characters in the Bacchce of 
Euripides From these it appears that he was represented 
as a young man with an effeminate face, long blonde 
hair, a fillet or an ivy' crown on his head, a long purple 
robe, and a nebris, (deer-skin.) and with a thyrsus in his 
hand. Many of his numerous appellations may be seen in 
the Index to Wachsmuth, p. 570, and in Ovid Met. lib. iv. 
init. His attendants were the Bacchantes, the Lennae. the 
Naiades and Nymphs, the Thyades, the Mimallones, the 
Tityri, Pan, Silenus, the Fauns, and the Satyrs, 
liaccliy li<l«‘S, a Greek lyric poet, a native of Julis, a 
town on the island of Cos. He was a cousin of the still 
more famous lyric poet Simonides, with whom he re¬ 
mained for some time at the court of Hiero in Sicily. He 
travelled also in the Peloponnesus. He is said to have 
been a rival of Pindar. He flourished about 470 B. c. His 
fragments are given by Schneidwein and Bergh in their 
collection. 

Baeeif'erons, a. [Lat. baccifer — bacca, a berry, and 
fero, to produce.] That produces berries: b‘Try-bearing. 
Bac'eio Bel la I»or'ta, or Fra Bartolommeo de San 
Marco, called also simply II Frate, (“the Friar,”) one 
of the greatest of the Cinque Cento school of painting, in 
Italy, was B. at Sevignano, in Tuscany, in 1469. Early 
showing a tendency to art. he studied the works of Leo¬ 
nardo di Vinci, and in conjunction with his friend Mari- 
otto Albertinelli, he executed his celebrated fresco, 7 hi 
Last Judgment. Afterwards he became the friend of 
Savonarola, (q. v.,) whose fate he narrowly escaped shar¬ 
ing. He then entered upon a monastic life, and became 
a Dominican friar at Prato, where he assumed the name 
of Prd Bartolommeo. While here he formed a close and 
lasting friendship with the great painter Rafaelle. In 
1513 B. visited Rome, and on his return, resuming bia 
brush, he produced some of his greatest works, among 
































242 


BACH 


BACK 


BACK 


which we may mention the SI. Marl:, (now in the gal¬ 
lery at Florence,) ami the Madonna della Misericordia, 
(at Lucca.) D. 1517. 

Bacctiio'cki, or Baciocchi, Felix Pascal, Prince of 
Piombino and Lucca, B. in Corsica in 1762. lie was of 
noble blood, but poor, and entered the army at an early 
age. In 1797, he married Marie Elise Bonaparte, sister 
of the great Napoleon, the latter being at the time gen¬ 
eral-in-chief of the army in Italy. Napoleon, though dis¬ 
pleased at the iriliance, nevertheless allowed B. to share 
the rising fortunes of the family. After obtaining the 
highest military rank, he was given the principalities of 
Piombino and Lucca, and was crowned with his wife on 
10th July, 1805. Shortly afterwards, they separated. B. 
remained a general, and Elise, as sister of the emperor, 
assumed the state of a princess, and was made Grand 
Duchess of Tuscany. B. afterwards retired to Germany, 
and in 1831 was allotted a revenue of 100,000 crowns, 
with the title of a prince of the Holy Roman empire. D. 
at Bologna, 28th April, 1841. His wife died in 1820. 

Baceiv'orous, a. [Lat. bacca, a berry, and voro, to 
eatj Eating or subsisting on berries. 

Bar li , and Rack. [Ger., brook, rivulet.] An affix used in 
many German geographical names, as Auer bach (“ brook 
of the meadow”), Anspach (“situated at the stream”). 

Bach, John Sebastian, an eminent German musical 
composer, B. at Eisenach, 21st March, 16S5. In 1708, 
he became chef d'orclieslre to the Duke of Saxe-Weimar. 
Ho is said to have been equal to Handel in his execu¬ 
tion on the organ, and his compositions are works of the 
highest excellence. D. at Leipzig, 13th July, 1750.—His 
sons, Charles and John, were also celebrated as perform¬ 
ers and composers; and so fertile in musical talent was 
the B. family, that 59 members of it have been men¬ 
tioned as distinguished musicians. 

Bach'arach, a walled town of Prussia, prov. of the 
Rhine, on the left bank of that river, 25 m. S.S.E. of 
Coblentz, on the railway from Cologne to Mayence. The 
best wine produced here is known as “ Muskateller." 
Pop. about 2,000. 

Bachau'mont, Francois le Coigneux de, a French 
literateur, b. in 1624; was clerk of the council to the 
parliament of Paris. He was one of the most brilliant 
epigrammatists of an age when epigrams were at their 
highest value, and served equally the purposes of states¬ 
men and of wits. In the war of the Fronde, B. found 
frequent occasion to exercise his wit in epigrams against 
the court. After the troubles were past, he devoted 
himself to pleasure and to poetry. Similarity of taste 
and character produced an intimate friendship between 
him and La Chapelle, and they composed, in common, 
that charming account of a journey, which met with so 
much favor among the friends of light and sportive 
poetry. D. 1702. 

Backe', Alexander Dallas, a distinguished American 
hydrographer, b. in Philadelphia, 19th July, 1806. He 
graduated at West Point in 1825, and in 182S was ap¬ 
pointed Professor of Natural Philosophy and Chemistry 
in the University of Philadelphia. In 1836, he was nomi¬ 
nated the first President of Girard College, and made 
a trip through Europe in the interests of that institu¬ 
tion. In 1843 he was appointed superintendent of the 

f 1 United States Coast Survey,” which may be considered 
as his creation. This important institution has sent 
forth many accurate maps, not only of the configurations 
of the coasts, but also of the soundings of every harbor 
and channel as yet utilized. When finished, the coast 
survey, with which the name of Bache is so intimately 
connected, will take its place as a model that should be 
imitated by every maritime nation. Nominated presi¬ 
dent of the National Academy of Sciences in 1863, Dr. 
Bache died in Newport, 17th February, 1867. 

Bacli'eler, n. [0. Fr. bachelier, a young man; bache- 
lette, a young woman; probably from W. bachgen, a boy, 
a child, from bach, little.] In its primitive sense, it 
means a man who has not been married; and in all 
its various senses, it seems to include the idea of youth or 
immaturity, except when it has the word old prefixed. 

—One who has taken, at a college or university, the first 
degree in the liberal arts and sciences, or the first degree 
in the particular study to which he devotes himself. 
This degree or honor is called the baccalaureate, q. v. At 
Oxford and at Cambridge, to attain the degree of B of 
Arts, a person must have studied there four years ; after 
three more, he may become Master of Arts; and at the 
end of another series of seven, B. of Divinity. In the U. 
States, B. of Arts is a degree commonly conferred on 
students who have completed the course of study estab¬ 
lished in the several colleges of this country. 

( Knighthood.) An ancient denomination given to such 
as had not a sufficient number of vassals to carry their 
banner; or to such knights-bannerets as were not of age 
to display their own banner; or, to young cavaliers, little 
more than initiated to arms; or, in a very honorable 
sense, to him who had overcome his antagonist in a 
tournament. — Knights-Bachebirs. The lowest rank of 
knights, whose title was not hereditary. These are the 
knights of modern days. 

—Among the Livery companies of the city of London, a 
term applied to a person not yet admitted a member of 
the Livery, but who is an aspirant for that position. 

Baek'elorkootl, Bacli'elorisin, n. The state of a 
bachelor; bachelorship. 

Bachelors*' Button,n. (Hot.) See Ranunculus. 

Bach'elor's Hall, a. House kept by a bachelor. 

Bach'elor’s Hall, in Va., a P.O. of Pittsylvania co. 

Bach'elorship, n. State or condition of being a bach¬ 
elor, or one who has taken his first degree in a college 
er university. 

“ Her mother, living yet. can testify. 

She was the flrst fruit of my bachelorship.”—Shaks. 


Bach'elor’s Retreat, in South Carolina, a post-office 
of Pickens district. 

Bacli'grove, in Lava, a post-office of Wright co. 
Bach'man, John, d.d., ll.d., a distinguished American 
naturalist, b. in Duchess co., New York, in 1790. He 
was the assistant of Audubon in his great work on 
American Ornithology. Dr. Bachman was pastor of the 
German Lutheran Church in Charleston for many years, 
and published some works of great value on the denom¬ 
ination with which he was so long connected. Died in 
1874. 

Bacli'inan, in Ohio, a post-office of Montgomery co. 
Bach'maiTs Mills, in Maryland, a post-office of 
Carroll co. 

Bacilla'rite, n. pi. [Lat. bacillus, a little staff.] ( Bot.) 
See Bacilli. 

Bacio'cchi. See Bacciochi. 

Back, n. [A. S. bac, base; Icel., Swed. and L. Ger. bale ; 
Dan. bag; 0. II. Ger. baclio, back, cheek.] The part of the 
human body which is behind; the hinder part of man; 
in animals, the upper part, which in quadrupeds is a 
ridge. 

“ Part followiug enter, part remain without. 

And mount on others backs, in hopes to share.”— Dryden. 

—A broad high ridge; as, “ (mountains) their broad, bare 
backs upheave.”— Milton. 

—The outward or upper part of a body or thing, as opposed 
to the inner or lower part; as, the back of the hand (op¬ 
posed to the palm ) ; the back of the body (opposed to the 
stomach); the back of a hand-rail, &c. 

“ Methought Love, pityiug me, when he saw this. 

Gave me your hands, the backs and palms to kiss.”— Donne. 
—The rear; the part opposed to the front; the hinder part 
of anything; as, the back of a house; the back of a book. 
—The place behind; the part opposite to, or most remote 
from ; that which fronts the actor or speaker, or the part 
out of sight; as, the back of a mountain. 

—The thicker and stronger part of a cutting instrument 
or tool, opposed to the edge ; as the back of a knife.—See 
Bac. 

— a. In the rear; remote from; as, the back woods;—back¬ 
ward in movement; as, back action. 

Back, ^wlv. I A. S. on bac.] To the place left, or from 
which one came. 

“ Back to thy native island mightst thou sail, 

And leave half heard the melancholy tale."— Pope. 

—To return to a former state, condition, or station ; as, to 
go back to prison. 

“ I’ve been surprised in an unguarded hour, 

But must not now go back.” — Addison. 

—Backward ; by reverse movement; free from contact; as, 
to roll back a stone.— Behind; not coming forward; in a 
state of hinderance or restraint. 

“ Constrain the glebe, keep back the hurtful weed.”— Blackmore. 
—Towards things or times past; remote from the present. 

"I had always a curiosity to look back iuto the sources of 
things ."—Bishop Burnet. 

—Again ; in return; as, to give back the umbrella. 

“ Take and give back, and their dispatch, 

With such a smooth, discreet, and stable bearing."— Shake. 

—In withdrawal; as, to draw back from an agreement. 
Back, v. a. To get upon the back of; to mount. 

44 That roau shall be my throne ; 

Well, I will back him strait.”— Shaks. 

—To place upon the back, (r.) 

“ Great Jupiter, upon his eagle back'd, appear'd to me.”— Shake. 
—To break a horse, or train him to bear a burden on his 
back, (r.) 

“ Direct us how to back the wiuged horse; 

Favor his Right, and moderate his course ."—Lord Roscommon. 
—To maintain; to strengthen; to support; to defend. 

“Call you that backing of your friends? a plague upon such 
backing l give me them that will face me.”— Shaks. 

—To put or force backward; to cause to recede or retreat; 
as, to back a team. 

—To furnish with a back or binding; to make a back for; 
as, to back a book. — To back out, or back down, to with¬ 
draw from, or shirk a promise or engagement. 

To back a wager, to second a person in a bet or wager; 
to take shares in a wager laid between other parties. 

“ Factions, and fav'ring this or t'other side, 

Their wagers back their wishes.”— Dryden. 

To back up, to sustain, support, help, become respon¬ 
sible for; as, to back up a friend. Its American synonym 
is, to “ see him through." 

(Naut.) To back an anchor, to carry out a small an¬ 
chor, ahead of the large one, in order to support the latter. 
To back astern, to reverse the action of the oars in row¬ 
ing, contrary to moving ahead, so as to impel a boat 
stern foremost.— To back and fill, an operation generally 
performed in narrow rivers, by keeping the ship in the 
middle of the stream, and then advancing ahead from 
one shore and moving backwards from the opposite shore. 
To back the oars, to manage the oars in a direction con¬ 
trary to the usual method, so that the boat shall move 
with her stern forward.— To back the sails, to arrange 
them in a situation that will occasion the vessel to retreat, 
or to move astern, inconsequence of the tide or current 
being in her favor, and the wind contrary, but light.— 
Back the main-topsail! the command to brace that sail 
in such a manner, that the wind may exert its force 
against the fore-part of the sail, and, by thus laying it 
aback, materially retard the vessel’s course. 

{Law.) To back a warrant, signifies for a justice of the 
peace, or other magistrate, in the county in which a 
warrant is to be executed, to counter-sign or indorse 
such warrant, as issued in another county, to apprehend 
an offender. 

(Sport.) To back a horse., or the field, in horse-racing, to 
lay the odds, in betting, upon a certain horse or favorite, 


against the field, or the other horses entered in a rao* 
who are termed (in the lauguage of the turf) outsiders ; 
or, vice versd, to bet upon the field against the favorite, 
or any one or more horses. 

— v. i. To move or to back; as, “ the horse refuses to back." 

Back, Sir George, d. c. l., f.R. s., an English naviga¬ 
tor, b. 1796. In 1818 he was selected to accompany Cap¬ 
tains Beechey and Buchan, and Sir John Franklin, on 
the first modern voyage of discovery beyond Spitzbergen. 
In 1819, he again joined Franklin in the expedition from 
Hudson’s Bay to the E. of the Coppermine River. In 
1833, he commanded an expedition in search of Sir John 
Ross, and published an account of it. In 1836-7, he pro¬ 
ceeded in H.M.S. “ Terror ” with a view of prosecuting 
discovery in the Arctic seas from Regent’s Cape to Cape 
Turn-again, but was unsuccessful, and returned after 
suffering severe privations. Of this voyage he has writ¬ 
ten a clear, elegant, and interesting narrative, published 
in 1838. D. 1872. 

Back'bite, v. a. and n. To bite at the back; to speak 
evil of a person behind his back; to calumniate, slander, 
or revile the absent. 

“Use his men well, Davy, for they are arrant knaves, and will 
backbite." — Shaks. 

Back'biter, n. A slanderer of persons behind their 
backs; a traducer; calumniator; detractor; detainer; 
maligner. 

Back'bitingly, adv. With secret calumny; slander¬ 
ous. 

Back'board, n. [Bank and board.] (Naut.) A board 
placed across the stern-sheets of a boat, us a support for the 
passengers’ backs.—A board fixed to the edge of a water¬ 
wheel, to hinder the water from running off the floats 
or paddles into the cavity of the wheel. — A board used 
in ladies’ seminaries, or boarding-schools, and attached to 
the back of a pupil, in order to ensure erectness to the 
figure. — A part of a lathe. 

Back'-boml, n. (Law.) A bond of indemnification 
given to a surety. — Bouvier. — (Scotch Law.) A deed, 
which, in conjunction with an absolute disposition, con¬ 
stitutes a trust. It expresses the nature of the right 
actually held by a person to whom the disposition is 
made. It is equivalent to the English deed of Declaration 
of Trust. 

Back'bone, n. The bone of the back, or the spine.— 
Figuratively, moral principle; steadfastness; stability 
of purpose or condition. 

Back'-cliain, n. A chain that passes over a cart sad¬ 
dle to support the shafts. 

Back Creek, in Indiana, flowing into Guthrie’s Creek 
in Lawrence co. 

Back Creek, in Virginia. Taking rise in Frederick 
co., it runs N.E. and enters the Fotomac, about 1(J m. N. 
of Martinsburg. 

Back Creek Valley, in Virginia, a post-office of 

Frederick co. 

Back'-door, n. A door on the back part of a building; 
a private passage; an indirect way. 

“- is stealiug in by Ihe back-door of Atheism."— Atterbury. 

Backed', a. Having a back; used in composition in a 
compound sense, as, hump-backed. 

“Sharp-headed, barrel-bellied, broadty-back'd ."— Dryden. 

Back'er, n. One who backs or supports another in a 
contest or an undertaking. 

(Arch.) A narrow slate laid on the back of a broad, 
square-headed slate, where they begin to diminish in 
width. 

Baekerguiig'e, (ba’ker-yoonf,) adistrictof Hindostan, 
pres, of Bengal, in the Dacca division, including part of 
the Sunderbunds and the mouths of the rivers Ganges 
and Brahmapootra. Area, 3.796 sq. m. Estimated pop. 
734,000. It is mostly covered with jungle, and infested 
with royal tigers; grows a good deal of rice, and is fre¬ 
quently inundated. 

Backgam'inon. n. [0. Eng. baggamm, from W. bach, 
little, and cammawn, common, combat, fight, from camp, 
a circle, feat, game, or, according to Strutt, A. S. bac, 
back, and gamen, a game.] (Games.) An ingenious game 
of chance, played by two persons, with 15 black and 15 
white pieces or men, on a board or table divided into parts, 
whereon are 24 black and white spaces called points, by 
A 



B 

Fig. 261. — BACKGAMMON-BOARD. 

casting dice alternately from little boxes, with one ot 
which each player is provided. The arrangement of th* 
board and pieces will be more readily understood by refer¬ 
ence to the accompanying diagram, in which the men are 
set in readiness to commence the game.- the player using 































































































BACK 


BACK 


BACO 


245 


ine black men being seated at the upper end of the board,! 
at A, and the one using the white pieces, at B. It is the 
object of the player at A to get all his men into the sec-1 
tion of tlie tables on his left hand, or “ home,” as it is I 
technically called, and “ bear” or remove them from the 
board in accordance with the numbers indicated by the | 
successive castings of the dice, before his adversary can 
,lo the same, after getting his pieces iuto the section on 
his right. The dice are cubes, spotted on tire sides from 
one to six; and, as they are thrown together, any com- 
oination of two numbers can be thrown, from two aces 
<o two sixes. The terms for the numbers on the dice are 
as follows: — 1, ace; 2, deuce; 3, tre or tray; 4, quatre; 
5, cinque; 6, seize. If doublets are thrown, or similar 
numbers on each die, double the number of points are 
reckoned. Thus, if two cinques be thrown, twenty points 
are counted. The points on the board are counted from 
one to six in each of the four sections respectively, each 
player commencing from the point in tiie table opposite 
to him, on which two men are seen to be placed in tiie 
right of the diagram. Tlius the player using the white 
men counts from the point marked X, and his adversary 
using the black pieces from the point marked Y. Two 
men can be advanced at once, one for each number turned 
up on the dice; or one man may be moved forward as 
many points as the numbers on the dice amount to taken 
together. When any point is covered by two of an op¬ 
ponent’s men, the player cannot put any of his upon that 
point; but if one only be there, which constitutes what 
is called a hint, that man may be removed and placed on 
the centre ledge of the board, aud the point occupied. 
This man must be entered on any vacant point in the 
“home” section of the tables belonging to the opponent 
of the player whose man has been taken up, provided 
the number turned up on either die corresponds with 
that point, and must then be brought round from the 
commencement like the men on the ace-points in either 
table. To win a hit is to remove all your men from the 
table before your adversary has removed his: this counts 
one. To win a gammon, which counts two, is to remove 
all your men before your adversary has brought all of 
his home; and if your men are entirely removed while 
your antagonist has one remaining in your home section 
of the table, you win a backgammon, which counts three. 
— Trick-track , or French trictrac, is a game resembling 
backgammon. 

Background, n. Ground in the rear or behind; in 
contradistinction to the front. 

(Paint.) The space behind a portrait, or group of fig¬ 
ures. 

—A place of obscurity or shade; a secluded situation. 

Back handed, a. With the hand turned backward; 
as, a backhanded blow. — Oblique; indirect; reversed; 
as, a backhanded suggestion. — Turned back, or inclining 
to the left; as, backhanded letters. 

-adv. With the hand moved backward; as, to strike back- 
handed. 

Back'kouse, n. A building or office behind the chief 
or front building; specifically, a privy or water-closet. 

44 Their backhouses, of more necessary than cleanly service.” 

Careio. 

Back'huyscn, re. See Bakhuysen. 

Backing, re. (Manege.) The operation of breaking-in 
a young horse for the saddle. 

(Bookbinding.) The mode of preparing the back of a 
book with glue, &c., in order to receive aud attach the 
cover. 

Back'ing-up, re. See Backstopping. 

Uaeli'-lasli, n. (Mech.) The term applied to the reac¬ 
tion produced by irregularity of velocity resulting from 
a want of uniformity in the moving power upon each 
other of a pair of wheels. 

Back deaning, a. That inclines toward the hinder 
part. 

Back'-ligllt, re. A light which is reflected on the hinder 
part. 

Back'-lining, re. (Arch.) See Sash-frame. 

Back'nang, a town of S. Germany, in the kingdom of 
Wiirtemberg, 16 m. N.E. of Stuttgart. Man/. Wool¬ 
lens and leather. Pop. about 4,000. 

Back-painting, re. (Paint.) The method of painting 
mezzotinto prints, pasted on glass, with oil colors. 

Back -piece, or Back -plate, re. (MU.) The piece 
of armor which covers the back. 

“The morning that he was to join battle, his armorer put on his 
back-piece before, and his breast-plate behind.’ —Camden. 

Back-pressure, re. (Steam-Engineering.) The resist¬ 
ance of the atmosphere or waste steam to the piston.— 
Webster. 

Back -rest, re. (Mech.) The name given to a guide, 
which, being affixed to the slide-rest of a lathe, is brought 
into contact with the work, to hold it firm in turning. 

Back'-room, re. A room behind the front room, or in 
the back part of the house. 

Back'-rope, re. (Naut.) A rope leading from the mar¬ 
tingale inboard; a gob-line. 

Back River, in New Hampshire, a small stream, which, 
rising in the N.E. part of the State, falls into the Pis- 

cataqua. , , , , , 

Backs, re. pi. Among curriers and leather dealers, a 
kind or quality of leather selected from the strongest 
and thickest ox-hides. 

Backset, a. Set upon in the rear. 

“ Backset with Pharaoh's whole power."— Anderson. 
i —re. A check to the progress of anything; a relapse. (Scot- 

Back'stiish. Back sheesh, n. [Per. bakhshish, 
from bakhshidan, to give.] A terra used in Turkey, 
Egypt, India, and the East generally, to signify a pres¬ 
ent, or gratuity of money; a donation of alms; a gift to 
servants, &c. 


Back'side, re. The back or hinder part of a thing, or 
of an animal. — The rear of a house, as the yard or 
ground behind it. 

Back sight, re. (Land Surveying.) The first reading 
of the levelling staff, taken from any position of the 
levelling instrument, all other readings being called 
foresights. 

Back's Band, in British North America, a region 
around the Arctic Circle, between Lon. 95° aud 108° W., 
explored by Sir George Back, in 1831. 

Backslide', v. i. To slide back or backwards; to fall 
away; to depart from; to apostatize; to relapse from 
one's faith. 

Backslid'er, re. One who slides or shuffles back, es¬ 
pecially from religious principles or professions. An 
apostate: renegade; recreant; abjurer. 

Baekslid'ing-ness, re. The. state or condition of 
backsliding. 

Back's River, in British N. America, rising in Sussex 
Lake, N. of Lake Aylmer, flows N. and N.E. through a 
sandy region, traverses Lakes Pelly and Garry, and 
empties iuto a bay supposed to be the S.W. part of 
Boothia Gulf, in Lat. 67° 7' 31" N., Lon. 94° 39' 45" W. 

Back -stall', re. (Astron.) An instrument used before 
the invention of the quadrant and sextant, for taking 
the sun's altitude at sea, and so called from the back of 
the observer being turned to the sun while making the 
observation. It was invented by Captain John Davis, a 
Welsh mariner, about the year 1690. 

Back'stairs, re. pi. Stairs in the back part of a house; 
private stairs. Adj., tortuous, not straight forward. 

Backstays, (bdk-slais'.) re. pi. ( Naut .) Long ropes 
extending from the top mastheads to the starboard and 
port sides of the ship, their use being to second the 
efforts of the shrouds in supporting the masts. They 
are usually distinguished into breast-back stays and 
after-back stays, the intent of the first being to sustain 
the mast when the ship sails upon a wind; the second 
to enable her to carry sail when the wind is farther aft. 

(Printing.) A leather strap serving to check the car¬ 
riage of a printing-press. 

Back'-stone, re. (Pnw.Eng) See Girdle. 

Baek'stop- Baek'stopper,re. (Sports.) In cricket: 
one who stands at a short distance behind the wicket¬ 
keeper, and stops the ball when bowled over the wicket. 

Back'stopping-, re. (Spurts.) The act or duty of a 
backstopper. 

Back -stream, re. A current flowing up-stream. 

Backs'ville, in Minnesota, a post-office of Brown co. 

Back's word, re. A sword having a back; a sword with 
one sharp edge. 

—In England, a term used to denote a fencing-stick with 
a basket-handle, used in rustic games of skill. 

(Fencing.) A game or play with the backsword; — 
most commonly called single-stick. 

Back'ward, Back wards, adv. With the back 
forward or in advance; as, to walk backward. 

—Towards the back; as, to throw the arms backward. 

•‘In leaping with weights, the arms are first cast backwards 
and then forwards.” — Bacon. 

—With the back downward; on the back. 

“ Then darting fire from her malignant eyes. 

She cast him backward as he strove to rise.” — Dryden. 

—Towards the past; in relation to time or events. 

“There is no argument to that which looks backwards." — South. 

-Reflexively; by way of reflection. 

“ For the mind can be backward cast upon herself.” — Davits. 

—From a better to a worse state. 

“ The work went backward , and the more he strove 
T‘ advance the suit, the farther from her love.” — Dryden. 

—Perversely; in a contrary manner or order. 

“ I never yet saw man, 

But she would spell him backward." — Shake. 

Back'ward, a. Averse; reluctant; unwilling; dila¬ 
tory; hesitating. 

“ All things are ready if our minds he so: 

Perish the man whose mind is backward now 1” — Shahs. 

—Dull; sluggish; slow of apprehension; inapt. 

“It often falls out. that the backward learner makes amends 
another way." — South. 

—That which loiters behind others; late; behindhand in 
time; as, backward in growth. 

—Already past aud gone. 

“ And flies unconscious o’er each backward year." — Byron. 

Backwardness, re. Tendency to hold back; specific 
or habitual slowness: shyness; reluctance; hesitation; 
unwillingness; repugnance. 

Back'water, re. Water kept back, as in a stream or reser¬ 
voir, by some obstacle or obstruction, as a dam or lock. 

—Water flung back by the gyrations of a water-wheel. 

(Aquatics.) An expression signifying water thrown 
back, when rowing, by the action of the oar. 

(Low.) The water which is turned back, by a dam 
erected in a stream below, upon the wheel of a mill 
above, so as to retard its revolution. Every riparian pro¬ 
prietor is entitled to the benefit of the water in its natu¬ 
ral state. Another such proprietor has no right to alter 
the level of the water, either where it enters or where it 
leaves his property. If he claims either to throw the 
water back above, or to diminish the quantity which is 
to descend below, he must, in order to maintain his 
claim, either prove an actual grant or license from the 
proprietors affected by his operat ion, or an uninterrupted 
enjoyment for twenty years. If he cannot maintain his 
claim in either of these ways, he is liable to an action on 
the case for damages in favor of the injured party, or to 
a suit in equity for an injunction to restrain his unlaw¬ 
ful use of the water. — In Massachusetts, and some other 
of the States, Acts have been passed giving to the owners 


of mills the right to flood the adjoining lands, if neces 
Bury for the working of their mills, subject only to such 
damages as shall be ascertained by the particular process 
prescribed, which process is substituted for all other ju 
dicial remedies. These statutes, however, confer no au 
thority to flow back upon existing mills. 

Backwoods man,:!.; pi. Backwoodsmen. Thenamo 
given in the U. States to an inhabitant of the backwood 
or back settlements, i. e., of a country newly settled. 

Back'worm, re. A disease among hawks. — See Ft 
lander. 

Back'-wound, v. a. To wound or pierce privately 
from behind one s hack. 

Back'yard, re. A yard behind a house. 

Bacolor', a town of tiie island of Luzon, in the Philip 
pines, about 38 m. N.W. of Manilla. It was the capital ot 
the Philippines during the British invasion in 1762 
Pop. about 10,000. 

Ba'con, re. [A. S. bacan, to bake; 0. Ger. lachan, to 
roast, to cook; —or Dot. bake, swine.] Salted and dried 
pork, made from the sides and belly of a pig; while ba¬ 
con-hams are the bind-legs cured. A large quantity is 
exported from the U. States into Europe. — For the mode 
of curing, see Hams. F’o£ its properties as an article of 
food and importance in trade, see Pork. 

To save one’s bacon. A vulgarism, implying the pre¬ 
serving one’s self from hurt or harm; supposed to have 
originated from the care taken of this article of provi¬ 
sion by the housewives of the olden time, to secure it 
from being plundered by the soldiers on the march. 

44 O father! my sorrow will scarce save my bacon; 

For ’twas not that I murder'd, but that I was taken.” — Prior. 

Ba'con. Francis, Baron Verulam, and Viscount St. 
Alban’s, one of the grandest names in the annals 
of England, and one of the greatest men ever pro¬ 
duced by any country or in any age. B. in London, 
2’2d Jan.. 1561, he was a son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, Lord 
Keeper of the Great Seal; and nephew of the great Cecil, 
Lord Burleigh. Nothing is known of bis early educa¬ 
tion. Having, however, parents of a superior order,— 
a father distinguished both as a lawyer and a states¬ 
man, and a mother gifted with uncommon abilities, and 
eminent for her learning and piety,— B. was placed 
favorably, from the first, for the formation of a learned 
and a virtuous character. In bis 13th year, he entered 
Trinity College. Cambridge, and was placed under the 
tuition of Dr. Whitgilt, afterwards Archbishop of Can¬ 
terbury. Here he studied with diligence and success. 
On leaving Cambridge, lie entered Gray’s Innas a student 
of law. in compliance with a custom then prevailing 
among tiie higher classes of society, to go abroad to study 
the institutions and manners of other countries, £ went 
in the suite of Sir Amyas Paulet, the English ambassa¬ 
dor to the court of France. In that country he busied 
himself in collecting information on tiie characters and 
resources of the different European powers. This re¬ 
search resulted in liis work Of the Stale of Europe, writ¬ 
ten by him when only nineteen, and which is esteemed 
a masterpiece of inductive power. On his father’s death, 
in 1579, he returned to England, to find himself, as 
the youngest son, unprovided -for; upon which he de¬ 
termined to work his own way at the bar, aud to which, 



Fig. 262. 

(From a bronze medal, British Museum.) 


accordingly, he was called on the 27th June, 1582. His 
practice soon became considerable; in 15s6, he was a 
bencher: and at 28, counsel-extraordinary to Queen 
Elizabeth. Although connected with the all-powerful 
family of the Cecils, they did little or nothing for his 
advancement, which was brought about partly by his own 
intrinsic energy and merits, and partly through the friend¬ 
ship of tiie Earl of Essex, the ill-fated favorite of Eliza¬ 
beth. In 1592, B. entered Parliament, where he took 
the popular side. In 1596 appeared his Essays or Coun¬ 
sels, Civil and Moral, and shortly afterwards, his Max¬ 
ims of Law. He was at this period in great pecuniary 
distress, and was twice arrested for debt. IIis In felicem 
Memnriam Elizabeths Anglice Regime was also written 
about this time, although it was not published until 
after his death. On the accession of James I., tiie pros¬ 
pects of B. brightened. He had paid assiduous court to 
some of the Scottish favorites of tiie monarch, and 
obtained his reward. On the 23d July, 1603, he was 
knighted. His public conduct in the House of Commons, 
at this time, commanded the admiration of both the 
court and the people. In 1605, he brought out The. 
Advancement of Learning, aud in 1607 was appointed 












BACO 


BACT 


BADA 


24G 


Solicitor-General. He now had his sliare of the profes¬ 
sional “emoluments,” and further augmented his in¬ 
creasing wealth by marrying a rich city heiress. His 
next work, The Wisdom of the Ancients, was published 
in 1619. In 1613, he became Attorney-General, and 
on the 7th of March, 1617, he was made Lord Keeper 
of the Great Seal. Notwithstanding frequent differences 
with the king and the court party, B. continued to ad¬ 
vance, and on the 4th Jan., 1618, he achieved the summit 
of his ambition in being appointed Lord High Chancel¬ 
lor of England. On the 11th July, in the same year, he 
took his seat among the peers as Lord Bacon of Verulam, 
and was further created, in 1621, Viscount St. Alban’s. 
In the year 1620 he produced the masterpiece of his 
matured genius, the Novum Organum, a remarkable 
work on which he had labored for many years. B.’ s 
glory had now culminated; his career henceforward be¬ 
came tarnished with infamy. He was accused, before 
the House of Lords, of having received money for grants 
of offices and privileges under the seal of State. He was 
unable to justify himself, and desiring to avoid the mor¬ 
tification of a trial, confessed his misdemeanors, and 
threw himself on the mercy of the peers, beseeching 
them to limit his punishment to the loss of the high 
office which he had dishonored. After he had, by an ex¬ 
plicit confession, acknowledged the truth of almost all 
the charges brought against him, notwithstanding the 
intercession of the king, and the interest which they 
themselves took in one of their most distinguished mem¬ 
bers, the Lords sentenced him to pay a fine of £40,000 
(an enormous sum in those days), and to be imprisoned 
in the Tower of London during the royal pleasure. He 
was also declared forever incapable of place or employ¬ 
ment, and forbidden to sit in Parliament or to appear 
within the verge of the court. This severe sentence was 
doubtless just; yet it must be allowed, that he was 
actuated neither by avarice nor corruption of heart, but 
that his errors are rather to be attributed to a weakness 
of character, which was abused by others. Traits of 
generosity and independence, which his life also displays, 
show clearly that he knew and valued virtue. He was 
unfaithful to it because he had not sufficient firmness to 
refuse the unjust demands of others. He was confined 
for a short time in the Tower, and then discharged. He 
afterwards received a partial commutation of his sen¬ 
tence, in so far as it related to his admittance to the 
court. He was summoned to attend Parliament before 
he died; but the remainder of his days were spent 
chiefly in scientific pursuits, and the society of the 
■friends which adversity had left him. Such pursuits 
were his consolation, and at last caused his death. The 
father of experimental philosophy was the martyr of an j 
experiment. Outdriving, he purchased a fowl, stuffed it 
with snow to see if it would act as an antiseptic. This 
exposure produced bronchitis, and he died Apr.9,1626, in 
his 66th year. In his will were the words, “ For my 
name and memory, I leave it to men's charitable speeches, 
to foreign nations, and the next ages." The accomplish¬ 
ments of B. were unrivalled in his day, and his charac¬ 
ter displayed the phenomenon of great originality com¬ 
bined with a most extensive range of acquirements. 
He was a poet and an orator, a lawyer and a statesman. 
In the philosophy of experiment and of observation he 
was pre-eminent. The metaphysical and the physical 
were both congenial to his genius. His great merit un¬ 
doubtedly consists in the systematic method which he 
laid down for prosecuting philosophical investigation ; 
and his services in this department cannot easily be 
overrated. At the present day, those especially who 
busy themselves with physical pursuits would often do 
well to recur to the severe and rigorous principles of 
the Organon. The mind of B. was poetical; his works 
abound in imagery. It is true that small wits have 
ridiculed all his poetical pretensions, because in his ver¬ 
sion of the Psalms he says that “man’s life hangs on 
brittle pins,” and speaks of 

“ The great Leviathan 

That makes the seas to seeth like boiling pan.” 

Still we find in B.'s verses many vigorous lines, and some 
passages of great beauty. The merits of B. as an orator, 
and the effects of his eloquence, were, in the opinion of 
Ben Jonson, — the most competent critic of his age, and 
confirmed by the testimony of Francis Osborne, — un¬ 
doubtedly not equalled in his own time. Pope in one 
caustic line describes B. as — 

“ The wisest, brightest, meanest, of mankind." 

And Gothe says of him, — “ He drew a sponge over the 
table of human knowledge.” The greater part of B.’s 
works were written in English, but some were written 
in Latin, and others were translated into that language. 
The latest collection of the works of B. is that edited 
and published in London, 1865. — For an account of 
Bacon’s philosophical system, see Inductive Philoso¬ 
phy. 

Ba con. Sir Nicholas, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal of 
England , b. at Chislehurst in 1510. After being educated 
at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, he studied law at 
Gray’s Inn, London, in which he became so eminent as 
to be appointed Attorney of the Court of Wards. On 
the accession of Queen Elizabeth, he was made a Privy- 
councillor and Lord Keeper of the Great Seal. In every 
political crisis, his prudence appears to have preserved 
him from harm, while he made it his duty to hold him¬ 
self aloof from any political party. When the queen 
visited him at his new mansion at Redgrave, in Suffolk, 
she observed, in allusion to his corpulence, that he had 
built his house too little for him. “Not so, madame,” 
answered he; “but your Majesty has made me too big 
for my house.” B. was a wise and learned, rather than 
• great man; he had, unquestionably, untiring diligence, 


lively genius, and ready wit, indulging in the latter very 
freely even on the bench. On one occasion, it is said, a 
culprit craved mercy of him on the plea of kindred, 
alleging, that, as the judge’s name was Bacon, and his 
(the prisoner’s) Hog, they were too closely allied to be 
separated; on which the judge retorted — “You and 1 
cannot be kindred unless you be hanged, for Hog is not 
j Bacon until it be well hanged." — By his second wife, B. 
was father of the famous Francis, Lord Bacon, q. v. 1). 
Feb. 20, 1579. 

Ba'eon, Roger, sometimes called Friar Bacon, an emi¬ 
nent English monk, scholar, and philosopher, B. at 
Ilchester, 1214, and educated at Oxford, and Paris, where 
he obtained the degree of d. d. On his return to Eng¬ 
land he became a brother of the Franciscan Order, and 
devoted himself principally to chemistry, natural philos¬ 
ophy, and mathematics; and so ardently did he pursue 
these sciences, that he spent nearly the whole of his 
fortune in books and experiments. The discoveries he 
made, and his consequent fame, excited the envy and 
malice of his brethren of the order. They caused it to be 
circulated and believed that B. owed his profound learn 
ing and skill to magic, and commerce with evil spirits. 
He was, accordingly, forbidden to lecture in the uni¬ 
versity, imprisoned in a cell, denied to his friends, and 
even deprived of food. While undergoing this persecu 
tion, he received a request from the Pope’s legate, then 
in England, for a copy of his works, which B. at first de¬ 
clined to accede to; but when the legate was subse¬ 
quently called to the papal chair under the name of 
Clement IV., he collected his writings into a volume, 
entitled Opus Majus, or the “Greater Work,” and sent 
it to his Holiness, who promised him his protection. On 
the death of that Pope, B. was subjected to renewed 
persecutions. His works were prohibited, and he was 
himself bodily incarcerated for a period of 10 years. On 
being released, he retired to Oxford, where he d. 1292.— 
Hallam says that the mind of B. was strangely com¬ 
pounded of almost prophetic gleams of the future course 
of science, and the best principles of the inductive phi¬ 
losophy, with a more than usual credulity in the super¬ 
stition of his own times. However this may be, he was 
certainly possessed of one of the most comprehensive 
minds of any man of his time. Bishop Bale mentions 
about 80 treatises written by him ; and Dr. Jebb, who 
edited his Opus Majus, classes his writings under the 
heads of grammar, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, 
optics, geography, astronomy, chronology, chemistry, 
magic, medicine, logic, ethics, theology, philology, &c. 
B. is by some considered as the inventor of the telescope, 
the air-pump, the diving-bell, the camera-obscura, and 
of gunpowder. He detected the errors in the calendar, 
afterwards adopted by Pope Gregory XIII. 

Baco'nian, a. Pertaining to Lord Bacon, or to his 
philosophical system. 

Baeter'ium.n. (pi. Bacteria). [From Gr. bahtron, a 
rod or stick.] An extremely minute organism consisting 
of a single cell, spherical, rod-shaped, Ac. The bacteria 
are widely distributed and enter into all putrefactive 
processes. A majority are entirely harmless and per¬ 
form an important service in nature; others are highly 
dangerous to life. See Bacteria, Sec. II. 

Bac'tris, n. [Gr. bactron, a staff or cane.] ( Bot .) A 



Pig . 263.—bactris acanthooarpa. 


genus of trees, order Palmacete, natives of the inter-trop¬ 
ical parts of S. America, growing in marshy places, and 


on the banks ot rivers. They are rather small trees, 
never exceeding twenty feet in height, and the stems 
are slender, about the thickness of a man’s thumb. 
They are of a very dense structure, and form very solid, 
hard, black canes, known in commerce as the canes of 
Tobago. The stems and leaf-stalks are covered with 
long, sharp, flat spines as black as ebony; and as these 
palms frequently grow in dense patches, they thus form 
impassable thickets. B. acanthocarpa, a native of the 
forests near Bahia, yields an extremely tough thread, 
from which the natives manufacture strong nets. The 
fruits of some species are made, by the inhabitants of 
the places where they grow, into a sweet sort of wine. 
llacs-Badroglicr, ( balcs-ba-dro'ger ,) a district of S 
Hungary, in the circle beyond the Danube; area, 3,625 
sq. m. JDesc. At some seasons it is almost a morass; but 
fertile, and producing abundance of tobacco, wheat, and 
wine. Pop. 500,000. 

Bactria'na, or Bac'tria. (Anc. Geog.) This ancient 
State, cap. Bactra, situated between Persia and India, 
and bounded on the N. by the Oxus, varied at different 
periods in extent. It was the seat of powerful and in¬ 
dependent princes, until, being subdued by Ninus, it be¬ 
came a Persian satrapy. It was conquered by Alexander 
the Great, b. c. 329. B. is now a dependency of the 
Klianat of Bokhara, under the name of Balkh, q. v. 
Bac'ule, n. [Fr. bascule.] (Fortif.) See Bascule. 
Bac'ulite, n. [Fr.; from Lat. baculum, baculus, a little 
staff.] (Pal.) A genus of fossil ceplialopodous mollusca. 
The shells are straight, many-chambered, conical, and 
in their internal structure resemble the Ammonites, q. v. 
From their prevalence in the chalk of Normandy, that 
rock has been termed the “ baculite limestone.” 
Baculom'etry, n. [Lat. baculum, baculus, staff, and 
Gr. metron , measure.] The act of measuring distance or 
altitude by a staff or staffs. 

Ba«l, a. [Goth, baodh, badh; Pers. bad ; Ar. bud, prob¬ 
ably allied to Heb. abad, to perish, to cause to perish or 
destroy.] Ill; evil; depraved; not good; injurious; hurt¬ 
ful; vicious; vile; wicked; wanting good qualities 
whether in man or things; unwholesome or corrupt, 
whether physically or morally; as, a bad heart, a bad 
intention, bad water, a bad road, bad of a fever, Ac. 
Bad, Itade, the past tense of Bid, q. v. 

Bad, pi. Bad'en, the German name for bath, baths. It 
is found in many geographical names of German places, 
as Carls&ad (“ Charles's bath ”), Badenbaueen (“ bath¬ 
house”), Ac. 

Bad' a<*a, or Vadakat, the second city of Susiana, an 
ancient province of Persia, was stormed and taken by 
Sennacherib, king of Assyria, about B. c. 695. Antigonus 
retired thither after his defeat by Eumenes, b. c. 316. 
Batlagry, (ba-ddg'ry.) in Africa, a town on the Bight 
of Benin, 315 m. from Cape-Coast Castle, Lat. 6° 24' 12” N. 
Lon. 2° 53' 15" W. 

Badajos, or Badajoz, ( bad'a-hos ,) (anc. Pax Au- 
gustaf) a strongly fortified town of Spain, cup prov. of 
same name, near the frontier of Portugal, at the conflu¬ 
ence of the Rivillas and the Guadiana, 198 m. S.W. of 
Madrid, and 132 E. of Lisbon. It is a considerable place, 
with narrow and crooked, but well-paved and clean 
streets. Manf. Soap and coarse clotlisi; it has also tanner¬ 
ies and dye-works, and does an ex tensive (and mostly con¬ 
traband) trade with Portugal.—if. is very ancient, having 
been a large city under the Romans. It has always been 
regarded as a military post of the highest importance. 
During the Peninsular War, it was taken by the French 
under Marshal Soult, on the 10th Jan., 1811. After the 
capture of Oliveuza (April 16, 1811), Wellington caused 
B. to be invested; but, as Soult approached to its succor, 
he was obliged to raise the siege. May 14. After the bat¬ 
tles of Fuentes d’Onor and Albufera, b. was besieged a 
second time, May 25; but, after several unsuccessful at¬ 
tacks, Wellington again raised the siege, June 16, 1811. 
After the capture of Ciudad-Rodrigo (Jan. 19,1812), Wel¬ 
lington commenced the third siege, March 17, with 16,000 
men, and, on the 6th of April, took the city by storm, 
after a sanguinary conflict. The garrison, together with 
the commander, General l’hilippon, were made prisoners. 
The besiegers lost nearly 5,000 men killed and wounded. 
At B., 6tli June, 1801, was concluded between Spain and 
Portugal a treaty of peace, by which Portugal agreed to 
shut its harbors against the English; and Spain restored 
all her conquests, excepting Oliveuza. — Pop. 22,895. 
Bariakslian, or Buduksh an, (ba-dak'shan.) a district of 
Central Asia, comprising a portion of the Koondooz 
dominions. It contains cliffs of lapis lazuli, which are 
peculiar to this region, and ruby mines. Fivers. The 
Oxus, the Badakslian, and several other streams. The 
inhabitants are Tadjihs and Mohammedans, and speak 
the Persian language. Lat. between 36° and 38° N.; Lorn 
between 69° and 73° E. 

Badalocchio, Sisto-Rosa, (ba’da-lok’e-o,) an Italian 
painter and engraver, held in considerable estimation, 
especially as a draughtsman. His works are to be found’ 
in Bologna. Modena, and Parma. B. 1581; d. 1647. 
Badalo'na, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, 6 m. N.E. of 
Barcelona; pop. about 10,000. 
Ba'da'rayana-Acha'rya, a celebrated Hindoo phi¬ 
losopher and founder of the Vedantin school. He was 
the author of a series of aphorisms, entitled Brahma-Su¬ 
tras, or Spdririka-Minidnsd, on which the celebrated 
Lhankara-Achfirya wrote a commentary in the 8th cen¬ 
tury. B. is identified by Hindoo writers with Krishna- 
Devaipay&na, called the “ Vyasa,” or compiler, to whom 
are attributed the original compilation of the Vedas, and 
the authorship of the Bhagavad-gitd, and the greater 
part of the 18 Purunas. Of these, the Vedas cannot have 
been compiled later than the 7th century b. c., while the 
Bhagavad-gitk belongs to the 1st century of our sera, and 
the earliest of the Puranas to the 3d century. This 
















BADE 


BADG 


BADI 


247' 


ascription, though clearly absurd, Is sufficient to prove the 
antiquity of B., and the high esteem in which he was 
held. The Vedantin-Sutras are probably all that he has 
a claim to. They were written before flio Mimansa-Su- 
tras of Zaimini, and therefore belong, probably, to the 
•3d or 4th century b. c., although Weber places B. in the 
4th or 5th century. 

fiA d anmy. a strongly fortified place of Ilindostan, prov. 
of Beejapoor, in the British presidency of Bombay, 55 m. 
N.E. of Darwar; Lat. 15° 55' N.; Lon. 75° 49' E. 

Bad Axe', in Wisconsin, the former name of the co. 
of Vernon, q. v. 

— A post-village of Vernon co., 40 m. N.N.E. of Prairie du 
Chien. 

Bad Axe' River, in Wisconsin, enters the Mississippi 
in Vernon co. 

Bad'dish, a. Not very good; comparatively bad. (r.) 

“ He wrote baddish verses ."—Jeffrey. 

Ba den, (Grand-Duchy of,; in S. Germany, is bounded 
on the S. by the Lake of Constance; on the W. by the 
Rhine, on the N. by Hesse and Bavaria, and on the E. by 
WUrtemberg and Prussia. It lies between Lat. 47° 32' 
and 49° 52' N. Area, 5,912 sq. m. Its length is about 
150 m. from N. to S., and its breadth nearly 115. 

Divisions. The grand-duchy is divided into 4 circles, 
the area of which, and population, is as follows: — 


Circles. 

Area in 
Eng. sq. to. 

Population 
1890 . 

Chief Towns. 

Lake (Constance).... 

Upper Rhine. 

Middle Rhine. 

1,303 

1,654 

1,549 

1,314 

281,637 

469,136 

444,834 

461,210 

Constance. 

Freiburg. 

Carlsruhe. 

Mannheim. 



5,820 

1,656,817 



Desc. In surface it is exceedingly varied; the E. half of 
the Lake Circle from the Rhine to the Wiirtemberg fron¬ 
tier is entirely occupied by a mountainous tract extend¬ 
ing from S. to N., under the denominations of the Schwarz¬ 
wald, or “Black Forest,” and Odenwald; while the 
western half, extending from the fall of these mountains 
to the Rhine, is partly an undulating, but mostly a level 
country.— Mountains. The Schwarzwald—of gneiss and 
granite formation—whose highest summit is the Feldberg, 
4,675 feet above sea-level, is a range extending from the 
Rhine through B. into WUrtemberg, and presents a series 
of plateaux, covered with extensive forests, embosomed 
in which are found villages at an elevation.of 4000 feet. 
The Odenwald is a granitic mass whose main elevation 
is the Katzenbuekel, 2,180 feet in height, and lies in B.; 
but the greater part of the chain belongs to the Grand- 
Duchy of Hesse. Like the Schwarzwald, these heights 
fall steeply towards the Rhine, and along the foot of the 
range the Bergstrasse, from Heidelberg to Frankfort, a 
road celebrated for picturesque scenery, has been carried. 
The other mountain-ranges, of lesser extent and eleva¬ 
tion, are the Kaiserstuhl, the Randen, and the Heiligen- 
berg.— Rivers. The principal are the Rhine, with its trib¬ 
utaries the Wiebach, the Wiesen, the Elz, the Kinzig, 
the Murg, and its chief affluent, the Neckar. The Maine 
and the Danube have their sources in this country.— 
Lakes. Constance, the Ilmen See, the Tittisee, the Mum- 
melsee, &c.— Clim. The climate in the mountainous dis¬ 
tricts is very severe, the snow lying in some situations 
for the greater part of the year; but in the valleys of 
the Rhine, the Maine, and the Neckar, the temperature 
is mild and genial, permitting the culture of vines, chest¬ 
nuts, and even almonds. The country is everywhere 
healthy.— Soil and Prod. The soil is generally highly 
fertile; corn is cultivated with great success, and also 
tobacco, hemp, flax,and potatoes; vineyards abound, and 
between the vines, the choicest fruits, as the peach, apri¬ 
cot, walnut, plum, and cherry, are produced. The forests 
send annually large quantities of excellent fir and oak 
timber down the Rhine.— Min. Mining is carried on with 
partial success. Silver, copper, iron, manganese, salt, 
coal, alum, vitriol, and sulphur are the principal mineral 
productions. Upwards of 60 mineral springs are found 
in this Duchy. The thermal waters of Baden are those 
which are the best known and the most used for medi¬ 
cinal purposes.— Religion. Two-thirds of the popula¬ 
tion of Baden are Roman Catholics, and one-third 
Protestants composed of several denominations. 
The ecclesiastical affairs of the Roman Catholic Church 
are under the supreme control of the Archbishop of Frei¬ 
burg, who is appointed by the Pope, and quite indepen¬ 
dent of the Grand-Ducal government. Frequent disputes 
and conflicts between Rome and the Badish ministry 
have been the result of this anomalous position. The 
management of the Lutheran Church is under a council 
of 7 persons, called the Oberkirchenrath, which is nomi¬ 
nated by the Grand-Duke. Education is compulsory, and 
parents are constrained by strictly enforced penalties to 
send their children to school. It is prohibited also to 
employ children in factories, until they have completed 
their 11th year. The former has a library of 1-5,000 ol.., 
the latter one of 100,000. The University' " 1 Icidcibcrr 
has a faculty for Lutheran, and Freiburg one for Roman 
Catholic theological students.— Agric. As the chief wealth 
of the State springs from agriculture, barley, maize, 
wheat, potatoes, flax, hemp, and tobacco are cultivated 
to a considerable extent, and vast numbers of sheep and 
cattle are reared. The wines of Kingenberger and 1 Verth- 
heimer are much admired.— Manf. Ribbon-weaving, straw- 
plait, wooden ornaments, paper, clocks, watches, organs, 
and musical boxes.— Gov. The constitution of B. vests 
the executive power in the Grand-Duke, and the legisla¬ 
tive authority in a House of Parliament, consisting of 
two Chambers, which have to be called together at least 


once every two years. The ministers are responsible for 
their actions, to the legislature and to every citizen 
who may lodge complaints against them before the 
Oberhofgericht, or Superior Tribunal.— Educa. interests. 
Numerous and flourishing, aud public instruction is 
largely subsidized. There are two universities—the 
Protestant one at Heidelberg, founded in 1386, and the 
Catholic one at Freiburg, founded in 1457. The library 
at Heidelberg numbers 150,000 vols., that at Freiburg 
100,000, while there is another of almost equal size at 
Carlsruhe. Lyceums exist at Carlsruhe, Constance, Frei¬ 
burg, Heidelberg, Manheim, Rastadt, and Wertheim; 
several gymnasiums; normal schools at Carlsruhe, Ett- 
lingen, and Meersburg, besides upward of 2,000 com¬ 
mon schools established throughout the country. 
There is an institution in Pfozrheim for the deaf and 
dumb, and one in Freiburg for the blind. The Poly¬ 
technic School at Carlsruhe is among the most effi¬ 
cient institutions of the kind in Germany.— History. 
B. was made a margraviate in 1130, by Hermann II., 
grandson of Bertliold, Landgrave of Brisgau; his father, 
Hermann I., having previously acquired it by marriage. 
In 1288, it was divided among the 4 sons of Rodolph I., 
but in 1353 was reunited into a single state. In 1526, 
it was again divided; this time, into Baden-Baden, and 
Baden-Durlach. In 1533, Protestantism was established. 
In 1771, Baden-Baden and Baden-Durlach were reunited; 
and in 1806, the title of Grand-Duke was given to the 
Margrave Charles Frederick by Napoleon I. In 1815, it 
joined the allies against Napoleon. Aug. 22d, 1818, a 
representative constitution was granted. With the Grand- 
Duke Ludwig, who d. in 1830, the “ legitimate ” lines of 
the ancient princes came to an end, and the reigning 
family of Bavaria, the next of kin, were on the point of 
taking the country, when Leopold I., offspring of a mor¬ 
ganatic marriage of Karl Friedrich, the preceding Grand- 
Duke, with a Madame von Geyersberg, came forward, 
and proclaimed himself Grand-Duke. On the 6th of Sep¬ 
tember, 1856, Friedrich I., the present Grand-Duke, suc¬ 
ceeded. In the German war of 1866 B sided against 
Prussia; but in 1870 it joined in the formation of the 
new German empire. 

Ba'den, or, as it is commonly called, Baden-Baden, to 
distinguish it from the watering place of the same name 
near Vienna, a town of the above Grand-duchy, and fa¬ 
mous for its hot baths, is romantically situated in the 
Middle Rhine Circle, 18 m. S.S.W. of Carlsruhe. It was 
formerly the constant residence of the sovereigns of Ba¬ 
den, and the Grand-duke still usually passes the summer 
in a villa here. The mineral springs were well-known 
to the Romans, who planted a colony here, aud gave it 
the name of Givitas Aurelia Aqueusis. The springs, 20 in 
number, burst out of the rocks at the foot of the castle 
terrace. The hottest temperature of them is 54° Reau¬ 
mur ; the coldest, 37°. A handsome building, in the form 
of a temple, is erected over the Ursprung, as the princi¬ 
pal spring is called. The water is conveyed by pipes to 
the various hotels, in which there are numerous baths, 
very luxuriously appointed. B. B. is one of the most 
beautifully situated of the German “ spas,” surpassing 
even, in this respect, the Brunnens of Nassau. The sur¬ 
rounding country is distinguished by a pleasing and ro¬ 
mantic wildness, aud is, as it were, a prelude to the Alps. 
July and Aug. are the season when' the baths are most 
frequented; but visitors, to the annual number of from 
12,000 to 20,000, come and go from May to Oct. Among 
the handsome buildings here, the Conversations-Haus is 
conspicuous. Formerly, this place had great notoriety 
as being a focus for gambling on the largest scale, but 
since 1872, the public gaming-tables have been sup¬ 
pressed by legal enactment. Pop. 1900,16,400. 

Ba'den, often called Baden bei Wien ( Baden near Vi¬ 
enna), a town and celebrated “spa” of Lower Austria, 
on an affluent of the Danube, 15 m. S. S.W. of Vienna. 
In the summer it is usually frequented by thousands of 
visitors, among whom are generally the emperor and 
other members of the imperial family. The baths were 
known to the Romans as Aqua Cotice. The waters, ac¬ 
cording to the analysis of Volta, contain sulphate and 
muriate of soda, sulphate and carbonate of lime and 
magnesia, sulphate of alumina, and considerable quanti¬ 
ties of carbonic and hydrosulphuric acid gases. Their 
temperature varies from 92° to 97° Fahr. — B. possesses 
many fine buildings, and is generally a beautiful and at¬ 
tractive spot. 

Ba'den, a walled town of Switzerland, cant. Aargau, on 
the left bank of the Limmat, 15 m. N.E. of Aarau. It is 
celebrated for its hot baths, known to the Romans under 
the name of Therma Helvetica. The water in the hottest 
of them has a temperature of 37° Reaumur. Pop. 3,476. 

Ba'den, in Iowa, a post-office of Keokuk co. 

Ba'den, in Missouri, a post-office of St. Louis co. 

Ba'den, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Beaver co., on 
the Ohio river, 21 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. 

Ba'den-Ba'den, in Rlinnis, a post-office of Bond co. 

Badge, ( badj ,) n. [A. S. beag, a garland, a necklace; 
Fr. bague, a ring.] (Her.) A cognizance or mark of dis¬ 
tinction, assumed or conferred by a state or sovereign. 
To the latter class belong the various insignia of the 
orders of knighthood of European countries, conferred 
by their respective monarchs, and all emblems of honor¬ 
able distinction, such as medals, ribbons, and crosses, 
given by a state for military prowess, or services ren¬ 
dered to the state by a person eminent in a civil ca¬ 
pacity. Under the former class may be reckoned the 
different crests and distinctive bearings assumed by na¬ 
tions, tribes, and families, in early and mediaeval his¬ 
tory. (“ Sweet mercy is nobility’s true badge.'’ — Shaks.) 
— The earliest mention of heraldic badges is to be 
found in the Bible, in which each of the twelve tribes 
of the children of Israel are spoken of under their re¬ 


spective cognizances; such as the lion of Judah, th* 
•wolf of Benjamin, and the serpent of Dan. The eagle wa* 
the badge of the empire of Rome, and in modern time* 
the regal bird has been adopted by imperial dynasties, 
and also by our republic, as their distinctive emblem. 
•—The white horse, now borne in the royal arm* 
of Hanover, was the badge of the Saxons; the raven, 
that of the Northmen and Danes. The while rose was 
the badge of the House of York; the red rose , that of the 
rival House of Lancaster. The badge of England is a red 
and white, rose, with the royal crown ; that of Scotland, 
a thistle, and crown; that of Ireland, a harp and sham¬ 
rock, along with the crown. The serving-men belonging 
to noble houses usually wore their master’s crest or 
badge embroidered on the left arm of the blue jerkin or 
body-coat, that was commonly worn in former days in¬ 
stead of the particolored liveries of modern times. 

(Law.) A mark or sign, worn on the dress of some 
persons, or placed upon certain things, for the purpose 
of designation. Some public officers, as watchmen, po¬ 
licemen, and the like, are required to wear badges, that 
they may be readily known. It is used figuratively when 
we say, possession of personal property by the seller is 
a badge of fraud. 

Badge, v. a. To distinguish or mark, as with a badge. 
“Their hands and faces were all badg'd with blood." — Shaks. 

Badge'less, a. Having no badge. 

Batlg'er, n. [Probably from W baedd, a boar, and 
daiar, the earth ; — earth-hog.] (Zoiil.) A quadruped, of 
which there are several species, composing the genus 
Taxidea, family Mustelid.se. It is generally regarded 
as a solitary, stupid animal, that seeks refuge in th* 
most sequestered places, and shuns the light of day. 
It has very short legs and a broad flat body ; the head 
is long and pointed, the eyes small, and the tail re* 
inarkably' short. Its prevailing color is a kind of 
mottled gray; the face is white, and along each side 
of the head runs a long pyramidal band of black, includ¬ 
ing the eyes and ears. With its powerful claws, it con¬ 
structs a deep and commodious burrow; and as it con¬ 
tinues to bury itself, it throws the earth behind it to a 
great distance, and thus forms for itself a long winding 
hole ending in a round apartment at the bottom, which 
is well lined with dry grass and hay. This retreat it 
seldom quits till night, when it steals from its subterra¬ 
neous abode for the purpose of procuring food. It live* 1 



Fig. 264. — American badger. 


chiefly on roots, fruits, insects, and frogs. It is about 
2% feet long. The female produces 3 or 4 young at a 
time. The flesh of the B. is reckoned a delicacy, and 
may be cured into hams and bacon. The skin, when 
dressed with the hair on, is impervious to rain, and 
consequently makes excellent covers for travelling- 
trunks, &c., while the hairs or bristles are made into 
brushes for painters. The American species is a slow and 
timid animal; it takes to the first earth it meets with, 
when pursued, and, burrowing in the sand, is soon out 
of the reach of danger. While the ground is covered 
with snow, it seldom ventures from its hole, but passe* 
the severe winter months in a semi-torpid state. 

(Eng. Law.) [From Fr. baggage; or A. S. bygon, to 
buy; or L. Lat. bajulus, a carrier.] A person who buy* 
corn or victuals in one place, and carries them to an¬ 
other to sell and make a profit by them. 

Bad'ger, v. a. To follow up or pursue with great eager¬ 
ness, as the badger is hunted; to pester or worry; to tease; 
to persecute. 

Bail'ger, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Portage co., 15 
m. 8.E. of Stanton. 

Bad'ger-legged, a. Havinglegsof an unequal length, 
as the badger has been popularly supposed to have. 

“His body crooked all over, big-bellied, badger legged, and hi* 
complexion" swarthy.”— V Estrange. 

Bad ger State, n. A title popularly given to the State 
of Wisconsin. 

Badia, (ba'de-a,) a town of Italy, prov. of Polesina, on 
the Adige, 16 m. W. by N. of Rovigo ; pop. 5,467. 

Badia'ga, n. [Russ, bodyaga.] A kind of sponge, com¬ 
mon in the N. of Europe, the powder of which is applied 
to the marks of bruises to remove their livid appearance. 
Its nature is not understood. 

Ba'dian, Badianifera, n. (Bol.) See Illicicm. 

Badig'eon, n [Fr.] (Arch.) A mixture of plaster and 
free-stone, well sifted, and ground together; it is used 
by statuaries to fill up the small holes, and repair the de¬ 
fects in stones of which their work is made. The term 
is also used by joiners, for a composition of saw-dust and 
strong glue, with which the chasms of their work are 
filled. Joiners likewise use for this purpose a mixture 
of whiting and glue. When this is used, the filling-in 
should remain till quite hard, otherwise, when it l( 
planed or smoothed off, it will shrink below the surdaca. 
























248 


BAG 


BAGD 


BAGN 


Badinage, ( b&'di-nazh ,) n. [Fr. from badin, a jester.] 
Light or playful discourse; trifling talk; inoffensive 
raillery; banter. 

’• When you find your antagonist beginning to grow warm, put 
an end to the dispute by some genteel badinage — Chesterfield. 

Bad'ito, in Colorado, a post-village of Huerfauo co. 

Bad ly, adv. In a bad manner; not well; unskilfully; 
grievously; imperfectly. 

Bad 'ness, n. The state of being bad ; evil; want of good 
qualities, either natural or moral; depravity. 

“ X did not see how the badness of the weather could be the 
king's fault.'’— Addison. 

Badola'to, a town of S. Italy, prov. of Calabria Ultra, 
24 m. S. of Catanzaro, on a hill near the sea; pop. 4,457. 

Bad River, in Michigan, a.stream of Saginaw co., which 
falls into the Shiawassee. 

Bae'ca, a town of Spain. See Baeza. 

Badir. Johann Christian Felix, a distinguished Ger¬ 
man historian and philologist. B. at Darmstadt, 13th 
June, 1798. He was Professor of Classic Literature in 
the University of Heidelberg, and in 1845 was appointed 
Director of the Philological Seminary. His principal 
works are his edition of Heroilotus, published in 1832-3 
at Leipzig; a History of Roman Literature, of which the 
3d edition was published at Carlsruhe in 1844, and a 
work on Romann-Christian Theology published in 1837. 

Bael'-fire, n. See Bale-fire. 

Bae'na, (anc. Castra Viniana,) a townof Spain, prov. of 
Cordova, 23 m. S.E. of Cordova, on the Marbella. Large 
salt mines are >a the neighborhood. Pop. of town and 
district, 12,767. 

Baependi, ( ba'ai-pain'de ,) a town and district of Brazil, 
180 m. W.N.W. of Kio Janeiro; pop. of district abt. 9,000. 

Ba'er, Karl Ernst von, a distinguished Russian natu¬ 
ralist, b. in Esthonia, on 17th Feb., 1792. Educated at 
Dorpat, and in Germany. His chief works are Epistnla 
de Ovi Mammalium et Hnminis Genesi, (Leipzig, 1827); 
Weber die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thie.re, (“ On the 
Developmental History of Animals,” 1828;) and, Wnter- 
suchungen iiber die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fische, 
(“On the Development of Fishes,”) published in 1835. 
He has since made valuable scientific investigations in 
Nova Zernbla. D. 1876. 

Baeza, or Baeca, ( ba-ai'lha .) (anc. Beatia,) a city of 
Spain, prov. of Jaen, 20 m. N.E. of Jaen. It is a town of 
great antiquity, and was the residence of several Moorish 
kings, from whom it was wrested a. d. 1237. It was the 
birthplace of the 11,000 virgins who, with St. Ursula, 
were, according to the legend, slaughtered by the Huns 
at Cologne. — Near this town, the younger Scipio van¬ 
quished Hasdrubal, b. c. 208. Pop. 12,817. 

Bae'za, a town of S. America, in Ecuador, on the Coca 
river, 90 m. E.S.E. of Quito. 

Baffetas, Baf'tas, n. [Per. baft, woven, wrought.] 

( Con.) An India cotton cloth, or plain muslin. 

Baffin, William, an English navigator, b. 1584. His 
early life is enveloped in obscurity. In 1612, he made a 
voyage to attempt to discover the N.W. passage to China 
and India; of this voyage he wrote an account, and in 
the course of it adopted a method of determining the 
longitude at sea, by observations made on the heavenly 
bodies. In 1613, he made a voyage to Greenland, and in 
1615, in company with Bylot, made another. The next 
year he acted as pilot to the latter, and, July 6th, discov¬ 
ered the large inland sea that has since borne his name. 
In 1621, he joined the English expedition, which, acting 
in concert with the Persians, was intended to eject the 
Portuguese from the Persian Gulf, where, at the siege 
of Kisnus, a small fort near Ormuz, he was killed, 1622. 

Baffin’s Bay, or Sea, a large expanse of ocean lying 
between Greenland and the lands or islands on the N. 
of Hudson’s Bay. On the N. it is entered by Smith 
Sound from the Polar Sea; on the S. by Davis’ Strait 
from the Atlantic ocean; and on the W. by Jones’ and 
Lancaster sounds from the Arctic ocean. It was dis¬ 
covered in 1615, by Baffin, q.v.; Lat. extending from 68° 
to 78° N., Lon. from 55° to 80° E. 

Baffle, v. a. [0. Fr. beffer; It. before, to jeer, to banter. 
Etymol. unsettled ] To play the fool with; to frustrate. 
It has a frequentative force, that, namely, of repeated 
skilful counteraction. It follows, from the nature of 
skill, to be versatile, which demands versatility of 
counteraction. It is applied both to persons and their 
efforts or designs. To mock; to defeat; to perplex; to 
estop; to mar; to counteract; to foil; to balk; to neu¬ 
tralize. 

‘ 1 The art that baffles Time’s tyrannic claim.”— Courper. 

(Naut.) A baffling wind signifies a wind that is con¬ 
stantly changing about from one point to another. 

—n. A defeat by artifice, shifts, or turns. (R.) 

11 It is the skill of the disputant that keeps off a baffle." — South. 

Baf'fler, n. One who baffles. 

“ Experience, that great baffler of speculation."— Govt, of the Tongue. 

Baf flingTy. adv. In a baffling manner. 

Baf'fling’ness, n. Quality or state of baffling. 

Bag, n. [A.S. balg, a bulge, a bag, the belly : Gael.60/17, 
a bag, the womb, the belly.] That which .bellies or 
bulges out; a sack; a pouch; a purse, to hold or convey 
anything; as, a bag of meal, or of gold. 

“Once, we confess, beneath the patriot’s cloak, 

From the crack’d bag the dropping guinea spoke.”—Pope. 

—An udder or sac in animals, containing a fluid or other 
substance; as, the bag of poison attached to the mouth 
of some serpents. 

“ Sing on, sing on, for I can ne’er be cloy’d; 

So may thy cows their burdened bags distend.”— Dry den. 

— Specifically, an ornamental silken purse tied to men’s 
hair behind, or to a wig. 


“ We saw a young fellow riding toward us full gallop, with a 
bob-wig and black silken bag tied to it."— Addison. 

(Com.) A certain quantity of a commodity put into 
a sack, such as it is customary to take to market; as, a 
bag of hops, or corn. 

(Scrip.) (Deut. xxv. 13; Luke xii. 33; 2 Kings xii. 10.) 
Eastern money was often sealed up in bags containing 
a certain sum, for which they passed current while the 
seal remained unbroken. 

(Mil.) Bags filled with sand or earth are used in field- 
fortification or other defensive works. — See Sand-bags. 

Bag;, v. a. To put into a bag; as, to bag game. — To 
capture, seize, or eutrap; as, to bag an army. — To load 
with bags. 

“ Like a bee bagg'd with his honeyed venom. 

He brings it to your hive."— Dryden . 

— v. t. To belly out, or swell like a full bag. 

“They drain two bagging udders every day."—Dryden. 

Bag asse, (ba-gds',) n. [Sp. bagazo.] The refuse of the 
sugar-cane left after the expression of the saccharine 
juice. It is used as fuel iu heating the boilers and pans 
in the sugar-manufactory. 

Bagatelle', n. [Fr., from bague, a trifle; from Lat. 
bacca, a berry.] A trifle; a thing of little or no impor¬ 
tance. 

“ Heaps of hair, rings and cypher’d seals; 

Kich trifles, serious bagatelles." — Prior . 

(Games.) A game somewhat resembling billiards. A 
bagatelle-table is usually about 7 feet long and 21 inches 
broad; it is lined with cloth, and a game is performed on 
it with balls and a cue or mace. The balls are small 
ivory spheres, and the sport consists in striking one or 
more into holes at one end of the board. To perform 
this and other feats, some skill and experience are re¬ 
quired, and the sport is far from unamusing in a cheer¬ 
ful parlor circle. 

Bagau<l<e, n. pi. (Hist.) An appellation given to the 
peasants of Gaul who rebelled against the Romans, a. d. 
286. Their work was executed with fire and sword. 
“ They asserted,” says Gibbon, “ the natural rights of 
man, but they asserted those rights with the most sav¬ 
age cruelty.” For some time they obtained the ascen¬ 
dency, but were eventually subdued by Maximian. The 
term was subsequently applied to other rebels. — See 
Peasant War. 

Bag'slad, an important province, pashalic, or eyalet of 
Turkey in Asia, of triangular form, stretching N.W. 
from the bottom of the Persian Gulf in about 30° to 38° 
N. Lat., and lying between 40° and 48° E. Lon., having 
W. and S. the Euphrates and the Arabian desert; E., 
Kuzistan, Mount Zagros, and the Persian prov. of 
Azerbijan; N.W., the pashalic of Diarbekr: and on the 
N., Armenia and the territories of the Kurdish chief of 
Julamerik. This immense tract extends over an area of 
about 100,000 sq. m., and comprises the whole of the an¬ 
cient Babylonia and Chaldcea, and the greater part of 
Assyria Proper and Susiana. Except where it is bound¬ 
ed on the W. by the Euphrates, the province is traversed 
in its whole extent by this great river and its rival the 
Tigris, and some smaller rivers. It is naturally divided 
into 3 portions, viz.: 1st. The country between the Ara¬ 
bian desert and the Euphrates; 2d, that between the 
latter and the Tigris, the Mesopotamia of the Ancients; 
and, 3d, the country to the E of the Tigris. That por¬ 
tion of Mesopotamia S. of the city of Bagdad is now 
called Irak Arabi, and that to the N. of Bagdad, Alge- 
zirah, or the island. The soil and aspect of the country 
differ widely in different parts. The tract lying between 
the two great rivers, one of the richest, best cultivated, 
and most populous countries of the ancient world, is now, 
in most parts, an absolute desert. The banks of the 
Euphrates and Tigris, once so prolific, are now for the 
greater part covered with impenetrable brush wood, while 
the interior, once irrigated by innumerable canals, is 
now destitute of either inhabitants or vegetation. The 
climate is hot, but cool in winter, and the simoom is 
prevalent. It would be easy, were the government less 
proverbial for imbecility and ignorance, to restore to this 
country some portion of its ancient prosperity. Few 
regions are blest with a finer soil, or are capable of being 
cultivated with less labor. Excellent crops of cereals 
are raised; and tobacco, cotton, hemp, and flux are also 
cultivated; dates, especially, are an object of much 
attention, their excellence approaching the quality of the 
Arabian fruit. The mountains in the E. and N. are 
covered with vast forests of oaks which produce the best 
gall-nuts brought from the East. Wild animals are 
common, and game and poultry abound. The present 
population consists of Turks, Arabs, Kurds, Turcomans, 
Armenians, and Jews, and probably number in the ag¬ 
gregate about 1,300,000. B. is only nominally subject to 
tlie Porte; the interior being governed by semi-indepen¬ 
dent Arab and Kurdish sheiks who frequently wage inter¬ 
necine war. They, however, pay a certain tribute to the 
Sultan, and are bound to furnish the pasha with a con¬ 
tingent of troops when needed. 

Bag'dad, a famous city of Turkey in Asia, long the cap. of 
the Caliphate, and now of the above prov., is seated on 
the Tigris: Lat. 33° 19' 40” N.; Lon. 44° 24' 45” E. It 
stands on both banks of the river, which is here about 
620 ft. across. It is walled round and flanked at regu¬ 
lar distances by towers, which were built by the ear¬ 
lier caliphs. The city is meanly built, with streets so 
narrow that where two horsemen meet they can barely 
pass each other. Few of the ancient buildings remain, 
but these few are far superior in elegance and solidity 
to the more modern structures. Of the former, the 
roost worthy of notice are, the gate of the Talisman, a 
lofty minaret built in 785; the tomb of Zobeide, the 
most beloved of the wives of the great Haronn-al-Raschid. 
The famous Madressa Mostomseroi, or college founded 


in 1233 by the caliph Mostanser, and long the modi 
celebrated seminary in the East, still exists; but quan • 
turn mutatusl It is converted into a khan or caravausera, 
and its old kitchen into the custom-house! (Niebuhr.} 
Nothing remains of the old palace of the caliphs. B 
was, until recently, a great emporium of trade, and was 
the resort of merchants from all parts of the East. Of 
late years, however, the trade of the city has declined, 
owing, principally, to the inability of the government to 
repress the attacks and exactions of the Arabs. The 
uatives rank among the ugliest people in the Turkish- 
empire.— B. was founded by Almanzor (q. v.) A. D. 763, 
out of the ruins of ancient) Clesiphon. It was greatly 
enlarged and adorned by Haroun-al-Raschid. It contin¬ 
ued to flourish and to be the metropolis of learning and 
the arts until Feb. 20,1258, when it was captured, after 
a siege of two months, by the Mongols, and Mostasem, 
the last of the Abassides caliphs, was put to death. Ti- 
mour the Great sacked the city July 23, 1401, erecting 
on its ruins a pyramid of 90,000 human heads. Its Tar¬ 
tar rulers returned, but were expelled in 1417, by Kara 
Zoussouf. Ilis descendants were, in 1477, replaced 
by Usum Cassim, who was followed by the Sulfite dy¬ 
nasty, of Persian origin, in 1516. The possession of B. 
was long contested by the Persians and the 'Turks, and 
among the numerous sieges it sustained may be men¬ 
tioned those of 1534, when it was captured by Solyman 
the Magnificent; of 1596, when taken by Abbas the 
Great; of 1638, when it was taken by Amurath IV., 
30,000 people being then ruthlessly massacred; and of 
1740, when Nadir Shah was repulsed by Achmet, who 
rendered the pashalic independent of the Porte. Pop. 
about 40,000, principally Arabs and Turks. 

Bag;'<la<l, in Kentucky, a post-village of Shelby co., 13 m. 
W.N.W. of Frankfort. 

Bag'dad, in Tennessee, apost-village of Smitn 00. 

Bag'dad, in Texas, a post-village of Williamson co. 

Bag gage, n. [Fr. bagage, from O. Fr. bagues, jewels, 
goods, stuff.] Luggage, as the trunks, valises, carpet¬ 
bags, boxes, &c., containing the clothing and personal 
effects of a traveller. In England, these articles are usu¬ 
ally termed luggage; in the U. States, baggage. 

(Mil.) The whole furniture belonging to an army; 
that is, the camp-equipage, tents, clothing, and other 
necessaries. The soldier of ancient times was always 
heavily laden; and, in this respect, the ancient and mod¬ 
ern systems present a striking contrast to each other. 
The modern soldier is freed from every unnecessary en¬ 
cumbrance: wagons are attached to each battalion for 
conveying the baggage, and no private soldier is allowed 
to carry anything except what his knapsack and other 
accoutrements can hold. 

(Laic.) Such articles of apparel, ornament, Ac., as ar# 
of daily use for travellers, lor convenience, comfort, or 
recreation. It is obvious that the term B. must compre¬ 
hend an almost infinite number and variety of articles; 
but it has been held not to include specie beyond what 
the traveller might fairly expect to require for his ex¬ 
penses and necessary purchases for himself and family. 
It is well established that merchandise which one car¬ 
ries in a trunk without the knowledge of the carrier is 
not protected as B., and if lost without any express 
fault of the carrier, he is not liable. But if a carrier 
knows that merchandise is included among B., and does 
not object, he is liable to the same extent as for other 
goods taken iu the due course of his business. 

See Carrier. 

—[From Provencal bagasse; Per. baga, a strumpet.] A 
strumpet; a low worthless woman; a camp-follower. — 
A playful, saucy woman. 

Bag’'gage-master, n. A person employed to tak# 

care of baggage upon a railway train. 

Bag gala, n. (Naut.) A two-masted Arab boat used for 
both commercial and piratical purposes about the Mala¬ 
bar coast and in the Red Sea. It is generally a fast-sail¬ 
ing craft of from 200 to 250 tons burden. 

Ba^r's’esen. Jens, distinguished both as a Danish and » 
German poet; B. at Cursor, in Zealand, Feb. 15, 1764. 
He left his native country iu 1789, and travelled over the 
greater part of Europe. At Paris, he witnessed the out¬ 
break of the revolution; at Berne, he married a grand¬ 
daughter of the great Albrecht von Haller. In 1811, he 
was appointed Professor of Danish literature at Kiel 
university, which he resigned in 1814. D. at Hamburg. 
3d Oct., 1826. His chief German works are, Parlhenais, 
oder die Alpenreise, an idyllic epos in hexameters; Adam 
und Eva, oder die Geschiclite des S unden falls, a humor¬ 
ous epic. (1826.) Among his Danish writings, his lyric# 
and mock-heroic poems rank highest; his Comiske For- 
taellinger (“ Comic Tales ”) are, however, much admired. 
His complete Danish works were published at Copenha¬ 
gen, in 12 vols., 1827-1832; his German, at Leipzig, io 
5 vols., 1836. 

Bay'ging’, n. The cloth or materials for bags. The act 
of putting into bags. 

(A grief) A process in husbandry by which wheat, ic. 
is reaped with a sickle, or sharp-hooked instrument. 

Bag'gy, a. Resembling a bag; loose like a bag; as,* 
baggy pair of pants or trousers. 

Barman, n. A commercial traveller who is employed 
to solicit orders for manufactures, goods, &c. — Equiva¬ 
lent to drummer, as used in the U. States. 

Bag'na C’aval'Io, a town of Central Italy, prov. of 
Ravenna, on the Sino, 12 m. W. of Ravenna. Large quan¬ 
tities of hemp are raised in the vicinity. Pop. 14,879. 

Bag’ii'a Lou'ka, or Bangaluka, a town of European 
Turkey, in Bosnia, cap. of a sandjak, 30 m. S. of Gra- 
diska. Splendid horses are bred in tiie town and neigh¬ 
borhood. Pop. about 7,700. 

Bagn'ara, a town and sea-port of S. Italy, prov. of 
Reggio, and 16 m. N.E. of that city. It has a large trad* 





B AGP 


BAHA 


BAHA 


240 


in Muscat wine produced in its vicinity. B. is supposed 
to be the Purtus Orestis of the ancients. Pop. 9,390. 

Bag-nferes <le liigorre, (ban’y air de be-gnr',) a 
town of France, dep. of Ilautes Pyrenees, at the foot of 
the Pyrenees Mountains, 13 m. S.S.E. of Tarbes, 465 in. 
S S.W. of Paris; Lat. 43° 3' N.; Lon. 0° 8' E. This town, 
situated near the beginning of the valley of Campan, on 
the river Adour, is the resort of those who seek for 
health and pleasure. It owes its attractions to the 
beauty of its situation and the celebrity of its medicinal 
waters. There are about 70 baths, the temperature of 
which varies from 72° to 124°Fahr. The waters areclear, 
without any particular taste, and aperient and tonic. 
The annual visitors are estimated at 15,000. Pp. 9,086. 

B agn'fercs tie Llljon, {loo-znng',) a town of France, 
dep. of Haute-Garonne. in a valley of the Pyrenees 
Mountains, 75 m. S.S.W. of Toulouse, and 513 S. by W. of 
Paris. There are here celebrated sulphurous thermal 
springs and a splendid bathing establishment. The wa¬ 
ters are diuretic, and of great efficacy in cutaneous dis¬ 
eases. Their smell is like that of rotteu eggs, and they 
appear to have been used by the Romans. The view of 
the summit of Maladetta, in the Spanish territory, and 
the cascades formed by the mountain torrents, give 
great interest to the surrounding country. Pup. 3,582. 

Bagnes, n. pi. [Fr., probably from B \o.vio, q. t>.] The 
name applied in France to those prisons in which are 
lodged and enforced to hard labor persons who commit 
offences amounting to specific crimes, and who are con¬ 
demned to the Travaux publics, q. v., a penalty formerly 
called Galeres, or Galleys.” There were three establish¬ 
ments of this class in France, viz , at Brest. Rochefort, and 
Toulon. That of Brest was the first to be abolished, 
succeeded by the others. The Bagnes superseded the old 
punishment of the galleys in 1748, and in 1852, they 
were themselves abolished, and transportation to Guiana 
substituted, the choice being left to those in prison ati 
the time, to remain, or be transported. After the fall 
of the Commune in Paris, in 1870, many of the commu¬ 
nists were transported to Cayenne. 

Bagnes-le-Chable, ( ban’le(r)shabl ,) a parish and 
village of Switzerland, canton of Valais, 7 m. from Mar- 
tigny. They are situate in the valley of Bagne, 2,706 
feet above the sea. In 1818, the river Drause being 
blocked up with ice, a lake was formed; and when it 
burst, the torrent swept away 400 cottages, and 34 lives 
were lost. 

Bits'- net, n. {Sport.) A net shaped like a bag, used in j 
fishing. 

Bagnio, ( bdn'yo ,) n. [It., from Lat. balneum, a bath or 
bathing-place.] This word was applied by the Euro¬ 
peans trading with the Levant, to the prisons in which 
were shut up for the night the slaves or couvicts who 
were made to work in the docks, and at other public 
works, in Constantinople, Algiers, and other cities of Tur¬ 
key or Barbary. — From it the French have taken their 
word Bagne, applied to a convict prison. —In England, 
the term was formerly used fora bathing-establishment, 
and also for a house of ill-fame. 

" I have known two instances of malignant fevers produced by 
the hot air of a bagnio.'" — Arhuthnot. 

Bagnolen'sians, or Baiolen'sians, n.pl. (Ecd. 
Hist.) A Manichsean sect, so called from Bagnois, in 
Languedoc, where they arose in the 8th century. — An¬ 
other sect, bearing the same name, a branch of the Ca- 
thari, arose in Provence during the 12th century. 

Baguoli, (banfyo-le,) a town of S. Italy, prov. of Sannio, 
9 n», S.W. of Trivento. Pop. about 5,000. 

Bag-n'oio, a town of S. Italy, prov. Prineipato Ultra, 
on the declivity of Monte Cabello. 3 m. S.W. of San 
Angelo de Lombardi. Pop. about 5,200. 

Bagnois, ( ban'uols ,) a town of France, dep. Gard, cap. 
of a canton, 25 m. N.N.E. of Nismes ; pop. 5,561. 

Bagoli no, (ba'yo-le'no,) a town of N. Italy, prov. of I 
Brescia, on the Caffaro, 24 m. N.N.E. of Brescia. It has 
manufactures of iron and steel. Pop. 4,345. 

Bagfot, a central co. of Quebec; pop. 19,491. 

Bag 'ptpe, n. (Music.) A wind instrument of high anti¬ 
quity among the northern nations, and which has so long 
been a favorite with the natives of Scotland, that it may 
be considered as their 
national instrument. 

It consists of two prin¬ 
cipal parts: the first 
comprises a leather 
bag which receives 
and holds the wind 
conveyed to it by a 
small tube, furnished 
with a valve, to prevent 
the wind from return¬ 
ing. The second part 
of the instrument con¬ 
sists of three pipes: 
the great pipe or drone; 
a smaller pipe, which 
emits the wind at the 
bottom; and a third 
with a reed, through 
which it is blown. The 
wind is forced into the 
pipes by compressing 
the bag under the arm, 
while the notesare reg¬ 
ulated, as in a flute or 
hautboy, by stopping 
and opening the holes, 
which are eight in number, with the ends of the fingers. 
It is not known when the bagpipe first found its way 
into Scotland, but it is probable that the Norwegians 
«nd Daces first introduced it into the Hebrides, which 


islands they long possessed. In Rome, at the time of 
Advent, the peasants of the mountains play on the bag¬ 
pipe before the images of the Virgin. In France, where 
it is called musette, it is the favorite instrument of the 
Auvergnats. The music is very simple, and yet sweet; 
and evefy traveller remembers it with delight. The 
earliest representation of this instrument occurs in a 
terra-cotta discovered at Tarsus, and supposed to date 
from b. c. 20o. It was known to the Romans, and prob¬ 
ably to the Greeks, and appears in a bas-relief of a Per¬ 
sian concert of the 6th century, a. d. 

Bag 'piper, ». One who plays on a bagpipe.— The 
Queen of Great Britain, and the heads of the principal 
Scottish families of rank, have a piper in their respective 
households. 

Bagra tion, Peter, Prince, a Russian general, b. 1762. 
lie served as colonel in Italy and Switzerland under the 
celebrated Suwarrow, by whom he was held in high es¬ 
timation. On April 10,1799, ho captured Brescia. On 
his return to Russia, both B. and Suwarrow fell into 
disgrace with the Czar Paul I.; but under that monarch’s 
successor, he was reinstated in his rank, and commanded 
the advance-guard of the Austro-Russian army led by 
Kutusoff, under whom he performed prodigies of valor. 
As lieutenant-general, B. commanded the advance-guard 
at Austerlitz under the Prince of Lichtenstein, and in 
the subsequent campaigns fully sustained his high repu¬ 
tation. lie took part in the campaign of 1812, but was 
mortally wounded at the battle of Moskwa (Borodino),, 
and died the same year. 

Bag'reef, n. (Nuut.) In the English navy, a fourth or 
lower reef. 

Itag sliot Sand, n. (Grot.) A series of lower ter¬ 
tiary beds consisting chiefly of light yellow sands repos¬ 
ing on the Loudon clay. It corresponds to the Brackles- 
ham Bed, q. v . 

Bag-uette, ( ba-gi;t ',) n. [Fr.. a little road.] (Arch.) 
A small astragal moulding, sometimes carved and en¬ 
riched with pearls, ribbons, laurels, &c. When the B. 
is thus enriched, it is called chaplet, and when unorna- 
mented, bead. 

Bagulcot', a subdivision of the district of Darwar, in 
Hindustan, prov. Beejapore, and presidency of Bombay, 
comprising the pergunnahs Bagulcot, and Badaumy. 
B. is 54 m. long by 44 broad, with an area of about 
1.230 sq. m. It is a fertile country, but badly watered, 
and formerly belonged to the Mahrattas, who transferred 
it to tli - English in 1818. Pop. about 100,OuO. 

Bagulcot, a town, and cap. of the above district, and of a 
pergunnah. It is the residence of the principal mer¬ 
chants and bankers. Pop. about 9,000. 

Ba'gur, an inland division of Hindostan, lying between 
the prov. of Malwa and Gujerat, iu about 24° N. Lat., 
and 74° E. Lon. It is a hilly country, and mostly cov¬ 
ered with thick low jungles of teak, black-wood, &c. It 
is badly watered, and generally unhealthy. The popu¬ 
lation consists of Bheels and Meenas, under various 
petty chiefs. Prin. towns. Doongurpooz and Banswarra. 

Ball, interj. Pah! — An exclamation expressing disgust, 
contempt, or ironical surprise implying disbelief. 

Balia'Ia Creek, in Mississippi, enters Pearl River in 
Laurence co. 

Balia'Ia, in Mississippi, a village of Copiah co., 50 m. S. 
of Jackson. 

Baha'ina. or Luca'yo Islands, in the W. Indies, 

a chain of islands stretching in a N.W. direction from 
the N. side of San Domingo to the coast of E. Florida, 
and belonging to the British. Lat. from 21° 23' to -7° 
50' N.; Lon. 70° 30' to 79° 5' W. It is composed of in¬ 
numerable rocks, islets (called keys), and islands, of 
which not more than 12 or 14 are inhabited: these are 
New Providence, Turk’s Island, Eleutliera, Exuma, Har¬ 
bor Island, Crooked Island, Long Island, St. Salvador, 
Caicos, Mailing's Island, Rum Key, and Great Inagua 
Great Bahama and Lucayo, now called Abaco. Area 
3,021 sq. m. St Salvador, called by the Indians Guan 
liami, was the first land seen by Columbus on his first 
voyage in 1492.— When the Bahamas were discovered, 
they were found to be peopled by a numerous, mild, and 
happy race of Indians. However, as the islands pro¬ 
duced no gold, the Spaniards did not form any settle¬ 
ments on them, but carried the natives over to Ilis- 
paSiola to work the mines, or act as divers in the 
pearl-fisheries of Cumana, and thus,-in about 14 years, 
the whole race became entirely extinct. — The Baha¬ 
mas remained uninhabited till the year 1629, when 
New Providence was settled by the English, who held 
it till 1641, and were then expelled by the Spaniards, 
who destroyed the colony. It was again colonized by 
the English in 1666, and continued in their hands till 
1703, when a combined force of French and Spaniards 
destroyed Nassau, and obliged the inhabitants to seek 
refuge by flight. Some, however, who remained, were 
rendered desperate by their recent sufferings, and the 
place became a rendezvous for pirates, who became so 
notorious, and committed such depredations in the ad¬ 
jacent seas, that the British determined to suppress 
them, and re-settle the colony. This took place in 1718, 
and shortly afterwards settlements were formed on some 
of the other islands: Nassau itself (the town of New' 
Providence) was fortified in 1740. Providence was taken 
by the Americans in 1776, w r ho abandoned it shortly 
afterwards, in 1781, all the B. were reduced by the 
Spaniards, and were formally ceded in 1783 to the Eng¬ 
lish, in whose possession, along with the other islands, 
ttiey have since remained.—Nassau is the capital, and the 
residence of the governor. — The principal islands are 
situated on those remarkable flats called the Bahama 
Banks, of which the Great Bank (lying at the western 
extremity of the archipelago) occupies an extent of 300 
miles iu length N.W. and S.E., and 80 in breadth; the 


deepest water on any part of this bank is thirty feet 
but the patches of coral rock and dry sand are innu¬ 
merable. These banks rise almost perpendicularly from 
an unfathomable depth of water, and are termed of 
coral, with an accumulation of shells and calcareous 
sand. The character of the islands is generally long 
and narrow, low, and covered with a light sandy soil, 
their figure and surface throughout being nearly the 
same. At the greatest depth vet reached by digging, 
nothing has been found but calcareous rock, with an 
intermixture of shells.—The soil is mostly light or sandy, 
but is here and there spotted with patches of good land, 
producing cotton, Indian corn, pine-apples, and vegeta¬ 
bles. In general, the B. are ill supplied with fresh 
w-ater; but this is found, however, by digging wells in 
the rocks to the depth of the sea-level. — Climate. Salu¬ 
brious. The more northern islands, during the winter 
months, are rendered cool and agreeable by the N.W. 
breeze that blows from off the continent of America; 
the more southern are hotter throughout the year, being 
low, barren, ami rocky. — The area of the whole is 3,021 
sq. m. —The velocity of the Gulf Stream is at its maxi¬ 
mum between the B. and the Florida shore, running at 
the rate of 5 or 6 m. an hour.— Com. The chief exports 
are arrow-root, cabinet-woods, cascarilla bark, fruit, 
salt, shell, sponges, <fcc. The population, which was 
43,521 in 1881, had increased to 47,565 iu 1891. 

Bahama Channel, the name sometimes given to the Gulf 
of Florida, the narrow sea between the coast of America 
and the B. Islands, 135 m. long, and 46 broad. 

Ba'liar, or Be'har, a western aud large territory 
of British India, under the rule of the lieutenant- 
governor of Bengal. It lies chiefly between 22° 
and 27° Lat. N. and 83° and 87° Lon. E.; having 
on the N. Nepaul, W. Oude, Allahabad, and part of 
Gundwana; S. the latter prov., and on the E. Bengal. 
Area, 53,744 sq. m. The Ganges runs a course of 200 m. 
through the prov. from W. to E., dividing it into two 
nearly equal parts. The climate is temperate, and frosts 
are rare, but during the cold seasons the thermometer 
often ranges from 35° to70°Fahr. in the course of the day, 
among the hills; and the winds are very bracing to Euro¬ 
pean constitutions. Agriculture, commerce, and manu¬ 
factures have always been in a comparatively flourishing 
state in this prov.; partly from its central position, and 
easy internal communications, and through being a 
thoroughfare for the trade of Bengal with the Upper 
Provinces; and partly from its fruitfulness and natural 
fitness for tillage. Here, however, as well as in Bengal, 
only about one-third part is supposed to be under 
cultivation. Opium, a staple commodity of the prov., is 
perhaps the best produced in India. Indigo, sugar-cane, 
betel, tobacco, and grain of all kinds are largely culti¬ 
vated.—Bahar now comprises the two divisions of 
Patna and Bhangulpore (Bhagalpur or Boglipoor) with 
their several subdivisions. The chief city is Patna. Tho 
city of Gaya was the birthplace of Buddha, but no Bud¬ 
dhists now remain in the prov. The natives have a fine 
physical appearance, but are inferior to their Bengal 
neighbors in cleanliness and domestic economy. In tho 
S. parts, agriculture is wholly carried on by slaves : and 
many of these consist of individuals who, by a practice 
peculiar to this prov., mortgage their labor until able to 
redeem a debt: a smaller part of the pop. are Moham¬ 
medans. This prov. is supposed to have anciently formed 
two independent sovereignties—that of Mathila iu tho 
N., and Magadlia in the S.; and distinct languages con¬ 
tinue to be spoken in them. It was acquired by the 
English, trom Cossim Ali, in 1765. Pop. ab. 24,300,(XX). 

Ba'liar, a district, or zillah, occupying the central part 
of the above prov.; area, 5,235 sq. in.; prin. towns, 
Babar and Gaya; p<q>. about 3.000,000. 

Bahar', or Barre', n. [Ar. bahar, from bahara, to- 
charge with a load.] (Com.) An East Indian weight, 
ranging from 223 to 625 lbs., it varying considerably ac¬ 
cording to the locality in which it is used. 

Ba har, [Skr. vihar, a monastery of Buddhists,] a decay¬ 
ing town of Hindostan, in the district ot the same name; 
Lat. 25° 13' N.; Lon. 85° 35' E.; 35 m. S.E. of Pdtna. 
Pop. about 30,000. 

Bah'arites, n. pi. (Hist.) The first Mameluke dynasty 
that reigned in Egypt, were descended from Turks sold 
to slavery by the Tartars. They began to reign in 1244, 
and the last Sultan of the race was expelled by the 
Burgites or Circassians, the 2d Mameluke dynasty of 
Egypt, in 1381, after having reigned 137 years.— See 
Bokgites. 

Balia wul poor, or V>o.\vpoom\,(bawl'ponr,)ii territory 
of Hindostan, between Lat. 28°and 30°N., and Lon. 7(P 
and 74° E.; havingN. Punjaub; E. the Bicanere territory 
(Rajpootana); S. and S.W. Jaysulmere and Sciude. Its 
N.W boundary is for the most part formed by the Sutlej 
river. The banks of this river are everywhere fertile, 
but the rest of the territory toward the E is a mere 
desert. The inhabitants are chiefly Juts and Beloochees, 
who profess Mohammedanism. They are fair and hand¬ 
some races, and apparently in a better condition than 
some of their neighbors. Prin. towns. Babawulpoor, 
Ahmedpoor (residence of the chief), Julalpoor, Seedpoor, 
and Ooch. B. was taken from the Moguls by the Per¬ 
sians, and after the death of Nadir Shah, belouged to 
Cabul, to which kingdom he was tributary as long as the 
monarchy lasted. The three last rulers have been nearly 
independent; but the political power of the country has 
been broken by the Sikhs, and the rajali of the Punjaub 
only spared it on condition of receiving an annual pecu¬ 
niary tribute. 

Bahawclpoor. the anc. cap. of the above territory, near 
the Sutlej river, 320 m. W.S.W. of Delhi, Lat. 29° 31' N., 
Lon. 72° 10' E., at the junction of the road leading from 
Bombay and Calcutta to Cabul. 












250 


BAIiE 


BAIL 


BAIL 


iSallia, (ba-ne'a.) [Pg. and Sp., “ Bay.”] A maritime proy. 
of Brazil, on the E. coast, extending from about 9° to 15° 
45' S. Lat. It derives its name from Bahia de Todos ns 
Santos, or All Saints’ Bay, q.v., and is bounded N. by the 
provinces of Sergipeand Pernambuco (from the latter of 
which it is divided by the Bio San Francisco); on the 
S. by Porto Seguro and Minas Graes; on the W. by 
Pernambuco, — though still separated by the Rio San 
Francisco, — and on the E. by the ocean. Its estimated 
length is about 480 m., and its breadth from 150 to 200. 
Area, 127,911 sq. nt. The province is divided into three 
comareas;viz., Bahia, Jacobina,and llhoes.— Desc. Three 
mountain ranges traverse this prov. from S.AV. to N.E.; 
viz., the Serras Cincora, Giboya, and Itabayana. The 
Serra de Montequevia forms the chief ridge in the in¬ 
terior. Bays and inlets abound along the coast, among 
which the most noticeable is All Saints’ Bay. The Rio 
San Francisco is the principal river. — Soil and Prod. 
B. possesses a soil admirably adapted to the culture of 
the sugar-cane, and also of tobacco. The sugar it pro¬ 
duces bears a high character for its excellent quality, 
which is sufficiently evidenced by the fact that B. ex¬ 
ports more of this article of consumption than the rest 
of Brazil all put together. In cotton, B. has already 
become a formidable rival to Pernambuco. It also pro¬ 
duces superior rice; coffee (excelled, however, by that 
of Rio de Janeiro); and Brazil-wood, equal to that of 
Pernambuco. Pop. about 1,400,000. 

Bahia, or San Salvador, cap. of above prov., within Cape 
San Antonio, which forms the right or E. side of All 
Saints’ Bay, 880 m. N.E. of Rio. Lat. 13° 0' 7" S.; 
Lon. 38° 31' 7" W. It was founded about 1549, by Tomas 
de Souza, the first captain-general of Brazil, and was, 
until 1763, the capital of the colony. But though now 
inferior to Rio de Janeiro (the present capital), in popu¬ 
lation and commercial importance, B. is still one of the 
largest and most important cities of S. America, and as 
respects the number and beauty of its public buildings, 
it ranks first among the cities of the empire. Pop. 
about 180,000. 

Bahi'a Blan'ca, an inlet of the Atlantic, on the E. 
coast of S. America, 360 m. S.W. of Buefios Ayres. 

Bahi'a, Hon'da, a large and well-sheltered seaport 
of the island of Cuba, on its N. coast, 60 m. W.S.W. of 
Havana. 

Bahr, (fear,) the Arabic word for the sea, a lake, or a 
large river, appears as a component part of many proper 
names in Eastern geography: Bahr-al-Kolzurn, “ the Sea 
of Kolzum,” i. e. the Arabian Gulf, or Red Sea, especially 
its north-western extremity (the Sinus Ileroopolites); 
Bahr Ldt, “ the Lake of Lot,” i. e. the Lacus Asphal- 
tites, or Dead Sea, in Syria; Bahr-el-Abiad. “ the White 
River,” and Bahr-el-Azrak, “ the Blue River.” The 
diminutive of Bahr is Boheirah, or Boheirat, “ a small 
lake,” which is likewise found occasionally in maps or 
books of travels relating to the geography of the East; 
as Boheirat Tabariyah, “ the Lake of Tiberias.” It has 
passed into the Portuguese language under the form 
Albufeira, “a reservoir, a tank, a lagoon;” and into 
the Spanish under the two forms Albufera and Albuhera, 
in the same sense. The prefixed el in these words is 
the Arabic definite article; and it is a general remark 
that the letter h of many Arabic words that have been 
received into the Spanish and Portuguese languages, has 
been changed into/. 

Bahr - el - Abiad, ( bar’-el-a'be-dd ,) [Ar., “White 

River,”] more commonly called Abiad Bahri.l, q. v. — 
^00 3,lso Nile 

Bahr'-el-As'relt. [Ar., “Blue River.”] See Nile. 

Ball'rein, (anc. Tylos,) a group consisting of one large 
and several smaller islands, in the Persian Gulf, since 
1861, under British protection, in a bay near the Arabian 
shore, between Lat. 25° 45' and 26° 16' N., and Lon. 56° 
15' and 50° 20' W.—The principal are named Bahrein or 
Aval, Arad, Maharag (residence of the Bey), and Tama- 
hoy. — The first is considerably larger than the others, 
being 27 m. long and 10 broad; it lies about 15 m. from 
the coast, 90 miles from Bushire, and has the town of 
Manama for its capital. It produces wheat and dates, 
and other fruits. Its pearl fishery is the most productive 
in the world, its annual value being from $500,000 to 
$ 1,000,000. — Pop. of the whole group about 60,000, com¬ 
posed of a mixed breed between the Persians and Arabs, 
but possessing more of the indolence and cunning of the 
former than of the bold frankness of the latter. 

Baine, ( bai'i-e,) a famous marine watering-place of ancient 
Italy, was seated on the W. shore of the Bay of Naples, 
8 m. W. of that city, and 2% m. N. of Cape Misenum. 
It was indebted for its rise and celebrity to a variety of 
circumstances, to the softness of its climate, the beauty 
of its situation,— 

"Nullus in orbe sinus Baits prseluoet amoenis,” — 

the abnnt ance of its hot springs, which gave to the Ro¬ 
mans, who were passionately fond of the bath, the op¬ 
portunity of indulging in that luxury in every form de¬ 
sirable. B. seems to have come into fashion previously 
to, or about the sera of Lucullus, who had a splendid villa 
here, as had, also, Caesar, Pompey, and Augustus; and it 
continued to increase in popularity, and to be a favorite 
resort of the emperors and of the affluent voluptuaries of 
Rome till the eruption of the barbarians under Theodoric 
the Goth. The town was built originally on the narrow 
strip of ground between the hills and the sea; but as 
thisspacewas of very limited dimensions, after I?, became 
a fashionable resort, the foundations of its streets and 
palaces were projected into the bay itself. This is alluded 
to by Horace. No sooner, however, had opulence been 
withdrawn from it, than the sea gradually resumed its 
old domain: moles and buttresses were torn asunder, 
washed away, or tumbled headlong into the deep, where, 


several feet below the surface, pavements of streets, foun¬ 
dations of houses, and masses of walls may still be descried. 
Earthquakes and other uatural convulsions have also 
largely contributed to the destruction of B, of which 
only a small portion of the ruins now remains. 

Bai'bout. or Baibur'«li, (anc. VaruUia,) a town of 
Asiatic Turkey, in the paslialic of Erzeroum, on the 
Tchorokhi, 62 m. W. by N. of Erzeroum ; pop. abt. 4,000. 

Bai'ersbronn. a village of Wiirtemberg, in the Black 
Forest, 40 m. W.N.W. of Stuttgart; pop. 4,626. 

Bai'kal, (Lake.) sometimes called the Sviatnre More 
(“ Holy Sea,”) a lake of Siberia, in the govt, of Irkutsk, 
between 51° and 56° N. Lat., and 103° and 110° E. Lon. 
Its greatest length in a N.N.E. and S.S.W. direction is 
nearly 400 nt., and its extreme breadth about 60. It is 
of very unequal depth. It is situated in a mountainous 
country, and receives several considerable rivers, while 
its surplus water is carried off by the Angara, an affluent 
of the Yenesei. The fisheries are very valuable; great 



Fig. 266.— a view on lake Baikal, (Eastern Siberia.) 


numbers of seals are taken, also sturgeon and salmon; 
but the grand object of the fishery is the omul, a sort of 
herring (Salmo autumnalis, vel migratorius) taken in vast 
numbers (about 3,600,000 pounds annually) in Aug. and 
Sept., when it ascends the rivers. The most singular fish 
belonging to the B. is the gnlomynka (Callynnimus Bai- 
calensis) from 4 to 6 inches in length, and so very fat 
that it melts before the fire like butter. The surface of 
the lake is frozen over from Nov. to the end of April or 
the beginning of May. 

Bail, n. [0. Fr. bailler, from Fr. bail, a giving over or 
granting; It. balia, power, authority; Lat. bajulus, a 
bearer, one who bears authority.] (Law.) The delivery 
of a person to another for keeping, used in reference 
to one arrested, or committed to prison, upon either 
a civil or criminal process; and he is said to be bailed, 
when he is delivered to another, who becomes his surety 
in bonds, (to a greater or less amount, according to the 
amount of the demand for which he is sued, or the heinous¬ 
ness of the crime with which he is charged,) for his ap¬ 
pearance at court to take his trial. Bail is either common 
or special; the former being merely fictitious, whereby 
nominal sureties, as John Doe and Richard Roe, are 
feigned to be answerable for the defendant’s appearance 
at the court to which he is cited. Special bail is that of 
an actual surety. The laws of the U. States, and of the 
several States, allow of bail to be given in all civil pro¬ 
cesses, whatever may be the amount of damages which 
the defendant may be called upon to answer in the suit; 
and the jealousy of personal liberty, so congenial to the 
American institutions, has introduced a provision into 
some of the constitutions, that excessive bail shall not, 
in any case, be demanded; and when the defendant, or 
party charged with a crime, for which he is arrested, 
considers the bail demanded to be excessive, he may, by 
habeas corpus, or other process or application, according 
to the provisions of the laws under which he is arrested, 
havethe bondreduced to a reasonable amount. In respect 
to bail, the act of Congress, 1789, c. 20, s. 33, provides, 
that, “upon all arrests, in criminal cases, bail shall be 
admitted, except where the punishment may be death, 
in which case it shall not be admitted, except by the su¬ 
preme or circuit court, or by a justice of the supreme 
court, or a judge of the district court, who shall exercise 
their discretion therein.” The laws of the several States 
are generally equivalent, or substantially so, to this Act 
of Congress, on the subject of bail. The part}’ bailed is 
considered to be in the custody of his bail or sureties, 
who may seize and deliver him up to the court, and thus 
discharge themselves from their responsibility. 

(Games.) The top-piece which crosses the wicket, in 
the game of cricket. 

—The handle of a kettle or similar ntensil. — A division 
between the stalls of a stable; as, “a swinging bail." — 
In England, a certain boundary within a forest. 

— v. a. To deliver over to the control of a surety; to set 


free or liberate from custody, as an offender, on security 
for his reappearance. — To deliver goods in charge. 
(Naut.) To free from water; as, to bail a boat. 

Bail'able, a. That may be bailed ; that may be set aC 
liberty by bail or sureties; — used of persons. 

“ He ’8 bailable , I ’m sure.”— Ford. 

—That admits of bail; as, a bailable offence. 

Bail'-bond, n. (Law.) A bond given by a prisoner and 
his surety for his reappearance when called upon. 

Bailee', n. [O. Fr. bailie.] (Law.) One to whom goods 
are bailed; the party to whom personal property is de¬ 
livered under a contract of bailment.— See Bailment. 

Bail'er. The same as Bailor, q. v. 

Bai'Iey, n. [L. Lat. ballium.] In England, originally, a 
court within a fortress; now, sometimes applied to a 
prison or court of justice; as, the Old Bailey in London; 
the New Bailey in Manchester. 

Bailey. Philip James, (bai'le,) an English poet, b. at 
Nottingham, 1816. Ilis “ Festus,” published in 1839, was 
highly successful. He has since published the Angel 
World, the Mystic, the Age, Ac., but Festus, notwithstand¬ 
ing the peculiarity of many of the sentiments with which 
it is disfigured, remains his best work. 

Bai'Iey IIol'low, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Lackawanna co. 

Bai'lcysliu rg, in Pennsylvania , a village of Perry co* 
on the Juniata river, 23 m. N.N.W. of Harrisburg. 

«».;i'ley sbu rg. in Virginia, a village of Surry co, 
about 50 m. S.S.E. of Richmond. 

Bal'ley's Creek, in Missouri, a P. O. of Osage co. 

Bai'ley’s Harbor, in Wisconsin, a post-township of 
Door co., on Lake Michigan. 

Bai'Iey's Mill, in Florida, a post-office of Leon co. 

Bai'ley’s Mills, in Ohio, a post-office of Belmont co. 

Bai'Iey town, in Indiana, a village of Porter co., 14 m. 
N. by W. of Valparaiso. 

Bai'Iey ville, in Illinois, a post-office of Ogle co. 

Bai'Iey ville, in Maine, a post-township of Washington 
county, 80 m. E.N.E. of Bangor, on the St. Croix 
river. 

Bai'lie, n. [Scottish.] A municipal officer in Scotland, 
corresponding to an alderman in England; as “ Bailie 
Nicol Jarvie.” — Sir Walter Scott. 

Bailieboroug'li, (bai'le-bur'o,) a market-town and 
parish of Ireland, standing at the head of the Blackwa- 
ter river, co. Cavan. 

Bail'ifT, n. [Fr. baiUi, formerly an inferior judge; from 
Lat. ballivas, bagalus, a governor, tutor, or superintend¬ 
ent.] In England.asubordinateofficer,ordeputy, to whom 
authority or jurisdiction is delegated or delivered by the 
sheriff of a city or county, to make arrests, collect fines, 
summon juries, Ac.; a deputy sheriff. — An under-stew¬ 
ard or overseer, who has charge of an estate, superin¬ 
tends all husbandry operations, and who sometimes col¬ 
lects the rents due to the land-owner. — There are also 
B. of forests, and those to whom the Queen’s castles are 
committed; as, the B.. or Constable of Dover Castle. 

Bail iwick. >i. \Bailiff, and A.S.wic; Fr. bailliage.] 
The extent or limit of a bailiff's jurisdiction, or authority. 

Bailleul, (bai'yu(r)l.) a town of France, dep. Nord, 16 
m. W.N.W. of Lille, oh the railway to Dunkerque.— 
Man/. Cotton cloth, lace, paper, Ac. Pop. about 11,000. 

Bail'lie, Joanna, a distinguished English poetess, b. 
1762. In 1798. she published her first work, called A 
Series of Plays. Others followed in rapid succession. 
In 1810, her romantic play, the Family Legend, was 
acted in Edinburgh, Mrs. Siddons taking the principal 
female part. In 1836 appeared her series of Plugs on the 
Passions. In addition, she produced many poems of much 
excellence. D. at Hampstead, near London, 23d Feb., 1851. 

Bail'lie. Matthew, m. d , brother of the preceding, and 
one of the most distinguished anatomists and patholo¬ 
gists of his time; b. 1761. In 1810, he was appointed 
physician to George III., and in 1820, President of the 
Royal College of Physicians. D. 23d Sept., 1823, and was 
buried in Westminster Abbey, where a fine monument 
has been erected to his memory. B.’b greatest work, The 
Morbid Anatomy of the Human Body, appeared in 1795. 

Bai'llon, n. [Fr.] (Sur.) An instrument used for 
keeping the mouth of a patient open, during an opera¬ 
tion. 

Bail'lot, Pierre, the most celebrated of modern French 
violinists, was B. at Passy,in 1771. In 1833 he published 
his Art da Violin, which conveys the whole principles 
of the French school of violin-playing, and has amalga¬ 
mated into a complete style its various excellences. D. 
at Paris, 1842. 

Bailly, Jean Stlvatn, (bai'ye,) a distinguished French 
astronomer, b. at Paris, 1736. In 1766, he published a 
work on the satellites of Jupiter. His liistorico-scientifio 
works, especially his History of Indian Astronomy, are 
full of learning and ingenious disquisition, and writtei 
with great elegance. In 1777, he published his Letters 
on the Origin of the Sciences; and in 1799, his Atlantis of 
Plato. In 1784, he was elected a member of the Acad6- 
mie Frangaise; and in the following year, of the Acade¬ 
mic des Inscriptions. He entered eagerly into the po¬ 
litical discussions of his country, and was chosen Presi¬ 
dent of the first National Assembly. In June, 1789, he 
presided at that meeting of the deputies at the Tennis- 
court, when all took oath not to dissolve until they had 
prepared a new constitution for France. In the follow¬ 
ing month he was made mayor of Paris, but soon lost his 
popularity, owing to the liberal sentiments which ho 
expressed towards the royal family, and his enforcing 
obedience to the laws. In consequence of this, he re- 
signed his office in 1791, and sought that philosophical 
retirement for which he was so much more suited. la 
the sanguinary period which followed, he was appre¬ 
hended, and after a summary process, condemned xo be 
guillotined. He was, accordingly, executed Nor li. 















BAIN 


BAIT 


BAKE 


251 


1793. — When on the scaffold, the demeanor of this phi¬ 
losopher is said to have been perfectly tranquil. “ You 
tremble, Bailly,” said one of his enemies to him. “ My 
friend, it is with cold,” was the calm reply. 

{Bail'ment, n. [0. Fr. bailler , to deliver.] (Law.) The 
delivery of a thing to another to keep, either for the use 
of the bailor, or person delivering, or for that of the 
bailee, or person to whom it is delivered. A bailment 
always supposes the subject to be delivered only for a 
limited time, at the expiration of which it must be re¬ 
delivered to the bailor; and the material inquiries, in 
cases of bailment, relate to the degree of responsibility 
of the bailee in regard to the safe-keeping and re-delivery 
of the subject of the bailment. This responsibility will 
depend, in some degree, upon the contract on which the 
bailment is made. If a thing is delivered to the bailee to 
keep, without any advantage or use to himself, or any 
compensation, but merely lor the benefit of the bailor, 
he is answerable only for gross negligence; but if the 
bailment is for the mutual benefit of both parties, the 
thing must be kept with the ordinary and usual care 
which a prudent man takes of his own goods; but if it 
be delivered for the benefit of the bailee only, he must 
exercise strict care in keeping it, and will be answerable 
for slight negligence. A special agreement is made in 
many cases of borrowing or hiring, specifying the risks 
assumed by the borrower or hirer; and, in such case, 
his obligations will be determined by his stipulations. 
Pledging and letting for hire are species of bailment.— 
See Lien. 

Bail 'or, n. (Law.) He who bails a thing to another. 
See Bailment. 

Bail'-piece, n. (Law.) A certificate given by a judge, 
or the clerk of a court, or other person authorized to 
keep the record, in which it is certified that the bailor 
became bail for the defendant in a certain sum and in a 
particular case. 

Baity, Edward Hodges, r. a , a celebrated English 
sculptor, b. at Bristol, 10th Mar., 1788. lie studied un¬ 
der Flaxtnan, and early made himself a popular favorite. 
His finest works are, Hercules casting Lycidas into the 
Sea; Apollo discharging his Arrows; The Three Graces; 
Psyche; Girl preparing for the Bath; and The Graces 
Seated. D. May 22,1867. 

Bail'y, Francis, a distinguished English astronomer, and 
mathematician, b. 28th April, 1771. He was the son of 
a London banker, and himself, up to his 51st year, pur¬ 
sued the business of a stock-broker, and accumulated a 
large fortune. From this time he devoted himself to the 
study of astronomy and physics, and produced able 
treatises on The Determination of the Length of the Pen¬ 
dulum; The Determination of the Density of the Earth, 
Ac. The Doctrine of Life Annuities and Assitrances 
Analytically Investigated and Explained, was also the 
production of his pen, and is esteemed a standard work 
on the subject of which it treats. D. in London, 1844. 

Bain, (bang,) a town of France, dep. llle et Yilaine, 18 m. 
from Rennes; pop. 4,211. 

Bain'bridg'e. William, an American commander, b. 
in Princeton, N. J., 1774 He became a captain in 1800; 
served in the war against Tripoli; and, on Dec. 26, 1812, 
captured the British frigate Java, of 49 guns, after a 
severe action in which the English lost 174 and the 
Americans 33 men. D. 1833. 

Bain/bridg’e, in England, a township in the parish of 
Aysgarth, North Riding of the co. of York, on the Ure. 
It is celebrated for its picturesque scenery. 

Bain'bridge, in Georgia, a post-village, cap. of Deca¬ 
tur co., on the Flint river, 188 m. S.W. of the city of 
Milledgeville. 

Bain bridge, in Illinois, a township of Schuyler 
county. 

—A post-village of Williamson co., about 170 m. S. by E. 
of Springfield. 

Bain'bridg-e, in Indiana, a township of Du Bois 
county. 

—A post-village of Putnam co., 36 m. W. of Indianapolis. 

Ha i ir bridge. in Kentucky, a P.0, of Christian co. 

Bain'bridjfe, in Michigan, a post-village and township 
of Berrien co., 15 m. N. by E. of Berrien. 

Bain'bridge, in Missouri, a village in the E. part of 
Cape Girardeau co., 14 m. E. by N. of Jackson. 

Bain bridge, in New York, a flourishing post¬ 
village and township of Chenango county, on the 
Susquehanna river, 104 miles W.S.W. of the city of 
Albany. 

Bain'bridge, in Ohio, a post-village of Paxton town¬ 
ship, Ross co., on Paint Creek, 54 m. E. of Cincinnati, 
and 19 m. S.W. of Chillicothe, 

—A township of Geauga co. 

Bain'bridge, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Lan¬ 
caster co., on the Susquehanna river, 20 m. E.S.E. of 
Harrisburg. 

Bain-Marie, (bain(g)’-ma-re',) n. A bath much used in 
culinary operations in France, and so called from the 
name of the inventor. It is also largely employed in 



chemistry, and for the most part consists of an outer vessel 
containing water, or some other fluid, in a state of ebul¬ 
lition: within this is another vessel, in which the sub¬ 
stance to be operated upon is placed. The object of the 

bain-marie is to produce a gentle and regular heat, and 


it is principally used for evaporating or for distilling 
volatile and aromatic substances. When sand is sub¬ 
stituted for boiling water, this apparatus is called a 
sand-bath, and when boiling water is employed, it is 
called . vapor-bath. 

Bains. [Fr., The baths.] A small town of France, dep. 
Vosges, 13 m. S.W'. of Epinal. There are mineral waters 
here which are much resorted to from the 15th of June 
to the 15th of September. They are said to be saline 
and thermal; others, however, deny them any medicinal 
properties vvhatever. 

Bains-du-Mont-d'Or, a village of France, dep. 
Puy-de-Dome, 20 m. W. of Issoire. It is celebrated for 
its mineral waters, and principally for the magnificent 
scenery of the surrounding mountains. 

Bai'ram, n. [Turk, bairdm, beiram; Pers. bayrum.] 
The name of the only two festivals annually celebrated 
by the Turks and other Mohammedan nations. The 
first is also called Id-aVPitr, i.e. “the festival of the 
interruption,” alluding to the breaking of the universal 
fast which is rigorously observed during the month Ra- 
madhan or Ramazan. It commences from the moment 
when the new moon of the month Shewal becomes visi¬ 
ble, the appearance of which, as marking the termina- 
tioq of four weeks of abstinence and restraint, is looked 
for and watched with great eagerness. At Constantinople 
it is announced by the discharge of guns at the seraglio 
upon the sea-shore, and by the sounding of drums and 
trumpets in all public places of the city. This festival 
ought, properly, to last but one day; but the rejoicings 
are generally continued for two days more. The second 
festival, denominated Id-al-Azhd or Kurbdn Bairdm, 
i. e. “the festival of the sacrifices,” is instituted in 
commemoration of Abraham offering his son Isaac, and 
is celebrated 60 days after the former, on the 10th of 
Zulhijjah, the day appointed for slaying the victims by 
the pilgrims at Mecca. It lasts four days. At each of 
these festivals but one khutba is read, i. e. divine service 
is only once publicly performed, on the first day, about 
an hour after sunrise; and in the Turkish empire even 
this solitary act of public worship is now no longer an¬ 
nounced by the muezzins, or public criers, from the tops 
of the minarets or turrets of the mosques. At Constan¬ 
tinople the two Bairams are celebrated with much pomp. 
The sultan on this occasion receives the homage of the 
different orders of the empire, and proceeds in state, fol¬ 
lowed by all the higher officers, to the mosque. As the 
Mohammedans have a lunar year of 354 days, the two 
festivals run, once every 32 years, through all the seasons. 

Bai'ram, or Bai'ram Kale'si, a small and miser¬ 
able Turkish town in Natolia, 25 m. N.W. of Adramyti, 
opposite to the island of Lesbos, or Mitylene. B. is not 
otherwise remarkable than by standing close to the site 
of the ancient Assos, a strongly fortified and maritime 
town, the remains of which are still considerable. It 
was visited by St. Paul, on his return from Troas, (Acts 
xx. 13-15.) 

Baird, Sir David, Bart., a distinguished British gene¬ 
ral, B. in Scotland, in 1757. Entering the army in 1778, 
he served in India, and while brigadier-general, he led 
the storming party that carried Seringapatam by assault, 
in 1799. For his gallantry on this occasion he was 
thanked by both Houses of Parliament. He subsequently 
served his country by the capture of Cape Town, and 
at the taking of Copenhagen, and shared the glory of 
Corunna under Sir John Moore, after whose death on 
that field he became commander-in-chief. His severe 
wounds, however, incapacitated him from acting in that 
capacity. At the close of the war, he was created a 
baronet, and received the Order of the Bath. D. 1829. 

Baird, W illiam, m. d., an eminent English zoologist, b. 
1803. He was for many years chief of the zoological 
department of the British Museum. His principal 
works were the Natural History of the British Entomos- 
traca (1850); and a popular Cyclopedia of the Natural 
Sciences, 8vo., published in 1858. Died Jan. 27, 1872. 

Baird'ia, n. (ZoSl.) A genus of entomostracous Crus¬ 
tacea, fam. Cyprididce. They inhabit fresh-water ponds, 
and a considerable number are found in a fossil state in 
the chalk formation. 

Bairds'town, in Georgia, a post-village of Oglethorpe 
co., 83 m. W. of Augusta, on the Athens branch of the 
Georgia railroad. 

Bairds'town, in Kentucky. See Bardstowx. 

Bairds'town, in Missouri, a village of Sullivan co. 

Bairds'town, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of West- 
moreland co., on the Conemaugh river, 44 m. E. of Pitts¬ 
burg. 

Baireutli, (bi-reut’,) a town of Bavaria, the cap. of 
Upper Franconia, 126 m. from Munich. Manf. Cottons 
and woollens, &c. Here Jean Paul Richter died in 1825, 
and a monument was erected to his memory by the king 
of Bavaria. See Bayreuth. 

Bairn, (6iim,) u. [A. S. beam : Scot, bairn.} A child; 
a youngster of either sex.—Used exclusively in Scotland, 
and the N. of England. 

Bai'rout, a seaport of Syria. See Betrout. 

Bait, (bat,) n. [A. S. baton, to put meat upon a hook; 
Sw., Goth, beta, to feed.] A bit of food or other substance 
put on a hook to allure fish, fowls, &c. 

“ The pleasant’st angling is to see the fish 
Cut with her golden oars the silver stream. 

And greedily devour the treacherous bait." — Shake. 

—Anything which allures; an enticement; temptation. 

“Sweet words, I grant, baits and allurements sweet. 

But greatest hopes with greatest crosses meet."— Fairfax. 

—A hasty morsel or refreshment taken on a journey. 

— v. a. [Goth, beitan, to bite, to prick, to incite; 0. Fr. 
abetter .] To put meat on a hook or line to entice fish, kc. 

41 Oh. cunning enemy, that, to catch a saint. 

With saints doth bait thy hook 1"— Shaks. 


—To give a portion of food and drink to a beast upon the 
road; as, to bait a horse. 

— 1 \ i. To stop and take a hasty refreshment during a 
journey. 

“ In all our journey from London to his house, we did not so 
much as bait at a Whig inn."— Addison. 

Bait, v. a. [Goth, beitan, to bite, to prick, to incite; 0. F r 
abetter; Fr. battre, to beat.] To provoke and harass by 
inciting dogs to attack; to harass; to attack with vio¬ 
lence ; as, to bait a bull with dogs. 

“ Who seeming sorely chafed at his band. 

As chained bear, whom cruel dogs do bait.’’~Faerie Queene. 

—v. i. [Fr. battre de Vaile, or des ailes, to flap or flutter.) 
To clap the wings; to flutter,as if to fly; or to hover, 
as a hawk over her prey; to make an ofler of flying. 

“ All plum'd like ostridges, that wit6 the wind 
Baited like eagles hating lately bath’d.”—8'Aaifcs. 

Bait'ing, n. The act of furnishing a bait; a refresh¬ 
ment on ajourney. 

Bait ing Hollow, in New York, a post-village of Suf¬ 
folk co., 221 m. S.S.E. of Albany. 

Bai'tool, a fortified town and district of British India, 
presid. of Bengal, 50 m. from Ellichpoor. Area of dis¬ 
trict, 4,000 sq. m. Pop. in 1S97 (est.) 300,000. 

Baize, (baz,) n. [Sp. bajeta, probably from Baice, where 
it Wits first made.J A coarse woollen stuff, with a long 
nap. It is sometimes frizzed on one side. It is without 
wale and is wrought on a loom, like flannel. 

Baja, (ba'zha,) or Bas, a town of Hungary, co. Bacs, 
near the Danube, 20 ni. N. by \V. of Zambor; pop. 20,087. 

Bajada-de-Santa-Fe, (ba-ha'da-dai-san'la-fa 1 ,) a 
town of the Argentine Republic, on the E bank of the 
Parana, opposite Santa Fe; pop. about 7,000. 

Baj adere, n. See Bayadere. 

Bajazet, or Bayazeed I., (bi-ah-zeed.) an Ottoman Sul¬ 
tan, B. 1347, succeeded his father, Amurath I., in 
1389. He was the first of his family who assumed the 
title of “ Sultan.” The Turkish empire at this time ex¬ 
tended W. from the Euphrates to the shores of Europe, 
and Amurath had crossed the Bosphorus, subdued the 
greater part of Thrace, and fixed the seat of his power 
at Adrianople. B. wrested the N. parts of Asia Minor 
from the dominion of various Turkish emirs whose power 
had long been established there. In Europe he conquered 
Macedonia and Thessaly, and invaded Moldavia and Hun¬ 
gary. Sigismund, king of the latter country, met him 
at the head of 100,000 men, including the flower of the 
chivalry of France and Germany, but was totally defeated 
at Nicopoli, on the Danube, 28th Sept., 1396. B. is said 
to have boasted, on the occasion of this victory, that he 
would feed his horse on the altar of St. Peter at Rome. 
His progress, however, was arrested by a violent attack 
of the gout. B. was preparing for an attack on Constan¬ 
tinople, when he was interrupted by the approach of Ti- 
mour the Great, by whom he was defeated at Angora, in 
Anatolia, 28th July, 7 402. He was taken captive, and 
died about 9 months afterwards, at Antioch in Pisidia. He 
was succeeded by Mohammed I. Modern writers reject 
as a fiction the story of the iron cage in which B. was 
said to have been imprisoned. B was surnamed llderim 
or “The Lightning;” an epithet acquired from the fiery 
energy of his soul, and the rapidity of his destructive 
march. He was succeeded by his son Soliman I. 

Bajazet II., Sultan of the Turks. He succeeded his father, 
Mohammed II., in 1481. His brother Zizim contested 
the empire with him, assisted by Caith Bey, sultan of 
the Egyptian Mamelukes, but was compelled to retreat 
into Italy, where he died in 1495. B. undertook an ex¬ 
pedition against Caith Bey, but was defeated, with great 
loss, near Mount Taurus in Cilicia, in 1489. He was more 
fortunate in Europe, where, in the same year, his generals 
conquered Croatia and Bosnia. B was engaged in long 
and bloody hostilities with the Moldavians, the Kliodians, 
and especially the Venetians, who frequently invaded the 
S. of Greece; and with Ismael, king of Persia. At home, 
he had to contend against his rebellious son Selim, to 
whom, at last, he resigned the empire. He died in 1512, 
on his way to the place which he had chosen for his re¬ 
tirement. It has been supposed that he was put to death 
by the order of his son. He was a man of uncommon 
talents, and did much for the improvement of his empire, 
and the promotion of the sciences. 

Bajocco,( ba-yok J ko,)n. [It.,from bajo, brown,bay,from 
its color.] (Com.) A copper coin in the Papal States. It 
is the one hundredth part ot a sc udo, and its value is about 
1]4 cent. (pl.B ajocchi.) 

Bajour, (ba-joor',) a territory of N. Afghanistan. Area, 
estimated at 370 sq. m. Desc. Fertile, surrounded by 
mountains, clothed with forests of cedar and oak. Its 
chief town is called Bajour, and is supposed to be ths 
Bazira of the historian of Alexander the Great. Pop. 
120,000. 

Bake, v. a. [A. S. bacan ; Icel. baka, to warm; Scots. 
beik.] To heat, dry, and harden by fire or the sun’s rays; 
as, to bake bricks; the sun bakes the clay. Specifically , 
to dress and prepare for food in an oven or heated place; 
as, to bake a loaf. 

44 The son with fiamiDg arrows pierc’d the flood. 

And, darting to the bottom, bak’d the mud.'’— Dryden. 

—To harden by cold. 

44 The earth.... is baked with frost. "—Shaks. 

— v. x. To do the work of baking. 

44 1 keep his house, and I wash, wring, brew, bakeF—Shaks. 

—To be baked; to dry and harden in heat; as, the earth 
bakes in the burning sun. 

Baked, (bdkt,)p. a. Dried or hardened by heat; cooked 
by heat. 

Bake'-honse, n. [A. S. bachus.] A house or building 
for baking; a place for baking bread. 

Bake'-meat, Baked'-uieats, n. s. and pi. Meat 
















252 


BAKE 


BALA 


BALA 


prepared by baking; viands dressed by the oven; as, 
“ the funeral baked-meals.” — Shahs. 

Ba ker, n. [A. S. b&cere; Icel. bakari; Sw. bagare; Dan. 
bagere ; Dut. bakker; Ger. backer, becker.] One whose 
occupation is to bake bread, biscuit, Ac. — See Bread. 

—A small portable tiuoveu iu which bakiug is performed. 
(American.) 

Ba'ker, Sir Richard, an English historian, b. in 1568. 
He is best known as the author of a Chronicle of the 
Kings of England from the Time of the Roman Govern¬ 
ment unto the Death of King James, (London, 1641.) This 
was long held in repute as the most authentic history of 
his country. D. in ttie Fleet Prison, London, in 1644. 

Ba'Uer,SiR Samuel White, f.r.s., a distinguished English 
author and explorer, B. 1821. lie early showed a predi¬ 
lection for travel, and has spent a great portion ot his 
life in Asia and Africa. With his brother, Col. Baker, in 
1848, he undertook the organization of an extensive 
agricultural settlement in Ceylon, of which country he 
gives an interesting account in his Eight J 'ears' Wan¬ 
derings, first published in 1855. In 1861, he set out on 
an expedition into Africa in the hope of meeting Cap¬ 
tains Grant and Speke at the sources of the Nile. Hav¬ 
ing explored the tributaries of the Atbara, a task which 
occupied some months, he proceeded to Khartoum in 
order to organize his expedition to the Great \\ liite 
Nile. In Dec., 1862, he started, and at Gondoroko was 
joined by Speke and Grant, by the former of whom B. 
was told that the natives asserted that a large lake ex¬ 
isted in the west, which was believed to be a second 
source of the Nile. Capt. Speke had traced the river 
leading thereto, as far as 2° 20' N., when it diverged to 
the W., and he very unwillingly relinquished his task, 
waich was at once undertaken by B., who was accom¬ 
panied by his wife. Ho met with great difficulty to 
organize preparations for his expedition, the natives 
refusing to go with him south. B. and his wife, nothing 
daunted, started, and overtook the trading caravan, ar¬ 
riving in the Latooka country, 17th of March, 1863. 
They then directed their course through the Kamrasis 
country, and on the 14th of March, 1S61, sighted the lake 
which was the object of his arduous travel, and which 
he named Albert N Varna, and drank of its water. The 
W. shore is distant 60 m., and is lined by mountains 
7,000 ft. high. This lake and the"Victoria N'Vanza” 
constitute the two great reservoirs of the Nile. B. is the 
author of The Rifle and Hound in Ceylon, the Albeit 
N'Yanza, and other works. In 1869-73*he conducted a 
successful expedition into the Upper Nile regions. 
Died Dec. 30, 1893. 

Ba ker, a S.W. county of Georgia. Area, about 400 sq. 
m. It is drained by Flint River, and Ichawayiiochaway 
Creek. Surface, level; soil, fertile. Cip. Newton. This 
county was organized in 1825, and named in honor of 
Colonel John Baker, a distinguished officer in the war 
of Independence. 

Ba'ker, in Indiana, a township of Martin coun¬ 
ty. 

—A township of Morgan co.; 

Ba'ker, iu Iowa, a post-office of Jefferson co. 

Ba'ker, in Ohio, a village of Champaign co., 56 ra. W. 
of Columbus. 

Ba'ker, a county of Oregon, situated E. of the Cascade 
Mountains, on the confines of Idaho. It is bounded 
partly on the E. by Snake river, and also watered by 
Powder river and some smaller streams. Its surface is 
hilly, but it contains large tracts of excellent agricul¬ 
tural land, together with numerous valuable claims 
which are annually being developed. Pop. in 1897, 
about 7,000. Cap. Baker City. 

Baker City, in Oregon s a town. cap. of Baker co. 

Ba'ker Island, in the Polar Sea, discovered by Capt. 
Parry; Lat. 74° 5S' N.; Lon. 97° 54' W. 

Ba'ker-ieg’g'ed, a. Having legs like a baker, i. e., 
bandy legs, or legs that curve inward at the knees.— 

Balter’s Basin, in Xew Jersey, a P. 0. of Mercer co. 

Ba lter's Bridge, i u Xew York, a village of Alleghany 
co., 15 m. E. by S. of Angelica, on the New York and 
Erie Railroad. 

Ba'ker's Corners, in Wisconsin, a village of Wal¬ 
worth co., 10 m. N. E. of Elkliorn. 

Ba'ker’s Cross Roads, iu North Carolina , a post- 
office of Franklin co. 

Ba'ker’s Falls, in Xew York, and on the Hudson 
river, are situate in Sandy Hill township, Washington co. 
There is here a river-descent of 70 ft. iu about 100 rods. 

B:i'»-iersfield, in Vermont, a post-township of Frank¬ 
lin co., 40 m. N.N.W. of Montpelier. 

Ba'ker’s Clap, in Tennessee, a post-office of Johnson co. 

Ba ker’s Grove, in Missouri, a P. 0. of Barton co. 

Ba'ker’s Island, in Massachusetts, an island off Sa¬ 
lem harbor, 5 m. from Salem. On its N. end is a light¬ 
house. 

Ba'ker’s Mills, in Indiana, a P. 0. of Jackson co. 

Ba'ker’s River, iu Xew Hampshire, a stream flowing 
through Grafton co., and falling into tho Pemigewasset, 
a little above Plymouth. 

Ba'ker’s Bun, in West Virginia, a P. 0. of Hardy co. 

Ba'kerstown, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of West 
Deer township, Alleghany co., 16 m. N. by E.of Pittsburg. 

Ba'kersville, in Connecticut, a post-village of Litch¬ 
field co., 32 m. W. of Hartford. 

Ba'kersville, in Maryland, a post-village of Washing¬ 
ton co., 12 m. S. of Hagerstown. 

Ba'kersville, in North Carolina, a village of Y'ancy 
co., 200 m. W. by N. of Raleigh. 

—A post-village, cap. of Mitchell co. Pop. (1898) 690. 

Ba'kersville, in Ohio, a post-office of Coshocton co. 

Ba'kersville. in Pennsylvania, a P.0, of Somerset co. 

Bak'ery, ». The trade or occupation of a baker, (r.) 


—A place for baking; a bake-house. 

Bake'well, a town and par. of England, in the county 
of Derby, 22 m. N.N.W. of Derby, beautifully situated on 
the \\ ye. Three m. N.E. of the town is Chatsworth, a seat 
of the Duke of Devonshire, and one of the mosi magnifi¬ 
cent palaces in England. Its fountains and water-works 
(with tlie exception of those at Versailles) are consid¬ 
ered the fines' .« Europe. The gardens, too, have a 
world-wide ceieb r r • Haddon Hall, the property of the 
fluke of Rutland. now the most perfect of the ancient 
English baron ia mansions, is also situated near tliiB 
town. Pop. 82,379 

Bak'liuysen. or Bachltnysen, Ludolf, a famous 
Dutch painter of marine subjects, b. at Emden, 1631. 
lie became the best marine painter of his time, and es¬ 
pecially delighted in the representation of storms at sea, 
to do which effectually, he used at the beginning ol a 
tempest to put to sea in a small boat, often to bis immi¬ 
nent peril. The peculiarity of his subjects, coupled with 
a certain buoyant originality of character, tended to 
make him highly renowned, and greally sought after. 
When the Czar, Peter the Great, visited Holland, he de¬ 
sired B. to give him lessons in naval drawings. Louis 
XIV., who had been presented with one of Ji.'s best pic¬ 
tures, highly patronized him afterwards. B. was also a 
good engraver of sea-pieces, and a writer ot spirited 
verses. D. 1709. B.’a pictures are held at the present 
day in the highest reputation, and command fancy 
prices. They possess, in tiie highest degree, the peculiar 
excellences of the Dutch school, — richness, transpar¬ 
ency, delicate handling, and appropriate color. No artist 
ever excelled him in tiie art ot giving depth without 
darkness: frequently, in his pictures of an approaching 
storm, the very atmosphere seems to labor with gloom, 
yet tiie clearness, and even vivacity ot effect, are not in 
tho least impaired. 

Bak'ing, n. iu a general sense, any process of drying or 
hardening by heat; but usually restricted to the mode or 
act of cooking food, principally bread, in a heated room 
in oven.—Applied also to the quantity cooked at once, as 
“a baking of bread.” See Bread. 

Bako'ny Wald, (“Forest of Bakony ,”) a densely 
wooded mountain-range of Hungary, south ot the Dan¬ 
ube, dividing tho great and little Hungarian plains. Im¬ 
mense herds of swine are annually driven hither to feed 
upon the mast of the forest, the keepersot these swine 
furnish those notorious robbers who play so important a 
part in the ballads of the Hungarian people, and in the 
imagination of travellers. The saintly King Stephen 
founded a cloister in the forest, 1030 a. d. Only in recent 
times has this dangerous territory been thoroughly ex¬ 
plored. The hills have an average height of ZuuO feet, 
with quarries of valuable marble, in which a considera¬ 
ble export trade is done. 

Ba'kou, Ba'ku, or Bad'ku, ( ba'ku .) a fortified seaport 
of European Russia, in the prov. of Daghestan,on the S. 
shore of the peninsula of Apsheron, on the VV. coast ot 
the Caspian Sea, of which it is the principal port. Lat. 
40° 22' N.; Lon. 50° 10' E. Its excellent harbor, and 
central and advanced position, give it great advantages. 
Since the discovery of petroleum near B it lias rapidly 
increased in population, and the production of oil has 
become enormous. B. has railroad connections with 
the port oi Batonm, on the Black Sea, which forms its 
point of output to Europe. 

,( Continued in Section II.) 

Baktclliserai, or Bakhtchissarai, (bak-she-sa'rai,) 
[“ I’alaoe of the Gardens, ’j a town of Russia, in Crimea, of 
which, while under Tartar rule, it was the cap. and the 
residence of the Khan, lies 7 m. S.W. of Simpheropol. It 
is seated in a spot of romantic beauty. It is entirely oc¬ 
cupied by Tartars. The ancieutpalace of the Khans has 
been repaired and is preserved iu all its former magnifi¬ 
cence. Pip. estimated at lu,l)00. 

Baklegau, orii akteghian, a salt lake of Persia, in the 
province of Fars, about 50 m. from Shiraz; 60 lit. long, 
with an average breadth of 8 in. 

Ba'ku, a Russiau seaport. See Bakou. 

Hal, Ballin, Bal ly. [Ir ] A prefix attached to some 
150 (daces in Ireland. It signifies a township or village, 
as Ratbriggan, L'aUmasloe, RaZfybuuniuu. 

Bala, a township of England in N. Wales, co Merio¬ 
neth,37 m. N.W. by W. of Shrewsbury, at the W. end of 
the largest of the Welsh lakes, in a wild and mountainous 
country; pop. 6,987. — In the neighborhood occur the 
Bala Beds, a local deposit, which form a group in the 
Lower Silurian of Murchison. They consist of a tew 
beds, rarely more than 20 feet in thickness. The beds 
are chiefly composed of hard crystalline limestone, al¬ 
ternating with softer argillaceous bands, which decom¬ 
pose more freely, and leave the limestone like a cornice 
moulding, affording a characteristic by which, at a con¬ 
siderable distance, the Bala Beds can be distinguished 
from the rocks of hard gritty slate above and below. 
Trilobites and Cyslidece are the predominant fossils of 
the group. 

Bal'a Bake, or Lt.yx Tegio, a lake of Merionethshire in 
N. Wales, situated amid magnificent scenery. It is about 
4 m. long by 1 broad, and abounds with salmon. 

Balaam, ( bai'lum ,) was the son of Beor, and seems to 
have lived at Pethor, a city of Mesopotamia. B. is one of 
those instances, in Scripture, of persons dwelling among 
heathens, hut possessing a certain knowledge of the one 
true God. lie was a poet and a prophet, apparently 
celebrated for wisdom and sanctity. In his time the 
Israelites were encamped in the plains of Moab. Balak. 
the king of Moab, having witnessed the discomfiture of 
his neighbors, the Amorites, by this people, entered into 
a league with the Midianites against them, and dis¬ 
patched messengers to Balaam with the rewards of divi¬ 
nation in their hands. W hen the elders of Moab and 


Midian told him their message, he seems to have had 
some misgivings as to tho lawfulness of their request, 
for he invited them to tarry the night with him that he 
might learn how the Lord would regard it. These mis¬ 
givings were confirmed by God's express prohibition of 
his journey. B reported the answer, and the inessen 
gers of Balak returned. The king of Moab, however, 
not deterred by this failure, sent again more and more 
honorable princes to Balaam. The prophet again re¬ 
fused, but notwithstanding invited the embassy to tarry 
tho night with him, that he might know what the laird 
would say unto him further; and thus by his importu¬ 
nity he obtained from God the permission lie desired, 
but was warned at the same time that his actions would 
he overruled according to the Divine will. B therefore 
proceeded on his journey with the messengers of Balak. 
But Gods anger was kindled at this manifestation of 
determined self-will, and the angel of the Lord stood in 
tho way for an adversary against him. “ The dumb ass, 
speaking with man's voice, forbade the madness of tiie 
prophet,” (2 Pet ii. 16.) It is evident that Balaam, 
although acquainted with Gou, was desirous of throw¬ 
ing an air of mystery round his wisdom, from tiie 
instructions he gave Balak to offer a bullock and a ram 
on the seven altars he everywhere prepared for him. 
His religion, therefore, was probably tiie natural result 
of a general acquaintance with God not confirmed by 
any covenant. Balaam’s love ol tiie wages of unright¬ 
eousness and his licentious counsel are referred to in 
2 Pet. ii. 15, and Jude 11. Though the utterance of 
Balaam was overruled so that lie could not curse the 
children of Israel, he nevertheless suggested to the 
Moabites the expedient of seducing them to commit for¬ 
nication. Tiie effect of this is recorded in Xum. xxv. 
A battle was afterwards fought against tiie Midianites, 
in which Balaam sided with them and was slain by tiie 
sword of the people whom he had endeavored to curse, 
(Num. xxxi. 8; Josh. xiii. 22.) 

Bulaell'na, or BALAKHXA,(5aJaA’«a,) a town of Russia 
in i.urope, gov. of Nijni Novgorod, on the Volga, IU) m. 
from St. Petersburg; Lat. 56° 30' N.; Lon. 43° 23' E.; 
pop. about 4.000. 

Bal'aeliong', n. [Malay, bdlachdn.\ A substance con¬ 
sisting of pounded or bruised fish, uud used iu the East 
as a condiment with rice. 

Balie'na, n. [From Phoenician baalman. king f fislies.} 
(Zobl.) Tiie Right-Whale, a genus of cetaceous animals, 
family Baleeniuee. — See Bal.emda:, and Whale. 

Balsc'ni«J:e, n.pi. (Zool.) A family of animals, order 
Cetacea. They are marine, viviparous, suckle their 
young like other mammalia, respire by lungs, and have 
distinct separate blow-holes ; they have wai m blood, and 
no teeth, but in their place are found plates of baleen or 
whalebone attached to the upper jaw. Tiie genus Ba- 
Icena, comprising the Right II' hale proper, is minutely de¬ 
scribed under the word Whale, q. t>. — The genus Buhe- 
noptera comprises whales with a dorsal fin and short 
baleen, which are known under the names of l in-hacks. 
Razor-backs, and Rosquals. They equal, and in many 
cases much exceed, the Right \\ hale in length, — some 
have been seen 160 feet long, — hut yield tar less oil. 
They are exceedingly powerlui and rapid in their move¬ 
ments, and are captured with the greatest difficulty and 
danger. One or two species are common on the N. At¬ 
lantic coast of America. 

liahenop tera, n. [From Balana, aud Gr. pteron, a 

wing.l See ItALJSMD.®. 

Balauliaut', an inland prov. of S. Hindustan, in the 
British pres, of Madras, between 13° 15'and lu° 26' N. 
Lat.; and 75° 40' aud 79° 20' E. Lon., consisting of pait 
of the region called Balaghaut, or “ above the Ghauts,” 
having N. Kurnool and the Nizam's territories; E. Gun- 
toor. Nellore, aud Arcot; S. Mysore; aud W. Dharwar. 
Length about 200 m.; breadth, variotis. Area. 25,456 sq. 
m. Surface, irregular, and soil fertile. Plantations of 
indigo, betel, sugar-cane, red-pepper, tobacco, Ac., are 
extensively scattered over the country. This prov. once 
formed part of the Hindoo kingdom of Bijyaugur, and 
on its fall was divided into several independent states, 
until conquered in rapid succession by IlyderAli, between 
1766 and 1780. On the dismemberment of Tijipoo Saib’s 
empire in 1799, a considerable portion came into the 
possession of the East India Company, and the remainder 
was taken by r the Britisli in 1841. Pop. about 2,500,000. 
B. is almost equally divided into the districts oi Bellary 
and Owldapah, q. v. 

Bu lagtier. (ba’la-goo’air.) a town of Spain, in Catalonia, 
14 hi. N.E. of Lerida; pop. 5,532. 

Ba'lak, an idolatrous king of Moab, during the time 
when the Israelites were drawing near the Promised 
Land. He was filled with terror lest they should attack 
and destroy him, and implored the soothsayer Balaam 
(q.v ) to come and curqe them. His fears and his devices 
were alike in vain. (Deui. ii. 9.) 

Balakla'va. or Balacla'va, a small seaport of Euro¬ 
pean Russia, at the S.W. extremity of the Crimea; Lat. 
44°29'N.; Lon. 33° 34'40" E. It has a small but excel¬ 
lent harbor, land-locked, and with water sufficient t« 
float the largest ships. Pop. about 3,000.-— A great bat¬ 
tle was fought here, Oct. 26, 1854, between the Russians 
and the allied Anglo-French troops. 

Balainbangan, (ba'lam-ban’yan.) an island of the E. 
Archipelago, lying off the N. extremity of Borneo: Lat. 
7° 15' N.; Lon. 117° 5' E.; 15 m. long, and 3 broad. It 
has a rich soil, and two harbors abounding in fish, but 
it is uninhabited. 

Balance, (bai'ans,) n. [Fr. and Du.; from Lat. bis, 
double, and lame, lands, a plate, platter, or dish, scale 
of a balance.] ( Phys.) An instrument by means of which 
the relative weight of substances is determined. As ar 










BALA 


BALA 


BALA 


253 


Instrument of common use, the term scales is more fre¬ 
quently applied, the term B. being commonly given only 
to a superior sort of scales, executed with all the pre¬ 
cision necessary for the nicest operations of physics, and 
particularly of chemistry. In its greatest simplicity, a 
balance,or pair of scales, (Fig. 268,) consists of aleve'rof 
the first kind. A, C, B, called the beam, with its fulcrum 



C in the middle, and two scales, D, E, suspended, one from 
each extremity of the beam. The substance to be weighed 
is placed in one scale, and the counterpoise, usually con¬ 
sisting of metal weights, in the other, the instrument 
being suspended from a ring, F. immediately above the 
fulcrum. In the most delicate balances of this descrip¬ 
tion, the fulcrum consists of a steel prism, which trav¬ 
erses the beam, and rests with its sharp edge upon two 
supports, formed of agate or polished steel; moreover, 
a needle or pointer is fixed to the beam, and oscillates 
with it in front of a graduated arc. If the two arms 
of a balance be not precisely of the same length, the 
scale appended to the longer arm will turn with a less 
weight than that hanging from the shorter arm: so, 
also, if one arm of the lever be heavier than the other, 
the scale on that side must preponderate. 'With such 
an imperfect pair of scales, however, the true weight of 
a substance may be ascertained, by weighing it first in 
one scale and then in the other, and deducting from the 
greatest weight h ilf the difference of the weights indi¬ 
cated. The chemical balance is an instrument of extraor¬ 
dinary delicacy. It is merely a pair of scales made 
with the greatest possible precision and accuracy, and 
is used for weighing portions of substances separated by 
analysis. It is also used to weigh bodies to be united by 
synthesis. The whole theory of modern chemistry may 
be said to rest upon the perfection to which the chemical 
balance has been brought. It is as necessary to the 
chemist as the transit-instrument and telescope are to 
the astronomer. Being so important and delicate an 
instrument, it is one of the most difficult to use, the 
slightest carelessness being sufficient to nullify an obser¬ 
vation made by its means. It consists essentially of the 
beam, the fulcrum, the poiuts of suspension, and the 
pans. The beam is generally made of brass, in the form 
of a long rhomboid. At an exactly' equal distance from 
each end is fixed the fulcrum, which is generally a steel 
knife-edge, supported by agate planes. A contrivance is 
used for raising the beam so as to keep the fulcrum from 
resting on the planes of support when not in use, in 
order to prevent the possibility of the knife-edge becom¬ 
ing worn. The object of having a sharp, hard knife-edge 
resting on hard planes is to decrease friction as much as 
possible, it being obvious that sensibility increases as 
friction diminishes. The fulcrum should be fixed just 
above the centre of gravity, yet uot too much so, as, the 
greater the distance between it and the fulcrum, the 
greater will be the stability of the balance: or, in other 
words, the balance will be less sensible, from the greater 
difficulty with which the beam is moved. Most balances 
have a contrivance for raising or lowering the centre of 
gravity. The points of suspension are at each end, and 
are formed of hard steel knife-edges, working on agate 
planes, as in the case of the fulcrum. The points of 
suspension must be at absolutely equal distances from 
the fulcrum, otherwise, according to the properties of 
the lever, the weight indicated will be different in each 
pan. The pans are generally coated with platinum, to 
avoid corrosion, and are suspended by silver wires. To 
the centre of the beam is attached a needle index, which 
indicates the equality of weight in each pan by the 
equality of its vibrations on each side of the centre of a 
scale placed behind it. In some balances an index is 
fixed on the end of the beam, and viewed through a 
microscope in its passage upwards and downwards over 
a fine scale attached to a fixed arm at a little distance 
from it. The whole is enclosed in a glass case, to pre¬ 
serve it from the action of gases or dust. Caustic lime 
is always placed inside the case, to absorb any moisture 
that might settle on the working parts of the balance. 
Balances have been brought to marvellous perfection by 
Ramsden, Kater, Robinson, (Ertling. Sacr6, and others. 
M. Stas, in his researches on the atomic weights of cer¬ 
tain elements, employed a balance made by M. Sacre. 
which turned with the ten-millionth part of the weight 
in each pan. Another, used by the same philosopher, 
weighed true to the two-thousandth part of a grain. The 
weights used in such balances are made with the same 
precision: they will be described under Weights. A 
small piece of platinum wire, called a rider, slides along 
the beam, which is graduated, and indicates by its posi¬ 
tion a very small weight, on the principle of the steel¬ 
yard, thus obviating the necessity of using weights that 
are almost invisible from their smallness. Warm sub¬ 
stances should be allowed to cool before weighing, as 
the upward currents caused by their heat would vitiate 


the result. — For other varieties of the balance, see 
Steelyard, Spring-balance, Weighing-Machine, Ac. 

—Metaphorically, the action of the mind employed in 
comparing one thing with another. 

“I have in equal balance justly weighed 
What wrong our arms may do, what wrongs we suffer: 
Griefs heavier than our offences."— Shake. 

—Equipoise; equality of weight, power, or advantage. 

“ Love, hope, and joy. fair pleasure's smiling train; 

Hate, fear, and grief, the family of pain ; 

These, mix'd with art. and to due bounds confin’d. 

Make and maintain the balance of the mind.”— Pope . 

(Cbm.) The amount which remains due by one or two 
persons, who have been dealing together, to the other, 
after the settlement of their accounts. — The term gen¬ 
eral balance is sometimes used to signify the difference 
which is due to a party claiming a lien on goods in his 
hands for work or labor done, or money expended in 
relation to those and other goods of the debtor. — See 
Balance-sheet. 

—In commercial language, what remains of anything; as, 
the balance of a stock, of an account, Ac. 

( Astron.) The sign Libra, q. v. 

(Horology.) The wheel that governs the movements 
of a watch, and which answers the purpose of the pen¬ 
dulum to a clock. This wheel is impelled in one direc¬ 
tion by the crown-wheel of the escapement (q. v.), and 
in the other by a fine spiral spring. The balance-spring. 
as this latter portion of the machine is called, consists 
of a coil of steel wire so delicately manufactured that 
4,000 of them scarcely weigh more than an ounce. As 
the rate of vibration greatly depends on the diameter 
of the balance, marine chronometers and some of the 
finest watches are furnished with compensation balances, 
which do not increase in diameter with increase of tem¬ 
perature. In the compensation balance, the circumfer¬ 
ence of the wheel is made of two metals having differ¬ 
ent rates of expansion fast soldered together, the most 
expansible being on the outside. The compound ring 
is cut through in two or more places, and is weighted at 
opposite points. When exposed to a high temperature, 
the ring expands, but, owing to the unequal dilatation of 
the metals, each segment assumes a sharper curve, where¬ 
by its centre of gravity is thrown inwards, and the ex¬ 
pansive effect completely compensated. Under Mr. 
Dent s patent, both balance and balance-spring are occa¬ 
sionally coated with gold by the electro-metallurgic 
process. 

Bal ance, v. a. [Fr. balancer.] To weigh in a balance; 
to bring to an equilibrium or equipoise. — To weigh 
reasons. — To regulate and adjust; to counterpoise; to 
make equal; to settle, as an account. 

— v. n. To be in equilibrium or on a poise; to have equal 
weight, power influence, Ac. — To hesitate; to fluctuate. 

(Dancing.) To move towards a person opposite, and 
then back. 

Bal ance-fish, n. (ZoSl.) A remarkable fish of the 
gen. Zygcena, native of the Mediterranean Sea. The shape 
of its monstrous head has been likened to a blacksmith s 
large hammer. 

Balaiicement, n. [Fr., compensation.] (Physiol.) 
A law of teratogeny, as maintained by Geoffroy St. Hil¬ 
aire, by which exuberance of nutrition in one organ is 
supposed to involve, to a greater or less extent, the total 
or partial atrophy of some other, or conversely. 

Bal ance of Power. (Polit.) The first combined at¬ 
tempt to preserve the balance of power in European 
affairs was made during the invasion of Italy by Charles 
VIII. of France, 1491-1406. Incited by the Emperor 
Maximilian I., the Italian States and some other Euro¬ 
pean powers held secret conferences by night at Venice, 
and the celebrated League was signed at that city, March 
SI, 1495, between Austria, Milan, Rome, Spain, and the 
Venetian republic. Its effect was to defeat the ambitious 
projects of the French king. Robertson remarks, that 
princes and statesmen “ had discovered the method of 
preventing any monarch from rising to such a degree of 
power as was inconsistent with the general liberty; and 
had manifested the importance of attending to that great 
secret in modern policy, the preservation of a proper dis¬ 
tribution of power among all the members of the system 
into which the States of Europe are formed.” After 
showing that the attention of Italian statesmen was from 
that period directed to the maintenance of the principle, 
he adds: “Nor was the idea confined to them. Self-pre¬ 
servation taught other powers to adopt it. It grew to 
be fashionable and universal. From this asra we can 
trace the progress of that intercourse between nations 
which has linked the powers of Europe soclosely together; 
and can discern the operation of that provident poliey 
which, during peace, guards against remote and contin¬ 
gent dangers; and, in war, has prevented rapid and de¬ 
structive conquests.” The principle was first publicly 
acknowledged at the peace of Westphalia, Oct. 24,1648. 
The attempt to maintain the balance of power among 
the different States of Europe has doubtless caused some 
wars, but it has unquestionably prevented more. It is 
this that has led to that great confederacy that exists 
among all the States of Europe, and keeps in awe the 
ambitious designs of any one of them that might desire 
to encroach upon the rights of its neighbors. At present 
the balance of power in Europe is principally maintained 
by the six great powers, France, England, Russia, Prus¬ 
sia, Austria, and Italy—the wise policy of America hav¬ 
ing been, till now. not to interfere in European contests. 
“ The grand and distingdishing feature of the balancing 
system is the perpetual attention to foreign affairs which 
it inculcates; the constant watchful ness over every nation 
which it prescribes; the subjection in which it places all 
national passions and antipathies to the fine and delicate 
view of remote expediency; the unceasing care which it 


dictates of nations most remotely situated, and apparently 
unconnected with ourselves; the general union which it 
has effected of all the European powers, obeying certain 
laws, and actuated in general by a commou principle; in 
fine, the right of mutual inspection universally recog¬ 
nized among civilized States in the rights of public envoys 
and residents.” 

Bal'ance of Trade. (Polit. Econ.) See Commerce, 
in Section II. 



Fig. 269.— HESSIAN FLT, 
(Cecidomya destructor.) 
(Magnified.) 


Balancer, n. One who balances. 

Bal'ance-reef, n. (Naut.) A reef-band that crosses 
a sail diagonally, used to contract it in a storm. 

Balancers, n. (Zool.) Two slender membraneous ap¬ 
pendages, called also halteres, inserted on either side of 
the metathorax of insects belonging to the sub-order 
Diptera, (Pig. 269.) They are always small and movable, 
and vary much in size and 
form, according to the 
class of insects by which 
they are possessed. They 
usually consist, however, 
of an elongated style with 
a small rounded head.— 

Entomologists differ great- ] 
ly as to the use of these 
organs. It is generally 
believed nbw, that they 
are the representatives of 
the posterior pair of wings, 
and are attached to the 
true metathorax. This, 
however, is disputed by 
some entomologists, who 
say that they are attached 
to the segment, which 
bears a pair of spiracles, 
and that they are con¬ 
nected with the function 
of respiration. The former is the opinion most gener¬ 
ally held, and is probably correct. All dipterous insects 
possess B. ; aud as they keep them in constant motion, 
they are evidently of great importance to them. 

Bal ance-sheet, n. (Com.) A written statement 
made by a merchant or trader, or prepared by a profes¬ 
sional accountant, to show exactly the financial condition, 
at any specified time, of any particular business or mon¬ 
etary enterprise. It should exhibit the balance of both 
debits and credits as they appear in the ledger accounts; 
the nett, or final balance showing either the gain or 
loss that has accrued. Balance-sheets are usually made 
up half-yearly. 

Bal'aneing' Wheel. See Water-wheels. 

Balani mis, n. (Zool.) A genus of coleopterous insect! 
belonging to the family Curculionidce. The species of 
this genus are destructive to the kernels of some kinds 
of fruit. B. nucum, the nut-weevil, deposits its eggs in 
the filbert and common nut. having bored a hole for that 
purpose in the nut when it is young and tenfler. The 
larva: feed upon the kernel, and at the proper time gnaw 
a hole in the nut and make their escape into the ground, 
where they burrow and remain till they assume the pupa 
state, from which in the following summer the perfect 
insect comes forth. B. glandium, another species, at¬ 
tacks the acorn in the same manner as the previously 
mentioned species does the nut. The perfect insects or 
beetles are small, and possess a long slender rostrum or 
snout, which is furnished at the tip with an apparatus 
fitted for boring the hole in the nut, into which it deposits 
its eggs. (Fig. 270.) 



Pig. 270. — 1. BALANINUS NUCUM. 

1. The tips of the rostrum, magnified, showing the jaws, a a. 
S. Branch of nut-tree, showing the nut bored. 


Bal'anites, n. (Pal.) A genus of fossil cirripedi^ 
closely allied to the genus Balanus. Many species aw 











254 


BALB 


BALE 


BALD 


described, chiefly from the upper beds of the crag for¬ 
mation. 

Balanoplioracete, ( bal'a-no-fo-rai'se-e ,) Cynomori- 
um s,n.pl. (Bot.) An order of plants, class Rhizogens. 
Diag. Stems amorphous, fungoid; peduncles scaly; flow¬ 
ers in spikes; ovules solitary, pendulous; fruit one-seeded. 
These plants are parasites, and are found growing on the 
roots of various woody plants, especially in the tropical 
and sub-tropical mountains of Asia and South America. 
They have no leaves; their stems are of various colors, 
but never green; their peduncles are naked or scaly, 
bearing spikes of flowers, usually white. Species. Many 
are remarkable for their astringent properties; others 
are edible, and a few secrete a kind of wax. Two plants 
of this order are worthy of note; namely, Cynomorium 
coccineum and Langsdorffia hypogoea. The first is the fun¬ 
gus melitensis of pharmacologists, formerly highly valued 
as a styptic; the second yields large quantities of wax, 
which is used for making candles by the inhabitants of 
Colombia. The order includes 37 species, divided into 
14 genera. 

Bal'anilS, n. ( Zool.) The Acorn-shells or Barnacles, a 
genus of multivalve cirripedia, usually found adhering 
to various submarine productions, whether fixed or mov¬ 
able; such as the harder sea-plants and all sorts of crus- 
taceous as well as testaceous animals, rocks, ships, tim¬ 
ber, &c. — See Acorn-shell. 

Balaruc', a village of France, near Frontignan, dep. 
Herault, near the border of a large pool (bang de Thau). 
Lat. 43° 28' N.; Lon. 3° 41' E. It is celebrated for its 
saline and thermal waters. Their temperature is about 
118° F. 

Bal'as, or Bal®, a town of Syria, situate at the N.W. 
corner of the bay of Alexandretta or Scanderoon, sup¬ 
posed to be the ancient Issus, in Cilicia. Not far from it 
was fought the second battle in which Alexander the 
Great defeated Darius. 

Balasore', a seaport-town of Hindostan, pres. Bengal, 
prov. Orissa, on the Boorabullung, Lat. 21° 32' N., Lon. 
86° 56' E., 123 m. S.W. of Calcutta; pop. about 11,000. 

Bal'as-Ru'by, n. [Fr .balais; Sp. balax; Ger. ballas, 
from Balashan, a place near Samarcand, where it is 
found.] A term used by lapidaries to designate the rose- 
red varieties of spinel. It should be carefully distin¬ 
guished from the Sapphire or Oriental ruby, a gem of 
much greater rarity and value. 

Balas'sa, Valentine de Gyarmath, Count, the first 
great lyrical poet of Hungary, was b. about the middle 
of the 16th century. He took part in the civil wars of 
his country, but, dissatisfied with the political condition 
of Hungary, he left it in 1589, returned in 1594, fought 
against the Turks, and fell at the siege of Gran, in the 
same year. B.’s songs are popular to this day in Hun¬ 
gary, breathing, as they do, of the fire of love, patriotism, 
and chivalry. 

Ba'laton, Lake of, in Hungary. See Platten-See. 

Balans'ta, n. (Bot.) See Berry. 

Balaus'tine, n. The flower of the wild pomegranate. 
See PUNICA GRANATEM. 

Bal'ban, (Gheyaz-Ed-din-Balban Shah,) a celebrated 
king of Delhi. Flourished about 1260. His administra¬ 
tion was wise and equitable. His court surpassed in 
magnificence that of all his predecessors, and excited the 
admiration of all the sovereigns of India. The liberal 
patronage bestowed on learning, both by him and his 
son, attracted to Delhi men of letters from all parts of 
Asia. The loss of his son Mohammed embittered his 
last days and shortened his life. D. 1286. 

Balbas'tro, or Barbas'tro, a town of Spain, prov. 
of Aragon, 30 m. from Saragossa; pop. about 5,000. 

Bal'bec, or Baalbec, (anc. Heliopolis , “ City of the Sun,”) 
formerly a large and splendid city of Syria; Lat. 34° 1' 
30'' N., Lon. 36° 11' E.; 43 m. N.W. of Damascus, 41 S.E. 
of Tripoli, 58 N.E. of Sidon, and 130 W. by S. of Palmyra; 
pop. about 2,000. It is situated in a fertile well-watered 
valley, the Coele-Syria (“ Hollow Syria”) of the ancients, 
and the Batena of the moderns, between the ridges of Lib- 
anus, and Anti-Libanus, at the foot of the lower ranges 
of the latter. The remains of ancient architectural 
grandeur are more extensive in B. than in any other 
city of Syria, Palmyra excepted; and Burckhardt regards 
them as superior in execution to those of the latter. 
Finely grouped together, on theW. side of the town, are 
three temples, the largest occupying a circuit of more 
than half a mile, and originally consisting of a portico, 
hexagonal court, and a quadrangle, besides the peristyles 
of the temple itself. Of this last, six gigantic and highly 
polished pillars, 71 ft. 6 in. in height, and 23 ft. in circum¬ 
ference, with their cornice and entablature, remain to 
attest the stupendous magnitude and beauty of the 
structure of which they made a part. Immediately to 
the S. of the great temple is a smaller but more perfect 
edifice,called the Oircular Temple (Fig. 271), that may be 
considered unique. It is of the Corinthian order, with 
niches on the exterior of the cella, and decorated with 
twelve columns, eight of which form a dipteral portico, 
which has a flight of twenty-one steps in front. From 
the two lateral columns of the portico commences the 
circular peristyle of the building. The entablature 
of the dipteral portico is carried in a straight line, and 
that of the peristyle is curved on the perpendicular 
face, and sweeps in an elegant line from column to col¬ 
umn, the centre of the curved architrave being bedded 
on the circular wall of the building. This edifice is 
decorated in th® interior with an Ionic order of columns, 
above which is another decoration, consisting of niches 
with pediments, and between each there is a single col¬ 
umn with a small portion of an entablature over it; the 
roof was a dome probably open at the top, like the Pan¬ 
theon at Rome. This building has been converted into 
a Greek church called St. Barbe. Greek, Roman, and 


Saracenic ruins cover the country round B. for three or 
four leagues, all evidently connected with the former 
greatness and prosperity of this city. — B. was a flourish¬ 
ing city ages before the Christian sera, and the proba¬ 
bility seems to bo that the “ Baal-Ath,” built by Solomon, 
in Lebanon (2 Chron. viii. 6), was identical with B. This 
is, indeed, the received opinion of all classes in Syria; 




Fig. 271.— view of the circular temple. 

(From Wood and Dawkins’ Ruins of Balbec.) 


and though the remains of Corinthian architecture can¬ 
not be referred to a remoter period than that of the 
Roman emperors, a cyclopean wall, yet extant, is evi¬ 
dently of a far more ancient date, and answers to the 
description of the “ House of the Forest of Lebanon,” 
built for the daughter of Pharaoh. (1 Kings vii. 10.) 
The silence of all the most ancient authors respecting so 
populous and wealthy a city, is as profound as it is re¬ 
markable. It, of course, shared the fate of the rest of 
Syria, passing successively into the hands of the Persians, 
Greeks, and Romans. Julius Cassar made it a colony of 
the latter, and Antoninus either enlarged its temple to 
Jupiter, or built a newone that became one of the won¬ 
ders of the world. In 748, it was sacked in the wars of 
the Caliphs, and from this blow it never recovered. — The 
Syrian city must not be confounded with another Baal¬ 
bec or Heliopolis, in Lower Egypt, one of the earliest 
cities of which any record remains. Smith (Diet, of Greek 
and Roman Geog.) remarks concerning the last-men¬ 
tioned city': “ Its obelisks were probably seen by Abra¬ 
ham when he first migrated from Syria to the Delta, 1600 
years b. c. ; and here the father-in-law of Joseph filled 
the office of high-priest.” 

Bal'bec, in Indiana, a post-office of Jay co. 

Bal'bi, Adriano, a celebrated geographer, b. at Venice, 
in 1782. He was professor of physics and geography 
in his native city till 1820, when lie made a journey to 
Portugal. A Statistical Essay on the Kingdom of Portu¬ 
gal and Algarve, compared with the other States of Europe, 
was the fruit of his short residence in that country. He 
removed to Paris shortly after its publication, and com¬ 
menced to collect materials for his great work, Atlas 
Ethnographique du Globe, ou Classification des Peuples 
anciens et modernes d'apris leurs Langues. The 1st vol. 
was published in folio, in 1826. He continued to reside 
in Paris till 1832, publishing in succession statistical ac¬ 
counts of various European countries, and elaborating 
his celebrated Abrege de Geographie redige sur un Plan 
Nouveau. He removed after the completion of that work 
to Padua, where, besides an elementary treatise on geog¬ 
raphy, and several valuable contributions to political 
science, he published, in 1830, The World compared with 
the British Empire, d. 1848. 

Balbi, Gaspar, (bal'be,) a dealer in precious stones, who 
left Aleppo in 1579, on a journey to the Indies, and did 
not return till 1588. On his return he published an 
account of his journey. He visited Ormuz, Goa. Cochin, 
and Pegu, and describes what he saw, with considerable 
spirit, and, it is believed, with accuracy. 

Balbi'nus, Decimus C.ei.ius, a Roman senator who, 
after the death of the two Gordiani, killed by the soldiers 
of Maximinus, was elected emperor by the sena te, con¬ 
currently with Clodius Pupienus Maximus, in opposition 
to the usurper Maximinus. The two emperors reigned 
little more than one year, and were assassinated by their 
soldiers, a.d. 238. 

Bal'bo. Count C®Sare, an Italian author, b. at Turin, 
1789. He is chiefly remarkable from the fact that his 
first important work, Le Speranze d’Italia, published in 
1844, may be regarded as having given the programme 
of the “ Moderate ” party of Italian politics, and as hav¬ 
ing, together with the writings of d’Azeglio, Durando, 
and others, created the liberal party, in opposition to the 
Republican party as represented by Mazzini. B. was an 
accomplished historian and translator. He d. in June, 
1853. 

Bal'boa, Vasco Nu^ez de, a celebrated Spanish discov¬ 
erer, b. at Xeres de los Caballeros, in 1475. He accom¬ 
panied Rodrigo de Bastidas in his expedition to the New 
World, and first settled in Hayti (or, as it was then termed, 
Hispafiiola). Though an adventurer in search of fortune, 
his great ambition seems to have been to extend the 
boundaries of geographical knowledge, and especially to 
be able to announce to Europe the existence of another 


great ocean. He accordingly proceeded to the American- 
continent, and there founded a colony, made numerous- 
expeditions into the auriferous regions of the interior, 
and accumulated a vast amount of treasure. He now 
turned his attention to the great object of discovery on 
which he had set his heart. On the 1st of Sept., 1513, 
he commenced his perilous enterprise. Accompanied by 
a small band of followers, he began to thread the almost 
impenetrable forests of the Isthmus of Darien, and, 
guided by an Indian chief named Ponca, clambered up- 
the rugged gorges of the mountains. At length, after a 
toilsome and dangerous journey, B. and his companions 
approached, on the 25th Sept., the summit of the moun¬ 
tain range, when B., leaving his followers at a little dis¬ 
tance behind, and advancing alone to the W. declivity, 
was the first to behold the vast unknown ocean, which 
he afterwards took solemn possession of in the name of 
his sovereign, and named it the Pacific Ocean, from the 
apparent quietude of its waters. Surrounded by his fol¬ 
lowers, he walked into it, carrying in his right hand a 
naked sword, and in his left the banner of Castile, and 
declared the sea of the South, and all the regions whose 
shores it bathed, to belong to the crown of Castile and 
Leon. During his absence, however, a new governor 
had been appointed to supersede B. in Hayti; where on 
his return, jealousy and dissensions springing up between, 
them, B., accused of a design to rebel, was beheaded in 
1517, in violation of all forms of justice. 

Balbrig’^an, a seaport of Ireland, co. Dublin, and 
prov. of Leinster, 17 m. N. by E. of Dublin.— Man/. 
Knitted hosiery. There is here a good harbor, with a 
light-house. B. is a favorite watering-place. Pop. about 
2,500. 

Balbu'ties, n. [Fr. halbutiement; from Lat. balbus, 
stammering ] (Med.) A vicious and incomplete pronun¬ 
ciation, in which almost all the consonants are replaced 
by the letters b and l. 

Batch. in Texas, a post-office of Parker co., 11 m. W.S. 
W. of Weatherford. 

Bal'conied, a. Having balconies. 

Balcony, (bdl'ko-ne,) n. [Fr balcon; It. balcone; A.S. 
bale; Ger. balken, a beam.J (Arch.) An open gallery 
projecting from the front of a building, surrounded with- 



Fig. 272. 


a rail or balustrade, of various devices, and supported by 
cantalevers, brackets, or columns. It is made of wood, 
stone, and sometimes of cast-iron or bar-iron fashioned 1 
into crail-work, or various fanciful figures. Balconies are 
generally made on a level with the sills of the windows 
of the first floor; sometimes every window in the range 
has a separate balcony, each of which is usually convex 
to the street. 

(Naut.) See Gallery. 

Bal'cony Falls, in Virginia, a post-office of Rock¬ 
bridge co., on James River, 153 m. W. of Richmond. 

Bald, a. [Sp. peludo; Finn, paljas, naked, bare.] Naked} 
bare; without hair on the head, or on the crown of the 
head; destitute of a natural covering; as, a bald pate. 

“ He should imitate Caesar, who, because his head was bald, cov¬ 
ered that defect with laurels.” — Addison. 

—Inelegant; unadorned; without appropriate ornament. 

14 And that, though labour’d, line must bald appear, 

That brings ungrateful musick to the ear.” — Creech. 

(Agric.) Without an awn or beard; as, a. bald ear of 
wheat. 

Bald'-Buz'zard, n. (Zool.) The name given in Eng¬ 
land to the Fishing-hawk or Osprey, q. v. 

Bald' Ea'jsrle, in Pennsylvania, a township of Clinton 
co., near the W. branch of the Susquehanna, and tra¬ 
versed by Bald Eagle Creek. 

—A post-office of York co. 

Bald Eagle I’rcelt, in Pennsylvania, which rises 
near the centre of the State, and empties at Lock Haven 
into the W. branch of the Susquehanna. 

Bald Eagle Mountain, in Pennsylvania, lying to 
the S.E. of Bald Eagle Creek, stretches from Hunting¬ 
don, through Centre and Clinton into Lycoming co. 

Baldachin, (bal'da-ldn,) n. [Fr. baldaquin; It. bat- 
dacchino; Sp. baldaquino.] (Arch.) A structure in form 
of a canopy, supported by columns, and often used as a 
covering for insulated altars. The form, for the most 
part, is square, and the top covered with cloth with a 
hanging fringe. The B. has been supposed to have been 
derived from the ancient ciborium, (a large cup or vase.) 
An isolated building, placed by the early Christians over 
tombs and altars, was called a ciborium. The modern B. 
is of the same form as the ciborium erected by Justinia* 
in the church of Santa Sophia at Constantinople, which 
was made of silver, gold, and precious stones, and sup 
ported by four silver-gilt columns. The B. is, however, 
deprived of the curtains, which in the ciborium were in¬ 
tended to enclose whatever was deemed sacred wit hin. 



































































































































BALD 


BALE 


BALI 


255 


The Mohammedans seem to hare copied the ciborium in 
their tombs- The B. carried over 
the host in Catholic countries 
is not unfrequently of an um¬ 
brella-shape; a similar sort of 
umbrella may be seen on Etrus- 
ean vases. — The B. in St. Pe¬ 
ter’s at Rome, made by Ber¬ 
nini. is the most celebrated, and 
is the largest known work of 
the kind in bronze. The dais, 
or covering, is supported on four 
large twisted columns of the 
composite order, placed upon 
edestals of black marble, the 
ies of which are ornamented 
with bronze escutcheons. The 
columns are fluted for one- 
third their height; the remain¬ 
ing part is ornamented with 
bays and leaves of laurel, com¬ 
bined something after the man¬ 
ner ef the columns of the tem¬ 
ple designed by Rafaelle in one 
of his cartoons. The whole work 
is beautifully executed and Fig. 273. — baldachin 
highly finished. Above the col- in st. Peter’s, (Rome.) 
umns are four figures of angels 

standing upright; at the top of the covering there is a 
cross, and below the entablature the banner-like cloth 
fringe of the portable B. has been imitated. The plan is 
square, aud the altar stands between the two pedestals 
of the foremost columns. The height is 126 ft. 3 in. from 
the floor of the church to the summit of the cross, of 
which the pedestal is 11 ft. 8 in., the columns 50 ft. 4 in.; 
the entablature 11 ft. 6 in., the covering 40 ft., and the 
cross is 12 ft. 9 in. There were 186,392 lbs. of bronze 
employed on this work. 

Balderdash, n. [Probably from W. baldorddus, prat¬ 
tling, garrulity.] Badly mixed liquor. — Mean, senseless 
prate; jargon; ribaldry; anything jumbled together 
without judgment. 

Bal(l'-hea(l, n. A bald person; one who is bald on the 
head. 

Bald' Head, a promontory of the U. States, in Maine; 
i Lat. 43° 13' N.; Lon. 70° 34' 30" W. 

Bald' Head, a headland of S. Carolina, at the S.W. ex¬ 
tremity of Smith’s Island; Lat. 33° 51' N.; Lon. 78° W. 

Bald' Hill. in Pennsylvania, a P.O. of Greene co. 

Bald' Knob, in TP. Virginia, a P.O. of Boone co. 

Baldly, adv. Nakedly; meanly ; inelegantly. 

Bald Mount, in Pennsylvania, a P.O. of Lacka. co. 

Bald Mount ain, in Maine, an isolated peak of Som¬ 
erset co. 

Bald Mount'ain, in New Tori-, a post-office of Wash¬ 
ington co. 

Bald Mount'ain Ridg'e, in Maine, a hilly range in 
the N.1Y. of Somerset co. 

Bald'ness, n. State of being bald; loss of hair; want 
of natural covering, as, the baldness of a hill. 

“ And there, corrupting to a wound. 

Spread leprosy and baldness round.” — Swift . 

B. generally takes place in old age, but frequently also 
a loss of hair, on a part or over the whole head, occurs 
after febrile or other severe illness. It is caused by 
an atrophy of the follicles on which the hair depends for 
nutrition, and generally commences on the crown of the 
head. Many nostrums are recommended for the cure of 
baldness; but they are seldom attended with any good 
result, and frequently do harm. The means to be em¬ 
ployed are such as tend to increase the circulation in the 
scalp to greater activity, as frequent rubbing with a hard 
towel or hair-brush, and the application of stimulants. 

J Among the innumerable preparations calculated to pre¬ 
vent the falling off of hair, is the Balm Nerval, when 
obtained genuine. 

—Meanness or inelegance of style; want of ornament. 
Bal'do Mount, a mountain of Italy in Lombardy, E. 

of the Lago di Garda; height 7,100 feet. 

Balfl'pate, n. A head or pate that is without hair. 
Bald'pate, Bald'pated, a. Shorn or destitute of 
hair. 

Ral'dric, Bald rick, n. [0. Fr. baudrier ; L. Lat. 
baldringus, from 0. Ger. bald, bold, strenuous; and L. 
Lat. ringa, a military belt, from Ger. ring, a circle.] A 
military belt or girdle, much worn by the warriors of 
feudal times. It encircled the waist, or was suspended 
from the right shoulder, and usually sustained a sword. 
It was often highly ornamented. 

( Bald'win, the name of a long line of sovereign Counts 
of Flanders, of whom the most celebrated was Baldwin 
IX., who became afterwards Emperor of Constantinople, 
under the name of 

Bald'win I., the son of Baldwin VIII., Count of Flanders 
and Hainault, b. at Valenciennes in 1170. In 1200, he 
joined the Crusaders with his brother Thierry, and in 
1202 aided the Venetians in their attack upon Constan¬ 
tinople, of which city he was crowned emperor, 16th of 
May, 1204. In the next year, B. was taken prisoner by 
the king of Bulgaria, and it is said died in captivity, in 
1206. He was much esteemed by the Greeks for his 
charity, temperance, and justice. 

Bald'win II., the last Frank emperor of Constantinople, 
B. 1217. He was the son of Pierre de Courtenay, and suc¬ 
ceeded his brother Robert in 1228. He was twice be¬ 
sieged in his imperial city, and being too weak to defend 
his dominions, repaired to Italy to seek aid from the 
Pope. At the court of France, B. was favorably received 
by the king, St. Louis, to whom he presented a crown 
of thorns, which was held by all Christendom to be the 
genuine relic. B., in 1239, set out for Constantinople 


with a body of crusaders, who, however, soon quitted 
him, and took the route to Palestine. He succeeded, 
ultimately, in raising new forces in the West, and re¬ 
gained his capital; but, in 1261, Michael Paleologus in¬ 
vested it, aud entered Constantinople on the 29th of 
July. B. fled to Sicily, where he d. in obscurity, in 1273. 

Bald'win, I., king of Jerusalem, was the son of Eustace, 
Count of Bouillon, and accompanied his brother Godfrey 
of Bouillon into Palestine, where he gained the sover¬ 
eignty of the State of Edessa. He succeeded his brother 
on the throne of Jerusalem in 1100, and for eighteen 
years waged war against the Turks, the Arabs, the Per¬ 
sians, and the Saracens. He took many towns, and se¬ 
cured for the Christians the coast of Syria, from the 
Gulf of Issus to the confines of Egypt. D. at Laris, in 
the desert, 1118, and was buried on Mount Calvary. — In 
the first canto of the Gerusalemme, of Tasso, the poet has 
depicted the character of this monarch as well as that 
of his brother Godfrey. 

Bald'win II., son of Hugh, Count of Rethel, was crowned 
in 1118, after Eustace, brother of Baldwin I., had re¬ 
nounced all claim to the vacant throne. In 1120 he 
gained a great victory over the Saracens, but in 1124 he 
was taken prisoner by them, and was ransomed only by 
giving up the city of Tyre. In 1131 he abdicated in favor 
of his son-in-law, Foulques of Anjou, and retired to a 
monastery, where he died in the same year. — The mili¬ 
tary and religious order of the Templars, for the defence 
of the Holy Land, was instituted in the reign of this 
monarch. 

Bald'win III., son of Foulques of Anjou, whom he suc¬ 
ceeded in 1142, under the guardianship of his mother. 
He took Ascalon and other places; but under his reign 
the Christians lost Edessa. B. 1130; d. at Antioch, 1162. 
He was succeeded by his brother, Amaury I. 

Bald'win IV., son of Amaury, succeeded to the throne of 
Jerusalem on the death of his father, in 1174; but being 
leprous, Raymond, Count of Tripoli, governed the king¬ 
dom for him. He afterwards resigned the throne to his 
nephew, Baldwin V., 1183, and D. 1186. 

Bald'win V., son of Sibylla, sister of Baldwin IV., was 
called to the throne when 5 years old, 1183, and died of 
poison, supposed to have been administered by his mo¬ 
ther, in order that her second husband, Guy de Lusignan, 
might enjoy the throne. The following year, 1187, the 
Christians lost Jerusalem, which was taken by Saladin. 

Bald'win, in Alabama, a county lying in the S. part of 
the State, at the mouth of Mobile River. Area, about 
1900 sq. m. It is bounded on the W. by Mobile river, on 
the N.W. by the Alabama, and on the E. by the Perdido. 
Surface, in some parts level, in others undulating; soil, 
sandy and pool'. Pop. (1890) 8,941. Cap. Daphne. 

Bald'win, in Florida, a post-village of Duval co., 20 m. 
W. of Jacksonville. 

Bald'win, in Georgia, a central county, with an area of 
257 sq. m. It is traversed by the Oconee, and also watered 
by Little River, and by Black Camp and Fishing Creeks. 
Surface, for the most part, hilly; soil, generally fertile. 
Cap. Milledgeville. 

Bald'win, in Maine, a township of Cumberland c.o., 
about 25 m. W.N.W. of the city of Portland, on the 
Saco river. 

Bald'win, in Minnesota, a township of Sherburne 
county. 

Bald'win, in Mississippi, a village of Hinds co., on the 
Big Black River. 35 m. from Jackson. 

Bald'win, in Missouri, a village of St. Louis co., 20 m. 
W. of St. Louis. 

Bald'win, in New York, a post-township of Chemung 
co., 6 m. E. of Elmira. 

Bald'win, in Pennsylvania, a township of Alleghany 
county. 

—A post-village of Butler co. 

Bald'win City, in Kansas, a post-village of Douglas 
co. It is a flourishing place. 

Bald'w'in's Phos'phorus. (Chem.) Nitrate of lime, 
when evaporated, loses its water of crystallization, and 
becomes luminous in the dark, as discovered by Baldwin, 
in 1675. 

Bald'winsville. in Illinois, a post-village of Edgar 
co., 24 m. N.W. of Terre-Haute. 

Bald'winsville, in Massachusetts, a post-village of 
Templeton township, Worcester co., 55 m. W.N.W. of 
Boston. 

Bald'winsville, in Missouri, a village of Mississippi 
co., on the Mississippi river, 3 or 4 m. above Wolf Island. 

Bald'winsville, in New York, a post-village of Ly- 
sander township, Onondaga co., on the Seneca River, 12 
m. N. by W. of Syracuse, and 22 miles south by east of 
Oswego. 

Bald'wyn, or Baldwin, in Mississippi, a post-village 
of Itawamba co., 31 m. S. of Corinth. 

Bale. n. [Fr. bade.] A ball; a round mass; a bundle or 
package of goods covered with canvas or tarpaulin, and 
corded for carriage or transportation. 

—[A.S. beal, bealo; 0. Ger. halo, ruin, destruction.] Misery; 
calamity; sorrow; mischief; destruction. 

“For light she hated as the deadly bale." — Spenser. 

— v. a. [Dan. balle; Gael, balhxm, a pail or tub; Fr. embal- 
ler.] To pack up goods in the form of a bale. — To free 
from water with a, pail or bowl; to lave out water; to 
bale; as, to bale a boat. 

“Each sea curl'd o'er the stern, and kept them wet, 

And bade them bale without a moment’s ease.” — Byron. 

Bale, in Switzerland. See Basle. 

Balearic Islands, ( bdl-e-ar'ik,) a group of Spanish 
islands, in the Mediterranean, lying off the coast of Va¬ 
lencia. They are five in number: — Majorca, Minorca, 
Cabrera, Iviza, aud Formentera. Lat. between 38° 40' 
and 40° 5' N.; Lon. between 1° and 5° E. Aggregate pop . 



269,818. — At an early date these islands were visited 
by the Phoenicians, aud after them by the Greeks, 
who, it is said, named them ballein, “ to throw,” from 
the expertness of the natives in using the sling, to the 
use of which they were trained from their infancy. — 
Later, the B. I. became subject to Carthage; but after a 
short period of freedom were annexed to the Roman 
empire by Metellus, 123 b. c. From that time their his¬ 
tory is involved in that of the peninsula.—Bayard Taylor. 
who visited them in 1867, and Capt. Clayton, in his Sunny 
South, published in 1869, concur in the statement that 
these primitive islanders still retain that remarkable 
character for honesty, simplicity, contentment, and in¬ 
dustry, which has distinguished them from the earliest 
times. — See Majorca, Minorca, &c. 

Baleen', n. [Fr. baleinei] (Com.) Plates or slabs of 
whale-bone, q. v. 

Bale'-11 re, n. [A. S. beelfyr, the fire of a funeral pyre.] 
A lighted beacon; an alarm-fire. 

“ Sweet Teviot 1 on thy silver tide 
The gloomy bale-fires blaze no more.”— Walter Scott. 

Bale'ful, a. Full of bale; replete with misery; deadly; 
pernicious; full of calamity, sorrow, or mischief; sad; 
woful. 

“ But when I feel the bitter baleful smart. 

Which her fair eyes unawares do work in me.”— Spenser. 

Bale'fully, adv. Sorrowfully;"perniciously; inacalam- 
itous manner. 

Bale'fulness, n. State or quality of bale; condition 
of being baleful. 

Balen'ic Acid. ( Chem .) A fatty acid, fusing at 164°; 
obtained from the oil of ben. Form. C 30 H 30 O 4 . 

Balfe', Michael William, a celebrated musical composer, 
was b. in Dublin, 1808. In 1827 he went to Paris, where, 
under the name of “ Balfi,” he met with great success as 
a bass singer, with Malibran and Sontag. He then went 
to Italy, and wrote a long series of operas for Milan, 
Paris, and London. In 1845, B. became director of the 
Italian Opera in the latter city. It is a curious fact that 
the operas of this composer have been more popular in 
Germany than in any other country. His Bohemian Girl 
and the Quatre Fils d’Aymon, had an immense success 
at Berlin. B. is a disciple of Paer and Rossini, and to 
some extent imitates Auber in his productions. His 
opera-airs are melodious, but he is destitute of the true 
creative genius. His principal works are, besides the 
above-mentioned, the Siege of Rochelle, the Enchantress, 
Les Puits d’Amour, the Jewess, the Daughter of St. Mark, 
the Rose of Castile, Sutanella, &c. d. 1870. 

Bal four, Sir James, lord-president of the Court of Ses¬ 
sion in Scotland, and the reputed author of Practicks of 
the Law, rose to eminence as a privy councillor anti judge, 
and was with Mary Queen of Scots at Holyrood on the 
night of the assassination of Rizzio. He was, shortly 
afterwards, knighted by the queen, and subsequently at¬ 
tached himself to the fortunes of Bothwell, uniting in 
the conspiracy against Darnley. He prepared the house 
in the Kirk of Field for the atrocious murder of that 
unfortunate nobleman, and was, in the despatch of the 
Earl of Lennox, charged with being an accomplice in 
that crime. He seems to have changed sides with every 
party in power. After being concerned in nearly all the 
stormy intrigues of the times, now fleeing from his 
country to save his head, and now returning to become 
an accuser, a prosecutor, and condemuer of others, he 
died 1583. ' 

Balfroosh', a large and flourishing city of Persia, prov. 
of Mazunderan, on the Bahbul, about 12 m. from the S. 
shore of the Caspian Sea. Lat. 36° 37' N.; Lon. 54° 42' 
E. It possesses an extensive trade, and has a large num¬ 
ber of caravanseras, bazaars, and medrasses or colleges. 
Pop. 50,000. 

Bali, or Little Java, an island of the E. or Malay Archi¬ 
pelago, 1st div.; lying in 8 ° 42' 5" S. Lat., and 116° 33' 
E. Lon. Area, 16,848 sq. m. Length, 70 m., by an aver¬ 
age breadth of 35. Soil and Prod. Soil tolerably fertile, 
producing rice, gambier, &c. The natives, being supe¬ 
rior to the Malays and Javanese in size, strength, am? 
intelligence, are preferred by the Chinece as laborers, 
P. about 700,000. 

Bal'ing, n. Act or operation of making up into a bale, 
as cotton, &c. — Act of freeing from water, as a boat. 

Bal'ing-press, n. A press worked by mechanical 
power, and used for the compression of cotton or other 
commodity, into bales for shipment or transportation. 

Bal'iol, Sir John de, an English knight, founder of Bal- 
iol Coll., Oxford, and governor of Carlisle in 1248. On 
the marriage of Margaret, daughter of Henry III., to 
Alexander III., king of Scotland, the guardianship of the 
royal pair, as well as of the kingdom, was committed to 
B. in conjunction with another. They were afterwards 
charged with abusing their trust, and Ilenry III. marched 
towards Scotland to punish them, hut B. made his peace 
with the king by paying a large sum into the royal 
treasury. In the contest between Henry III. and the 
barons, under Simon de Montfort, B. sided with the king, 
for which the barons seized his lands. D. 1269. 

Bal'iol, John de, King of Scotland, b. 1259, was the son 
of the preceding, and as the head of the English interest 
in Scotland, laid claim, on the death of Queen Margaret, 
(known as the “ Maid of Norway,”) to the vacant throne, 
by virtue of his descent from David, Earl of Huntingdon, 
brother of William the Lion, King of Scotland. His prin¬ 
cipal competitor was Robert Bruce, who sprung from 
the same ancestry. Edward I. of England being ap¬ 
pointed arbitrator, declared in favor of Baliol, who did 
homage to him for the kingdom, 12th Nov., 1292. He, 
however, did not hold the sceptre long; for remonstrating 
against the power assumed by Edward over Scotland, he 
was summoned to his tribunal as a vassal. B., provoked 
at this, concluded a treaty with France, the consequence 























250 


BALK 


BALL 


BALL 


of which was a war with England. The battle of Dun- [ 
bar decided the fate of B., who surrendered his crown 1 
into the hands of Edward, who committed both him and 
his son to the Tower of London. At the Pope’s inter¬ 
cession, they were subsequently released, when B. retired 
to his estates in Normandy, where he d. in 1314. B.’a 
son, Edward, afterwards claimed, invaded, and recovered 
the kingdom of Scotland, but he did not keep it long, 
and dying without issue, the family became extinct. 

Balis'ta, n. (Mil.) See Ballista. 

lial'ister, n. (Mil.) The same as Balista, q. v. 

Bal'istes. n. [From balista .] (Zool.) The File-fish. 
See Balistidje. 

Balis'tidse, n.pl. (Zool.) The File-fishes; a family of 
fishes, order Plectognatlii. They are characterized by 
having a conical compressed body, jaws armed with one 
or two rows of small distinct teeth, and skin covered on 
the surface with scaly plates, surmounted with spines, 
tubercles, &c. The species are found chiefly in the inter- 
tropical seas. The Unicorn File-fish (Balistes monoceros ) 
grows to a considerable size, often exceeding two feet in 
length: the body is of an oval shape, and, like most 
others of this genus, it possesses the power of inflating 
at pleasure the sides of the abdomen, by means of a pair 
of bony processes within that part: the skin is every¬ 
where covered with very minute spines, and the general 
color is gray, inclining to brown on the upper parts, and 
varied with irregular, dusky, sub-transverse undulations 
and spots: both fins and tail are of a light brown color, 
the latter marked by a few dusky bars. It is a native 
of the Indian and American seas, and feeds chiefly on 
crustaceous and testaceous marine 
animals. 

Balistra'ria, n. [It. balestriera.] 

(Arch.) One of the names given 
to narrow and cruciform aper¬ 
tures in the walls of strongholds 
or castles, through which the bow¬ 
men discharged their missiles, as 
seen in fig. 274, which represents 
a bartizan, or small turret, from 
Monk-bargate, York, England. 

Balize, (ba-leez’.) [Fr. balize; 

Lat. palus, a pole.] A beacon or 
land-mark; a pole or staff erected 
on a coast as a guide for mariners. 

Balize', in Honduras. See Belize. 

Balk, (hawk.) n. [A.S. bale; \V. 
bale.] Something passed over: a 
ridge of land left unploughed be¬ 
tween furrows, or between other 
ridges. — A great beam or rafter ™ l ff- “'*• 

of timber used in building; as, a rafter in a barn.—A hin- 
derance a frustration; a disappointment. 

(Mil.) One of the beams connecting the successive 
supports of a trestle-bridge or bridge of boats. 

— v. a. To pass over, as in ploughing; to leave untouched. 

44 Nor doth he any creature balk. 

But lays on all he meeteth. "—Drayton. 

—To baffle, disappoint, or frustrate; as, to balk a fancy. 

“ Balk'd of his prey, the yelling monster flies, 

And fills the city with his hideous cries. —Pope. 

—To pile, as in a heap or ridge. 

“ . . . three and twenty knights, 

Balk'd in their blood, did Sir Walter see 
On Homildon's plains."— Shake. 

— 1 >. n. To come to an abrupt pause or stop in anything; 
as, he balked in his sermon. 

Balkan Mountains. See Turkey in Europe. 

Balkash', or Tenghiz, an extensive lake of Central 
Asia, on the borders of Chinese Turkestan, and the Rus¬ 
sian government of Tomsk. Between 44° and 47° N. Lat., 
and Lon. 77° and 81° E. It is 150 m. long, by 75 broad. 

Balk'er, n. One who balks another. — A person who 
stands on a cliff or other high ground on the sea-shore, 
and notifies fishermen which course the shoals of herring 
take, and where they may be found. 

Balkti. (Anc. Bactra.) A province of Central Asia, 
now subordinate to the Emir of Afghanistan, lying 
between Lat. 35° and 37° N., and Lon. 63° and 69° E., 
having on the N. the Oscus, E. Buduk-Shun, S. the Hin¬ 
doo-Coosh, and on the W. the desert. Length, E. to W. 
about 250 m.; breadth, 100 to 120; area, 30,000 sq. m.— 
Surface, irregular; soil, generally sandy and barren. 
Its capital, and the country subordinate to it, have, 
since the fall of the Dooranee monarchy in Cabul, to 
which state it formerly belonged, been taken possession 
of by the Afghans. 

Bai.kh (the Zariaspa and Bactra of the Greeks), a decayed 
and almost depopulated city, once the capital of the 
aboved-named province, is situate on a river of the same 
name, in a plain 18 m. S. of the Oxus, and 250 S.E. of 
Bokhara; Lat. 36° 48' N.; Lon. 67° 18' E. The ruins 
of the ancient city occupy a circuit of 20 m.; they con¬ 
sist chiefly of fallen mosques and decayed tombs, none 
of an age prior to that of Mohammed. This city, like 
Babylon, has become to the surrounding country an all 
but inexhaustible mine of bricks. The citadel contains 
a stone of white marble, pointed out as the throne 
of Cyrus! B. is styled by Orientals, Omm-el-Buldan 
(the ‘-Mother of Cities”), on account of its great anti¬ 
quity. It is said to have been built by Kyamoors. the 
founder of the Persian monarchy. After its conquest by 
Alexander the Great, it flourished as the capital of a 
Grecian kingdom. Jengliis Khan, Timour, Au/ungzebe, 
Nadir Shah, and the Afghans successively possessed it, 
and it was finally taken by the Khan of Bokhara from 
the Usbeck Tartars, in 1820. 

Balk/ingly, adv. In a frustrating or balking manner. 

Balk’ish, a. Uneven; rugged; ridgy, (r.) 


[ Balk'y, a. [Arner.] Apt to shy or turn aside, or come 
to a sudden stop; as, a balky mule. 

! Ball, (bawl,)n. [Ger. and Swed. ball; allied to Lat. pila, a 
ball.] A round body ; anything round or approaching 
roundness; as, a billiard-ball. 

—Any part of the human body which is round, bossy, or 
protuberant; as, the ball of the great toe. 

—A small globe of wood or ivory, used in casting lots, or 
balloting. — See Ballot. 

(Mil.) Any round or conical projectile of lead or iron 
discharged from fire-arms. For small arms, as pistols 
and muskets, they are of lead; for artillery, of iron. 
The term ball, with a prefix sufficiently expressive of its 
purposes, denotes a composition of various combustible 
ingredients, as fire-balls, light-balls, smoke-balls, stink¬ 
balls. The projectiles bearing these names are used 
either for giving light, or for harassing the enemy by 
giving out a dense smoke or suffocating fumes. They 
are generally fired out of mortars, and seldom from 
guns. Light-balls, which are used in order to disclose 
the position or movements of the enemy at night, are 
composed of painted canvas stretched over a framework. 
They are filled with a compact mixture of saltpetre, sul¬ 
phur, resin, and linseed-oil, and are furnished with time¬ 
fuses. They give out a brilliant light, which lasts for a 
considerable period. Smoke-balls are composed of suc¬ 
cessive layers of strong paper, and are filled with gun¬ 
powder, saltpetre, powdered coal, tallow, and pitch. 
After ignition they give out dense fumes of blinding 
smoke for more than half an hour. Stink-balls are 
filled with a chemical composition which, when burning, 
diffuses a noxious suffocating odor around. 

(Printing.) A sort of cushion composed of hair or 
wool, covered with leather or other coating, and fixed to 
a holdfast called a ball-stnck; — formerly used to lay the 
ink on type when set in forms. 

(Farriery.) [From Lat. bolus.] A large bolus or pill in 
which medicine is administered to horses; generally 
termed a horserball. 

(Games.) A gymnastic exercise of high antiquity. In 
the Odyssey, we find Phmacian damsels playing ball to 
the sound of music. It was the principal exercise of the 
Spartans; and so highly was it esteemed by the Athe¬ 
nians, that they set up a statue to Aristonicus for his 
skill at it. The Romans of all ages and degrees played 
at it, and Pliny describes old Spurinna as warding off de¬ 
crepitude by practising the game. The Greeks and Ro¬ 
mans had four kinds of balls: two of leather inflated 
with air, and played upon the earth, by many running 
after it at once,— consequently similar to our foot-ball; 
one a small ball, played like our shuttlecock; and one 
stuffed with feathers, and played by three persons in a 
triangle. In the Middle Ages, ball-playing was a regular 
amusement with the students of France, Germany, and 
Italy; and at the present time, there are public places 
for ball-playing in Italy and Germany. In England, ball¬ 
playing has been a favorite exercise from an early date, 
one variety of game at ball giving its name to a cele¬ 
brated street at the west-end of themetropolis— Pall-Mall. 
The ball is still played in various ways; such as being 
kicked by the foot, thrown by the hand, or knocked by 
a bat; this last is much played in many parts of the U. 
States, under the name of Base-ball, q. v. — See also 
Cricket, Tennis, Golf, Ac. 

—[Fr. bal; It. hallo, from ballare, to dance.] An entertain¬ 
ment of dancing; asocial assembly met for the amuse¬ 
ment of the dance. 

Ball, v. a. To collect snow into balls, as on horses’ hoofs. 

Ball, Sir Alexander John, a British admiral, who 
served with distinction in the first American war, and 
afterwards in the Mediterranean under Nelson. At the 
battle of the Nile he commanded the Alexander, and it 
is said that from a peculiar combustible thrown from 
that ship the explosion of the French man-of-war V Ori¬ 
ent is to be attributed. e afterwards besieged Malta, 
in 1800, which place was compelled to surrender. D. at 
Malta, of which island he had been made governor, in 
1809. 

Bal'la, or Bal'lagb, a village of Ireland, in the co. 
Mayo, 8 m. S.E. of Castlebar; pop. about 620. 

Bal'lad, n. [Fr. ballade; It. ballata, from ballare, to 
dance.] (Lit.) A song originally adapted toadanceor ball; 
a popular song; a short narrative poem of the lyric order; 
a short air. Specifically, a short epic song of an entirely 
lyrical nature. If we trace the English and Scottish bal¬ 
lad to its origin, we must have recourse to those songs 
which existed among the inhabitants of the island be¬ 
fore the Norman conquest, and were of a kind common 
to all the Teutonic nations. It is related of King Alfred 
that he sung ballads to his harp in the camp of the 
Danes. Among the Scandinavian nations, the three 
great divisions, or cycles, of the Teutonic poetry of the 
Middle Ages,—the stories of the Nibelungen-Lied, those of 
Charlemagne, (particularly such as relate to his wars 
against the Arabians and the battle of Roncesvalles,) and 
the tales of King Arthur’s Round Table, — consist of 
what, at a later period, were called ballads. Tacitus in¬ 
forms us that ballads were the only annals known among 
the ancient German nations. In Wales, the bards, or 
writers of ballad-poetry, have from the earliest ages ex¬ 
ercised an almost omnipotent influence over their coun¬ 
trymen ; an influence surviving,in a great measure, up to 
the present day. Even in the New World, the American 
savages had their war-songs and rude poetry, in which 
they sung the praises of those who had fought and died 
for their nation. In process of time, as manners refined, 
the ballad in every country by degrees included a wider 
range of subjects: it was no longer solely employed in 
rehearsing valorous exploits, but included in its rhymes 
the marvellous tale or the wild adventure, occasionally 
becoming the vehicle of sentiment and passion No 



festivity was esteemed complete among our ancestors 111 
the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries, which was not set off 
with the exercise of the minstrel’s talents; who usually 
sang his ballad to his own or some other harp, and wa# 
everywhere received with respect. As intellectual grati¬ 
fication advanced, however, these rude performances 
gradually lost their attraction with the superior ranks 
in society. When language became refined, and political 
taste elevated, by an acquaintance with the Greek and 
Latin authors, the subjects of the epic muse were no 
longer dressed in the homely garb of the popular ballad, 
but assumed the 
borrowed orna¬ 
ment and stately 
air of heroic po¬ 
etry; and every 
poetical attempt 
in the sublime 
and beautiful cast 
was an imitation 
of the classic 
models. The na¬ 
tive poetry of the 
country was re¬ 
served merely for 
thehumorousand 
burlesque, and 
the term ‘-ballad” 
was brought, by 
custom, to signify 
a comic story, 
told in low famil¬ 
iar language, and 
accompanied by a 
droll trivial tune. 

It was much used 
by the wits of the 
time as a vehicle 
for laughable rid¬ 
icule and mirth¬ 
ful satire; and a 
great variety of 
the most pleas¬ 
ing specimens of 
this kind of writing is to be found in the witty a?ra of 
English genius, which we take to be comprehended 
between the beginning of Charles II.’s reign, and 
the times of Swift and Prior. Since that period, the 
genius of the age lias chiefly been characterized by 
the correct, elegant, and tender; and a real or affected 
taste for beautiful simplicity has almost universally pre¬ 
vailed. Andrew Fletcher, of Saltoun, said, if he were per¬ 
mitted to make the ballads of a nation, he cared not who 
should make the laws, (“Political Works,” 1749;) so 
strong a belief had he in the revolutionizing tendency of 
an heroic ballad or song. To give an instance of the truth 
of this remark, we need only mention how the popular, 
though comparatively senseless, ballad of Lillibidlero 
assisted to bring about the English Revolution of 1688. 
It is generally allowed among well-read men that the 
best specimens known of the old popular ballads are to 
be found in Scotland, or more properly, perhaps, on the 
Scottish border between Scotland and England. The 
earliest ballad now remaining in the English language 
is believed to be a “Cuckoo Song” of the latter part of 
tne reign of Henry III. The song speaks for itself, al¬ 
though we give a modernized version. 



Fig. 'rib. 

ENGLISH BALLAD-SELLER, (1650.) 


Sumer is icumen in, 

Lhude sing cuccu; 

Groweth sed and bloweth mtd. 
And epringth the wde nu. 

Sing cuccu. 

Awe beteth after lamb, 

Lhoulh after calve cu, 

Bulluc sterteth, 

Buckb verteth, 

Murie sing cuccu; 

Cuccu, cuccu: 

Wei singes thu cuccu, 

Ne sunk thu naver nu. 


Summer is coming in. 

Loud sings cuckoo; 

The seed grows, the mead Wows, 
And the wood springs new,— 
Sing cuckoo. 

Ewe bleats after lamb, 

The calf lows after cow, 

The bullock starts, the buck 
verts.— 

Merrily sings cuckoo 1 
Cuckoo! cuckoo 1 
Well sing’st thou, cuckoo, 
Mayst thou never cease. 


Among the finer of the old English B. that have come 
down to us are, Chery Chase, The Bnbin Hood Ballads, 
Sir John Suckling's Ballad on a 1 Tedding, &c. Sir Wal¬ 
ter Scott, in his “Scottish Minstrelsy,” has presented us 
with the choicest examples of the old Scots B Among 
its more modern specimens of note are, Fair Helen of 
Kirkconnel Lea; Johnnie Armstrong; Lady Lindsay’s 
Avid Robin Gray; the Banks and Braes o’ Bonnie Do'on, 
of Burns; Annie Laurie, &c. Ireland, from the muse of 
Carolan, and later, of Moore, the “ Bard of Erin,” has 
given to the world B. poetry of touching pathos and 
beauty. Need we mention the “Irish Melodies” of the 
latter poet? — his Harp that once through Tara’s Halls, 
that one, of the many, which is so dear to the Irish heart? 
—Of the modern English B. (strictly speaking) we have 
Cowper’s.AJm Gilpin ; Goldsmith’s Edwin and Angelina; 
Aytonn’s Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers; Praed's Ballads ; 
the Bon Gaultier Ballads; Macaulay's Armada, and 
Lays of Ancient Rome; the ballads of Thackeray: Cole¬ 
ridge’s Ancient Mariner, &c., &c.—The French B. never 
reached any degree of perfection, because their fabliaux, 
legends, Ac., early degenerated into interminable metri¬ 
cal and prose romances of chivalry. From 1830 to 1840, 
with the taste for the study of the Middle Ages, the B. 
came into fashion, and very successful illustrations of 
the modern style may be found in the works of Alfred 
de Musset, and the earlier poetical effusions of Victor 
Hugo. — No modern nation has cultivated the composi¬ 
tion of ballad poetry so assiduously as the Germans. 
The Lenore of BUrger brought in a new sera of ballad¬ 
writing in Germany. He confined the name ‘ ballad,’ as 
Coleridge has also done in imitation of him, to an epic 
narrative, with something fabulous amTsupernatural in 




















BALL 


BALL 


BALL 


257 


the background, but still possessing enough of earth to 
interest the mass of humanity. Schiller, Gbtlie, and 
TJUAaud have followed in his wake; and the latter has 
doue much in modern times to familiarize the Germau 
mind with this species of composition.—The ballad poetry 
of the northern nations, particularly those of Iceland, 
of the Faroe Isles, of Denmark, and Norway and Sweden, 
retain their ancient character to the present day. — In 
Italy, the ballad never flourished: the poetry of that 
country has always retained a certain antique spirit, and 
the Italians never partook, to any great extent, in the 
crusades, being fully occupied at home in the wars of the 
free cities. The Portuguese never cultivated the ballad 
much. Almost all their poetry of this kind is to be 
traced to a Spanish origin. The Russians have lyrico- 
epic poems, of which some, in old Russian, are excellent. 
A curious circumstance in this connection is the resem¬ 
blance which appears between the B. of peoples often 
widely separated and distinct in race, the same inci¬ 
dents, and sometimes the same story, recurring. This 
may have been due to the great popularity of these 
poems during the mediaeval period, and their wide 
extension in consequence. Probably the Crusades had 
much to do with this.—See Bard, Fabliaux, Jongleur, 
Lay, Minnesinger, Minstrel, Nibelungen-Lied, Ro¬ 
mance, Roundelay, Troubadour, TrouviIre, &c. 

—r. re. To compose or sing ballads; to allude to, or make 
mention of, in ballads. 

Bal'lader, Balladeer', n. A writer of ballads. 

BalTad-mong'er, re. An itinerant vender of ballads. 

Ballag'hade'rin, a town of Ireland, co. Mayo, 30 m. 
E N.E. of Castlebar; pop. about 1,400. 

Ballaglimore', a village of Ireland, near Roscrea, in 
Queen's co. The ruins of Monaincha Abbey are near 
this place. 

Balla;jliy', a village of Ireland, co. Londonderry, 18 m. 
from Coleraine. 

Bal latiac, in California, a mining camp of Sierra co., 
25 m. N. of Downieville. 

Bal larat, a town of Victoria, S. Australia, 75 miles 
W.N.W. of Melbourne. It is famous for its gold-fields. 
Unrivalled for the fineness of the metal they yield. 
Pop. (1895) 40,036. 

Bal 'lard, in Kentucky, a western county, separated from 
Missouri and Illinois by the Ohio river. It is watered 
by Mayfield’s Creek. Surface, undulating and wooded; 
soil, partly fertile, partly poor. Cap. Wickliffe. Pop. 
(1898) 8,750. 

Bai'lardsvnie, in Kentucky , a village of Oldham co., 
about 30 m. E. by N. of Louisville. 

Bal'lardsville, in IE Virginia, a post-village of Boone 
eo., about 250 m. W. by N. of Richmond. 

Bal'las, a town of Upper Egypt, on the Nile. Lat. 26° 
N.; Lon. 32°42'E. It is famous for the earthen jars 
called Ballasee jars, which are manufactured here and 
used throughout Egypt for carryiug water. 

Bal last, re. [A.S. bat, a boat, and blast, a burden: Dut. 
ballast .] ( Mar.) The load of stones, sand, or other heavy 
substauce, which a ship carries when without cargo; 
dead-weight laid in the hold of a ship to keep her steady 
or in equipoise in the water. — Broken stones or rubbish, 
gravel, &c., used in constructing a railroad to make solid 
the permanent way. — Metaphorically, that which is 
used to make anything steady. 

— v. a. To load a vessel with ballast. — To make or keep 
anything steady; as, to ballast the bed of a railway. 

“ Now you have given me virtue for my guide, 

And with true honour ballasted my pride."— Dryden. 

Bal'lastag'e, re. (Law.) Dues or tolls paid to harbor- 
authorities for the privilege of loading a ship with ballast. 

Bal lasting;, re. Furnishing with ballast; keeping 
steady. 

Bal’last-lig'htei*, re. (Mar.) A barge or lighter em¬ 
ployed in a port or harbor to receive the ballast dis¬ 
charged from a ship; or, vice versd, to convey the same 
to a ship's side. 

Ballatoon', re. A large flat-bottomed boat or barge 
used in Russia for the carriage of timber by water. 

Ball Camp, in Tennessee, a post-office of Knox co. 

Bal 1-cart'riilue, re. (Milil.) A cartridge furnished 
with a ball. 

Ball'-cocK, re. A hollow sphere of thin metal, attached 
by a small rod to the cock of a water-cistern. When the 
cistern is empty, the water flows in at the tap, but with 
the rising water, the hollow sphere, the ball-cock, is 
buoyed up, and by this means the tap is turned off when 
the cistern is full. 

Ballenstarit. a town of N. Germany, in the duchy of 
Anhalt, 15 m. S.E. of Halberstadt. In the environs is a 
fine castle, the residence of the Duke. Pop. 4,848. 

Bal'leny Islands, in the Antarctic ocean, a group of 
five islands discovered in 1839. They are volcanic, and 
of small size. Lat. 66 ° 44' S ; Lon. 163° 11' E. 

Balleri na, re. [Sp. and It.] The principal female dan¬ 
cer in a ballet; a ballet-girl. 

Ballet, ( bal'lai ,) re. [Fr. ballet; It. baUetto, from hallo, 
a dance.] In its widest sense, the representation of a 
series of passionate actions and feelings, by means of 
gestures and dancing. According to this signification, 
we comprehend, under B., even representations of men¬ 
tal emotions, not connected with a regular train of action. 
In a more confined sense, we call B. musical pieces, the 
object of which is to represent, by mimic movements 
and dances, actions, characters, sentiments, passions, and 
feelings, in which several dancers perform together. 
According to the analogy of lyrical poetry, those which 
rather represent feelings may be called lyrical ballets; 
those which imitate actions, dramatic ballets. The lyrical 
and dramatic ballets, together, constitute the higher art 
of dancing, in opposition to the lower, the aim ot which 
Is only social pleasure. A ballet is usually divided into 
16 


several acts, each of which has several entrees. An en¬ 
tree, in a ballet, consists of one or several quadrilles of 
dancers, who, by their steps, gestures, and attitudes, rep¬ 
resent a certain part of the action. In criticising a bal¬ 
let, we must consider, first, the choice of the subject, 
which must have unity of action or of passion, and must 
be capable of being represented in an intelligible manner 
by means of mimic movements and dancing; secondly, 
the plan and execution of the single parts, which must 
have a due proportion to each other; and, finally, the 
music and decorations, which must supply whatever 
dancing cannot bring before the eye. The ballet is an 
invention of modern times, (the ingenious artist Balta- 
zariui, director of music to the Queen Catharine de Medicis 
probably gave its form to the regular ballet,) though 
pantomimic dances were not unknown to the ancients. 
(See Mimic, and Pantomime.) Noverre, a Frenchman, 
brought the ballet to the greatest perfection, about 1750. 
—The bounds, leaps, and pirouettes of the principal per¬ 
formers seem rather to be surprising feats of muscular 
strength and agility than the actual motions of the dance. 
The intricate figure-dances of the auxiliary groups of 
coryphees, as performed in the principal theatres in Eu¬ 
rope, are generally most picturesque and pleasing; but 
they become offensive to the taste when performed with¬ 
out any respect for morality and decency, as it is too 
often the case in our theatres, where the name Ballet is 
given to licentious dances and poses imported from the 
Parisian minor theatres and pleasure-gardens. 

Bal'Iet-dancer, re. A figurante; a female dancer in a 
ballet. — See Ballerina. 

Ballet-master, re. One who directs a ballet; a per¬ 
son who manages the Terpsichorean department in a 
theatre. 

Ball'-flower, re. (Arch.) An ornament resembling a 
ball placed in a circular flower, the three petals forming 
a cup round it; much used as au enrichment to mould¬ 
ings, and otherwise, in the decorated style of Gothic 
architecture. 

Bal'Iiage, re. Same as Bailage. 

Bal'lin, re. (Ge.og.) See Bal. 

Ballina', a town of Ireland, co. Mayo, on the Moy, 126 
m. W.N.W. of Dublin. Pop. 5,960. 

Ballinaboy', a parish of Ireland, in the co. Cork. 

Ballina'carrig', a parish of Ireland, in theco. Carlow. 

Ballina'carrig', a hamlet of Ireland, co. Cork. 

Ballinacour'ty, a par. of Ireland, in theco. Galway, 
at the head of Galway Bay, 3]^ in. S. of Oranmore. 

Ballinacour'ty, a parish of Ireland, in theco. Kerry. 

Ballinahag > 'lish, a par. of Ireland in the co. Mayo. 

Ballinabag'lish, a par. of Ireland, in the co. Kerry. 

Ballinaliincli', a barony, parish, demesne, lake, river, 
and ancient castle of Ireland, in Connemara, co. Galway, 
37 m. W.N.W. of Galway. This barony was until a 
few years past the property of the celebrated ‘'Dick 
Martin,” or, as he was popularly called, the King of 
Connemara. In the castle of B. he lived for years with 
almost regal state, dwelling among his retainers and 
tenantry like a chieftain of feudal times, and keeping 
a daily table for all comers to dine at.— He eventually 
ruined himself utterly by his hospitality and munifi¬ 
cence. Mr. Martin, who for many years represented the 
co. Galway in the British parliament, was the author of 
the well-known “ Martin's Act” for the Prevention of 
Cruelty to Animals. His fortunes form the substance 
of Charles Lever's novel of the Martins of Cro’Martin. 

Ballinahiiick', a town of Ireland, in the co. Down, 
10 in. E. of Droinore. A battle was fought here in 1798, 
between the insurgent Irish and the royal troops. Pop. 
about 1,000. 

Ballinakill', a town of Ireland, in Queen’s co., 11 m. 
S. of Maryborough ; pop. about 1,S00. 

Ballinakill', the name of several parishes in Ireland. 

Ballinainore', a village of Ireland, co. Leitrim, 13 m. 
N.E. of Carrick-on-Shannon; pop. about 3oO. 

Ballinamuck', a village of Ireland, co. Longford, 
prov. of Leinster, 11. m. N.X.E of Longford. 

Ballinascreen', a parish of Ireland, co. Londonderry. 

Ballinaskel'lig’s Bay, in Ireland, co. Kerry. Hog 
Head is in its E. entrance; Bolus Head on its W. It is 
about 5 m. broad. 

Ballinasloe', a town of Ireland, counties Galway and 
Roscommon, in prov. of Connaught, on the Suck, 78 m. 
W. by S. of Dublin. The battle of Aghrirn (q.v.) was 
fought in the neighborhood. Pop. 4,1U6. 

Ballincal'la, or Baluncho'la, a parish of Ireland, in 
prov. of Connaught, divided between the counties Mayo 
and Galway. 

Ballincoi'lig;, a garrison-town of Ireland, in the co. 
Cork, on the river Lee, 5 m. W. of Cork. Gunpowder 
is largely manufactured here, and an ancient castle pre¬ 
sents fine remains. 

Ballincuslane', or Ballycnslane', a par. of Ire¬ 
land, in the co. Kerry. 

Ballinder'ry, a parish of Ireland, co. Antrim. 

—Another, in co. Tyrone. 

—A village in co. Wicklow, 2 m. N.W. of Rathdrum. 

Ballindoon', a parish of Ireland, co. Galway. 

llallingiul dy, a parish of Ireland, co. Limerick. 

Balling'ar'ry, a parish of Ireland, co. Limerick, and 
17 m. S.W. of that city. 

Balling'ar'ry, a village and parish of Ireland, co. Tip¬ 
perary, 20 m. N.E. of Clonmel. — A parish of co. Limer¬ 
ick.— Another in co. Tipperary. 

Balling-process, (bawTling.) ( Chern .) A process 
by which sulphate of soda is converted into carbonate 
of soda. Sulphate of soda, limestone (carbonate of lime), 
and small coal are intimately mixed, and subjected to 
heat in a reverberatory furnace. Sulphide of sodium is 
at first formed, carbonic acid escaping in large quantities. 
By carefully regulating the heat, the limestone gives up 


its carbonic acid to the soda, receiving sulphur in ex¬ 
change. The resulting mixture is termed black ash, ot 
crude soda, and contains carbonate of soda, lime, and 
sulphide of calcium. — See Soda. 

Bullinlaml'ers, a parish of Ireland, co. Limerick. 

Ballinoe', a parish of Ireland, co. Cork. 

Ballinrobe', a town of Ireland, co. Mayo, prov. of 
Connaught, on the Robe, 25 m. N.N.W. of Galway. It 
is a progressive place in the midst of a fine agricultural 
country. Pop. about 2,900. 

Ballintein'ple, a parish of Ireland, co. Cavan.—Also 
the name of five other parishes in Ireland. 

Ballintob'ber, a parish of Ireland, co. Roscommon, 
and 12 m. from the town of Roscommon. There are 
here the ruins of a magnificent castle. — The name ol 
two baronies in the same co., and of a par. in theco. Mayo 

Ballintogher, a township of Ireland, co. Sligo, 7 m 
S.E. of Sligo. 

Ballinioy', a seaport town and parish of Ireland, 4 m 
N. of Ballycastle, co. Antrim. Pop. about 5,200. 

Ballis'ta, or Balis'ta, re. ; pi. Balust.e, or Balist-s 
[Lat.] (Mil.) An engine used by the ancients for hurl¬ 
ing stones, as the catapulta was used for throwing heavy 
darts and arrows. The particular construction of the 
B. is not exactly understood, or rather, it seems to have 
been made in different ways. One sort was constructed 
with levers and bars, and another with pulleys, another 
with a crane, and another with a toothed wheel. 

Ballister, re. The same as Bali.ista. 

Ballistic, a. [Lat. bullista .] Belonging, or having 
relation to, a cross-bow, or to the art of projecting weap¬ 
ons of assault by means of an engine. 

Ballistic Pendclom. (P/tys.) An instrument invented 
by Robins, for measuring the velocity of cannon or mus¬ 
ket-balls. It consists of a large, heavy block of wood, 
plated with iron at the back, and fixed to an iron bar, 
which, at the other extremity, is attached to a transverse 
bar of iron, which serves as an axis of suspension. To 
the lower end of the pendulum is attached a ribbon, 
passing loosely through an orifice in a horizontal bar in 
the framework. The length of the ribbon drawn out 
by the pendulum, on being struck, shows the extent of 
the vibration, which being known, together with the 
Aveight of the shot, the length, Ac. of the pendulum, 
the velocity may be calculated. 

Bnllis'tics, re. (Milit.) The art or function of impel¬ 
ling darts or offensive weapons by means of an engine 
or other mechanical contrivance. — The science of pro¬ 
jectiles. 

BalTium, re. [L. Lat.] (Fort.) See Bailey. 

Ball Mountain, in Michigan, a P. O. of Oakland c«. 

Balloon', re. [Fr. balbin, from balls, a ball.] Any spher¬ 
ical hollow body; a round chemical vessel; a ball on the 
top of a pillar, Ac. 

(Aeronautics.) A large globe shaped bag usually mane 
of rubberized or varnished silk or cotton cloth, which, 
containing a gas specifically lighter than common 
air, rises into the atmosphere with a greater or less 
degree of ascensional force. A car, supported by a 
net-work which extends over the balloon, supports 
the aeronaut; and a valve, usually placed at the 
top, to which a string is attached, reaching to the 
car, gives him the power of allowing the ga« to 
escape, and of descending at pleasu re.—During the dark 
ages, and for some time after the revival of science, nu¬ 
merous projects were entertained for navigating the air; 
but it is only in very recent times, since 1783, that any of 
them have been realized. The first idea was to employ 
some mechanical contrivance resembling the wings of 
birds; but Borelli demonstrated that all attempts on the 
part of man to fly must necessarily fail, from the uttet 
disproportion of his muscular power to the force that 
would be necessary to give impulsion to wings of such 
enormous magnitude as Avould be required to sustain hi* 
weight in the air. — The principle by which a B. rises in 
the atmosphere is exactly the same as that which causes 
the ascent of a cork from the bottom of a vessel filled 
with water. The weight of the volume of air which it 
displaces must exceed the weight of the balloon and all 
that it carries with it. That bodies must rise and remain 
suspended in a fluid denser than themselves was proved 
by Archimedes; but the weight of the air is a modern 
discovery; and it was only in the latter half of th« 
last century that chemistry detected the nature and dif¬ 
ferences of specific gravities of aeriform fluids. Mr. 
Cavendish, in 1766, found hydrogen gas to be from about 
seven to eleven times lighter than common air, accerding 
to the mode of its preparation. In its pure state it i* 
found to be nearly sixteen times lighter than common 
air. This substance, therefore, if prevented from diffus¬ 
ing itself, and allowed to obey the force by which it is 
impelled upwards, will continue to mount till it arrives 
at a stratum of the atmosphere sixteen times more atten¬ 
uated than at the surface of the earth. Accordingly, ns 
sooner had Cavendish announced his discovery, than it 
occurred to Dr. Black that a very thin bag filled with 
hydrogen gas would mount to the ceiling of a room. 
Through some imperfection, the experiment, when he 
attempted to execute it, failed; and Cavallo, in 1782, did 
not succeed in raising anything heavier than a soap- 
bubble.— Knowing the specific gravities of atmospheric 
air, of the gas with which the balloon is to be filled, an< 
the weight of the envelope in which it is confined, it is 
not difficult to compute the size the balloon must have 
in order to rise from the ground, or carry a given weight 
to a given height in the atmosphere. The height to 
which a balloou will rise is determined from the 
law according to rvhich the density of the atmos¬ 
pheric strata diminishes as the distance from the 
earth is increased. The buoyant force diminishes 
with the density; and when it is reduced to a 











258 


BALL 


BALL 


BALL 


quantity only equal to the weight of the balloon and 
its appendages, no further ascension can take place. 
Another circumstance also confines the possible elevation 
within moderate limits. As the pressure of the exter¬ 
nal air is diminished, the expansive force of the confined 
gas becomes greater, and would ultimately overcome the 
resistance of any material of which a balloon can be 
made. A balloon quite filled at the surface of the earth 
would inevitably be torn to shreds at the height of a 
few miles in the atmosphere, unless a portion of the gas 
were allowed to escape. For this purpose the balloon is 
furnished with a safety-valve, which can be opened and 
shut at pleasure; but, to prevent unnecessary waste of 
gas, it ought to be made of such a size that it requires 
only to be partly filled. A balloon half filled at the sur¬ 
face of the earth would become fully distended at the 
ueight of 3)4 miles.—We have hitherto spoken only of 
balloons filled with hydrogen gas; but it is evident that 
any other substance specifically lighter than air would 
answer the purpose; in fact, the first balloons by which 
any one was raised into the atmosphere were not filled 
with hydrogen, but simply with rarefied air, the rarefac¬ 
tion being produced by kindling a fire under them; and 
as they thus became filled with smoke, they were called 
smoke-balloons. The ascensional force, however, which 
can be gained in this way, is not great; besides, the 
aeronaut must carry a portion of fuel with him for the 
purpose of maintaining the fire, which adds sensibly to 
the weight to be raised. — The two French brothers 
Montgolfier had the honor of first preparing and send¬ 
ing up a B. into the air. After one or two previous 
Irials, they announced a public ascent on the 5th of June, 
1783. The envelope was prepared of linen cloth, a fire 
was kindled under it, and fed with bundles of chopped 
straw. This substance was used with a view to produce 
a large quantity of smoke. It would seem that they 
attributed the elevation of the B. to the ascending 
power of the smoke, instead of its true cause, the rare¬ 
faction of the heated air. In the space of five minutes 
it was completely distended, and on being let slip, ascend¬ 
ed rapidly. It reached an elevation of about a mile, 
remained suspended ten minutes, and fell at the distance 
of 1*4 miles from the place of its ascension. Later in 
the same year, two other experimentalists, MM. Charles 
and Robert, stimulated by the success of the Montgol¬ 
fiers, substituted hydrogen gas for heated air, and their 
B. rose to a height of 3,000 feet. The first adventurers 
who had courage to undertake an aerial ascent in a B., 
were Pilatre de Rozier, a young naturalist, and the Mar¬ 
quis d’Arlandes. On the 21et of Nov., 1783, they took 
their seats in the basket of a smoke-balloon; and after 
rising to an elevation of upwards of 3,000 feet, descended 
in safety to the earth. The next ascent was made by 
MM. Charles and Robert in a B. filled with hydrogen 
gas, on the first of Jan., 1784. After a flight of an hour 
and a half, they alighted on the meadow of Nesle, about 
25 m. from Paris, without the slightest accident. B. be¬ 
came then quite a rage, so that, from the commencement 
of the year 1784, Europe was literally covered with them. 
The highest ascent on record was made by Glaisher 
and Coxwell, Sept. 5, 1862, from 'Wolverhampton, 
England. These daring aeronauts reached an eleva¬ 
tion of fully 7 miles, at which point the barometer fell 
to 7 inches and the thermometer stood at — 12° F. 
Greater height has been reached by small balloons 
provided with registering apparatus. This invention ol 
“Ballons-sondes,” or sounding balloons by the French, 
lias permitted the investigation of meteorological con 
ditions at very high altitudes. One sent up in March. 
1896, reached a height of 8 miles; but in October, 1895, 
a still greater height had been reached — 50,854 feet, 
or about 9% miles. The temperature here registered 
— 94° F. Something like 18 miles above sea level 
lias since been reached where the baiometric pressure 
is hut a small fraction of an inch. These are small or¬ 
dinary balloons made of rubber, carrying only record¬ 
ing instruments, and bursting at a great height, 
descend gradually by means of a parachute biingingthe 
instruments back to earth with out damage. In some 
instances the B. has been used for military purposes—. 
first by General Jourdan, in 1794, and later in various 
wars. During the siege of Paris, in 1870-71, many B. 
left the city, conveying several persons and nearly 2,500,- 
000 letters and post-cards, answers being returned by 
means of carrier pigeons. It is probable that in future 
wars captive or dirigible B. may be employed, both to 
Observe or photograph an enemy’s position and to let 
fall explosives on camps and ships. Ascents were made; 
by Biot and Gay Lussac, in 1804, for the purpose of 
making meteorological observations in the upper 
atmosphere. Other scientific ascents have been made 
from time to time, the most important being those of 
Glaisher and Flammarion (1862-68). Aerostation has 
been actively prosecuted in the U. S., and Mr. Wise has 
more than once exploded his B. in the air, the frag¬ 
ments of the net-work serving as a parachute and per¬ 
mitting an easy descent. In recent years balloons 
have been used for systematic study of the constitu¬ 
tion and properties of the atmo sphere and the science 
of meteorology has been greatly enlarged and benefitted 
thereby. In 1901, Prof. Berson and Dr. Suring made 
an ascent from Berlin, reaching a measured height of 
34,000 ft., which is the record to date. This was pos¬ 
sible only by the aid of a supply of oxygen enabling 
the aeronauts to continue respiration. The balloon 
of 300,000 cu. ft. capacity was only two-thirds filled to 
allow for expansion, and carried 8,000 lbs of ballast. 
In October, 1900, Count de La Yaulx travelled from 
Vincennes, France, to Ko rostich eft, Russia, 1193 miles, 
in 35)4 hours, establishing a worl d’s record lor distance, 
although a trip from Loudon to Drevni, Russia. 1,117 


miles in 31)4 hours was accomplished in 1908 and a 
number of journeys of 700 and 860 miles have been 
made within the last few years, flights often being cut 
short because of the approach to the open sea. 

In the International balloon race from Berlin in 
1908 Col. Schaeck, representing Switzerland, crossed 
the Baltic and landed in Norway after a voyage of 73 
hours. 

Except for finer and more luxurious fittings and 
equipment for taking meteorological observations there 
has not been much change in spherical ballooning for 
a number of years, the one distinct innovation being 
the rip cord and panel. One particular seam, nearly 
the full length of the balloon, is held together by a 
cemented patch or strip from the upper end of which a 
cord runs into the car. At the m oment of landing the 
tearing open of this panel allows the gas to escape so 
rapidly that the envelope collapses almost immediately, 
and before being dragged any distance, should theie be 
a strong wind. 

-A parachute is an umb rella shaped surface having a 
hole in the centre with suitable suspension cords from 
which is hung a load or weight the fall of which is re¬ 
tarded in a given ratio depending on the relation ol 
the Weight to the area of the surface and in man carry 
ing apparatus is usually about 2 sq. ft. to the pound 01 
load total weight. 

-Hot air balloons are seldom now used except for exhibi 
tion purposes in elevating a parachute for some aero 
batic performances. 

—Airships or Dirigible Balloons. Within a year of the first 
balloon ascension strenuous efforts began to be made to 
control the direction of fight, elongated gas bags were 
fitted out with various mechanical devices without 
much success ; early motors, steam, electric and gas 
beginning with as much as 300 lbs. per horse power 
gradually were reduced in weight and increased in 
efficiency till the latest internal combustion type ol 
motor has been brought down to 2 pounds of weight to 
one horse power of energy. 

Airships, as distinguished from aeroplanes, have only 
become reasonably practicable in the last half dozer 
years, due entirely to the increased power and reliabil¬ 
ity of the gasoline engine, as dilegibility and control 
depend upon power and speed through the air. The 
latest Zeppelin carries a pair of 150 horse-power gaso¬ 
line engines permitting an independent speed of about 
30 miles an hour, maki ng it possible to manoeuvre 
against the wind at least 80 days out of ICO. 

Although suggested by Meusuier in 1784 the com¬ 
paratively recent applicati on of the ballonet, an aux¬ 
iliary air bag introduced into the main envelope, has 
greatly facilitated control and lessened head-resistance, 
rounding out the form by pumping air into the ballo¬ 
net to take the place of gas lost through leakage or 
overflow due to expansion at high altitudes. 

Several air-ships have attained altitudes of between 
4,000 and 5,000 ft. where the expansion of gas amounts 
to about 1-5 of the volume at sea level. As this height 
is claimed to be out of range of any projectile, ballou- 
ets are usually one-fifth of the gas capacity. If the air¬ 
ship has sufficient ascensional force at sea level with 
ballonet full of air, it could rise till the expanding gas 
drove out the air and then pumping in more air return 
to earth without necessarily losing gas or ballast. 

The internal pressure is measured and indicated at 
all times by a manometer, and is usually equal to about 
tw r o inches of water or approximately 7 pounds per 
sq. ft. 

Tlie gas envelope is made spindle shaped to reduce 
the head resistance, the maximum diameter about 1-8 
ahead of the longitudinal centre, and a ratio of about 
6 to 1, length to maximum diameter, has been found 
most advantageous. Such a spindle shape has been 
found to offer but 1-5 or 1-6 of the resistance of a disc 
of similar cross section cutting down the necessary 
driving power in the sam e proportion. 

Hydrogen gas only is used for airships, of which 
there are three general divisions into the rigid, the 
semi-rigid, and the non-rigid construction. 

The three types have been very nearly' equally suc- 
cesful, range of action and reliability favoring the 
larger sizes. 

The rigid Zeppelin has an aluminum shell of a 
length about ten times its diameter, holding within its 
water-proof and gas tight sheathing of rubberized 
cloth, 16 or 17 spherical balloons like peas in a pod, 
partly filled with hydrogen to allow for expansion and 
surrounded w r ith an air space. The ligid frame, 
weighing 17,000 lbs, cannot be readily taken apart for 
transportation but it permits the propellers, being 
mouuted high up almost even with the centre line of 
thrust making for stability. It is trimmed fore and 
aft by a leaden weight sliding along in the keel and 
actuated by the pilot. Many successful voyages have 
been made of several hun di ed miles and in the summer 
of 1909 an aerial journey was accomplished from Lake 
Constance to Berlin and return coveiing over SOO 
miles, with occasional stops and some delay for repairs. 
One of the latest of the Zeppelins has a length of 446 
ft., a diameter of 42 ft. and a gas capacity of 536,000 cu. 
ft., giving a lifting capacity of about 17 tons, and a 
speed independent of the wind in excess of 30 miles per 
hour. 

The semi-rigid type permits of deflation for the gas 
envelope, utilizes ballonets, power plant and propellers 
being mounted in a car susp ended by steel cables from 
a metal frame or platform forming a portion of the 
under side of the gas bag to which it is attached. Some 
half dozen of this type have been built by’ the Lebaudy’ 
Brothers and for the most part bought by the French 


government. Notably among these are the Lel audy, 
the Patrie, the Reptiblique, the Russie, and the Libei te, 
about 200 ft. iu length by 34 ft. max. diam., attaining 
an independent speed of 25 to 30 miles per hour with a 
crew of four or five persons. 

The non-rigid type is exemplified by the productions 
of the Astra Co., in France particularly, where these air 
ships have been constructed from 200 to 220 ft. or more 
in length, between 33 and 35 ft. maximum diameter,and 
a gas capacity of from 100,000 to 150,000 cu. ft. and a 
speed between 25 and 30 miles per hour. In the Par- 
seval of Germany the car containing the pow er plant 
and motor is slung on rollers suspended by cords at¬ 
tached to the gas envelope, adjusting itself to the posi¬ 
tion of the gas bag. 

In the French type the pow’er plant and craw are 
installed upon a long tresseled wood and metal frame, 
wire braced, extending 60 or 70$ of the length, permit¬ 
ting an even distribution of the entire load along the gas 
envelope, the propeller at the forward end pulling the 
vessel through the air. Noteworthy examples of this 
typo are the Ville de Paris, Clement Bayard, Col. Re- 
nard and a number of others, most of which have made 
journeys of 175 to 250 miles and considered to have a 
radius of action of 500 miles with a crew of four men 
and capable of carrying 7 or 8 persons for shorter dis¬ 
tances. (See Aeronautics, Aeroplanes, Polar 
Research.) Wilbur R. Kimball, Secretary Aero¬ 
nautic Society. 

Bolivian Centre, in New York, a post-village of Sa¬ 
ratoga co., 25 m. N. of Albany. 

Hal 1s to 11 Spa. in New York , a post-village and cap. 
of Saratoga co.,30 m. N. of Albany, and 7 S.W. of Sara¬ 
toga Springs. It is remarkable lor its springs of min¬ 
eral waters, from whence the affix of spa to it* 
name. 

Balls'town, in Indiana, a post-village of Ripley co. 

Balls'ville,.in Ohio, a village and township of San¬ 
dusky co., on the Sandusky river, about 1% m. from Fre¬ 
mont. 

Ballsi'ville, in Virginia, a village of Powhattan co. 

Ball'-valve, n. ( Mech .) A valve consisting of a ball, 
fitting into a hemispherical cup which has a hole at the 
bottom. The ball is prevented from moviDg upwards or 
sideways beyond a certain point, by a frame of wire 
placed over it. 

Ball -vein, n. (Min.) A sort of iron-ore, found in loose 
masses of a circular form, containing sparkling particles. 

Ball'ville, in New York, a village of Oraage co., 23 m. 
W. by N. of Newburg. 

Ballwin, in Missouri, a post-office of St. Louis co. 

Bal'ly, n. (Geng.) See Bal. 

Bal'ly, a considerable town of the island of Lombok, in 
the Malayan Archipelago, E. Indies. Lat. 8° 31' S.; Lon. 
116° 28' E. 

Ballybay', a town and par. of Ireland, in co. Mona, 
ghan, and 8 m. S.S.E. of Monaghan. 

Ballybo'fey, or Ballybe'pby, a town of Ireland, 
co. Donegal, on the Finn, 14 m. W.S.W. of Lifford; pop. 
about 850. 

Ballyboy', a parish of Ireland, iu Leinster province. 
King’s co. 

Ballybiin'nion, a watering-place of Ireland, on the 
Shannon, 17 m. N. of Tralee, in the co. Kerry. It is 
famous for its many natural caves, some of which are of 
large size. 

Ballybnr'ley, a parish of Ireland, in King’s co. 

Hallycal'len, a par. of Ireland, co. Kilkenny. 

Bal'ly castle, a seaport of Ireland, on the N. coast of 
the co. Antrim, prov. Ulster, on a bay of the same name, 
42 m. W. by N.of Belfast; pop. about 2.500. 

Bal'ly cast le, a sea-bathing resort in Ireland, co. Mayo; 
pop. about 1,000. 

Ballyclare', a market-town of Ireland, co. Antrim, 11 
m. N. of Belfast; pop. about 1,000. 

BallycloMgli', in Iowa, a post-office of Dubuque co. 

Ballycoii'nell. a town of Ireland, co. and 9 m. N.W. 
of Sligo. Pop. about 600. 

—A town of Ireland, co. Cavan, and 13 m. N.W. of the 
town of Cavan. Pop. about 420. 

Ballycot'ton, an island, bay, and village of Ireland, 
co.Cork, about 20 m. S.E. of Cork. Pop. of village, about 
509. Lat. of island, 51° 50' N.: Lon. 7° 59' W. 

Bally duff, a post-village of Upper Canada, co. Durham, 
55 in. N.E. of Toronto. 

Ballyeas'ton, a par. and village of Ireland, co. Antrim, 

2 m. N. of Ballyclare. Pop. about 300. 

Bally fer'ris Point, a promontory of the E. coast of 
Ireland, co. Down ; Lat. 54° 39' N.; Lon. 5° 34' W. 

Bally fin', a chapelry of Ireland, iu Queen's co., 4 m. N. 
of Maryborough. 

Ballygaw'ley, a market-town of Ireland, co. Tyrone, 

3 m. N.N.W. of Aughnacloy. Pop. about 950. 

Bally liaise', a town of Ireland, co. and 4 m. N.N.E. of 

Cavan. Pop. about 750. 

Ballyheiglt', or Ballybeigue', a par. of Ireland, 

co. Kerry, on a bay of the same name, 9 m. N.E. of 
Tralee. Pop. about 5,000. 

Ballyjamesduff, a market-town of Ireland, co. and 
11 m. S.E. of Cavan. Pop. about 2,000.^ 

Ballykean', a parish of Ireland, in King’s co. 

Bally long'ford, a small seaport of Ireland, co. Kerry, 
in Munster, 5 m. W.S.W. of Tarbert, on the estuary of 
the Shannon. Near itare the ruins of Lislaghten Abbey. 

Bally loughloe', a par. of Ireland, co. 'Westmeath. 

Ballymacelligott, a par. of Ireland, co. Kerry. 

Ballyma'hoii, a market-town of Ireland, co. and 11 
m. S.E. of Longford. It is a thriving place, with a pop. 
of about 1,500. 

Bally musea 11 'Ion, a par. of Ireland, co. Louth. 



























































































































































BALS 


BALS 


BALT 


261 


Ballyme'na. a flourishing town oflreland, co. Antrim, 
23 tn. N.N.W. of Belfast. It is a fine, well-built place, 
with a large trade in linen. Pop. 7,451. 

Bally mo'ney, a town of Ireland, co. Antrim, 8 m. S.E. 
of Coleraine ; pop. about 3,000. 

Bally mo'ney, a town and par. of Ireland, co. Antrim, 
17 m. N.W. of Ballymena. Pop. about 3,000. 

—A parish of Ireland, co. Cork. 

Ballymore', a par. of Ireland, co. Westmeath. Pop. 
about 4,000. — Another, co. Wexford; pop. about 600. 

—A par. and market-town, co. Armagh; pop. about 12,000. 

Ballymore'-Eus'tace, a Tillage and par. of Ireland, 
co. Kildare on the Liffey. Pop. of parish, about 2,400; 
of village, about 1,100. 

Bally mote', a village of Ireland, co. Sligo, and 13 m. 
S.W. of the town of Sligo. 

Ballymy'aecb., a par. oflreland, co. Tipperary. 

Ballyo'vey, a parish of Ireland, co. Mayo. 

Ballyrag-'get, a par. of Ireland, on the Nore, co. Kil¬ 
kenny, 10 m. N.N.IV. of Kilkenny. Pop. about 930. 
Bal lysa«l are', a flourishing seaport of Ireland, situated 
on a bay of the same name, in the co. of Sligo. 

Ballysax', a par. oflreland, co. Kildare. 

Ita I lyse ii 11 ion, a par. oflreland, co. Antrim. 

Ballyshan'iioii, a seaport town of Ireland, in the co. 
of Donegal, and prov. of Ulster, on the Erne, where it 
discharges into Ballyshannon Bay, 108 m N.W. of Dub¬ 
lin. In its iinmediatevicinity is a magnificent cascade 
formed by the Erne. Pop. about 3,000. Here are the ruins 
of the ancient castle of the O’Donnells, Earls of Tyrcon- 
nell. 

Ballysban'non, a parish of Ireland, co. Kildare. 

Ballytore', a town of Ireland, 11 m. S.S.E. of Kildare. 
Pop. about 510. 

Bally voiir'ney, a par. and village oflreland, co. Cork, 
8 m. W. of Macroom. 

Bally wal'ter, a par. of Ireland, co. Down. 

Ballywil'llu, a parish oflreland, co. Londonderry. 

Balm, (bam,) n. [Fr. baume. See Balsam.] An odorifer¬ 
ous vegetable sap or juice; a fragrant ointment. That 
which heals, soothes, or mi ligates pain; figuratively used 
in the same sense in composition. 

“ A tender smile our sorrow's only balm.” —rb«n<7. 

(Bot.) A common aromatic plant; the Melissa officina¬ 
lis. See Melissa. 

Balm of Gilead. See Balsamodendron. 

— v. a. To anoint with balm, or any balsamic substance. 

“ Balm his foul head with warm distilled waters."— Shaks. 

—To soothe; to mitigate; to assuage. 

“ This rest might yet have balm'd thy senses."— Shaks. 

Balm, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Mercer co. 

Balme, (Col De,) (bam,) a pass of the Alps in Switzer¬ 
land, leading from the valley of Trient into that of Cha- 
mouni. Height, 7,218 ft. above the sea. 

Balm'ily, adv. In a balmy manner. 

Balmoral Castle, (bdl-mo'rd!,) in Scotland, the 
Highland residence of Queen Victoria, in the parish of 
Crathie, Aberdeenshire, 52 m. from Aberdeen. 

Balm y, a. Having the qualities of balm; aromatic; odo¬ 
riferous; soft; mitigating; mild. — Affording or produc¬ 
ing balm. 

Baliieum, or Bali netim, ». [Lat.,abath.] ( Antiq.) 
In its primary sense, a bath or bathing-vessel, such as 
most Romans possessed in their own houses; and from 
that it came to mean the chamber which contained the 
bath. When the baths of private individuals became 
more sumptuous, and comprised many rooms, the plural 
balnea or balinea was adopted, which still, in correct 
language, had reference only to the baths of private per¬ 
sons. Balne/t and balineie, which have no singular 
number, were the public baths. But this accuracy of dic¬ 
tion is neglected by many of the subsequent writers. 
Therm/.e mean, properly, warm springs, or baths of warm 
water, but were afterwards applied to the structures in 
which the baths were placed, and which were both hot 
ami cold. — See Therm.®. 

Bal'otacle, n. See Ballotade. 

Bal sa, or Bal'za, n. [Sp. and Pg.] (Mar.) A kind of 
fishing-craft employed on the W. coast of S. America. 

Bal sam, n. [Gr. balsamon ; Heb. baal, lord,and shemen, 
oil.] (Cheni. and Med.) The name given to almost every 
oily or resinous substance exuding from trees; but now- 
used scientifically to denote a vegetable product contain¬ 
ing either benzoic or cinnamic acid. The true balsams are 
much used in medicine on account of their stimulating, 
expectorant, and tonic properties. The most important 
are the balsams of Peru and Tolu, benzoin, solid styrax, 
or slorax, and liquid slyrax. (See these different words.) 
All these substances are very fragrant. They vary much 
in their consistence. Thus benzoin is solid, hard, and 
brittle; Peruvian balsam is fluid; and Tolu is inter¬ 
mediate, being a very soft and readily fusible solid. 
Copaiba, commonly called balsam copaiba, is not a true 
balsam, but belongs to the class of oleo-resins. The 
same may be said of Canada balsam. Several medicinal 
mixtures, in which oils enter, are commonly included 
under the head of balsams. Thus the preparation known 
as balsam of sulphur, used as an application to foul 
ulcers, consists simply of flowers of sulphur and olive-oil. 

(Bot.) See Balsaminace®, and Fir. 

BaKama tion, n. The act or operation of making 
balsamic 

Balsam'ic, n. [ Vt. halsamique .] Anything which owns 
the properties of a balsam. 

Balsam'ic, Balsam'ical, a. Having the qualities 
of balsam: unctuous : sort; mitigating; mild; as, “ and 
renders them oily and balsamic" — Arbuthnot. 

Balsam'ieally, adv In a balsamic manner. 

Balsamiferous, a. [Lat. balsamum, and ferre, to 
bear.] Affording or producing balsam. 


Balsamifluse, n.pl. (Bot.) The same as Altingiacz®, 

q. ». 

Balsam'ina, n. (Bot. and Hort.) The most common 
name of the gen. Impatiens, ord. Balsaminacece. Char- 
act. Sepals colored, apparently 4, the 2 upper being 
united, the lowest gibbous and spurred; petals apparently 
2, each of the lower being united to the 2 lateral ones; 
anthers cohering at the apex; capsule often 1-cel led 
by the obliteration of the dissepiments, 5-valved, burst¬ 
ing elastically; stems smooth, succulent, tender, sub- 
pellucid, with tumid joints. There are numerous species, 
several of which have very handsome flowers. They are 
chiefly found in the damper parts of the East Indies; but 
the only one that is much known is the common garden 
balsam, B.hortensis, which, Suits double state, has been 
an object of cultivation since the earliest records of mod¬ 
ern horticulture. This plant is one of those species which 
not only has a tendency to vary with double flowers, 
but has also the power of continuing to produce them 
when renewed from seeds. On this account it particu¬ 
larly deserves the attention of the cultivator, especially 
as it may be brought by art to a state of beauty equalled 
by few plants. It should be raised in a liot-bed, treated 
with great care as a tender annual, grown in rich soil, 
sheltered from excessive sunlight, and kept constantly 
in a damp atmosphere, but freely and fully ventilated. 
It should not, however, be stimulated into extremely 
rapid growth until the plants have become stout bushes, 
and the flowers have grown to the size of small peas. 
At that time the pdants should have all the heat and 
moisture they can bear, and the most brilliant flowers 
the plant is capable of producing will be the result; in 
the latter stage of growth, great care is still to be taken 
to expose the plants fully to air. — The Touch-me-not, 
Impatiens pallida, (Fig. 277,) found in wet, shadyplaces, 
in the U. States and Canada, has a stem 2-4 ft. high, 
branched and pale yellow flowers, sparingly maculate, 
blossoming in Aug. Its capsule, oblong-cylindrical, 1' 
long, bursts at the slightest touch when matured, and 
scatters the seed. — The Jewel-weed, Impatiens fulva. 
principally distinguished from the preceding by its 
flowers, deep orange, maculate with many brown spots, 
is more common, and found in the same places. 

Balsaminaceae, (bal-sa-mi-nai'se-e,) Balsams, n.pl. 
(Bot.) An order of plants, alliance Geraniales. DiaG. 
Very irregular and unsymmetrical flowers without an 
involucre, distinct stamens, and no albumen. They are 
succulent herbs, most abundant in hot countries, with 
simple, opposite, or alternate leaves, and showy flowers, 
with a spur to their calyx. They have no sensible prop¬ 
erties of importance, but are the ornament of the damp 
or swampy places in which they grow wild. The order 
is remarkable for the elastic force with which the valves 
of its fruit contract and reject the seeds. It includes 



Fig. 277.— impatiens pallida, (Touch-me-not.) 

1. The front of an anther ; 2. the back of the same; 3. an ovary 
cat across; 4. the ripe fruit; 5. the same in the act of bursting and 
scattering its seeds; 6. a seed; 7. the same cut transversely. 

two genera, Impatiens (or Balsamina), and Hydrocera, 
subdivided into 110 species. The B. are distinguished 
from the order Geraniacece, principally by their many- 
seeded fruit and unsymmetrical flowers. 

Balsamotlen'dron, n. [Gr. balsamon, and dendrrm, 
a tree.] A genus of Oriental trees, ord. Amyridacece. The 
species are natives of the East, and are remarkable for the 
odoriferous gum-resins which exude from their trunks. 
B. myrrh a. a small tree growing in the north-eastern 
parts of Africa, and in the adjoining parts of Arabia, is 
believed to be the principal, if not the only source of the 


fragrant gum-resin known in commerce under the name 
of myrrh. This is called in Hebrew- mor or mur, and is 
mentioned in the Old Testament for the first time in 
Gen. xxxvii. 25; hence it must have been in use mor 1 
than 3,500 years ago. It is at first Boft, oily, and of a 
yellowish-white color; on exposure tothe air, itsoon ac¬ 
quires the consistence of butter, and in time becomes 
much harder, and changes to a reddish hue. Medici¬ 
nally, myrrh is regarded as a tonic, stimulant, expecto¬ 
rant, and anti-spasmodic, when taken internally; as an 
external application, it is astringent and stimulant. It 
is an ingredient of the incense burnt in Roman Catholic 
chapels, and of some kinds of pastils which are used for 
fumigation. The substance called balm of Gilead, or 
balm of Mecca, and which is supposed to be the balm of 
the Old Testament, is said to be procured from B. gilead- 
ense; some authors, however, name B. opobalsamum ao 
its source. This substance was, in ancient times, re¬ 
garded as a cure for almost every disease; but it is sel¬ 
dom used at the present day. The gum-resin known as 
Indian bdellium, or false myrrh, and supposed to be iden¬ 
tical with the bdellium of Scripture, is probably the pro¬ 
duce of two species of this genus: namely, B. mukul. and 
B. pubescens. It is the googul or guggar of the Beloo- 
chees, and the mokul of the Persians. It is very similar to 
myrrh. Af rican bdellium, another of the gum-resins of 
commerce, is said to be an exudation of the species A. 
africanum. 

Bal'ta, a tow-n of European Russia, prov. of Podolia, 
on the Kodema, 132 m. S.E. of Kamenietz. Pop. about 
15,000. 

Bal'ta, one of the Shetland Islands, E. of Unst, in Lat. 60° 
45' N., Lon. 0° 45' IV. 

P vl'tee, or Bal'ti. in Asia. See Bran. 

B l'tic Port,orBaltiisUoi',asmallseaportofRus- 
si in Europe, in the prov. of Esthonia, on the island of 
R<_ tg, near the entrance of the Gulf of Finland, SSm.W. 
of Revel, and 158 from Riga. 

Bal'tic Provinces, the name employed to distin¬ 
guish the Russian governments of Courland, Esthonia, 
Livonia, and St. Petersburg, with a part of Finland, on 
the Baltic Sea. 

Bal'tic Sea, an internal or mediterranean sea in the 
N.W. part of Europe, surrounded, and very nearly en¬ 
closed by Sweden, Finland, Russia, Prussia, Germany, 
and Denmark. It is usually understood to commence S. 
of the Danish islands of Funen, Zealand, and Laaland, 
and thus limited, it is the most isolated of any similar 
body of water in the world. But N. of these islands the 
Cattegat and the Skager Hack can be regarded only as 
parts of the Baltic, which may therefore be described as 
commencing at the Naze of Norway, in Lon. 7° E., and 
extending to St. Petersburg on the Gulf of Finland, in 
Lon. 30° 28' 45" E. Its extreme latitudinal points are 
Wismar, in Mecklenburg, 53° 50' N., and Tornea, on the 
Gulf of Bothnia, 65° 51' N. These points mark also ita 
greatest length, which is cunsequ utly about 900 m.; its 
width varies from 75 to lt>0 m., and its area is estim. at 
125,000 geog. sq. m., without including the Cattegat and 
Skager Rack, for which an addition of 18,000 or 19,000 
sq. m. may be made. As it receives the drainage of more 
than a fifth of Europe, its basin has been estimated at 
900,000 sq. m. It makes three great indentations into 
the continent by the Gulfs of Bothnia, Finland,and Riga. 
Desc. As no sea has a greater influx of fresh water, it 
contains comparatively little salt; while the great 
quantities of sand and mud curried into it bj- the rivers 
have considerably raised its bottom, and gradually les¬ 
sened its depth. It is frozen for about 3 months every 
year, so as toclose navigation altogether. There are 3pas- 
sages entering into this sea from the Cattegat: the Sound, 
the Great Belt, and the Little Belt; of these the most 
frequented is the Sound.— By a treaty concluded be¬ 
tween Russia and Sweden, at St. Petersburg, March 9, 
1759, to which Denmark acceded 17th March, 1760, the 
neutrality of the B. S. is maintained. The Holstein 
Canal (■;. a.) now connects the 11. S. with the Elbe. 

Balttiskoi', in Russia. See Baltic Port. 

Baltiniora.m (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Asterace*. 

Bal'ti more, Cecil Calvert, Lord, founder of the col¬ 
ony of Maryland. Ills father, George, first Lord Balti¬ 
more, held important offices under James I., and ob¬ 
tained from that monarch extensive grants of land in 
Ireland and Newfoundland. Becoming a Roman Catho¬ 
lic, he was deprived of his offices, and induced to seek a 
sphere of action in founding across the Atlantic a colony, 
which should be governed on the principles of religious 
toleration. For this purpose he turned his attention to 
a settlement in Newfoundland; but that country having 
fallen into the hands of the French, he induced Charles 
I. to make a grant to him of the tract of country which 
now- forms the State of Maryland. He died, however, in 
1632, before the charter was made out, and it was, 
therefore, drawn tip in the name of his son Cecil. See 
Maryland. 

Bal timore, in Maryland, a county bordering on Penn¬ 
sylvania, on the IV. side of Chesapeake Bay, separated 
from Anne Arundel co. on the S. and S. IV. by a branch 
of the Patapsco river, and from Harford co. on the E. and 
N.E. by the Gunpowder river. Area, 700 sq. m. The 
surface of the county is hilly, and rugged along water¬ 
courses; soil, moderately fertile, and in some portion? 
highly improved. The chief products are cereals, hay 
and dairy products. The minerals include iron, granite, 
limestone, chromic iron ore, some copper, and fine marble 
and building stone. Manufactures are woollens, cottons, 
iron, chemicals, leather, bricks, lime. Towson is the 
capital. Pop. in 1890, 72,909. 

Baltimore, a city and port of entry of the above county, 
one of the four great Eastern cities of the United State's, 
is situated at the head of navigation on the N. branch of 


















262 


BALT 


BALT 


BAMB 


Patapsco river, 12 miles from the Chesapeake Bay, 200 
Wiles from the ocean. Lat. 39° 19' N.; Long. 76° 44' \Y\ 
Baltimore is fortunately situated on a succession of hills 
that rise fanlike from the Patapsco, giving the city ex¬ 
cellent drainage in addition to a picturesque appearance. 
The harbor of Baltimore is safe and capacious, with ade¬ 
quate depth and wharfage for vessels of any draft. It is 
approached by a ship-channel from the bay, 150 feet 
wide, with a uniform depth of 24 feet at low tide, and is 
defended by Fort McHenry. The railroad connections of 
Baltimore, by means of the Northern Central, a branch 
of the Pennsylvania R.R., the Baltimore and Potomac, 
the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore, the West¬ 
ern Maryland, and the Baltimore and Ohio, give it a com¬ 
manding position in regard to a very extensive back 
country. There are two lines to Richmond, two to Wash¬ 
ington, two to Philadelphia, and two to the West. It ig 
150 miles nearer Chicago than New York is; 210 miles 
nearer St. Louis; 240 miles nearer Louisville; 240 miles 
Bearer Cincinnati; 10-4 miles nearer Pittsburg. It is 
nearer to Harrisburg than Philadelphia is, and the great 
Talleys of Pennsylvania, of Virginia and Tennessee are 
naturally tributary to it. These circumstances, added 
to unsurpassed terminal facilities, have contributed very 
largely to the commercial importance of B. For sev¬ 
eral years before 1900 the custom-house receipts ave¬ 
raged about 83,000,000, and the commerce has since' 
steadily increased. B. is an important centre of the 
traffic in breadstuff's, corn, wheat, flour, Ac., being* 
largely received by rail and shipped in great quantities, 



many millions of bushels of grain and barrels of flour 
being sent abroad annually. Of other articles handled, 
the most important are lard, iron ore, copper ingots ,' 
leaf tobacco, cured meats, petroleum audits products, 
cotton, naval stores, canned fruits aud oysters. The 
imports include large quantities of cement, sugar, 
soda ash, iron ore, tin plate, muriate of soda, chloride 
of lime, guano and other fertilizers, coffee and other 
tropical products. It is also a seat of extensive and 
varied manufactures,includingcottonand woolen goods, 
flour of fine quality, tobacco and cigars, in which a 
large business is done, beer, glassware, iron and steel, 
boots and shoes, clothing, pianos, organs, Ac. One of 
the leading lines of business is the canning of oysters, 
of which from 8,000,000 to 12,000,000 are brought to this 
port annually from the Chesapeake Bay fisheries It is 
estimated that the oyster business alone gives employ¬ 
ment to over20,000persons. B. has earned the title of 
the “ Monumental City,” containing several, the chief 
of which is the fine Doric column to the memory 
of George Washington, a shaft of white marble, 170 feet 
high. There are also the Battle Monument, the Wells 
and McComas Monument, and the Wildey Monument, 
to the founder of Odd Fellowship in America. The 
Merchants’ Shot Tower is 24G feet high. The chief public 
buildings are th City Hall, the Peabody Institute, Ma¬ 
sonic Temple, Young Men’s Christian Association Build¬ 
ing, State Normal School, and a great number of hand¬ 
some churcl cs. Druid Hill Park, containing (372 acres, 
is one of th- finest parks in the countiy for forest trees 
of natural growth and scenery unimproved by art. Clif¬ 
ton Park lias 253 acres, Patterson Park 106 acres; and 
the several other parks, public squares, water-supply 
lakes, Ac., make up a grand total acreage of nearly 
2,960. The water-supply lrom Lake Roland, supple¬ 
mented by water brought through an aqueduct from 
Gunpowder river, is ample for the city’s needs. The 
bank clearances for the decade 1887-1896 were as fol¬ 
lows: 1887. 4659,346,471; 1888, 8620,587,729; 1889, 8650,- 
683,571; 18C0, 8753,095,193; 1891, 8735,714,652; 1892, 
8769,355,899; 1893, 8705,733 232 ; 1894,8673,443,512; 1895, 
8695,707,281; 1896, 8720,089,733. By 1908 these had in¬ 
creased to 81,265,049,236. There are many banks and 
insurance companies (life,fire, marine Ac.). TheJohns 
Hopkins Hospital lias an endowment of neai ly 83,000,000; 
there are also 15 other hospitals, great and small; 30 
homes, asylums, Ac.; besides a large amount of money is 


annually devoted to charity by the churches and the 
very many beneficiary societies, orders, and lodges, 
secret and open, which havelongbeen characteristically 
abundant in B., this city being the fountain-head of the 
order of Odd Fellows, a great centre of the Masonic 
order, Ac. In 1882,81,000,000 was left the city for a free 
library.— Educ. The private and denominational schools 
are very numerous, and at the head of the school system 
is the richly endowed Johns Hopkins University, which, 
although quite still young, is in successful operation, 
and has won already a widespread reputation. The 
net public debt of B. was 814,922,620 in 1896/— B. was 
founded in 1729: named for Lord B. in 1745; became 
shire-town of co.; n 1768, its first newspaper (a weekly! 
issued Aug 20. t i, was made a port of entry in 17S0, 
and v as incorporated by charter in 1796. An attack 
made on this city Sept. 13 and 14,1S14, by the British 
Gen. Ross, was resisted by the U.S. forces at North Point, 
and on the 14th Admiral Cockburn bombarded Fort 
McHenry. They were repulsed and Gen. Ross slain. The 
patriotic “Star-spangled Banner” was composed during 
this bombardment bv Francis S. Key, then a ship-prisoner. 
On April 19,1861, while U.S. troops were passing through 
B. to Washington, a riotous mob opposed them, killing 
several aud wounding more, and some of the troops re¬ 
turned the fire, killing and wounding a greater number 
in defence. B. was the first city in the U. S. to use gas; 
it had the first railroad and the first telegraph line. It 
has long been celebrated for the loveliness of its women 
and for the excellence of its cuisine; the Chesapeake 
Bay is the home of the canvas-back duck, the diamond- 
back terrapin, the cherrystone and other fine oysters, 
and the soft-shell crab; these delicacies, when served by 
Baltimore cooks, are without rivals anywhere. It was 
early a grain and flour market of importance. The 
growth of B. in pop. has been rapid. In 1782, It was 
8,000; 1790,13,503; 1800,31,514; 1810,46,555; 1820,62,- 
738; 1830, 80,625; 1840, 102,313; 1850. 169,054; 1860, 
212.418; 1870, 267,599; 1873 (by school census), 319,OOo; 
1880 (by the loth census), 332,190 ; in 1890,434,439, and 
iu 1900, by the eleventh census, 508,957.—One of the 
more recent important improvements in B. is the rail¬ 
road tunnel constructed by the Baltimore and Ohio R. R. 
Co., at a cost of 88,000,000. This was finished in 1896. 
Immense electric motors of 300 horse-power are used to 
propel trains through this tunnel, undei the very heart 
of the city. The Pennsylvania It. R. Co., lias also a sys¬ 
tem of tunnels within the city, which is thus free from 
dangerous grade crossings. On Feb. 7, 19o4.(a terrible 
conflagration broke out in B.. destroying property esti¬ 
mated at a value of nearly 8100,000,000. 

Baltimore, in Cat. a town on the Mereede river, ad¬ 
jacent to the boundary bet. Tuolumne and Mariposa cos. 

—In III., a vil. of Jo. Daviess co., 10 m. E.N.E. of Galena. 

—In Iown, a township of Henry co. 

—In Ohio, a post-village of Liberty twp., Fairfield co. 

—In Mich., a post-township of Barry co., 40 m. W.S.W. of 
Lansing. 

Bal't imore, in Vermont, a twp. of Windsor co. 

Bal timore, a small seaport of Ireland, co. Cork, on a 
bay of the same name, near Cape Clear Island, 46 m. 
W.S.W. of Cork; pop.about 200. 

Baltimore Hundred, in Delaware, a division of 
Sussex co. 

Bal timore Oriole, or Golden Robin, n. (Zool.) The 
Icterus Baltimore, fain. Icteridie, a beautiful bird, native 
of N. America, east of the Mississippi, is 7J^ inches long; 
its color is black, with the rump, upper tail-coverts, les¬ 
ser wing-coverts, the terminal portion of all but two tail- 
feathers, and tlie under parts, orange-red; the edges of the 
quills, and a band across the tips of the greater coverts, 
white. That of the female is much duller; the black of 
the head and back being replaced by brownish-yellow. 
Its song consists of few notes, but these are loud, full, 
and mellow. It constructs a very marvellous nest on 
the tulip trees, on 
whose leaves and flow¬ 
ers be seeks the cater¬ 
pillars and beetles 
which constitute his 
principal food. When 
the time comes for pre¬ 
paring it, the male 
picks up a filament 
of the Tillandsiausne- 
oides and attaches it 
by its two extremities 
to two neighboring 
branches. Soon after, 
the female comes, in¬ 
spects his work, and 
places another fibre across that of her companion. Tlius 
by their alternate labors a net is formed, which soon 
assumes the shape of a nest, and as it advances towards 
its completion, the affection of the tender couple seems 
to increase. The tissue is so loose as to allow the air to 
pass through its meshes, and as the parents know that 
the excessive heat of summer would incommode their 
young, they suspend their nest so as to catch the cooler 
breeze of the north-east when breeding in Louisiana; 
while in more temperate regions, such as Pennsylvania 
and New York, they always give it a southern exposure, 
and take care to line it with wool or cotton. Their 
movements are uncommonly graceful; their song is 
sweet. They migrate in winter towards more southerly 
regions. Mexico or Brazil, and return after the equinox 
to the United States. 

Baltimo'rite, n. {Min.) A mineral, found near Bal¬ 
timore. It is allied to serpentine; grayish-green, con¬ 
sisting of longitudinal fibres, somewhat resembling as¬ 
bestos ; lustre silky. 


Balt'schik, or Bald'jik, a town of Torkey in Eu« 

rope, 18 in. N.E. of Varna, on the Black Sea. In its 
neighborhood are the ruins of Tomi. to which the poet 
Ovid was banished. Since 1878 transferred to Bulgaria. 

Balu'cbistan. See Beloochistan. 

Balms Jean de la, (ba’loo,) a Frenchman, who, by his 
servility aud art, obtained the see of Angers, and, by his 
intrigues, induced Paul II. to give him a cardinal’s hat. 
He engaged in a secret correspondence with the dukes 
of Burgundy and Berri, disclosing all the secrets of the 
state, which, being discovered by Louis XI., he was im¬ 
prisoned eleven years in an iron cage, which he himself, 
it is said, had invented. On regaining his liberty, he 
went to Rome, and working on the weakness of the Pope, 
was sent to France as legate by Sixtus IV. B. in 1422, 
d. 1491. 

Balu' Island, in the Indian Ocean, Gulf of Martaban, 
at the entrance to the fealween river, separating Siam 
from Burmah. It is 17 m. in length, by 8 in breadth. 
Lat. from 16° 14' to 16° 31' N. 

Bal uster, n. [Fr. balustre; It. balaustro; Lat. balaus- 
tium, the flower of the pomegranate.] (Arch.) A small 
column or pilaster used for balustrades, and so named 
from being originally adorned with flowers and figures. 
An illustration of a B. may be seen in Fig. 272. 

Bal ustered, a. Possessing balusters, (r.) 

Balustrade, ti. [Kr. bah/strode.] (Arch.) A range of 
small columns called balusters, supporting a cornice, used 
as a parapet, or as a screen, to conceal the whole or a 
part of the roof. It is also sometimes used as a decora¬ 
tion for finishing a building. 11. are employed in para¬ 
pets; on the margins of stairs; before windows; to en¬ 
close terraces, or balconies, by way of security (see Fig. 
272); or sometimes to separate one place from an¬ 
other. 

Bal va'no, a town of S. Italy, prov. Basilicata, 15 m. W. 
of Potenza; pop. about 4,25(J. 

Balzac, (bal'zak,) Honor£ de, a celebrated French nov¬ 
elist, b. at Tours in 1799. lie commenced his literary 
career by writing articles for the journals. The first of 
his works that attracted tlie attention of the public was 
The Physiology of Marriage, a work full of originality 
and piquant observation. He then formed the bold con¬ 
ception of depicting the natural history of society as it 
existed in his own day in Fi ance. Endowed with a rich 
imagination, and marvellous sagacity for seizing the 
peculiarities of diameter, he pursued his course of study 
during 20 years of indefatigable industry, and gave to 
tlie world an immense number of compositions to which 
he has given the collective name of The Grmiedy of Hu¬ 
man Life. Some of his novels, as La Feau de Chagrin, 
Eugenie Grandet, Le Fere Goriot, Le Medecin de Cam- 
pagne, Les Parents Pauvret, Ac., are admirable studies 
of the sadder passions of humanity. Far less popular 
than A lexandre Dumas, B. ranks nevertheless far above 
him in the appreciation of ail the true lovers of serious 
literature. His works have been translated into all the 
European languages. Diversely judged in England, he 
has been received more favorably in Germany, where the 
name of B. is held in such estimation that new editions 
of his productions are succeeding one another nearly 
every year. He died in 1850, from disease of the 
heart. 

Bal zac. Jean Loris Giez de. a French writer, b. 1594. 
He gained great popularity by his “Letters,” which 
were first published in 1624. At the close of life, B.. who 
had indulged in all the elegancies of a dissipated court, 
became very devout, had apartments fitted up for him 
in a convent, and bestowed considerable sums on the 
poor. D. 1654. 

Bal'zarine, n. [Fr.] A fabric of light texture, com¬ 
posed of mixed worsted and cotton, used for ladies’ 

dresses. 

Bam, n. A vulgarism, (probably derived front the term 
bamboozle,) denoting a cheat, deception, fraud, or impo¬ 
sition; as, “plying them with all manner of bams.” 

— v. a. To client: to play a trick upon; to cozen. 

Bam, Bamp. [Probably from A.S. beam, a tree or beam.] 
When prefixed to tlie name of a place, it usually implies 
it to have beeu, originally, wooded; as, i&mborough, 
Hampton. 

Buun'bu. a prov. of tlie kingdom of Congo, in W. Af¬ 
rica, extending upwards of 200 m. into the interior. It 
is considered one of the richest districts in Congo, 
having mines of silver, lead, iron, copper, and salt 
Lat. 7° 2' S.; Lon. 13° 52' E. 

Bamba'lio, n. [Gr. bambaino, I speak inarticulately.] 
( Med.) One who stammers or lisps, or utters inarticulate 
sounds. According to Kraus, one who speaks as if he 
had pap in his mouth; or as if his tongue were para¬ 
lyzed. 

Bamba'ra, an ancient city of Hindostan, in Scinde, 
now in ruins; Lat. 24° 46' N.; Lon. 67° 50' E. 

Bambarra, (bam-bar’ra,) a large and powerful king¬ 
dom of N.W. Central Africa, bounded on the N. by Lu- 
damar and Beeroo; W. by Kaarta and Manding; E. by 
Timbuctoo and Baedoo; and on tlie S. by Kong and Ma- 
ntana. Lat. between 12° and 14° N.; Lon. between 15° 
E. and 5° 20' W. Its greatest length is about 400 m.; 
breadth. 300. Area. Estimated at about 50,000 sq. m. 
Desc. This country is generally fertile, and is traversed 
by the Niger, (here called the Joliba.) The butter and 
cotton trees, the baobab, tamarind, date, and oil-palm 
are. indigenous; and maize, millet, rice, and cassava 
yield’two crops annually. The inhabitants have made 
considerable progress in agricultural arts, as well as in 
those of civil life. Manf. Leather, iron, aiW gold or¬ 
naments, and various kinds of dyed fabrics. A consider¬ 
able trade is carried on with Timbuctoo and Guinea. 
Exp. Iron, grain, ivory, slaves, and cloths. Imp. Arms, 
hardware, cotton goods, and salt. Chief towns- Segot 



Fig. 279.— Baltimore oriole. 
































































































































BAMB 


BANA 


BANC 


265 


Sansanding, and Yamina. Pop. estimated at 2,000,000, 
chiefly negroes. 

Bamberg, ( bam’bairg ,) a fortified city of Bavaria, circ. 
Upper Franconia, on the Kegnitz, 31 m. W. of Bayreuth. 
This is a fine and ancient city, possessing many noble 
public buildings, conspicuous arnoug which is the By¬ 
zantine Cathedral, built in 10b4. Manf. Gloves, jewelry, 
porcelain, Ac. This city was surrendered to, and pil¬ 
laged by, the Prussians, May 10-17, 1759. It was again 
taki-u in 1763- Pop. 26,128. 

Bam berg, in South Carolina, a post-village of Barn¬ 
well district. 

Bam berg, in WisconstM, a post-office of Sheboygan co. 
Bambino, (-be'no,) n. [It. baba.] (Paint.) An art-plirase 
significative of the infant Christ, as represented in 
swaddling-clothes, and tended by angels, in many of the 
altar-pieces of Roman Catholic churches. At Rome, in 
the church of the “ Ara Coeli,” may be seen one of the 
finest examples, the Santissimo Bambino, which is of 
carved wood, painted, and profusely adorned with trin¬ 
kets and gems. The carving is said to have been the 
work of a Franciscan friar, and wrought from the wood of 
a tree on Mount Olivet, whither he had made a pilgrim¬ 
age ; while the picture itself is attributed to St. Luke. 
This B is supposed to have wonderful efficacy in the 
healing of the sick, and is accordingly much revered by 
devotees of the Roman Catholic religion. The festival 
of the B. at Epiphany is celebrated by vast numbers of 
persons who flock into Rome from the country districts 
with oblations to its shrine. 

Bamboc'cio, Antonio, an eminent Italian sculptor, b. 
1368. He is chiefly remarkablp for his magnificent 
tombs; among the finest of which are that of Cardinal 
Minutolo, (the object of Boccaccio’s praise,) of Cardiual 
Carbone, and above all, the Aldemareschi Mausoleum. 
B. stands as the link between Ciccione and Aniello 
Fiore; and. together with these, is one of the greatest 
glories of the Neapolitan school of sculpture during the 
15th century. D. at Naples, 1430. 

Bamboccio, ( bam-boch'e-o ,) a celebrated Italian 
painter, whose real name was Peter van Laer; but 
who is better known by the nickname of B ., on account 
of his deformity. B. at Laerden, 1613; he lived at Rome 
for several years, and painted inns, futrriers’ shops, and 
cattle with great effect. His style is soft, and his touch 
delicate, with great transparency of coloring. D. 1673. 
Bamboo', n. {Bit.) See Bambusa. 

— v. a. To administer a flogging with a bamboo. 
Bamboo'zle, v. a. Vulgarly used in the sense of to de¬ 
ceive ; to cozen; to practise mean tricks upon. 

•* After Nick had bamboozled about the money, John called for 
counters."— Arbxithnot. 

Bamboo'zler, re. A trickster; a cheat; a cozener. 

“ There are a set of fellows they call banterers and bamboozlert, 
that play such tricks."— Arbulhnot. 

Bam borough, a coast-town and parish of England, 
in Northumberland, 17 m. S.E. of Berwick-on-Tweed. 
There is here a magnificent feudal castle, which is in 
good preservation. It is said to have been built in 548, 
and rebuilt in 1070. Pop. about 4,600. 

Bambouk, ( bam'lmok.) a kingdom of Central Africa, 
lying between the rivers Senegal and Gambia, and en¬ 
closed by the upper courses of the rivers Falerne and 
Senegal. Lat. between 12^4° and 14J^° N.; Lon. be¬ 
tween 10° and 12° 30' W. In form it is nearly a paral¬ 
lelogram, 140 m. in length, and 100 in width; and is 
supposed to have an area of about 14,000 sq. m.— Desc. 
The surface is mountainous, but, on the whole, well 
watered and fertile.— Prod. Maize, millet, cotton, and 
immense water-melons. It abounds with leguminous 
plants, and the lower lands, which are exposed to the 
inundations of the rivers, yield large crops of the finest 
rice.— Clim. Perhaps the most unhealthy on the face of 
the globe, and uninhabitable by Europeans.— Min. Gold 
in abundance, which is given to the Moors in exchange 
for salt. The natives are a fierce Mandingo race, and 
quite backward in civilization. In the 15th century 
this country was occupied by the Portuguese. During 
the last century it was visited by Mungo Park and Major 
Houghton. Pop. about 800,000. 

Bambn'sa, re. [Skr. ban bahr. J ( Bot .) The Bamboo, a 
genus of plants, ord. Gratninacece. A number of species 
are known, all gigantic, tree-like, branching grasses, 
natives of India, the isles of Sunda, and tropical Amer¬ 
ica. The stems are hollow, jointed, hard externally,and 
coated with flint. The bamboo is one of the most valu¬ 
able and useful plants which the Author of nature has 
bestowed on the natives of the countries where it grows. 
Wherever strength and elasticity are required in combi¬ 
nation with lightness, there the bamboo is available. 
Houses are made and roofed with them, and all sorts of 
carpentry work are prepared from their stems. Cut 
into lengths, and the partitions at the joints knocked 
out, they form durable water-pipes, or if the partition 
is left, excellent buckets are made for holding water. 
Masts of vessels, lance-shafts, bows and arrows, with 
the quiver for receiving them, walking-sticks and smok¬ 
ing-pipes are readily prepared, and by notching their 
sides the Malays make wonderfully light scaling-ladders, 
easily conveyed where heavier machines could not be 
transported. A grove of these gigantic grasses, when 
covered with spines, as several of the species are, such 
as B. spinosa, form stockades impenetrable without the 
aid of artillery. The young shoots, as they spring from 
the earth, make a tender and good esculent vegetable, 
and they are also used as a pickle. Most of the paper 
manufactured in China is made from the leaves bruised 
and crushed in water, and of the fibres, baskets are made 
and a durable material prepared for weaving into mats, 
window-blinds, and even the sails of boats. It would 
he difficult to enumerate the various purposes to which 


the bamboo 5s applied. Bambusa arundinaxza 5s per¬ 
haps the most common species. It sometimes covers 
immense spaces forming a dense jungle, and rising occa¬ 
sionally to the height of forty or fifty feet It is at 



Fig. 280. — bamboo, (B. spinosa.) 

a. Section of the stem. 


once majestic and elegant, and impresses upon the tra¬ 
veller the peculiar aspect of a tropical region. In the 
joints of the stems an opaque white substance, becoming 
opaline when wetted, aud composed of silica, is found, 
called Tabasheer. The seeds are sometimes used instead 
of rice, and a tolerably good bread is made of them. It 
grows very rapidly, but does not bear fruit or grain till 
it is twenty-five years old. 

Ba'mian, in Cabul. See Baumeean. 

Bam'niakoo, a town of Bambarra, in Central Africa, 
on the Niger; Lat. 12° 50' N.; Lon. 5° 48' W. 

Bampoo'ra, a town of Hiudostan, prov. of Malwah, in 
Rajpootana, on the Rewa River. 1,344 feet above sea-level, 
and 50 m. from Kotah. Lat. 24° 31' N.; Lon. 75° 50' E. 
The town and adjacent territory formerly were a part 
of Holkar’s dominions. Pop. estimated at 20,000. 

Ban, re. [Fr. ban, proclamation, proscription; A.S. ban- 
nan, abannan, to command, to proclaim; Teut. and 
Sclav, ban, a governor, a prince.] This word is found 
in many of the modern languages of Europe in various 
senses. But as the idea of ‘publication’ or ‘proclama¬ 
tion’ runs through them all, it is probable that it is the 
ancient word ban still preserved in the Gaelic and the 
modern Welsh in the simple sense of proclaiming or 
publishing, as in banns, q. v.—A public proclamation or 
edict respecting a person or a thing: an edict of inter¬ 
diction, as a sentence of outlawry, or one forbidding, 
permitting, or announcing anything. An ecclesiastical 
excommunication, anathema or denunciation; a curse 
of any kind, by whomsoever given forth; any maledic¬ 
tion supposed to have supernatural power to injure. 
Hence, also, the penalty edicted against the offender.— 
Hist, in former times, when a grant of land was made 
for a religious purpose, the transaction was proclaimed 
with certain ceremonies, and curses were denounced 
against any one who should thereafter violate the deed. 
Persons who escaped from justice, or who opposed 
themselves to the sentence of the Church, were also 
sometimes banned. In Germany, persons or cities 
who opposed themselves to the general voice of the 
Confederation, were, by some public act, placed under 
the ban of the empire. In France, in feudal times, 
the barons who held their lands direct from the king, 
when summoned to attend him in time of war, were 
called the ban, and the tenants of the secondary rank, 
the arriere-ban. —In the Slavonic tongues, B. or Banns 
(probably a contraction of the Illyric word Bogan. 
Lord) was a title given to some of the military chiefs 
who guarded the eastern boundaries of the Hungarian 
kingdom, aud was therefore synonymous with the Ger¬ 
man Markyraf, or Margrave. Within his own territory, 
or Banat, the B. exercised an influence similar to 
that of the Palatine in Hungary, and only inferior to 
that of a king. In the 16th century, the various banats 
were formed into the United Banat of Dalmatia and 
Croatia. In 1723, it was made entirely subordinate to 
the supreme government of Hungary ; and during the 
reign of Maria Theresa, the Ban was acknowledged to 
be the 3d dignity of the Hungarian kingdom. During 
the disturbances in Vienna and Hungary, in 1848, the 
Ban Jellachich, q. v., rendered important services to the 
Austrian emperor. 

(Mil.) A proclamation by beat of drum, requiring 
strict observance of discipline, either for declaring a 
new officer, or for punishing an offender. 

(Com.) A description of fine muslin fabricated in the 
East Indies. 

— v. a. To curse; to anathematize; to execrate. 

“ . .. wherein he cursed and banned the Christians. ’—Knollet. 

Banaganpilly, (ba'na-gan-pil'e,) a village of Hindos- 
tan. in the Balaghaut territory. 70 m. from Cuddapah. 
It is famous for its diamond mines. Lat. 14° 28' N.; 
Lon.79° E. 

Banaglier, a town and parish of Ireland, King’s co., 
on the Shannon, 68 m. W.S.W. of Dublin; pop. ol town, 
about 1.600. 

llan aaher. a parish of Ireland, co. Londonderry, and 
16 m from that city; pop. about 5,500. 

Bauallnifar, ( ba'nal-bon'fir ,) a town of Spain, in 
Majorca one of the Balearic Islands, 10 m. N.W. of 
Palmas. Fine marble-quarries are close to the town. 
Pop. about 3,500. 


Bana'na, re. (Bot.) The common name of the genus 
Musa, q. v. 

Bananal', or Santa Anna, an island of Brazil, formed 
by the river Araguay, in the prov. of Matto-Grosso. Its 
length is 200 m.; breadth, 35. It is covered with dense 
forests, aud has in its middle an extensive lake. Soil 
fertile. — The name of several small villages in Brazil. 

Banat, (The.) one of the four divisions of the bordei 
states or military frontier of the Austrian empire, 
bounded W. by the Theiss, S. by the Danube, E. by the 
line of mountains which separates Hungary from 
Wallachia aud Transylvania, N. by the Maros. Area , 
12,453 sq. m. Desc. Mountainous in the E. aud swampy 
in the W. Hirers. The 'femes, Alt-bega, and the Ka- 
rusch. Prod. Maize, wheat, other grains, aud cotton. 
Silkworms are reared, and the cattle and horses are held 
in high estimation. Mineruls. li on and copper in the 
mountain regions, and some gold has been discovered. 
The mineral springs of Mehadia are in great repute. 
Chief town. Temesvar.— Formerly, Banat was a name 
given to any district or territory under a ban, q. v. It is 
now applied solely to this prov., although it has no ban. 

Banawarani, (ba'na-wur-am ,) a town of HindostaB, 
in Mysore, 7 6 m. from Seringaputam; Lat. 13° 24' N.; 
Lon. 76° 13' E. 

Ban 'brie! ge, a flourishing town of Ireland, in the co. 
Down, on the Bann, 23 m. S.W. of Belfast; pop. 5,062. 

Ban bury, a fine and flourishing town of England, in 
Oxfordshire, 69 m. N.W. of London. It is especially 
noted for its cakes. Pop. about 4,800. 

Banc, (ban,) or Banco. [Fr., a bench.] (Hist, of Law.) 
A tribunal or judgment-seat. Hence. Bancus regince, or 
Queen's Bench; and Bancus conimunium placitorium. 
Common Bench, or Common Pleas. In England, the 
judges of the three superior courts of common law sit in 
banc, or banco; that is, on the bench of their respective 
courts at Westminster, during term-time, for the purpose 
of adjudicating on causes that have been referred to them 
from the inferior courts, and where the law is in dispute. 

Banea, ( bang'ka ,) an island of the E. or Indian Archi¬ 
pelago, belonging to the 1st or IV. division, lying off the 
N.E. coast of Sumatra, between Lat. 1° 30' aud 3° 8' S n 
Lon. between 105° 9' and 106° 51' E.; length, from N.W. 
to S.E., 135 nr.; average breadth, 35. Area, 3.568 sq. m. 
Its most remarkable features are the tin-mines, about 
4,000 tons of tin being annually exported, mainly te 
China and Java, for re-exportation to Europe. B. was 
discovered by the English in 1710, aud was ceded to their 
East India Company by the Sultan of Palembang, in 
1810. In 1814, the English ceded the island to Holland. 
Pop. 54,339. 

Ban'ca, (Strait of,) separating the islands of Banca and 
Sumatra, ranges from 8 to 20 in. broad. 

Baneallan. ( ban'kal-an ,) a fortified town on the W. 
side of the island of Madura, Indian Archipelago. Lat, 
7° 2' S.; Lon. 112° 45' E. It is a large and populous 
place, and the residence of the sultan of the island. 

Banco, (bdn'ko,) n. [It., a bank.] (Com.) This term, 
formerly applied to the standard money in which a bank 
held its transactions, as distinguished from the current 
money of the place, is now chiefly applied to the money 
in which the Hamburg bank keeps its accounts, which 
is not represented by any coinage. The Hamburg Mark 
B. is to the current mark as 20 to 16. Sweden has also 
a peculiar bank-money, 8 dollars B. being equal to 3 dol¬ 
lars specie. Genoa had at one time a bank standard, and 
the present current money being different from that, is 
still called fuori banco, outside the bank. 

Banco'orah, in Hindostan. See Burbwan. 

Ban croft. Aaron, father of the more celebrated George 
Bancroft, q. v., was born at Reading, Mass., in 1755. l or 
60 years he labored as a clergyman, first in Nova Scotia, 
and at a later period at Worcester. His best-known 
work is a Life of George Washington; but he published, 
at various times, numerous addresses and sermons. Of 
his Sermons on the Doctrines of the Gospel, Joliu Adams 
said, that he “never read a volume of sermons better 
adapted to the age or country in which it was written.” 
D. in 1839. 

Ban'croft, George, an eminent American historian, 
was born at Worcester, Mass., in 1800. He graduated at 
Harvard College. He then travelled in Europe, and 
studied at Gottingen and Berlin; and, in 1820, had con¬ 
ferred upon him the diploma of Ph. D. After making 
the “ grand tour,” he returned to America in 1822. Ha 
was originally destined for the pulpit, but a love for lit¬ 
erature proved the stronger attraction. For a brief 
period he held the post of Greek Professor in Harvard 
College. After publishing a volume of poems, and a 
translation of Heeren’s Reflections on the Politics of An¬ 
cient Greece, Dr. B. devoted himself to the duties of an in¬ 
structor of youth, opening a great public school at North¬ 
ampton, to which he attracted a very eminent staff of 
professors from Germany. The intervals saved from 
professional duties were devoted to superintending and 
publishing a translation of Heeren's Histories of the 
States of Antiquity, and the Political System of Europe 
and its Colonies. Between the years 1834 and 1855, B.’a 
great work. The History of the United States, was pub¬ 
lished, in which the subject was treated in the spirit of 
that advanced criticism which has reformed the style of 
modern historical narrative. It placed its author at 
once among the great writers of the age. In 1846 he 
was appointed minister to Great Britain, and there re¬ 
sided until 1849. Dr. B. has also contributed to the 
North American Review, and his articles therefrom were 
published at New York in 1855, under the title of 
Miscellanies, Essays, and Reviews. In 1871, B. was ap¬ 
pointed minister to Berlin, which he resigned in 1874. 
Jlis History of the Formation of the Constitution of the U- & 
appeared in 1882. Died Jan. 17,1891. 


















2G6 


BAND 


BAND 


BAND 


Bancroft, in Idaho, a village of Bannock co. 

Ban'croft, in Iowa, a town of Kossuth co. 

Ban'croft, in Kansas, a village of Nemaha co. 

Ban'croft, in Maine, a post-township of Aroostook 
county. 

Uan'croft , in Massachusetts, a villa ere of Berkshire co. 

Uan'croft. in Minnesota, a post-township of Freeborn 
co., 45 m. S.E. of Mankato, with a village of the same 
name on Shell Rock River. 

Uan'croft, in Missouri, •• nost-village of Daviess co. 

Band, n. [A.S. banda, from bindan, to bind; Sansk. 
bunda; Fr. bande.] That which binds, ties, or fastens; 
a tie; a fillet; a cord; a belt. 

"You shall find the hand, that seems to tie their friendship to¬ 
gether, will be the very strangler of their amity."— Shaks. 

—Means of restraint or union between persons, (o.) 

“ Here s eight that must take hands, 

To join in Hymen's bands.''—Shaks. 

r-k company of soldiers; a body of musicians, or of per¬ 
sons united for any purpose. 

“ Strait the three bands prepare, in arms to join, 

Each band the number of the sacred Nine,”—Pope. 

{Bat.) One of the spaces between the elevated lines 
or ribs, of the fruit of umbelliferous plants. 

(Mech .) A belt communicating motion from one pulley 
to another. — See Pullet. 

(Arch.) A flat moulding, with a vertical face slightly 
projecting beyond the vertical or curved face of any 
moulding or parts of an edifice to which it is attached. 
It is very extensively employed in edifices, and is used 
apparently to bind parts of buildings together, as in the 
bands which are employed to bind the triglyphs of a 
Boric architrave. This moulding is most frequently 
used in the basement story of a building, where it 
becomes a bold and striking feature. It is for the most 
part plain, though sometimes enriched. The term band 
and bandelet, little band, is often applied to what is more 
properly speaking a. fillet. The band is, however, broader 
in proportion than the fillet. This moulding is also em¬ 
ployed to encircle the shafts of columns. A plain band 
is often placed in both public and private buildings, 
either on or nearly on the same level with the floors, as 
if the original intention had been to finish the prject- 
ing ends of the floors with a flat board. 

Band, v. a. To bind together; to tie. 

« With wings unfledged, his eyes were handed over.”— Dryden. 

—To unite in a troop, company, or confederacy. 

« Some of the hoys banded themselves as for the major, and 
others for the King ."—Carew. 

w-v. n. To unite in a band; to associate: to confederate. 

gan da, or Bandaii, a town of Hindostan, prov.of Alla¬ 
habad, cap. of dist. of S. Buudiecunu, 80 in. VV. of Alla¬ 
habad. Lat. 25° 50' N., Lon. 80° 20' E. It is a considera¬ 
ble place, and has an extensive trade in cotton 

Ban'tla. or Nutmeg Islands, a group of 12 small islands, 
belonging to the 3d or E. division of tne Malay arem- 
pelago, and owned by the Dutch; the principal, Banda 
Neira, lying in 4° 30' S. Lat.,and 129° 30'E. Lon.; 120 m. 
E.S.E. of Amboyna. Lantori, the largest of the islands, 
is only 8. m. long, and 3 broad. They are all high and 
of volcanic origin; one of them, Goonung Api, contains a 
volcano, 2,500 ft. above the sea, which is continually 



Fig. 281. — goonuxg api. 


emitting smoke, and sometimes flame. Climate, injurious 
to strangers; the VV. monsoon brings rain and storms in 
Dec., and earthquakes occur from Oct. to April. Soil, 
chiefly a rich black mould. Four of the larger and cen¬ 
tral islands are almost entirely appropriated to the growth 
of nutmegs, their cultivation in the other islands being 
prohibited. The inhabitants consist mostly of Papuan 
Negroes, Chinese, and Dutch. Sago and cocoa form the 
chief vegetable food. The imports are provisions for the 
Europeans, piece-goods, cutlery, and iron from Batavia; 
sago, salted deer, &c., from Ceram: pearls, hird’s-nests, 
tortoise-shell, and slaves for the Dutch and Chinese mer¬ 
chants, from Aru. Chief export. Nutmegs. The seat of 
govt, is at the fortified town of Banda Neira, where 
there is a good harbor. — A Portuguese, Antonio Ab- 
reus, discovered these islands in 1512. In 1524 the 
Portuguese, in 1589 the Dutch, and in 1810 the English, 
successively possessed themselves of them. In 1814 they 
were restored to the Dutch. 

Banda ©rien'tal. See Uruguay. 

Ban'da, Sea of, a space of sea in the Eastern Archi¬ 
pelago, bounded by the islands of Booroo and Cerum on 
the N.; Timur, and the Serawattee Islands on theS.; 
Larat, Laut, ami other isles on the E.; and the sea of 
Flores on the W. 


Bandage, (band'aje,) n. [Fr.] ( Surg.) Any fillet, roller, 
or swath of linen, cotton, or flannel, used for supporting 
a limb, retaining a dressing, or keeping in position the 
edges of a wound. The use of a bandage is to compress 
blood-vessels, correct deformities, unite wounds,keep frac¬ 
tured bones in their proper situation, &c. A bandage, of 
whatever material it may be made, should be strong, and 
of sufficient elasticity to support the parts to which it 
is applied, without becoming relaxed or loose; and suf¬ 
ficiently supple and soft to fold with ease and neatness, 
aud yet yield without relaxation to the natural expan¬ 
sion of the limb. A bandage should be without seam or sel¬ 
vage, and have smooth, unravelled edges. B. are divid¬ 
ed into simple and compound. A simple B. is a long, nar¬ 
row piece of muslin, liuen, or flannel, of lengths varying 
from three to nine yards, and of a width from 2 to 6 inches. 
A compound B. is that which has one, two, or more pieces 
sewn together; the most serviceable and frequently used 
is called the T bandage, and is composed of one horizontal 
limb, and a perpendicular one meeting it in the centre, 
where it is joined by a few stitches, forming afigure rudely 
resembling a ]"• We will describe the peculiarities and 
modes of application of the B. in most general domestic 
use. — 1. The single-headed roller, of linen, which, being 
rolled up from one end firmly, is denominated a roller, 
the rolled part being called the head, and the loose end 
the tail. —To apply this bandage properly, the head of 
the roller is to be held in the right hand, and only so 
much unrolled as is necessary for the commencement of 
the application.—In all cases of applying a bandage to 
the leg, (Fig. 282, A,) or the arm, covering must begin 
either at the foot or the hand, R0 as to compress the whole 
limb alike. This fact must be borne in mind while putting 
on the roller, for if unevenly applied, the part, when un¬ 
swathed, will appear in creases of swollen and contracted 
ridges. Taking the tail in the fingers of the left hand, 
and spreading it across the foot, and making a careful 
beginning by passing the roller a few times over the top 



and under the hollow of the foot, making each fold, or 
revolution cover a third of the former circle, the bandage 
is to be carried round the heel, and so on to the leg. As 
the limb increases in size, the bandage must be made to 
fold back on itself by a double of the cloth, the fingers of 
the opposite hand being placed on the limb at the point 
where the turn is to be made, as shown in the above cut. 
In this manner the bandage is to be carried up the limb, 
the roller being passed from hand to hand, as the situa¬ 
tion of the part requires the change. The tightest part 
of a bandage should be at the commencement, with a 
gradual slackening as it proceeds.—The next most useful 
application of this roller is as in Fig. 283, A, where it is 
applied for injuries to the eye or orbit, or for wounds 
to the upper part of the cheek. The dressing having 
been applied, and a compress placed over all, the tail 
of the bandage (b) is to be spread on the temple of 
the side affected, carried across the forehead and round 
the temples, above the ears, but between each and the 
head, for two or three turns; a fold is then to he made 
in the bandage behind the ear of the unaffected side, and 
there pinned to the previous circles. — The bandage (a) is 
then to be brought obliquely down over the forehead, past 
the angle of the nose, across the cheek and compress; 
round the back of the head, over two-thirds of the pre¬ 
vious oblique fold, and in the same manner three courses 
of the bandage are to he taken over the eye or wound, 
when a second double of the roller is to be made over 
the first, and, like that, pinned to the bandage below. 
The roller is now to be carried once or twice round the 
temples and head, the end of the roller doubled under, 
and neatly fastened on the forehead with three small 
pins. — 2. The double-headed roller consists of a slip of 
muslin, equally rolled up from either end to the centre in 
two heads. Its length depends upon the purpose to which 
it is to be put. — For clean-cut wounds of the thigh or 
leg, to support the muscles, and keep the parts in appo¬ 
sition or connection, both ends of the bandage are to be 
unrolled for about a quarter of a yard; this being passed 
below the limb, and a head held in either hand, the band¬ 
age is brought up on each side, the right-hand head car¬ 
ried to the left, and the left to the right side, and each, 
with a moderate amount of pressure, laid smoothly, and 
slightly overlapping, in an oblique direction, each other. 
In this manner repeating each double fold, and beginning 
the bandaging a lew inches below the wound, and termi¬ 
nating as much above it, the roller is brought to a con¬ 
clusion, and tied in a bow.—When the injury is in the 
head, on the temple (Fig. 283, B), the wound having been 
dressed, the double-headed roller (b) is to be carried from 
the opposite temple, and brought round to the wound (a), 
on the top of which the meeting rollers are twisted, as 
shown in the cut, and one head (c) taken over the top of 
the head, the other (c) carried down the cheek and under 


the chin, till they meet on the top of the head, whefs 
they are again to be twisted, taken back, and the ends 
tied beneath the chin; or they may be brought back, 
and secur3d in a bow on the top of the head.— A double¬ 
headed bandage of extremely narrow dimensions is some¬ 
times used for securing dressings on the fingers, a„ shown 
in Fig. 282, B, the terminal ends being used as strings 



to secure the whole. —Great difficulty is sometimes 
experienced in securely fastening the end of a bandage, 
pins being often very objectionable; with the double¬ 
headed roller it is easy enough to make a bow; so equally 
is it with the single-headed bandage, if the final end of 
the roller is split with the scissors into two ribbons, a 
twist given to both, aud one carried below and then tied 
with the other; by this means a safe and secure termi¬ 
nation can always be effected. 

Band'age. v. a. To bind with a bandage or fillet. 

Ban'dajfist. n. One who makes bandages, more par¬ 
ticularly for hernia. 

Banda'la, n. (Bat.) The fibre used in the manufacture 
of tlie white Manilla rope. 

Bandana, Bandanna, (ban-ddn'na,) n. [Sp. ban¬ 
dana, from bandano, a handkerchief woven of bast.] 
(Manf.) A process invented by M. Koeclilin, of Miilil- 
hausen, in 1810, for printing calico, in which white or 
colored spots are produced ou a dark ground.—The method 
employed, which is said by some to have had its origin 
in India, is as follows:—The pattern desired is cut out 
in two sheets of lead, which are placed at the top and 
bottom of a pile of handkerchiefs, mostly dyed with 
Turkey-red. Bleaching liquid is then forced, by means 
ot a powerful Bramah-press, through the perforations in 
the top sheet of lead, through the pile of handkerchiefe, 
and out of the perforations in tlie lower sheet. The 
bleaching liquor in its course discharges the color from 
the cloth aud leaves tne pattern. — B. handkerchiefs are 
not now so fashionable as they were at one time; but M 
Kcechlin’s process is valuable in many other ways 

Bund liox. n. A slight paper-box lor holding bands, 
caps, bonnets, &c. 

44 With empty band-box she delights to range, 

And feigns a distant errand from the ’Change."— Gay. 

Bandeau. ( bdn'do,) n.; pi. Bandeaux (bdu’doz.) [Fr.l 
A narrow fillet or band, used as a head-dress; a mode of 
wearing the hair by ladies. 

Ban'ded, a. (Her.) It is said of a wheatsheaf, bundle 
of arrows, or of any other charge, when tied together 
with a band of different color from the charge itself 
Thus a golden wheatsheaf tied with a red band would be 
thus expressed in heraldic terms; a garb or banded gules. 

Baii'dci. Ernst von, a celebrated German sculptor, b. 
1800, in Anspach. His first remarkable production was 
a marble figure of Charity, which occupied the artist 
about ten years. It exhibits great chasteness of design, 
and a minute carefulness of execution. Among his best 
portrait busts, in which he excels, is that of Maximilian, 
king of Bavaria, (1832.) In 1842, B. executed a bust of 
the poet Grabbe, and a marble statue, as large as life, of 
Thusnelda, wife of Hermann, n. 1876. 

Band'elet, n. (Arch.) See Band. 

Bandello, Matteo, ( ban-dail'lo,)a.n Italian Dominican 
monk, b. about 1480, who wrote some lively novelle or 
tales after the manner of Boccaccio. He accompanied 
Francis I. to France; was made bishop of Agen in 155fi 
and d. 1561. 

Bande-noire, (band-nwaw'.) (Fr., “Black-band.”] 

(Hist.) The name given to societies of speculators 
formed during the first French revolution for the pur¬ 
chasing of ecclesiastical property, and residences of tlie 
nobility which were for sale at that time. These they 
pulled down, and sold the materials; and hence received 
their opprobrious name. 

Ban'der, n. A person who bands with others. 

Bande'ra, in Texas, a S. central co.; area, 970 sq. m. 
The Medina river flows through it, and also Hondo 
creek. Cap. Bandera City. Pop. (1898) 4,100. 

Bande'ra City, a post-village, cap. of above co. on the 
Medina river, VV. N.W. of San Antonio. Pop. (1898) 510. 

Banderole, (ban'dml,) n. [Fr.; Sp.bandera; It. ban 
diera, banner.] (Mil.) Any little flag or pennon at 
taclied to a spear, and also the fringed flag hanging from 
the straight trumpet used by cavalry, or that one sound¬ 
ed. in feudal times, before tlie heralds when making any 
proclamation. 

(Her.) A little streamer or ribbon attached to th« 
shaft of a crozier, and folding over it like a label. 

(Arch.) Tlie ribbon-moulding used to receive name* 
or inscriptions in buildings of the Renaissance period. 

lt;i lid '-ti-.il, n. (ZoSl.) A genus of acantliopterygious 
fishes. They are so thin and flat in proportion to their 
length, that they had been formerly named Fcenia or 
Ribbon-fish. 





















BANG 


BANG 


BANI 


267 


Blinflicoot. (bdn'di-koot.) n (ZoDl.) A genus of Mar¬ 
supial animals, indigenous to Australia. 

Bantlinelli, (ban'de-nel'e,) Bartolommeo, or Baccio, 
one of the greatest sculptors of Italy, b. at Florence in 
1487. But for his deep-rooted jealousy of Michael Angelo, 
this artist, by his undoubted genius, would have attained 
even a greater and more durable lame. His group of 
Hercules and Oacus is considered by many to be his 
masterpiece, though in the bas-relief representing the 
Descent from the Cross, now at Milan, he has fully 
equalled, if not surpassed, even his great rival. D. 1559. 

iBantl iiig-pIane, n. (Carp.) A plane used for cut¬ 
ting out grooves, and inlaying strings and bands in both 
straight and circular work. 

Bandit, ( bdn’dit ,) re.; pi. Bandits, Banditti. [It. ban- 
dito, from bandire, to banish.] Literally, one proclaimed 
as banned or banished; hence, one who is at war with 
civilized society; an outlaw; a brigand; a highwayman; 
a robber. 

“No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride.”— Pope. 

Ban'die, re. [Ir. bannlamh, a cubit, from bann, a meas¬ 
ure, and lamb, hand, arm.] A measure of length, iu 
Ireland, of a dimension of two feet. 

Bandoleer', re. [Fr. bandouliere; Sp. bandolera.] (Mil.) 
Before the invention of the cartridge, q. v., soldiers’ mus¬ 
kets were provided with matchlocks, a very slow and 
ineffective contrivance for firing. The musketeers were 
furnished with gunpowder in small cylindrical boxes 
made of wood, tin, or leather, each containing sufficient 
for one charge. Twelve of these little boxes were fixed 
to a belt called a bandoleer, worn over the left shoulder. 
The noise they made, when agitated by the wind, but 
more especially the danger of all taking fire from the 
match-cord, occasioned their disuse about the year 1640. 

Ban'doline, re. ( Per/.) A glutinous pomade, used to 
fix or retaiu ladies’ hair when dressed in bands. — A good 
B. may be readily prepared by dissolving 1 oz. tragacanth 
in 10 oz. alcohol and 30 oz. water; and after letting it 
stand for two days, straining the mucilage and perfum¬ 
ing it with some drops of essence of lemon. 

Bait'dolon, re. [Sp.] (Mas.) The name given, in Mex¬ 
ico and other Spanish-speaking countries, to a stringed 
musical instrument, closely resembling the guitar. 

Ban'(lon, or Bandon-Bridge, a town of Ireland, co. 
Cork, 14 m. S.W. of Cork; pop. about 6,700. — It is situ¬ 
ated on a river of the same name that the poet Spenser 
has celebrated as 

“The pleasant Bandon, crowned by many a wood.” 

Bandore', re. [Sp. bandurria, from Gr. pandoura, a 
three-stringed musical instrument.] ( Mus .) A stringed 
musical instrument, r tt 86nib!in or ** lute. 

aand'rol, re. See Banderole. 

Bail'd}', re. [Fr. bander, to bend.] A ciub bent at the 
lower part for striking a ball at play. — A play at ball 
with such a club. 

-— 1 \ a. To beat or toss to and fro. as with a bandy. 

“And like a ball bandy’d, ’twist pride and wit. 

Bather than yield, both sides the prize will quit.”— Denham. 

—To give and receive reciprocally; to exchange. 

“ Do you bandy looks with me,you rascal? "— Shake. 

—To toss about; to agitate. 

“ This hath been so bandied amongst ns.”— Locke. 

— v. re. To contend, as at some game, iu which each one 
strives to drive the ball his own way. 

“ Could set up grandee against grandee, 

To squander time away, and bandy." — Hudibrae. 

Ban dy-leg - , re. [Fr. bander, to bend.] A crooked leg, 
generally used of a leg that curves inwards. 

“ Nor makes a scruple to expose 
Your bandy-leg, or crooked nose.”— Swift. 

Ban'dy-leg’ged', a. Having crooked legs. 

“The Ethiopians had a one-eyed, bandy-legged prince.”— Collier. 

Bane, re. [ A.S. bana ; Icel. bana, to slay.] That which 
causes death, destruction, ruin, or mischief: that which 
poisons or renders poisonous. 

“ False religion is in its nature, the greatest bane and destruc¬ 
tion to government in the world."— South. 

—Destruction; ruin; poison; mischief. 

“My death and life, 

My bane and antidote, are both before me.”— Addison. 

—A disease in sheep, more commonly called the rot. 

Baneberry, (bam'ber-e,) re. (But.) See Act.ea. 

Bane ful, a. Full of bane; pernicious; poisonous; de¬ 
structive. 

“ The mighty wolf is baneful to the fold, 

Storms to the wheat, to buds the bitter cold.” — Dry den. 

Bane'fnlly, adv. Perniciously: destructively. 

BaneTuliiess, re. Quality of being pernicious, or 
baneful. 

Bane'Ia, in Mississippi, a post-village of Chickasaw co., 
on the Yallobusha River, 132 m. N. by E. of Jackson. 
Large quantities of cotton are raised in the neighborhood. 

Bane'wort, re. (Bot.) The Atropa Belladonna. — See 
Atropa. 

Banff, or Bamff, a maritime co. of Scotland, having N. 
the Frith of Moray, S.E. the co. of Aberdeen, and W. 
those of Elgin and Inverness. Area, 686 sq. m. Sur¬ 
face, mostly rugged and mountainous. Soil, tolerably 
fertile. Prod. Principally oats, agriculture being back¬ 
ward. Rock crystals, and topazes or cairngorms, are 
found in the mountains. Pop. 62,010. 

Banff, a royal burgh, and cap. of above county, on the 
W. bank of the Deveron, near its entrance into the Mo¬ 
ray Frith; Lat. 54° 40' 18" N.; Lon. 2° 31' 30" W.; pop. 
7,459. 

Ban'fleld, in Wisconsin, a village of Grant co., on the 
Wisconsin River. 

Bang, v. a. [Swed and Goth, bang, the sound produced 


by a blow; Icel. banga, to strike, to knock.] To beat; to 
thump; to handle roughly; to treat with violence. 

“ He .. . . put it into his servants’ hands to fence with, and bang 
one auother.” — Locke. 

—Vulgarly, to surpass; to excel; as, that man bangs all. 

—re. A blow with a club; a heavy blow. 

“ With many a stiff thwack, many a bang. 

Hard crab-tree and old iron rang.’* — Hudibrae. 

— A drug; See Bangue. 

Bang, a town of Hiudostan, prov. of Malwa, in Scindia, 
82 m. S.W. of Oozeiu, aud 145 m. N.E of Surat. It is 
remarkable for its cave temples of Buddhic origin, about 
iu- S. of the town. 

Ban g ui 1, in New York-, a post-office of Duchess co. 

Kang'ulore, a fortified town of Hiudostan, prov. of 
Mysore; Lat. 12° 57' N., Lon. 77° 38' E.; 70 m. N.E. of 
Seringapatam. It is built on a table-land, 3,000 ft. above 
the sea, and is so salubrious, that Europeans oiten resort 
to it for the benefit of their health. The palace of Tippoo 
Saib here, is a striking building in the Saracenic style. 
B. is generally a large and well-built place, and the j 
neighborhood is prolific of the finest fruits.— Manf. \ 
Silk and cotton fabrics. Most of the inhabitants arej 
Hindoos. Pop., estimated at 190,000 in 1891. B. was 
founded by Hyder Ali, and captured by the British 
under Lord Cornwallis, in 1791. 

Ban'ghy, re. A sort of a bamboo pole to be carried on a 
person's shoulder, with a basket suspended on each end. 

Baiig'ing, a. Extensive; huge; great;—a vulgarism, 
implying, surpassing or exceeding in size. 

Ban'gle, re. A hoop, (usually of gold or silver) origi¬ 
nally worn on arm or ankle by the natives of India and 
Africa, but of recent years a popular adornment here and 
in Europe. It frequently has coin-shaped pendants, Ac. 

Ban'gle-ear, re. A term applied to the ear of a horse, 
when loose and hanging, like that of a dog. 

Rang'kok, or Bau'kok, the capital city of the king¬ 
dom of Siam. It stands on a swampy tract on both sides 
of the river Menam, in Lat. 13° 58' N., Lon. 100° 34' E., 
and 15 m. N. of the Gulf of Siam. B. consists of 3 parts, 
viz., the palace, the town proper, and the floating town. 
The first contains, besides the royal residence and its 
gardens, many temples and shops. The town proper 



Pig. 284. — view of Bangkok. 


lies on both banks of the river, with its wooden and 
palm-roofed houses built on piles driven into the mud; 
eacli house being provided with a boat. The floating 
town consists of a number of bamboo-rafts, bearing rows 
of 8 or 10 houses each, with a platform in front, ou which 
the wares for sale are exposed; most of the trade is thus 
conducted ou the river, ou which, it is believed, one-half of 
the population resides. There are many liuddhic tem¬ 
ples; tiie principal of which is 200 ft. high, and con¬ 
tains 1,500 statues of Buddha. The trade of B. is prob¬ 
ably more extensive than that of any other emporium 
iu the East not occupied by Europeans.— Exp. Sugar, 
black-pepper, stick-lac, sapan-wood, ivory, and hides. 
Imp. Chinese manufactures and produce, and British and 
Indian piece-goods. Many of the inhabitants are Chinese, 
who pay a tri-yearly tax of Si. Pop., est. 500,000,1895. 

Bangor, a city of England, in N. Wales, co. of Carnar¬ 
von, at the entrance of the Menai Straits, 238 m. N.W. 
of London, and beautifully situated. Two m. distant is the 
famous Menai Suspension Bridge, and a little farther, 
the Britannia Tubular Bridge; both marvels of engi¬ 
neering skill. Pop. about 7,000. 

Ban'gor, a seaport town of Ireland, co. Down, on the 
S. shore of Carrickfergus Bay, 12 m. E.N.E. of Belfast. 
B. is a sea-bathing resort. Pop. about 3,000. 

Ban'g’or, in California, a post-village of Butte co., 14 
m. S.S.E. of Oroville. 

Ilan'gor, in Indiana, a township of Elkhart co. 

Ban'gor, in Iowa, a post-village and township of Mar¬ 
shall co., 50 m. N.N.E. of Des Moines. 

Ban'gor, in Maine, a flourishing city, and cap. of Pe¬ 
nobscot co., on the W. bank of Penobscot River, at the 
head of tidal water, and the limit of ship navigation; 
about 230 m. N.E. of Boston. Lat. 44° 45' N.: Lon. 68° 
47' E. It stands upon an area of 36 sq. m., and is the 
second city of the State both as regards wealth and 
population. B. possesses many fine public buildings, 
among which are the Bangor Theological Seminary, 
the Custom-House, Post-Otfice, a score of churches, and 
the Orphans’ Home, a fine building erected by private 


liberality, besides these, and other institutions, there are 
excellent public libraries,—the “Mercantile,” and that 
of the “Mechanics’ Association,” each containing 
several thousand volumes.—Ships of from 1,200 to 
1,400 tons come up to the city with full cargoes; and 
more lumber is exported thence thau from any other 
port iu New England, the annual quantity averaging 
22U.uOO.OOU ft. h. is also engaged in tureign commerce, 
coast trade aud ship building, some 200 vessels, with a 
tonnage of30,UO0, being enrolled, registered and licensed 
there. Extensive waterworks and a dam across the Pe¬ 
nobscot have been erected at a cost of 8500,000 to supply 
water to the city and a motive power to its numerous 
mills. B. is on the Maine Central R. R., and is also the 
terminus of the European and North American Ry. 
(which connects it with St.Johns, N. B.), of the Bucks- 
port and Bangor R. R., of ttie Piscataquis R. It. and of 
the Bangor and Bar Harbor B. R. B. was first settled 
in 1709, incorporated as a town in 1795, and as a city in 
1834. Pop. ( 1 -90), 19,103; 1897, about 21,000. 

Ban gor, in Michigan, a post-township of 1 an Buren 
co., 30 m. W. of Kalamazoo. 

—A village and township of Bay county, on Saginaw 
Bay. 

|—A village of Oakland co., 7 m. N. of Pontiac. 

Ban'gor, in New York, a post-township of Franklin 
co., 160 m. N. by W. of Albany. 

Ban'gor, in Pennsylvania, a village of York co., 24 m. 
S. of Lancaster. 

Ban gor, in Wisconsin, a post-village and township of 
La Crosse co., on the La Crosse River, 15 m. E.N.E. of 
La Crosse 

Bang.|»a-s»e, a considerable town of Siam, on the 
Bang-pa-kung river, near its mouth, 39 m. E.S.E. of 
Bangkok; Lat. 13° 30' N.; Lon. 101° 11' E. It is popu¬ 
lous, is stockaded, and considered a place of defence 
against the Annamese. 

Bailgne', or Bang;, re. A narcotic and intoxicating 
opiate. See Hashish. 

Ban'ian, re. [Sansk. pan, to sell, puny a, salable, banik, 
merchant.] A general name given iu India to a mer¬ 
chant, more particularly to the great merchants of the 
W. provinces at Bombay, Surat, Cambay, &c„ who carry 
on an extensive caravan trade with the interior of Asia, 
even to the borders of Asiatic Russia and China. Mer¬ 
cantile establishments of Indian Banians are to be 
found in almost every important commercial city in 
Asia. The Banians form a particular caste in India, and 
are distinct from the Brahmins, Cuttery, and Wyse, the 
three other castes. The name B. was at first given by 
Europeans to all the Hindoos, they being the class with 
which they had the most frequent intercourse; and 
hence tlio term was used in contradistinction to Moham¬ 
medan. The Banians are very strict in the observance 
of the fasts prescribed by their religion,and in ionising 
to eat flesh. 

— A morning*gown or wrapper, resembling that worn by 
the Banians. 

—The Indian fig-tree. See Banyan. 

Ban'ian Bays, re. pi. (Naut.) A cant term used by 
sailors to denote those days on which they have no meat 
served out to them; derived from the practice of the 
Banians, who never eat flpsh. 

Ba'nias, a town of Palestine, situated at the foot of a 
branch of Anti-Libanus, now called Jebel Heisb, the 
Mount Herman of Scripture, whicli was the northern 
boundary of the children of Israel, and the Paneium of 
the Romans. Banias is supposed to he on or near the 
site of the Ban of the Jews. Its name was changed to 
Csesarea Philippi, by Philip the Tetrarcli, son of Herod; 
the former part of the name was in honor of the Em¬ 
peror Tiberius, to which Philip added his own by way 
of distinguishing it from the Csesarea on the sea-coast. 
The modern village contains only about 150 houses, 
mostly inhabited by Turks: it is a dependency on the 
town of Hasbeya, about twenty miles to the north, whose 
Emir nominates the Sheikh. It stands on a triangular- 
shaped piece of ground enclosed by the liver of Banias and 
tlie Jordan, and is backed by the mountains, at the foot 
of which, to the N.E. of the village, the river of Banias 
takes its rise, in a spacious cavern beneath a precipitous 



Fig. 2S5.— SOl’RCE of banias river. 
(Palestine.) 


rock. This spring was formerly considered as the source 
of the Jordan. At some distance farther up the moun¬ 
tain, however, in a green and secluded dell, there is a 
very remarkable pond, circular in its form, and filled 
with clear and pellucid water. It has been known from 
the earliest times by the name of Phiala. or “The 
Bowl,” and there is an immemorial tradition, that the 
fountain at Banias is supplied from this little lake, tut 






























BANK 


BANK 


BANK 


z68 


its reservoir. Josephus says, that, to prove the fact, some 
curious explorers of the locality put chaff into the lake, 
and then watching below, they saw it come out at the 
fountain. In recent times, another stream has been ex¬ 
plored, which originates at a point far higher up the 
mountain, and descending through a long ravine, it 
joins the Jordan below Banias, and brings a greater sup¬ 
ply of water than that which comes from the cavern 
fountains. — See Jordan. 

Ban'im, John, a popular Irish novelist, b. at Kilkenny, 
April 3, 1798. His principal works are, the Tales by the 
O'Hara Family; the Crappy; the Mayor of Windgap, 
&c. As a man of genius, B. holds a high place in Eng¬ 
lish literature. He was the founder of that school of 
Irish novelists, which much resembles the modern ro¬ 
mantic French school of Eugene Sue and liumas. D. 1842. 

Ban'isli, v. a. fKr. bannir, from L. Lat. bannire. — See 
Ban.] To declare to be banned, expelled, or exiled; to 
condemn or compel one to 'cave one's country; to exile. 

44 Banish plump Jack, and banish all the world.” — Shahs, 

—To drive away; to expel; to compel to depart. 

44 Banish business, banish sorrow. 

To the gods belongs to-morrow.”— Cowley. 

Ban'Islier, n. One who banishes; he that forces another 
from his country. 

Ban'isliment, n. [Fr. banissement.] A punishment in¬ 
flicted upon real or supposed offenders, by compelling 
them to quit a city, place, or country for a specified 
period of time or for life. B., from being long obsolete in 
England, has never been introduced into the American 
laws. — See Exile, Ostracism, Transportation. 

Ban ister, n. A corruption of Baluster, q. v. 

Ban'ister, in Virginia , a river which rises in the S. of 
Pittsylvania co., and flowing S.E. enters the Dan River 
about 10 m. from the village of Banister. It is navi¬ 
gable to Meadsville by bateaux. 

—A village of Halifax co., now capital of above co., under 
the name of Houston. 

Banjcrmitssiii, (6urt'j>!r-/ads-sm,) an extensive terri¬ 
tory lying on the S.E. part of the island of Borneo.— 
Ext. 350 m. long, and about 270 broad. — Desc. Generally 
flat, though intersected by a range of mountains run¬ 
ning from N. to S. Where cultivation exists, the soil is 
extremely fertile, throwing up a luxuriant vegetation of 
great beauty and variety. — Itivers. The Banjer and its 
tributary, the Nagara, which water the western portion; 
and several large streams,plentifully irrigating the east¬ 
ern.— Prod. Cotton, rice, wax, benzoin, pepper, dragon’s- 
blood, and rattans. — Min. Gold, iron, coal; and some 
large and fine diamonds are found.— Manf. Swords, guns, 
pistols, and other arms. These are finished in the most 
elaborate style of workmanship, the decorations con¬ 
sisting of gold, silver, and copper. — Pop. estimated at 
120,000, mostly Mohammedans. B. is governed by a 
Sultan, who is absolute so far as his people are con¬ 
cerned, but is to a certain extent subject Jo the Dutch, 
who for upwards of a century have had a factory in the 
capital. 

Banjermassin, the capital of the above territory, Lat. 3° 
23' S., Lon. 114° 37' E., about 15 m. from the mouth of 
the Banjer, where it debouches into the Sea of Java. 
On account of the inundations of the river, the houses 
are built on piles of wood, at an elevation of three feet 
above the ground, and communicate with each other by 
means of planks. Many of the houses are built upon 
rafts, with their fronts turned towards the river, and 
exposing goods for sale; while on market-days the water 
forms the “ great highway,” on which all the necessaries 
of life are purchased at these floating marts. The town 
is in every respect a floating aggregate of houses, where 
there are no streets, nor carriages or horses, its whole 
business being entirely carried on by water communi¬ 
cation. 

Banjo, n. [From bandore.'] ( Mus .) A favorite instru¬ 
ment of the colored people in America. It has a head 
and a neck like the guitar, a body like a tambourine, and 
five strings which are played on with the fingers and 
hands. 

Bank,*t. [Fr. and A.S. banc; It. banco. See Bench.] A 
mound, pile, or ridge of earth. 

tl They cast up a bank against the city.”—2 Sam. xx. 15. 

—The ground rising from the side of a river, lake, &c.; 
an embankment. 

41 Ye banks and braes o' bonnie Doon."-— Burns. 

—A rising ground in the sea; a shoal; a shelf of sand; as, 
the Bahama banks. 

—A bench of rowers in a galley, or the bench they sit 
upon. 

44 Plac'd on their banks , the lusty Trojans sweep 

Neptune’s smooth face, and cleave the yielding deep.”— Waller. 

(Printing.) A kind of table used in printing-offices. 

(Carpentry.) A long piece of timber about 6 in. square. 

(Law.) The bench of justice. — See Banc. 

(Com.) [Fr .banque.] A place for the deposit of money. 
An institution, generally incorporated, authorized to re¬ 
ceive deposits of money, to lend money, and to issuo 
promissory notes, — usually known by the name of 
bank-notes, — or to perform some one or more of these 
functions. 

—r.a. To raise a mound or dike; to enclose, defend, or 
fortify with a bank ; to embank. 

44 Amid the cliffs 

And burning sands, that tank the shrubby vales.”— Thomson. 

n. To deposit money in a bank; to carry on the pur¬ 
suit of banking. 

Banlt'able, a. (Com.) A term applied to bank-bills or 
bank-notes, checks, and other securities for money, 
which are received as cash by the banks in those places 
where the word is used. Thus, the backs of New-York 
city, previous to the issue of national currency^ re¬ 


ceived on deposit, or in payment of notes or hills, 
all the bank-notes issued by the different banks of the 
city, and also those of the neighboring county banks 
which have provided for the redemption of their notes 
in the city, as the banks of Jersey City, Brooklyn, &c. 
They also receive checks drawn on the city banks. 
This description of currency is. therefore, said to be 
bankable or current, to distinguish it from the notes of 
distant banks, which are said to be uncurrent. — The 
term is also sometimes applied to promissory notes and 
bills of exchange in high credit, thereby denoting that 
they are discountable by the banks. 

Bank Account, n. (Com.) A fund which merchants, 
traders, and others have deposited into the common 
capital of some bank, to be drawn out by checks from 
time to time, according to the owner’s or depositor’s re¬ 
quirements.— The statement of the amount deposited 
and drawn, which is kept in duplicate, or in the deposi¬ 
tor’s bank-book, and the other in the books of the hank. 

ltaiik'-l><H>U. n. (Com.) A book showing the debit and 
credit of a customer’s account with a bank,and in which 
the hank officials make the necessary entries. 

Baiik-crcd it, n. (Corn.) Accommodation allowed to a 
person, on proper security given to a hank, to draw upon 
it for money to a certain amount agreed upon. 

Bank'er, n. [Fr. banquier.] One who keeps a bank; 
a person who traffics in money, negotiates bills of ex¬ 
change, &c. — One who is the custodian of money held 
in trust, to be refunded to the owner as occasion may re¬ 
quire.— See Banking. 

—A covering for a seat in the form of a cushion. 

(Mar.) A vessel employed in the Newfoundland cod- 
fisheries. 

(Masonry.) A stone bench used by masons in cutting 
out their work. 

Bank'er’sNote, n. (Com.) A promissory note given 
by a private banker, or banking institution, not incorpo¬ 
rated ; but resembling a bank-note in all other respects. 

Bank'et, n. (Bricklaying.) A piece of wood on which 
bricks are cut. 

Ban k'-fence, n. A fence, or ha-ha, formed of a bank 
of earth. 

Bank'-liook, n. A term used in some parts of Eng¬ 
land to express a large baited fish-hook attached by a 
line to the bank of a stream, &c. 

Banking, a. Belonging to, or conducted by, a bank; 
as, banking operations. 

— n. The business or employment of a banker. — The 
vague notices which are found in ancient history, both 
sacred and profane, connected with dealings in money 
as a separate business, appear to warrant the belief that 
banking, in the sense wherein it is now understood, was 
but little known or practised in very remote periods. In 
times when nations were chiefly engaged in pastoral or 
agricultural pursuits, the trade of banking would hardly 
suggest itself to anybody as a profitable calling; and 
until, in the progress of a community toward civilization, 
the extent of its commercial dealings had become very 
considerable, none would be led to give their attention 
to the occupation of facilitating the money operations 
of the rest of the mercantile community. It is probable 
that the necessity for some such arrangement would be 
first experienced in consequence of the different weights 
and degrees of fineness of the coined money and bullion 
which would pass in the course of business between 
merchants of different nations. The principal occupa¬ 
tion of the money-changers mentioned by St. Matthew, 
by whom the sacredness of the Jewish Temple was in¬ 
vaded, was doubtless that of purchasing the coins of one 
country, and paying for them in those of their own or 
of any other people, according to the wants and conven¬ 
ience of their customers. It is likewise probable that 
they exercised other functions proper to the character 
of bankers, by taking in and lending out money, for 
which they either allowed or charged interest (Matthew 
xxv. 27). Little, however, is known with certainty re¬ 
garding the nature of the money dealings of the ancient 
Jews. In the time of Demosthenes, banking operations 
were carried on to a great extent in Athens. They ex¬ 
changed foreign moneys, received deposits at interest, 
and gave loans. The bankers were generally of low 
origin, such as freedmen and aliens; but they frequently 
rose to great wealth and eminence. One Pasior, a 
manumitted slave, is frequently mentioned by Demos 
thenes and Contemporary orators, and more than once 
was the state indebted to his liberality. He was a man 
of undoubted integrity, and his friendships and connec¬ 
tions extended through tiie whole of Greece. The Athe¬ 
nian bankers are supposed to have been the first who 
invented the system of discounts, that is, of retaining 
the profits at the time of making the advance. The first 
mention that occurs of hanking at Rome is in the year 
352 b. c., when, the plebeians being in great distress, the 
state appointed certain persons to lend out the public 
money on security, and this system was adopted from 
time to time, for a limited period, in times of monetary 
distress throughout the republican period. Besides 
these, there were three principal classes of bankers at 
Rome: the Negnciatores, who lent money upon interest 
to the inhabitants of the provinces, by which means 
they were enabled to realize a larger profit, as they were 
not limited there by any laws. The private bankers, 
Argentarii, with*whora individuals opened accounts, and 
by whose intervention money was paid. They attended 
in particular to the payments of Roman citizens living 
in the provinces, as they might become due at Rome. 
The Mensarii, wiio were the bankers of the republic, and 
were created for the purpose of abating usury. Under 
the emperors, the two words Argentarii and Mensarii 
were used without distinction. Thus, C. Octavius, the 


father, is called Argenlarius (Suet. Aug. c. 3), and Mem 
sarius (Ibid. c. 4. Jin.). There was also a class of money* 
lenders of an inferior description, called Mummularioli. 
The latter were also a sort of hankers or dealers in 
money, who combined with their dealings the businesa 
of assayers, for which purpose they were appointed to 
estimate the goodness or value of money, as to its weight, 
fineness of metal, and intrinsic worth. The Argentarii 
introduced one of the greatest conveniences in banking— 
that of making payments by means of checks or writ¬ 
ten orders, called prcescriptiones or attributiones. — Dur¬ 
ing the Middle Ages, when commerce was but little de¬ 
veloped, there was little field for banking operations; 
hut tiie business was first established in Europe by the 
Lombard Jews in Italy, a.d. 808, of whom some settled 
in Lombard Street, London, where many bankers still 
have their places of business. It seems to have been 
revived in Florence during the early part of the twelfth 
century. From the success that attended the commer¬ 
cial enterprises of the Florentines, that city became the 
ceutro of the money transactions of every commercial 
country of Europe, and her merchants and bankers 
accumulated great wealth. At one time Florence is said 
to have had 80 bankers; and we find that between 1430 
and 1433, 70 bankers at Florence lent the State 4,865,000 
gold florins.—The earliest public bank in modern Europe 
was that of Venice, founded in 1157. It originated in the 
financial difficulties of the State, which, in order to ex¬ 
tricate itself, had recourse to a forced loan from the cit¬ 
izens, promising them interest at the rate of four per 
cent. The stock was made transferable, and a body of 
commissioners, called the Camera degli Imjrrestiti, or 
Chamber of Loans, was appointed to manage the transfer 
of stock and the payment of interest. This is believed 
to be the earliest instance on record of the funding sys¬ 
tem, and the first example in any country of a perma¬ 
nent national debt. This Chamber of Loans, as origi¬ 
nally instituted for the purpose of managing the public 
debt, could scarcely be called a bank; and it does not 
appear to have carried on anything like a banking busi¬ 
ness for several centuries. Venice being the centre of 
an enormous commerce, foreign coins, usually in a very 
worn or clipped condition, were in circulation, to the 
great inconvenience of merchants ; and lienee the State 
had recourse to the expedient of authorizing the Cham¬ 
ber of Loans to receive coins of all sorts, and to pay for 
them in notes an amount corresponding to the real 
amount of bullion deposited. These notes promised to 
pay the hearer on demand a definite quantity of bullion 
of the proper fineness. Tho bank, however, does not 
seem to have discounted bills on its own account. Its 
only advantage was to save the wear and tear of the 
coinage, and to insure a uniform standard in mercantile 
transactions. Its notes always bore a premium as com¬ 
pared to the current money of the city; and it contin¬ 
ued to exist until the fall of the republic in 1797.— 
About 1350, tiie Cloth-Merchants of Barcelona, then a 
wealthy body, added the business of banking to their 
other commercial pursuits; and in 1401a public bank 
was opened by I lie magistrates of the city, which Span¬ 
ish writers claim as being tiie first real hank, in the 
modern sense of the term. It received deposits, for 
which the public property of the city was pledged, and 
discounted the bills of merchants; but it does not appear 
that it issued notes or used checks. Almost at the 
same time with the Bank of Barcelona, that of St. George, 
at Genoa, was instituted. It was planned in 1345, but 
was not fully established and in operation till 1407. Like 
the Bank of Venice, it originated in tiie exigencies of 
the State. The republic bad become indebted in large 
sums to a number of the citizens, and at length the 
whole was consolidated into one capital stock, to be 
managed as a bank, under the direction of eight protec¬ 
tors, chosen annually by the stockholders. This hank 
was pillaged by the Austrians in 1746. and never recov¬ 
ered its former prosperity. — Money matters in England 
were for some time regulated by the Royal Exchangers, 
but their calling fell into disuse until revived by Charles 
I. in 1627. The royal mint in the Tower of London was 
used as a bank of deposit until Charles I., by a forced 
loan, in 1638, destroyed its credit. The Goldsmiths’ 
Company, of London, undertook private banking in 
1645, but on tiie closing of the Exchequer, in 1672, their 
transactions terminated. Sir Josiah Child, of Fleet 
Street, London, was the first regular banker, and lie 
commenced business soon after 1660: a business which 
is still in flourishing existence.—The Bank of Amster¬ 
dam was established in 1609, like that of Venice, to 
remedy tiie inconvenience arising from the great quan¬ 
tity of clipped and worn foreign coin that was in circu¬ 
lation. It received coins of all sorts at their weight in 
bullion, and alter deducting a small percentage for the 
expenses of coinage and general management, gave credit 
for the remainder. It was enacted that all hills of 600 
guilders ($262) and upwards — afterwards reduced to 
300 — should be paid in bank-money. It professed to 
lend out no part of its deposits, and to possess bullion to 
the full amount of the credits given in its hooks; but 
when the French took possession of Amsterdam, in 1796, 
it was discovered that the bank had lent nearly $5,01)0,000 
to the States of Holland and Friesland; and this caused its 
ruin. In 1814, a new bank was established, cal led the Bank 
of the Netherlands. The Bank of Hamburg was founded 
in 1619, upon the same principles as that of Amsterdam, 
and has continued to flourish. The Bank of Stockholm 
was founded in 1668. and is remarkable as being the first, 
according to Law and Hume, that invented bank-notes j 
in Europe (the Chinese having the credit of having beeu 
the first to invent bank-notes, in a.d. 807). — From what 
has been already said, it will be seen that the term 
Bank is applied to establishments and monetary trans* 









BANK 


BANK 


BANN 


260 


actions of very different kinds. Banks are usually di¬ 
vided into three classes, as they are merely for the cus¬ 
tody or issue of money, or for both. The first class, or 
the Bank* of Deposit, are, strictly speaking, those early 
banks which recei7ed money or valuables for custody, 
and kept them in their coffers till called for; but 
now tbo term is generally applied to those estab¬ 
lishments that receive money from their customers, 
and tend it. out to others at a higher rate of interest. 
Banks of Issue are those that issue their own notes for 
circulation; but as the}' likewise receive deposits, the 
term is generally applied to what forms the third class 
8f the division. Were the duties of banks limited to the 
Safe custody of money, they would stiil be of immense 
advantage to the public. Every one who has the care 
of large sums of money knows the anxiety that attends 
their custody, and the risks to which they are subjected; 
and hence the value of a place of security in which to 
lodge them. This gave rise to the first formation of 
public banks. But, were the money merely to lie idly 
in the coffers of the bank, it is evident that the depositor 
would not only not receive any interest upon it, but 
would have to pay for the trouble and expense of keep¬ 
ing it; while the money thus kept was so much drawn 
from the trading capital of the country. The advan¬ 
tages of combining a system of lending money with that 
of receiving it soon became apparent; and banks were 
established for the purposeof both receiving and lending 
money; the interest received on the sums being con¬ 
sidered sufficient to cover all expense connected with its 
management, or the risk of losing it. By this means, 
numerous small sums of money, which would have re¬ 
mained unproductive in the hands of individuals, are 
collected into large sums in the hands of the bankers, 
who employ it in granting facilities to trade and com¬ 
merce, and in this way increase the productive capital of 
the nation. Thus a million of money, in place of lying 
useless in small sums in the hands of the owners, or in 
one large sum in the coffers of a bank, is lent out to in¬ 
crease the capital of manufacturers and traders; and 
thus the world is made one million richer, or at least is 
saved from being one million poorer. Besides the money 
which a banker receives in deposits from his customers, 
he must be possessed of a certain capital of his own, in 
order to carry on business; and to insure confidence in 
his stability; for no one would lend money to a banker 
if he knew that he was possessed of no capital. The in¬ 
terest derived from this capital forms part of the profits 
of the banker, but it is evident that the profit in this 
case is not the same as that which he derives from trading 
with the capital of others; in other words, that the in¬ 
terest is not greater than if he had lent out his money 
in any other way equally safe, and involving the same 
amount of trouble. The deposits over and above a cer¬ 
tain sum which he must have at hand to meet daily 
claims, he advances in various ways as loans. The best 
and safest mode of employing such funds is considered 
to be in the discounting of good mercantile bills of ex¬ 
change; that is, bills representing bona fide transactions 
of trade and commerce. A banker sometimes makes 
advances upon the deposit of government securities, 
railway debentures, bills of lading, dock warrants, and 
such like; but, except the government securities, the 
Others are generally avoided by prudent bankers. Loans 
are usually divided into short ioans anl dead loans, the 
former having a fixed time for their repayment, the latter 
no fixed time. Loans of the latter class are generally 
avoided. Advances upon deeds, except in agricultural 
districts, are always objectionable. If depositors have 
the power of demanding the amount of their deposits of 
any kind from the banker, while he usually makes his 
advances for a fixed or definite period, it is evident that 
he must always have on hand, uninvested, a considerable 
sum to meet such claims. The amount necessary for 
this purpose may generally be pretty nearly estimated. 
It depends upon a number of circumstances; as the state 
of the money-market, the amount and nature of the 
deposits, the average amount of daily payments, and the 
like. If a banker is at liberty to issue bank-notes to a 
certain amount, it is evident that the profit derived there¬ 
from is equal to the interest upon the difference between 
the average amount in circulation and the amount of 
specie required to be kept on hand to meet them, less 
the expense of their manufacture. If, however, a banker 
were obliged to keep dead stock or bullion equal to the 
amount of his notes in circulation, he could make no 
profit. But for a banker in good credit it is considered 
that a 4th or a 5th part of this sum is usually sufficient. 
Besides serving as places for the safe custody of money, 
and allowing interest on deposits, banks are of great use 
in a safe and rapid transference of money from one place 
to another. A debtor in Philadelphia, or Baltimore, pays 
to his banker there the sum which he wishes to convey 
to his creditor in New York. The banker, for a small 
commission, furnishes him with a draft or letter of credit 
for the amount, to be paid by a banker in New York, 
from whom the creditor, on presenting the draft, receives 
the amount. Thus, then, the disposable means of a 
bank are: I. The amount of paid-up capital. 2. The 
amount of money lodged by customers. 3. The amount 
of notes in circulation. 4. The amount of money in 
course of transmission, that is, money received for the 
purpose of being repaid in some distant place at a future 
time. These means are employed: 1. In discounting 
bills. 2 In advances of money in the form of cash cred¬ 
its, loans, or overdrawn accounts. 3. In the purchase 
of government and other securities. 4 A part retained 
tn the safe to meet current demands Of these four ways 
of employing capital, three are productive, and one, 
namely tiie last, unproductive. The profits are that por¬ 
tion of the total receipts of a bank, including interest,; 


discount, dividends, and commissions, which exceeds the 
amount of the expenses. A great saving is also effected 
by the use of notes and checks, or wear and tear, and 
upon the coinage of the country. Generally, in the U. 
States, the banker performs the duties of cash-keeper to 
his depositors, making all their money payments beyond 
their small daily expenditure, and receiving the money 
payable to them. The merchant, by sending all the 
bills due to him to his banker, to be presented, and 
noted if not duly paid, is saved a great amount of trouble, 
and the risk of making mistakes in the presentation of 
the bills, the banker being always liable for any mistakes 
that may be committed through him. But it is in the 
use that the banker makes of the money that is intrusted 
to him that he may be of chief benefit to society, in 
his loans, discounts, and cash credits. It is here that he 
requires to exercise his greatest ability and skill, so that 
he may be the menus of furthering the prosperity of the 
country, by aiding honest industry, and exposing rogues 
and reckless speculators. In the U. S. a large proportion 
of the active banking business is done by the National 
banks, although many State banks and large Trust com¬ 
panies also exist. See Banks, National, in Sec. II. 

Bank-note, Bank-bill, n. A promissory note payable 
on demand, to the bearer, made and issued by a person 
or persons acting as bankers and authorized by law to 
issue such notes. — For many purposes they are not 
looked upon as common promissory notes, and as such 
mere evidences of debt, or security for money. In the 
ordinary transactions of business they are recognized by 
general consent as cash. —The business of issuing them 
being regulated by law, a certain credit attaches to them, 
that renders them a convenient substitute for money. 

Bank'rupt, n. [Fr. banqueroute; from banque, and 
Lat. ruptus — rumpo, to break.] (Law.) A trader who 
secretes himself or does certain other acts, tending to de¬ 
feat or delay his creditors. — A person who has done, or 
suffered to be done, some act declared by law to be an 
act of bankruptcy.—Anterior to the Act of July 31,1868, 
in the English law, the B. must be a trader; but in the 
American law the distinction between a B. and an insol¬ 
vent was never generally regarded, and was expressly 
abrogated by the Act of Congress, Aug. 19,1841. — For 
the American law on B., see Insolvent. 

(Eng. Law.) The numerous anterior statutes relating 
to bankruptcy have been consolidated by the B. Law- 
Consolidation Act, (1849;) and this has been amended 
by the 15 and 16 Viet., c. 77, by the Bankruptcy Act, 1S54, 
and 31 and 32 Viet., c. 104, of July 31, 1868. These four 
acts embody the actual law applicable directly to bank¬ 
rupts and to their estates. 

(Scots. Lavj.) By the Scottish system, as modified in 
1783, the management of the estate is given to the cred¬ 
itors upon sequestration, and it is only where they re¬ 
quire the aid of the court, or an appeal is taken from 
their determinations, that resort is had to judicial pro¬ 
ceedings. By recent amendments of the law, (1856,) the 
remedy is extended to apply to every class of debtors. 
There is also a remedy given the debtor to obtain a dis¬ 
charge from liability of the person, upon relinquishing 
his property. 

( French Law.) The Bankrupt Law of 1838 declares that 
all traders who stop payment are in a state of insolvency. 
Traders are required immediately to register the fact 
that they have stopped payment at the Tribunal of Com¬ 
merce, and file their balance-sheet; and a decree of in¬ 
solvency is declared by the tribunal upon the trader’s 
declaration or an application of the creditors. Prior 
voluntary conveyances and mortgages, pledges, &c.. for 
antecedent debts, are void, and all subsequent deeds to 
those having notice are voidable. 

Bank'rupt, a. Having committed acts of bankruptcy; 
unable to pay just debts; failing in trade; in debt be¬ 
yond the power of payment. 

*• The king's grown bankrupt like a broken man — Shaka. 

— v. a. To break or fail in trade; to make insolvent. 

“ We cast off the care of all future thrift, because we are al¬ 
ready bankrupted." — Hammond. 

Bankruptcy, n. (Law.) The state or condition of a 
bankrupt. — See Insolvency. 

Banks, Sir Joseph, f. r. s., a distinguished cultivator 
of natural science, B. in London, 1743. In 1766 he made 
a scientific visit to Newfoundland and Labrador. In 
1768, he accompanied Capt. Cook in his voyage round 
the world, and brought home large botanical collections. 
In 1772. he visited Iceland. In 1777, B. w r as elected 
President of the Royal Society, and, in 1802, a member 
of the French Institute. D. Aug. 19,1820. Ilis library 
and herbarium he bequeathed to the British Museum. 

Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss, an American statesman, 
b. at Boston, Jan. 20, 1816. In 1849 he was elected to 
the Massachusetts House of Representatives, of which, in 
1S51, he became Speaker. In 1853 he was president of 
the convention appointed to revise the constitution of 
the State. In Dec.. 1854, B. was elected Speaker of the 
House of Representatives at Washington, and. in 1857, 
became Governor of Massachusetts. On the outbreak of 
the civil war, he was appointed to a command in the Union 
army with the rank of major-general, and stationed in 
the Shenandoah Valley, Va., from which, in Feb.. 1862, 
he was expelled with severe loss by the Confederate 
General “Stonewall Jackson.” On the9th Aug., 1862, 
B., then subordinate to General Pope, fought and won 
the battle of Cedar Mountain. In Dec. of the same year 
he succeeded Butler at New Orleans, conducted several 
important operations in the Mississippi Valley, and cap¬ 
tured Port Hudson, July 8, 1863. He was afterwards 
employed in Texas, and again in New Orleans. Return¬ 
ing North, B. was, in 1865, elected representative from 
Massachusetts to the 39th Congress, and was re-elected 
in 1866, and in 1868. Died Sept. 1, 1894. 


Banks, a N.E. county of Georgia , with an estimated 
area of 2S0 sq. m. It is intersected by the sources of 
Broad River. Surface, uneven. Soil, tolerably fertile. 
Cap. Homer. 

Banks;, in Minnesota, a post-village of Faribault co. 

Banks, in Pennsylvania, a township of Carbon co., Iff 
m. N.W. of Mauch Chunk. 

Bunk'sia, n. (But.) A genus of plants, ord. Proteaceat. 
They are very abundant in Australia, where they are 
called Honeysuckle trees. The genus has been named in 
honor of Sir Joseph Banks. 

Banks' fslnntl, of British N. America, lies in the Pa¬ 
cific Ocean, in Lat. 53° 20' N., Lon. 130° IV. 

Banks’ Land, in British N. America, lving in the 
Arctic Ocean, Lat. 74° N., Lon. 116° \V., 70 m. S.W. of 
Melville Island. 

Bnnk'-stock, n. A share or shares held in the capi¬ 
tal or joint-stock funds of a bank. 

Bniiks ton. in Illinois, a post-village of Saline co., 65 
m. N.E. of Cairo. 

Ranks'ton. in Iowa, a post-village of Dubuque co. 

Baiiks'ton. in Mississippi, a village of Choctaw co. 

Banks'ville, in Connecticut, a post-village of Fairfield 
co., 60 m. S.W. of Hartford. 

Banliene, (ban'loo-e,) it. [Fr., from ban, jurisdiction, and 
hew., a league.] The territory without the walls, but 
within the legal limits ol a town or city. 

Bann, (Upper and Lower,) two rivers in the N. of Ire¬ 
land; the first, or Upper, rising in the Monrne Moun¬ 
tains, and falling into Lough Neagh. The Lower rises 
in Lough Beg, and falls into the Irish Sea 5 m. below 
Coleraine. 

Ban'naek City, in Montana. Same as Bannock 
City (see next page). 

Bannalec, (ban’na-lek,) a town of France, cap. of a 
cant, in dep. Finistere, 9 m. N.W. of Quimper; pop. 
abt. 5,000. 

Ban ner, n. [Ger.; Fr. banniere; It. bandiera; Sp. 
bandcra. From Celt, band, a band.] A piece of drapery 
attached to the upper part of a pole or staff, generally 
hanging loose, but sometimes fixed in a slight frame¬ 
work of wood. In this sense, B. is a generic term, in¬ 
cluding many varieties, such as a standard, ensign, 
pennon, flag, &c. The size and form are hut accidents. 
In fact, it has been made to assume all the varieties of 
which so simple a frame-work is susceptible. When 
banners are displayed at the same time by persons of 
different classes, the size has often borne relation to the 
respective rank of the parties. — The drapery of a ban¬ 
ner is usually made of the most costly stuffs — velvet 
or silk — but the material most commonly used is a 
kind of soft silk called taffeta. Sometimes it is quite 
plain, and of a uniform color; but they are often 
richly ornamented with tassels and fringes, and gener¬ 
ally there is wrought upon them some figure or device 
which has reference to the person, the community, or 
the nation by whom the hauner is raised, or to the 
purpose or occasion of its being displayed. B. are of 
very early origin. We read of them constantly in the 
Old Testament, as in Num.ii.2. — The military stand¬ 
ards of the Romans were essentially different from the 
flags, colors, and ensigns of modern warfare. They 
were carvings in metal or wood; the eagle, or some 
other figure, elevated at the end of a tall lance or pole. 
The forms of them are known to us by the representa¬ 
tions of them on medals, or the common coinage of 
that people. The Persian standard described by Xeno¬ 
phon (Anab. i. 10) w r as a golden or gilded eagle, raised 
on a spear or pole. When Constantine the Great was 
on the eve of a battle with Maxentius, we are told that 
a luminous standard appeared to him in the sky with a 
cross upon it, and this inscription : “ hi hoc signo vin - 
ces — By this sign thou shalt conquer; ” and that this 
omen so encouraged Constantine and liis soldiers, that 
on the next day they gained a great victory. — Alfred 
the Great captured the celebrated Danish banner called 
the “ Raven,” in 878. — WhenWaldemar II. of Denmark 
Avas engaged in a great battle with the Livonians in 
the year 1219, it is said that a sacred banner fell from 
heaven into the midst of his army, and so revived the 
courage of his troops that they gained a complete vic¬ 
tory over the Livonians; and, in memory of the event, 
Waldemar instituted an order of knighthood called the 
Dannebrog, or the “Strength of the Danes,” and which 
is still the principal order in Denmark. The great im¬ 
portance attached to the banner in the Middle Ages ia 
not to be wondered at, when we consider that it was a 
kind of connecting-link between the military and the 
clergy; it was a religious symbol applied to a military 
purpose, and this was the feeling which animated the 
Crusaders and Templars in their great struggle against 
the enemies of Christianity. The contest was then be¬ 
tween the Crescent and the Cross—between Christ and 
Mahomet. The Knights Templars had a B. called Beau- 
seaift, simply divided into black and white; the white 
portion symbolizing peace to their friends, the blacfc 
portion evil to their enemies, and their dreaded war- 
cry was “ Beauscant 1 ” In the monasteries, D. were 
kept for festivals and great commemorations. In mod¬ 
ern days, banners are carried in the processions attend¬ 
ing the festivals of the Roman Catholic Church; they 
are also used as a part of the insignia of friendly so- 
cieties and benevolent clubs, <tc. — The relation which 
B. bear to other kinds of flags, in their forms and uses, 
will he explained under Banderole; Colors, (Regi¬ 
mental;) Ensign; Flag; Guidon; Gonfalon; Pen¬ 
nant ; Pennon ; Standard, &c. See also Oriflamme, ana 
Union Jack. 

(Her.) Banner displayed is a B. open and flying. 

Ban'ner, in Illinois, a township of Fuiton co. 












270 


BANT 


BAPT 


BAPT 


Ban Her, in Mississippi, a post-office of Calhoun CO. 
Ban'ner, in Kansas, a post-office of Jackson co. 
Ban'ner, in Wisconsin, a village of Fond du Lac co. 
Ban'ner City, in Idaho, a mining village of Boisee 
co., 35 m. N.N.E. of Idaho city. 

Bun'ncred, a. Furnished with, or bearing banners. 

“Shield the strong foes, and rake the bannered shore.*’— Barlow. 
Ban'neret, n. [Fr. dimin. of banner.] A rank be¬ 
tween that of knight and baron; a knight created on 
ttie field of battle. — See Knight-banneret. 

Ban nerol, n. Same as Banderole, q. v. 

Ban'nervi He, in Pennsylvania, a village of Snyder co. 
Ban nock, n. [Gael, bonnoch; Ir. boinneog.] A cake 
made of barley, oat, rye, or peas meal, baked on a gir¬ 
dle, or circular iron plate, over the fire; it is a favorite 
article of food in Scotland, and is used also in the N. 
counties of England. 

Bannockburn, ( bdn'nok-burn ,) a flourishing town of 
Scotland, co. Stirling, on the Bannock, 3 m. S.S.E. of 
Stirling. Manuf. Carpets, woollens, and tartans. Pop. 
abt. 3,000. Near it was fought, 24th June, 1314, the 
groat battle between the English, under Edward II., 
and the Scots, under Robert Bruce, which ended in the 
total defeat of the former. The loss of the English was 
estimated at 30,000 men, and that of the Scots at abt. 
8,000. This decisive victory secured the independence 
of Scotland, and established Robert Bruce on the throne. 
At Sauchie Burn, about 1 m. from B., James III. of 
Scotland was defeated by his own son, afterwards 
James IV. 

Ban'iiock City, in Montana, a town, formerly the 
capital of Beaver Head' county, about 45 miles W. of 
Virginia City. 

Ban'nock-flnke, n. A Scotticism for the turbot. 
Banns, n.pl. [See Ban.] (Any. Law.) A public notice 
or proclamation, made in a church, of the names and 
designations of persons about to be married; the object 
being that those who have objections to the marriage 
may have an opportunity of stating them. The proclama¬ 
tion must be made on three successive Sundays during 
the time of the celebration of public worship.— See Mar¬ 
riage. 

Banquet, ( bdrik’wet,) n. [Fr. banquet, from banque, a 
bank, a beach, a table.] A repast; a feast; a sumptuous 
feast or entertainment; anything delightful. 

(Arch.) [Fr. banquette.] The footway of a bridge, when 
raised above the carnage-way. 

(Man.) A small rod-shaped part of the bridle under the 
eye of the horse. 

— v. a. To treat with a feast or sumptuous entertainment, 
“ They were banqueted by the way ."—Hayward, 
yi jo fare sumptuously; to ons’s f wjth oroof? 

eating and drinkipg; to feast. 

44 Tlie mind eh%ll banquet, though th* hnrty pfn». w — Khaki. 
Ban'qneter. n. A person who banquets: one who 
feasts, or provides a least. 

Ban'queting'-lionse or room. An apartment, 
or spacious room or place, in which banquets are held. 

44 At the walk’s end behold, how raised on high 
A banquet-house salutes the southern sky.”— Dryden . 

Banquette, (bang-ket',) n.[Fr.] (Port.) A step or small 
terrace of earth constructed along the inner side of a 
parapet, for musketeers to stand upon when the parapet 
is too high to fire over. It is usually made about 4 feet 
wide, and raised to within 4% feet of the crest of the 
parapet. 

Banqno, a famous Scottish thane of the 11th cent. In 
conjunction with Macbeth, cousin of Duncan the king, 
he obtained a victory over the Danes, who had landed on 
the Scottish coast. Macbeth, shortly afterwards, vio¬ 
lently dethroned Duncan, and caused him to be secretly 
assassinated. B., though not an accomplice, was a wit¬ 
ness of the crime; and being consequently regarded by 
Macbeth with fear and suspicion, the latter invited him 
and hisson to supper, and hired assassins to attack them 
on their return home during the darkness of night. B. 
was slain, but the youth made his escape. Shakspeare 
has interwoven this transaction witn the theme of his 
celebrated tragedy of Macbeth. 

Ban'shee, or Benshie, n. [Gael, beanshith, a fairy, from 
Gael, and Ir. bean, a woman, and Gael, sith; Ir. sighidh, 
fairy.] A supernatural being, supposed by the Irish 
peasantry to give notice to a family of the speedy death 
of some of its members, by wailing a mournful air under 
the windows of the house. 

Ban'tara, an old and decayed town of the island of Java, 
and, until of late years, one of the most famous trading 
marts in the Farther East, belonging to the Dutch. Lat. 
6° 1' 42" S.; Lon. 106° 10' 42" E. Its bay, formerly a 
great rendezvous of European shipping, is now choked 
up by coral reefs. The Dutch abandoned it in 1817 for 
the more elevated station of Serang, or Ceram, 7 m. in¬ 
land. 

Bmi'tiim, n. (Zool.) A variety of the common domestic 
fowl, originally brought from the East Indies, and sup¬ 
posed co derive its name from the above town. It is re¬ 
markable for its small size, being only about 1 pound in 
weight, and for a disposition more courageous and pug¬ 
nacious than even that of a game-cock. 

Bau'tam, in Ohio, a post-village of Clermont co. 
Ban'tam Falls, in Connecticut, formerly a post-office 
of Litchfield eo. 

Ban'ter, v a. [Probably from Fr. badiner, to be frolic¬ 
some: to play or joke with-1 To joke or jest with; to 
play upon; to rally. 

“ Shall we, cries one, permit 
His lewd romances, and his bant'ring wit.”— Tate. 

—n. A joking or jesting; raillery; pleasantry; good- 
hummed sarcasm; as, “Part banter, part affection.” 
Banting; System. See Obesity, 


Ban'terer, n. One who banters another; a pleasant 
railer; a joker. 

“ What opinion have these religions banterers of the divine 
power ? ” — L’ Estrange. 

Bant'ling, n. [Swed. and Goth, pant, a pledge; Icel- 
pantr; Ger. pfand, and ling, an image, an image-pledge.] 
A young child; an infant. Most frequently used in the 
sense of illegitimacy. 

“ They seldom let the bantling roar. 

In basket, at a neighbour's door.” — Prior. 

Ban'try, a seaport town of Ireland, co. Cork, at the ex¬ 
tremity of a bay of the same name, 43 m. W. by S. of 
Cork; pop. about 2,700. 

Ban'try Bay, a large inlet of the Atlantic, in the S.W. 
extremity of Ireland, co. Cork, between Crow Point on 
the N. and Sheep's Head on the S. This is one of the 
finest and most capacious harbors in Europe, being about 
25 m. long by from 4 to 6 broad, and having safe anchor¬ 
age for the largest vessels. Possessing no considerable 
town on its shores, it is, however, but little resorted to by 
shipping. 

Ban'ya, Nagt. See Nagy Bania. 

Ban'yan Tree, n. (Bot.) The Ficus indica, a species 
of the gen. Ficus, q. v. It is regarded as a sacred tree 
by the Hindoos. Its branches produce long shoots, or 
aerial roots, which descend to the ground and penetrate 
the soil; so that, in course of time, a single tree becomes 
avast umbrageous tent, supported by numerous columns. 
No fewer than 350 steins, each equalling in bulk the 
trunk of a large oak, and more than 3,000 smaller ones, 
have been counted in one example, covering a space 
sufficient to contain 7,000 persons. 



Fig . 286. — banyan tree. 

T'be fruit of the banyan is of a rich scarlet color, and 
about the size of a cherry; it is eaten by the monkeys, 
which live with birds and enormous bats in the thick for¬ 
est of branches. The bark, is a powerful tonic, and is much 
used by tbe Hindoo physicians. The white glutinous 
juice of the tree is used to relieve toothache, as an ap¬ 
plication to the soles of the feet when inflamed, and for 
making birdlime. Ficus elastica, also a native of India, 
yields an inferior kind of caoutchouc. F. sycamorus, 
the Sycamore-fig, is said to have yielded the wood from 
which mummy-cases were made. 

Ban'yuls-sur-mer, a town of France, dep. Pyrerieos- 
Orientales, with a fishing-port on the Mediterranean, 
near the frontier of Spain. The celebrated wines of Gre- 
nache and Rancio are produced here. Pop. 1,676. 

Ba'ofoab, Adansonia, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, ord. 
Sterculiacece. Adansonia digitata, tbe baobab-tree, is 
tho typical species. This is remarkable for its enormous 
size, and for its extraordinary longevity. One specimen 
has been found to have a trunk nearly 100 feet in cir¬ 
cumference; and the age of this gigantic vegetable is 
probably many thousand years. The leaf of the baobab 
is digitate, branched into finger-like leaflets; hence its 
specific name. The fruit, commonly known as monkey- 
bread or Ethiopian sour-gourd, is a large oval capsule, 
containing a starchy pulp, having a slightly acid flavor, 
which forms a wholesome and agreeable article of food. 
Mixed with water, it makes an acid drink, which is 
highly esteemed as a specific in putrid and pestilential 
fevers, and is also employed by the Egyptian doctors in 
dysentery. The leaves have astringent properties; and, 
when dried and powdered, they form the condiment 
called lalo, which the Africans mix with their daily food 
as a preventive of excessive perspiration. The hark is 
said to be febrifugal, and its fibres are used, by the Afri¬ 
can tribes living in the districts where the baobab flour¬ 
ishes, for the manufacture of cordage and various articles 
of dress. 

Baphia, (bafi-a.) n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, ord. Faba- 
cece. The species B. nitida yields the dye-wood known 
in commerce as bar-wood or cam-wood. 

Baphom'etns, n. The name of the image which the 
Knights-Templars were charged with Avorshipping, when 
the order was suppressed by Philip IV. of France. It is 
probably a corruption of “ Mahomet,” and the charge 
may have arisen from the circumstance that some of the 
Templars had gone over to the Moslem faith. 

Baptisia, n. ( Bot .) A genus of plants, order Fabacece . 
Ttie Wild Indigo, B. tinctnria , found in dry soil in all the 
States, is a plant with a bluish-green foliage; stem very 
bushy, about 2 feet high; 6 to 12 or more flowers in each 
raceme; petals yellow; legume about as large as a pea, 
on a long stipe, mostly 1-seeded. This plant is used me¬ 
dicinally; the root and herbage being stated to possess 
antiseptic, sob-astringent, cathartic, and emetic proper¬ 
ties. It yields a blue dye, resembling, but inferior to, 
Indigo, q. v. 

Bap tism, n. [Fr. bapteme; Gr. baptismos, a dipping.] 
(Thenl.) A sacrament acknowledged by almost all the 

Christian churches. B. was usual with the Jews eyeu 


before Christ, and every converted heathen was not onlj 
circumcised, hut also washed, as a symbol of his en¬ 
trance into the new religion, purified from the stains of his 
former life. From this B. of proselytes, however, that of 
St. John differed, because he baptized Jews also, as a sym¬ 
bol of the necessity of perfect purification from sin. Je¬ 
sus himself was baptized by John. Christ never baptized, 
but directed his disciples to administer this rite to the con¬ 
verts, using the following words: “ Go ye, therefore, and 
teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Fa¬ 
ther, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, (Matt, xxviii 
19.) In the time of the apostles, the form of the II. was 
very simple. The person to he baptized was dipped in » 
river or vessel, with the words which Christ had ordered, 
and to express more fully his change of character, gener¬ 
ally adopted a new name. The Greek Church retained this 
custom; but the Western Church adopted, in the 13th 
century, the mode of baptism by sprinkling, which has 
been continued by the Protestants, the Baptists (q. v.) 
only excepted. The introduction of this mode of baptism 
was owing to the great inconvenience which arose from 
the immersion of the whole body in the northern cli¬ 
mates of Europe. The custom of sprinkling thrice, in 
the administration of the rite, spread with the diffusion 
of the doctrine of the Trinity. In the first centuries of 
the Christian sera, when, generally speaking, adults only 
joined the new sect, the converted (Catechumens, q. v.) 
were diligently instructed : the power of this sacrament 
to procure perfect remission of sins was taught, and 
while somo converts delayed their baptism from a feeling 
of sinfulness not yet removed, others did the same from 
the wish to gratify corrupt desires a little longer, and to 
have their sins forgiven all at once. But the doctrine of 
St. Augustine, that the unbaptized were irrevocably 
damned, changed this delay into haste, and made the 
baptism of children general. The death of a martyr, 
however, who perished while yet a catechumen, was ac¬ 
counted equally effectual for salvation with baptism. 
This was called baptisma sanguinis, (baptism of blood.) 
When, in the 5th century, Christianity became more 
firmly established, and the fear of the relapse of Chris¬ 
tian proselytes into their former faith, which had so 
often occurred in the period of persecution, diminished, 
the baptism of children became still more general, and 
is now the common custom of Christians, with the ex¬ 
ception of the Baptists.— As baptism is a sacrament, 
and considered by the Catholics so very efficacious, the 
Roman Church has strictly prohibited the re-baptism of 
baptized heretics, on their conversion to Catholicism. 
Anti-Trinitarians, only, are to bo baptized again. Pro¬ 
testants, of course, acknowledge the validity of the bap¬ 
tism of other Protestant sects, as well as of that ol the 
Catholic Church. The Roman and Greek Catholics con¬ 
secrate the water of baptism, but Protestants do not. 
Even in the ancient -'b'irch, every person, when ban- 
tized. was attended by a Christian friend of the same sex. 
wno became responsible lor tho faith of the new Chris¬ 
tian, and promised to take care of his spiritual welfare. 
The form still remains, though the promise is not very 
strictly complied with in most cases. After baptism in 
the Catholic Church, the baptized person receives milk 
and honey, as a symbol of his spiritual youth; and the 
spiritual privileges which he acquires as a Christian are 
all indicated by symbols; thus the salt of wisdom is 
given, the garment of innocence is put on, Ac. The 
Catholic Church acknowledges three kinds of baptism, 
that of water, fire, and blood, (baptisma Jluminis. Jlami- 
nis, sanguinis.) The first is the common one; the 
second is perfect love of God, connected with a sincere 
and ardent desire to be baptized; the third is the mar¬ 
tyrdom of a catechumen tor the Christian faith. All 
three are equal in their effect. The Roman Church ac¬ 
knowledges, that all persons not baptized are damned, 
even infants; hut it does not state what they are to suf¬ 
fer; for even St. Augustine, the sternest and severest 
preacher of this doctrine, deemed it hard that those who 
had not yet sinned should be damned for eternity in con¬ 
sequence of the sin of Adam; and he thinks that their 
suffering will be slight. Some scholastic theologians 
have thought that the pain they were to endure would 
consist in separation from God. The Jansenists believed 
in the total damnation of infants not baptized. Dante, 
who so strictly adhered to the dogmas of his church, hut 
always retained liis sensibility to the feelings of human¬ 
ity, gives, in the 4th canto of his Inferno, a place to all 
virtuous heathens, and infants not baptized, separate 
from the other part of hell: and it is easily seen with 
what reluctance he placed them there. — The Friend* 
(Quakers) reject all outward B. 

Baptis'inal, a. [Fr. baptismal.] Pertaining to baptism. 

“ When we undertake tbe baptismal vow.’’— Hammond. 

Baptis'mally, adv. In a baptismal manner. 

Bap'tist, n. [Lat. baptista.] One who baptizes. — John, 
the forerunner of Christ.—One of the sect of B aptist 

Bap'tistery, n. [Gr. baptisterion, a large basin or 
bath.] (Arch.) A large building designed for the ad¬ 
ministration of baptism. In early ages, baptism was 
performed by immersion, and the place used for the pur¬ 
pose was a pond or stream; hut in the middle of the 3d 
century, distinct or insulated houses were erected for the 
ceremony. The B. was an octagon or circular building, 
covered with a cupola roof, and adjacent to the church, 
but not forming a part of it. The most ancient B. is that 
of S. Giovanni in Fonte, at Rome, said to have been 
erected by Constantine the Great. The most celebrated 
are those of Florence and Pisa. This last (see Fig. 169) 
is circular; its diameter is 116 feet; the walls are 8 ft 
high, and the building is raised on 3 steps, and sur¬ 
mounted by a dome in the shape of a pear. This dome, 
which is covered with lead, is intersected by long l ! ,nei 
of very prominent fretwork, terminating in another 











BAPT 


BAB 


BABB 


271 


dome, above which is the statue of St. John. The pro¬ 
portions of the interior are admirable: 8 granite col¬ 
umns, placed between 4 piers, decorated with pilasters, 
are arranged round the basement story; these support a 
2d order of piers, similarly arranged, on which rests the 
dome. In the middle of the B. is a large octagonal basin 
of marble, raised on 3 steps. — The most remarkable fea¬ 
tures of the B. of Florence are the bas-reliefs of its three 
magnificent bronze doors, executed by Andrea of Pisa, 
and Lorenzo Ghiberti. — See Font. 
llaptist'ic, Baptist'ical, a. Pertaining or relating 
to baptism. 

Baptist'ically, adv. In a baptistical manner. 
Bap'tists, n. pi. (Ecd Hint.) A name used since the 
middle of the seventeenth century to denote various 
/ bodies of Christians (previously called Anabaptists) 
whose distinguishing tenet is erroneously supposed to 
be that only immersion is valid baptism. Their dis¬ 
tinctive principle looks rather to the subject than the 
act of baptism. Accepting the Scriptures as the only 
rule of faith and practice, all Baptists hold that a church 
of Christ is a spiritual body, consisting only of the 
regenerate; hence, the only proper subject of bap¬ 
tism is a believer, one who gives credible evidence 
that he has been regenerated by the Spirit of God. 
With the exception of the Tunkers (who practice trine 
immersion) the single immersion of such a believer is 
regarded by all varieties of B. as the only baptism that 
conforms to the New Testament. Since they thus hold 
the religion of Christ to be a spiritual lite, begun and 
continued by the grace of God, they regard it as a thing 
with which the civil law has no right to meddle; lienee 
Baptists have always denied the rightfuluess of perse¬ 
cution for religious beliefs, and advocated the entire 
separation of Church and State. The majority of B. 
have always held to that type of theology known as 
Calvinistic, though the Arminian theology has also 
from the first had its adherents among them. In polity 
they are congregational, each church being independent 
as regards its own discipline; but councils composed of 
delegates from sister churches are often called to give 
advice regarding ordination of ministers and the settle¬ 
ment of difficulties. Other organizations—such as Asso¬ 
ciations, State Conventions, Missionary Societies—are 
composed of delegates from the churches, and exist tor 
missionary and administrative purposes, with no legis 
lative or other authority over the churches. The major¬ 
ity of B.—sometimes called the “ regular” B— practice 
what is known as restricted or “close” communion 
that is, they invite to the Lord’3 table only the baptized 
(immersed on profession of their faith). The practice 
of inviting all Christians, whether baptized er not, is 
called “open” communion.—B. are historically con¬ 
nected with sects on the continent of Europe that have 
existed since the twelfth century, at least, under the| 
various names of Petrobrosians, IValdenses, Anabaptists, - 
Mennonites, etc. Not all of these bodies practiced im¬ 
mersion, out they held the distinctive Baptist principle, 
a church composed only of those baptized on a cred¬ 
ible profession of faith in Christ. The history of 
those bodies to whom the name B. was given begins, 

B however, with a church established in 1609 among some 
English refugees in Holland, by John Smyth, formerly 
a clergyman of the Church of England. Members ol 
this church came to England in 1611 and organized the 
first church of the General Baptists in England. (They 

Dwere called General because they taught the Armiuian 
doctrine that the atonement was general, i. e., for al> 
men, while the Calvinistic taught that the atonement 
was only for a particular class, i. e., the elect; hence the 
Calvinistic Baptists were called Particular Baptists.) 
The first Particular Baptist church was formed in 
London in 1633. Notwithstanding the persecutions 
to which Dissenters were then subject, both these vari 
eties of B. increased with great rapidity. In 1644 seven 
churches of the Particular Baptists issued a Confession 
of Faith. Under the Commonwealth B. were very 
numerous and influential; some of Cromwell s most 
trusted officers were B. They were severely persecuted 
after the Restoration, but received full toleration under 
the Act of 1689. John Buuyan, the author of the Pil¬ 
grim's Progress, Robert Hall, General Havelock, and 
Charles Haddon Spurgeon, are among the famous men 
the English B. have produced.—Their greatest achieve¬ 
ment has been to lead modern Christendom in the 
work of evangelizing the heathen. The Moravians 
were before them in this work, but it was given to the 
English B. to direct the attention of all Christians to it 
and quicken missionary interest in every denomination. 

I William Carey was the leader in organizing the English 
Baptist Missionary Society, in 1792. He was also the 
first missionary of this society, going to India, where 
h© becam© on© of the great Oriental scholars ot tiie 
world and before his death was instrumental in giving 
the Scriptures to more than 300,000,000 people, in forty 

- j The English B. now 

na, Palestine, Central 

____Central America.—Besides 

the General andTartlcular Baptists there are found in 
in Great Britain the following variant bodies: Seventh- 
day B whose first church was founded in London in 




the Scriptures to more tnan ouu.uoe 
different languages and dialects. ' 
. .have missions in India, Ceylon, Chic 
Africa, the Bahamas, and Central 




1676. As their name implies, their distinctive principle 
is that they observe the seventh day of the week instead 
of the first. The Six Principle B., who take the six 
things enumerated in Heb. vi. 1, 2, as obligatory on all 
Christians, and differ from their brethren chiefly in 
laying bauds on all persons after baptism. In 1 1690 fiv e 
churches formed a separate denomination on this issue. 
The New Connection of General B., formed in 17 <0 in 
consequence of many of the General Baptist churches 
(Continued in Section II ) 


Bap'tist-ton ii, in New Jersey, a post-village of Ring- 
wood township, in the W. part of Hunterdon co., 8 m. 
W. by N. of Flemington. 

Bap tist Valley, in Virginia, a village of Tazewell 
county. 

Baptiz'able, a. Susceptible of being baptized, (r.) 

Baptizc', v. a. [Gr. baptizo; from bapto, to dip in water.] 
To immerse; to dip under water; to sprinkle with 
water ; to administer the sacrament of baptism to. 

Baptize'mciit, n. The act of baptism, (u.) 

Bapti z'er. n. He who baptizes, or administers the sa¬ 
crament of baptism. 

Baquet (ba-kd), n. [Fr.] A small tub, bucket, or 
trough, used for various purposes. 

Bar, n. [A.S. beorgan, to protect, to defend, to fortify, 
to secure; W. bar, a bar or bolt; Fr. barre; It. hurra.] 
That which guards, defends, or secures; a long piece of 
wood or metal; a cross-beam used for security. — An 
obstacle, obstruction, or barrier; anything which hin¬ 
ders or prevents. 

“Fatal accidents have set 

A most unhappy bar between your friendship.** — Rowe. 

—Any tribunal, as, the bar of public opinion.—An en¬ 
closed place within the lower apartment of a tavern, 
hotel, or coffee-house, where liquors are vended and 
served out to customers. 

{Law.) 1. In a court of justice, an inclosure made 
with a strong partition of timber, 3 or 4 feet high, with 
the view of preventing the persons engaged in the busi¬ 
ness of the court from being incommoded by the public. 
The term is also applied to the benches where the advo¬ 
cates are seated: because, anciently, there was a bar 
to separate pleaders from attorneys and others. Those 
who, as advocates or counsellors, appeared as speakers 
in court, were said to be “called to the bar,” that is, 
called to appear in presence of the court, as barristers, 
or persons 

Hence, the word was applied to the persons who were so 
called, and the advocates were, as a class, called the bar. 
In the U. States, since attorneys as well as counsellors 
appear in court to conduct causes, the members of the 
legal profession, generally, are called the bar. — 2. Pris¬ 
oners being brought for trial to the bar of the criminal 
courts, the practice arose of calling them the “ pris¬ 
oners at the bar ; ” i. e., standing at the bar to plead to 
the indictment. — 3. The term bar is similarly applied, 
in the houses of the English Parliament, to the breast- 
high partition which divides from the body of the re¬ 
spective houses a space near the door, beyond which 
none but the members and clerks are admitted. To 
these bars witnesses and persons who have been ordered 
into custody for breaches of privilege are brought; and 
counsel stand there when admitted to plead before the 
respective houses. The Commons go tc the bar of the 
House of Lords, to hear the Queen’s speech at the open¬ 
ing and close of a session. —4. Pleas in oar, or peremp¬ 
tory pleas, are founded on some matter tending to im- 
peach the right of action itself, and their effect, conse¬ 
quently, is to defeat the plaintiff’s claim altogether. 
Pleas in bar are subject to various divisions. For, first, 
they comprise the class of general issues, which are de¬ 
nials (expressed in a particular form by ancient prece¬ 
dent) of the whole matter in the declaration, or, at least, 
of the principal fact upon which it is founded; while 
all other pleas in bar uro distinguished by the term of 
special pleas. All these pleas are governed by particular 
rules of practice; as they involve much legal technicality 
and nicety, they are generally drawn by pleaders or 
barristers. In criminal pleading, a special plea in bar 
goes to the merits of the indictment, and gives a reason 
why the prisoner ought to be discharged from the pros¬ 
ecution. They are principally of four kinds: a former 
acquittal; a former conviction ; a former attainder; or 
a pardon. (See Autrefois acquit, Autrefois convict, 
Convict, Attainder.) — 5. In contracts, the term 6ar is 
applied to an obstacle or opposition. Thus, relationship 
within the prohibited degrees, or the fact that a person 
is already married, is a bar to marriage. 

(Her.) One of the nine honorable charges or figures 
placed upon the field or escutcheon, called ordinaries, 
and consisting of two lines 
drawn across the field. It 
differs from the fess in this: 
the fess occupies a third 
part of the field, and is con¬ 
fined to the centre; whereas 
the bar contains only a fifth, 
is not limited to any part, 
and is never borne singly. 

It has two diminutives—the 
closet, which is half the 
width of the bar, and the 
barrule or barrulet. which is 
half the width of the closet. 

Of the closet, there may he 
five in one field, as in fig. 287, 
but the barrulet can be 
borne only in couples. Bars- 
gemelles are so called when 
they stand in couples. When 
the shield containsa number 
of bars of metal and color alternate, of even number, that 
is called barry of so many pieces; as, harry of six argents 
and gules. See Baton (Sinister) 

(Musi) A perpendicular line drawn through the staff, 
q. v., dividing a piece of music into certain 
equal portions or measures, in order to render 
its execution more easy. The term bar is 
also applied to the quantity contained in any 
such portion; thus, we say a bar of two min¬ 
ims, of six quavers, Ac.; and a bar in com¬ 


mon time, in three-eighth time, Ac.— Double bars mark a 
conclusion. They are likewise placed at the end of each 
strain; and if accompanied by dots, they indicate that 
the part next the side on which the dots appear is to be 
repeated. 

( Phys. Geog.) A bank opposite the mouth of a river 
which obstructs or bars the entrance of vessels. The 
B. is formed where the rush of the stream is arrested by 
the water of the sea, as the mud and sand suspended 
in the river-water are thus allowed to be deposited. It 
is thus that deltas are formed at the mouths of rivers. 

(Com.) A lump, ingot, or wedge, as of gold or silver, 
from mines, 4 cast in a rough mould and unwrought.— 
The term Bar is also used in African traffic, for a de¬ 
nomination of price; payment being formerly made to 
negroes almost wholly in bars of iron. 

(Farriery.) The upper part of the gums of a horse, 
between tile tusks and grinders, to which the bit is ap¬ 
plied.— A portion of the hoof of a horse. 

Bar, v. a. To fasten, secure, or defend with a bar or 
bars. — To hinder, obstruct, or jjrevent; as, the statute 
bars my right. 

“ When law can do no right, 

Let it be lawful that law can bar no wrong.**— Shaks. 

—To except; to prohibit; to shut out. 

'* But shut from ev’ry shore, and barr'd from ev'ry caast." Drydtn. 

—To cross with one or more lines or stripes. 

Bar, a town of Europeau Russia, govt, of Podolia, 48 m. 
N. of Moghilev. It is famous in Polish history from the 
confederation established there in 1768, by Pulaski and 
other Polish nobles hostile to Russia. Pop. about 8,000. 

Bar, a considerable town of Hindostan, pres, ot Bengal, 
on the S. bank of the Ganges, 18 m. N.E. ot Bahar; Lat, 
25° 28' N.: Lon. 86° 46'E. 

Bar, in Indiana, a township of Daviess co.; pop. abt. 2,200. 


Barab'bas, a noted robber in Christ’s time, who was 
who stay or attend at the bar of court. imprisoned and awaiting death for the crimes of sedition 

and murder. It was a custom of the Roman government, 
for the sake of conciliating the Jews, to release one Jew¬ 
ish prisoner, whom they might choose, at the yearly 
Passover. Pilate desired thus to release Jesus, but the 
Jews demanded B. (Matt, xxvii. 16-26.) _ 

Bar'aboo, in Wisconsin, a thriving city, the cap. ot 
Sauk co., on a river of the same name, 40 m. N. N. W. of 
Madison. Pop. in 1890. 4,605; in 1897 (est.), 6,250. 
Bara^uay tl’IIilliers^bar'a-gaicteZ'ye-ajACHlLLE, 
Count, a marshal of France, was born in Paris. 1796. 
In 1830 he took part in the expedition to Algeria, in 
which hi3 success against the Arabs gained him the con¬ 
fidence of Louis Philippe’s government, who created him 
a lieutenant-general. He was. in 1836, appointed to the 
command of the military school of St. Cyr. In 1841, lie 
was made governor-general of Algeria. On the fall of 
Louis Philipps in the revolution ol 1848, the Provisional 
Government appointed him to the command ot the mil¬ 
itary division of Besan^on. He replaced Changarnier in 
the command of the army of Paris, and concurred in the 
accomplishment of the coup d'etat on the 2d ot Dec., 1851. 
In the war witli Russia iu 1854, B. was commander-in- 
chief of the B’altic expedition, and for his services re¬ 
ceived the dignity of marshal of France, and later was 
nominated a senator. He took an active part in the 
campaign of 1859, when France leagued with Sardinia 
to free Italy from Austrian domination. D. 1878. 
Barataat', a town of Hindostan, cap. of the rajah of 
Gurwal, 48 m. W.N.W. of Serinagur. 

Baraitclie', a town and district of Hindostan, prov. of 
Oude, 50 m. N.E. of Lucknow; Lat. 27° 33' N.; Lon. 81° 
30' E. The district is well-wooded, fertile, and well cul¬ 
tivated. Many of the old Patau race inhabit this district. 
Ba rak, the principal river of Caeliar, in Farther India. 

It unites with the Brahmapootra, 43 m. from Dacca. 
Ba'rak, the son of Abinoam, tribe of Naphtali. God 
summoned him, by means of Deborah the prophetess, to 
release Israel from the yoke of Jabin, king ol Canaan. 
B. gathered 10,000 men, and the song of Deborah and 
Barak (Judg. v.) chronicles their victory. 
Baralip'ton, n. (Logic.) An imperfect syllogism, 
consisting of two uuiversals and one particular affirma¬ 
tive proposition. 

Baran'te, Amable Prosper Brugiere, Baron de, a 
French historian and statesman, and a member of the 
French Academy, was b. at Riom,iu 1782. In 1805, he be¬ 
came auditor to the Council of State. In 1809, he pub¬ 
lished, anonymously, a w*ork on The Literature of 
France during the Eighteenth Century, which excited the 
enthusiasm of Madame de Stael, and called forth the 
eulogium of Gbthe. In 1822 appeared from his pen 
The Commons and the Aristocracy, and subsequently his 
greatest work, The History of the Dukes of Burgundy, 
of the House of Valins, from 1364 to 1477, which has 
placed him among the first of the French historians 
of the day. In 1851, he published a History of the Na¬ 
tional Convention, Ac., and in 1859, a Life of Matldeu 
Mole. D. 1866. , „ „ t , _ . . 

Barata'ria Bay, in the S.E. part of Louisiana, ex¬ 
tending N. from the Gulf of Mexico, between the par- 
ishes of Jefferson and Plaquemine. This bay is about 
15 m. long by 6 wide. It, and the lagoons launching 
out of it, were rendered notorious about the j ears 1810—12 
as being both the head-quarters and rendezvous of the 
celebrated Lafitte and his buccaneers. 

Barb, n. [Fr. barbe; 0. F. larbare; Lat. barba, » 
beard.] A beard, or that which resembles it, or grows 
in place of it. 

“The barbe! is so called by reason of the barb or wattles at hU 
mouth, or under his chaps.*' — Isaac Walton. 

_The jags or points which stand backward in an arrow, 

dart, fish-hook, Ac.; a spine. 

“ Nor less the Spartan fear'd, before he found 
The shining barb appear above the wound."—Pop*. 



Fig . 287. — armorial en¬ 
signs OF SAXONT. 



























BARB 


BARB 


BARB 


070 


( Bot .) pi. Applied to the hairs forked at the apex, 
with the divisions of the fork hooked, or curved back at 
the point. 

(Mil.) The armor of defence worn in ancient times 
by horses, (Fig. 288.) It was generally constructed of 
leather, and studded with spikes of iron. —The accou¬ 
trements and housings worn by horses in a tourna¬ 
ment. 

-[Contracted 
from Barbary .] 

(Zoot.) A noble 
breed of horses, 
reared by tho 
Moors of Bar¬ 
bary and Mo¬ 
rocco, and intro¬ 
duced into Spain 
during their do¬ 
minion in that 
country, where, 
however, it has 
been suffered 
to degenerate 
greatly since 
their expulsion. 

The noble race 
of B a r b a r y 
horses, which 
we commonly 
call barbs, are of rare occurrence even in their own 
country, where the tyranny of the governors holds out 
no inducement to private individuals to rear an animal 
of which they may be deprived without scruple or com¬ 
pensation by the first man in power who happens to 
fancy it; it is only among the wild nomadic tribes of 
the desert, whose roving habits and inhospitable country 
place them beyond the control of the ordinary powers 
of the state, that this breed exists in perfection. The 
common horse of Barbary is a very inferior animal, 
which, if originally derived from the same source as the 
noble race of barbs, has greatly degenerated. In the 
beauty and symmetry of their forms, however, even the 
latter are far from excelling. Their valuable qualities, 
and in these they are perhaps unequalled by any other 
breed in existence, are, — unrivalled speed, surprising 
bottom, abstinence, patience, and endurance under fa¬ 
tigue, and gentleness of temper. The head of the B. is 
large and clumsy, the neck short and thick, the chest 
broad and powerful, yet the body and legs are so long 
and slender as to resemble those of a greyhound, and 
form a perfect contrast to the rest of the animal. But the 
Moors do not regard the external appearance of their 
horses so much as their temper, speed, and capability to 
endure fatigue; and the animals which possess these 
valuable qualities are cherished with all the kindness 
and attention that are bestowed on children. Their 
mode of treatment is very different from that practised 
in our country. They are very early accustomed to the 
saddle, are mounted at two years old, and have their 
manes and tails cropped till the age of six, under the 
supposition that it adds to their strength and bottom. 
After this period they are never dressed, nor are their 
manes and tails combed; if dirty, they are washed in the 
next stream, and some Moors are even said to be offended 
by Europeans patting their horses with the palm of the 
hand, from an apprehension of its injuring their coat. 
They are never castrated, nor have the Moors tho bad 
taste to seek to improve upon nature by cropping the 
ears and tails of their horses, as is practised by some 
nations; a Mussulman will neither mutilate nor sell 
the skin of “ the beast of the Prophet,” the noblest of 
animals. The horses alone are used for the saddle, the 
mares being kept for breeding. Walking and galloping 
are the only paces which these animals are allowed to 
practise; and it is even considered vulgar to trot or 
canter. Generally speaking, the Moors avoid giving 
their horses violent exercise, or overheating them, ex¬ 
cept upon extraordinary occasions; and among the 
desert tribes, it is only in their cavalry exercises, such 
as throwing the lance, &c., that their speed is at all put 
forth. On these occasions, however, they are not 
epared, and it is surprising with what rapidity and pre¬ 
cision they perform the different evolutions. These, in¬ 
deed, are not so complicated as the tactics of more 
civilized nations, but they are much more severe upon 
the cattle, and would soon break down the best of our 
European breeds.— hi. is also the name of a dun or black- 
colored pigeon, originally brought from Barbary. 
Barb, v. a. To furnish with barbs, as an arrow, Ac.— 
To put armor on a horse; to furnish a horse with ar¬ 
mor. 

“ On barbed steeds they rode, in proud array, 

Thick as the college of the bees in May ."—Dryden. 
Barbacena, ( bar-ba-sai'na ,) a town of Brazil, prov. 
of Minas-Geraes, 125 m. from Rio Janeiro; pop. of town 
and district, 12,000. 

Barbaeoas, ( bar-ba-ko'as ,) a city of Quito, in the pro¬ 
vince of Esmeraldas, on the coast of the Pacific Ocean, 
120 miles from Quito. Lat. 1°42' S.; Lon. 78° 8' W.— 2. 
A town of South America, in the province of Venezuela, 
at the source of the Tucuyo. — 3. A village in the same 
province, E. of Lake Maracaibo. 

Bar'baean , Bar'bican, n. [Fr. barbacane; L. Lat. 
burbacana, from Ar. burj, a wall, rampart, tower.] (Fort.) 
In ancient fortification, a B. was an advanced work, 
which frequently covered the draw-bridge at the en¬ 
trance of a castle ; or, with regard to cities, a tower or 
outwork placed at any important pointof the surround¬ 
ing walls. — The term is likewise applied to an aperture 
made in the wall of a fortress to fire through upon an 
enemy. Also, to a fort at the entrance of a bridge, or 


the outlet of a city, having a double wall with towers. 
Figure 289 represents the strongly embattled gate or 
barbacan, which, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, pro¬ 
tected the entrance from Southwark to Old London 
Bridge, and was usually garnished with traitors heads 
in “ rich abundance.” 



Fig. 289. — the gate of old London bridge. 
(Copied from Visscher's View in 1579.) 


Barba'dian, n. (Geog .) An inhabitant of, or anything 
pertaining to, Barbadoes. 

Barba'does, or Barbados, the most E. of the Ca- 
ribbee Islands, in the IV. Indies; 21 m. long, by 14 
broad. Area, 166 sq. m., or 106,470 acres, most of which 
is under cultivation. Desc. The island lies low, and its 
surface is generally undulating, with the soil rich and 
fertile, producing great quantities of sugar, the staple 
product of the colony. Bridgetown, the capital, is in 
Lat. 13° 4' N., Lon. 59° 37' W. B. has no mountains of 
any great elevation, the loftiest being Mount Ilillaby, 
1,145 ft. above sea-level. Prod. Sugar, cotton, arrow- 
root, aloes, and ginger. Towns. Besides the capital be¬ 
fore mentioned, Speights Town, Charleston, and St. 
James. Com. Exports and imports are nearly equal, 
each being about 86,000,000. The U. States have, next 
to Great Britain, the greatest share of the trade of the 
colony, exporting to it bread-stuffs, rice, lumber, and 
shingles. This island is the residence of the governor- 
general of all the British Win ward Islands.— B. was 
discovered by the Portuguese at the close of the 15th 
century, and the English established a settlement here 
in 1624. 

Barbadoes Cherry. See Malpighia. 

Barbadoes Gooseberry. See Pereskia. 

Barbadoes Tar. See Bitumen. 

Bar bara, St., who suffered martyrdom at Nicomedia, 
in Bithynia, about 236, or, according to other accounts, 
at Heliopolis, in Egypt, about 303 was of good birth, 
and well educated by her father, Uioscorus. To avoid 
disturbance in her studies, lie had a tower built for her, 
where she spent her youth in the deepest solitude. 
While in this retirement, she was led, through Origen, 
as is said, to embrace Christianity. Her father, a fanatic 
heathen, learning his daughter’s conversion, and fail¬ 
ing to induce her to renounce Christ, delivered her up 
to the governor, Martianus, to be dealt with by the 
law. Martianus, struck with the intelligence and beauty 
of the maiden, attempted first by arguments to make 
her relinquish Christianity, and when that failed, had 
recourse to the most exquisite tortures. At last the 
blinded father offered himself to strike off his daugh¬ 
ter’s head. Scarcely was the deed done, when lie was 
struck with lightning. Hence St. B. is to this day 
prayed to in storms. For the same reason, she is the 
patron saint of artillery, and her image was at one time 
frequently placed on arsenals, powder-magazines, Ac.— 
The powder-room in a French ship of war is to this day 
called Sainte-Barbe. — St. B.’s day is the 4th December. 

Bar bara, n. (Logic.) The first mode of the first figure 
of syllogisms. A syllogism in B. is one whereof all the 
propositions are universal apd affirmative: the middle 
term being the subject in the first proposition, and the 
attribute or predicate in the second. 

Barbare'a. n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, ord. Brassi- 
caceee. The Winter-cress, B. vulgaris, found in old fields 
and broolc-sides in the U. States, has a stem furrowed, 
1 to 2 feet long, branching above; leaves dark-green 
shining, on clasping petioles; yellow flowers, in May, 
on terminal racemes. 

Barba'rian, n. [Lat. barbarus, from Gr. barbaros, 
strange to Greek blood, manners, or language.] (Hist.) 
This term was employed by the Greeks in a negative 
sense, and denoted all persons who were not. Greeks. 
At the same time, as the Greeks made much greater ad¬ 
vances in civilization, and were much superior in natu¬ 
ral capacity to their neighbors, the word' in question 
obtained an accessory sense of inferiority both in culti¬ 
vation and in native faculty. At first the Romans were 
included among the barbarians; then barbari signified 
all who were not Romans or Greeks. In the Middle 
Ages, after the fall of the Western empire, it was applied 
to the Teutonic races who overran the countries of west¬ 
ern Europe, who did not consider it as a term of re¬ 
proach, since they adopted it themselves, and used it in 
their own codes of law as an appellation of the Ger¬ 
mans as opposed to the Romans. At a later period it 
was applied, but probably from another derivation, to 


the Moors, and thus an extensive tract on the north of 
Africa obtained the name of Burbtry. (See Barbary.). 
In modern language, B. means a savage; a man in his 
rude and uncivilized state; also, a cruel, brutal, savage 
man; one without mercy or humanity. 

— a. Belonging to savages; rude; uncivilized; cruel; in¬ 
human; as, barbarian treatment. 

Barbaric, a. [Lat. bar baric us.} Of, or from, any bar¬ 
barous nation. 

“ The eastern front was glorious to behold. 

With diamond flaming and barbarick gold."—Pope. 

—Resembling, or relating to, an uncivilized person o» 
people; rude; barbarous. 

Bar barism, n. [Fr. barbarisme ; Gr barbarismos.) 
State or quality of barbarians; ignorance; rudeness; 
savagery. 

“ Divers great monarchies have risen from barbarism to civility, 
and falleu again to ruin ."—Sir J. Davies. 

—An act of inhumanity; cruelty; barbarity, (r.) 

—Au impurity of style or language; an impropriety of 
speech, antagonistic to the true idiomatic quality. 

Barbar'ity , n. The state or manners of a barbarian; 
savagery; cruelty; ferociousness; inhumanity. 

“And they did treat him with all the . . . barbarity imagi- 
nable. Lord Clarendon. 

Bar'barize, v. n. To become barbarous, (r.) 

“ The Roman empire was barbarizing rapidly from the time of 
Trajan."— JDe Quincey. 

—To adopt or make use of a foreign or barbarous form 
of speech. 

— v. a. [Fr. barbarizer.] To make barbarous. 

“ Hideous changes have barbarized France."— Burke. 

Barba'ro, Francesco, one of the most distinguished 
Italian authors of the 15th century, B. at Venice, 1398. 
He became successively senator, governor of Vicenza, am¬ 
bassador to Pope Martin V., general in chief at Brescia, 
and headed many embassies to Florence, to the emperol 
Sigismund, and to many other sovereigns; which prove 
that he. was as skilful in diplomacy as he was versed in 
literature. His eloquence was something marvellous, 
and many times he harangued the senate, and the troops 
at Brescia; thus inducing the state and the army to de¬ 
fend for 3 years the walls of that besieged city against 
the superior forces of the Duke of Milan. His best 
work is: On the Choice of a Wife, and the Duties of 
Women, printed in Paris, in 1515. D. 1454. 

BtirbarossR, ( bat-ba-ros'sa,) Arooj, or Horush, styled 
Barbarossa from his red beard, was the son of q 
Greek, at Mitylene. and by profession a corsair chief. 
In 1516. he assisted Selim," king of Algiers, in driving 
the Spaniards out of that country, and having taken 
possession of the capital, put Selim to death, and 
mounted the throne himself. D. 1518. 

B., Khaireddin, also styled Barbarossa, brother and suc¬ 
cessor of the preceding, surrendered the sovereignty 
of Algiers to Selim I., Sultan of Turkey, in exchange 
for a force of 2,000 janissaries and the title of Dey. He 
was afterwards appointed capitan pasha or high admi¬ 
ral of the Turkish fleet, and conquered Tunis, which waa 
retaken in 1535, by the Emperor Charles V. In 1538, he 
gained a victory over the imperial fleet under the com. 
mand of Andreas Doria, in the bay of Ambracia. D. 1546. 

Barbarossa, see Frederic I., Emperor of Germany. 

Barbarous, a. [Lat. barbarus .| In a state of bar 
barism; ignorant; uncivilized; rude. 

“ Thou art a Roman; be not barbarous." — Shake. 

—Cruel; inhuman; brutal. 

“By their barbarous usage, he died within a few days." 

Lord Clarendon . 

Bar'barously, adv. In the manner of a barbarian; 
in a savage, cruel, or inhuman manner. 

“We barbarously call them blest, 

While swelling coffers break their owners' rest ”— Stepney. 

Bar'barousness, n. Quality or condition of being 
barbarous; barbarism. 

Barbaroux, (bar'ba-roo,) Charles Jean Marie, B. at 
Marseilles, Mar. 6,1767. He early distinguished himself 
at the bar of his native city, and establishing a journal 
called the Marseillaise Observer, ably supported therein 
the revolutionary cause. In 1792, he was deputy for the 
department of the Rhone, and joined the Girondin party. 
He it was, who, when the revolution seemed in danger 
from the veto of the king, wrote passionately to Mar¬ 
seilles for 600 men “who knew how to die”; which 
600 men came to Paris, bringing Rouget de Lisle with 
them, who composed the Marseillaise Hymn on the 
march., To the last, B. was a brave but unsuccessful 
opponent of Robespierre, and finally, in 1793, he es¬ 
caped to the coast in the neighborhood of Bordeaux. 
Here, in 1794, he was arrested, when, failing to accom¬ 
plish suicide, he was, while half dead, guillotined at- 
Bordeaux, on the 25th of June of the same year. With 
no great gifts of statecraft, he was one of the few lov¬ 
able characters of the French revolutionary period. 

Bar'bary, the name usually given in modern times to 
that portion of N. Africa which comprises the various- 
countries between the W. frontier of Egypt and the At¬ 
lantic on the one hand, and the N. border of the Sahara, 
or Great Desert, and the Mediterranean, on the other; 
or between 25° E. and 10° W. Lon., and 25° to 37° N. Lat. 
It consequently includes within its limits the empire of 
Morocco and Fez, the French Algeria, and the govern¬ 
ments of Tunis. Tripoli, and Barca. Under the Roman do¬ 
minion it was divided into Mauritania Tingitana, corre¬ 
sponding to Morocco and Fez; Mauritania Catsariensis, to 
Algiers; Africa Propria, to Tunis;and Cyrenaica and tho 
Regia Syrtica, to Tripoli. Its extent may be taken at 
from 650,000 to 700,000 sq. m.: and its population is va¬ 
riously estimated at from 10,000,000 to 14,000,000. Some 
derive the name B. from barbarus, (see Barbarian ;) but- 




















































BARB 


BARB 


BARC 


273 


It appears to have been derived from the name of its 
ancient inhabitants, usually styled Berbers or Kabyles, 
and should therefore, in strictness, be called Berbery. 
The Arabs call it Maghreb, or the “ Region of the West; ” 
but though this name correctly points out its situation in 
regard to Arabia, it would be incorrect if used by Euro¬ 
peans. It might properly be called the Region of Atlas, 
inasmuch as it includes the whole of that great mountain 
chain, with its numerous ramifications. This designa¬ 
tion has, in fact, been given to it by some geographers. 
Anciently, this part of Africa was distinguished as being 
the seat of Carthage — that great commercial republic 
that waged a lengthened, doubtful, and desperate contest 
with Rome herself for theempire of the world. Alter the 
fall of Carthage, it formed an important division of the 
Roman empire. B. had many large and flourishing cities, 
and was long regarded as the principal granary of Rome. 
After being overrun by the Northern barbarians, it was 
subdued by the Saracens; and under their sway acquired 
a lustre and reputation scarcely inferior to that of the 
most brilliant period of its ancient history. But the Sar¬ 
acenic governments in B. losing their vigor, the entire 
country gradually sunk into the lowest stato of barbar¬ 
ism and degradation. A handful of Turks and renegades 
acquired the control ofits finest provinces, and subjected 
them to the most brutal and revolting despotism. Being 
unable to contend openly with the powers of Europe, 
they had recourse to a system of piracy and maraud¬ 
ing; which, though often partially abated, was not en¬ 
tirely suppressed till the conquest of Algiers by the 
french. — B. has far more of an European than of an 
African character. Owing to its being pervaded by the 
great chain of Atlas, it has every diversity of surface, 
and is remarkably well watered. The climate is excel¬ 
lent; and it produces all the grains and fruits of S. 
Europe in the greatest perfection. In ancient times its 
fertility was such as to be almost proverbial: (“ Frumenti 
quantum rnetit Africa.” Hir. Sat., lib. ii. sat. 3.)—The 
site of the famous gardens of the Hesperides was origi¬ 
nally placed in Barca; but they were carried further W. 
as the Greeks became better acquainted with the coast, 
and with the riches and capabilities of the country.— 
See Algeria; Atlas (Mount); Barca; Berbers; Car¬ 
thage; Fez; Morocco; Tripoli; Tunis, Ac. 

Bar'bary. n . A Barbarv horse. —See Barb. 

Bar'bary Ape, n. (Zool.) See Magot. 

Barbas tio. a town of Spain, prov. Aragon, on the 
river Vero, 23 m. S.E. of lluesca ; pop. 6,476. 

Bar bate, a. [bat. barbatus, from barba, a beard.] ( Bot.) 
Bearded; bearing tufts, spots, or lines of hair. 

Bar'bated, a. Possessing barbed points. 

Bar'bauid, Anna Letitia, an English authoress, sister 
of Dr. John Aikin, q. v., b. 1743. She was the writer of 
many poetical works and hymns which have enjoyed a 
wide reputation. As a writer of books for children she 
was very popular : D. 9th Mar., 1325. Her life has been 
written by Lucy Aikin, q.v., and prefixed to the collec¬ 
tion of the Works of A. L. Barbauld, 2 vol., London, 1825. 

Barbazau', Arnauld Guilhem, Sire be, a French cap¬ 
tain, who was distinguished by Charles VI. with the title 
of Chevalier Sans Reprochc, and by Charles VIII. with 
that of Restaurateur clu Royaumeet de la Gntronne (le 
France; B. about the end of the 14th century. He earned 
the former of his titles while yet young, by his success¬ 
ful defence of the national honor in a combat fought in 
1464, between six French and six English knights, before 
the castle of Montendre; and the latter designation he 
acquired by his extraordinary exertions on the 6ide of 
the Dauphin, at a time when the cause of native royalty, 
powerless in presence of the Anglo-Burgundiau league, 
boasted few adherents. He was killed at Bullegueville, 
in 1432. 

Bar be, n. See B arb. 

Bar becue, n. [From Fr. barbe-d-queue, i. e. from snout 
to tail.] An ox, sheep, lmg, or other large animal roasted 
entire. — A large entertainment assembled in the open 
air, at which whole animals are roasted and eaten, along 
with other viands. 

•—ti. a. To dress and roast an animal whole; which is per¬ 
formed by splitting the carcass through to the backbone, 
and then laying it flat upon a large gridiron, raised about 
two feet over a charcoal fire. 

•* Oldfield, with more than harpy throat endued, 

Cries, ‘Send me, gods, a whole hog barbecued.' "—Pope. 

Barbed, p. a. [See Barb.] Jagged with hooks or points; 
armed as a war-horse. 

Bar bel, n. [Fr. barbel; Dut. barbed, from Lat. barba, a 
beard.J ( Zool .) The Barbus vulgaris, a fresh-water 
malacopterygious fish, usually frequenting the deep and 
still parts of rivers, swimming with great strength and 
rapidity, and living not only on aquatic plants, worms, 
Ac., but occasionally by preying on small fishes. It is 
said to receive its name from the barbs or wattles at¬ 
tached about its mouth, by which appendages it is readily 
distinguished. The section of its body forms an elongat¬ 
ed ellipse; its scales are small, its head smooth; its eyes 
large and contiguous to the nostrils, and the lateral line 
Straight and nearly parallel to the back. Its pectoral 
fins are of a pale brown color; its ventral and anal, 
tipped with yellow; the tail is slightly bifurcated, and 
of a deep purple, and the general color of the scales is 
pale gold,*edged with black on the back and sides, and 
Silvery-white on the belly. The dorsal fin is armed with 
a strong serrated spine, with which it sometimes inflicts 
dangerous wounds on the hands of the fishermen, and 
does considerable damage to their nets. It is sometimes 
found to weigh from 9 to 20 pounds, and to measure 3 
feet in length. The flesh of the B. is very coarse and 
unsavory; the fish, consequently, is held in little esti¬ 
mation, except as affording 6port for the angler. 


(Farriery.) Knots of superfluous flesh in the mouth of 
a horse; barbies. 

Bar'foellate, a. [Lat. barba, a beard.] (Bot.) Beset 
with short and stiff hairs, like the pappus of Liatns spi- 
cata, Ac. 

Barbcl'lnlate, a. (Bot.) A diminutive of Barbel- 
late, q. v. 

Barbe-Marbois, (barb'marb-waw,) Francois, Comte 
and Marquis De, a French diplomatist and literateur, b. 
1745. He filled many high offices of state under Louis 
XVI.,Napoleon, LouisXVIII..andCharles X.,audduring 
a part of the reign of Louis Philippe, lie was the au¬ 
thor of Complut eV Arnold et de Sir Henri Clinton Cuntre 
les Flats Unu d’Ameriquc, Ac. D. 1837. 

Bar'ber, n. [Fr. barbier, from Lat. barba, a beard; 
Ger. barbier ; Pers. barbr.] One who shaves beards, and 
dresses hair. 

“ By whose decrees, oar siuful souls to save. 

No Suuday taukards foam, uo barbers shave.”— Byron. 

(Hist.) The occupation of barber is an institution of 
civilized life, and is only known among those nations 
that have made a certain progress in civilization. It is 
referred to by the prophet Ez-kiel; “and thou, son of 
man, take thee a barber's razor, and cause it to pass upon 
thine head and upon thy beard.” (Ezek. v. 1.) We do not 
read of B. at Rome till about the year 454 of the city; 
but there, as elsewhere, when once introduced, they be¬ 
came men of great notoriety, and their shops were the 
resort of all the loungers and newsmongers in the city. 
Hence they are alluded to by Horace as most accurately 
informed in all the minute history both of families and 
of the state. But in early times, the operations of the 
B. were not confined, as now, to shaving, hair-dressing, 
and the making of wigs; but included the dressing of 
wounds, blood-letting, and other surgical operations. 
It seems that in all countries the art of surgery and the 
art of shaving went hand in hand. The title of B-chi- 
rurgeon, or B.-surgeon, was generally applied to barbers. 
The B. of London were first incorporated by Edward IV. 
in 1461, and at that time were the only persons who prac¬ 
tised surgery. The barbers and the surgeons were sep¬ 
arated, and made two distinct corporations; in France, 
in the time of Louis XIV., and in England in 1745. The 
sig* of the jB.-cliirurgeon consisted of a striped pole from 
which was suspended a basin ; the fillet round the pole 
indicating the riband or bandage twisted round the arm 
previous to blood-letting, and the basin the vessel for 
receiving the blood. This sign has been generally re¬ 
tained by the modern B. In our country, nevertheless, 
it is only occasionally that the basin may be seen hang¬ 
ing at the door of an old barber's shop. 1 he character of 
the B. is amusingly illustrated in one of the tales of the 
A rabian Nights Entertainments, and has been immortal¬ 
ized by Beaumarchais, Mozart, and Rossini, under the 
name of Figaro. 

Bar'ber, v. a. To shave beards and dress hair. 

“ Our courteous Antony, 

Being barber'd ven times o er, goes to the feast."— Shake. 

Bar ber, in Minnesota, a post-office of Faribault co. 

Bar ber-eliirur geon, n. See Barber. 

Bar'berry-tree, «. {Bot.) See Berberis. 

Bar ber’s, in California, a village of Sutter co., about 
18 m. W N.W. of Marysville. 

Bar ber’s Mills, in Indiana, a post-office of Wells co. 

Bar'ber-sur'geon. n. One who joins the practice of 
surgery to the trade of a barber; a low practitioner of 
surgery. — See Barber. 

Bnr'bersville, or Bar'boursville, in Indiana, apost- 
village of Jefferson co., 14 m. N.N E. of Madison. 

Barbes, (har’baiz,) Armand, a French politician and 
revolutionist, b. in the island of Guadaluupe, in 1810. 
At an early age he was brought to France, and in 1836 
went to Paris to attend the law classes, where he had an 
opportunity of manifesting his political opinions at that 
period of public excitement. He had inherited some 
fortune from his father, and he thus had ample leisure 
to devote his attention to the formation of secret societies. 
During the whole reign of Louis Philippe he was Con¬ 
stantly engaged in conspiracies. In consequence of an 
unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the government, he 
was condemned to death, a sentence which was com¬ 
muted to perpetual confinement. The revolution of 1 S4s 
restored B. to liberty. He then founded a club, which 
took Ixis name, in which the doctrines of socialism were 
superadded to republicanism. The name of “Barbes” 
sounded in the ears of the people like the tocsin against 
monarchy and the bourgeoisie. After the insurrection 
of May, 1849, B. was sentenced to “deportation.” In 
1854, he was again set at liberty, and left France a vol¬ 
untary exile. D. 1870. 

Barbesieux', Louis Francois Le Tellier, Mar'qcis de, 
minister of Louis XIV., b. at Paris, 1668. As a states¬ 
man be w r as not without talents, but be allowed himself 
to he engrossed by his pleasures, to the neglect of public 
business. D. 1701. 

Bar’bet, n. [Fr.J (Zool.) The French name for the 
Poodle Dog, q. v. — A family of birds, order Scansores, or 
Climbers, including the genera Bucco, Pagonias, and Ta- 
matia. They are distinguished by their large conical 
beak, and by being bearded (whence the name) with five 
tufts of stiff bristles, directed forwards. They inhabit 
Java, Sumatra, Ac., and flutter about in all positions on 
the trunks and among the branches of trees, in search 
of insects or their larvte, on which they feed. The plu¬ 
mage of some of the species is very brilliant. 

—A genus of Aphis, q. v. 

Barbette, (bar-bet’,) n. [Fr.] (Fort.) An earthen ter¬ 
race inside the parapet of a rampart, serving as a plat¬ 
form for heavy guns; it has such an elevation that the 
guns may be fired over the crest of the parapet instead 


of through the embrasures, to give them a freer scope 
by swivelling around into different directions. 

Barbezicux, ( bar 1 beh-se-uh ',) a town of France, dep. 
Charente, cap. of an arroud., 21 in. S.W. of Angouleme. 
It is well built, and has some manufactures. The cha- 
pons trujfes of B. are highly esteemed. Pop. 4,265. 

Barbican, n. (Fort.) See Barbacan. 

Bar bier, Auguste, a French poet, born at Lorient, 
1805. He made himself known by a little volume of 
poetry, entitled lambes. Those verses, published after 
the revolution of 1830, were remarkable tor their energy, 
and accepted as a true expression of the popular feeling 
at that time. After this splendid effort, B. failed in every¬ 
thing he attempted. He is emphatically the man of one 
hook; hut such as he is, he will he remembered when 
the manufacturers of whole libraries will sleep unnoticed 
in the shroud of obscurity. He was elected member of 
the French Academy in May, 1869. D. 1882. 

Bar'biton, n. [Gr.J (Mus.) A musical instrument of 
ancient Greece, resembling a lyre. 

Bar bie, n. See Barbel. 

Barbo sa, Duarte, b. at Lisbon in 1480. He travelled 
all through India, visited the Molucca Islands, and was 
Magellan’s companion ami historiographer in his circunU 
navigation of the globe. He was murdered by the na¬ 
tives of the island of Zebu in the year 1521. 

Bar'botine, n. (Chem.) A vegetable product from the 
Levant and India, consisting of wax, bitter extract, 
earthy and gummy matter. 

Barbour, John, au eminent Scottish poet, B. about 
1320. He is now principally remembered for his work 
entitled The Book of the Gestes of King Robert the Bruce, 
d. 1395. 

Bar bour, in Alabama, an E.S.E. county, having an 
area of 825 sq. m. On the E. it is bounded by the Chat¬ 
tahoochee liver (navigable for steamers), and it is also 
watered by Pea River. It lias a varied surface, with 
a generally fertile soil, here and there covered with 
pine forests. Cap. Clayton. 

—A post-office of Choctaw co. 

Bar'bour, in W. Virginia, a northern county. Area, 
330 sq. m. It is traversed by Tygart’s Valley River, an 
offshoot of the Monongahela, and also by Buchanan 
River and Elk Creek. Surface, generally mountainous. 
Soil, fertile, with excellent pastures. It was formed in 
1843 from the counties of Harrisou, Lewis, and Randolph. 
Cap. Philippi. 

Bar bour's Mills, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Lycoming co. 

Bar'boursville, in Indiana. Sec Barbersville. 

Bar'boursville, in Kentucky, a township and post¬ 
village, cap. of Knox co., on the Cumberland river, 122 
m. E.S.E. of Frankfort. Coal and iron are abundant ip 
the neighborhood. 

Bar'boursville, in New York, a village of Delaware 
co., about 30 m. K. of Binghamton. 

Bar'boursville, in Virginia, a village of Orange co.. 
76 m. N.W. of Richmoud. 

Bar'boursville, in VP. Virginia, a village, cap. of 
Cabell co., on the Giiyandotte river, 7 m. from its con¬ 
fluence with the Ohio, and 352 W.N.W. of the city of 
Richmond. 

Barbuda, (bar-boo'da,) one of the Caribbean islands in 
the West Indies belonging to the Leeward group; Lat. 
17° 47' N.; Lon. 62° 2' W. Ext. 15 miles long and 
8 broad. Area, about 75 sq. m. Desc. Low, level, well 
covered with woods, and generally fertile. Prod. Cotton, 
corn, pepper, and tobacco. Pop. 1,600. 

Bar'blile, n. [Lat. barbula, trorn barba, a beard.] A 
very minute liarb or beard. 

Barby, (bar'be,) a tow r n of Prussian Saxony, on the 
tribe, 14 ui. from Magdeburg l‘op. 7.211. 

Bar ca, a country of N. Africa, on the S. coast of the 
Mediterranean, between Tripoli and Egypt, and forming 
the E. division of the regency of Tripoli; Lat. between 
30° and 33° N.; Lon. between 20° and 25° E. Ext. about 
500 m. from N. to S., with a breadth of about 400 from 
E. to W. Desc. Formerly this country was believed to 
be nothing more than a barren desert, inhabited only by 
wandering Arabs; but it is now found to contain much 
excellent pasturage, more especially in the N. and E. 
The vegetable productions are the palm, the pine, the 
date, the olive, and the fig. There are, properly speak¬ 
ing, no rivers, but only streams, which are quite dry in 
the hot season, and generally lost in the sauds of the 
Libyan desert. Pop. estimated about 1,000,000, consist¬ 
ing of Bedouin Arabs, with a few Jews and other 
foreigners in the towns. This country was the seat of 
the ancient five Greek cities, Arsinoe, Barca, Berenice, 
Apollonia, and Cyrene; all of which have passed into 
decay, save Berenice, which is now called Bengasi. 

Barcarolle, ( bar'ka-rol,) n. [Fr., from It. larcaruolo, a 
boatman.] (Mus.) A song or melody sung by the gondo¬ 
liers of Venice. Though these airs are composed for the 
common people, and o'ten by the gondoliers themselves, 
yet they so abound in melody, that there is not a musi¬ 
cian in all Italy who does not pique himself on knowing 
and being able to sing some of them. The words of 
these B. are commonly more than natural, partaking of 
the language employed in the conversation of those who 
sing them; hut such as like a faithful representation of 
the manners of a people, and have any taste for the Ve¬ 
netian dialect, become passionately fond both of the 
poetry and music of these popular songs. La Biondina 
in Gondoletta, and O Pescator delV onde, are pleasing 
specimens of this species of song. — See Gondolier. 

—A piece of instrumental music for a guitar, composed in 
imitation of a gondolier’s song. 

Bareelo'na. a city and seaport of Spain, on the Medi¬ 
terranean, cap. of the prov. ot Catalonia, on the edge of a 
fruitful plain between the rivers Besos and Llobregat, at 









274 


BARC 


BARD 


BARE 


the foot of Monjouich {Mens Jnvis), 315 m. E.NE. of 
Madrid, and 194 N.E. of Valencia. It is divided into 
nearly two equal parts by a largo strait called the Ram- 
bla, and has for its principal edifice a cathedral, which 
occupies the highest part of the old town. The harbor, 
though very spacious, is difficult of entrance. There are 
academies for jurisprudence, practical medicine, natural 
philosophy, history, the fine arts, and several libraries, 
one of which is rich in MSS. of Catalonia and Aragon. 
Com. B. is distinguished from any other Spanish town 
by the active and enterprising spirit of its inhabitants; 
its commerce is extensive, and carried on with all modern 
improvements. Manf. Leather, lace, silks, woollens 
cottons, and jewelry. Exp. Iron, copper, arms, cork, 
silks, soap, paper, ribbons, laces, hats, shell-fruit, and 
brandies. Imp. Timber, hides, horns, wax, stock-fish, 
hemp, sugar, coffee, cocoa, and other colonial goods. 
Lat. 41° 27' 7" N.; Lon. 2° 9'57" E. The foundation of 
this ancient city is assigned by tradition to as early a 
period as 400 years before the building of Itome. Hamil- 
car Barcas, the Carthaginian, is said to have restored 
it b. c. 200; and from him it received the name of Bar- 
tius. The Carthaginians were expelled b. c. 206; and it 
belonged to Rome from b. c. 146 until a. n. 411, when it 
was taken by the Goths. The Moors captured it in 718, 
and Charlemagne in 801. In 1137 it was annexed to 
Aragon. It became a great centre of commerce in the 
15th century; and the first bank of exchange and de¬ 
posit in Europe was established here in 1401. B. has 
since that period sustained several sieges. The French 
took it on the 7th Aug., 1697; it was restored by the 
treaty of Ryswick, and again taken on the 9th Oct., 1705; 
by the Earl of Peterborough on the 13th Sept., 1706; and 
by the Duke of Berwick, after a long siege, 12th Sept., 
1714. The French captured it on their invasion of Spain, 
28th Feb., 1808. An insurrection occurred here on the 
13tli Nov., 1842, and the city surrendered 3d Dec., 1842, 
after a bombardment by the regent, Gen. Espartero. 
Pop. in 1897, estimated at 270,000. 

Bit reel o'n a, in New York, a post-village of Westfield 
township, Chautauqua co., on Lake Erie, at the mouth 
of Chautauqua Creek, 57 m. S.W. of Buffalo. 

Barcelo’na, New, a seaport of Venezuela, S. Amer¬ 
ica, at the mouth of the Neveri, about 2 m. from the Carib¬ 
bean Sea. Lat. 10° 10' N.; Lon. 64° 47'W. It is neither 
handsomely nor agreeably constructed, and the great 
number of hogs which are fed in the city also contribute 
to engender filth and disease. Its chief exports are 
horses and cattle. Pop. about 16,000. ■ 

Barcelone'ta, a town of Venezuela, S. America, on 
the Paragua, 100 m. S.S.E. of Angostura. 

Bar'clay, Alexander, an English poet of the 15th cen¬ 
tury, chiefly known by his famous poem, The. Shyp of 
Polys of the Worlde, partly a translation, and partly an 
imitation of the German Narrenschiff, by Brandt. It is 
only interesting as showing the manners and customs of 
the times satirized. 

Bar'clay, Robert, b. at Gordonstown, Scotland, 1648. 
He early adopted the doctrines of Quakerism, joined the. 
Society, and became very zealous in propagating as well 
as defending their tenets in England, and on the conti¬ 
nent of Europe. In 1676, he visited Holland and Ger¬ 
many, where he became acquainted with Elizabeth, Prin¬ 
cess Palatine of the Rhine, who continued to be a warm 
frieud to B. and his co-religionists ever after. In the 
same year he published his celebrated “Apology,” under 
the title of Theologies Vere Christiana: Apologia , 4to. 
Amsterdam. It was translated into English by himself, 
and published in 1678. It has gone through many 
editions, and been translated into most of the European 
languages. Written with much ability, with clearness 
of reiisoning and perspicuity of expression, it also shows 
great ingenuity in the advocacy of unpopular opinions. 
In 1677 he again visited Holland, in company with Wil¬ 
liam Penn and George Fox. In 1682, he was appointed 
governor of New Jersey, with liberty of appointing a 
deputy. That colony he never visited. D. 16J0. 

Bar'clay, in Iowa, a post-township of Black Hawk co., 
7 m. E. of Waterloo. 

Bar'clay, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Bradford 
co., 16 m. S.W. of Towauda. 

Bar'clayans, n. pi. {Bccl. Hist.) See Bereans. 

Bar clay <le Tolly, Michael. Prince, a celebrated 
Russian military commander, of Scottish descent, b. in 
Livonia in 1755. He commenced his military career in 
the campaigns against the Turks, the Swedes, and the 
Poles. He was wounded at Eylau, when he was made 
lieutenant-general. In March, 1808, ho surprised the 
Swedes at Umea, by a march of two days over the ice 
which covered the Gulf of Bothnia. He was made gov¬ 
ernor-general of Finland, and in 18u9, appointed minister 
of war. He was author of the plan of operations Avhich 
was followed with signal advantage by the Russian army 
in the campaign of 1812. After the battle of Bautzen, 
26th May, 1813, B. was appointed commander-in-chief 
of the Prusso-liussian army; and under him Wittgen¬ 
stein commanded the Russians; Bliicher the Prussians; 
and the Grand-Duke Constantine the Imperial Guard. 
On the day the allies entered Paris he was created general- 
field-marshal. D. 1818. 

Bar'd ays ville, in North Carolina, a post-office of 
Harnett co. 

Barcolt'lieba, or Barcok'ecas, (“Son of a star,”) a 
famous Jewish impostor, whose real name was Simeon, 
and who lived in the 2d century a.d. After the destruc¬ 
tion of Jerusalem by Titus, the Jews, at different periods, 
sought to regain their independence; and B., seeing his 
countrymen still impatient of the Roman yoke, resolved 
to attempt their emancipation. With this view he sought 
to sound the dispositions of his co-religionists of Egypt, 
Mesopotamia, Greece, Italy, and Gaul, and sent forth 


emissaries, who travelled over all the provinces of the 
Roman empire. When all was ready, B. solemnly an¬ 
nounced himself as king and Messiah, and seized by sur¬ 
prise on many fortified places. All who refused to sub¬ 
mit to him, particularly the Christians, were put to death. 
When the great success which at first attended his enter¬ 
prise became known, great numbers of Jews, from all 
parts of the world, hastened to join his standard; and 
so formidable did this revolt become, that Julius Severus, 
general of the armies of the Emperor Adrian, and one 
of the greatest captions of the age, was compelled to act 
with extreme caution, and to content himself with sur¬ 
prising such detached bodies of the enemy as happened 
to be off their guard. Soon, however, the superior dis¬ 
cipline of the Romans prevailed. The Jewish army, shut 
up in the fortress of Bethar, succumbed under fatigue 
and famine; B. perished miserably, and all his followers 
were massacred or reduced to slavery. From this period 
may be dated the entire dispersion of the race of Israel 
over the face of the earth. This war cost the conquerors 
much blood. It lasted for 5 years, and did not terminate 
till the year 136. 

Bar'con, n. [It. bar cone, from barca, a bark.] A vessel 
built to carry freight, much used in the Mediterranean. 

Bard, n. [Gael, bard; W. bardd, a priest, a philosopher, 
a teacher; more especially a poet, from bar, the top, the 
summit.] The name under which were known the poets 
of the Celtic tribes, who, in battle, raised the war-cry, 
and in peace sang the exploits of their heroes, celebrated 
the attributes of their gods, and chronicled the history 
of their nation. Originally spread over the greater part 
of western Europe, they seem to have been the heralds, 
the priests, and the lawgivers of the free barbarians, who 
first occupied its ancient forests, until, by the gradual 
progress of southern civilization and despotism, they 
were driven back into the fastnesses of Wales, Ireland, 
and Scotland, where the last echoes of their harps have 
long since died away. Their early history is uncertain. 
Diodorus {Lib. v. 31.) tells us, that the Celts had bards, 
who sang to musical instruments; and Strabo {Lib. iv.) 
testifies that they were treated with respect approaching 
to veneration. The passage of Tacitus (Germ. 7.) is a 
doubtful reading, lleyne does not venture to decide 
whether it is barditus, as some who explain it to mean 
bard’s song, maintain; or buritus, which, according to 
Adelung, is the true reading, and signifies merely war- 
cry. The first Welsh bards, of whom anything is extant, 
are Taliesin, Aneuriu, and Llywarch, of the 6th century; 
but their language is imperfectly understood. From the 
days of these monarebs of the bards, we have nothing 
further till the middle of the 10tli century, when the 
reputation of the order was increased under the auspices 
of Howel Dda. A code of laws was framed by that prince, 
to regulate their duties and fix their privileges. They 
were distributed into three classes, with a fixed allow¬ 
ance; degrees of rank were established, and prize-contests 
instituted. Their order was frequently honored by the 
admission of princes, among whom was Llewellyn, last 
king of Wales. The Welsh, kept in awe as they were by 
the Romans, harassed by the Saxons, and eternally jeai- 



Fig. 290. — a welsh bard, (\\th century.) 


ous of the attacks, the encroachments, and the neighbor¬ 
hood of aliens, were, on this account, attached to their 
Celtic manners. This situation and these circumstances 
inspired them with a proud and obstinate determination [ 
to maintain a national distinction, and preserve their 
ancient usages among which the bardic profession was so 
eminent. Sensible of the influence of their traditional 


poetry in keeping alive the ideas of military valor ancJ 
of ancient glory among the people, Edward I. is said to 
have collected all the Welsh bards, and caused them to 
bo banged, by martial law, as stirrers up of sedition. On 
this incident is founded Gray’s well-known ode, The 
Bard. We, however, find them existing at a much later 
period, but confining themselves to the humble task of 
compiling private genealogies. But little is known of 
the music and measures of the bards; their prosody de¬ 
pended much on alliteration; their instruments were the 
harp, the pipe, and the crwlh, or lute. The bardic insti¬ 
tution of the Irish bears a strong affinity to that of the 
Welsh. The genealogical sonnets of the Irish bards are 
still the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ire¬ 
land. Their songs are strongly marked with the traces 
of Scaldio imagination, which still appears among the 
“tale-tellers,” a sort of poetical historians, supposed to 
be the descendants of the bards. There was,also, evidently 
a connection of the Welsh with Armorica. Hence, in 
the early French romances, we often find the scene laid 
in Wales; and on the other hand, many fictions have 
passed from the Troubadours into the tales of the Welsh. 
In the Highlands of Scotland, there are considerable 
remains of many of the compositions of their old bards 
still preserved, the most celebrated of which are the 
poems of Ossian, q. v. Many of the finest old bardic 
remains may be found in the Mabinogion of Lady C. 
Guest, (Loudon, 1850.) — See Eisteddfod. 

—In modern parlance; a poet. 

“Nor know we when to spare, or where to strike. 

Our bards and censors are so much alike.”— Byron. 

—[Fr. barde; Icel. bardi, a shield.] (Antiq.) A horse’s 
defensive armor. 

{Cookery.) A strip of bacon used in larding meat whilflf 
roasting. 

Bard, Samuel, an American physician, b. at Philadelphia, 
on 1st April, 1742. He studied medicine at London and 
Edinburgh, where he received bis M.D. degree in 1765. 
On his return to his native country, he founded at New 
York a school of medicine, a public library, and a hos¬ 
pital for the use of the pupils. Among the latter was 
the illustrious Washington. In 1813, he was nominated 
President of the College of Surgeons at New York. D. 
24th May, 1821. 

Bard, in Pennsylvania, a village of Bedford county, in 
Harrison township. 

Bard, in So. Dakota, a village of Hanson co. 

Bard'ed, a. {Antiq.) Wearing defensive armor: as 
barded horses. 

{Her.) Richly caparisoned; as, “ barded, and richly 
trapped.” — Stow. 

Bardesanists, ( bar-de'sa-nists,) n. pi. (Eccl. Hist.) A 
Christian sect which flourished in Mesopotamia, from 
A. D. 161 to 180. They were the followers of Bardesanes, 
of Edessa, who at one time advocated the tenets of Val¬ 
entinus, the Egyptian, though he afterwards abjured 
them. Mosheim contends against this view, declaring 
that Bardesanes admitted two principles, like the Mani- 
chteans. Ilis followers denied the Incarnation and the 
Resurrection, and continued to exist as late as the 5th 
century. 

B;trd'ic, a. Belonging, or relating to bards, or their 
poetry. 

Bardig-lione, n. {Chent.) A blue variety of anhydrous 
sulphate of lime, used for ornamental purposes. 

Bard'isli, a. That which pertains to. or is composed 
by, a bard or bards: as, “ bardish impostures.” — Selden. 

Bard'ism, n. Bardic science; the learning and maxims 
of bards. 

Bard'linjf, n. A little or inferior bard, (r.) 

Bard in Illinois, a post-village of McDonough 

co., 67 m. N.E. of Quincy. 

Bard'sey. a small island of N. Wales, in the Irish Sea, 
near the N. point of Cardigan Bay, co. Carnarvon. Lat. 
52° 45'N., Lon. 4° 46'W. It is accessible only on the 
S.E. side, where there is a small, well-sheltered harbor 
for small vessels. It owes its present name from having 
been the last refuge of the Welsh bards. 

Eards'town,or Bairds'town,in Kentucky,a post- 
town and cap. of Nelson co., 40 m. S.E. of Louisville, 
and 50 m. S.W. of Frankfort. It is a handsome and pros¬ 
perous place. 

Bards'town Junction, in Kentucky, a post-office 

of Bullitt co. 

Bare. a. [A S. bar or berr; Icel. ber ; Heb. bar, to open, 
to make evident.] Naked; without clothes or covering; 
as, a bare expanse. — Uncovered out of respect; as, bare¬ 
headed. 

“Though the lords used to be covered whilst the commons 
were bare." — Lord Clarendon. 

—Plain; simple; without ornament; unpolished, (r.) 

“ Yet was their manners then but bare and plain.”— Spenser. 

—Poor; empty; unfurnished; indigent. 

“ Even from a bare treasury.” — Dryden. 

—Threadbare; much worn. 

“For it appears by tbeir bare liveries, that they live by yonf 
bare words.”— Shaks. 

—Mere; unaccompanied; alone. 

“ It was a bare petition of a state 
To one whom they had punished."— Shake. 

—Raw; excoriated; as, a bare wound. 

— n. Substance; surface; body, (it.) 

— v.a. To lay open; to strip off a covering; to make naked. 

“ The turtle on the bared branch, 

Laments the wounds that death did launch.” — Spenser. 

Bare, the old preterite of bear; now written bore. 

Bare'lione, n. [From bare and bone.] One so lean that 
the hones appear; a thin, attenuated person. 

“ Here conies lean Jack, here comes barebone.'—-Shake. 























BARF 


BARI 


BARK 


275 


Bare'bone, or Bar'bone, Praise-God, a member of 
the legislative body assembled by Cromwell in 1653, 
after the dissolution of the Long Parliament. The royal¬ 
ists facetiously distinguished him by calling the conven¬ 
tion Barebone? s Parliament. At the time when General 
Monk was in London, B. headed the mob who presented 
a petition to parliament, against the recall of Charles II. 
— It is said that there were three brothers of this family, 
each of whom had a sentence to his name, viz : “ Praise- 
God Barebone;” “ Christ-came-into-the-world-to-save 
Barebone,” and “If-Christ-had-not-died-thou-hadst-been- 
damned Barebone.” The parent of this hopeful family 
could scarcely have carried his fanaticism further in 
christening- his children. 

Bare'honed) a. So lean that the bones are visible. 

Bare faced, a. With the face bare or uncovered. 

“Your French crowns have no hair at all, and then you will 
play barefaced."—Shaks. 

—Shameless; impudent; glaring. 

11 It is most certain, that barefaced bawdry is the poorest pre¬ 
tence to wit imaginable.''— Dryden. 

Bare'faeedly, adv. Openly; shamefully; without re¬ 
serve or disguise. 

•• Though only some profligate wretches own it too barefacedly." 

Locke. 

Bare'faeedness. n. Effrontery; assurance: audacity. 

Bare'foot, a. With the feet bare; having on neither 
shoes nor stockings. 

( Bed. Hist.) An appellation given to certain monks 
and nuns, who abstain from wearing any covering on 
the feet, or who, instead of shoes, wear only sandals. 
They do not constitute a separate order in the Roman 
Catholic Church,butare to be found asahighergradeof 
ascetics among most of the orders of Carmelites, Fran¬ 
ciscans, Augustines, Capuchins, &c. 

Bareges, (ba-rdf,) a village of France, dep. Hautes 
Pyrenees, on the frontier of Spain. It is celebrated for 
its sulphurous and thermal waters, the heat of which 
varies from 73° to 120° F. These highly esteemed spas 
are greatly celebrated for their efficacy in all scrofulous 
diseases, tumors, cutaneous eruptions, rheumatisms, con¬ 
tractions of the muscles or tendons, chronic wounds, or 
indolent ulcers. 

Bareges, n. ( Com .) The name given, from the above 
village, (though, in reality, the seat of manufacture is at 
Bagneres de Bigorre.) to mixed tissues adapted for wo¬ 
men’s dresses. B. are usually a mixture of silk and 
worsted; an inferior kind being composed of cotton and 
worsted. They vary in color, and are sometimes light in 
tint, with printed patterns. All are of a slight fabric for 
summer wear. The best are still manufactured in France. 

Brtr'egTiie, Glairine, Zoooene, Plombierine, n. ( Chem.) 
A gelatinous organic deposit at the hot wells of Bareges, 
and other places, destitute apparently of organization, 
and therefore probably produced by the action of water 
on plants. It imparts a flesh-broth flavor and odor to 
the water, which is much prized, and is sometimes imi¬ 
tated by adding animal gelatine to the sulphur-baths 
where B is deficient. 

Bare -snawn. a. Eaten bare. 

“By treason’s tooth barc-gnawn and cankerbit.” — Shaks. 

Bare'-handed, a. With the hands bare. 

Bare headed, a. With the head uncovered, whether 
put of respect or any other cause. 

“ Next, before the chariot went two men bare-headed." — Bacon. 

Bare'hestdediiess. n. State or condition of being 
bareheaded. 

Bareilly, (ha-ri'le,) a district of British India, forming 
a portion of Rohilcund, having the Kumaon hills on the 
N., the Ganges on the W., a portion of Oude on the E. 
and S., and Furruckabad, Alighur, and Moradabad on 
the X. and W. Lat. between 28° and 29° N. Area, 2,937 
sip m. Pop. 1,143.057. 

Bareilly, capital of the above district, stands on an afflu¬ 
ent of the Ganges. 118 m. N.E. of Agra. Eat. 28° 23' N., 
Lon. 79° 16' E. It lots several mosques, a strong quad¬ 
rangular citadel, a great number of Persian and Hindoo 
schools, an English college, and is the head-quarters of a 
civil establishment and circuit court. Pop. 111,300. 

Bare'-legaed, a. With the legs bare. 

Bare'ly, adv. Nakedly; poorly; merely; scarcely. 

“Re barely named the street, promis’d the wine, 

But his kind wife gave me the very sign." — Donne. 

Bare' Mountain, in yew York, a peak in the W. part 
of the Highlands, in Orange co. 

Bare'>nccke(l, a. With the neck bare, naked, or ex¬ 
posed. 

Bare'ness, ». State of being bare; nakedness; lean¬ 
ness; poverty; defect of clothes. 

“ You barely leave onr thorns to prick ourselves, 

And mock us with onr bareness." — Shaks. 

Bar entz, or Barents, Willem, a celebrated Dutch pi¬ 
lot and navigator of the 16th century, who made several I 
voyages toward the North Pole, and discovered the Isles | 
of Spitzbergen. Himself and crew were the first Euro-1 
peaus who wintered in the Polar regions. D. 1597. 

Bare'poles, a. (yaut.) Applied to a ship lying to, 
without any sail set whatever, in a gale of wind; gener¬ 
ally speaking, in consequence of being on a lee-shore. 

Bare'-piirap. n. A pump for drawing liquor out of a 
cask or other receptacle. 

Bare'-ribbed, a. Lean. 

Bares'ville, in Ohio a village of Monroe co. 

Bare'ville, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Lancaster 
county. 

Bare'-worn, a. Worn to a condition of bareness. 

Bar'-fee, n. (Eng. Law.) A fee taken by the sheriff, 
time out of mind, for every prisoner who is acquitted. 

B»r'fiel<l, in Arkansas, a village of Mississippi co. 


Barflenr, (bar 1 floor,) a small town of France, dep. of 
La Manche, 15 m. from Cherbourg. It is now a place of 
little importance, but it is noteworthy as being the port 
from whence it is believed that William the Conqueror I 
set out on his invasion of England. — The cape of B., 18 j 
m. E. of Cherbourg, has a lighthouse 271 feet high. 

Bar'ge, a town of N. Italy, prov. Coni. 28 m. b.a.W. of ! 
Turin; pop. 4,290 

Bar'ga, a town of Central Italy, prov of Lucca, near thej 
Serchio, 16 m N. of Lucca. There are fine quarries of 
jasper in its vicinity. Pop. 8,569. 

Bar gain, n. [Fr. Iiarguigner, to higgle; It. bargagnare, 
to cavil, to contend; from L. Lat. barcaniare. to make 
or start difficulties, from barca, the goods which a ship 
brings into port.] A contest or wrangling; a contest 
between buyer and seller; a firm and secure agreement 
or contract between parties. 

“ Give me but my price for the other two, and yon shall even 
have that into the bargain." — L’Estrange. 

—A stipulation; an agreement of any kind; a thing bought 
and sold. 

“ I am sorry for thy misfortune; however, we mast make the 
best of a bad bargain.” — Arbuthnol. 

—A gainful or lucrative transaction. — By usage, the word 
B. has come to be taken for such transactions as are fa¬ 
vorable to the buyer; otherwise the term is qualified as 
“ a bad bargain.’” 

(Law.) Bargain and Sale. A contract or bargain by 
the owner of land, in consideration of money, or its 
equivalent, paid, to sell land to another person, called 
the bargainee, whereupon a use arises in favor of the 
latter, to whom the seisin is transferred by force of the 
statute of uses. All things, for the most part, that may 
be granted by any deed may be granted by bargain and 
sale, and an estate may be created in fee, for life or for 
years. It is a very common form of conveyance in the 
U. States. 

Bar gain, v. i. To higgle; to make a contract or agree¬ 
ment. 

“ The thrifty state will bargain ere they fight." — Dryden. 

— v. a. To transfer anything for a consideration. 

Bargainee', n. [O. Fr. bargaigne .] (Law.) The party 
in a contract who receives, or agrees to receive, the 
property sold. 

Bar gainer, Bargainor', n. (Law.) Onewhomakes 
a bargain, or contracts with another. 

Bar'gaintown, in yew Jersey, a post-village and port 
of entry, in the S.E. of Atlantic co., 55 m. S.S.E. of 
Camden. 

Barge, ( barj ,) n. [Fr. barge ; Dut. bargie, radically the 
same as oarA-.] (Mar.) A vessel or boat of pleasure or 
state; usually decorated, as, the barge of the Lord Mayor 
of London. 

“Plac'd in the gilded barge. 

Proud with the burden of so sweet a charge.’’— Waller. 

—A large boat used by the commander of a vessel of war. 

“When I had taken my barge and gone ashore.” — Raleigh. 

—A flat-bottomed roomy boat for the conveyance of goods. 
See Boat. 

Barge'-board, n. (Arch.) A term applied to inclined 
projecting boards placed at the gable of a building, and 
hiding the horizontal timbers of the roof, as in fig. 291. 



Fig. 291.— barge-board. 

Barge'-couples, n. pi. (Arch.) Two beams mortised 
and tenoned together for strengthening the building. 
The term is not much used. 

Barge'-COlirse, n. (Arch.) That part of the tiling 
which projects over the gable of a building, and is made 
up below with mortar. 

Barg’e'mau, n. The man who manages or steers a 
barge. 

Barge'-master, n. The proprietor or owner of a 
barge, who carries goods for hire. 

Bar'gersville, in Indiana, a post-office of Johnson co. 

Bar'-gown, n. In England, the gown worn by a bar¬ 
rister, or member of the bar. 

Bar'liaiil. Richard Harris, better known by his literary 
pseudonym of “Thomas Ingoldsby,” b. at Canterbury, 
1788. He was appointed a minor canon of St. Paul’s, Lon¬ 
don, in 1821. B. was the author of the famous Ingnldsby 
Xs^md.s’,aseriesofburlesquepoems, which have obtained 
immense popularity. He also published a novel called 
My Omsin yicholas. D. 1845. 

Bar’liainsviile, in Virginia, a vill. of New Kent co. 

Ba ri. (anc. Barium,) a fortified seaport and citv of S. 
Italy, rap. of the prov. of Terra di Bari, on the Adriatic, 
50 m. N.NAV. of Tarentum ; Lat. 41° 7' 52" N., Lon. 16° 
53' 4" E. It is a mean and ill-built place, with narrow 
and dirty streets. Manf. Cotton, glass, silk, hats, soap, 
&c. The port, which is encumbered with sand, only 
admits small vessels. B. is a very ancient city. It is 


referred to by Horace, “ Ban mania piscosi ” (Sat. ■ 5 .), 
In more modern times it fell successively into the posses¬ 
sion of the Saracens and Normans. Pop. 50,524. 
Barigazzo, (bar’e-gats'o,) a village of N. Italy, prov. 
of Lunigiana, in the neighborhood of which natural 
fires issue from the soil, a phenomenon similar to that of 
Pielramala, q. v. 

Barilo, (bar'e-lai,) a town of S. Italy, 3 m. from Malfi; 
pop. about 4,000. 

Barilla, (ba-ril'la,) n. [Sp.] (('hem.) The name given 
to commercial alkalies, formerly imported from Alicante, 
Malaga, &c. It is the ash of the Sals'ia and other sea- 
plants. It was much used in soap manufacture, but is 
now almost entirely superseded by the carbonate of soda 
obtained from common salt. 

Bar'illet, n. [Fr.] A small cask, or something like 
one : a little barrel. 

Bar'ijig, Alexander. See Ashburton. 

Baring, in Maine, a post-township of Washington co., 
on the S. side of the St. Croix river, 150 m. N.E. by B. 
of Augusta. 

Bar'-iron, n. (Metal.) Iron wrought into malleable bars. 

IBar'ilone, n. (Mus.) See Barytone. 

! Barium, (bair'e-um,) n. [Ur. baros, heavy.] (Chtm.) 
A silver-white or yellowish metal, in several respects 
resembling calcium and strontium; symbol Ba; atomic 
weight 136-9. It occurs in nature, not in the free state, 
but in the same forms of combination as strontium, 
viz., as the carbonate, BaCo 2 ,and as the sulphate, BaSo 4 
(see Baryta). It is prepared by the decomposition of 
the chloride by an electric current (see Electrolysis). 
It is ductile, malleable; not easily decomposed by heat; 
oxidizes by contact with the air, and decomposes water 
readily at the ordinary temperatures. 

B. Chloride, BaCl 2 -j- 2 II 2 0, is made by dissolving B, 
carbonate in hydrochloric acid, evaporating and crystal¬ 
lizing. It is a colorless salt, crystallizing in flat four- 
sided tables, and dissolving in three parts of cold and 
two parts of hot water. Its solution forms the usual 
test for sulphuric acid, which it indicates by forming a. 
white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. Form. BaCl + 
2H 2 0. 

B. Peroxide, Ba0 2 . Barium peroxide, or dioxide, a 
white powder closely resembling the simple oxide; is 
the favorite agent by which free oxygen is obtained from 
the air on a large scale. When barium’ oxide, BaO, is 
heated in a current of air, it takes up oxygen and be¬ 
comes dioxide, Ba0 2 ; and when, in its turn, this di¬ 
oxide is heated to a temperature above 400° C. its 
component parts separate into barium oxide, BaO, and 
free oxygen, the operation being plainly represented by 
the equation Ba0 2 — BaO + 0. Barium peroxide is 
used also in the preparation of hydrogen dioxide (q. v.) 

Bark, n. [Dan. barke; Ger. barle; A S. benrgan, to pro¬ 
tect, to defend.] (Bot.) The external coating of an ex¬ 
ogenous or dicotyledonous stem and its branches. It is 
distinguished from the rind or false bark of an endoge¬ 
nous or of an acrogenous stem, by its mode of growth, 
and by the ease with which it may be separated from 
the wood beneath. The bark presents three distinct 
layers, independently of the epidermis which is common 
to it, with other external parts of the plant. These 
three layers, proceeding from within outwards, are 
known as the liber, or inner bark; the cellular envelope, 
or green layer; and the suberous, or corky layer. Some 
botanists apply to these three layers, respectively, the 
Greek terms, endophlceum, mesnjihlceum, and epiphlwum. 
The hark is connected organically with the wood by 
means of the medullary rays and cambium-layer. (See 
Stem.) It develops in an opposite direction to that of 
the wood; for while the latter increases by additions to 
the outer surface, the bark increases by additions to the 
inner. Each layer of the bark grows separately; the 
two outer layers, constituting the cellular system of the 
bark, rarely continue to grow after a lew years, but be¬ 
come dead structures on the surlace of the tree. The 
inner bark, however, continues to grow throughout the 
life of the individual, by the addition of annual layers 
on its inner surface from the cambium layer of the wood. 
In some trees, the oak for example, up to a certain age, 
these liber layers may be readily observed. (See Liber.) 
The outer layers of the bark, from the distention to- 
which they are exposed by the growth of the wood be¬ 
neath, generally become cracked in various directions, 
and give a rugged look to the trunk, as in the elm and 
cork-oak. In some trees, however, as the beech, the 
bark always remains smooth, owing partly to the small 
development of cellular layers, and partly to the great 
distensibility of the layers. There are several kinds of 
bark which enter largely into commerce; being used for 
processes in the arts, or for medicines. These will ba 
found noticed in separate articles, under the botanical 
names of the genera which include the plants producing 
them. 

(Med.) Though the rinds of many trees and plants are 
used in medicine, all of them possessing more or les* 
tonic properties, the word B. is now almost exclusively 
confined to that of the Cinchona tree, or Peruvian bark, 
and its active principle, quinine. — The medicinal action 
of all B. is nearly similar, though some few have a spe¬ 
cial action of their own. Taken generally, however, 
they act as tonics, astringents, antiseptics, and stomach • 
ics.’while the Peruvian B. is, in additions febrifuge of the 
highest order, especially so in all fevers characterized by 
periodicities of action: hence its great efficacy in inter¬ 
mittent and remittent fevers, gangrene, typhoid fevers, 
and all neuralgic affections. — See Cinchona, Peruvian 
Bark, Quinine, &c. and Bark. 

— v. a. To strip otf bark. 

“ The severest penalties ought to be put upon barking any tre» 
that is not felled.” — Sir W. Temple. 





















2 76 


BARK 


BARL 


BARN 


Bark, n. The peculiar noise made by a dog, wolf, Ac. 

—v. a. To make the noise ot' dogs, when they threaten or 
pursue. 

“ In vain the herdraan calls him back again, 

The dogs stand off afar, and bark in vain."— Cowley. 

•—To clamor at; to vociferously importune; to pursue 
with reproaches. 

14 You dare patronage 
The envious barking of your saucy tongue 
Against my lord I Shaks. 

Bark, n. [Fr. barque; L. Lat. barca ; Icel. barkr, a light 
boat or skiff.J (Naut.) A general name applied to 
any small sailing-craft, barge, &c.— Specifically applied 
to a vessel carrying three masts, but without a mizzen- 
topsail, that is to say, having her fore and main-masts 
rigged as a ship, and her mizzen as a schooner. In this 
restricteu sense it is more properly written barque. 



Fig. 292.—a barque. 


Bar’kal, or Jeb-el-Barkal. A singular sand-stone rock 
in Nubia, situated in hat. 18° 31' N., and Lon. 31° 46' E., 
about a mile from the right bank of the Nile. It is 
quite isolated, perpendicular on the side facing the 
river, and very steep on all. It is about two miles in 
circumference at the base, and 4‘JO feet in height, its 
summit forming a pretty broad plateau. Between it 
and the river are the remains of some magnificent 
temples, the two principal ones being known as the 
Typhonium, and the Great Temple, one of the largest 
monumental ruins of Nubia. The ancient citj 7 of Na- 
pata is supposed to have been situated in the vicinity. 

Bark'-bed, n. (Gardening.) A hot-bed, formed beneath 
of tanner’s bark. 

Bark/beetle, Bark-Chafer, n. (Entom.) See Scoly- 
TIDJE; CoLEOPTERA. 

Bark -bound, a. With the bark too adhesive or close, 
as is sometimes seen in trees. 

Bark Camp Mills, in Kentucky , a post-office of 
Whitley co. 

Bark'er, n. Any person who barks or makes an unrea¬ 
sonable clamor or noise. 

“ But they ere rather enemies of my fame than me, these bark- 
era." — Ben Jonaon. 

—One who barks or strips trees of their bark. 

—In England, the name is sometimes given to a person 
who stands at shop-doors to solicit the custom of pas¬ 
sers-by. 

Bar'ker, in New York, a township of Broome coun¬ 
ty- 

Barker's Mill, n. (Mech.) (So called from the name 
of the inventor.) An early form of vertical recoil water¬ 
wheel, invented in the 17th century, in which the water 
moves the wheel from which it issues by its reaction or 
counter-pressure as it issues from the orifices. 

Bar'kersville, in New York, a post-office of Sara¬ 
toga co. 

Bar'kerville, in Massachusetts, a thriving village of 
Pittsfield township, Berkshire co., 20 m. N.W. of Spring- 
field. 

Bark'er.v, n. A tan-hous 9 . 

Barkes'dale. in Virginia, a post-office of Halifax co. 

Bark'-galled, a. With the bark galled or excoriated, 
as by thorns. 

Barkbam'stead, in Connecticut, a post-township of 
Litchfield co., 20 in. N.W. of Hartford. It is a pros¬ 
perous place, and noted for its hardware manufactures. 

Bark'ina;, a town and par. of England, co. of Essex, 
on the Boding, 8 m. E. of London. Barking Abbey 
was one of the richest nunneries in England, founded 
in 670. 

Bark'ing'-bird, n. See Cheucan. 

Bark'ing-iroits, n. pi. Instruments used for harking 
trees. 

Bark'less, a. Destitute of, or without, bark. 

Bark'ley, in Indiana, a township of Jasper co. 

Bark'-louse*. n.; pi. Bark'-lice. (Zool.) A species of 
Aphis, that infests the bark of trees. — See Aphis. 

Barkok', Malek-al-Dhaer-Abu-Said, a Mameluke Sul¬ 
tan of Egypt, and founder of the Circassian or Borgite 
dynasty. He wrested the throne from the last of the 
Baharites. or Tartars, about 1390. In the early part 
of his reign of 8 years, he was harassed by many sedi¬ 
tions and incursions; but was later distinguished as a 
patron of the arts and letters. 

Bark'-pit, n. A pit filled with bark and water, in which 
hides are steeped in tanning. 

Bark' Biver, in Wisconsin, rising in Washington co., 
enters Rock River in Jefferson co. 

—A post-office of Jefferson co. 

Bark -stove, n. A glazed structure for keeping tropica! 
plants, having a bed of tanner’s bark, or other ferment¬ 
able matter which produces a moist heat. 

Bark'ton, in Illinois, a village of Saline co., 8 m. S.W. 
of Raleigh. 

Bark'y. a. Consisting of, or containing bark. | 

••Joy ao enrings the barky fingers of the elm."—Shake. 1 


Barlaamitos, «./>?. (Eccl. Hist.) A religious sect com¬ 
posed of the followers of Barlaam, a native of Calabria, 
and a monk of the order of St. Basil; who, in the con¬ 
troversy between the Greek and Latin churches, after 
supporting the cause of the latter, became an advocate 
of the former. He brought a complaint before the Pa¬ 
triarch of Constantinople, against the tenets of theZfesy- 
chistce, or “Quietists,” the name given to the monks of 
Mount Atlios. The cause was tried, and the monks ac¬ 
quitted, in 1337. In 1339, Barlaam was the Emperor's 
ambassador to the Pope, at Avignon, for a union of the 
two churches. The old controversy was afterwards re¬ 
newed, and to such a pitch did it proceed, that a council 
was held at Constantinople, 11th June, 1341, in which 
the monks, with Palamos at their head, were victorious. 
The B. were condemned by subsequent councils, and 
Barlaam himself is said to have once more joined the 
Latins. He d. about 1348. 

Bar'le-Duc, or Bar-sur-Ornain, a town of France, 
cap. of dep. of Meuse, on the Ornain, 128 m. E. of Paris. 
In one of the churches is the celebrated monument of 
Kenis de Chalons, Prince of Orange, by Richier, pupil 
of Michael Angelo. — Man/. Yarn, cotton stuffs, hosiery, 
&c. Its confitures de groseilles are highly esteemed. 
Pop. 16,414. 

Barle'ria, n. (Bot.) A genus of tropical plants, order 

Acanthacece. 

Barlet'ta, a fortified seaport town of S. Italy, prov. 
Caserta, on the Adriatic. 33 m. N.W. of Bari; Lat. 41° 
19' 26" N., Lon. 16° 18' 10" E. It is a large and well- 
built city, possesses a fine cathedral and many hand¬ 
some public buildings. It carries on a considerable 
trade with other ports of the Adriatic, and the Ionian 
Islands. — Exp. Wine, oil, salt, skins, corn, &c. Flip. 
26,474. 

Bar'ley, n. [W. barlys — bara, bread, and llys, a plant; 
A S. here; Heb. bar, corn, grain.] (Bot.) The common 
name of the genus Hordeum, q. v. 

Barley-ltird, n. (Zodl.) A name sometimes given 
to the siskin, to the nightingale, and to the green¬ 
finch. 

Bar'ley-brake, Bar'ley-break.n. (Games.) The 
name of a popular pastime, very common in England in 
the time of James I., and which is frequently referred to 
by old writers. It was played by six persons, throe of eacli 
sex, who were formed into couples. A piece of ground 
was then divided iuto three parts, the centre one being 
called hell. Oue of the couples was stationed in this 
hell, and their effort was to catch either of the other 
couples in crossing from the one side to the other, when 
the couple caught had to take up their place in the cen¬ 
tre. The couple in the centre were bound to keep to¬ 
gether ; but tlie others, wheu hard pressed, might sever. 
When all had been taken, the game was ended; and the 
last couple taken was said to be in hell, their punish¬ 
ment appearing to have consisted in kissing each other. 
Games of a similar kind, more or less modified, are still 
practised by young persons botli in England and Scot¬ 
land. 

Bar'leycorn, n. A grain of barley.—The third part 
of an inch in length; hence the origin of the measure 
called a barleycorn. — Sir John Barleycorn, a jocular 
name given in England and Scotland to strong ale or 
beer which is made from barley. This is the subject of 
a famous old ballad bearing its name. 

“ Inspiring, bold John Barleycorn, 

What dangers thou cans; mage us scorn! "—Burns. 

Barley-mow, n. The place where reaped barley is 
gathered and stowed together. 

“ Whenever by yon barley-mow T pass. 

Before luy eyes will trip the tidy lass."— Gay. 

Bar'ley-sug'ar, n. Sugar boiled till it is brittle, 
(formerly with a decoction of barley,) and candied. 

Barley-water, n. (Med.) This medicinal drink is 
made from the pearl-barley, and may be either taken 
in its simple form, when cold, or flavored with some of 
the substances given below. As there is some art re¬ 
quired in making barley-water properly, the following 
mode may be adopted with advantage. Take of— 


Clean pearl-barley..2 ounces. 

Cold water.4J^pints. 


Pour half a pint of the water on the bariey in a sauce¬ 
pan, and simmer slowly for ten minutes; pour off all the 
liquor remaining, and add the four pints of water to the 
softened barley, and boil slowly till the quantity is re¬ 
duced to one-half; strain into a large jug. in which one 
or two slices of a lemon have been placed, with a few 
lumps of sugar. When cold, and properly stirred, a 
cupful may be taken repeatedly. The juice of a few 
oranges, with an ounce *or two of bruised sugar-candy, 
or a quarter of a pound of tamarinds, may be substi¬ 
tuted for the lemon, and when sufficiently mixed by 
stirring, the whole is to be again strained, to keep back 
the seeds, twigs, and stories, and, according to the ail¬ 
ment for which it is used, a wineglassful of the drink 
given every one or four hours. In inflammatory dis¬ 
eases, or cases of bleeding from the lungs or stomach, a 
better form of barley-water is made by adding to the 
two pints of boiled liquid 1 ounce of simple syrup, and 
l]/tj drachms of the red elixir of vitriol (see Drinks) ; 
while in cases of cough, or affections of the chest, a 
cool, relaxing draught, acting on the vessels of the 
throat and chest, is produced by adding 1 drachm of 
powdered nitre to each pint of barley-water, and a table- 
spoonful taken every hour or two. Barley-water, made as 
above, in which 2 ounces of gum-arabic have been dis¬ 
solved, and a drachm of nitre added, makes an admira¬ 
ble drink in all affections of the bladder, and in cases of 
strangury. 


Barlow, Joel, an American poet, b. at Reading, Conn., 
in 1755. In 1787, his reputation was established by the 
publication of his greatest poem, The Vision of Colum¬ 
bus, which he dedicated to Louis XVI. of France. In 
the following year he visited England, whence lie crossed 
to Paris, attracted by the news of the revolution; there 
he remained for two years, attached to the Girondist 
party. In 1795, he was appointed American consul at 
Algiers, where he negotiated a treaty with the govern¬ 
ment, as well as with those of Tunis and Tripoli. On 
his return to the U. States, in 1808, he published an en¬ 
larged edition of iiis first work, and re-named it the 
Columbiad. In 1811, he was appointed minister-pleni¬ 
potentiary to the French government. D. near Cracow 
in Poland, 12th Dec., 1812. 

Barlow, Peter, f.r.S , a distinguished English phy 
sicist and mathematician, B. at Norwich in 1776. lie 
was Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Military 
Academy at Woolwich for a period of 40 years. In 1823, 
ho was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 
1S25 received from it the Copley medal for his researches 
in magnetism. In 1829, lie was admitted a member of 
the French Institute. His greatest work is the Mathe¬ 
matical and Philosophical Dictionary, which at the pres¬ 
ent time is very scarce and of great value. He was also 
the author of an elaborate work on the Machinery and 
Manufactures of Great Britain, (1837); of a treatise on 
the Force and Iiapidity of Locomotives, (1838); and of 
an Essay on Magnetic Attraction, one of the first works 
in which the phenomena of magnetism were distinctly 
enunciated. D. 1862. 

Bar'low. in Ohio, a posfc-township of Washington co., 
about 12 m. W. of Marietta. 

Barm, n. [A. S. beorma; Ger. barme: L. Du. barm; 
probably allied to Lat. fermentum.] Yeast; the scum 
rising upon beer, or other malt liquors, when ferment¬ 
ing. — See Yeast. 

Bar'niaeide, Bar'ineeiele, a. (See Barmecides.) 

A term used to imply an imaginary or fictitious enter¬ 
tainment; derived from the well-known story in the 
Arabian Nights' Entertainments. —“A Barmacide feast.” 
Thackeray. 

Bar'-inai(l, n. A maid or woman who tends a liar or 
refreshment-counter; as, “a bouncing barmaid.” — Wash- 
ington Irving. 

Bar'-master, n. [Ger. bergmeister, mountain-master.] 
In England, tlie name given to an officer in mining dis¬ 
tricts. 

Barmecides, (bar'me-cides.) (Hist.) An illustrious 
family of Khorassan, the romance of whose history is 
equally familiar to Europeans and Americans in the 
Thousand and One Nights, (“Arabian Nights’ Enter¬ 
tainments,”) and to Orientals in the pages of their his¬ 
torians and poets ; and who flourished at the court of tlie 
first Abassides Caliphs. Barmec, or Iiarmek, the foun¬ 
der of the family, transmitted tlie honors conferred on 
him by tbe Calipli Abd-al-Malik to his son Khalid, and 
from him they passed to his son Yaliia, who, becoming 
tutor to the famous Ilaroun-al-Raschid, acquired ati in¬ 
fluence over that prince; which, witli Haroun’s personal 
affection for tlie family, carried his sons, Fadl, or Fazl, 
Giaffar, Mohammed, and Mousa. to the highest dignities 
of the court. Tlie virtues and munificence of the B. 
were, for a long period, displayed under favor of Ha- 
roun, as well as to tlie admiration of his subjects; but 
one of tlie brothers, Giaffar, having at last become an 
object of suspicion to the eruel and treacherous Caliph, 
Yahia and his sons were suddenly seized, Giaffar be¬ 
headed, and tlie others condemned to perpetual impris¬ 
onment. The year 802 is assigned as the date of this 
tragedy. 

Bar men, in Germany. See Elberfeld. 

Bar Mills, in Maine, a post-office of York co. 
Bar'moutli, or Aber'maw, a sea-port and bathing 
resort of England, in N. Wales, co. Merioneth, 55 in. W. 
of Shrewsbury. Its situation is most picturesque, and 
it is much resorted to by summer tourists. 

Barm'y, a. Containing barm or yeast. 

“ And their cold stomachs with crown'd goblets cheer 
Of windy cider, and of barmy beer." — Drydtn. 

Barn, n. [A. S. berern-bere, barley, corn, and cern, or 
ern, a close place or repository.] (Agric.) A building in 
which agricultural produce is stored, to protect it from 
the weather, and keep it in safety. In all countries 
where the climate does not permit t lie grain to be threshed 
in the field and immediately put into a granary, it ia 
necessary to protect it from the weather; and tlie most 
obvious method is. to have capacious buildings for that 
purpose. Accordingly, all well appointed farms have 
one or more of these buildings, which are often made 
of such dimensions as to be capable of containing the 
whole produce of the farm, whether hay, grain, or straw. 

A great saving may be effected, by the mode of stack¬ 
ing hay and grain in the open air, protected only by 
a slight covering of tliatch. In consequence of this 
practice, barns may be made of smaller dimensions, 
and their principal use is to contain the grain in the 
straw which is intended to be threshed out immedi¬ 
ately; so that if the barn is capable of containing a 
threshing-floor, and as much grain in tlie sheaf as is 
usually put in asingle stack, it answers all the purposes 
of a larger barn; and thus the expense of the farm 
buildings is greatly diminished.—The shape and con¬ 
struction of a common barn are too well known to re¬ 
quire a particular description. We shall therefore only 
give some idea of a very useful building, long since used in 
Holland, and perhaps not generally known in our country. 
The Dutch barn (Fig. 293) consists of a roof supported by 
strong poles like masts, A A, on which it can be raised or 
lowered at will. The usual form is that of a pentagon; 
the poles are at the angles, and kept upright by means 













BARN 


BARN 


BARN 


277 


of a strong sill on a brick foundation, and pieces, B, 
acting as spurs, trained into thepoles. The roof is light 
and covered with thatch. At each angle is a strong 
block of wood, with a round hole in it sufficient to let tin- 
poles pass through ; these blocks are kept at an v desired 
height by means of iron or wooden pins passed' through 
holes made in the poles, and on which the blocks rest. To 



raise the roof, a small jack is used, an instrument well 
known by its use in raising heavy wagons when the 
wheels are taken off. This is placed on an iron pin at 
some distance below the roof, and the corners are raised 
gradually, one after the other, at opposite angles, the 
pins being moved each time one hole higher. The chief 
use of the Dutch barn, which is susceptible of great im¬ 
provement, is to contain hay, which, without obstacle 
to the circulation of air, may be protected from the wet, 
in any small quantity, as soon as made; the roof being 
raised as the quantity increases, and gradually lowered 
as it is taken off for the cattle, which is always from the 
top. 

Barn, n. A young child a provincial word in Kngland. 
See Bairs. 

Barnabas, (St.,) (“ Son of Consolation,”) or Joseph, a 
disciple of Jesus, and a companion of the Apostle Paul. 
He was a Levite, and a native of the isle of Cyprus, and is 
said to have sold all his property, and laid the price of 
it at the feet of the apostles, (Acts iv. 36, 37.) When Paul 
came to Jerusalem, three years after his conversion, about 
A. D. 3$. B. introduced him to the other apostles, (Acts 
ix. 26, 27.) Five years afterwards, the Church at Jerusa¬ 
lem being informed of the progress of the gospel at 
Antioch, sent B. thither, who beheld with great joy the 
wonders of the grace of God, (Acts xi. 20,24.) He after¬ 
wards went to Tarsus, to seek Paul and bring him to 
Antioch, where they dwelt together two years, and great 
numbers were converted. They left Antioch a. d. 45, to 
convey alms from this Church to that of Jerusalem, and 
soon returned, bringing with them John and Mark, 

( Acts xi. 28, 30 ; xii. 25.) While they were at Antioch, 
the Holy Ghost directed that they should be set apart for 
those labors to which he had appointed them; viz., the 
planting of new churches among the Gentiles. They 
then visited Cyprus, and some cities of Asia Minor, (Acts 
xv. 2-14,) and after three years absence returned to An¬ 
tioch. In A. D. 50, he and Paul were appointed delegates 
from the Syrian churches to consult the apostles and 
elders at Jerusalem, respecting certain questions raised 
by Jewish zealots; and they returned after having ob¬ 
tained the judgment of the brethren of Jerusalem. At 
Antioch, B. was led to dissimulation by Peter, and was, 
in consequence, reproved by Paul. While preparing for 
a second missionary tour, Paul and B. having a dispute 
relative to Mark, Barnabas’s nephew, they separated, 
Paul going to Asia, and Barnabas with Mark to Cyprus. 
(Actsxiii. 15; Gal. ii. 13.) Nothing is known of his subse¬ 
quent history. When he gave all his estates to Christ, 
he gave himself also, as his life of generous self-devotion 
and missionary toil clearly shows. He was a beloved 
fellow-laborer with Paul, somewhat its Melanctlion was 
with Luther.—The festival of St Barnabas is celebrated 
in the Roman Catholic Church on the 11th of June. 

Epistle of St B. ( Theol.) This apocryphal epistle lays 
greater claim to canonical authority than most of the 
other uncredited writings. It is cited by Clemens Alex- 
andrinus, Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome, who admit it to 1 
be the work of Barnabas, but declare that it ought not 
to be esteemed of the same authority as the canonical 
works. It is published by Archbishop Wake among his 
translations of the works of the Apostolical Fathers, in 
the preliminary dissertation to which he gives theargu- 1 
ments adduced to prove it to be the work of St. B. It is, 
iowever, generally believed to have been written by some 
17 


converted Jew in the 2d century, and seems to have 
been addressed to the unconverted Jews. It is divided 
into two parts. In the 1st part the writer shows the un¬ 
profitableness of the old law, and the necessity of the in¬ 
carnation and death of Christ. He cites and explains 
allegorically certain passages relating to the ceremonies 
and precepts of the law of Moses, applying them to Christ 
and his law. The 2d part is a moral instruction, under 
the notion of two ways,— the way of light, under which 
is given a summary of what a Christian is to do that he 
may be happy forever; and the way of darkness, with 
the different kinds of persons who shall be forever cast 
out of the kingdom of God. 

Gospel of St. B . ( Theol .) An apocryphal work also as¬ 
cribed to B . It relates the history of Christ very differ¬ 
ently from the Evangelists, and is believed to be a for¬ 
gery of some nominal Christians, and afterwards altered 
and interpolated by the Mohammedans, the better to 
serve their purpose. It corresponds with those traditions 
which Mohammed followed in the Koran. 

Barnabee, n. A name of the insect Lady-bird, q. v. 
Barnacle. n. [Fr bamache; from Lat pent a, a. sea- 
muscle ; Gael, bairneach, a limpet.) A shell-fish. See 
Balaxus, and Acorn-shell. — A species of wild goose. 
See Bernacle. 

— pl- (Farriery.) An instrument consisting of two 
branches, joined at one end with a hinge, to put upon a 
horse's nose, to confine him for shoeing, bleeding, or 
dressing; a horse-twitcher. 

— pi. A cant word, used in England, for a pair of spec¬ 
tacles; probably because, as they were once made, they 
clasped the nose in the manner of the B ., or horse- 
twitcher. 

Bar nard, Henry, ll.d., an American writer, b. at 
Hartford, Conn., in 1811. He graduated at Yale College, 
and became chiefly known by his laborious efforts aud 
many publications in behalf of the public-school system. 
His School Architecture, Normal Schools in the United 
States, and Education and Employment for Children in 
Factories, are among the best known of his works. 
B«r na Barney, a famous London and South 
African speculator, who enhanced his notoriety by com¬ 
mitting suicide, jumping from the deck of the steamer 
Scot, bound from Cape Town to Southampton, June 14, 
1897. Little is known of the early life of this eccentric 
but extraordinary man. His real name is believed to 
have been Barnett Isaacs, and he was born in London, 
about 1840, of Jewish parentage, and is said to have 
received instruction from a private tutor instead of 
attending school. When about 20 years of age he went 
to South Africa to seek his fortune, and started his 
career there, according to some, by exhibiting a trick 
donkey. He began to deal in diamonds, and in five 
years had earned enough to buy shares in the mines. 
In another five years his profits were so great that he 
had money to invest in the gold fields. He was twice 
elected to the Cape Legislature, but he cared less for 
polities than for money-getting, in which he succeeded 
so well that he came to be called “the richest man in 
the world,” and is said at on» time to have controlled 
financial interests worth $500,000,000. About 1895 he 
went to London, and so boomed “ the Kaffirs”—shares 
of the comparatively new gold mines of the Transvaal— 
that every man, woman and child that had money to 
invest bought “Kaffirs,” and B. was known as the 
“Kaffir King.” The stock of the Barnato Bank, capi¬ 
talized at $12,500,000, went up to $45,000,000, the $5 shares 
selling for $23; and B. almost dominated the whole 
financial world. He had a wife and three children,and 
lived in grand style in London. In the fall of 1895 he 
is said to have sent $75,000 to the Lord Mayor fur dis¬ 
tribution among the London poor. For some time 
previous to his death he had been in impaired health. 
While walking with a friend on the deck of the Scot, 
when off the Azores, he suddenly plunged overboard. 
His body was recovered aud taken to London for burial. 

Barnave, (baEndhr,) Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie, 
a distinguished French orator, and a zealous adherent 
and early victim of the revolution, was B. at Grenoble, 
1761. He was the son of a rich procureur. He was 
chosen a deputy of the tiers-etat to the assembly of the 
states-general, and showed himself an open enemy to 
the court. The constituent assembly appointed him 
their president, Jan., 1791. After the flight of the king, he 
was almost the only one who remained calm. He de¬ 
fended Lafayette against the charge of being privy to 
this step, and, after the arrest of the royal family, was 
sent, with Petion and Latour-Maubourg, to meet them, 
and to conduct them to Paris. The sight of their mis¬ 
fortunes, and the profanation of the royal dignity, 
seemed to have made a profound impression on his mind. 

He treated his captives with the respect due to their 
rank and misfortunes, and from this moment a visible 
change in his principles was observed. He defended the 
inviolability of the royal person, and painted the fatal 
disasters which threatened the state; but from this 
moment his influence continually declined, and he was 
entirely given up by the revolutionary party. When 
the correspondence of the court fell into the hands of 
the victorious party, Aug. 10, 1792, they pretended to 
have found documents which showed him to have been 
secretly connected with it, and he was guillotined Nov. 

29, 1793. 

Uar negat, in New Jersey, & post-town of Union town¬ 
ship, in the S. of Ocean co., on Double Creek, 1 m. from 
Barnegat Bay, and 14 S. of Tom’s River. This place is 
largely interested in navigation, and the coasting trade 
to the south of the U. States. 

lar negat Bay, in New Jersey, on the E. confine of 
Ocean co.. reaches N. from Barnegat Inlet to the en¬ 
trance of Metetecunk river, and is about 23 m. long, and 


from 1 to 4 broad. It forms the embouchure of Tom’i, 
Metetecunk, and Forked rivers, and Kettle and Cedar 
creeks. 

Bar'nerville, in New York-, a post-office of Scoharieca 
Barnes, Albert, an American* divine and Commentator 
on the Scriptures, was burn near the village of Lome, 
Oneida co., N. Y.. on the 1st of Dec., 1798. He graduated 
at Hamilton College in 1820, studied theology at Prince 
ton, was ordained to the work of the ministry', and, ia 
1825, was installed pastor of the First Presbyterian 
Church in Morristown, N. J. F'rom this place he was 
transferred, in 1830, to the ministerial charge of the 
First Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia, an office 
which liecontinued to hold until Compelled to relinquish 
it, by a permanent disorder of the eyes, in 1807. He 
has been w'idelv known as an eloquent and successful 
preacher, but, in particular, as the author of Notes, 
Critical, Explanatory, and Practical, on all the books 
Of the New Testament, and on the Prophecies of Isaiah 
and Daniel, and the Book of Job, in the Old. These 
works have been so generally adopted as text-books in 
Bible-classes and Sunday-schools, that more than 400,000 
copies of the Notes on the New Testament have been sold 
in the United States, and an almost equal number, it is 
supposed, in Great Britain. They have been translated 
into foreign languages,—into French, Welsh.—and, par¬ 
tially at least, into some of the dialects of the Oriental 
nations. Mr. Bdi nes has also contributed to the press 
a variety of sermons, addresses, essays, reviews, Ac.; a 
work upon slavery, in which the Biblical argument for 
that institution is examined with ability and lairness, 
and a Treatise cm the Evidences of Christianity m the 
Nineteenth Century, containing the’substance of a course 
of lectures delivered at the Union Theological Seminary, 
N. Y., in the winter of 1866 His Gmimentary ini the 
Book of Psalms, which appeared in 1869, he announced, 
from age and failing vision, to be the close of his long 
labors in the department of religious literature, to which 
he has devoted so much time and study. It is a sin¬ 
gular circumstance, that all the “Notes” referred to, 
amounting to some 15 or 20 volumes, and requiring, of 
necessity, avast degree of research and patient industry, 
have been written before nine o’clock in the morning, 
to avoid trespassing upon the daily professional pursuits 
of the author, — a memorable instance of what one man 
can accomplish, by system, resolution, and an earnest 
purpose. D. 1870. 

Barnes, Dame Juliana, Abbess of the Benedictine Mon¬ 
astery of Sopewell, near St. Alban’s, England. She 
flourished in the 15th century, aud was the author of 
a celebrated work entitled The Boke of St. Alban’s, from 
its having been printed in that monastery in 1486. It 
is a learned treatise on hawking, hunting, and coat- 
armor, and is now of extreme rarity and value. 
Barnes, Robert, a learned divine, and oneof the earliest 
preachers and martyrs of the English Reformation. He 
was chaplain to Henry VIII., and being accused of 
heresy, his life was placed in jeopardy. lie, however, 
escaped to Germany, where he became a disciple of Lu¬ 
ther and his theology. On his return to England, he 
was again prosecuted for his religious opinions, and, 
without a trial, was burned at the stake, in Smithfield, 
London, on the 30th of July, 1540. Of his works, the 
Confession at the Stake was translated by Luther, and 
circulated throughout Germany. 

Barnes, William, d.d., a learned English philologist and 
divine, B. 1810. He is the author of A Philological Gram¬ 
mar, grounded upon English, and formed Jrom a com¬ 
parison of more than Sixty Languages: bang an Intro¬ 
duction to the Science of Grammars of all Languages, 
especially English, Latin, and Greek; An Anglo-Saxon 
Delectus; Notes on Ancient Britain and the Britons, <£c, 
Barnes, in Ohio, a post-office of Richland co. D. 1886 . 
Barnes, in Pennsylvania, a village of Sheffield town¬ 
ship, Warren co. 

Barnes’ Corners, in New York, a post-office of 
Lewis co. 

Barnes' Cross Roads, in Alabama, a post-office of 
Dale co. 

Barnes’ Store, in Mississippi, a post-office of Tish- 
emingo co. 

Barnes'view, in Missouri, & village of Clark co., about 
2 m. E. of Wyaconda River. 

Barnes'ville, in Georgia, a prosperous twp. and vilL 
of Pike co , 40 m. N.W. of Macon. 

Barnes'ville, in Kansas, a post-village of Bourbon co. 
Barnes'ville, in Maryland, a post-village of Mont¬ 
gomery co., 38 m. N.W. of Washington, aud 4 E. of the 
Potomac river; in Mo., a p. o. of Clinton co.; in Ohio, a 
p. v. of Belmont co., 50 m. E. of Zanesville; in Pa., a 
p. o. of Schuylkill co.; in Va., a p. o. of Charlotte co. 
Bar'net, in England. In Hertfordshire, 11 m. S. W. 
of London. Here in 1471 was fought the famous battle 
of B. bet. the rival houses of York and Lancaster, the 
latter were routed, their leader, Warwick, tiie King 
Maker, killed, by which event, Edward IV. was firmly 
established on the throne. 

Bar'net, in Pennsylvania, a township of Forest co. 
Bar'net, in Vermont, a post-towuship of Caledonia co, 
about 20 m. E. by N. of Montpelier, at the confluence 
of the Passumpsic and Connecticut. 

Bar'net, in Illinois, a township of De Witt coun¬ 
ty- 

Bar'nett’s Mills, in Virginia , a village of Fauquier 
co., on the Rappahannock, 93 m. N. by W. of Richmond. 
Barneveldt, ibar'na-velt,) Jan Yan Olden, Grand Pen¬ 
sionary of Holland, b. in 1549. He had scarcely reached 
his 20th year when he was called to the office of coun¬ 
cillor and pensionary of Rotterdam; and such was the 
opinion even then entertained of his eminent abilitiae 
aud integrity, that he was allowed an important share 

















































278 


BARN 


BARO 


BARG 


in the management of those transactions with France 
and England, by which the United Provinces sought to 
maintain themselves against Spain, whose yoke they 
had just thrown off. His conduct in the high office of 
Grand Pensionary of Holland and W. Friesland, which 
he afterwards filled, not only secured the independence, 
hut restored the trade and improved the finances of the 
United Provinces. After the election of Maurice of 
Nassau to the dignity of Stadtholder, B. became the 
champion of popular liberties, and opposed with deter¬ 
mination the ambitious designs of the new prince. He 
was so far successful as to have a truce of 12 years con¬ 
cluded with Spain, in opposition to the views of the 
Btadtholder; and such was the popularity of that mea¬ 
sure, that he must have had tho advantage over his rivals, 
if their respective claims had come to be submitted to 
any assembly of the States; but about this time, the 
fanaticism of two sects, the Arminians and the Gom- 
arists, raged throughout Holland, and the Grand Pen¬ 
sionary was involved in the ruin of the former. After 
the condemnation of the Arminians by the Synod of 
Dort, B. was adjudged to death as a traitor and heretic, 
by 26 deputies named by Maurice. The sentence was 
carried into effect in 1619. 

Bar ney, Joshua, an American commodore, b. at Balti¬ 
more, 1759. Being one of fourteen children, he entered 
on board a pilot-boat when only 11 years of age. When 
the American provinces came to an open rupturo with 
England, B. adopted the national cause, and was ap¬ 
pointed master’s mate on a sloop of war called the Hor¬ 
net, which was sent forthwith to the Bahama Islands, to 
seize upon some warlike stores which had been collected 
there; which object was successfully accomplished. On 
his return from this expedition, he joined a small squad¬ 
ron of row-galleys employed in the Delaware, and so 
signalized himself by his bravery and good conduct, as 
to obtain, when scarcely seventeen, the commission of 
lieutenant in the United States navy. After this, Lieu¬ 
tenant Barney was for some time constantly employed 
on board small vessels of war, and exhibited great zeal 
and activity in the performance of his duty. In the 
course of four years he was twice taken by the English and 
exchanged; and in 1780, when not yet twenty-one years 
of age, he had married, and was again in active service 
on board the United States ship Saratoga. This vessel 
captured several British vessels; and Barney,being placed 
as prize-master on board one of these, which was in an 
almost sinking condition, was again captured by an 
English 74-gunship, and sent as a prisoner to England. 
H aving escaped from the prison in which he was con¬ 
fined, and having spent some weeks in London, he em¬ 
barked for Ostend, visited France and Spain, and reached 
his home in March, 1782. He was immediately appointed 
to command a small ship of war, one of a squadron 
fitted out for the protection of trade in the Delaware. 
While thus employed, Barney was attacked by two ships 
and a brig belonging to the British navy, and by a com¬ 
bination of stratagem and bravery, succeeded in cap¬ 
turing and securing one of the ships. For this gallant 
action he received the thanks of the legislature of Penn¬ 
sylvania, accompanied by a gold-liilted sword; and his 
prize being fitted out and commissioned in the American 
navy, he received the command. Commodore Barney 
was afterwards sent with despatches to Dr. Franklin at 
Paris, and returned to America with a British passport, 
bearing despatches which announced the signing of pre¬ 
liminary articles of peace between England and America. 
At this time, the commodore was only twenty-five years 
of age, and the public having no further occasion for 
his services, he embarked in commercial speculations 
connected with the sea, but was unsuccessful. In the 
course of these pursuits, he visited France in 1794, and 
in the following year received a commission as captain 
in the French navy. He afterwards obtained the rank 
of chef-de-division , and served as commander of the 
French squadron in the West Indies. On his return to 
France, he resigned his commission, and received the 
grant of a pension for life, which, however, he would 
never touch. Returning home, he again engaged, with 
no better success than before, in commercial under¬ 
takings, and after a time retired to the cultivation of a 
farm. When the war between England and America 
broke out in 1812, Barney immediately fitted out a pri¬ 
vateer, in which he made some valuable prizes, and was 
shortly afterwards appointed by his government to the 
command of a flotilla, to be employed for the protection 
of Chesapeake Bay. This duty he performed success¬ 
fully against a British force numerically superior to his 
own. While engaged in this service. Commodore Bar¬ 
ney, finding that a British expedition had landed, and 
was in full march for Washington, left his flotilla in 
charge of his lieutenant, and joined the land forces 
with 400 of his men. The hostile forces met at Bladens- 
burg, but the conflict was carried on, as far as the 
Americans were concerned, by Barney only and his 
sailors. They stood their ground against fearful odds, 
until their ammunition was exhausted, when the com¬ 
modore was obliged to order a retreat. In withdrawing, 
he fell from weakness caused by a wound in the thigh, 
and was found in this situation by the enemy, by whom 
he was treated with kindness, and carried in a litter to 
the town of Bladensburg. The corporation of Washing¬ 
ton voted him a sword. After a short mission in Eu¬ 
rope, he returned to this country, and d. in Pittsburg. 
Dec. 1,1818; every honor was paid to his memory. B. 
was a remarkably handsome man, an able, thorough 
seaman, and a most acute and spirited officer. 

Barn hardtite. n. (Min.) A compact massive mineral. 
Lustre metallic. Color bronze-yellow, streak grayish- 
black, slightly shining. Fracture conchoidal, uneven. 
Brittle. Tarnishes easily, giving pavonine tints, or 


becoming pinchbeck-brown.— Comp. Siflphur30-5, copper 
48-2, iron 21-3. = 100. b.b. it gives sulphurous flames, 
and fuses easily to a magnetic globule. It occurs in N. 
Carolina with other copper ores, at Barnhardt’s land, 
Ac., and in California. 

Barn'hart’s Mills, in Pennsylvania , a post-village 
of Butler co. 

Barns'borougll, in N. Jersey, a P.0, of Gloucester co. 

Barns'ley, a town of England, in the W. Riding of the 
co. of York, on the Dearne, 155 m. N.W. by N. of London, 
34 m. S.W. of York, and 9 S. of Wakefield. It is a thriv¬ 
ing and busy place, situate in the centre of a large min¬ 
ing district. Manf. Linens and steel-wares. Pop. 20,017. 

Barn'stable, in Massachusetts, the most E. county of 
the State, possessing an area of about 290 sq. m. It in¬ 
cludes the peninsula of Cape Cod, and a number of 
islands. Soil generally light and sandy. Large quanti¬ 
ties of salt are extracted here from the sea-water. Cup. 
Barnstable. 

Barn'stable, a port of entry and cap. of the above co. It 
is seated on the S. side of a bay of the same name, 
opening on Cape Cod Bay, 65 m. S.E. of Boston, and 28 
S.E from Plymouth. On the bar at the entrance to the 
bay there is a depth of water of from 6 to 7 feet. B. is 
extensively busied in shipping transactions and the fish¬ 
eries, and possesses a large number of vessels, princi¬ 
pally coasters. 

Barn'staple, a seaport-town of England, co. Devon, 
on the Taw, 172 m. W. by S. of London. B. possesses a 
large shipping-trade. Pop. about 4,000. 

liaril'slead, in New Hampshire, a post-township of 
Belknap co., 15 m. N.E. of Concord. 

Barn'ston, or Barn'ston Corners, a village and town¬ 
ship of Lower Canada, in Stanstead co., 14 m. E. of 
Stanstead. 

Ba r'll mil, Phineas Taylor, a well-known American 
showman, who has acquired the sobriquet, by his own 
admission, of “Prince of Humbugs,” was b. at Bethel, 
Conn., in 1810. He early manifested an aversion to work 
of the ordinary kind. After an unsuccessful attempt in 
the newspaper line, he took a share in the management 
of a strolling theatre. Subsequently he obtained pos¬ 
session of an old negress, whose proprietors represented 
her as having been tho nurse of George Washington; 
she was said to be 160 years of age. B. adopted the 
story, and by means of his tact as a showman, and by 
dint of the most astonishing “smartness,” he induced 
thousands in every city in the U. States to flock to see 
the early guardian of the great Liberator. On the other 
side of the Atlantic, pathetic pictures were drawn by the 
anti-slavery orators of the degradation thus cast on the 
memory of the great General of the Republic. After the 
death of his old negress, B. bought the American Mu¬ 
seum in New York, and soon brought it into high repute 
and prosperity. His next great “card” was General 
Tom Thumb; but his most enterprising speculation was 
the engagement of Jenny Lind fora series of concerts 
in the U. States, Canada, and Cuba,by which he claimed 
to have netted $350,000. On his return to the U. States, 
he was elected president of a bank, became largely in¬ 
terested in real estate in Bridgeport and its vicinity, and 
promoted agriculture and thrifty enterprise generally, 
with all the zeal of a public-spirited and benevolent citi¬ 
zen. In 1855, he published his Autobiography, a candid 
and amusing relation of the innumerable artifices by 
which he attained his notoriety. In 1856 his fortune 
became impaired by disastrous business complications, 
and in 18.77 -S he gave lectures in London, and some of 
the provincial cities of England, on his methods of ob¬ 
taining notoriety as a stepping-stone to making money, 
Ac.; drawing crowded audiences, and replenishing his 
treasury. In 1868 he was an unsuccessful candidate to 
Congress for Connecticut; and in 1870 he resumed his 
old occupation of travelling showman. B.'s unpar¬ 
alleled career closed iu 1891. 

Bar'lliimton, in Missouri, a post-office of Camden co. 

Barn well, in South Carolina, a S.W. district, bordering 
on the Savannah River, which divides it from Georgia; 
area, 1,550 sq. in. It is drained by S. Edisto River, and 
also by the head-waters of the Salkehatchie. Surface, 
hilly. Soil, fertile about the river-bottoms. Cap. Barn¬ 
well Court-House. 

Barnwell, or Barnwell Court-House, a post-village, and 
cap. of the above district, near the Salkehatchie River, 
55 m. S.S.W. of Columbia. It lies in a flourishing cot¬ 
ton country, and has a considerable trade. 

Barn'-yard, n. A yard close to, or surrounding, a barn. 

— a. Anything belonging to a barn-yard, as a barn-yard 
fowl. 

Baroach, or Broach, (Barigosha,) a maritime dist. 
of Hindostan, in the British prov. of Gujerat, presidency 
of Bombay, chiefly between Lat. 21° 25' and 22° 20' N., 
and Lon. 72° 50' and 73° 23' E.; having N. Kairah dist., 
E. Baroda, S. Surat, and W. the Gulf of Cambay. Area, 
1,600 sq. m. Cotton is the principal product. Three- 
fourths of the population are Hindoos; the rest Moham¬ 
medans. Pop. about 250,000. 

Baroach, (anc. Barygaza, “water of wealth,”) cap. of the 
above district, on the N. bank of the Nerbudda, 25 m. 
north of Surat. Lat. 21° 46' N.; Lon. 73° 14' E. Town 
poor and mean; streets narrow and dirty; climate hot 
and unhealthy. Com. Cotton, grain, and seeds. B. was 
taken by storm by the British, in 1772. Pop. abt. 25,000. 

Baroc'cio, or liaroz'zi, Federigo, a famous painter 
of the Roman school, b. at Urbino, flourished in the 16th 
century. Mengs censures him for always representing 
objects as if they were seen in the air, between transpar¬ 
ent clouds, and for endeavoring to make the most oppo¬ 
site colors harmonizo merely by means of the light. He 
is not free from mannerism. Among his best works are 
the Flight of ABneas, or the Conflagration of Troy, 


engraved by Agostino Carracci, and to be found in the 
former gallery Borghese; the Descent from the Cross, a* 
Perugia, and a burying piece, engraved by Sideler. 
D. 1612. 

Baroclie', Pierre Jules, a French statesman, b. at 
Paris, 1802. He was called to the bar in 1823, and soon 
acquired professional distinction. In 1847, he was elect¬ 
ed member of the Chamber of Deputies for the dep. of 
Charente-Inferieure, where he steadily opposed the min¬ 
istry of Guizot. He signed the Acte d’Accusation, 
drawn up by Odillon Barrot, on the 23d Feb., 1848, in 
which they were accused of violating the rights of citi¬ 
zens, and of systematic corruption. In May of the 
same year, B. was appointed Procureur-General of the 
court of Paris, in which office he used repressive mea¬ 
sures against the Democratic press, and conducted vari¬ 
ous state prosecutions with an energy and ability which 
made him an object of intense dislike to the radical 
party. On the 2d Dec., 1851, B. was nominated Presi¬ 
dent of the Council of State; a position in which he ex¬ 
hibited much ability, tact, and capacity for work, com¬ 
bined with firmness of character. He subsequently 
filled the offices of Minister of Foreign Affairs (1860), 
and that of Minister of Justice (1863). B. was made a 
Senator iu 1864, and died in 1870. 

Baroeo, ( ba-ro'ho ,) n. (Logic.) The name given to a 
somewhat strange syllogistic mode of reasoning. A syllo¬ 
gism in baroeo has the first proposition universal and 
affirmative; but the second and third, particular and 
negative, the middle term being the predicate in the 
first two propositions ; as ba, every man is a biped ; RO, 
every animal is not a biped; co, therefore, every animal 
is not a man. 

Baro'tla, an inland dist. of Hindostan, prov. of Gujerat, 
between Lat. 21° 23' and 22° 46' N., and Lon. 73° 12' 
and 74° 8' E. Area, abt. 12,000 sq. m. This i6 a fine, 
fertile, and picturesque country. Prod. Cereals, sugar, 
tobacco, flax, oil, opium, cotton, hemp, and fruits. The 
numerous villages appear more in the European style 
than the Indian. Jn/iab. More than half are Coolies; 
the wilder tracts are peopled by Bheels; the remainder 
of the population are a race of Rajpoots, Hindoo Ban¬ 
ians, and a few Mohammedans around Baroda city. 
From ls02, B. was under British protection, until 1820, 
when it was restored to the Guicowar. 

Baroda, a walled city, cap. of the above dist., and of the 
Guicowar’s dominions, and the seat of a British resi¬ 
dent, 78 m. N.N.E. of Surat; Lat. 22° 21'N., Lon. 73* 
23' E; 45 m. N.N.IV. of Baroach, and 230 from Bombay. 
In the vicinity are many gardens and groves, the latter 
adorned with the remains of Mohammedan mosque* 
and tombs. Pop. abt. 140,000. 

Bar'og'rapl), n. [Gr. baros, weight, and graphein, to 
write!] (Meteor.) An instrument for recording auto¬ 
matically the variations of at mospheric pressure. 

Baro'ko, n. (Logic.) See Baroco. 

Bar'olite, n. (Min.) See Witherite. 

llarol ogy, n. [Gr baros. weight, and logos, discourse.] 
The science of weight or gravity, (r.) 

Baromacrom'eter, n. [Gr. baros, weight, malcros, 
leng*h, and metron, a measure.] An instrument lot 
measuring the length and weight of a new-born infant. 

Barom'eter, n. [Fr. barometre; Gr. baros, weight, 
and metron, measure.] (Meteor.) A measure of weight. 
Specifically, an instrument for measuring the weight 
or pressure of the atmosphere, and indicating the 
changes of pressure. — The B. is one of the most impor¬ 
tant instruments of meteorology, its object being to 
measure the iveight of the superincumbent column oj air, 
and so to enable the inquirer to note its variations. Iu 
common estimation, this instrument is a weather-glass, 
prognosticating the occurrence of rain, 4c., Ac.—It doe* 
not, however, give any direct indication, except the one 
now specified: the probabilities of rain, 4c., are infer¬ 
ences only, and dependent for their degree of accuracy 
on the mode by which very imperfect meteorological 
theories have been able to connect the other phono 
mena of the atmosphere with its weight. — The inven¬ 
tion of the B. was, in some degree, owing to an acci¬ 
dent. Some workmen, employed by the Duke of Flor- 
euce to prepare a sucking-pump for a deep well, found, 
to their surprise, that, notwithstanding the utmost care 
in forming and fitting the valves arid piston, the water 
would not rise higher than 18 palms, or about 32 Eng. 
ft. For an explanation of this unexpected difficulty, 
they applied to the illustrious Galileo, then passing the 
evening of his life at his villa near Arcetri; but thi* 
philosopher was not yet prepared with the true answer. 
In that age, the doctrine of a plenum was an axiom in 
philosophy; and the ascent of water in the barrel of the 
pump was universally ascribed to nature’s horror of a 
vacuum. Galileo, either fearing to encounter further 
persecutions by propounding opinions at variance with 
the prejudices of the times, or pre-occupied by the pre¬ 
vailing metaphorical modes of expression, evaded the 
difficulty by saying that the power of nature to over¬ 
come a vacuum was limited, and did not exceed the 
pressure of a column of water 32 ft. in height. That 
he was himself little satis^ed with this explanation, is 
evident from the circumstance, that, previously to his 
death, which happened soon after, 1642, he earnestly re¬ 
commended his pupil, Torricelli, to undertake the in¬ 
vestigation of the subject, which the infirmities of ad¬ 
vanced age no longer permitted him to prosecute. Tor¬ 
ricelli, suspecting the true cause of the suspenaiou of 
the water, namely, the weight of the atmosphere, hap¬ 
pily conceived the idea of trying the experiment with 
mercury. He perceived, that, if the weight of the at¬ 
mosphere forms a counterpoise to a column of water oi 
32 ft., it must also counterpoise a column of mercury oS 




BARO 


BARO 


BARO 


279 


•bout ±1 inches in height, the weight of mercury being 
about 14 times greater than that of water. Having, ac¬ 
cordingly, procured a glass tube, of about 3 ft. in length 
and inch in diameter, hermetically sealed at one end, 
he filled it with mercury; and covering the open end 
with the finger, he immerged it in an open vessel con¬ 
taining mercury. On bringing the tube to the vertical 
position, and removing the finger, the mercury instantly 
sank, leaving a vacuum at the top of the tube, and after 
making several oscillations, stood in the tube at the 
height of about 28 inches above the surface of that in 
the vessel. On covering the mercury in the vessel with 
a portion of water, and raising the tube till the lower 
end came into contact with the water, the mercury all 
ran out, and the water rushed up to the top of the tube. 
This experiment, called after its author the Torricellian 
experiment, demonstrated that the mercury was sus¬ 
tained in the tube, and the water in the barrel of the 
pump, by exactly the same counterpoise, whatever the 
nature of it might be. Torricelli died shortly after, in 
the flower of his age, without completing his great dis¬ 
covery ; but the fame of his experiment was soon car¬ 
ried into other countries, and the subject engaged the 
attention of the most eminent philosophers; among 
others the celebrated Pascal. After a variety of inge¬ 
nious experiments on the subject, all of which tended to 
establish the pressure of the atmosphere, it at length 
occurred to Pascal, that, if the mercurial column was 
really supported by atmospheric pressure, it must be 
affected by the weight of the superincumbent mass of 
air, and consequently be diminished at considerable ele¬ 
vations. In order to verify this conjecture, he requested 
his brother-in-law, Perier, to try the experiment on the 
Fuy de Dome, a lofty conical mountain. At the foot of 
the mountain, Perier filled two tubes, and observed the 
mercury in each to stand at precisely the same height, 
nearly 28 English inches. Leaving one of them under 
the care of a person to watch its rise and fall, he car¬ 
ried the other to the top of the mountain; and on re¬ 
peating the experiment there, the mercury stood at the 
height of only 24-7 English inches. At two interme¬ 
diate stations in his descent, the mercury was observed 
successively to rise, and at the foot of the mountain it 
stood at exactly the same height in the tube as at first. 
This experiment was decisive; the result of it was com¬ 
municated to Pascal at Paris, who, after confirming it 
by similar observations made successively on the ground, 
and at the top of a glass-house, and the belfry of a 
church, proposed the B. as an instrument for measur¬ 
ing the height of mountains, or the relative altitude 
of places above the surface of the earth. — The B. had 
been but a short time invented, before it was observed 
that the height of the mercurial column is subject 
to variations connected in some way with the changes 
of weather. But the variations are confined within a 
limited range, scarcely exceeding three inches in all, and 
often, for many days together, do not exceed a few hun¬ 
dredths of an inch. It therefore was considered desir¬ 
able to render these minute oscillations more apparent, 
by increasing their range; and, accordingly, of the nu¬ 
merous forms which the B. has received, or which have 
been suggested, the greater part have been proposed 
with a view to this purpose. The most remarkable ox- 
useful constructions are the following, the descriptions 
of which will be readily understood, with the assistance of 
the diagrams: Fig. 294,4, is the Cistern Barometer,and is 
merely tho inverted tube of Torricelli, already described. 
The tube must be about 34 inches long. When placed 
in tho cistern, the mercury sinks till the column between 
the two surfaces, m and n, just counterbalances the pres¬ 
sure of the air. The space above the mercury, a m, is, 
or ought to be, a perfect vacuum, or only filled with the 
vapor of mercury. In this B., as the diameter of the cis¬ 
tern is generally much greater than that of the tube, 
almost the whole effect of the rise or fall is perceived in 
the variation of the upper surface at m. For, supposing 
the section of the cistern 20 times greater than that of 
the tube, and that the height of the column, ran, suffers 
a diminution of one inch, it is evident that, as all the 
mercury which goes out of the tube passes intothe cis¬ 
tern, when it falls at m it must rise at n, but less in pro¬ 
portion as the section of the cistern exceeds that of the 
tube. In the case supposed, therefore, the alteration of 
the level at m, will be 20 times greater than at n ; that 
is to say, there will be a fall of 20-21 of an inch at m, and 


1 £ 


3 4 S 




a rise of 1-21 of an inch at n.—Fig. 294, 2, is the Siphon 
Barometer, which was also proposed by Torricelli, as 
being more convenient than the former. It is merely 
a tube hermetically sealed at the upper end, having the 
lower, or open end, bent upwards in the form of a si¬ 


phon. The variations in this are only half as great as 
in the cistern B. ; for the tube being of the same width 
throughout, a diminution of the column, m n, amounting 
to one inch, will be marked by a fall of half an inch at 
m, aud a rise of half an inch at n. This inconvenience 
may, however, be remedied by having the lower branch 
blown into a wide bulb; but as it is very difficult to pro¬ 
cure the bulb to be thi-own into a perfectly regular 
shape, this enlargement of the bulb is found to give rise to 
inaccuracies. Fig. 294,3, is the Wheel Barometer, proposed 
by Hooke. A small weight floats on the surface of the 
mercury in a siphon, which is very nearly counterpoised 
by another weight, connected with the former by a 
string passing over a pulley, p. When the mercury rises 
at n, the exterior weight descends and turns the pulley. 
An index attached to the axle of the pulley shows on 
a dial, the quantity of revolution. This B., though very 
commonly met with, is a mere toy, and indicates neither 
the absolute height of the mei-curial column, uor its 
variations, with sufficient accuracy to be of the slightest 
use for any philosophical purpose whatever. Even as a 
weather-glass, it is the worst of all the common forms 
of the B .— It has been proposed to enlarge the scale, by 
inclining the upper part of the tube so as to form a con¬ 
siderable angle with the perpendicular. By this contriv¬ 
ance the scale is increased in the pi-oportion of radius 
to the co-sine of the angle of inclination; but the friction 
on the sides of the tube is greatly increased, and it is 
very difficult to determine the exact plane of the top of 
the column, which requires to be read off on a vertical 
scale. This construction is easily conceived without a 
diagram.— We shall notice two other forms of the ba¬ 
rometer, proposed with a different view from that of 
enlarging the scale. Fig. 294, 4, is a modification of the 
siphon barometer, proposed by Gay-Lussac. It differs 
from the common form in this respect, that, after the 
tube has been filled, the short branch is hermetically 
closed at the top, and the communication with the at¬ 
mosphere takes place through a small capillary hole, 
drilled laterally through the tube at o, so fine, that, 
though it admits the air to pass freely, it prevents the 
passage of the mercury. The B. is thus rendered very 
convenient for carriage; but notwithstanding the promis¬ 
ing appearance of this B ., it has been found, particularly 
in travelling, that a portion of air will frequently in¬ 
sinuate itself through the mercury. In order to prevent 
the possibility of the accident, an ingenious modifica¬ 
tion has been made. It consists in causing the part of 
the tube to terminate in a very fine point, and to pen¬ 
etrate to some depth into the other part, c o, to which it 
is joined at c, in the manner represented in Fig. 294, 5. 
Now if an air-bubble from the end. o, which communi¬ 
cates with the atmosphere, should find its way through 
the bent capillary tube, it will pass along the sides of 
the bulging part, and instead of penetrating to the 
vacuum at a, will be arrested at c, whence it is easily 
expelled by reversing the barometer. — None of the 
contrivances which have been described for increasing 
the range of the oscillations, have been found to succeed 
well in practice. It is found to be decidedly better to 
apply minute divisions than to attempt to enlarge the 
scale; accordingly, experimenters now adhere to one or 
other of the two ancient forms, the cistern barometer 
aud the siphon barometer. The height of the column 
in the siphon barometer is conveniently measured by 
means of a movable scale attached to the frame which 
supports the tube; by means of a tangent sci-ew, the 
scale is raised or lowered till its zero coincides exactly 
with the surface of the mercury in the lower branch ; 
and with the assistance of a verniei-, the height can be 
read off to the hundredth or two hundredth of an inch, 
with sufficient precision. The scale of the cistern ba¬ 
rometer is usually fixed, and the bottom of the cistern 
is raised or lowered by a screw, till the surface of the 
mercury in it coincides with the zero of the scale; but 
the scale may be movable, and its zero brought to coin¬ 
cide with the surface of the mercury in the basin, as in 
the former case. In order to determine when this coin¬ 
cidence takes place, various expedients may be had re¬ 
course to. The most usual is to place on the surface of 
the mercury a float carrying a vertical needle, some 
point on which answers to a fixed point on the scale, 
and the coincidence obtains when the two points are 
brought into the same level. Another contrivance to 
effect the same purpose was employed by Fortin, a cele¬ 
brated French artist. An ivory needle is attached to the 
scale, pointing downwards, and having its point exactly 
in the same level with the zero of the scale. The image 
of the needle is clearly reflected from the surface of the 
mercury in the cistern, and the cistern is raised or low¬ 
ered till the point of the needle and its image precisely 
coincide. — In order to construct a good barometer, it is 
indispensably necessary that the mercury be perfectly 
free from impurities, and carefully purged of air; this 
is obtained by boiling it. The particles of air and mois¬ 
ture which cling obstinately to the sides of the tube, 
must also be expelled by heat; the mercury must then 
bo introduced slowly and continuously in a hot state, 
and while the tube continues hot. It is important that 
the diameter of the tube be not very small; for it is 
found that the mercury moves with more freedom in a 
tube of considerable width, the oscillations following 
the atmospheric changes with more promptitude than 
in one of smaller dimensions; besides which, there is 
less disturbance from capillary attraction. The interior 
diameter should in every case exceed one-fourth of an 
inch. — The value of the B. as a scientific instrument 
depends on the purity of the mercury, and the total ex¬ 
clusion of atmospheric air. By proper care, it is, per¬ 
haps, possible to expel every particle of air from the 
mercury and the interior of the tube, when the B. is 


made; but it seems doubtful if, by any means whatever, 
it can be preserved for a considerable length of time in 
this state. The most carefully constructed B. are liable 
to a slow and gradual deterioration, by the intrusion of 
air, which has been supposed to insinuate itself between 
the metal and the tube, and not through the mercury. 
To obviate this inconvenience, Prof. Daniell conceived 
the ingenious idea of fixing to the open end of the tube 
of the cistern B. a substance having a greater affinity 
than glass to mercury. “I caused,” says he, “a small, 
thin plate of platinum to be made, about the third of ar> 
inch in length, and of the diameter of the glass tube; 
this was carefully welded to its open end, so that the I?, 
tube terminated in a ring of platinum. The tube was 
filled and boiled as usual, and the infiltration of air 
was completely prevented by the adhesion of the mer¬ 
cury, both to the exterior and interior surface of the 
platinum guard. I have no doubt that a mere ring of 
wire welded, or even cemented upon the exterior sur¬ 
face of the glass, which would be a much easier and less 
expensive operation, would be a sufficient protection, 
as the slightest line of perfect contact must effectually 
arrest the passage of the air.— In all barometric observa¬ 
tions there are, in general, two essential corrections to 
be made, one for the capillarity or depression of the 
mercury in the tube, and the other for temperature. 
Pure mercury in a glass tube always assumes a convex 
surface. The following are the corrections for tubes 
of different diameters, according to the theory of Mr. 
Toony. 


DIAM. OP TUBS. DEPRESSION. 
Inches. Inches. 

•10 '1403 

•15 -0863 

•20 -0581 

•25 -0407 

•30 -0292 

•35 -0211 


DIAM. OP TUBE. DEPRESSION. 
Inches. Inches. 

•40 -0153 

•45 -0112 

•50 -0083 

•60 -0044 

•70 -0023 

•80 -0012 


These corrections, which must always be applied to cis¬ 
tern B., show that wide tubes ought to be preferred ; in 
fact, when the diameter of the tube exceeds half an inch, 
they may be safely omitted. In siphon B. having both 
branches of the same diameter, the depression is equal 
at both ends; consequently the effect is destroyed, and 
no correction is required. This is a considerable advan¬ 
tage; for notwithstanding the most elaborate calcula¬ 
tions, some uncertainty must always remain with regard 
to the exact amount of the capillary repulsion. — The 
correction for the temperature, which is the most im¬ 
portant, depends on the expansion of the mercury, and 
the expansion of the scale on which the divisions are. 
marked. If we make a — the height of the thermometer 
in degi'ees above the freezing-point, x — the fractional 
part of its bulk which mercury expands for one degree 
of heat on Fahrenheit’s scale, y — the fractional part of 
its length by which the scale increases, h — the observed 
height of the B .: then the height which would have 
been observed, had the thermometer stood at the freezing- 
point, is h — ha (x — y). — The expansion of mercury in 
part of its bulk is '0001001. The scale is generally of 
some mixed metal of which the expansion is not very 
well ascertained; supposing it to be equal to that of 
copper, the expansion would be -0000096; therefore it 
will be sufficiently accurate to neglect the temperature 
of the scale, and assume that of the mercury to be -0001. 
Hence the following practical rule for reducing an ob¬ 
served height to the corresponding height at the tem¬ 
perature of the freezing-point; “subtract the 10,000th 
part of the observed altitude for every degree of Fahr. 
above 32.” Suppose the thermometer 54° and the B. 30 
inches, the correction will be (54—32) X 30 X '001='066, 
to be subtracted from 30 inches. In order to find the 
value of this correction, a thermometer must be attached 
to the barometer and observed at the same time. Cause 
of the variations of the B .— Various theories have been 
proposed to account for those frequent atmospherical 
changes which cause the rise and fall of the B.. Imt none 
of them can be regarded as very satisfactory. Whatever 
tends to increase or diminish the vertical pressure will 
obviously cause the B. to rise or fall; but the vertical 
pressure may be increased either by an influx of winds 
and the accumulation of air at any place, or by a diminu¬ 
tion of the elasticity of the atmosphere. The presence 
of heat or of moisture augments the elasticity, and con¬ 
sequently reduces the weight of the vertical column. 
During the prevalence of northerly and easterly winds 
the B. stands high, the elasticity being diminished by 
the cold. But the real difficulty consists in explaining 
why the variations of the B. should be greater in the 
high latitudes than between the tropics, and why they 
should exceed in all cases the quantities which calcula¬ 
tion might assign. The only mode, perhaps, of remov¬ 
ing the difficulty is to take into consideration the com¬ 
parative slowness with which any force is propagated 
through the vast body of the atmosphere. An inequality- 
may continue to accumulate in one spot before the coun¬ 
terbalancing influence of the distant portions of the aerial 
influence can arrive to modify the result. In the higher 
latitudes, the narrow circle of air may be considered a* 
in some measure insulated from the expanded ocean of 
atmosphere; and hence, perhaps, the variations of the 
B. are concentrated there, and swelled beyoud the due 
proportion. — Uses of the Barometer. The B. is an in¬ 
strument of great importance in astronomy', its indica¬ 
tions forming an essential element in determining the 
amount of atmospheric refraction. It is also, on account 
of its application to the measurement of altitudes, indis¬ 
pensable in all researches connected with the climate. 
The purpose for which it is most commonly sought after, 
is to prognosticate the state of the weather. On land 


































280 


BARO 


BARO 


BARO 


this is perhaps the least important of its applications, 
but the case is widely different at sea. — No certain rules 
can be laid down for prognosticating the state of the 
weather from the B. The following are probably of as 
general application as any that can be given. It is always 
to be remembered that what the B. actually shows is the 
present pressure e f 'lie atmosphere; and that its vari¬ 
ations corresponu to atmospherical changes which have 
already taken place, the effects of which may follow their 
cause at a greater or less interval. — 1. After a contin¬ 
uance of dry weather, if the B. begins to fall slowly and 
steadily,rain will certainly ensue; but if the fine weather 
has been of long duration, the mercury may fall for two 
or three days before any perceptible change takes place, 
and the more time elapses before the rain comes, the 
longer the wet weather is likely to last. — 2. Conversely, 
if after a great deal of wet weather, with the B. below 
its mean height, the mercury begins to rise steadily and 
«lowIv, fine weather will come, though two or three wet 
days may first elapse; and the fine weather will be more 
permanent in proportion to the length of time that passes 
before the perceptible change takes place. — 3. On either 
of the two foregoing suppositions, if the change immedi¬ 
ately ensues on the motion of the mercury, the change 
■will not be permanent. — 4. If the B. rises slowly and 
Steadily for two days together or more, fine weather will 
come, though for those two days it may rain incessantly, 
and the reverse; but if the B. rises for two days or more 
during rain, and then on the appearance of fine weather 
Degins to fall again, that fine weather will be very tran¬ 
sient, and vice versd. — 5. A sudden fall of the B. in the 
spring or autumn indicates wind; in the summer, during 
very hot weather, a thunderstorm may be expected; in 
winter, a sudden fall, after frost of some continuance, in¬ 
dicates a change of wind, with thaw and rain ; but in a 
continued frost, a rise of the mercury indicates approach¬ 
ing snow. — 6. No rapid fluctuations of the B. are to bo 
interpreted as indicating either dry or wet weather of 
any continuance; it is only the slow, steady, and con¬ 
tinued rise or fall that is to be attended to in this respect. 
7. A rise of the mercury late in the autumn, after a long 
continuance of wet and windy weather, generally indi¬ 
cates a change of wind to the northern quarters,and the 
approach of frost. — There are many forms of the mercu¬ 
rial B., but they are all modifications of the siphon and 
cistern, therefore scientifically unimportant.—After the 
description and appliances of the mercurial £., we will 
now describe,after the late Mr. James W. Queen,the Aner¬ 
oid B., an instrument which was invented by M. Viti.of 
Paris, for ascertaining the variations of the atmosphere 
Without the use of any liquid. Its action depends on the 
effect produced by the pressure of the atmosphere on a 
metallic box, from which the air has been exhausted and 
then hermetically sealed. An index, traversing a dial, 
records the changes in the weight or pressure of the atmos¬ 
phere on a given surface—we will suppose a square inch. 
Though for purely scientific purposes the aneroid is at 
present far removed from competition with the mercurial 

B. , it nevertheless has some advantages in its extreme 
sensibility and its portability. Much has been urged 
against its variations from temperature; in a range from 
26° to 80°, these seldom exceed a tenth of an inch; and 
it must be borne in mind, that, if the mercurial B. be 
subjected to the same range, it will be equally affected; 
only in the latter case the cause of the variation is satis¬ 
factorily established, and its exact amount for every de¬ 
gree of temperature accurately determined. From the 
circumstance of gas being (perhaps for the first time) 
introduced into an instrument, with a view to effect a 
correction for variable temperatures, and from its being 
an invisible agent, a short explanation may be required 
in verification of its being adequate to produce the results 
asserted. Sven at the present time, no table has been 
calculated n order to show the loss sustained by elastic 
bodies when in a state of tension. Perhaps no instru¬ 
ment, although made for the express purpose, could ex¬ 
hibit an experiment more satisfactory for the proof of 
this point than the aneroid. We are enabled to use it 
as a pyrometer by applying the heat of a lighted taper 
to the spring S, {Fig. 295,) without communicating that 
heat to the vacuum vase. A table of direct expansion 
Would cause us to conclude that, as the spring S would, 
oa being heated, become longer, it would raise the lever, 

C, higher; but the experiment above adverted to pro¬ 
duces acontrary result, (for the spring, S, losing its elas¬ 
tic power through heat, is forced down by the atmos¬ 
pheric pressure on the vacuum-vase,) and proves that 
the loss of elastic force is greater than that of direct ex¬ 
pansion. The hand of the aneroid indicates this, by 
moving toward the right, or “Set Fair.” We might 
further suppose that an increase of heat, expanding the 
metal of which the vacuum-vase was made, would pro¬ 
portionately increase its capacity; whereas, the contrary 
is actually the case;—a conclusion which is proved by 
heating the vacuum-vase alone. It must be admitted 
that the metal diaphragms have become both larger and 
weaker by an increase of temperature, whence the 
capacity of the vacuum-vase would be rendered greater; 
but it must be also remembered, that the atmospheric 
pressure on the surfaces, amounting to a force of 44 lbs., 
brings the upper and lower diaphragms, thus weakened 
by heat, closer together, so that the cavity of the vacuum- 
vase has in fact become smaller. This bringB us to the 
subject of compensation accomplished by gas. On the 
capacity of the vacuum-vase being diminished by heat, 
as has been just shown, the gas contained within it is, 
by the same cause, expanded; and resisting the compress¬ 
ing force of the atmospheric weight upon the diaphragms, 
keeps them separated at a due distance, and effects the 
compensation.—The atmospheric pressure being about 
15 lbs. to the square inch, and the vacuum-vase being V/^ 


inches in diameter, this surface gives for its product a 
pressure of about 73 lbs. on the vase; though from many 
causes this amount of atmospheric pressure is consider¬ 
ably reduced. In order to ascertain the actual weight 
produced by the atmosphere upon the surface of the 
vacuum-vase, recourse was had to an experiment afford¬ 
ing positive demonstration. The hook of a steelyard, 
or spring weighing machine, was attached to the upper 
part of the vase by the pin K, and, on being pulled up 
to the point parallel to the top of the vase, showed the 
weight of 44 lbs.; which is, therefore, proved to be the 
force by which the lever C is kept on its fulcrums, B B, 
and on the top of the spring S. — It is hoped that the 
principle of the aneroid has, from the foregoing explana¬ 
tions, been made sufficiently intelligible; and, if so, it will 
be an easy task to describe the remainder of the mech¬ 
anism. We will now refer to the perspective drawing 
of the interior of the machine: — DU, vacuum-vase; 
C C, lever, to the end of which is attached a vertical rod, 
1, which merely serves to connect the lever, C C, with 
the levers 2 and 3. These levers are connected by a 
bow-piece, 4. The two square-headed screws at e b 
admit, by screwing or unscrewing them, such an alter¬ 
ation of the distance of leverage, as to allow the hand 
of the aneroid to move over a space corresponding with 
the scale of a standard mercurial barometer. To the end 
of the lever, 3, is attached a light rod, terminating with 
a piece of fine watch-chain, which is attached to a small 
roller. On the axis of this roller the hand of the aneroid 
is firmly fixed, and kept in its position by means of a 
flat spiral spring, the outer coil of which is seen attached 


c 



Fig. 295. — ANEROID BAROMETER. 


to the axis. This flat spiral spring, which is always In 
a state of tension, maintains a pressure against the force 
of the levers, and keeps the hand of the aneroid in 
obedience to the indications of the vacuum-vase. Were 
it not for this spring, the hand, h, would remain station¬ 
ary at the point to which it had been propelled. 

Baromet'ric, Baromet'rical, a. Pertaining or 
relating to the barometer. 

Barometrically , adv. By means of a barometer. 

Baroinet'rograph, n. [Or. barns, weight, metron, 
measure, and graphein, to write ] An instrument for 
self-inscribing, upon paper, the variations of atmospheric 
pressure, obtained from minute to minute. In this new¬ 
ly invented contrivance, the records are continuous and 
comparable, and are produced by the variations of the 
aneroid barometer. The pressure of the atmosphere af¬ 
fects four metallic boxes, having their upper and under 
faces undulated; a vacuum is made in each of them sep¬ 
arately, and they are attached together in one series, so 
that for an equivalent of pressure the movement is four 
times greater than it is for one box only. A very strong 
flat steel spring acts upon the barometric boxes in an 
opposite direction to the atmospheric pressure. This 
spring controls the indicating lever by means of a con¬ 
nector, which receives the action from the extremity of 
the spring, and communicates it to the lever at a point 
very close to its axis, whence it follows that a considera¬ 
ble multiplication of movements is the result. The in¬ 
dications of the movements of the lever are registered 
in the following simple manner; a cylinder is revolved 
by the regular movement of an ordinary pendulum time¬ 
piece; it makes a complete revolution in one week, and 
carries a glazed paper, which has been smoked black by 
means of a candle. At the extremity of a lever is a very 
fine spring, pointed at the end, which rests upon the 
cylinder and traces a white line upon the black ground. 
At the end of each week the paper is changed for a fresh 
one, the old one being prevented from having its record 
destroyed by being coated with varnish. The barometrical 
arrangement of this instrument is far less liable to error 
than the ordinary aneroid, where so many movements 
and accessories are required to translate the changes of 
the barometric box to the indicating needle on the face 
of the instrument. 

Bar'onietz, n. ( Bot .) See Cibotium. 

Bar'on, n. [Fr. baron; A. S. baron, beam; 0. Fr. her; 
Provencal, bar.] (Tier.) In the feudal system of the 
Middle Ages, the title B., derived from the Latin varo, 
which signifies a man, and, sometimes, a servant, was 
given, at first, to the immediate tenant of any superior. 
In old records, the citizens of London are so styled. The 
family of Montmorency, in France, called themselves, 
premiers barons de la Chretienti. This title was intro¬ 
duced by William the Conqueror into England, from Nor¬ 
mandy, and used to signify an immediate vassal of the 
crown, who had a seat and vote in the royal court and 
tribunals, and, subsequently, in the house of peers. It 
was the second rank of nobility, until dukes and mar¬ 


quises were introduced, and placed nbo’'e the earl*, and 
viscounts also set above the barons. In Germany, the 
ancient barons of the empire wore the immediate vas¬ 
sals of the crown. They appeared in the imperial court 
and diet, and belonged to the high nobility. But these 
ancient feudatories were early elevated to the rank of 
counts or princes. The modern barons only form a rank 
of lower nobility after the counts. — In England, B. is 
the lowest grade of rank in the House of Lords. The 
coronation robes of a B. differ from those of the other peers 
in having but two rows of spots on the mantle; and the 
parliamentary robes, in having but two guards of white 
fur, with rows of gold lace. The right of wearing a coro¬ 
net was first conferred on B. by Charles II. It is adorned 
with 6 pearls, set at equal distances, of which 4 are 
usually shown. A B. is styled “Right Honorable,” and 
his children enjoy the prefix of “ Honorable.”—In Eng¬ 
land, too, the four puisne judges of the Court of Ex¬ 
chequer bear the title of baron, and the chief judge that of 
Lierd Chief Baron of the Exchequer. They are address**! 
as “My Lord,” but have no seat in the House of Lends, 
unless by being previously made a member of the peer¬ 
age.— Barons of the Cinque Ports. Formerly member* 
of the House of Commons, elected, two lor each, by the 
seven Cinque Ports, q. v. 

Baron and Femme. {Law.) A term used in the old 
English law-books for husband and wife. 

Baron of beef. ( Cookery.) Two sirloins of beef joined 
together by a part of the backbone. 

Baron, Michel, {ba'rong,) a French comedian, b. 1653, 
and long attached to Molifere’s company. For nearly 30 
years he played with the greatest success, and retired 
from the stage, in 1691, without any apparent reason. 
In 1720, however, he again returned, and was received 
with immense enthusiasm, playing, with great success, 
even the most youthful parts. In 1729 he was taken ill, 
while on the boards, and died shortly after. Although 
his merit in his profession was very great, yet his 
vanity was equal. This will appear from a saying of 
his, “That once in a century we might see a Crnsar, but 
that 2,000 years were not sufficient to produce a Baron; ” 
and he was about to refuse the pension granted him by 
Louis XIV., because the order for it was worded, “Pay 
to the within-named Michael Boyrun, called Baron,’’ Ac. 
He wrote also some plays, printed in 3 volumes after his 
death. 

Bar'onage.n. [Fr. barnnnage.} {Her.) The whole body 
of barons or peers. — The dignity or estate of a baron.— 
The land from which a baron derives his title. 

Bar'oness, n. (Her.) A baron's wife or lady. 

Bar'onet, n. (Her.) Literally, “a little baron;” spe¬ 
cifically, a dignity or degree of honor next below a baron, 
and above a knight. They bear the prefix “Sir” before 
their name, and the term Bart, (contraction of baronet) 
as a postfix; as, “ Sir Walter Scott, hart. ; ” their wives 
are styled Lady, or Dame. This dignity differs from 
that of a knight, inasmuch as the title is hereditary, 
while that of the latter rank exists only for one per¬ 
son's lifetime. The order of B. was instituted, or, as 
some assert, adopted, because the til le existed previously 
in Ireland, by James I., in 1611. The rank of B. exist* 
but in Great Britain. It is the lowest of the hereditary 
titles: but a B. has no robes, coronet, or distinctive badge 
whatever, except in the case of Scottish B., who, in 1629, 
were granted the privilege of wearing an orange riband 
and badge. 

Bar'onetage, n. The collective body of baronets. 

Bar'onetey, n. The condition or rank of a baronet. 

Baro'nial, a. Pertaining to a baron. 

Baronius, Cesare, (bd-ro’ne-us,) an Italian cardinal, 
B. 1538. He was elected Superior-General of the order 
of the Oratory in 1583, and became librarian of the Vati¬ 
can and confessor of Clement VIII. His great work 
is the Annales Ecclesiastici, iu 12 vols. folio: a work of 
immense research, which occupied him 30 years, and 
has passed through many editions. D. 1607. 

Bar'ons’War. (Hist.) The name given to an inter¬ 
necine war in England, which originated in the refusal 
of Henry 111. to ratify the statutes enacted at Oxford, 
in the “ Mad Parliament,” June 11,1258. The matter 
was referred to the arbitration of Louis IX. of Franoe, 
who decided, at a council held at Amiens, that the 
statutes should be annulled 23d Jan., 1264. The barons, 
with Simou De Montfort at their head, took up arms, 
and totally defeated the king at Lewes, May 14th. A 
parliament assembled at London, 20th Jan., 1265. Dis¬ 
putes arose among the barons, and a second great battle 
was fought at Evesham, 4th Aug., in the same year, in 
which the king was victorious, and De Montfort slain. 
The barons, who continued to oppose the royal authority, 
took refuge in Kenilworth Castle, but were compelled 
by famine to surrender, in Nov., 1266. The war was 
still carried on, and Prince Edward (afterwards Edward 
I.) reduced the Isle of Ely, their last stronghold, 25th 
July, 1269. 

Bar ony, n. [Fr. baronnie.] The lordship, honor, or 
fee of a baron. A territorial division in Ireland, synon¬ 
ymous with the English hundred, rape, or wapentake ; 
and the U. States county. 

Bar'oscope, n. [Fr. baroscope, from Gr. baros, weight, 
and skopein, to view.] An instrument to show the 
weight of the atmosphere; a barometer; a weather¬ 
glass. 

Baroscop'ic. Baroseop'ieal, a. Belonging to, 

or determined by, the baroscope. 

Barosel'enite, n. [Gr. baros, weight, and seiene, lno- 
tre.] (Min.) A native sulphate of barvta, or heavy spar. 

Baros'ma, n. (Bot.) A gen. of plants, ord. Eutaceez. 
The leaves of several species, such as B. crenata, crenu- 
lata, and serratifolia , are used in medicine for their aro¬ 
matic, stimulant, antispasmodic, and diuretic propertie*. 
























BARR 


BARR 


BARR 


281 


The plants yielding them are natives of the Cape of 
Good Hope, and are known in commerce as Buchu- 
leaves. They contain a peculiar bitter principle called 
Dios min or Bar os min, and a powerfully scented vola¬ 
tile oil. 

Barouche, ( ba-roosh',) n. [Fr. barouche; Ger. barut- 
sche; Lat. birotus — bis, double, and rota, a wheel.] 
Originally, a two-wheeled carriage; now used to denote 
a four-wheeled carriage, with a falling top and seats, 
as in a coach. 

Barouchet, (ba-rdo-sha',) n. A description of light 
barouche. 

Baroz'zio, Jacopo. See Vignola. 

Bar-post, n. A post placed in the ground to hold 
the bars of an entrance into a field. 

Barque, n. (Nutt.) See Bark. 

Barquesimoto, ( bar'kais-e-mai'to ,) a town of South 
America, in Venezuela, 92 m. W.S.W. of Valencia, and 
90 m. N.E. of Truxillo. Lat. 9° 55' N.; Lon. 69° 25' 
W. In 1807, it contained 15,000 inhabitants; but it 
suffered severely from the terrible earthquake of 1812, 
which scarcely left a house entire, and buried 1,500 
people in the ruins. 

Barr. in Indiana , a flourishing township of Daviess 
county. 

Bar'ra, n. (Com .) A Portuguese measure of length 
less than a yard. 

Bar'ra, one of the Hebrides islands on the N.W. coa 3 t 
of Scotland, being the most S. of the outer Hebrides, or 
group forming what is called the Long Island; pop. 
about 2,000. — See Hebrides. 

Bar'ra, a town of S. Italy, 3 m. from Naples, and filled 
with villas belonging to the residents of that city ; pop. 
8,993. 

Barraboo', or Baraboo', in Wisconsin, a river 
rising in the N.W. portion of Sauk co., and falling into 
the Wisconsin River, a short distance below Portage 
city. 

Barraboo', in Wisconsin, a post-township of Sauk 
county. 

Bar'racan, n. [Fr. barracan, or bouracan ; L. Lat. 
barracanus; Ar. barrakdn.] (Cbm.) A strong thick 
stuff resembling camlet, used for exterior clothing. 

Bar'rack, n. [Fr. baroque; obs. Gael, barrachad, a 
hut or booth, from barrack, top branches of trees.] A 
cabin, booth, or hut; specifically, a building for lodg¬ 
ing soldiers, especially when in garrison. (Chiefly used 
in the plural.) 

—In the U. States, this name is applied to the Dntch barn 
or out building, with a movable roof, for storing hay 
or grain. — See Barn. 

Bar'rack-ina^ter, n. A title given in England to 
the superintendent of soldiers’ lodgings. 

Barrackpoor', a seat of the British governor-gen¬ 
eral of India, and a military cantonment, in a beautiful 
and healthy spot, on the E. bank of the Hooghly, 16 m. 
N. of Calcutta. There is here a noble park, four miles 
in circumference, laid out in the European style, with 
gardens, an aviary, and a menagerie. 

Bar'racksville, in W. Virginia, a post-village of 
Marion co., 70 m. S.E. of Wheeling, on the Baltimore 
and Ohio railroad. 

Bar'raclade, n. [Du. baar; O. Du. baer, naked, bare, 
and p'ead, garment, i. e. cloths undressed or without a 
nap.] (Cbm.) A home-made woollen blanket without 
nap. 

Barracooil', n. [Sp. barraca.] A depot or warehouse 
for slaves, or an enclosed yard for the keeping of slaves 
before shipment. (Used principally on the W. coast of 
Africa.) 

Barracoa'ta, n. ( ZoSl .) A large species of pike, inhab¬ 
iting the W. India seas. 

Bar rage, n. (Com.) A linen stuff interwoven with 
worsted flowers. 

Bar'ramlite, n. (Min.) A spheroidal mineral, concen¬ 
tric in structure. Lustre between vitreous and greasy. 
Color pale-bluish, reddish, greenish, or yellowish-grav. 
Streak yellowish to bluish-white. Translucent to opaque. 
Comp. Phosphoric acid 40 63, alumina 12-61, sesquioxide 
of iron 26-16, water 20-60 = 100 . b.b. splits open and 
becomes darker in color; moistened with sulphuric acid, 
the flame bluish-green. It is soluble in hot muriatic 
acid. It is found in Bohemia. 

Bar'ras, Paul Francois Jean Nicolas, Comte de, b. 
in Provence, 1755, of an ancient family, served as 
second lieutenant in the regiment of Languedoc until 
1775. He made, about this time, a voyage to the Isle-de- 
France, the governor of which was one of his relations, 
and entered into the garrison of Pondicherry. On his 
return, he gave himself up to gambling and women, and 
dissipated his fortune. The revolution broke out. He 
immediately showed himself an opponent of tho court, 
and had a seat in the tiers-etat, while his brother was 
sitting in that of the nobility. July 14, 1789, he took 
part in the attack upon the Bastille, and Aug. 10, 1792, 
upon the Tuilerios. In 1792 he was elected a member 
of the National Convention, and voted for the uncondi¬ 
tional death of Louis XVI. He was sent, in 1793, to the 
south of France, and commanded the left wing of the 
besieging army under Dugommier, and it was here that 
he first met Napoleon Bonaparte, then captain of artil¬ 
lery. The patriotic reputation of B. was so well estab¬ 
lished. that he and Freron were the only representatives 
not denounced by the popular societies. Robespierre, 
however, was no friend of his, and often wished to arrest 
him. B., knowing this, became one of the principal 
actors of the 9th Thermidor, and put himself at the head 
of the troops which surrounded Robespierre at the Hotel 
de Ville. In 1794 he was named one of the “ Committee 
of Public Safety,” and became a great enemy to the 
members of the Mountain. In February, 1795, he was 


elected president of the Convention, and, in that capacity, 
declared Paris in a state of siege, when the assembly was 
attacked by the populace. Afterwards, when the Con¬ 
vention was assailed, Bonaparte, by B.’b advice, was ap¬ 
pointed to command the artillery; and that general, on 
the 13th Vendemiaire (Oct.5,1795), decisively repressed 
the royalist movement. For his services, B. was now 
named one of the Directory, and took a prominent part 
in the changes which that body underwent until Napo¬ 
leon's coup d’etat on the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), 
which effectually overthrew the power of B. and his col¬ 
leagues. His life, from this date, was, generally speak¬ 
ing, one of retirement. He died in Paris, 1829.' Napo¬ 
leon said of him: “The passion with which he spoke 
would make one imagine he was a resolute, determined 
man; but he was not so, — he had no decided opinion 
on any subject connected with government.” 
Bar'rator, n. [0. Fr. barat, deceit, cozenage; Icel. 6 a- 
ratta, acontest.] An encouragerof litigation or law-suits; 
a wrangler. 

“ To turn barrator in thy old days, a stirrer-up of quarrels 
amongst thy neighbours.” — Arbuthnot. 

(Marit.) A ship-master who is guilty of fraud in the 
management of a ship, to the injury of his owners and 
underwriters; one who makes away- with a ship. 

(Scuts Law.) A judge who accepts a bribe for uttering 
judgment. 

Barratrous, a. (Law.) Tainted with barratry. 
Bar'ratrously, adv. (Law.) In a barratrous method. 
Bar'ratry, n [Fr. baratterie .] (Law.) The offence of 
frequently inciting and stirring up suits and quarrels, 
either by law or otherwise; the punishment for which is 
fine and imprisonment. 

(Mar. Law.) An unlawful or fraudulent act, or very 
gross and culpable negligence, of the master or mariners 
of a vessel in violation of their duty, and directly preju¬ 
dicial to the owner. 

Barre', Isaac, b. 1726; d. 1802. A British colonel and 
member of Parliament (1701-90), famous for his opposi¬ 
tion to the Stamp Act and North’s American policy. 
Bar're, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Worcester 
co., 55 m. W. of Boston, drained by the Ware River. It 
is a prosperous place, possessing important cotton, and 
woollen manufactures, Ac. 

Barre, in New York, a township of Orleans co., 44 m. 
N.E. of Buffalo. 

Barre, in Pennsylvania, a township of Huntingdon 
county. 

B arre, in Vermont, a post-township of Washington co., 

6 m. S. by E. of Moutpelier, and watered by affluents of 
the Onion River. 

Barre, or Bar'ree, in Wisconsin,, a township of La 
Crosse co., about 7 m. N.E. of La Crosse. 

Barre Centre, in New York, a post-village of Barre 
township, Orleans co., 254 m. W. by N. of Albany. 
Barre Forge, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Hunt¬ 
ingdon co. 

Barre mils, in Wisconsin, a village of La Crosse co. 
Barre'ah, a town of Hindostan, prov. Gujerat, cap. of 
a small independent principality, 75 m. E.N.E. of Cam- 
bay ; Lat. 22° 44' N.; Lon. 74° E. 

Barreau', n. [Fr.] (French Law) The name given to 
the class of advocates, admitted to plead at the bar. 
The B. of Paris selects every year from among its mem¬ 
bers a council, and a president called bdtonnier, which 
are the ruling spirits of the corporation. The rules are 
established by the vote of the council and enforced by it, 
uuder the control of the presiding officer. The rules af¬ 
fecting the French advocates are very strict, and not 
easily evaded. Not only swindling, or any other crimi¬ 
nal act, is punished, but every unprofessional and illegal 
action is severely dealt with. Hence an advocate who 
indulges in any commercial speculation would incur 
the penalty of a public admonition, or exclusion. The 
title and dignity of the member of the council of the 
order of advocates is held in high esteem, and is the aim 
of the most talented and ambitious lawyers. 
Barreges'. See Bareges. 

Bar'rel, «. [W and Fr. baril; It. barite; Sp. barril; 
Gael, baraill, from W. bar, a bar, a rail.] A round 
wooden cask protected or secured by bars or hoops.—The 
quantity which a barrel holds. — Of wine measure, the 
English barrel contains 31% gallons; of beer measure, 
36; of ale, 32 : and of vinegar, 34 gallons. 

—Anything long and hollow; a cylinder; a tube; as the 
barrel of a gun. 

Barrel of a Boiler. (Mach.) The cylindrical part of a 
boiler which contains tho flues. 

Barrel of the Ear. (Anat.) See Tympanum. 

Bar'rel, v. a. To put in a barrel; to pack in a barrel. 
Bar'rel-bel'lied, a. Having a large belly. 

Bar rel-bulk, n. (Com.) A measure used in esti¬ 
mating capacity, as of a vessel for freight; equal to 5 
cubic feet. 

Bar'rel-or'gan, n. (Mus.) The common hand-or¬ 
gan, containing a barrel with pins, whose revolution 
opens the key-valves, and produces the music. 

Bar'ren, a. [Goth, obairan, unbearing; 0. Fr. 6 a- 
raigne, brehaigne, unfruitful; from Celt, brah, a spout, 
and anc, without.] Not bearing; unfruitful; unprolific; 
applied to animals and plants. — Unproductive: sterile; 
as, a barren country, a barren ground. — Scanty; dull; 
unmeaning; as, barren reveries, barren ignorance. 
Bar'ren, n ; pi. Bar'rens. A term applied in the W. 
and S. of the U. States to elevated lands or plains on 
which grow small trees, but not timber; as pine- 6 ar- 
rens, oak-barrens. They are not necessarily sterile, but 
often very fertile. 

Bar'ren. in Indiana, a post-village of Harrison co. 
Bar'ren, in Kentucky, a S. county, with an area of abt. 
100 sq. m. Surface, undulating and hilly, with a toler¬ 


ably fertile soil. Sulphur and salt springs are numer¬ 
ous throughout the county. Cap., Glasgow. Population 
in 1895, 21,424. * 

Bar'ren, in Tennessee, a post-village of Williamson co. 

Barren, or Big Barren River, in Tennessee, 
rises in Smith and Jackson counties, in the N. of the 
State. Traversing Kentucky, it takes a course W. and 
N.W . until it enters Greene River (after a course of 100 
m.) in the N.W. end of Warren co. It is navigable for 
steamers up to Bowling Green, a distance of 30 m. 

Bar ren Creek Springs, in Maryland, a district 
of Wicomico co. 

Bar'ren Hill, in Pennsylvania, a village of Mont¬ 
gomery co. 

Bar'ren Island, an island in the Bay of Bengal, E. 
?* ™ Andaman islands, with a volcanic mountain 
1,848 feet high, which is frequently in eruption. 



Fig. 296. — barren island. 


Bar'ren Plain, in Tennessee, a village of Robertson 
co., 32 m. from Nashville. 

Bar're Plains, in Massachusetts, a village of Wor¬ 
cester co. 

Bar'renly, adv. Unfruitfully; unproductively. 

Bar'renness, n. The state'or quality of being bar¬ 
ren, unprolific, or unfruitful; want of offspring; with¬ 
out the power of procreation. 

“I pray’d for children, and thought barrenness 
In wedlock a reproach.”— Milton. 

—Scantiness; lack of matter; want of resources ; inca¬ 
pacity. 

“ Though the accidents are not the same, which would h&vs 
argued him of a total barrenness of invention.” — Dryden. 

—Defect or poverty of emotion, feeling, or sensibility. 

“ The greatest saints sometimes are fervent, and sometimes feel 
a barrenness of devotion.” — Bishop Taylor. 

Bar'ren-spir'ited, a. Having a poor spirit. 

Bar'ren-wort, n. (Bot.) The popular name of the 
genus Epimedium. 

Bar'rel, or Bar'ret-cap, n. [Fr. barrette; It. her- 
retta; L. Lat. barretum.] (Mil.) A kind of cap, or head- 
pieceyformerly worn by soldiers. 

Bar rets ville. in Georgia, a village of Lumpkin co., 
110 m. N.N.W of Milledgeville. 

Bar'rett,in Pennsylvania, a township of Monroe coun¬ 
ty- 

Rar'rett, in Kansas, a post-village of Marshall co. 

Bar'rett’s Station, in Missouri, a post-office of St. 
Louis co. 

Bar'rettsville, in West Virginia, a village of Hamp¬ 
shire co. 

Bar'reville, in Illinois, a post-village of McHenry co., 
46 m. N.W. of Chicago. 

Bar'ri, or Bar'ry, Giraldus. See Giraldus Cam- 
brensis. 

Barricade, (bdr-re-kaid 1 ,) n. [Fr. barricade, from barre, 
a bar.] That which bars out, blocks up, obstructs, or 
defends. 

“ There must be such a barricade as would greatly annoy, or 
absolutely stop, the currents of the atmosphere.”— Derham. 

(MU.) A hastily constructed fortification, made of 
chevaux-de-frise, trees, earth, stones, Ac., in order to ob¬ 
struct the progress of an enemy. 

(Mar.) A strong wooden railing, fixed on stanchions, 
extending across the front of the quarter-deck of a ship 
of war, during a naval engagement. A II. is sometimes 
strengthened with a lining of hammocks, Ac., confined 
in a close rope-netting, to serve as a screen against mus-- 
ketry. 

(Hist.) Barricades, constructed of the first materials 
that came to hand, were used in popular insurrections 
during the Middle Ages. Paris has obtained notoriety 
as the city in which they have been most frequently 
employed. In 1358, its streets were barricaded against 
the Dauphin. The first “ Battle of the Barricades” took 
place on the entry of the Duke of Guise into Paris, 12th 
























282 


BARR 


BARR 


BART 


May, 1588. — It was followed, during the war of the 
Fronde, by another contest of a somewhat similar char¬ 
acter, 26th Aug., 1648, when Anno of Austria ordered 
the arrest of three popular members of the Parliament.— 
In July, 1830, the elder branch of the Bourbons, and in 
Feb., 1848, the Orleans branch of the same family, were 
■driven from the French throne, alter a struggle at the 
barricades. General Cavaiguac, in defence of the Pro¬ 
visional Government, waged a fearful contest with the 
insurgents, who had erected barricades, 23d, 24th, 25th, 
and 26th June, 1848, in which he was at length victo¬ 
rious. The killed and wounded amounted to 16,000, 
and about 8,000 of the rebels were taken prisoners. 
The recurrence ot such events in the French capital 
has now been rendered well-nigh impossible by the 
widening of the narrow streets, alleys &c.—Barricades 
have also been erected, during popular outbreaks, at 
Berlin, Vienna, and other cities on the continent of 
Europe. 

Barricade', v. a. To temporarily fortify a place or pas¬ 
sage; to stop up an avenue; to obstruct; to secure. 

“ Now all the pavement sounds with trampling feet, 

And the mixt hurry barricades the street.” — Gay. 
Barricad'er, re. A person who erects a barricade. 
Bar'rie, in prov. of Ontario, a flourishing town, cap. of 
Simcoe co., on a branch of Lake Simcoe, 64 m. N.N.W. 
of Toronto, 

Barrier, (5dr're-rer,)re. [Fr. barriire; from barre, a 
bar.] (Fort.) A sort of palisade, or stockade, to fence in 
any place, and obstruct the assaults of an enemy; a 
barricade. 

“ Safe in the love of heav’n, an ocean flow* 

Around our realm, a barrier from the foes.*’ — Pope. 

—A fortress, or other strong place, erected on the frontier 
of a country. 

“ The Queen is guarantee of the Dutch, having possession of 
the barrier." — Swift. 

—That which bars, obstructs, defends; any defence or 
impediment to approach or attack.— A bar to denote a 
limit, or line of separation of any place; a boundary. 

“ Pris'ners to the pillar bound, 

At either barrier plac'd.”— Dryden. 

Bar'rier date, the gate which closes the opening 
through a barrier. 

Bar'rier Reef, (tue Great,) a very remarkable and 
dangerous coral-reef, extending like a sea-wall, or ram¬ 
part, for 1200 miles along the N. and E. coast of Aus¬ 
tralia, and lying at an average distance of 60 miles from 
the land. A few openings and passages occur, here and 
there, along the dangerous continuity; but the naviga¬ 
tion through these openings is very hazardous, though, 
once inside the reef, the water is calm, anti the passage 
perfectly clear. This coral-chain has been very disas¬ 
trous to the mariner, and much property and many 
Eves have been lost on its sharp obstructions. 

Bar riors, (Battle of the,) was fought under the walls 
of Paris, 30tli March, 1814, when the allied army, after 
an obstinate contest, gained a victory which led to the 
capitulation of Paris, and the abdication of Napoleon I. 
Bar'ring-out. n. An act of boyish rebellion in schools, 
wherein the school-room doors are barred or closed 
against a schoolmaster or usher. 

Bar 'rington, in Illinois, a post-township of Cook co.J 
35 m. N.W. of Chicago. 

Bar rington, in New Hampshire, a post-township of 
Stafford co., 30 m. E. of Concord. 

Bar rington, in New York, a post-township of Yates 
co., on Crooked Lake, 54 miles S.E. of the city of Ro¬ 
chester. 

Bar'rington, in Rhode Island, a post-township of 
Bristol co., 8 in. S.E. of Providence, and watered by 
Palmer’s River, 

Bar rington Centre, in Rhode Island, a post-office 
of Bristol co. 

Barring'to'nia, n. (Bnt.) A genus of plants, ord. Bar- 
ringtoniacece, consisting of small trees conspicuous for 
their beauty. B. speciosa, the Moordilla, a native of 
Ceylon, has dark, glossy- leaves, aud white flowers deli¬ 
cately tinted with crimson. 

Barring'toniacese, ( bar-ring-to-ni-ai'se-e ,) an order 
of plants, alliance Grossales. This small order, includ¬ 
ing only 28 species divided in 10 genera, so much re¬ 
sembles the Myrtacece, q. v., that some botanists place 
them in this last order. The fruit of the Carega arborea 
is edible; while that of the Gustava braziliana is emetic, 
and produces an intoxicating effect upon flsh. 
Bar'rister, re. [From Bar, q. v.] In England, an advo¬ 
cate or counsellor-at-law, who has been admitted to 
plead at the bar. The privilege of conferring the rank 
or degree of barrister-at-law is exclusively enjoyed by 
the Inns of Court, which are the Inner Temple, the 
Middle Temple, Lincoln’s Inn, and Gray’s Inn. The 
possession of this rank (or of the higher degree of Ser¬ 
jeant) constitutes an indispensable qualification for 
practising. In the U. States, the degree of 11.. though 
not formally abolished, has for a long time fallen into 
disuse. 

Bar'rot, Odillon. See Odillon Barrot. 

Bar'row, a river of Ireland, and, next to the Shannon, 
the most important in that island. It rises in the Slieve- 
bloom Mountains, in Queen's, co., and alter a course of 
about 90 m., falls into the estuary of Waterford harbor, 
•of which it forms the right arm. It is navigable for 
large ships as far as New Ross, and for barges up to 
Athy, 60 m. from the sea. 

Bar'row, Isaac, d.d., f.r.s. An eminent English ma¬ 
thematician and divine, b. 1630. In 1760, he was ap¬ 
pointed Master of Trinity College, in Cambridge Uni¬ 
versity. on which occasion William III. said that he 
bad given that office to the most learned man in Eng¬ 
land. B. wac noted for his wit, as well as learning. On 


one occasion at court, he met the witty, but profane, Lord 
Rochester, q. v., who thus banteriugly accosted him, 
“ Doctor, I am yours to my shoe-tie." B. seeing his drift, 
ceremoniously returned his salute with, “ My lord, 1 am 
yours to the ground.” Rochester replied, “ Doctor, I am 
yours to the centre; ” which was capped by B. with, 
“ My lord, I am yours to the antipodes.” Upon which 
Rochester, disdaining to be foiled by a musty old piece 
of divinity, as he used to call B., exclaimed, “ Doctor, I 
am yours to the lowest pit of h—1.” On which, B., turn¬ 
ing on his heel, retorted, “ There, my lord, I leave you.” 
— Not only as a mathematician, but as a divine, B. ranks 
amoug the first of England’s worthies. Among his 
works, we may mention Lectitmes Mathematics, which 
are esteemed as perfect models in the hands of those 
who are attached to sound geometrical reasoning. The 
best edition of his theological works is that published 
at London, in 8 vols. 8vo. 1830. D. 1677. 

Bar'row, Sip. John, ll.d., f.r.s., an eminent English au¬ 
thor and traveller, b. 1764. His principal works are, Tra¬ 
vels in South Africa; Travels in China; and Voyages of 
Discovery and Research within the Arctic Regions. D. in 
1848. 

Bar'row, re. [ A.S. berewe, from beran, to bear, to carry.] 
A small vehicle which bears or carries a load; a small hand 
or wheel carriage; as, a hand-barrow, a wheel-barrow. 

( Salt Manuf.j A wicker case into which the salt is put 
to drain. 

—re. [Skr. bardha, warAha, a hog.] A hog, more particu¬ 
larly one that is castrated. 

—re. [A.S. beorg, beorli, from beorgan, to shelter, to keep, 
to preserve.] A hill or hillock; a small mountain; a 
place of defence or refuge; aheap; a sepulchral mound. 

( Archceol .) A name given to large artificial mounds of 
earth raised over the graves of warriors, and men of re¬ 
nown, in bygone ages. Barrows are considered to be the 
most ancient sepulchral monuments in the world. — See 
Tumulus. 

Bur'rowclale, in South Carolina, a village of Fairfield 
district, 25 m. N. of Columbia. 

Bar'row’S Straits, in British N. America, forms the 
connecting channel between Baffin’s Bay on the E., aud 
the Polar Sea on the W. It lies in a direction parallel to 
the equator, between Lat. 73° 45' and 74° 40' N., and is 
considered to terminate at Wellington Channel, in Lon. 
91° 47' W.; the mouth in Baffin’s Bay being nearly on 
the 80th meridian. It is therefore about 200 m. in length 
from E. to W., and between 60 and 70 m. in average 
width. Both shores are broken by a great number of in¬ 
lets ; that of the Prince Regent, on the S., is of very 
considerable extent. It was found by Sir James Ross to 
terminate in a great gulf, called by him Boothia. The 
water of this strait is very deep, the soundings frequent¬ 
ly giving upwards of 200 fathoms, and very often no 
bottom can be found. 

Bar'rulet, re. (Her.) The fourth part of a bar. 

Barr’s Store, in III., a twp. of Macoupin co. 

Bar'ry, Bar'ruly, re. (Her.) The division of the field 
or charge by horizontal lines, as in Fig. 2S7. — Barry- 
bendy is when the shield is divided into four, six, or more 


I 2 

Fig. 297. 

equal parts, by diagonal lines, the teincture of which it 
consists being varied interchangeably, (Fig. 297, 1.) — 
Barry-pily is when the shield is divided by diagonal 
lines, the colors being interchanged, (Fig. 297, 2.) 

Bar'ry, Sir Charles, r.a., an eminent English archi¬ 
tect, B. 1795. His principal work is the building of the 
Houses of Parliament, in London. This building has ex¬ 
cited much controversy, and, also, hostile criticism. 
But whatever differences of opinion may exist as to its 
want of originality, or monotony of design, the great 
beauty of this magnificent pile is unquestionable. D. 
1860. 

Bar'ry, James, a distinguished English painter, b. 1741. 
After holding for 15 years the professorship of the Royal 
Academy, he was expelled in consequence of disputes 
with the members. His principal work is a series of pic¬ 
tures painted in the Adelphi for the Society of Arts. 
They represent Orpheus subduing the Thracians; A 
Greek Harvest-Home; Victors at Olympia; Triumph of 
the Thames, &c. D. in poverty, 1806. 

Bar'ry, Marie Jeanne Gomard de Yaubernier, Com- 
tesse nu, the famous mistress of Louis XV., king of 
France, aud daughter of a commissioner of the customs at 
Vauconleurs, known as Gomard deVaubernier, was born 
in 1746, and, after the death of her father, entered the 
service of a milliner at Paris; afterwards Belonged to the 
establishment of the notorious Gourdan, where she was 
known by the name of Mile. Lange, and became the mis¬ 
tress of the Count du Barry, who built high hopes upon 
her charms. He managed to make her known to the 
king, and she soon took the place of the Marchioness de 
Pompadour. The king deemed it necessary to find her a 
husband, and she fell to the lot of the Count Jean du 
Barry, abrother of the one above mentioned. TheConnt- 
ess du Barry was now publicly introduced at Court. She 
soon governed all France; caused the ruin of the Duke 
de Choiseul, whose haughty spirit would not bend before 
her; promoted the Duke d’Aiguillon, and assisted him 
to take revenge on the parliament, which was, in 1771, 
driven from Paris, and afterwards entirely suppressed. 


Yet we ought not to ascribe to her the evils of which she 
was only the instrument in the hands of intriguing coun¬ 
sellors. She herself loved pleasure more than intrigue. 
After the death of the king, she was banished to an ab¬ 
bey near Meaux, and, afterwards, received permission to 
reside in her beautiful pavilion near Marli. She lived 
quietly, during the revolution, until Robespierre’s do 
minion. But her riches, and her connection with the 
Brissotists, caused her ruin. She was placed at the bar 
of the revolutionary tribunal, condemned to death, and 
executed, December 6, 1793. 

Barry, John, a Com. U.S.N., b. in Ireland, 1745, d. 1803. 
Bar'ry, in Ills., a thriving city of Pike co., 83 m. W. Oi 
Springfield ; pop. ( 1897) about 1,600. 

Bar'ry, in Maryland a post-office of Frederick co. 
Bar'ry, in Michigan, a S.W. central county having an 
area of 576 sq.m. It is watered by the Thornapple river 
and by Fall and Muddy creeks. Surface, diversified 
and rolling; presenting many small lakes,prairies,and 
belts of forest timber. Soil, fertile. Cap. Hastings. Pop. 
in 1890, 23,783. 

—A township of the above co. 

—A village of Jackson co., on Sandstone Creek, 82 m. W. 

of Detroit, and 6 from Jackson. 

Bar'ry, a S.S.VV. co. of Missouri, touching Arkansas, has 
an area of 703 sq. m. Rivers. White and King s rivers, 
and Flat Creek. Surface, hilly, and interspersed with 
forest and prairie, with a generally productive soil. 
Limestone is abundant, and lead-mines exist. Cap. Cass- 
ville. 

—A post-village of Clay co., 17 m. N.W. of Independence. 
Bar'ry, in Ohio, a post-village of Cuyahoga co., 15 m. 
E.S.E. of Cleveland. 

Bar'ry, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of Schuylkill 
co., 8 m. N.W. of Pottsville. 

Bar'ry ton, in Alabama, a village of Choctaw co., 133 
m. S. by W. of Tuscaloosa, and near the Tombigbee River. 
It was formerly the cap. of Washington co. 
Bar'rytown, in New York, a post-village and station 
on Hudson River Railroad, in Dutchess co., 50 m. S of 
Albany. 

Ba r'ry ville, in Iowa, a post-office of Delaware co. 
Bar'ry ville, in Michigan, a post-office of Barry co. 
Bar'ry ville, in New York, a post-village of Sullivan 
co., 107 m. from New York city. 

Bar'ry ville, in Ohio, a post-village of Stark co., 130 m. 
N.E. of Columbus. 

Bars, re. pi. (Manege.) The upper part of the gums, be¬ 
tween the tusks and grinders, which bear no teeth, and 
to which the bit is applied, aud by its friction ihe horse 
is governed. 

Bar'sabas, Joseph, surnamed the “Just,” was one of 
Christ’s early disciples, and probably one of the seventy. 
He was one of the two candidates nominated to fill the 
vacancy left by Judas Iscariot in tlieapostleship. (Acts i.) 
Ilar sac. a village of France, dep. Gironde, on the Ga¬ 
ronne, 11 m. S.E. of Bordeaux. It is famous for its white 
wines; they are of the same class, and sell for about 
the same price as those of Sauterne. Pop. 3,284. 
Barsa'niaiis. re. pi. (Feel. Hist.) See Semidulites. 
Barse, re. (Zobl.) See Bass. 

Bar'-slioe, re. (Farriery.) A kind of horse-shoe, hav¬ 
ing a bar across the usual opening at the heel, to protect 
a tender frog from injury. 

Bar'-sliot. re. (Mil.) A double-headed shot, consisting 
of a bar with a half ball, or round head at each end, used, 
principally, in naval warfare tor destroying the masts, 
spars, and rigging of an enemy’s ship. 
Bar-sur-Anbe, (bar'soor-obe,) a town of France, dep. 
Aube, cap. of an arrond., on the river Aube. 28 m. E. of 
Troyes. It is pleasantly situated, but an ill-built town. 
Manf. Cotton, serges, and hosiery. The neighboring 
vineyards produce excellent white and red wines. An 
obstinate battle took place here on the 24th May, 1814, 
between the French under Mortier, and the Allies under 
Prince Schwartzenberg, ending in the repulse of the 
latter. Pop. 5,199. 

Bar-sur-Seine, ( bar'soor-sain,) a town of France, dep. 
of Aube, 18 m. from Troyes. Manf. Wine and brandy. 
Pop. 3,311. A severe engagement took place hereon 
the 25th May, 1814, between Napoleon I. and the Allies. 
Bart, Jean, a celebrated French seaman, B. at Dun¬ 
kerque, 1651. His father was a seaman, and was killed in 
a naval action. Jean, yet a boy, left home and went to 
Holland, where he served under the celebrated Admiral 
de Ruy ter, and became a thorough seaman. Great cour¬ 
age, activity, and bodily strength, gave him the superi¬ 
ority over most of his comrades. When Louis XIV. de¬ 
clared war against Holland in 1672, B. refused the offers 
made to retain him in the Dutch service, and returned 
to Dunkerque. He there entered on board a privateer, 
which was very successful in its cruise, and much of the 
success was attributed to B. His share of the prizes 
having brought Lim a considerable sum of money, he 
fitted out a sloop, with two guns and thirty-six men, 
and having met a Dutch man-of-war in the Texel, he 
boarded, took, and brought her into Dunkerque. He 
next joined several speculators who fitted out a ten-gun 
ship, and gave him the command of it. Being equally 
successful in this cruise, he was intrusted with the com¬ 
mand of a small squadron of five ships, with which he 
did great injury to the Dutch, taking both their mer¬ 
chantmen and their armed vessels; and among others a 
thirty-six gun frigate, which, after a desperate fight, he 
carried into Dunkerque. His name now became known 
at court, and Louis XIV. sent him a gold medal and 
chain, with the rank of lieutenant in the royal navy. 
In the war against Spain, B. had the command of a fri¬ 
gate in the Mediterranean, and made many prizes. When 
the war broke out between France and England in 1689 
B. and the Chevalier de Forbin commanded two ships of 



















BART 


BART 


BART 


283 


war; and while they were escorting a fleet of merchant¬ 
men, they were attacked by two English frigates. 
After a desperate fight, the two French ships were taken 
and carried into Plymouth. Bart and Forbin escaped 
soon after by filing the bars of the window of their prison; 
and, with the connivance of the surgeon, who was a 
Frenchman, and of two cabin-boys, who waited on them, 
they obtained a boat, in which they crossed over the 
Channel to France. On their return, the king made 
them both captains. In 1690, B. took the command of a 
forty-gun ship, and joined the Brest fleet under Admiral 
da Tourville; he contributed materially to the advantage 
obtained by the French, off Dieppe, over the English and 
Dutch allied squadrons, on the 10th July. The following 
year, B. obtained from the Minister of Marine the com¬ 
mand of a squadron of small vessels, which he had recom¬ 
mended to be fitted out at Dunkerque, as better calcu¬ 
lated to do injury to the enemy. He sailed out of Dun¬ 
kerque, passing through the English blockading squad¬ 
ron, and went into the North Sea, where he made numer¬ 
ous prizes; he landed also on the coast of Scotland, where 
he plundered several villages. After the defeat of the 
French at the battle of ha Hogue, at which he was not 
present, B. sailed from Duukerque with three frigates, 
made a descent on the English coast near Newcastle, and 
plundered and burnt some villages. On his return home¬ 
ward, he fell in with a Dutch fleet of merchantmen under 
•convoy of several men-of-war. He made straight for the 
admiral’s ship, according to his custom, but was repulsed; 
he, however, succeeded in taking many of the merchant- 
vessels. In 1691 he attacked another Dutch fleet under 
Rear-Admiral Vries, boarded the admiral's ship and took 
her, after having mortally wounded the admiral himself 
with his own hand. This was one of the most desperate 
fights in which B. was ever engaged. By this victory 
he recovered from the Dutch a fleet of 300 vessels laden 
with corn from the Baltic, and bound to France, which 
country was then suffering under a severe dearth. A 
medal was struck to commemorate this event, and Louis 
XIV. granted letters of nobility to B. and his descendants. 
In 1697 B. was commissioned to take to Poland the Prince 
of Conti, one of the candidates for the Polish crown, 
vacant by the death of John Sobieski; but the Elector 
of Saxony was proclaimed King of Poland before the 
Prince of Conti’s arrival. The peace of Ryswick, in 1697, 
having put an end to the war, B. retired to live with his 
family. He d. at Dunkerque, 1702. He was one of the 
boldest and mostsuccessful seamen that France has ever 
produced. He was rough in his manners and illiterate, 
but clever, indefatigable, and frank in his disposition. 
His eldest son, Francois, became a vice-admiral, and died 
in 1755. 

(Bart, in Pennsylvania , a post-township of Lancaster co., 

14 m. S.E. of Lancaster. 

Bart'enstein, a town of Prussia, prov. E. Prussia, on 
the Alle, 34 m. S.E. of Konigsberg; pop. 5,164. 

Bar ter, n. [0. Fr .barator; It . barattare.} Traffic by 
exchange of commodities; a trucking. — B. is the ex¬ 
changing of one commodity directly for another, with¬ 
out the employment of money or any other medium of 
exchange. This is the usual mode of exchange among 
savage or uncivilized races, and it is likewise generally 
adopted by civilized nations in trading with savages; 
thus the traders with the North-American Indians pur¬ 
chase skins by bartering guns, powder, axes, and the 
like. The term seems to be derived from the Italian 
word barattare, which signifies to cheat as well as to 
barter. A system of B. can only exist in the earliest 
commercial state of a people; for as commercial inter¬ 
course extends, the necessity of a standard of value be¬ 
comes apparent, not only to facilitate operations, but to 
prevent that species of over-reaching which necessarily 
attends B. The exchanges of a civilized people among 
themselves, or with other countries, are principally 
carried on by means of bills of exchange: so that the 
actual money payment in a country by no means rep¬ 
resents the amount of its commercial transactions. In 
some parts of England, particularly in the mining dis¬ 
tricts, wages are paid in articles of consumption instead 
of money; and this is termed “trucking,” from the 
French word troc, which signifies barter. It is, however, 
illegal. 

—The thing given in exchange. 

— v. i. To cheat or wrangle in bargaining; to exchange; 
to traffic by exchanging one commodity for another. 

“ As if they scorn'd to trade and barter, 

By giving or by taking quarter.”— Hudibras. 

~-v. a. To give one thing for another in commerce. 

" To those who at the market-rate, 

Can barter honor for estate."— Prior, 

Bar'tercr, n. One who barters. 

Bart'la, or Bar t'feld, a town of*Hungary, co. Sarosch, 
on the Tope, at the toot of the Carpathian Mountains, 

15 m. N.N.E. of Zeben. Lat. 49° 16' 10' N.; Lon. 21° 18' 
51' E. Pop. 5,850. 

Barth, a seaport town of Prussia, prov. Pomerania, on 
the Binnen-Soe, which connects with the Baltic, 17 m. 
W.N.W. of Stralsund. It carries on some trade in corn, 
lumber, and shipbuilding. Pop. 6,332. 

Barth, n. (Prov. Eng.) A shelter for cattle. 

Barth, Heinrich, a German explorer, born at Ham¬ 
burg, in 1821. He was educated at Hamburg and 
Berlin, and in 1844 published a remarkable thesis on the 
Commerce of Ancient Corinth. In the next year he com¬ 
menced those exploratory expeditions which have since 
so much increased our knowledge of African geography. 
The government of Morocco refused to allow him to pass 
through its territory, and B. therefore proceeded to Tu¬ 
nis, whence he penetrated into Sahara and crossed the 
vast deserts of Northern Africa to the Nile. In 1846 he 


crossed into Asia, and in 1848, returning to Berlin, he 
published an account of his Exploratory Expedition to 
the Coasts of the Mediterranean in 1845-1847, In 1849, 
he joined the expedition fitted out by the English gov¬ 
ernment to explore Central Africa. The expedition was 
absent 4 years, during which B. travelled 12,000 miles. 
On his return, in 1855, he drew up a narrative of his 
journey under the title of Travels and Discoveries in North 
and Central AJrica, published in Germany in 1855, and 
in England in 1857. This work is one of the most im¬ 
portant contributions to modern geographical science, 
and the researches it records have placed B. among the 
most illustrious of the geographical explorers of our 
times. D. 1866. 

Bartlieloiny, Auguste Marseille, (bar-tai'le-me,) a 
F’rench poet, was B. at Marseilles, 1796. He first acquired 
reputation bv a satirical poem against the Capuchins. 
His powers of satire frequently brought him in contact 
with the government of the restoration; and the revolu¬ 
tion of July, 1830, found him in prison. Restored to 
liberty, he sang the victory of the people, along with 
M. Mery, in a poem dedicated to the Parisians — VIn¬ 
surrection, which became very popular. The later effu¬ 
sions of the poet’s genius are war-songs celebrating the 
victories in the Crimea. As a writer, B. is held by his 
admirers to exhibit the vehemence of Juvenal, the bit¬ 
terness of Gilbert, and the causticity of Boileau. D. 1867. 

Barth^lemy, Jean Jacques, the author of The Trav¬ 
els of Anacharsis the Younger, was born at Cassis, 
France, 1716. He received his education at Marseilles, 
and on its completion was admitted into the Society of 
Jesuits, and applied himself with success to the study 
not only of classical, but Oriental literature. Disgusted 
with his companions, he left the Jesuits, became a secular 
abbe, and arrived at Paris, where his erudition made 
him many friends. In 1747, he was elected a member 
of the Academy of Inscriptions; and, in 1753, keeper- 
in-chief of the royal medals. In 1788, he published the 
great work above mentioned; and in the following year 
the French Academy opened her doors to the learned 
delineator of the Greek characters and monuments. 
During the reign of terror he was arrested and impris¬ 
oned, but released after a few hours’ detention, the 
Jacobins themselves being ashamed of the atrocity of 
such an act. On the 25th of April, 1795, he died at the 
ripe age of 79, passing from this world as calmly as he 
lived in it; only two hours before his death he was read¬ 
ing Horace in company with his nephew. 

Bartli^lemy-Saiut-llilaire, Jules de, an emi¬ 
nent French philosopher and member of the Institute, 
b. in Paris, Aug. 19, 1805. In 1838 ho was appointed to 
the chair of Greek and Latin Philosophy in the College 
of France, and was made a member of the Academy of 
the Moral and Political Sciences. In Feb., 1848, he be¬ 
came one of the chiefs of the Republican party in the 
Constituent Assembly. After the coup d’ (tat of the 2d 
of Dec., 1852, and the downfall of the parliamentary 
system, he resigned his professorship in the College of 
France, but was reappointed in 1862. B.’s principal 
works are, Politique d'Aristote (Paris, 1848); La Logique 
d’Aristote, translated into French for the first time 
(1830—44). De Vedas (1854) ; Du Bouddhisme (1855) ; Le 
Bouddha et sa Religion (1866). In 1871, B. became the 
confidential secretary of President Thiers, and Minister 
of Foreign Affairs in 1880-81. Died Nov. 24,1895. 

Barthol'di, F. A., French sculptor. See Section II. 

Bartholomew, (bar-thol'o-mu ,) St., the apostle, is 
probably the same person as Nathanael, mentioned, in 
the Gospel of St. John, as an upright Israelite, and one 
of the first disciples of Jesus. The derivation of his 
name and descent from the family of the Ptolemies, is 
fabulous. He is said to have taught Christianity in the 
south of Arabia, and to have carried there the Gospel 
of St. Matthew, in the Hebrew language, according to 
Eusebius. Chrysostom mentions that he preached in 
Armenia and Natolia; and a later writer of legends says 
that he suffered crucifixion at Albania Pyla (now Der- 
bend), in Persia. The ancient church had an apocryphal 
gospel bearing his name, of which nothing has been 
preserved. — The Catholic Church celebrates a feast in 
his honor, on the 24th of August. 

Barthol'omew, St., (Massacre of.) In 1572, in the 
reign of Charles IX., many of the principal French 
Protestants were invited to Paris, under a solemn pledge 
of safety, on the occasion of the marriage of the King 
of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV., with the French king’s 
sister. Though doomed to destruction, they were re¬ 
ceived with caresses, loaded with honors, and treated for 
seven months with every possible mark of courtesy and 
confidence. In the midst of their security, the warrant 
for their destruction was issued by their sovereign, on 
whose word they had relied; and in obedience to it, 
their countrymen, their fellow-citizens and companions, 
imbrued their hands in their blood. This horrible butch¬ 
ery began on the 24th of August, being St. B.’b day, 
on which, and the two following days, more than 10,000 
Protestants, without distinction of age, sex, or condition, 
were murdered in Paris. A butcher boasted to the 
king that he had hewn down 150 in one night; and De 
Thou, a celebrated French historian, affirms that he had 
often, with the utmost horror, seen a goldsmith named 
Oruce, who boasted of having killed 400 with his own 
hands. A like carnage ensued in the provinces, where 
upwards of 25,000 more were destroyed by other blood¬ 
thirsty fanatics. Sully says that the number mas¬ 
sacred throughout the kingdom amounted to 70,000. 
This horrid deed was, however, applauded in Spain; at 
Rome, solemn thanksgivings were offered to God for its 
success, and medals were struck at Paris in honor of it; 
while, as a mark of Protestant detestation, Elizabeth 
and the English court put on deep mourning, and re¬ 


ceived the French embassy in solemn silence. — For the 
causes which produced this massacre, see Coni*£, Guise, 
Huguenots. 

Barthol'omew, St., one of the lesser N. Caribbean 
Islands in the W. Indies, belonging to Sweden, 30 m. N. 
of St. Kitt’s; Lat. 17° 55' 35" N.; Lon. 62° 50' W. It it 
of an oblong form, its greatest length being from E. to 
W,, and contains about 8 sq. m. It is abundantly fer¬ 
tile, producing sugar, cotton, tobacco, and indigo; but 
it has no springs nor fresh water of any sort, except such 
as is supplied by the rain. Being surrounded by rocks 
and shoals, it is difficult of access; but its harbor, Ls 
Carenage, on the W. side of the island, is safe and com¬ 
modious. Contiguous to the harbor is the cap. Gustavia. 
This island was settled by the French in 1648, and ceded 
by them to.the 8wedes in 1784, who, finding it unprofit¬ 
able to hold, receded it to France in 1877. 

Barthol omew, in Ark., a twp. of Drew co. 

Barthol'omew, in Indiana, a S.E. central county} 
area, 400 sq. m. It is watered by the Driftwood Fork of 
White River, and by Flat Rock and Cliffy creeks. Its N. 
surface is hilly, but in the other parts level, with a fer¬ 
tile soil. Cap. Columbus. 

Barthol'omew, a bayou of Louisiana and Arkansas, 
which, rising in Jefferson co., in the latter State, takes a 
S. course into Louisiana, and empties into the Washita/ 
at Washita city, in Morehouse parish. 

Bartolommeo, Fra. S. Baccio della Porta. 

Barthol'omew-tide, n. The time of the festival 
of St. Bartholomew, August 24th. 

Barthol'omites, n. pi. (Eecl. Hist.) This religious 
order of St. Basil, driven from Armenia in 1296, owing 
to the cruelties committed upon them by the Sultan of 
Egypt, formed an establishment at Genoa in 1307. They 
obtained a second house at Parma in 1318, and after¬ 
wards spread to other towns of Italy. They assumed 
the habit of St. Dominic, and eventually followed the 
rule of St. Augustine, which was confirmed to them by 
Innocent VI., in 1356. The B. gradually decreased in 
numbers, and were suppressed by Innocent X., in 1650. 

Bar'tin, or Parthine, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Na¬ 
tolia, near the mouth of the river of the same name 
(anc. Parthenius), on the Black Sea; Lat. 41° S3' 52" N.j 
Lon. 32° 14' E. 1’op. about 12,000. 

Bar'tizan, n. [It. bertesva ; 0. Eng. brattice, fromGer. 
brett, a plank or board.] (Arch.) A fence or parapet 
of boards ; specifically, a small round overhanging tur¬ 
ret, (Fig. 274,) with a balistraria or very narrow 
window; generally projecting from the angle of a 
square tower, on the corner of the gable of a building, 
and supported on a corbel or bracket. In former times, 
its chief use, when thrown out near the top of a tower, 
seems to have been for the purpose of enabling any 
one on guard to keep a look-out on persons approach¬ 
ing the castle, from a place of shelter or safety; or, when 
placed over or near a gateway, for defensive purposes. 

Bart'lett, John Russell, an American ethnologist, 
traveller, and author, b. at Providence, R. I., on the 
23d Oct., 1805. He was educated at Laville Academy, 
N. Y., and in Canada. lie passed some time in com¬ 
mercial pursuits, then engaged in the book-trade, and 
devoted himself to historical and ethnological studies. 
In conjunction with Albert Gallatin he founded the 
“American Ethnological Society,” of which he was 
also the secretary. In 1850, B. was appointed, by 
President Taylor, U. S. commissioner to survey the 
boundary line between this country and Mexico, in 
conformity with the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo. 
He, accordingly, organized a large corps of engineers, 
and with them sailed from New York in Aug. of the 
same year. Landing on the shores of Texas, he fitted 
out his expedition, which, including the officers, assist¬ 
ants and escort, numbered more than 300 men With 
this party B. traversed the vast regions of prairie and 
desert between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific. In 
connection with the survey, he explored a large portion 
of Texas, New Mexico, Ac. His various journeys ex¬ 
tended over a distance of 5,000 m., and occupied nearly 
3 years. The results, embracing observations in astron¬ 
omy, physics, and natural history, weie published first in 
1854, and afterwards, in a more extended form, in 1857-8, 
at the expense of the American government. B.’b pub¬ 
lished works are, A Dictionary of Americanisms, 8vo, 
which has been translated into Dutch; The Progress of 
Ethnology, 8vo; Reminiscences of Albert Gallatin; 
Personal Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in 
Texas, New Mexico, California , Ac., 2 vols., 8vo; Official 
Despatches and Correspondence, Ac. D. 1S86. 

Bart'lett, William Henrv, an eminent English artist 
and author, b. in London, 26th March, 1809. He pub¬ 
lished (1844-1855) many fine illustrated works, of which 
the following are the’more noticeable: Walks about 
Jerusalem; Forty Days in the Desert; The Nile-Boat; 
The Overland Route; Pictures from Sicily; The Pilgrim 
Fathers ; Jerusalem Revisited. Ac. D. 12th Sept., 1856. 

Bart'lett, in Iowa, a post-office of Fremont co. 

Bart'lett, in New Hampshire, a township of Coos co s 
80 m. N.E. of the city of Concord, traversed by the Saco 
River. 

—A post-village of Carroll co. Pop. (1898) 1,280. 

Bart'lett, in Ohio, a post-village of Washington co., 20 
m. W. by S. of Marietta. 

Bart'lett, in Tennessee, a post-village of Shelby co. 

Bart lett’s Island, now Outer Island, in Wisconsin, 
in Lake Superior; one of the Apostle group; it is about 
7 m. long, by 3 broad. Lat. 47° N.; Lon. 90° 30' W. 

Bartoli'ni. Lorenzo, a celebrated Italian sculptor, b. 
at Florence, in 1778. In the history of modern sculp¬ 
ture, while Thorwaldsen embodies the German version 
of the Greek ideal, and Rauch that of an intellectual 
classicism, B. impersonates the ideal of realism. Hit 












284 


BAKU 


BABY 


BASA 


greatest works are the bas-relief of CXedbis and Biton; 
the group called Charity (his masterpiece); and the 
statue of Faith in God. D. 1850. 

Bartolomeo in Galdo, St., a town of S. Italy, 
prov. Foggia, 27 m. W.S.W. of Foggia; pop. 8,796. 

Bar'ton, n. [A. S. beretun, courtyard, enclosure.] The 
demesne lands of a manor.—The manor itself.—The out¬ 
houses of a manor-house, (o.) 

Bar'ton, Elizabeth, commonly called the Holy Maid of 
Kent, was used as an instrument, by the Catholics and 
adherents of Queen Catharine, to excite the English 
nation against the proposed divorce of Henry VIII. 
from his first wife, and the apprehended separation of 
the English Church from Rome, with which the king 
then threatened the Pope. Her delirium, in a violent 
nervous illness, was made use of by the parson of Alding¬ 
ton, Richard Masters, and by a canon of Canterbury 
named Booking, to persuade her that she was a pro¬ 
phetess inspired by God, and destined to prevent this 
undertaking of the king. Her revelations, published 
and distributed by the monk Deering, produced such a 
fermentation among the people, that Henry ordered 
the apprehension and examination of Elizabeth and 
her accomplices before the Star Chamber. After they 
had there confessed the imposture, they were condemned 
to make a public confession, and to imprisonment; and, 
when it was found that the party of the queen were 
laboring to make them retract their confession, they 
were adjudged guilty of high treason, for a conspiracy 
against the king, and executed, April 30,1534. 

Bar'ton, in Alabama, a post-office of Colbert co. 

Bar'ton, in Indiana, a township of Gibson coun¬ 
ty. 

Bar'ton, in Maryland, a post-office of Alleghany co. 

Bar'ton, in Michigan, a township of Newaygo coun¬ 
ty. 

Bar'ton, In Missouri, a county in the W.S.W. part of 
the State, close upon Kansas. Area, 600 sq. m. The 
North Fork of Spring River, and a branch of the Little 
Osage River, water this county, the surface of which is 
mostly prairie. It is well timbered, and possesses coal 
and limestone. Cap. Lamar. 

Bar'ton, in New York, a post-township of Tioga co., 
having a village of the same name, 25 miles E.S.E of 
Elmira. 

Bar'ton, in Texas, a post-office of Anderson co. 

Bar'ton, in Vermont, a post-township of Orleans co., 

. 4o miles north-east of Montpelier, watered by Barton 
River. 

Bar'ton, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Washington 
county, on Milwaukee River, 3 miles north of West 
Bend. 

Bar'ton Creels, in Tennessee, a P. 0. of Dickson co. 

Barto'nia, n. ( Bot.) See Mentzelia. 

Barto'nia, in Indiana, a post-office of Randolph co., 
8 m. S.E. of Winchester, the county seat. 

Barton t.aniling;, in Vermont, a prosperous post¬ 
village of Orleans co., Barton township. 

Bar'ton-on-llum'ber, a town of England, co. 
Lincoln, on the S. side of the Humber; pop. 4,276. 

Bar'ton-on-Ir'well, a township of England, co. 
Lancaster, 7 m. from Manchester, on the Irwell. Manf. 
Flax. Collieries abound here. 

Bar'ton River, in Vermont, a small stream of Or¬ 
leans co., falling into Lake Memphremagog. 

Bar ton’s Creek, in Tennessee, a stream flowing into 
the Cumberland river, in the S. part of Montgomery co. 

Bar'tonsville, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Mon¬ 
roe co. 

Bar 'tonsville, in Vermont, a post-village of Windham 
co., 95 m. N.VV. of Montpelier, and 43 S.E. of Rutland. 

Bar'ton Village, in Vermont, a prosperous village of 
Orleans co., Barton township, 43 m. N.E. of Montpelier. 

Bar'tow, in Georgia, a county, formerly called Cass, 

q. v. 

Bar'trara, .Jo*w, an eminent American botanist, b. in 
Chester co.. Penn., in 1701. He formed a Botanic gar¬ 
den near Philadelphia, said to have been the first estab¬ 
lishment of the kind in the U. States; and so intimate 
an acquaintance had he with the vegetable kingdom, 
that Linnaeus pronounced him “ the greatest natural 
botanist in the world.” D. 1777. 

Bar'train. William, a son of the preceding, was also a 
distinguished naturalist. At the request of Dr. Fother- 
gill, he travelled through the Carolinas, Florida, and 
Georgia, for the purpose of making researches in natu¬ 
ral history, and transmitted to his employer in London 
the valuable collections and drawings which he had 
made. His American Ornithology may be considered 
the precursor of Audubon's and Wilson’s invaluable 
works. D. 1823. 

Bar'traraville, in Ohio, a post-office of Lawrence co. 

Bart'ville, in Pennsylvania, a P. 0. of Lancaster co. 

Barn, n. See Saguerus. 

Baruch, ( bai'rulc,) was the disciple and amanuensis 
of the prophet Jeremiah, and the book Of his name, 
subjoined to the canon of the Old Testament, has been 
reckoned part of Jeremiah’s prophecy, and is often cited 
by the ancient fathers as such. It is said, in the preface 
to the book, to have been written by B. at Babylon, by 
the appointment of the king and the Jews, and in their 
name; that it was afterwards read to them for their ap¬ 
probation, and then sent to Jerusalem, with a collection 
of money, to Joachim the high-priest, and to all the 
people. The Jews rejected this book, because it did not 
appear to have been written in Hebrew ; nor is it in the 
catalogue of sacred books given us by Origen, Hilary, 
Rufinus, and others. St. Cyril of Jerusalem, however, 
and the Laodicean Council, held in 364, mention B. 
among the canonical books of Scripture, and join it 
with the prophecy of Jeremiah. 


Bar'walde, or Bar'knwald, (“ Forest of the Bears,”) 

a town of Prussia, prov. of Brandenburg, on a lake, 32 
m. N. of Frankfort-on-the-Oder; pop. 4,416. 

Bar'-way, n. A passage into a field composed of bars 
made to take out of the posts. 

Bar'wootl, n. See Baphia. 

Bary ta, Barytes, Oxides of Barium, n. [Gr. barns , 
heavy.] ( Chem .) A grayish-white porous alkaline 

earth, discovered by Scheele in 1774. Sp. grav. about 
4-00. Its taste is harsh, and more caustic than lime, 
acting on the stomach as a violent poison. It turns 
vegetable blues green, and is a non-conductor of elec¬ 
tricity. b.b. it fuses, and penetrates the charcoal, an 
effect probably occasioned by the presence of water, as 
it has since been found, when anhydrous, to fuse only 
by the strongest heat of a forge. When sulphuric or 
chlorohydric acid is poured on baryta, it becomes red-hot. 
When water is poured on it, baryta is slaked like quick¬ 
lime with the evolution of heat; the mass becomes 
white and swells ; if more water is added, so as to dilute 
it completely, the baryta crystallizes, on cooling, as a 
hydrate (BaOIIO), and it then absorbs carbonic acid 
from the air, and must, therefore, be preserved in closely 
stoppered bottles. It dissolves in 20 parts of water, 
forming baryta-water, much used as a chemical re¬ 
agent. Boiling water dissolves half its weight of ba¬ 
ryta, and deposes, on cooling, four or six-sided prismatic 
crystals, containing 10 equivalents of water. Form. BaO. 

Salts of B. —1. They are generally white or colorless, 
and crystalline. 2. The soluble salts of baryta give a 
white precipitate by sulphuric acid and alkaline sul¬ 
phates, insoluble in nitric acid. 3. Ammonia does not 
precipitate baryta, while soda and potash do. 4. Yel¬ 
low prussiate gives no precipitate. 5. The soluble salts 
of baryta are poisonous. 6. b.b. salts of baryta com¬ 
municate a green tinge to the flame. 7. Sulphate of 
lime in solution precipitates baryta salts immediately. 
8. Chromate of potash precipitates alkaline, and neu¬ 
tral solutions of salts of barium, yellow; insoluble in 
alkalies and acetic acid; while no precipitate occurs 
with strontium and lime salts. 

Hydrous Chloride of B. Spec. grav. 3 049 (Karsten). 
Commonly colorless tables, referable to the right 
prismatic system. Taste, pungent and disagreeable; 
poisonous; not altered in the air, decrepitating on 
being heated, but not liquefying; by ignition it fuses, 
but does not decompose. Form. BaC12HO. The anhy¬ 
drous chloride, which results from igniting the hydrate, 
is a white mass, with a sp. grav. of 3-70 to 4-15. When 
heated in contact with steam, it gives out chlorohydric 
acid, and becomes alkaline. Form. BaCl. It may be 
prepared by dissolving the native or artificial carbonate 
of baryta in chlorohydric acid, and crystallizing. It is 
principally used for testing and precipitating sulphuric 
acid in solutions. 

Carbonate of B., found native as Witherite. It is used 
as the source of many baryta salts. It is a dense white 
powder, falling as a precipitate when a soluble carbon¬ 
ate is added to a solution of baryta salt. It is nearly 
insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in acetic, nitric, 
hydrochloric, and several other acids. Form. Ba0C02. 

Nitrate of B. is formed by dissolving the carbonate of 
baryta in very dilute nitric acid, and evaporating and 
crystallizing. It forms white, translucent octahedra, 
which are anhydrous. It is soluble in 8 parts of cold 
and 3 parts of boiling water. It is used principally in 
the preparation of baryta, for chemical purposes, and 
for detecting acids in analysis. Form. BaONO. 

Sulphate >if B., Heavy Spar, Barytine, is an ortho¬ 
rhombic mineral. Lustre vitreous,inclining to resinous; 
sometimes pearly. Streak white, color white; also in¬ 
clining to yellow, gray, blue, red or brown, dark brown. 
Transparent to translucent; opaque. Sometimes fetid, 
when rubbed. Optic-axial plane branchy-diagonal. Sp. 
grav. 4-44. It occurs in nature amorphous, and artifi¬ 
cially in a white powder; 1 part is soluble in 43,000 
parts cold water ( Kirwan) ; oil of vitriol dissolves it by 
boiling, but it is again precipitated on the addition of 
water ( Withering ). When heated, it decrepitates from 
the conversion of hygroscopic water between its plates 
into steam, b.b. it fuses into an opaque white globule 
-—a temperature of 35° Wedgwood being required. 
When made into a paste with flour and water, and ig¬ 
nited, it phosphoresces in the dark, from the sulphide 
formed by heat probably again uniting with oxygen, 
and becoming sulphate. An Italian shoemaker, named 
Vincenzo Casciarolo, first observed that the Bologna 
stone (found at the foot of Mount Paterno). a variety of 
heavy spar, when ignited, became luminous in the dark 
( Lemery). Sulphate of barytes is found along with ga¬ 
lena in the graywacke formations, and likewise in the 
coal series, and in the old red sandstone conglomeration. 
It is used to mix with w'hite lead in painting, but is of 
no value, as it is transparent, and thus injures the white 
lead. To render it fit for this purpose, it is ground by 
millstones, and then by stones and water, into a fine 
powder. The powder is digested in sulphuric acid in 
iron pots, with the application of heat to remove iron. 
The sulphuric acid is washed out by w r ater and decanta¬ 
tion, and the powder dried into cakes, like magnesia, over 
a flue. It is frequently mixed with ochre, chrome-yellow, 
&.C., according to the color required. Form. Ba 0 S 03 . 

Baryt'ic, a. Relating to baryta. 

Barytocal'cite, n. (Min.) A monoclinic mineral. 
Lustre vitreous, inclining to resinous. Color white, 
grayish, greenish, or yellowish. Streak white. Trans¬ 
parent-translucent. Fracture uneven. Comp. Carbon¬ 
ate of baryta, 66'3, carbonate of lime, 33-7 = 100. 
It is found in England, in the sub-carboniferous or 
mountain limestone. 


Bar'yton, n. (Mus.) A stringed Instrument of inusiet 
invented in 1700, but now entirely disused. 

Bar'ytone, Bar'itone, n. [Fr. baryton; Gr. barys, 
heavy, grave, and tonos, tone, sound.] (Mus.) A grave, 
deep sound, or male voice. Specifically, a tone of tbs 
voice, the compass of which lies between the bass and 
tenor. It is the lowest but one of the six registers into 
which the human voice is divided, and is the commonest 
kind of male voice. The mezzo-soprano, or middle fe¬ 
male voice, corresponds with it, an octave higher. 

(Greek Gram.) A word which has no accent marked 
on the last syllable, the grave accent being understood. 

— a. (Mus.) Pertaining to, or noting, a grave, deep sound, 
or male voice. 

Bary'tinn, n. (Mn.) See Barium. 

Bas, or Batz, a small island in the English Channel, be¬ 
longing to France, and situated off the N. coast of the dep. 
of Finistere; length 3 m., breadth about 2. It has a light¬ 
house, in Lat. 48° 45' N., and Lon. 4° \ x /f W. Pop. 1,276. 

Basaiti, ( ba’sa-e-te,) Marco del Friuli, an early Vene¬ 
tian painter, who flourished in the 15th and 16th cen¬ 
turies. He was a good colorist, and in some respects 
was the rival of Giovanni Bellini. His Christ in the 
Garden, and Calling of St. Peter and St. Andrew, are 
his finest pictures; both of them are now in the Academy 
of Fine Arts at Venice. D. 1519. 

Ba'sal, a. Pertaining tothebaso; constituting the base. 

Basal Plane. (Crystallog.) One parallel to the lateral 
or horizontal axis. 

Basalt', n. [F’r. basalle; Lat. basaltes; Ethiop. basal, 
iron.] (Geol. and Min.) A close-grained, hard, black, or 
dark-brown rock, of igneous origin, occurring both in 
the trap and the volcanic series; sp. grav. 2-87 to 3\ 
It is one of the dolorites or augitic lavas, and consists 
essentially of augite and felspar, the former being in 
excess. It often contains crystals of the olive-green 
mineral olivine, grains of magnetic iron, and other 
bodies. Masses of basalt are frequently found divided 
into columns or prisms, with three, five, or more sides. 
That this columnar structure is the result of contrac¬ 
tion on consolidation, is shown by the prisms usually 



Fig. 298. — the isle of staffa. 


being at right angles to the greatest extension of the 
mass, — that is to say, being vertical in an horizontal 
bed, and horizontal in a vertical dyke, — proving that 
the Assuring commenced at the cooling surfaces, and 
struck thence directly toward the centre of the mass. 
Sometimes it is found that the two sets of prisms thus 
originating at each surface did not exactly fit when 
they met in the centre. At other times, however, the 
prisms proceed uninterruptedly from sidie to side, the 
two sets either having coalesced, or one surface having 
cooled before the other, and given rise to divisions that 
were carried right across the mass. In addition to 
these prismatic joints, other irregular joints, more or 
less nearly at right angles to the prisms, also occur; 
and in very regular columnar basalt the columns are 
articulated, or separated, at regular or irregular inte- 
vals, into short blocks, by divisions, which are some¬ 
times quite flat, and sometimes curved into concave and 
convex surfaces, forming an approach to the ball-and- 
socket joint. The origin of this structure is explained 
by the celebrated observations of Gregory Matt. If 
a mass of basalt be melted in a furnace and allowed to 
cool again, the following results are observed:—If a 
small part be removed and allowed to cool quickly, a 
kind of slag-like glass is obtained, not differing in ap¬ 
pearance from obsidian; if it cool in large: 1 •oass, and 
more slowly, it returns to its original stony state. Dur¬ 
ing the cooling, small globules make their appear¬ 
ance, which increase by the successive formation of 
external concentric coats, like those of an onion; and 
the simultaneous obliteration of the previously formed 
internal coats, so that, ultimately, a number of solid 
balls are formed. As these balls continue to increase 
in size, their external coats at length touch, and then 
they mutually compress each other. Now in a layer 
of equal-sized balls, each ball is touched by exactly six 
others, and if all be squeezed together by an equal 
force acting in every direction, each ball will necessarily 
be converted into a regular hexagon. The same resuh 
will also follow from an equal expansive force actinc 
from the centre of each bail, or from the tendency t.> 
indefinite enlargement in their concentric coats. Thus, 
each spheroidal mass, under favorable circumstances, 
w'ill assume the form of a short hexagonal pillar. If 
there are many layers of balls, each ball resting dire ctly 
and centrically on the one below ;t, a lonr ooiumn of 



















BASC 


BASE 


BASE 


285 


these hexagonal joints will be formed, and the top and 
bottom of each joint will be flat, convex, or concave, 
accoijiiiig to variations in the amount and direction of 
the pressure at the ends of the columns. There is no 
apparent reason why, in a cooling mass ck basalt, the 
balls should be arranged so that their centres should be 
in straight lines, and that the hexagonal joints should 
form straight continuous pillars, rather than separate 
discontinuous pavements. This, however, is probably 
the result of the simultaneous tendency of the mass to 
split into prisms on consolidation. The pillars of basalt 
aro usually from six to eighteen inches in diameter, and 
vary in length from five or six to 100 or 160 feet. Ba¬ 
salt is rarely, if ever, found as an underlying rock, but 
generally occurs as a dyke or as an overlying mass. 
The most celebrated plateau of basalt is that in the 
north-east of Ireland, covering almost the whole county 
of Antrim. This entire mass is 300 or 400 feet in thick¬ 
ness, and 50 miles long by 30 wide. The basalt occurs 
in three or four sheets, in many places beautifully col¬ 
umnar, and interstratified with beds of volcanic ash, or 
“ ochre,” as it is called. One of the columnar beds dips 
gradually into the sea on the north coast, and is known 
as the Giant’s Causeway. Many of the Hebrides, or 
Western Isles, of Scotland, are almost wholly composed 
of trap rocks. Of these, Staffa is the most celebrated, 
on account of a deep chasm or recess situated in a mag¬ 
nificent group of vertical columnar basalt, (Fig. 299,) 



Fig. 299. — FINGAL’S CAVE. 


(Viewed from within./ 

and which has been produced by the incessant action 
of the surge on the base of the cliff. The Isle of Staffa 
itself is a complete mass of columnar basalt, (Fig. 298.) 
It is intersected by one deep gorge, which divides the 
higher and more celebrated columnar portion from the 
other divisions of the island. The arrangement of the 
basaltic columns in Fingal’s Cave was long regarded 
as the masonry of a race of giants. The vaulted arch 
presents a singularly rich and varied effect; in some 
places it is composed of the ends of portions of basaltic 
pillars, resembling a tessellated marble pavement; in 
others, of the rough surface of the naked rock; while 
in many, stalactites mingle with the pillars in the re¬ 
cesses, and add, by the contrast of their colors, to the 
pictorial effect, which is still further heightened by the 
ever varying reflected light thrown from the surface of 
the water that fills the bottom of the cave. The depth 
of the water is nine feet, and a boat can therefore reach 
the extremity of the cave in tolerably calm weather; 
but when the boisterous gales of that northern clime 
drive into the cavern, the agitated waves dashing and 
breaking against the rocky sides, and their roar echoing 
with increased power from the roof, it presents to the 
eye and ear such a scene of grandeur as bids defiance to 
any description. 

Basalt'ic, a. [Fr. basaltique.] Pertaining to basalt; 
formed of. or containing, basalt. 

Batsal'tiforni, a. Columnar; in the form of basalt. 

Basai'tine, n. (Min.) A column of basalt. 

Ba'san. n . See Basil. 

Bas anite, n. [Fr.; Lat. basanites, lapis; Gr. basanos, 
the touchstone.] ( Mm .) A grayish-black species of schis¬ 
tose hornblende, called also Lydian-stone. It is com¬ 
posed principally of silica, occurs in beds, in trap- 
rock, &c., and owes its color to carbon, according to 
Humboldt; sp. grav. 2-58 to 2 64. It is used for testing 
the purity of gold. The gold is rubbed on the stone, 
and the mark is touched with aquafortis. The amount 
of copper contained in the gold may be easily guessed 
at by the change of color the streak undergoes. 

'3as-blen, ( bii-blno',) n. [Fr.] A lady of literary tastes 
or acquirements; a blue-stocking. 

Bas-clievalier, (bd-shev'a-ler,) n. [Fr.] A knight of 
inferior rank to a knight banneret. 

Bascli'kirs. See Bashkirs 

Bas'cinet, Bas inet. Bas'net, n . [0. Fr. bassinet, 
from bassin , a basin.] An ancient light, basin-shaped 
helmet, worn generally without a visor. — See Helmet. 

Bas'co, in Illinois, a post-office of Hancock co. 

Bas cobel. in Georgia, a village of Jackson co., 80 m. 
N. of Milledgeville. 

Bas com, Henry Bidleman, d.d., an eminent American 
author and divine, b. at Hancock, N. Y., 1796. He en¬ 


tered the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church 
in 1813, and after various professional appointments was, 
through the influence of Henry Clay, elected chaplain 
to Congress. In 1827, B. was appointed President of 
Madison Coll., Uuiontown, Penn., but resigned in 1829, 
when he became agent of the American Colonization 
Society. In 1832 he was elected Professor of Moral Sci¬ 
ence and Belles-Lettres in Augusta Coll., Ky. In 1838, 
B. had conferred on him the degree of D.D. In 1839, he 
became president of Louisiana Coll.; and, subsequently, 
of the Transylvania University, Ky. In the general 
conference of 1844, when the separation between the 
Methodist churches North and South occurred, he drew 
up the protest of the Southern members against the ac¬ 
tion of the conference as regarded slave-holding, and in 
the next year was a member of the convention of Louis¬ 
ville by which the organization of the Southern Epis¬ 
copal Church was agreed upon, and was the author of 
the report disseminated by that body. In 1846 he was 
appointed editor of the Southern Methodist Quarterly 
Beview. In 1849, he was elected bishop. His prin¬ 
cipal works are, Lectures on Infidelity; Lectures and, Es¬ 
says on Moral Science, &c. A collection of his Posthu¬ 
mous IPori-s, edited by Rev. T. N. Ralstoon, was published 
at Nashville, 1856, in 2 vols. 8vo. D. 1850. 

Bas'eoni, in Ohio, a post-village of Seneca co., 45 m. S. 
by E. of Toledo. 

Bas cule, n. [Fr.] The arrangement of the counter¬ 
poise in bascule bridges. 

Bas'eule Bridge, n. A kind of drawbridge, with a 
counterpoise, swinging up and down, and usually with 
a pit behind it, in which the counterpoise falls or rises 
as the bridge rises or falls. 

Base, ( bais ,) a. [Fr. bas, low; It. basso; Lat. bassus; Gr. 
bathys, deep.] Deep or grave in sound. Generally written 
Bass, q. v. 

—Low in place, degree, or station; of humble birth; lowly. 

44 Though poor in fortune, of celestial race ; 

And he commits the crime who calls him bast." — Drydtn. 

—Illegitimate by birth; born out of wedlock. 

*' Why bastard? wherefore bast t "— Shaks. 

—Low in value or esteem; usually applied to metals. 

“ A guinea is pure gold, if it has nothing but gold in it, without 
any alloy or baser metal."— Watts. 

—Without dignity of sentiment; mean, vile, worthless, 
despicable, disingenuous. 

“ Bast is the slave who pays.”— Shaks. 

—Unclassical; unrefined ; as, “ Base Latin.” — Fuller. 

Base, n. [Fr.; Lat. basis; Gr. basis, from baino, to step.] 
That on which one steps; foot; bottom; foundation.— 
The place from which racing or tilting is started; the 
goal. 

(Games.) An old rustic play, called also, in England, 
prison-bars, and prisoner’s-base. 

(Arch.) That part of a column on which the shaft is 
placed, consisting generally, in the five orders of archi¬ 
tecture, of a square plinth and mouldings, formed of 
tori, scotise, and astragals (see Fig. 222), in various com¬ 
binations, between the plinth and the bottom of the 
shaft. The height of the whole base, including plinth 
and mouldings, is about half the diameter of the shaft 
at its lowest or broadest end. The Greek-Doric column 
is the only form of pillar that has no base. In Gothic 
architecture, the base became higher and more varied 
in form than in examples of orders of the classic period. 

(Bot.) The part opposed to the apex ; as, “ the base of a 
leaf.” 

(Cheni.) A term usually applied to those bodies which 
are capable of uniting with acids to form salts, and are 
replaced by other bases. For example, ammonia (NII 3 ), 
when neutralized by sulphuric acid (II0S0 3 ). constitutes 
the base of the salt sulphate of ammonia (NH 3 S0 3 H0). 
When we add to this salt caustic potash (KO), the smell 
of ammonia is evident; in other words, the base ammo¬ 
nia is replaced by the base potash, and instead of the 
salt sulphate of ammonia, we have now formed sulphate 
of potash (K0S0 3 ). The term base, in this case, is used 
instead of the older term alkali, a name which only ap¬ 
plies to certain bases. But each of the bases and acids 
possesses likewise a base. Instead, however, of employ¬ 
ing this expression in such instances, it is now usual to 
speak of the radical or root of a base or acid. Hence 
we have basic and acid radicals. In ammonia, nitrogen 
is the radical of that base or basic radical; and in sul¬ 
phuric acids, sulphur is the radical of that acid, or acid 
radical. Some bodies are both base and acid formers, 
hence they have been sometimes termed aniphigene 
boilies, (both formers.) These are oxygen, sulphur, se¬ 
lenium, and tellurium ; and the salts formed by them are 
thence called amphide salts. A basic or sub-salt is a com¬ 
pound consisting of an acid and a base, in which the 
base preponderates over the acid. Thus, corrosive sub¬ 
limate consists of 1 atom chlorine and 1 atom mercury 
(HgCl), and is an equisalt, or neutral salt; while calomel 
consists of 2 atoms mercury and 1 atom chlorine (IIg 2 Cl). 
and is a sub-salt, or basic salt, or disalt. — Bases are divis¬ 
ible into inorganic and organic bases. The inorganic 
bases consist of metallic bases and oxymetallic bases. 
Thus, in chloride of potassium (KC1), potassium is the 
metallic base; while in sulphate of potash (K0,S0 3 ) the 
base is an oxymetallic one, viz. potash. — Organic Bases. 
A class of organic substances, many of them exist¬ 
ing ready formed in plants, which, like inorganic oxyme¬ 
tallic bases, unite with acids, form salts, and are capable 
of being replaced by other bases, particularly the inor¬ 
ganic bases. From the circumstance that many organic 
bases have recently been formed artificially in the labo¬ 
ratory, they have excited a good deal of attention, and 
perhaps younger chemists have been too much carried 
away with the novelty of the subject to the neglect of 


more important though less striking departments of ths 
science. The fact that the alkaloids or organic bases con¬ 
tain nitrogen in small quantity, had early attracted the 
attention of chemists. Berzelius supposed that they 
might be conjugate compounds of ammonia, with an 
organic body; methylamiue (C 2 NHj), foi example, he 
would have considered a compound of an organic body, 
GjHj with N11 3 , or ammonia. Liebig, on the other hand. 
Conceived that these bases were all formed on the type 
or model of ammonia (NH 3 ), in which the third atom of 
hydrogen was capable of being replaced by an organic 
substance; that atom being removable under various 
circumstances ; whence it may be viewed as an amide ef 
hydrogen (H.NH 2 ). Agreeably to this view, methylamins 
will not be C 2 H 2 .NH 3 , but NH 2 ,C 2 H 3 , or ammonia, in 
which the third atom of hydrogen is replaced by methyl, a 
gas which can be isolated by another process. This idea 
has been fully confirmed by further researches; and it has 
been shown that an infinite series of alkaloids or organic 
bases may be artificially formed upon the models of am¬ 
monium (NH 4 ), ammonia (NH 8 ), amide (NH 2 ), imide 
(N Hi, and uitryle, Na- 3 , where the whole of the hydrogen 
is replaced by organic substances. — In the artificial 
preparation ol many alkaloids the general principles are 
as follows: — 1. Certain of them are produced by the 
action of ammonia on an organic body, frequently an 
oil; oil of mustard with ammonia becomes thiosinna- 
mine; others of this class are urea, furfurine, fucusine, 
amarine, melamine, ammiline, lophine, aniline. 2. Al¬ 
kaloids formed by reduction by sulphuretted hydrogen; 
aniline, toluidine, naphthalidine. 3. By distillation with 
potash; quinoleine, aniline, conisine, nicotine. 4. By dry 
distillation of organic bodies; aniline, picoline, petinine, 
nicotine, lophine. 5. By decomposition of a nitrogen¬ 
ous acid, aniline. 6. Removal of sulphur from a sul¬ 
phuretted alkaloid, as sinnamine, from thiosinnamine. 
7. Removal of sulphur from an essential oil, as sinapo- 
line from oil of mustard. 8. Alteration of natural alka¬ 
loids by oxidation, as narcogeniue, from narcotine. 

(Dyeing.) A substance used as a mordant, i.e., that has 
an affinity for both the cloth and the coloring-matter. 

(Math.) The base of a figure means, properly, its lower 
line, if it be a plane figure, or its lowest surface if it be a 
solid. In trigonometrical operations, the base is a line 
carefully measured between two points readily accessi¬ 
ble, from which, by measuring angles alone afterwards, 
we may obtain the length of lines not observed. Upon 
the accuracy of the measurement of the base depends, 
therefore, the value of the whole series of operations.— 
What is called the base-line, in measuring the length of 
a degree of latitude, is the length marked off between 
the points, the inclination between the verticals at which 
is to be answered. 

(Zool.) That part or extremity of anything by which 
it is attached to another of higher value or signification. 
Dana. 

(Mil.) Base of Operations, or Basis. A term in tactics, 
first introduced into military language by Henry von 
Blilow, who labored to reduce war to mathematical 
principles, and to give more certain rules to the com¬ 
mander. By basis, he understands a tract of country 
well protected by fortresses, and from which the opera¬ 
tions of the army proceed. The line upon which these 
operations are executed he calls line of operation ; the 
fortresses from which the operations begin, the subject; 
the point to be first carried, the object. BUlow thought 
magazines indispensable; the security of the line of ope¬ 
ration against all attacks from the side seemed to him 
likewise indispensable; and he laid down the principle, 
that both the lines, drawn from the ends of the basis to 
the object, ought to meet there in a right or an obtuse 
angle, the last being preferable. This theory has been 
acted on, more or less, by generals in all ages, and its 
neglect has generally been attended with suffering and 
defeat. It may be nevertheless objected that Napoleon 
I. owed his greatest glory to campaigns in which he en¬ 
tirely disregarded the basis; as those of 1805 and 1809, 
against Austria, and his previous campaigns in Italy; 
but one single great and decisive battle lost would have 
punished severely his neglect of this principle. And, 
moreover, there is one rule still more important than 
those of tactics — to act according to the circumstances 
and the character of the enemy, and to bring on decisive 
results by energetic measures, rather than to moulder 
away in inaction. 

Base, i>. a. To place on a basis; to found;—to lay the 
base or foundation. 

Base'-ball, n. (Games.) An athletic game, derived from 
the English game of rounders, much played throughout 
the U. States, and generally preferred to cricket. A 
B.B. ground should be a level areao fine turf about 600 
feet in length by 400 in breadth, at one end of which a 
square of 90 feet is marked out. An iron plate is fixed 
at the home base , or lower angle of the square; while 
canvas bags filled with sawdust, and attached to post# 
sunk in the ground, indicate the other angles. Niue 
players constitute a side, one side taking the bat and the 
other the field. The batsman 6tands at the home base, 
having the pitcher opposite to him, at the distance of 45 
feet, and the catcher behind. A player is also stationed 
at or near each of the 3 canvas bags, known as the 1st, 
2d, and 3d bases, and which are respectively on the right, 
opposite to, and on the left of the batsman. Besides 
these, there is a short field behind the pitcher, and a 
right, centre, and left field at a considerable distance in 
the rear of the 2d base, with duty of catching or stopping 
the balls and returning them to the pitcher or to the 
baseman. A captain, who is generally the catcher, as¬ 
signs the places of the players on his side, and directs the 
game. When the batsman has struck the ball, or has 
struck at and missed the ball 3 times, he starts for tin 






























2SG BASH 


BASI 


BASI 


first base, and is succeeded by player after player until 
3are put out, when the side occupying the field take their 
•places at the bat, and in like manner play their innings. 
When he succeeds in reaching the home base, untouched 
by a ball in (not thrown from) the hands of an adversary, 
and after successively touching the 1st, 2d, and 3d bases, 
he is entitled to score one run. Nino innings are played 
on each side, and the party making the greatest number 
of runs wins the game. The bat in common use is a 
round stick, of ash or other hard wood, or of white pine 
or willow, from 30 to 40 inches in length, and from 2 to 
inches in thickness at the lower end, whence it ta¬ 
pers gradually to the handle. Players adopt different 
styles of batting, some holding the bat inclined over the 
shoulder, and others hitting from below as in cricket, 
while many attempt modifications of either method.— 
The game above described is commonly known as the 
New York game, and differs in several particulars from 
that called Massachusetts game, which is generally 
played in New England. In the latter, the batsman 
stands in the middle of one of the sides of a square of 60 
feet, the 4 angles of which are marked by 4 stakes repre¬ 
senting the bases, the 1st base being on his right, and the 
4th or home base on his left. The ball is thrown, not 
pitched or tossed by the thrower, who stands 35 feet in 
front of the batsman, and a player is put out if the ball 
from the stroke of his bat is caught without having first 
touched the ground, or, technically speaking, “on the 
fly,” by an adversary, if 3 balls are struck at and missed 
and caught eacii time by the catcher, or if while running 
the bases he is struck by the ball thrown by an adversary. 
The putting a player out by striking him with the ball, 
which was the practice in the original game of base¬ 
ball, was discarded in revising the New York game, on 
account of the severe accidents which sometimes resulted. 
■—The baseball championship is now played for under 
the auspices of the National League, a combination 
made in 1891 of the American Association, founded in 
1882, and the original National League, organized in 
1876. The ball is delivered by the pitcher with great 
swiftness, an underhand throw being generally em¬ 
ployed. The high speed attained enables a skillful player 
•to send the ball with a twist or curve that is apt to de¬ 
ceive the batsman. This etiect is determined by the 
manner in which the ball leaves the hand of the pitcher, 
who gives it a rotary motion on its axis, and the resist¬ 
ance of the air. While the simplicity of this game forms 
one of its chief attractions, to excel in playing it de¬ 
mands great endurance, strength,and agility, with good 
throwing and running powers, plenty of nerve and 
courage, quick perception, thorough control of temper, 
and presence of mind in critical moments of the game. 

IJase'-born, d. Born out of wedlock; born of low par¬ 
entage; vile; mean 

“ But see thy base-born child, thy babe of shame. 

Who, left by thee, upon our parish earne.” — Gay. 

Base'-conrt, >i. [Fr. hasse-cour.] The lower court; the 
back-yard; the farm-yard. 

" My lord, in the base-court he doth attend, 

To speak with you.” — Shaft*. 

Baseless, a. Without a base; having no foundation or 
support. 

Base-line, n. (Persp .) A line drawn at the extremity 
of the principal visual ray, and perpendicular to it. — 
(Surveying.) A principal line, measured with the greatest 
precision, on which a triangle or a series of triangles 
may be constructed, whereby other positions may he de¬ 
termined. 

Basel'la, n. ( Bnt .) A genus of plants. ori\. Basellacea’,q v. 

Basella'ceie, n. pi. (But.) An order of plants, alliance 
Picoidales. Diagnosis. Distinct sepals, no petals, fruit 
enclosed in a membranous or succulent calyx, a single 
solitary carpel, and an erect seed.— They are climbing, 
herbaceous, or shrubby plants, somewhat succulent. 
This small order, including 12 species in 4 genera, closely 
resembles the Scandent Chenopods, from which it has 
been separated principally on account of the colored 
calyx, which scarcely opens. The species are all tropical. 

Base ly, adv. In a base manner; meanly; dishonorably. 
—In bastardy; illegitimately. 

Base'ment, n. [Fr. snubasse.ment.'] (Arch.) The lowest 
story of a building, forming the base of a private house 
or public edifice. 

Base'-miml'etl, a. Of a low spirit or mind ; mean. 

Base'ness, n. The quality of being base; lowness of 
mind; worthlessness; meanness. 

“ Such is the power of that9weet passion. 

That it all sordid baseness doth expel.”— Spenser. 

•—Of inferior value: as, “ the baseness of his metal.” Swift. 

—Bastardy; illegitimacy of birth. 

“ Why brand they ns 

With base? with baseness r bastardy ?” —Shaks. 

—Depth of sound; as, “ the baseness or trebleness of tones.” 
Bacon. 

Bas'enet, n. See Bascinet. 

Base'-plate, n. The foundation-plate of heavy ma¬ 
chinery, as of the steam-engine; the bed-plate.- 

Base -ring, n. (Mil.) A projecting band of metal ad¬ 
joining the base of a breech-engine. 

Base'-spir'it«t«I, a. Of inferior courage; contemptible; 
mean; cowardly. 

Base'-string;, n. The string of an instrument which 
produces the lowest note. 

Base'-vi'ol, Bass-viol, n. (Mus.) See Violoncello. 

Basil;) in's Gan. in Alabama, a post-office of Morgan co. 

Ba'shan, in Unio, a post-office of Meigs ca. 


Tins linn, (bd'shan.) (Anc. Geog.) A rich, hilly district, 
lying E. of the Jordan, and between the mountains of 
llermou on the N., and those of Gilead and Amnion on 
the S. The country takes its name (“ fat,” “ fruitful”) 
from its soft and sandy soil. It is celebrated in Scrip¬ 
ture for its stately oaks, fine breeds of cattle, and rich 
pasturage. Modern travellers describe the country as 
still abounding with verdant and fertile meadows, val¬ 
leys traversed by refreshing streams, hills crowned with 
forests, and pastures offering an abundance to the flocks 
that wander through them. B. was assigned, after the 
conquest of Og and his people, to the half-tribe of Ma- 
nasseh. From B. came the Greek name Batanasa, in 
modern Arabic El-Bottein. But this latter only included 
its S. part. The ancient B. covered the Homan pro¬ 
vinces named Gaulonites, Trachonites, Auranites, Bata- 
naea, and Itursea. 

Bashaw', n. See Pasha. 

Bash'ee, Bash'i, or Bat'anes Islands, a cluster 
belonging to the E. Archipelago, 5th division, lying due 
N. of Luzon (Philippines), between Lat. 20° and 21° N. 
They are rocky, and 5 in number, with 4 small islets. 
Dampier visited them, and called the largest Grafton 
Isle; it is about 13 leagues in circuit, and has good 
anchorage on the W. side. It produces fine yams, sugar¬ 
cane, plantains, and vegetables; besides hogs and goats 
in plenty. Good water is found in abundance close to 
the beach. Gold in considerable quantities is washed 
down by the torrents in the Bashee Island, which the 
natives work into a thick wire and wear as an orna¬ 
ment. Iron is the favorite medium of exchange. The 
natives are civil, inoffensive, and sociable. The Spanish 
gov. resides on Grafton Island. Pop. 1890 abl. 85,000. 

Bash ful, a. [Fr. baisser, to lower, to be ashamed.] 
Downcast; having a demure look; in a shy or shame¬ 
faced manner; sheepish. 

** Our author anxious for his fame to-night, 

And bashful in his first attempt to write.”— Addison. 

Basll'fully, adv. Modestly; in a shy or sheepish man¬ 
ner. 

Bash'fulness, n. The quality of being bashful; sharne- 
facedness; excessive modesty. 

“Such looks, such bashfulness, might well adorn 
The cheeks of youths that are more nobly born.’*— Dryden. 

Bash'i Bazonks', n. pi. (Milit.) A bodyof irregular 
troops in the service of the Turkish Sultan. They are 
principally of Asiatic races, and formed a contingent of 
the Turkish army during the Russian War, 1853-56. 
As light cavalry they are considered excellent, far sur¬ 
passing the Cossacks in courage and powers of endur¬ 
ance. Dr.William H.Russell, in describing these “wild 
cavaliers,” says: “ It would have been difficult to find 
more picturesque-looking scoundrels if the world was 
picked for them from Seinde to Mexico. Many of them 
were splendid-looking fellows, with fine sinewy legs, 
beautifully proportioned muscular arms, and noble, 
well-set heads of the true Caucasian mould; others 
were hideous negroes from Nubia, or lean, malignant- 
looking Arabs, with sinister eyes and hungry aspect; 
and some were dirty Marabout fanatics from Mecca, in¬ 
flamed by the influence of their hadji, or pilgrimage.” 

Bash'Kirs, Basch kirs, or Bash'keers, a Tar¬ 
tar tribe of Russia, where they occupy a portion of the 
govts, of Orenburg, Perm, and Yiatlia. These people 
are in Asia generally called /stinks or Jschtiuks, and 
they live principally in tents, and on the produce of the 
chasei, troubling themselves but little with agriculture, 
except in winter, which they pass in their villages. 
It is in their territory that the rich gold and platina 
mines exist. They are Mohammedans and pay no taxes, 
bnt all are held under military service to guard the 
frontier. Their number is about 200,0U0, of whom 
70,000 are enrolled on the same footing as the Cossacks 
of the Don. 

Bas'hyle, n. (Chem.) See Basyle. 

Bas'ic, a. (Chem.) Pertaining to, or serving as, a base. 
See Base. 

Sias ilier, n. (Chem.) That which converts into a sali¬ 
fiable base. 

Bas'ify, v. a . (Chem.) To convert into a salifiable 
base. 

Basil, (bdz’il,) Emperor of the East. See Basilius. 

Bas il, n. [Ger. bugel, from biegen, to bend, to curve, 
to inflect.] (Carp.) The slope or angle of a joiner’s 
tool or instrument. 

— v. m To grind or form the edge of a tool to an angle. 

Bas'il, n. [Fr. basilic; It. basilico; from Gr. basilikos, 
royal, from basileus, a king.] (Bot.) See Ocimcm. 

Bas'il, n. [A corruption from Eng. tasan.J The skin 
of a sheep after being tanned. 

Bas'il, in Ohio, a village of Liberty township, Fairfield 
co., 12 m. N. by W. of Lancaster. 

Bas'ilar, Bas'ilary, a. [Fr. basilaire; from Lat. 
basts.] Situated at, or belonging to, the base.— (Anat.) 
The name given to several parts, which seem to serve 
as bases to others, as the sacrum. 

Basil'ians, n. pi. ( Eccl. Hist.) The name of an or¬ 
der of monks, founded by Basil, surnamed the Great, 
Bishop of Cassarea, a. d. 370. He had retired in 358 
into a desert in Pontus, and there erected a monastery. 
He afterwards instituted several other establishments, 
placing them under rules of his own creation. This 
order was introduced into the Western Church in 1057, 
and was reformed by Pope Gregory XIII., in 1569. It 
is said to have furnished 14 popes, 1.805 bishops, 3,010 
abbots, and 11,085 martyrs. It likewise boasts of sev¬ 
eral emperors, kings, and princes, who embraced its 
rule. — See Basil, St. 

Basil'ic, Basil'ica. n.; pi. Basilics, or Basilica. [Gr. 
basili-ke, from basilikos, royal, from basileus, a king.] 
Originally, a term applied to the palace of a king. It 


was afterwards used to denote large buildings, erected it 
Rome and other cities of the Roman empire, for the ad¬ 
ministration of justice. They also served the purpose 
of an exchange, in which merchants transacted their 
business, being generally built in the immediate neigh¬ 
borhood of the forum. The following was the method of 
construction generally adopted. A large central space, 
about twice or three times as long as it was wide, was 
surrounded with columns, on which a roof, called the 
testudo, was supported. On either side of this space 
porticos were added, covered witli a roof sloping from 
the columns of the testudo, and supported on the outer 
side by another row of smaller columns, at a distance 
of about one-third of the breadth of the central space 
from those that held the main roof; a wall was after¬ 
wards substituted for the outer columns of the portico, 
to afford shelter to those within the building. The por¬ 
tico was divided into two parts by a floor, the upper 
part forming a gallery for the accommodation of those 
who were looking on at what was passing below, or 
perhaps for the exposure of commodities for sale, or for 
carrying on some handicraft trade. Tbere was a vesti¬ 
bule, or large porch, at one end, and at the other a tri¬ 
bunal for tlie administration of justice, with a semicir¬ 
cular recess, or apse, for the judge's seat, with chalci- 
dica, or chambers, for the use of tlie judge, counsel, Ac., 
on either side of it. Basilica; were unknown in Rome 
until about b. c. 200. The best example we have of the 
old B. or hall of justice, is that at Pompeii, built on the 
S.W. side of the forum. It is to Constantine that the 
first Christian churches, known by the name of B., are 
to be referred. They bore a very complete resemblance 
to tlie antique B., both in plan and proportion: but 
the cruciform, emblematic of Christianity, soon operated 
to the most essential changes in their shape. The in¬ 
tersection of the crossing aisles produced a centre, 
which it was natural to enlarge and make principal in 
the composition ; and the invention of domes, supported 
on pendentives, enabled the architects to give size and 
dignity to the centre, without interrupting the vista of 
the aisles. The church of St. Sophia, at Constantino¬ 
ple, was the first example of this form. Its best points 
were copied in tlie 10th century, by the Venetians, in 
the church of St. Mark. This is the first in Italy which 
was constructed with a dome supported on pendentives; 
and it is also this which first gave the idea, which lias 
been imitated in St. Peter’6, at Rome, of accompanying 


4 - 



Fig. 300. — CHURCH OF 8T. MARK. (VENICE.) 


the great dome of a church witli smaller and lower 
domes, to give it a pyramidical effect. — Modern B. ex¬ 
ist in Italy, which are applied, as the ancient were, to 
civil purposes. The most celebrated is that at Vicenza, 
after the design of Palladio, and called 11 Palazzo della 
Bagione. In England the Town Hall, and in Franco 
the Palais de Justice, correspond, in some respects, to 
tho modern Italian Basilic®. 

Basil'ic, Basil'ical, a. [Lat. basilicus.] In the 
manner of a church, cathedra], or other public building. 

(Anat.) Pertaining to certain parts, which the ancients 
supposed to have an important function in the animal 
economy. 

Basilic rein. —A large vein of the arm proper, running 
along the inner side of the arin, and lying directly over 
the humeral artery. The median basilic is a short 
branch vein, running obliquely across the top of the 
fore-arm, in tlie bend of the elbow-joint, and joining 
the great basilic in tlie same manner that tlie median 
cephalic joins the cephalic on the outer side of the arm. 
For the illustration of these four veins, see figure to 
article Bleeding. 

Basil'ica, n. (Law.) A collection or digest of the 
Corpus Juris of Justinian, translated from the original 
Latin into the Greek language, under the superintend¬ 
ence of the Greek emperors of Constantinople, and i 
chiefly of Basil, or Basilius I., whose reign commenced 
a. ». 867, and ended in 886. 

Basil'ican, a. Basilical; belonging to, or resembling, 

a basilica. 

Basilioa'ta, in S. Italy. See Potenza. 

liasil icnii. n. [Gr. basilikos, royal.] (Pharrn.) The 
name sometimes given to an ointment, composed of 5 
parts resin, 8 parts lard, and 2 parts yellow wax. It is 

































BASI 


BASI 


BASL 


287 


sinch used as a Btimulant dressing to blistered surfaces, 
with a view to keep up the discharge; and as a vehicle 
for other stimulating substances, such as savin and can- 
tharides, or Spanish flies. In the Pharmacopoeia it is 
called ceratum resince. It was formerly prepared with 
yellow wax, pitch, resin, and olive-oil, and was hence 
named unguentum tetrapharmacum, “ the ointment with 
four drugs.” 

Basilid'ians, n. pi. (Eccl. Hist.) The name of a 
religious sect founded by Basilides, a Gnostic of Alex¬ 
andria, who died a. d. 130. The two great dogmas 
which formed the ground-work of his system were those 
of emanation and dualism. He held that the unre¬ 
vealed God evolved out of himself the several attri¬ 
butes which express the idea of absolute perfection, 
Being the intellectual powers, the mind, the reason, the 
thinking powers, wisdom, might, and, lastly, the moral 
attributes. These seven powers, which he regarded as 
living, self-subsistent, and ever active, together with 
the primal ground out of which they were evolved, 
constituted the first ogdoad, or octave, the root of all 
•existence. Each of these spiritual essences proceeded 
to evolve out of itself continually numberless gradations 
of existences, each lower one being still the impression, 
the antitype, of the immediate higher one. As he bad in 
his system seven homogeneous natures in each grada¬ 
tion of the spiritual world, so he is said to have held 
that there were 365 such regions or gradations of the 
spiritual world, answering to the days of the year. 
One grand idea of this system was, that, in different de¬ 
grees. and under different forms of application, one law 
pervades all stages and kinds of existence; and that 
everything, from the liighest to the lowest, is governed 
by a single law. How he accounted for the existence 
of evil does not seem clear; but he held that every'-, 
where, as rust deposits itself on the surface of iron, 
darkness and death cleave to the fallen seeds of light 
and life,— the evil to the good, the ungodlike to the 
godlike! — without, however, the original essence being 
thereby destroyed. The whole course of this present 
world he considers as intended for such an end; that 
the godlike may be cleansed from all impurities, and 
restored to their original purity. He considered the 
development of the human race as a process of purifi¬ 
cation, which was to be perfected by Christianity. His 
great aim was to lead men to consider the whole uni- 
■verse as one temple of God. Faith in the justice and 
goodness of God rose in his mind above everything 
•else; and when he was perplexed with difficulties, his 
last words ever were, “ I will say anything sooner than 
doubt the goodness of Providence.” The development 
of this system led Basilides and his followers into 
many erroneous opinions, particularly with respect to 
the character and mission of Christ, whom he did not 
regard as the Redeemer; and held that he differed from 
other men only in degree, and, like the rest, himself 
stood in need of redemption. 

Xasilikon Do ron, or Royal Gift, n. (Lit.) The 
name of a treatise composed by James I. of England, 
and published at Edinburgh in 1599, and at London in 
1604. It is divided into three books, and contains pre¬ 
cepts on the art of government, addressed by the king 
to his son. Prince Henry. This work is now but a lite¬ 
rary curiosity. 

Basilis'eus. See Zeno, (Emperor.) 

Basilisk., (bas'i-iisk.) n. Fr. basilic; Lat. basilicus; 
Gr. basiliskos, from basileus. a king.] The cockatrice, a 
fabulous serpent, with a white spot on its head resem¬ 
bling a royal diadem. It was supposed by the ancients 
to have been able to kill with its breath or sight only. 
According to Galen, its color inclined to yellow, and it 
had three small eminences on its head. .Elian says, 
that its poison is so penetrating as to kill the largest 
serpents with its vapor only; and that it will kill a man 
by merely biting the end of his stick. The sound of its 
hissing is enough to frighten away all other kinds of 
serpents. According to Pliny, the B. is able to kill all 
those who look upon it. It was also called a cockatrice, 
from the belief that it was generated from a cock’s egg 
brooded upon by a serpent. All these details are put 
forth by Matthiolus, Galen, Dioscorides, Pliny, and Era- 
sistratus. The absurdity of all the statements has, since 
that time, been thoroughly exposed. 

(/tool.) The animal now recognized by the name of B. 
is a reptile, family Ignauida =, of a very singular shape, 



Fig. 301. — basilisk, (Basiliscus mitratus.) 

being distinguished by a long and broad wing-like pro¬ 
cess or expansion along the back and upper part of the 
tail, and furnished at certain distances with interval 
radii analogous to those in the wings of the draco, or 


flying lizard. This process is capable of being either] 
dilated or contracted at the pleasure of the animal; and| 
the occiput, or hind part of the head, is elevated into a] 
very conspicuous pointed hood or hollow crest. Not-j 
withstanding its formidable appearance, however, the 
Basilisk is a perfectly harmless reptile, residing princi¬ 
pally among trees, where it feeds on insects, Ac. The 
general color of this animal is a pale cinereous brown, 
slightly varied on the back and sides with different 
shades of brown and blue, and silvery' white on the| 
belly. It is possessed of great activity, and from its 
peculiar structure can adapt itself to the watery ele¬ 
ment without inconvenience. It is most common in 
the tropical parts of South America. 

Basil'ius I., or Basil, The Macedonian, Emperor of 
the East, was of low origin, but obtained employment 
at the court of the Emperor -Michael III., became his 
chamberlain, murdered his rival Bardas, was associated 
in the empire, then murdered Michael, and succeeded 
him in 867. Though he bad risen by a series of crimes, 
he governed wisely, made many' reforms in the admin¬ 
istration and in the army, and compiled a body of laws 
called the Basilica, which, augmented by his son and 
successor, Leo the Philosopher, were in force till the 
fall of the empire. B. deprived Photius of the See of 
Constantinople, and restored Ignatius; but on the death 
of the latter he recalled Photius. He successfully j 
carried on war with the Saracens.^ D. 886. 

Basil'ius II., Emperor of the'East, was son of Ro- 
manus II., and with his brother, Constantine, w'as first 
associated in the empire by John Zimisces, and succeeded, 
him in 976. His long reign was a series of wars with 
his rivals, Bardas, Sclernus, and Phocas, with the Sara¬ 
cens, and with the Bulgarians. In 1014, after a great 
victory over the latter, having 15,000 prisoners, he had 
99 out of every 100 deprived of their eyes, and thus sent 
home. This horrible cruelty caused the death of Samuel, 
king of the Bulgarians. The war ended in 1019, by the 
complete conquest of Bulgaria. D. 1025. 

Bas'il, (Oil of.) ( Chein .) An aromatic, ethereal oil, dis¬ 
tilled from the root of the Ocymum basilicum. It de¬ 
posits a stearoptene in 4-sided pyramids. Very' soluble 
in hot water, it is again deposited in cooling. Its alco¬ 
holic solution reddens vegetable blues. Sulphuric acid 
turns it red. 

Basilosau'rus. n. (Pal.) See Zeuglodon. 

Bas il, St., surnamed The Great, bishop of Caesarea, 
in Cappadocia, where he was B. about 326. He was 
studying at Atheus in 355, and there became the friend 
of Gregory, afterwards bishop of Nazianzero. After ex¬ 
tensive travels, B. retired to the desert of Pontus, and 
there founded an order of monks. He succeeded Euse¬ 
bius in the See of Caesarea in 370, and by his opposition 
to Arian doctrines greatly offended the Emperor Valens. 
His constitution being much impaired by the austerities 
of a monastic life, he d. 38u. — See Basilians. 

Bas'll-wee<l, n. ( Bot .) A plant of the genus Cala- 
mintha, order Lamiwe&. 

Basin, or Bason, n. [Fr. bassin ; Ger. becken, from biegen , 
to bend, curve, or inflect.] A hollow vessel or dish of 
circular form, used for various household purposes. 

“ Let me attend him with a silver basin, 

Full of rose water, and bestrewed with flowers."— Shaks. 

—Anything hollow or concave resembling a basin; a pond; 
a small bay ; an outer dock for shipping. 

“ The spacious basins arching rocks enclose, 

A sure defence from ev ry storm that blows."— Pops. 

(Arts and Man/.) A vessel used by glass-makers for 
forming concave glasses. — An iron mould used by hat¬ 
ters.— The scale of a balance, Ac. 

(Phys. Geng.) It is applied to any collection of water, 
as seas, lakes, and rivers; and comprehends, in every 
case, all the countries which are drained by the waters 
which run into such sea, lake, or river. — The term is 
still more frequently applied to the drainage of a river ; 
as, “ The basin of the Mississippi.” The character of a 
country, its climate, soil, and productions, frequently 
change from the basin of one river to that of another; 
and when in the basin of one river such changes are 
observed to occur, the formation of the basin commonly' 
presents some point or place where the change begins to 
be sensible, and may consequently be indicated with 
some degree of certainty. Therefore, the true basis of 
the geographical knowledge of a country, is the study 
of the different basins into which it is divided. 

(Mar.) The basin of a dock is a place where the water 
is confined by double flood-gates, or a caisson, and thereby 
prevented from running out at ebb-tide. The use of it 
is to contain ships either before they'enter,or after they 
come out of the dock in which they are repaired. B. 
also implies some part of a haven which opens from a 
narrow channel into a spacious receptacle for shipping. 

(Ge/’l.) Any dipping or disposition of strata toward 
a common centre, which has resulted from the upheaval 
and subsidence of the earth’s crust. The tertiary forma¬ 
tions often occupy limited areas, and fill up the basins 
of the older strata; hence the use of such phrases as 
London basin, Paris basin, a coal-basin, or coal-fields, &c. 

Ba'Mined, a. Enclosed in a basin. 

BaM'inet, n. Same as batcinet, q. v. 

Ba sing, a parish of England, in Hampshire, 2 m.from 
Basingstoke. During the Civil War. its magnificent 
castle, built by William Paulet, first Marquis of Win¬ 
chester, Lord Treasurer to Queen Elizabeth, was heroi¬ 
cally defended for two years by John, the fifth marquis, 
against the Parliamentary troops. On the 14th Oct., 
1645, it was at last taken by storm by Cromwell, who, 
after plundering it of its rich treasures of art, burned 
it to the ground. Pop. of par. about 2,000. 

Ba'singrstoke, a town and par. of England, in Hamp¬ 
shire, 45 m. W.s.W. of London; pop. 5.134 , 


Ba'sin Harbor, in Vermont, a village and port of Ad¬ 
dison co.. on Lake Champlain, 20 m. S. of Burlington. 

Ba'Min Knob, in Missouri, a village of Johnson co., 
115 m. W. by N. of Jefferson city. 

BaMin Mountain, a picturesque peak of the Adiron¬ 
dack group, in Essex co., N. Y. It has an altitude little 
short of 5,000 feet. 

Basioceratogios'sns, n. (Anat.) A name given t» 

a part of the hyoglossus, which is inserted into the cor¬ 
ner of the os hyoides and base of the tongue. 

Basioces'trnm, n. [From Lat. basis, and Gr. keslra, 
a dart.] (Surg.) An instrument invented by Mesler, for 
opening the head of the foetus in utero. 

Basis, n; pi. Bases. [Lat. basis; Gr. basis, from baino, 
to step, to go.] That on which one steps, treads, or 
stands; foot or bottom ; foundation; that on which any¬ 
thing rests. 

" Paradise .... must have the compass of the whole earth 
for a basis and foundation."— Sir Walter Raleigh. 

—Support of anything; groundwork or first principle. 

" Build me thy fortune upon the basis of valour,"— Shaks. 

—The chief component part of anything. 

(diem, and Arch.) See Base. 

(Gram.) In prosody, the smallest trochaic rhythm. 

Basis'! ty, n. (diem.) Thcstate or quality of being a base. 

Basis'olute, a. (Bot.) Prolonged at the base, as certain 
leaves. 

Bas'ist, n. (Mus.) A bass-singer; one who takes the 
bass, (r.) 

Bask, v. i. [From the root of Bake ; Scot, beik, to warm; 
Sw. and Goth, baka, or rasa.] To lie in tvarmth or in the 
sun; to be exposed to genial heat; to enjoy ease and 
prosperity. 

" Though an unusual fit of love, or duty, 

Had made him lately bask in his bride's beauty."— Byron. 

—r. a. To warm by continued exposure to heat, or to the 
sun's rays; to warm with genial heat. 

“ Unlock'd in covers, let her freely run 
To range thy courts, and bask before the sun."— Tickell. 

Baskalie gan River, in Maine, rising in a lake of 
the same name, embouches into the Matawamkeag. 

Bas ket, n. [W. basged, or basgawd, from basg, a net¬ 
ting or plaiting, as of twigs or splinters, from asg, a 
piece split off, a splinter.] A domestic vessel made of 
twigs, rushes, splinters, Ac., interwoven.— The content* 
of a basket; as, a basket of strawberries. 

(Arch.) The vase of the Corinthian capital. 

(Mil.) A gabion. See Gabion. 

— v. a. To put in a basket 

BaM'ket-tiilt. n. The hilt of a broadsword or other 
weapon, wrought in the form of basket-work, as a pro¬ 
tection for the hand. 

“ Their beef they often in their morions stew'd. 

And in their basket-hilts their bev'rage brew'd.' — King. 

Bas'ket-hilted, a. lYith a hilt of basket-work. 

Bas'ketry, n. Baskets in general; a collection of bas¬ 
kets. 

Itask'iiig Ridge, in New Jersey, a post-village in the 
N.E. part of Somerset co.. about 40 m. N.N.E. of Trenton. 

Bask'ing-sliark, n (Zool.) A species of fish, of the 
Squalida or Shark family; the Sun-fish of the Irish. See 
Squalid ,e. 

Bas'lard, and Baselard, n. (Mil.) A short sword of 
dagger worn in the loth century. It was a mark of 
gentility, and was carried in front of the girdle. 

Bas le, Bas'el, or Bale, a N W. canton of Switzerland, 
and the lltli in the Confederation, lying between 47° 
25' and 47° 37'N. Lat.; having on the N France and 
Baden; W. France and Soleure; S. the latter canton 
and Berne; and on the E. Argovia. Its shape is very 
irregular; greatest length 24 m.; breadth from 13 to 17. 
Area, 184 sq. m. The Jura chain runs through the 
country; its surface displaying, accordingly, mountains 
and valleys, with a level tract in the vicinity of the city 
of Basle. The most elevated mountain is the Hauen- 
6tein (about 3,000 ft.), over which there is an excellent 
and much frequented new road, leading from Basle to 
Aarau and Zurich. — Rivers. The Rhine and Birse.— 
dim. Mild. — Prod. Corn and wine.— Man/. Ribbons, 
taffetas, silk thread, Ac. This canton belonged in Roman 
times to the territory of the Ranraci. In the Middle 
Ages it formed part of the Burgundian empire, till 1026, 
when it was possessed by the German emperor, Conrad 
II. B. assisted the Swiss in the Burgundian war, and 
became a member of Conf. in 1501. Pop., 1897, exclus¬ 
ive of the city of Basle, about 62,000. 

Basle, one of tfie chief cities of Switzerland, and cap. of 
the above canton; Lat. 47° 30' 36" N.; Lon. 7° 35' E.; 
35 m. N.W. of Berne. It lies on both sides of the Rhine; 
that division of the S. being called Great, and that on 
the N. Little B.; they communicate by a bridge 600 ft. 
long. The city presents to the visitor a peculiar mix¬ 
ture of the gayety of a French, with the sombre Gothic 
air of a German, town. The cathedral, built in 1319, 
on the spot where the Roman emperor Yalentinian 
originally erected the strong fortress called Basilia, 
contains the tombs of (Ecolampadius, Erasmus, and the 
Empress Anne, consort of Kodolph of Hapsburg. There 
is here a gymnasium, schools, a public library and bo¬ 
tanic garden, and many literary and scientific societies. 
B. is the richest town in Switzerland, and its inhabi¬ 
tants are industrious and well educated. — Man/. Rib¬ 
bons, silks, gloves, stockings, Ac. Pop., 1897, 75,000. B. 
was the birthplace of Holbein, Erasmus and Bernouilr 
This ancient city was ruled during the Middle Ages by 
a bishop, who was a prince of the German empire. It 
was taken by Rodolph of Hapsburg in 1267. In 1392 it 
became a free imperial city, which was, with the adjoin¬ 
ing territory, admitted into the Swiss Confederation in 
1501, when the bishops were expelled A council wax 
held here in Oct., 1061 The 18th General Council, 













288 


BASN 


BASS 


BASS 


transferred from Pavia to Sienna, and from Sienna to 
B., assembled 23d July. 1431, and was concluded 16th 
May, 1543. Its chief objects were the union of the Greek 
and Latin Churches, and a general reformation of the 
Catholic Church. The University of B. was founded by 
a papal bull of Pius II. in 1459. Treaties of peace were 
concluded here between France and Prussia, April 5 and 
May 17 ; between France and Spain. July 22; and be¬ 
tween France and Iiesse-Cassel, Aug 2S, 1795. The 
French seized the city in 1798. 

B., Council of. Announced at the Council of Constance, 
It was convoked by Pope Martin V., and his successor, 
Eugenius IV. It commenced its sittings, Dec. 14,1431, 
under the presidency of the cardinal legate Juliano 
Caesarini of St. Angelo. The objects of its deliberations 
were to extirpate heresies, (that of the Hussites in par¬ 
ticular.) to unite all Christian nations under the Catho¬ 
lic Church, to put a stop to wars between Christian 
princes, and to reform the Church. But its first steps 
towards a peaceable reconciliation with the Hussites, 
against whom Juliano had unsuccessfully published a 
crusade, were displeasing to the Pope, who authorized 
the cardinal legate to dissolve the council. That body 
opposed the pretensions of the Pope, with severe ani¬ 
madversions on his deceitful conduct, and his neglect 
of the welfare of the Church; and, notwithstanding his 
repeated orders to remove to Italy, continued its de¬ 
liberations under the protection of the Emperor Sigis- 
mund, of the German princes, and of France. In order 
to secure itself against the attacks of Eugenius IV., it 
re-enacted the decrees of the Council of Constance con¬ 
cerning the power of a general council, (in matters of 
faith, of schism, and of reformation,) to command the 
Pope, as well as all Christendom, and to punish the dis¬ 
obedience of the clergy, and even of the Pope, by virtue 
of its judicial character as the representative of the 
Universal Church. It likewise pronounced all the doings 
and remonstrances of the Pope against its proceedings of 
no force, and began a formal process against him, after 
he had issued a bull for its dissolution ; required him, 
term after term, to appear before its tribunal, and exer¬ 
cised, as much as possible, the papal prerogatives in 
France and Germany. Meanwhile, it concluded, in the 
name of the Church, a peace with the Hussites, and 
then proceeded to the reformation of the clergy, by or¬ 
daining that the clergymen who maintained concubines, 
and the prelates who received money for permitting it, 
should be punished; that the annates, the sums paid for 
the pallia , Ac., should be regarded as simoniacal, and 
should not, under any pretext, be demanded or paid in 
future; that the divine service, the mass, and the ca¬ 
nonical hours should be regularly observed by the clergy 
of each class; that the Feast of Fools, and all irreverent 
celebrations customary in the Church about Christmas, 
should be abolished. In the 23d session, (March 25, 
1436,) the form of election, the confession of faith, and 
the official oath of each pope, by which he bound him¬ 
self to obey the decrees of the council, and the annual 
repetition of the same, were provided for; all prefer¬ 
ment of the relations of a pope was forbidden, and the 
college of cardinals was limited to 24 prelates and doc¬ 
tors of all nations, who should be elected by the free 
votes of the college, should be entitled to half of the 
revenues of the States of the Church, should watch over 
the Pope, and always sign his bulls. General councils 
had always been objects of aversion to the popes, and 
often been prevented by them from assembling, on ac¬ 
count of their limitations of the papal power; and the 
proceedings of the Council of Basle must have exasper¬ 
ated, to the highest degree, an obstinate man like Eu¬ 
genius IV. He continually remonstrated with the sov¬ 
ereigns against the decrees of the council, which, in its 
turn, decreed his suspension from the papal chair, in the 
31st session, (Jan. 24, 1438.) The removal of Eugenius, 
however, seemed so impracticable, that some prelates, 
who till then had been the boldest and most influential 
speakers in the council, loft Basle; yet, after violent de¬ 
bates, (May 16, 1439.) the council declared Eugenius, on 
account of his obstinate disobedience of its decrees, a 
heretic, and formally deposed him, in the following ses¬ 
sion, as guilty of simony, perjury, violation of the laws 
of the Church, and bad administration in his office. At 
this session, the 34th, (June 25, 1439,) only two of the 
Spanish and Italian members were present; but the 
president adopted a spirited and effectual method for 
obtaining the decree. He ordered the holy relics, which 
existed in Basle, to be placed in the seats of the absent 
bishops, and produced such a strong excitement in the 
council, which still consisted of 400, for the most part 
French and German prelates, priests, and doctors, that 
it unanimously consented to the deposition of Eugenius. 
Notwithstanding the plague then raging in Basle, which 
continually diminished its number, it proceeded, in a 
regular conclave, (Nov. 17 of the same year,) to elect 
the Duke Amadeus of Savoy to the papal chair. Felix 
V. — which was the name he adopted — was acknowl¬ 
edged by only a few princes. The chief powers, France 
and Germany, assented to the decrees of the council for 
the reformation of the Church, but they chose to re¬ 
main neutral in the contest with Eugenius. The coun¬ 
cil. thus deserted by its protectors, gradually declined. 
It held a last session in 1443, at Lausanne, where some 
prelates remained together until 1449, when, after the 
death of Eugenius and the resignation of Felix V., they 
accepted the amnesty offered them by Nicholas V. The 
decrees of the Council of B. are admitted into none of the 
Roman archives. Had its just and suitable decrees for 
the reformation of the papal government, and clerical dis¬ 
cipline of the Church, been executed, the Reformation 
of Luther would have, perhaps, never occurred. 

U 'Wiittg t; tie Beau'vai, Jacques, an eminent French 


theologian and historian, b. at Rouen, in 1653, where he 
became pastor in 1676. On the revocation of the Edict 
of Nantes, he took refuge in Holland, became pastor at 
Rotterdam, and afterwards, at the Hague, enjoyed the 
friendship of the Grand Pensionary Heinsius, and was 
employed in several political negotiations. The most 
esteemed of his numerous works are, La Communion 
Sainte; Histoire de la Religion des Bglises reformees ; 
Anliquites Juda'iques, Ac. D. 1723. 

Basnet tsville, in West Virginia, a village of 
Marion co. 

Basque Provinces, (bask,) [Sp. Vascongadas Pro- 
vincias. J a territory of Spain, comprising the three prov. 
of Biscay, Alava, and Guipuzcoa, bounded N.by the Bay 
of Biscay, E. by Navarre, S. by the prov. of LogroSo, and 
W. by Burgos and Santander. Lat. between 42° 25' and 
43° 28' N.; Lon. 1° 44' and 3° 25' W. Area, 2,971 sq. m. 
Peso. Mountainous and picturesque; the hills being 
generally covered to their summits with arboraceous 
vegetation. Its pastures are rich, soil fruitful, and agri¬ 
culture flourishing. Prod. Cereals, fruits, and flax. 
Many sheep are reared. Min. Iron, tin, copper, mar¬ 
ble, Ac. Jnhab. The Basques are a brave and primi¬ 
tive race, much attached to music and dancing, and 
eminently suited to that mode of guerilla warfare, by 
which they have so long preserved their independence. 
Humboldt supposes them to be the descendants of the 
ancient Iberians, and they are believed to have, at dif¬ 
ferent periods, held all Spain under their sway. Their 
language has no analogy with any other living tongue, 
and is believed to have been, in remote ages, in use over 
the whole of the Iberian peninsula. — The Basques 
were subdued by the Goths, about a. d. 485. Guipuz¬ 
coa and Alava were united to Castile in the 13th cen¬ 
tury, and Biscay was annexed to Castile, by Peter the 
Cruel, in the 14th. Chief towns. Bilbab, San Sebastian, 
and Vittoria. Pop. 429,186. — There is also in France 
a territory which was formerly called the “Basque 
country,” but which is now comprised in the dep. Basses 
Pyrenees. — See Alava ; Biscay ; Guipuzcoa. 

Basque, a. Pertaining to the Basque provinces, their 
people or language. 

Basque, Basquina, (bask, bas-ke’na ,) n. A part of a 
woman’s dress, resembling a jacket with a short skirt 
attached to it, as worn by the women of the Basque 
provinces, whence it, doubtless, derived its name. 

Basqui'na, n. See Basque. 

Bas'quisli, a. Relating to the Basque provinces; basque. 

Bas'ra, in Asiatic Turkey. See Bassora. 

Bas-relief', n. (Sculp.) See Basso-Relievo. 

Bass, n. (Zoiil .) The Labrax, a genus ofacantbopterygious 
fishes, distinguished from Perea by scaly opercula ter¬ 
minating in two spines, and by a rough tongue. The 
striped B., L. Lineatus, is a salt-water fish, which 
keeps near the land, ascending fresh-water streams in 
Spring, to breed. It is from lto 4 feet long, brown above, 
silvery beneath, and is very common on the coast of New 
England. Some specimens weigh 75 pounds each. It 
readily bites at the hook, and is taken in large quantities 
with the seine. 

(But.) [Teut. bast; A. S. 6<rsL] A name of the Lime- 
tree, Tilia Americana.— See Tilia. 

—A hassock or mat made of the inner bark of the linden- 
tree, rushes, sedge, flags, Ac., interwoven. See Bast. 

Bass, (base,) Basso, n. [It. fcasso.J (Mas.) The base in 
music; the lowest part in the harmony of a musical 
composition. The bass is, with sound musicians, the 
most important of all the parts; it is indeed the foun¬ 
dation of harmony, the support of the whole super¬ 
structure of the composition. The word bass is techni¬ 
cally used in various ways, as thorough bass, fundamental 
bass, ground bass, figured bass, Ac. A figured bass is a 
bass with figures written over or under each note, to in¬ 
dicate the accompanying harmonies. The term figured 
bass is used as synonymous with figurative bass, meaning 
a bass not confined to the plain canto-fermo style, but 
moving with more freedom, and with a melody of its 
own, for instance, the bass in Bach’s arrangement of 
“ Old Hundred.” — Fundamental bass is that bass which 
forms the tone or natural foundation of the incumbent 
harmony, and from which, as a lawful source, that har¬ 
mony is derived. To explain this by example: If the 
harmony consists of the common chord of C, 0 will he 
its fundamental bass, because from that note the har¬ 
mony is deduced; and if, while that harmony is con¬ 
tinued, the bass be changed to any other note, it ceases 
to be fundamental, because it is no longer the note from 
which that harmony results, and is calculated. Ground 
bass is used sometimes as synonymous with fundamen¬ 
tal bass, and sometimes as a bass which starts with some 
subject of its own, and continues to be repeated through¬ 
out the movement, while the upper part or parts of the 
composition pursue a separate air, and supply the har¬ 
mony. This kind of bass was greatly in fashion about 
half a century ago, but has for some time been rejected, 
as an unnatural restraint upon the imagination, and 
productive of a monotonous melody. Thorough bass is 
the art by which harmony is superadded to any pro¬ 
posed bass, and includes the fundamental rules of com¬ 
position. This branch of musical science is twofold— 
theoretical and practical. Theoretical thorough bass 
comprehends the knowledge of the connection and dis¬ 
position of all the several chords, harmonious and dis¬ 
sonant, and includes all the established laws by which 
they are formed and regulated. Practical thorough 
bass is conversant with the manner of talcing the sev¬ 
eral chords on an instrument, as prescribed by the figures 
placed over, or under, the bass part of a composition, 
and supposes a familiar acquaintance with the powers of 
these figures, a facility in taking the chords they indi¬ 
cate, and judgment in the various applications and 


effects of those chords in accompaniment. The bass if 
that part of a concert which is the most heard, which 
consists of the gravest and largest sounds, or which is- 
played on the longest pipes or strings of a common in¬ 
strument, or on instruments larger than common for 
the purpose. — See Contra-basso. 

Bass. a. (Mus.) Low; deep ; base. 

— v. a . To sound in a deep tone. 

“That deep and dreadful organ-pipe, pronounc’d 
The name of Prosper ; it did bass my trespass."— Shahs. 
Bass, in California , a village of Shasta co., on the 
Sacramento River, 10 m. N.E. of Shasta. 

Bass, or Bass Bock, a rocky islet of Scotland, in. 
the Frith of Forth, off the coast of Haddingtonshire. 
It is of a circular form, about 300 ft. in diameter, and. 
400 ft. high. It overhangs the sea in lofty precipices,. 



Fig. 302 — BASS ROCK. 


which at their bases are perforated into vast excava¬ 
tions and caverns. Great numbers of Solan geese re¬ 
sort to it for breeding. Lat. 56° 3' N.; Lon. 2° 35' W. — 
After the revolution of 1688, a few desperate adherents of 
the Stuart cause scaled this rock; which held out the- 
longest of any place in Britain for James II. 

Bass, George, an English discoverer, whose name has. 
been given to the strait which separates Tasmania from 
Australasia. He was a surgeon in the English navy, 
and went to New South M ales, in company with the 
celebrated Flinders, 7 years after the colony was founded. 
Having in the two previous years made several survey¬ 
ing voyages along the S. coast, B. was, in 1797, sent out 
on a voyage of discovery in a little whale-boat with only 
6 of a crew. Though provisioned for only 6 weeks, B. 
persevered in his expedition for 77 days, and having 
sailed 600 m., returned to Port Jackson with the news 
that Tasmania (Van Diemen’s Land) was not part of the 
Australian continent, but a separate island. The dis¬ 
covery was confirmed in 1798, when B. and Flinders- 
made a voyage in company. 

Bassa. See Pasha. 

Bassano, (bas-sa'no,) a walled town of N. Italy, prov. 
of Vicenza, on the Brenta, 19 m. N.N.E. of Vicenza, and 
21 N. by VV. of Padua. It is well built, and seated in a 
fine salubrious country. Manuf. Silk, straw hats, Ac. 
On 8th Sept., 1796. the Austrian general Wiirmser was 
defeated here by the French under Marshals Massena 
and Augereau. Pop. 14,411. 

Bassa'no, Jacopo, or Giacomo da Ponte, an Italian 
painter, B. at Bassano, in 1510. In early life he went 
to Venice, where he studied the great works of Parme- 
giauo, Titian, and Bonifazio. He 6pent the rest of his 
life at his native place. His first productions had much 
grandeur of conception and excellence of color, but he 
afterwards painted in a coarser and lower style. He 
treated even sacred subjects with a vulgar familiarity. 
B. worked rapidly, and his paintings are very numerous. 
There are 3 of them in the National Gallery, London. 
D. 1592. 

Bassa'no, IIugues Bernard Maret, Duke de, a cele¬ 
brated French publicist and statesman, b. at Dijon, 
1763. On the first outburst of the French revolution 
he enthusiastically embraced its principles, published 
th e Bulletin de I'Assembles, and soon after was appointed 
editor of the Mnniteur. He became acquainted with 
Bonaparte, and was made by him chef de division in 
the ministry of foreign affairs. In 1792 he was sent t» 
England, ostensibly to secure the neutrality of the 
British government, but in reality to hoodwink that 
government until the moment should arrive at which 
it could be efficiently assailed. But the English minister 
of that day was too clear-sighted even for French diplo¬ 
macy. Both Maret and the French ambassador, Chauve- 
lin, were peremptorily ordered out of England; and the 
former, soon after his return home, was sent as ambas¬ 
sador to Naples, but was captured on his way thither 
by the Austrians, and detained as prisoner till 1795. 
Maret took an active partin the intrigues set on foot for 
the overthrow of the Directory, and when the establish* 
ment of the Consulate crowned the success of these in¬ 
trigues, he was made secretary to the council of state. 
Subsequently he was private secretary to Napoleon, to 
whose dictation, it is said, not a few of the articles in 
the Moniteur were written. In 1811, Maret was created 
Duke de Bassano, and appointed Minister of F’oreign 
Affairs; and in 1812 he conducted and signed the treaties 
between France, Austria, and Prussia, preparatory to 
the fatal expedition to Russia. When the emperor was 
sent to Elba, in 1814, B. retired from public life; but 
immediately after Napoleon’s return he joined him, and 
was very nearly being taken prisoner at Waterloo. On 
the emperor’s final overthrow, the Duke was banished 
from France, but at the revolution of July, 1830, he 
was recalled, and restored to all his honors. In 1838 
he was made Minister of the Interior, and President ol 










BASS 


BASS 


BASS 


289 


the Council, but the ministry of which he formed a part 
survived only three days. D. 1839. 

Basse, n. (Zniil.) See Bass. 

Basse-Chantante, ( bds'shan-tdng,) n. [Fr.] (Mas.) 
the higher of the two basses in a score, partaking of 
more melody, and performed by the violoncello. 

Bas'sein, a seaport of Hindustan, prov. of Aurunga- 
bad ; separated from Salsette by a narrow channel, and 
about 50 m. N. of Bombay. Lat. 19° 20 7 N.; Lon. 72°56' 
E. It was ceded to the English by the Peishwa in 1862. 

Bas'sein, a British seaport town of Burmah, on the left 
baiin of the Birman river (the right branch of the lra- 
waddy); Lat. 16° 49' N.; Lon. 94° 45' E.; 100 m. W. of 
Rangoon, and 360 S.S.W. of Ava. Pop. about 5,000. 

Basset, or Basset , n. [Fr. bassette; It. bassetta,\ 
from basso, low.] (Games.) A game at cards, played 
somewhat similar to the modern faro. It is of Venetian 
invention, and was formerly much played in France. 
Louis XIV. issued some very severe decrees against 
it, after which B. was played under the name of 
"pour et contre.” 

“ Some dress, some dance, some play; not to forget 
Your piquet parties, and your dear basset." — Rowe. 

£. is played as follows:—The banker deals the cards in 
pairs, and each punter, or player, has a livretoi 13 cards, 
from which he selects one or more, and stakes on them. 
The principle of the game depends upon the correspond¬ 
ing card in the banker’s pack turning up in an odd or an 
even place. When a player wins, he may either take 
his money or go on, risking his stake and gains. The 
first time this is done it is called paroli, or “ double; ” 
the second time, sept et le va, “ seven and it goes; ” the 
third time, quinze et It va, “ fifteen, Ac.; ” the fourth time, 
trente et le va, “ thirty-one, Ac.;” and on the fifth risk, 
soixante et le va, “sixty-three, Ac.” In all cases the 
odds are greatly in favor of the banker; it is 1-023 to 1 
against the player winning ten successive games. 

Bas'set, n. ( Geol .) The emergence of strata at the sur¬ 
face ; the outcrop. 

—v. i. (Geol.) To crop out or upward so as to appear at 
the surface; as, a vein of coal bassets. 

—a. (Geol.) Inclined upward; as, the basset edge of 
strata. 

Basseterre, (bas’tair,) a town of the island of St. 
Kitt’s, in the W. Indies, belonging to Great Britain. Lat. 
17° 17' 30" N.; Lon. 62° 42' W. It is situate on the S. 
side of the island, at the mouth of a river opening into 
a bay called Basseterre Roads. 

Basse'terre, a seaport and cap. of the island of Gua- 
daloupe, in the W. Indies, belonging to the French. It 
possesses no proper harbor, but has an open roadstead. 
It is the residence of the governor. Pop. about 5,000. 

Bas'set-tiorn, n. [Fr. Cor A nglais ; It. corno cli bas- 
setto.] (Mas.) A musical instrument, now but seldom 
used. Its tone is sweet and mellifluous, and in solo 
passages it is capable of producing very striking effects. 
In form it resembles a large hautboy, a little bent at the 
top. Its real compass comprises the notes contained 
between F bass and B alt., except the note F sharp, 
which is deficient. As the player of the hautboy gener¬ 
ally takes this instrument, the part for it is usually 
scored a fifth higher than its real pitch. 

Bas'seting-, n. (Geol.) The upward direction of a vein 
in a mine, or of a stratum. 

Bassette', n. [Fr.] A game at cards. (See Basset.) —A 
small bass-viol. 

Basset'to, n. [It., Counter-tenor.] (Mus.) A small bass- 
viol ; a tenor instrument. 

Bas sett's Creek., in Alabama, takes a S.W. course 
through Clark co., into Tombigbee River. 

Bas'sett's Station, in Wisconsin, a post-olfice of 
Kenosha co. 

Bass -horn, n. (Mus.) See Bassoon. 

Bassi, Uoo, (6as'se,)a Barnabite monk, and distinguished 
Italian patriot, B.at Cento, in the Roman States, in 1804, 
of an Italian father and Greek mother. He was much 
distinguished among the brethren for his extraordinary 
learning and talents; while the purity of his life, the 
goodness of his heart, and his eloquence as a preacher, 
made him the idol of the people. The liberality of his 
political opinions, however, and the boldness of his ser¬ 
mons, rendered him obnoxious to the papal court, and 
he was sent into a sort of exile in Sicily, from which he 
only returned on the accession of Pius IX., in 1846. On 
the breaking out of the Lombard revolution in 1848, 
bodies of volunteers hastened from Rome to aid their 
fellow-countrymen in their struggle against the Aus¬ 
trians. B. was among the first who went to Treviso, 
where he greatly distinguished himself by his valor in 
battle, and his untiring services in the hospitals. On 
the capitulation of Treviso, B. went to Venice, where 
he fought in the ranks against her Austrian besiegers. 
Thence he went to Rome, and joined Garibaldi’s legion 
as chaplain, but took part in every engagement, and in¬ 
spired even that intrepid band with greater ardor, by 
his fiery enthusiasm in battle, and the tender and 
womanly devotion with which he tended the wounded 
and the dying. On the fall of Rome, B. was one of those 
who followed General Garibaldi when he made a last 
attempt to fight his way to Venice, which still held out 
against the Austrians. The little band was, however, 
dispersed and cut up by Austrian troops, and Garibaldi 
himself escaped with great difficulty. B. was taken 
prisoner, carried to Bologna, and condemned to death. 
The ecclesiastical authorities of Bologna, far from op¬ 
posing the sentence, merely stipulated, with refined 
cruelty, that, previous to the execution of the sentence, 
the crown of B.'s head and the inside of his hands, on 
which the oil of consecration had been poured on the 
occasion of his taking orders, should be flayed. This 
barbarous order was accordingly executed in the chapel 


of the prison, in such a manner as to cover the victim 
with blood. On the 18th Aug., 1849, a little before dawn, 
B. was taken to a deserted field adjoining the cemetery 
of Bologna, to be shot. He was pale but firm ; and 
while the soldiers were taking aim, he said, “ I die in¬ 
nocent— I die for liberty — I forgive my murderers. 
A iva Jesu 1 viva Maria! viva ”— but the word “ Italia ” 
was lost, stifled by the bullets of the Croats. His 
mother heard of her sou’s fate without a tear. Three 
times she repeated his name, and then expired.— B. was 
the author of a work on The Church after the Image of 
Christ, and an unfinished poem called, Constantine, or 
the Triumph of the Cross. His talents were universal. 
He was an accomplished musician and composer, wrote 
his own language in remarkable perfection, and was a 
perfect master of Greek, Latin, English, and French. 
He was equally remarkable for his personal beauty, and 
his eloquence as an improvisatore, while liis memory 
was so prodigious, that he is said to have been capable 
of reciting the whole of Dante’s Divina Oommedia. 

Bassia, (bds'se-a,) n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, order 
Sapotaceee. The species are trees; natives of tropical or 
sub-tropical regions. They are remarkable for their 
fleshy flowers and oily seeds. In India, the fatty oils 
procured from the ripe kernels of B. lalifolia, the 
Madhuea-tree, and B. longifolia, the Elloopa-tree, are 
made use of for burning in lamps, for culinary purposes, 
for making soap, and, medicinally, for external applica¬ 
tions in cutaneous affections. The fleshy flowers and 
fruits are used as food, and from the former an alcoholic 
liquor is distilled. The wood of B. longifolia and other 
species is very hard and durable. The Shea or Galarn 
butter, which forms an important article of internal 
commerce in Central Africa, is thought by some to be 
the produce of a species of bassia. 

Bas s io Acid, n. (Chem.) A crystalline, fatty acid, ex¬ 
tracted from the fat of Bassia latifolia and Cocculus in- 

\ dicus. Fusing point, 159°. 

Bas sinet, n. [Fr.] A kind of hooded wicker-basket, 
somewhat resembling a cradle, in which infants are 
placed for repose. 

Bass Bake, in Minnesota, a post-office of Faribault co. 

Bas'so. n. [It.] (Mus.) A bass-singer. See Bass. 

Basso-prof undo is the chief singer of deep bass, in 
oratorio or opera music, Ac. 

Bas'soek, n. A mat.— The same as Bass, q. v. 

Bassompierre, (bds'som-j>e-air,) Francois de, Mar¬ 
shal of France, one of the most distinguished and most 
amiable men of the courts of Henry IV. and Louis 
XIII., was born in 1579, in Lorraine, and descended 
from a branch of the family of Cleves. After travelling 
through Italy, he appeared at the court of Henry IV., 
where his taste for splendor, play, and gallantry made 
him conspicuous in the feasts and sports of the capital. 
In 1602, he made his first campaign against the Duke of 
Savoy, and fought with equal distinction, in the follow¬ 
ing year, in the imperial army, against the Turks. His 
love of France soon called him back. In 1622, Louis 
XIII. appointed him marshal of France, and became so 
much attached to him, that Luynes, the declared favor¬ 
ite, alarmed at his growing influence, insisted upon his 
removal from the court, leaving him the option to ac¬ 
cept either an embassy, or the chief command of an 
army, or the office of a governor. B. decided upon an 
embassy, and occupied this post successively in Spain, 
Switzerland, and England. After his return, he entered 
again into the military service, and was present at the 
sieges of Rochelle and Montauban. Cardinal de Riche¬ 
lieu, who soon after obtained entire control of the king 
and the country, feared the boldness of B. and his se¬ 
cret connection with the house of Lorraine; whose 
machinations served him as a pretext for sending B., in 
1631, to the Bastille, from which he was not released till 
1643, after the death of the cardinal. During his deten¬ 
tion, he occupied himself with writing his memoirs, and 
the history of his embassies, which shed much light on 
the events of that time. D. 1646. 

Bassoon, ( bds-snon ',) n. [Fr. basson, 
from bas, low, grave; It. fcasso.] (Mus ) 

A wind instrument which serves for a 
bass; it is made of wood, and played 
by means of a bent mouth-piece and 
reed. It is believed to have been first 
introduced into use by Handel, as an 
aid to the hautboy, which it so closely 
resembles in tone as to make it the 
natural Vass of that instrument. The 
compass of the B. extends from double 
B flat up to B flat in alt., 3 octaves; 
including all the intermediate semi¬ 
tones except B natural. AVhen the 
B. ascends very high, the notes are 
generally written tn the tenor clef.— 

The bass-horn is a modification of this 
instrument, much lower and stronger 
in its tones. 

Bassoon'ist, n. A player or per¬ 
former on the bassoon. 

Bas'sora, Bas'ra, Bcs'sora, or Bus'- 
rah, (bas'o-ra.) [Ar.. a margin.] Acity 
of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic of 
Bagdad ; the most eastern place of note 
in the Turkish dominions, and the prin- Pig. 303. 
cipal port of the Persian Gulf, on the bassoon. 

S.W. bank of the Euphrates, or, as it is 
here called, the Shal-ul-Arab, (“ River of the Arabs,”) 70 
m. from its mouth, and 45 below its junction with the 
Tigris, 270 m. S.E. of Bagdad, and 220 W.N.W. of Bu- 
shire. Lat. 30° 29'30" N.; Lon. 47°34'15" E. The walls, 
which are washed by the river, are about 7 m. in circum¬ 
ference, within which space are extensive date-tree plan¬ 



tations and corn-fields. The houses of the city are mostly 
built of clay, faced with burnt brick, and the streets are 
both irregular and unclean.— Com. B. is the principal 
emporium of the empire for Eastern commodities, and hai, 
necessarily, an extensive trade.— Imp. Silk, muslin, linen, 
gold and silver stuffs, cloth, metals, sandal-wood, and 
indigo; pearls from Bahrein, and coffee from Mocha; 
fruits and the precious metals from Persia; spices from 
Java; and European goods from various ports. — Exp. 
The precious metals, copper, dates, gall-nuts, raw silk, 
gold fringe; and horses to India. Caravans convey 
goods to Aleppo and Bagdad, whence they are sent on 
to Constantinople. — Pop. Estimated at 60,000.— This 
city was founded by Omar a. d. 636, and captured during 
the revolt against Ali, by Telha and Zobeir, aided by 
Ayesha, the widow of the prophet,in 658. The Saracens 
were dispossessed of it by the Turks in 701. On the 16th 
April, 1776, it was taken by the Persians, and recovered 
by the Turks in 1778. 

Basso'ra, in Missouri, a village of Franklin co., on the 
Missouri, 50 m. W. of St. Louis. 

Bas'sora, (Gum.) n. (Chem.) A gum of a yellowish- 
white color, obtained from the A cacia leucophhea and 
other species of the same genus. It consists essentially 
of water, 21 - 89; ash, 5-6; arabin, 1T2; bassorin, 61-31. 
Sp. grav. 1-3591. It is intermediate in its transparency 
between gum-arabic and gum tragacanth. B. G. is not 
used in medicine. 

Bas'so-relie'vo, (Bas-relief,) n. [It. basso, low, and 
relievo, relief; Fr. bas-relief.) (Sculp.) Low relief; a term 
applied to that class of sculptures whose figures do not 
stand out far from the ground or plane on which they 
are formed. It differs from alto-relievo (higli-relief), in 
that the latter is that in which the grosser parts are 
only attached, while the smaller parts are free; and from 
mezzo-relievo (mean-relief), which is a term used for a 
kind of composition between the two. B.-Il. was by the 
Greeks denominated anaglypfa, (Pliny lib. 33, c. 11.) The 
most ancient and most simple kind of basso-relievos 
used by the Egyptians, were cut by recessing the grounds 
as much as the projection of the figures, so that the sur¬ 
rounding surfaces, by forming a kind of border, both 



Fig. 304. — prow of a war-galley. 
(Basso-relievo, from the column of Trajan, Rome.) 


threw a shade upon the figures and defended them from 
injury, which they were liable to. as the granite out of 
which they were cut was of a very brittle nature; by this 
means much labor was saved in the execution. The 
Egyptians also employed B.-R. without any surrounding 
border, all the figures being raised from the same, naked. 
The B.-R. 1 s found in the excavations of the Indian 
temples bear a strong resemblance to those of the Egyp¬ 
tians, but are inferior in point of proportion, the heads 
being too large. The Persians employed the B.-R. in 
their architectural decorations, as may be seen in the 
palace of Persepolis, and in the royal tombs. The Greeks 
excelled in the execution of B.-R., as is sufficiently evi¬ 
denced by the sculpture in the pediments and friezes of 
the Parthenon, the temples of Theseus, Minerva, Ac. The 
basso-relievos of the Romans were, perhaps, at first con¬ 
fined to their tombs. They never attained a just knowl¬ 
edge, or taste, of the art of sculpture. Their best works 
were executed by Grecian artists, and are chiefly to be 
found in the triumphal arches, which are richly charged 
with basso-relievos. The art attained its greatest per¬ 
fection in the reign of Augustus, and was greatly on the 
decline in the days of Constantine. The basso-relievos of 
the column of Trajan (see Fig. 304) are magnificent 
specimens of the ancient art. Among the famous mod¬ 
ern B.-R. are those of Bandurli, Ghiberti, Lucca della 
Robbia, Puget, Canova, Thorwaldsen, Flaxman, David 
(d’Angers), Ac. — See Alto-Relievo, and Relievo. 

Bas sorin. n. (Chem.) A peculiar principle existing 
in gum-bassora, gum-tragacanth, and gum-kuteera. It 
is colorless, semi-transparent, insipid, inodorous, and 
amorphous; tough, and not easily pulverized; insoluble 
in water, but swelling up, and becoming like jelly; in¬ 
soluble in alcohol. It is obtained by exhausting gum- 
bassora, or tragacanth. with cold water - . £. remains in 
a gelatinous form. 
































290 


BAST 


BAST 


BAST 


Bass's Strait, the name given to the strait separating 
S. Australia from Tasmania, or Van Diemen’s Land. It 
is so called from Mr. Bass, an English naval surgeon, 
who explored it in 1798, in an open boat. Where nar¬ 
rowest, it is about 105 m. across, and is much encumbered 
with islands and coral reefs, requiring careful navigation. 
The prevailing winds are from the W. The tide rises 
from 8 to 12 ft., running at from 1% to 3% in. an hour. 

Bass -vt'ol, n. (Mus.) See Violoncello. 

Bass-wood, n. (Bnt.) See Tilia. 

Bast, n. [A. S. b(est Ger. and Du. bast.] The inner bark 
of the lime-tree; matting or cordage made out of this 
material. — A hassock or thick mat. — See Bass. 

Bas'ta! interj. [It.] (Mus.) Hold! enough! stop! An 
expression used by the leader or conductor of an orches¬ 
tra, or band of music, to stop any performer. 

Bas tard, n. [Fr. bdtard; W. basdardd. basu, to lower, 
and tardd, an issue, a budding or sprouting; Arm. bas- 

i tard.[ A lower base shoot or offspring; a child begotten 
and born out of wedlock; an illegitimate child. 

(Hist, and Law.) The Romans distinguished two kinds 
ef natural children — notlii, the issue of concubinage, and 
spurn, the children of prostitutes; the former could in¬ 
herit from the mother, and were entitled to support 
from the father; the latter had no claims whatever to 
support. Is non habet patrem, cui pater ist populus. The 
Athenians treated all B. with extreme rigor. By the 
laws of Solon they were denied the rights of citizenship. 
What rendered these regulations more severe was, that 
not only the issue of concubinage and adultery, but all 
children whose parents were not both Athenians, were 
considered B. at Athens. Thus Themistocles, whose 
mother was a native of Halicarnassus, was deemed a B. 
The condition of B. has been different in different peri¬ 
ods of modern history. Among the Goths and Franks, 
they were permitted to inherit from the father. Wil¬ 
liam the Conqueror, natural son of Robert I., Duke of 
Normandy, and of Arlette, daughter of a farrier of Fa- 
laise, inherited his father's dominions. He called him¬ 
self Willelmus, cognomento Batardus. The celebrated 
Dunois styled himself, in his letters, the Bastard of Or¬ 
leans. In Spain, B. have always been capable of inher¬ 
iting. The bastardy of Henry of Trastamare did not 
prevent his accession to the throne of Castile. In France, 
the Code. Civil thus fixes their rights: If the father or 
mother leave legitimate descendants, the B. is entitled 
to one-third of the portion he would have inherited had 
he been a lawful child; if the father or mother die with¬ 
out descendants, but leave ascendants, or brothers or 
sisters, then he is entitled to one-half of such a portion; 
if the father or mother leave no ascendants nor descend¬ 
ants. nor brothers nor sisters, he is entitled to three 
quarters of such a portion; and if the father or mother 
leave no relations within the degrees of succession, he is 
entitled to the whole property. These regulations do 
not apply to the issue of an incestuous or adulterous 
connection. According to the ancient customs, the bas¬ 
tards of kings, acknowledged by their fathers, were 
princes; those of princes were gentlemen. — By the com¬ 
mon law of England, a child born after marriage, how¬ 
ever soon, is legitimate, or at least he is presumed to be 
so; for one born in wedlock, and long enough after the 
marriage to admit of the period of gestation, may still be 
proved illegitimate, in case of absence and non-access of 
the husband, and under some other circumstances. Ac¬ 
cording to the common law, a B. is not the heir of any 
one; and, on the other hand, his only heirs are his chil¬ 
dren born in wedlock, and their descendants. Accord¬ 
ing to the Roman law, one born out of wedlock might 
be legitimated by subsequent marriage and acknowl¬ 
edgment of his parents. In 1236, the English prelates 
proposed the introduction of the Roman law, in this re¬ 
spect, into England, to which the nobility made the cele¬ 
brated reply, Nolumus leges Anglia rnutare, (“We are 
unwilling to change the laws of England.”) Legitima¬ 
tion per mbsequens matrimonium has been in force for 
many years in Vermont, Maryland, Virginia, Georgia, 
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Kentucky, Missouri, 
Indiana, and Ohio. So, in Massachusetts, bastards 
are considered legitimate after the intermarriage of 
their parents and recognition by the father. Similar 
statutes are to be found in Maine, New Hampshire, 
Pennsylvania, Vermont, Tennessee, and elsewhere. 
There is, however, no legal presumption that the man 
who marries the mother of a bastard was its actual 
father; and some recognition of paternity, or else an 
adoption, is a usual element in intermarriages of this 
kind. See Jas. Schouler’s Treatise on the Law of the 
Domestic Relations. 

(Sugar Refining.) An inferior quality of soft brown 
sugar, obtained from the concentration of syrups that 
have already given sugar by several boilings. — A large¬ 
sized mould, in which sugar is drained. 

—A kind of sweet Spanish wine, resembling muscadel in 
flavcr. 

“ Then your brown bastard is your only drink.” — Shales. 

BcW'tard, a. Illegitimate; born out of wedlock; as, a 
bastard child. — Spurious; not genuine; false; applied 
to things that have an apparent, but not real, genuine¬ 
ness. 

“Hove the language, that soft bastard Latin, 

Which melts like kisses from a female mouth.”— Byron. 

(Printing.) Abbreviated, as the half-title on the page 
preceding the full title of a book.— Bastard file. A file 
of a description between the roughest and "the second 
cut. 

Bfks'tard, v. a. To determine to be a bastard. 

“ She lived to see her two sons ... bastarded in their blood.” 

Bacon. 

Bas'lard Bar. (Her.) See Baton. 

Bas tardize, v. a. To make or prove to be a bastard; 


to convict one of being a bastard; to stigmatize with 
bastardy. 

—To beget an illegitimate child. 

“ Had the maidenliest star in the firmament twinkled on my 
bastardizing." — Shatcs. 

Bas'tardy , n. The state of being a bastard; illegitimacy. 

“ No more of bastardy in heirs of crowns.” — Pope. 

Bastar'nae, n. pi. (Hist.) A powerful tribe, of Sarma- 
tian origin, who first appear in history during the reign 
of Perseus in Macedon, is. c. 178-168, to whose army they 
contributed 20,000 mercenaries. Having encroached upon 
Roman territory, they were driven across the Danube by 
M. Crassus, is. c. 30, and ultimately settled between the 
rivers Dniester and Dnieper. 

Baste, (bast,) v. a. [0. Fr. bastmner, from baston, bdton, 
a stick or club.] To beat with a stick or cudgel. 

“ Quoth she, I grant it is in vain, 

For one that's basted to feel pain.” — Hudibras. 

—To rub meat, while roasting, with a piece of bacon, fat, 
or butter, at the end of a stick; to pour dripping fat or 
gravy over a joint of meat at the fire to keep it from 
burning or undue scorching. 

“Sir, 1 think the meat wants what I have, a basting." — Shake. 

Baste, (bast,) v. a. [Sp. bastedr; It. basta, probably from 
Fr. bdtir, for bastir, to build, .to frame, to put together.] 
To put together the pieces of a garment by slight pre¬ 
paratory stitching; to sew with long Btitches; to sew 
slightly.— To brand or mark a sheep with tar, &c. — Used 
in some parts of England. 

Bastia, (bas'le-a,) (anc. Mantinum,) a fortified seaport 
town of Corsica, cap. of an arrond. on its E. coast, with¬ 
in 23 m. of its N.E. extremity; Lat. 42° 43' N.: Lon. 9° 
26' E. The harbor is only accessible to small vessels. 
Manf. Soap, leather, liquors, and wax. Pop. 21,234. 

Bas'tiat, Frederic, a French political economist, b. at 
Bayonne, 1801. He was one of the first leaders of the 
free-trade agitation in France, and published, after a 
visit to England, a translation of the speeches of the 
English Anti-Corn-Law agitators, with an introductory 
account of Oobden e.t la Ligue. Afterwards he edited the 
French journal founded for the propagation of free-trade 
doctriues. In 1848-9, he was successively member of 
the constituent and the legislative assemblies. His prin¬ 
cipal work is entitled Harmonies Economiques. D. 1850. 

Bas'tide, Jcles, a French author and journalist, B. at 
Paris, 1800. He entered upon the legal profession, and 
took an active part in the opposition to the Restoration. 
Taking partin the disturbances of the 5th and 6th June, 
1832, he was obliged to seek an asylum in England. In 
his absence he was condemned to death, par contumace; 
but on his return to France, two years afterwards, he un¬ 
derwent his trial, and was acquitted. For several years 
he then edited the “National." On the 6th May, 1848, 
he was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs; a post in 
which he was continued till the 10th Dec., by his friend, 
Gen. Cavaignac. He is the author of many political, 
philosophical, and scientific works; among them a trea¬ 
tise on Public Education in France, a History of the 
French Religious Wars, and a work entitled, The French 
Republic and Italy, Brussels, 1858. D. 1879. 

Bastile', n. [O. Fr. bastille, fortress, from bastir, bdtir, 
to build.] In its original sense, a wooden tower or for- 
talice temporarily used in warfare; a tower; a fortifica¬ 
tion. In England, this name is sometimes given to a 
poor-house. — See Bastille. 

Bastille, (bds-teel', )Tbe. (Hist.) A former state-prison of 
Frali cp, similar to the Tower of London, and commenced 
in the reign of Charles V., 1370, by Hugh D’Aubriot, 
Mayor of Paris. It was not completed until 1383, and 
was afterwards improved and strengthened in such a 
manner, that it became one of the strongest fortresses 
of the kind in Europe. The discipline and the police 
regulations of this once famous and all-dreaded prison, 
were of the strictest kind; and the secrecy maintained 
as to the persons confined in it, caused it for centuries 
to be regarded with mingled feelings of awe and horror. 
Once within its walls, hope seemed left behind. The 
noblest, equally as the meanest of the land, were liable 
to be arrested and conveyed to it, unknown to their 
friends, unconscious of the offence imputed to them, and 
without any form of law and justice other than an order 
for their incarceration, termed a lettre de cachet, signed 
by the monarch or one of the secretaries of state. These 
orders were sometimes given on the request of a favorite 
courtier or of a royal mistress, with blanks for names to 
be filled up as they chose. Hence, they too frequently 



Fig. 305. —the bastille. (Paris.) 

became the instruments of mere caprice, or malevolent 
passions and revenge. Among the celebrated persons 
immured here, may be mentioned Voltaire, who was con¬ 
fined for nearly a year on suspicion of being the author 
of satires which had given the court offence. When the 
unfortunate Louis XVI. ascended the throne, he signal¬ 


ized his humanity by inspecting the registers cf the B. t 
and by liberating many prisoners. Among them was 
an old man named Latude, who had languished in con¬ 
finement for 47 years. The benignant Louis had to atone 
for the crimes of his ancestors, and the demolition of 
the B., which was one of the first signs of the forth¬ 
coming tempest of the Revolution, was hailed with equal 
surprise and joy by every well-wisher to freedom through¬ 
out the civilized world. On the 14th July, 1789, upwards 
of 12,000 citizens, chiefly of the lowest classes, armed 
with whatever came to hand, and headed by the grenadier 
guards, summoned the detested fortress to surrender. M. 
de Launay, the governor, feigned compliance with their 
demands, and then suddenly opened fire upon them. 
Then arose the cry of vengeance. The people flocked to 
the scene of action. Cannon were brought to bear 
against the walls, and the place was carried by storm. 
The first act of the exasperated citizens was to set free 
the prisoners; the next, to massacre governor and gar¬ 
rison. Directly after this memorable event, the munici¬ 
pality of Paris gave orders that the B. should be razed 
to the ground: and nothing now remains of this formi¬ 
dable instrument of tyranny but the retributive page of 
history, and the site on which the fortress stood, on 
which a large column has been erected to the memory 
of the heroes of the Revolution of July,1830.—See Cachet 
(lettbe de). See Ravaisson’s Archi. of the B., Paris, 1877. 

Bastinade', Bastina'do, n. [Fr. bastonnade, from 
baston, baton, a stick or club.] A sound beating with a 
stick or cudgel; the blows given with a stick. 

“And all those harsh and rugged sounds 
Of bastinados , cuts, and wounds.” — Hudibras. 

In the strict sense of the term, the punishment of th» 
B. consists in the infliction of blows on the soles of th© 
feet with a thick stick. Turkey and Russia are the only 
European countries in which this mode of punishment 
is sanctioned by law, and in both countries it is carried 
to a most unjustifiable extent, the sufferers being fre¬ 
quently maimed and injured for a considerable period, 
if not for life. In Russia, the instrument of torture is a 
heavy whip called the Knout, q. v. The B. is a common 
kind of punishment in China, as well as in Persia and 
all Eastern countries where Mohammedanism prevails; 
blows being ordered by the Koran for many minor 
offences. 

— v. a. To beat with a stick or cudgel; to inflict the pun¬ 
ishment of the bastinade. 

“ And with it began to bastinado old Lewis.” — Arbuthnot. 

Bast ing, n. A dripping; as, “a basting of meat.” — 
Act of heating with a stick. — Act of sewing with long 
stitches. 

Bust in villi 1 , fn Tennessee, a village of Hickman co. 

Bas tion, n. [Fr.; Sp. bastion, from Fr. bdtir, for bas¬ 
tir, to build, to erect, to rear.] (Fort.) A large mass of 
earth or masonry raised up before, or standing out from, 
a rampart; a bulwark. — It is formed of two faces, tw© 



Fig. 306. — bastion. 

flanks, and two demi-gorges. The junction of the two face© 
forms the salient angle of the B., and the faces, together 
with the flanks, form the epaules, or shoulders. They 
are made of various kinds, — solid, hollow', regular, &c. 
Solid bastions are entirely filled up with earth up to the 
level of the platform of the guns, while hollow bastions 
have the interior level with the ordinary ground. Regu¬ 
lar bastions are those which have their faces, flanks, &c., 
in due proportion. A demi-bastion, or epaulement, has 
only one face and one flank. A double bastion is where 
one bastion is raised within and upon the plane of 
another bastion. A flat bastion is one built in the middle 
of the curtain or wall connecting the two angles of a 
rampart. A composed bastion is one in which the sides 
of the interior polygon are unequal; thus making the 
gorges also unequal. A bastion is called deformed or 
irregular, when the faces, flanks, &c. are not in symmet¬ 
rical proportion; and a cut bastion, or bastion with a 
tenaille, is one whose salient angle has been cut off, and 
has, instead, an angle opening inwards, with two points 
outward. 

Bas'tioned, a. Fortified with a bastion; provided with 
bastions. 

Bas'to, n. [It. and Sp.] (Games.) The ace of clubs, when 
playing at quadrille. 

Bas'ton, n. [O. Fr. baston; Fr. bdton; L. Lat. basto .] 
(Her.) See Baton. 

Bas'trop.in Louisiana, a post-village, and cap. of More¬ 
house parish, on the Bayou Bartholomew, 300 m.N. by 
W. of Baton Rouge. The bayou is navigable as far as 
this place. 

Bas'trop, in 'Texas, a central county, containing an area 
of 890 sq. m. It is traversed by the Rio Colorado. Sur¬ 
face diversified; and soil, fertile. This co. was named 
after Sefior de Bastrop, a Mexican. Cap. Bastrop. 

—A thriving post-village, cap. of the above co., situate on 
the left bank of the Colorado, 35 m. E.S.E. of Austin 
City, and 141 N.W. of Matagorda. 


















BAT 


BATA 


BATC 


291 


®? s tross, or Bxs'tRESS, in Pennsylvania, a post-twp. of 
Lycoming co., 8 m. S.W. of Williamsport. 

Bast wick, John, an English physician and political 
•writer, b. 1593. He studied at Cambridge, travelled all 
over Europe, and finally settled at Colchester as a phy¬ 
sician. In 1637, he was condemned by the Star Chamber 
for his books against the Roman Church, viz., Eleuchus 
Papismi, and A New Litany; and was, like Prynne and 
Burton, his fellow-prisoners, sentenced to pay a heavy 
fine, to be set in the pillory, have his ears cut off, his 
cheeks and forehead branded, and be imprisoned for life. 
He was sent to Seilly, and kept there till released bv the 
Long Parliament, when he had a reward of $25,000 
allowed him for his sufferings. D. about 1650. ’ 

Easyle, (bus'll,) n. [Gr. basis, base, and ule, wood 1 
( Chem.) The metallic radical of a salt. Thus, the base 
of sulphate of soda is soda, or oxide of sodium, and the 
basyle is sodium. 

Bas'ylous, a. Pertaining to, or having the nature of 
basyle. 

Bat, n. [A.S. bat, from beatan , to beat.J A heavy stick. 
(Games.) An oblong, flat-sided piece of wood, with a 
round handle, used in cricket; a long, rounded club 
used in baseball. 

—A sheet of cotton or wool. 

—Shale, or bituminous shale. 

•— v - a. To strike (a ball, &c.) with a bat. 

Bat, n. [Scot, bak, battkie; Sw. and Goth, nattbacka — natt, 
night, and backa, probably for wacka, to awake.] ( Zoiil. ) 
Tbe bats constitute the mammalian order Chiroptera. 
They are closely allied to the Insectivora, though re¬ 
semblance to members of that group is not suggested 
by casual inspection. But in the structure of the bones 
and teeth they are seen to be nearer the moles, shrews, 
Ac., than to any other creatures. The front limbs are 
adapted for flight. The bones are greatly elongated, 
and serve as the basis for extensions of skin from tlte 
sides of the body and the outer surfaces of the hind 
limbs. In three genera (two in the Old World and one 
in the New) the base of the wing is not at the side of 
the body but at the spine, and allows the back and front 
of the trunk to be continuous. Bats can move about 
more or less freely when the wings are folded. The 
manner of effecting this motion is not uniform. In the 


Fig. 307. 

BKELETON and volar membranes or THE VESPEEUQO. 

majority of instances the animal hangs by the claws of 
the hind feet from twigs or roughened surfaces of old 
tree-trunks, walls of caves, Ac., and progresses feebly by 
the aid of the sharp claws on the thumbs, while the 
legs are nearly at right angles to the back. In the 
minority, the animal lies prone and moves by the aid of 
the long forearms, the parts answering to the fore foot 
being folded back parallel to and on the inner and under 
side of the forearm, while the hind limbs are drawn out 
at right augles to the side of the body. It is seen that 
bats in flight, at rest, and in terrestrial movements, differ 
widely from all others of their class.—In the covering 
of the space between the legs, and in the degree to 
which the tail is developed, bats are subject to great 
variation. The skin bet'ween the legs is called the 
interfemoral membrane. It is not often entirely absent, 
though it is sometimes confined to a mere hem. It 
may, however, be guided by the elongated tail beyond 
the feet. The interfemoral membrane has no inde¬ 
pendent motion, and at best is a parachute-like structure. 
Bats possessing it skim through the air, and effect 
abrupt changes in flight, while those without it flap the 
wings. The differences between the two styles of move¬ 
ment here indicated can be illustrated in the flight of 
the swallow and that of the crow. A small group of 
bats flit about after the manner Of moths, and are known 
to come to rest with the wings extended.—The origin of 
bats is unknown, hut their affinity to the Insectivora 
suggests for them a great antiquity. The extreme 
fragility of the bones in most examples doubtless have 


been contributive causes for their absence from the 
older geological deposits. None of the few fossil species 
known differ in essentials from those now extant. 
There is reason for belief that bats arose from the 
mammalian phylum, at least in part, at that point at 
which the Rodenlia originated. It was at one time 
thought that Galeopithecus (colngo), a parachuted mam¬ 
mal from Borneo, was a link uniting the bats with the 



Fig. 308.— foot of mystacina tubeuculata 
(enlarged). 


lemurs. This conclusion induced Cuvier to place the 
order near the Quadrumana, or, as it is now termed, the 
Primates. This opinion is no longer entertained. Galeo¬ 
pithecus is a member of the Insectivora ; and the Chirop¬ 
tera, instead of being honored with a position so near to 
that held by man himself, is now relegated to one low 
in the mammalian scale.— Skeleton. The ulna is rudi¬ 
mentary; the upper and lower ends are component 
parts of the elbow- and wrist-joints respectively, the 
intermediate part or shaft being coalesced with the 
radius. The breast bone is in part keeled, though never 
to the degree seen in birds. The ribs are wide apart 
above, but close together below, and are disposed to 
unite so as to form, except at the base, a more or less 
(Continued in Section II.) 


Bat, or Tic'al, n. (Com.) A Siamese silver coin, equal to 
12,800 cowries, weighing 236 gr. troy, and worth about 
75 cents. 

Bata'tas, n. [Sp. batata.] (Bot.) A genus of plants, 
ord. Convotvulacea. The most important species is B. 
edulis, the sweet potato, a native of the East Indies, 
but now cultivated in all tropical and sub-tropical coun¬ 
tries for its tubers, which, when roasted or boiled, form 



[ a wholesome and highly nutritious article of food. Next 
to maize, the sweet potato is the principal food of the 
poorer classes in our S. States. — This is the potato of the 
old English botanists, of Shakspeare, and their contem¬ 
poraries, the Solanum tuberosum then being unknown. 
The stem is round, hispid, prostrate, creeping, sending 
out scattered, oblong tubers which at e purplish without. 
Flowers large, purple or white. — The cultivation of B. 
is very easy; it is readily propagated by tubers, or by cut¬ 
tings of the stem, requires little attention, and soon pro¬ 
duces its tubers. The leaves are sometimes used as a 
boiled vegetable. 

Bat'able, a. [A.S. bate, contention.] (Contracted from 
Debatable.) Disputable; debatable. 

“ Ratable ground seems to be the ground heretofore in question, 
whether it belonged to England or Scotland, lying between both 
kingdoms." — Cowell. 

Batan'gas. a seaport town of the Philippines, island 
of Luzon, and cap. of a province of the same name. Lat. 
13° 45' N.; Lon. 121° 5' E. Pop. 18,215. 

Balardeau, (bat-ar-do’ ’,) n. [Fr.J A coffer-dam. 

(Mil.) A wall built across a ditcli or fortification, with 
a sluice-gate by which the height of water in the ditch 
on both sides of the wall may be regulated. 

Batavia, (bd-tai’ve-a.) a seaport and city of Java, cap. 
of that island, the seat of gov. of the Dutch possessions 
in the E., and the principal emporium of the E. Archi¬ 
pelago, on an extensive hay on the N.W. coast of the 
island. Lat. 6°8'S.; Lon. 106° 50' E. It is built in a 
marshy situation, at the mouth of the Jaccatra river, 
and presents much of the appearance of a Dutch town, 
being intersected by canals bordered with trees, after 
the fashion of Holland. The city is generally spacious 
and well built. The harbor affords good anchorage for 
vessels, for ships of from 300 to 500 tons. Com. B. is 
the depot for tbe produce of all the Dutch colonies in 
the East, including spices from the Moluccas; coffee and 
pepper from Celebes and Sumatra; gold-dust and dia¬ 
monds from Borneo; tin from Banea; and tortoise-shell, 
bees’-wax, and dye-woods from Timor and Tumbawa. 
Originally, no Dutch ship was suffered to proceed home¬ 
ward without first touching here. Many junks from 
China and Siam formerly traded thither; but since the 
establishment of the British at Singapore, their trade 
with Batavia has greatly decreased. The manufactures, 
as those of leather, lime, earthenware, sugar, and ar¬ 
rack, are mostly in the hands of the Chinese; their cam- 
pong, or peculiar quarter, is the chief seat of bustle and 
activity ; and the trade of the city, except in the articles 
monopolized by Europeans, is wholly in their hands. 
Many of them are wealthy; they are governed by their 
own laws and magistrates. The English element is very 
powerful here among the mercantile interest. Pop. 
Estimated at 125,000, of vvhich about 72,000 are Java¬ 
nese, 30,000 Chinese, and the remainder Europeans, and 
other races.-—A factory was established at the village of 
Jaccatra, by the Dutch, in 1012, and upon its site the 
town of B. was founded in 1619. Since 1»80, the Govt, 
has constructed a great harbor a short distance E. of B. 
at Tanjong-Priong, connected with B. by rail and canal, 

Bata'via, in IU., a p. v. and township of Kane co. 

Bat a'via, in Iowa, a village of Jefferson co., 12 m. W. 
of Fairfield. 

Bata'via, in Michigan, a post-township of Branch co., 

5 m. W. of Cold water. 

Bata'via, in New York, a post-townsbip of Genesee 
county. 

—A thriving manuf. city, cap. of Genese: co., on Tona- 
wanda Creek, 36 m. E. by N. of the city of Buffalo. Seat 
of the N. Y. School for the Blind. Pop. in 1890, 7,221; 
in 1897 (est.) 10,000. 

Bata'via, in Ohio, a post-village of a township of the 
same name in Clermont co., of which it is the capital. 

It lies in the E. Fork of Little Miami River, 21 m. E. 
of Cincinnati, and 100 miles S.W. of the city of Colum¬ 
bus. 

—A township of Geauga co. 

Bata'viaii, n. An inhabitant or native of Batavia, or 
Holland. 

—A native or inhabitant of Batavia, in the island of Java. 

— a ' Geog.) Pertaining or relating to Batavia, or its 
people. 

Bata'vians, Batavi, n. pi. (Hist.) A people of an¬ 
cient Germany, who inhabited that part of the Euro¬ 
pean continent now known as Holland, but then called 
Batavorum Insula, from an islaud at the mouth of the 
Rhine. Tacitus commends their bravery. When Ger- 
manicus was about to iuvade Germany trom the sea, he 
made their islaud the rendezvous of his fleet. Being 
subjected by the Romans, they served them with such 
courage and fidelity, as to obtain the title of their friends 
and brethren. They were exempted from tributes and 
taxes, and permitted to choose their leaders from among 
themselves. Their cavalry was particular 1 excellent 
At the end of the 3d century, the Sabiai, Franks ob¬ 
tained possession of the island of Batavia. —Alter the 
constitution of the United Provinces (q. v.) was changed 
by the French, in 1798, their descendants, called Dutch 
or Hollanders, formed the Batavian Republic, until the 
creation of Louis Bonaparte as king of Holland, in 1806. 

Batch, n. [Du. baksel, from bakken, to bane.] A bak¬ 
ing; the quantity of bread baked at one time. 

-• The joiner puts the boards into ovens alter the batch is drawn.” 

Mortimer• 

_Any quantity of anything made at once, go - ;o have 

equal qualities. 

“ Except he were of the same meal and batch." -Ren Jonson. 

Baf/'h'eller, in Kansas, a post-village of Riley co., or 
the Republican River, about 20 m. W. of Manhattan. 

Batcii 'cllcrvilie, in New York, a post-office of Sara> 
toga co. 





















292 


BATH 


BATH 


BATH 


Bate, ». f A S. bate, contention. — See Debate.] Strife; 

contention. (Retained in make-bate.) 

Bate, v. a. [Fr. battre, from Lat. battuere., to beat or 
strike down.] To lessen anything; to retrench; to 
abate in price. 

“ Nor envious at the sight, will I forbear 
My plenteous bowl, nor bate my plenteous cheer .”—Dry den. 


—To allow by way of abatement. 

“ Bate me some, and I will pay you some."— Shake. 
—To except; to leave out; as, “ Bate me the king.” 
— v. i. To remit; — used with of. 

“ Abate thy speed, and I will bate of mine."— Dryd.cn. 


—To bait; to flutter as a hawk, Ac. 

Bateau, (bat-o',) n.; pi. Bateaux. [Fr., from L. Lat. 
6a«us.] A light boat, long in proportion to its breadth. 
—Bateau Bridge , a floating bridge over a river erected 
on supports of bateaux. 

Bate'liam, in Indiana, a post-village of Sullivan co., 
28 in. S.S.E. of Terre Haute. 

Bate Island, belonging to Hindostan, prov. of Gujerat, 
and off its W. extremity. Lat. 22° 27' N.; Lon. 69° 10' 
E. It has a good harbor, and contains about 2,000 houses ; 
but is chiefly noted for a celebrated temple dedicated to 
the god Rune)tor, and much frequented by pilgrims. 

Bate'man, or Bate'man's Store, in Georgia, a 
village of Houston co., 21 m. S.W. of Macon. 

Bates, Edward, one of the ablest of American lawyers, 
b. 1793, at Goochland, in Virginia. In 1814, he proceeded 
to St. Louis, where he engaged in the study of the law. 
In 1817, he began to practise at the bar. In 1861, he was 
nominated Attorney-General in President Lincoln’s 
cabinet. D. 1869. 

Bates, in Illinois, a post-office of Sangamon co. 

Bates, in Missouri, a W. county, bordering on Kansas; 
area, about 1,000 sq. m. It is drained by the Osage 
River, and also by the Little Osage and Marmiton, which 
effect a confluence with the first-named river within 
its bounds. Surface, mainly prairie. Cap. Butler. l‘op. 
in 1890, 32,210; in 1897, about 35,000. 

Bates'ville, in Arkansas, a post-town, cap. of Inde¬ 
pendence co., on White river, 90 m. N.N.E. of Little 
Rock. Pop. (1898) 2,520. 

Bates'ville, in Georgia, a village of Habersham co. 

Bates'ville, in Indiana, a post-village of Ripley co. 

Bates'ville, in Mississippi, a village, cap. of Panola co. 

Bates'ville, in Ohio, a village of Guernsey co., 90 m. 
E. of Columbus. 

—A post-office of Noble co. 

Bates'ville, in South Carolina, a post-office of Green¬ 
ville co. 

Bat'-fowler, n. One who practises the sport of bat¬ 
fowling. 


Bat '-fowl ins', n - (Sports.) A mode of catching birds 
at night, by holding a torch or flambeau, disturbing the 
place whereon they roost, and catching them with nets 
and other contrivances. 

Bath, n. [A.S. beeth; Fr. bain.) A place to bathe in; a 
large vessel of water wherein to perform one’s ablutions. 

—An edifice containing an apartment, or apartments, set 
apart for bathing. 

—Act of immersing the body in water, hot air, vapor, Ac.; 
ablution with water.— See Bathing. 

—A Hebrew measure containing the 10th part of a homer, 
or 7 gallons and 4 pints, as a measure for things liquid ; 
and 3 pecks and 3 pints as a measure for things dry. 

(Chem .) A term applied to apparatus employed for the 
purpose of communicating a graduated temperature to 
Louies. Various fluids and solids are employed as the 
means through which the heat is applied.—1. Water 
bath. In this bath, the substance to be heated can never 
have its temperature elevated above 212°, or a steam heat. 
One of the simplest shapes is the Bain-marie, q. v. — 2. 
Saline baths are used when a somewhat higher temper¬ 
ature than a steam heat is desirable. Salts, when dis¬ 
solved in water, elevate the boiling-point of the fluid, 
although the steam has exactly the usual temperature 
of 212°. The following saturated solutions boil at the 
annexed temperatures: 


Sulphate of soda.213-2° 

Alum.213-8° 

Acetate of lead.215-6° 

Chlorate of potash...219-5° 
Chloride of barium.. .220-0° 

Borax.220 0° 

Chlorideof potassium226-9° 
Chloride of sodium...227-3° 
Sal-ammoniac.237-9° 


Nitrate of potash.240-6° 

Chlorideof strontium244-2° 

Nitrate of soda.249-8° 

Chloride of potash . ..275-0° 

Nitrate of potash.303-8° 

Chloride of calcium..355-0° 
N itrate of ammonia..362-8° 

Chloride of zinc.575-0° 

Oil of vitriol.636 8° 



Fig. 310. — STEAM BATH. 

3. Steam and dry-air bath. When an organic body re¬ 


quires to be dried in a dry atmosphere, especially if it 
has a tendency to absorb moisture when exposed to the 
air, it is necessary to place it in a tube and draw dry air 
over it. in order to remove the moisture which emanates 
from it. For this purpose the apparatus ( Fig. 310) is 
used. The body is placed in a bent tube, which is de¬ 
posited in a water bath, a, with a chloride of calcium 
tube on either side, c, d. The aspirating bottle e, filled 
with water, causes air dried by the first chloride of cal¬ 
cium to pass over it, until it is thoroughly dry. — 4. 
Steam amt Vacuum bath. When the atmospheric air acts 
on the substance, and when it is desirable to exhaust the 
moist air rapidly, an air-pump is used (Fig. 311). A, air- 
pump, fixed by a screw into a table; B, chloride of cal¬ 



cium tube; D, tube containing the substance to be dried, 
hermetically sealed at C, and placed in a water-bath. — 
5. Metallic bath. When the temperature requires to be 
higher than can be attained by the preceding mode, a 
mixture of easily fusible metals is used. Mercury may 
be employed between 300° and 400°; above this, un¬ 
wholesome fumes are evolved. D’Arcet’s fusible alloy 
is useful, consisting of 2 bismuth, 5 lead, 3 tin, with a 
fusing point of 212°, the temperature rising with the 
application of heat. 

Bath, the most beautiful city of England, in Somerset¬ 
shire, 100 m. W. of London. It is situated on the Avon, 
12 m. E.S.E. of Bristol, in a narrow valley, bounded on 
the N.E. and S.W. by hills, and widening on the N.W. 
into rich and extensive meadows. The Avon is naviga¬ 
ble from Bath to Bristol. It has borne various names 
in different ages, all having allusion to its celebrated 
waters. The Romans call ed it Aquae Solis, Fontes Calidi, 
Thermce, Bodonia, and Bathonio,; the Britons, Caer 
Badun, or Bladon; the Saxons, Hat Bathun, and Acha- 
mannum. The vestiges of the Romans here are still ex¬ 
ceedingly numerous, and show the high value which 
they placed upon the waters. — B. is remarkable for 
medicinal waters, for its various sources of amusement, 
for the elegance of its streets, and the magnificence of 
its public buildings. It is accounted the most elegant 
city in England. The houses are of superior construc¬ 
tion, built of freestone obtained from the hills about the 
town. B. affords a great variety of amusements, and is 
equally the resort of valetudinarians and votaries of 
pleasure. — There are five public baths, viz., King’s and 
Queen’s Bath, Cross Bath, Hot Bath, and New Private 
Bath. The temperature of the different springs varies 
from 90° to 117° Fahrenheit. That of the King’s Bath 
is 116°, that of the Hot Bath 117°, and that of the Cross 
Bath 111°. They contain carbonic acid, azotic gas, 
muriate and sulphate of soda, carbonate and sulphate of 
lime, with a very small quantity of silex and oxycarbon- 
ate of iron. They are found of great efficacy in cases of 
gout, rheumatism, indigestion, palsy, and biliary obstruc¬ 
tions. — Pop. 54,240. 

Bath, (Order of the,) n. (Her.) In England, a high 
order of knighthood, so called from bathing having 
anciently formed part of the ceremony previous to in¬ 
stallation. This order is of great antiquity, two knights 
being created in this manner by King John, in 1204 and 
1205 respectively, though it is supposed to have existed 
at a much earlier period. It is first noticed under the 
name of the “ Bath,” 11th Oct., 1399, when Henry IV., 
at his coronation, conferred the honor on 46 esquires, 
who had watched all the night before in the Tower of 
London, and then bathed themselves. Afterwards it be¬ 
came customary for the English monarchs to confer this 
dignity at the time of their coronation, or on other great 
occasions; as on the coronation of their queens, the in¬ 
auguration of the Prince of Wales, birth or marriage of 
children of the blood-royal, Ac. The last “ Knights of the 
Bath,” created in the ancient form, were made at the 
coronation of Charles II., in 1661, after which time it 
fell into neglect until revived by George I., 18th May, 
1725, who ordered a book of statutes to be drawn up for 
its government. By this, the number of knights was 
fixed at 38 — viz., the sovereign, a prince of the blood, a 
grand master, and 35 knights-companions. To com¬ 
memorate the auspicious termination of the long con¬ 
tests with France, the prince-regent extended the limits 
of the O. of the B. in 1815, but left to it its primary 
character of military order. It is but since 1847 that it 
was extended to the admission of civil knights. The 1st 
class consists of Knights Grand Cross (G. C. B.): the 
number not to exceed, for military service, 50, exclusive 


of the sovereign, princes of the blood, and distinguished 
foreigners; and for civil service, 25. The 2 d class are 
Knights Commanders (K. C. B.); number not to exceed 
102 for military, and 50 for civil service. The mem¬ 
bers of the two first classes are entitled to the appel¬ 
lation of Sir. 3 d class, Companions (C. B.); number 
not to exceed 525 for military, and 200 for civil ser¬ 
vice. They take precedence of esquires, but are not 
entitled to the appellation, style, Ac. of knights-bach- 
elor. The badge of the order ( Fig. 312) has in the cen¬ 
tre, the rose, shamrock, and thistle, and three crowns; 
the whole encircled with the motto of the order, Tria 
juncto in uno, (“Three joined in one,”) and a laurel 



Fig. 312.— collar and badge of the bath. 

wreath. It is worn by the Knights Grand Crosses pen¬ 
dent from a red ribbon across the right shoulder; by the 
Knights Commanders, from the neck; and by the Com¬ 
panions, from the button-hole. The collar is of gold. It 
is composed of 9 imperial crowns, 8 gold roses, thistles, 
and shamrocks enamelled in colors, and tied or linked 
together with 17 gold knots, enamelled white, having 
the badge of the order pendent therefrom. The officers 
of the order are, the dean, the genealogist and Blanc- 
coursier herald, the Bath king-of-arms, the registrar and 
secretary, the gentleman-usher of the Scarlet Rod and 
Brunswick herald, and the messenger. 

Bath, in California, a post-village of Placer co. 

Batli. in Georgia, a village of Jefferson co., about 60 m. 
E.N.E. of Milledgeville. 

—A village of Richmond co., about 20 m. S.W. of Augusta, 
beautifully situated, and a place of summer resort. 

Bath, in Illinois, a township and post-village of Mason 
co., on the Illinois River, 50 m. from Peoria. B. was 
formerly the cap. of the co. 

Bath, in Indiana, a thriving township of Franklin 
county. 

—A village of Union co., 50 m. E. of Shelby ville. 

Bath, in Iowa, a post-office of Cerro Gordo co. 

Bath, in Kansas, a post-office of Woodson co. 

Bath, in Kentucky, a N.E. county, possessing an area of 
about 200 sq. m., and drained by the Licking River and 
Slate Creek. Surface, uneven, and soil in many parts 
very fertile. Stone-coal and iron-stone are abundant. 
Many mineral springs are found here,among them the 
noted “ Mud Lick Springs.” County seat, Owiugs- 
ville. 

Bath, in Michigan, a post-village and township of Clin¬ 
ton co., 6 m. N.E. of Lansing. 

Bath, in New Hampshire, a post-township of Grafton 
co., on the E. bank of the Connecticut River, 80 m. 
N.E. of Concord; it is also watered by the Ammonoo- 
suck river. 

Bath, in Ne.w York, a prosperous post-town of Bath 
township, and cap. of Steuben co., on Cohocton Creek, 
219 m. W. by S. of Albany, and 20 N.W. of Corning. It 
is a place of considerable trade, seated amid a fine agri¬ 
cultural country. The New York State Soldiers’ Home 
was located here. 

—A village of Rensselaer co., opposite Albany, on the 
Hudson River. 

Bath, in North Carolina, a post-village of Beaufort co., 
143 m. E. by S. of Raleigh. 

Bath. in Ohio, a township of Allen co. 

—A township of Greene co. 

—A post-township of Summit county, 23 miles west of 
Ravenna. 

Bath, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Northampton 
co., 100 m. E.N.E. of Harrisburg, and 12 m. W. of the 
city of Easton. 

Bath, in Virginia, a central co., with an area of 725 sq. 
m., and intersected by Jackson’s and the Cowpasture 
rivers, branches of the James. This is a fine and pic¬ 
turesque county, broken by valleys and spurs of the 
Alleghanies, which are well timbered, and yield abun¬ 
dant iron-stone and limestone. Many mineral springs 
are found, from which its name derives. Cap. Warm 
Springs. 

Bath, in Maine, a city, port of entry, and seat of justice 
of Sagadahock co., on the Kennebec River, 36 m. N.E. 
of Portland, and 12 m. from the ocean. B. is pleasantly 
situated, and has great advantages for commerce, being 
at the head of winter navigation. The river here is sel¬ 
dom frozen over. It is one of the most commercial 
towns in Maine, and considerably engaged in ship-build¬ 
ing, both merchant and naval. Pop. in 1890, 8,723; in 
1897 (est.) nearly 10,000. 

Bath, a post-village of Ontario, in Addington co., on 
Lake Ontario, 18 m. W. S. W. of Kingston. 

Bath Alum Springs, in Virginia, a fashionable 
“ spa,” or watering-place, of Bath co., 164 m. W. S.W. of 






















































BATH 


bath 


BATH 


.293 


Richmond, and 6 S.E. of the “IVann Springs.” — See 
Virginia (Mineral Waters of). 

Batli'-bi’icU, n. A preparation of calcareous earth 
made up in the form of a brick, used for cleaning knives. 
Bat li Court-House, in Virginia. See Warm Springs. 
Bathe, v . a. [A. S. bathian; Icel. bada ; Sw. and Goth. 
badda; seemingly allied to Ger. bdhen, to warm; Scots. 
beik; Eng. bask.] To wash the body, or some part of 
it, by immersion, perhaps originally in warm or hot 
water, and in hot or cold water. 

“ Others on silver lakes and rivers bath'd 
Their downy breast." — Milton. 

—To wash or moisten with water or other liquid. 

44 Mars couid in mutual blood the centaurs bathe." — Dry den. 

— v. i. To be or lie in a bath. 

“ The gallants dancing by the river side. 

They bathe in summer, and in winter slide."— Waller. 

—To be immersed in a fluid. 

“Except they meant to bathe in reeking wounds.”— Shake. 

—n. Immersion of the body in water; as, “Go and take 
a bathe.” — Edin. Review. 

Bath' er, n. The person who bathes. 

Battiet'ic, a. Resembling, or pertaining to, the 
bathos. 

Bath'g'ate, a flourishing town of Scotland, co. Linlith¬ 
gow, 18 m. W.S.W. of Edinburgh. Manuf. Cottons. 
Pop. 5,309. 

Bath'ing, n. The act of immersing in a bath; a washing. 
( Hygiene and Med.) The immersion of a part or of 
the whole body in water is one of the oldest sanitary 
institutions in the world; and as cleanliness of body iii 
hot climates became an absolute necessity for the health 
and preservation of the people, the duty of frequent 
ablution in time became a religious ordination; and by 
thus blending the bodily with the spiritual purification, 
more or less fixed on the minds of the people the necessity 
of cleanliness, by grafting this moral duty on their reli¬ 
gious observances. Theobject of all bathing is twofold : 
1st, that of mere ablution, to remove from the cuticle 
of the body the dust and impurities which, from dried 
perspiration, have accumulated on its surface, blocking 
up the pores of the skin, and interfering with the pro¬ 
per exhalation from the body; and 3d, that of a medical 
effect, either to reduce an excessive action in the skin, 
when overcharged with blood, or, by relieving the in¬ 
ternal organs, restore the circulation to the surface; 
besides these, the object of bathing is often to add tone 
to a part or the whole body, by stimulating the nervous 
system, by the absorption of the material employed. — 
For this purpose, baths have been made of medicated 
waters; of milk, oil, and wine; of water impregnated 
with salt, or other soluble substances; of mineral and 
common water, at different temperatures; and of steam 
or medicated vapors. For any of these substances to 
act beneficially, or, indeed, to act at all, the cuticle must 
have been previously well cleansed, the pores thoroughly 
opened, and absorption excited by friction. In pros¬ 
trate and debilitated constitutions, the body so treated, 
and immersed for some time in warm milk or wine, will 
absorb and carry through the system a subtile stimu¬ 
lant, that may, by frequent repetition, act as a bene¬ 
ficial tonic on the nerves and nutritive system of the 
body; but, in general, even when the patient has the 
means to afford such expensive agents, the benefit is 
very problematical.— The Cold Bath. Bathing, as a 
means of cleanliness, is almost universally practised, 
though the manner in which the bath is taken is very 
different with various nations. — To insure a beneficial 
result from bathing, the whole body and head should 
be immersed at once, ami the moment the breath has 
been recovered, the circulation is to be excited by 
swimming, so as to throw the blood back to the skin. 
From 12 to 15 minutes is the maximum that a cold salt¬ 
water bath should last, to secure all the advantages of 

f bathing. — In fresh water, whether in lake or river, the 
bathing should not exceed 12 minutes. As cramp pro¬ 
ceeds from imperfect circulation in a part, or the sud¬ 
den stagnation of the blood from the gush of a cold 
spring, the bather in fresh water should lose no time, 
after the first immersion, in establishing the general 
circulation by the use of friction with the towel or brush 
over the body, and particularly along the legs, thus 
affording him, as far as possible, a preventive against 
cramp in the lower extremities.— Those who cannot 
swim, whether bathing in salt or fresh water, should 
use as much muscular exertion, while in the water, as 
possible. The best evidence of the benefit derived from 
bathing isa ruddy glow felt over the body on comingout, 
with a pleasurable sense of warmth, and a general ele¬ 
vation of spirits. If, however, the bather feels cold and 
| depressed on quitting the water, trembles, complains of 
headache, and has a blue and anxious countenance, it 
! is a convincing proof that his system is not strong 

j. enough to bear the effect of cold bathing, in which case, 

the idea of persevering with it must be abandoned, and 
the tepid bath substituted for the cold. The cold 
swimming bath should never bo taken by apoplectic 
subjects, or by persons liable to hemorrhage, or by those 
laboring under pulmonary disease. — Bathing must 
never be practised directly after a meal , or on a full 
stomach; it is equally improper to bathe upon an en- 
i tirely empty one, especially in the day-time. The best 
periods of the day for bathing are an hour after break¬ 
fast, and about eleven, twelve, or one o’clock in the day; 
the first period should be adopted by the robust, young, 
and healthy, and the other hours selected by the in¬ 
firm, and those more advanced in years. One bath a 
■day, at whatever time taken, is sufficient; and no bene¬ 
fit can result from repeating it oftener. All bathers 
should avoiu entering the water in astate of exhaustion, 


fatigue, or excessive heat, either from exercise or 
weather. — Some bathers are in the habit of merely 
wiping off the excess of moisture from the body before 
dressing. This is a bad practice: the skin should be well 
dried, and considerable friction again applied to the 
surface. — In quitting the subject of cold salt-water 
bathing, we w'ould impress on the mind of the reader 
the importance of never remaining in a state of inaction 
while bathing; never to remain in the water tong enough 
to feel chilled , and to leave the water immediately on 
feeling any indications of cramp ; and, finally, to avoid 
any violent exertion for some time after leaving the water. 

Medical Baths. Under this head is included every 
species or variety of bathing taken for medical or bene¬ 
ficial purposes. This list includes the cold, tepid, the 
warm, the hot, shower, and the vapor bath; with the 
local forms, of the hip, foot, and slipper, and medicated 
bath. — 1. Cold Bath. The cold bath may bo employed 
within doors all the year round, care being taken never 
to use water fresh drawn from the pump or well, but 
either to allow it to remain in the bath for some hours, 
to raise the temperature, or, by the addition of a pint 
or two of boiling water, to increase the warmth, till the 
thermometer indicates 55°, between which and 60° is 
the usual temperature at which a cold bath should be 
taken. The time of remaining in such a bath should 
never exceed ten minutes. This is a form of bath that 
should never be given to infants or very young children. 
The cold bath is useful in all cases of nervous debility, 
indigestion, diseases of the skin, nervous headache, and 
in conditions of the system where tone is particularly re¬ 
quired. — 2. Tepid Bath. This is a very serviceable con¬ 
dition of bath; and as the heat is nearly that of the 
body, the comfort afforded by it is consequently very 
great. The temperature of the tepid bath varies from 
85° to 92°; the exact heat depends on circumstances, and 
particularly on the disease for which it is ordered. The 
time of remaining in the water varies from eight to 
twelve minutes, unless used for skin-diseases, when the 
time may exceed the space given, according to prescrip¬ 
tion. As a remedial agent in all irritations of the sys¬ 
tem requiring soothing, — in cases of fever, all eruptive 
diseases of the skin, rheumatism, coughs, colds, and in¬ 
flammations of the throat,—this is always an extremely 
useful bath, and particularly so for children. — 3. 1 Vann 
Bath. It is, in a general sense, the most valuable medi¬ 
cal bath; for it not only soothes and tranquillizes the 
system, opens the pores of the skin, and equalizes the 
circulation, but it acts as a direct stimulant to the 
blood. The temperature should be between 92°and 98°. 
As the warm bath is very exhausting, and is only or¬ 
dered when a sudden and positive effect is desired, the 
patient should never remain in the water for a minute 
after the effect sought has been obtained; five minutes 
will generally be found long enough for all beneficial 
purposes, or seven minutes as the extreme warranted 
time. In all cases of cramp, spasm, nervous affections, 
hysteria, inflammations of the liver, stomach, or bowels, 
affections of the kidneys, cases of rupture, and diseases 
of the lungs, lining membrane of the chest, and the 
organs of voice, the pharynx, &c., and in almost all the 
diseases and affections of infancy and childhood , this 
bath is eminently serviceable. — 4. Hot Bath. This is 
only a more active form of the warm bath, the tem¬ 
perature being carried some 12° or 14° higher. The 
variation in the hot bath extends from 10U° to 112°, 
but the average heat may be taken at 106°. As 
this bath acts more rapidly than the warm bath, it is 
infinitely more stimulating, and, as a consequence, more 
exhausting; the patient should not remain in it for more 
than five minutes. From the strong and immediate ac¬ 
tion this bath exerts on the skin, it becomes one of the 
most powerful anti-spasmodic agents we possess; and in 
cases of congestion, by relieving the internal organs of 
their load of blood, and sending it through all the capil¬ 
laries to the skin, produces immediate relief. The hot 
bath is consequently invaluable in all thoracic and ab¬ 
dominal diseases, especially in their aggravated stages. 
In neuralgia, rheumatism, stiff joints, tetanus, locked 
jaw, or in any disease requiring prompt and energetic 
practice, the hot bath is amedical agent of extraordinary 
efficacy. — 5. Vapor Bath. The steam, or hot-air bath, is 
frequently used when the other forms would be too ex¬ 
hausting, or less efficacious. It is much used by the 
Russians, Turks, and Egyptians; and the ordinary heat 
of an Oriental bagno is 120° to 14U° F. In Russia, the 
patient enters a stone-paved chamber, heated to a high 
temperature, the flags beneath being so hot, that pails 
of water dashed on them cause a cloud of steam to rise, 
that, surrounding the naked body, soon causes a copious 
perspiration to break ont. A tolerably effective vapor- 
bath may be extemporized by filling a small tub or pail 
half-full of boiling water, the patient standing with a 
leg on either side, while his person, from the neck to the 
floor, is closely enfolded in a thick blanket, which, shut¬ 
ting in the steam, allows it to flow round his body. 
Three or four bricks, made red-hot in the grate of the 
room, are to bo dropped, one at a time, into the pail, to 
generate fresh steam, till finally the effect has been ob¬ 
tained. The vapor bath may last from ton to twelve 
minutes. Chronic rheumatism, sciatica, lumbago, ill- 
conditioned sores, ulcers, and obstinate diseases of the 
skin, are the principal complaints in which this kind of 
a bath is most serviceable. See Fumigation. — 6. Medi¬ 
cated Baths. This variety of baths consists of either hot 
water impregnated with iron, potassa, ammonia, or other 
mineral or earthy matters; or they are composed of 
gaseous vapor, applied to the skin in the mode already 
explained under Vapor Bath. Chalybeate and saline 
baths, in imitation of some of the most celebrated 
spas, are made by dissolving the salts known to exist 


in those waters, and letting the patient use them 
hot, the temperature varying from 84° fo 90°. A 
Sulphur Bath is produced by the sulphuric acid gat^ 
which is allowed to circle round the patient’s body, be¬ 
ing confined there, and kept from the head and face by 
a blanket. The Nitm-Muriatic Acid Bath is effected 
either in the same manner, or by mixing the acids with 
water, and sponging the body with the solution; and the 
Ammoniacal Bath is prepared by dissolving a pound of 
carbonate of ammonia in a bathful of warm water. All 
these kinds of baths require great care and much caution 
in their use, and can only be effectually employed in 
public hospitals, where proper apparatus are kept for 
the purpose, or under the eye of a surgeon. Inveterate 
skin-diseases are the chief affections for which medicated 
baths, whether liquid or vapor, are used. — 7. Shtnver 
Bath. It is a very useful form of applying water, either 
warm, tepid, or cold, to the body; and, in the hitter con¬ 
dition, it is a highly invigorating process. But as the 
benefit derived is consequent on the sudden and quick 
fall of water, only one shower should be taken at a 
time, a second shock producing more harm than benefit. 
The shower bath should be taken early in the morning; 
other parts of the day. though not hurtful, are by no 
means so beneficial. '1 hose persons afraid of the effect 
produced on the head by the sudden fall of water, should 
wear a conical oil-skin cap, and stand with the feet im¬ 
mersed in warm water. Neuralgic affections of the 
head, with periodical headaches, are the cases iliat de¬ 
rive the most benefit from the show er hath; and though 
it has been tried with some benefit in cases of insanity, 
it is as a general tonic to the system that the shower 
bath is most efficacious. In apoplectic patients, its ns* 
is decidedly objectionable.—8. Aspersion, or Douche Bath. 
The value of cold water, dashed suddenly over the frame, 
or directed in a steady, broad stream on some particular 
part, is very great. The cases in w hich such a mode of 
treatment is beneficial are very numerous; the follow¬ 
ing are a few of the most important:— \\ here the mus¬ 
cular power of a leg or arm is impaired from long inac¬ 
tion ; in cases of fracture, dislocation, bandaging, sprains, 
and from partial paralysis, or chronic rheumatism, a 
stream of cold water directed on the part from a water¬ 
ing-can without the rose, — if the patient sits on the 
ground, and the operator stands on a table, and, elevat¬ 
ing the can, gives the water a fall of several feet,— 
is rendered particularly serviceable if the circulation 
is quickly restored to the part by several minutes 
of dry rubbing. Such a mode of practice, if repeated 
for some days, with vigorous friction afterwards, will 
restore action to the most indolent muscles. The other 
cases in which cold-water aspersions are singularly efik 
cacious, are poisonings from opium, laurel water, prus¬ 
sic acid, in tetanus, trismus or locked jaw. hysteria, and 
suffocation from noxious gases. The Douche is a modern 
Hydropathic phrase, and means in its general principle 
the same thing as aspersion, only carried a little further 
than is always agreeable to patients. The Douche is 
either an ascending or a descending jet of water. In the 
former, by means of a pipe and tube attached to a reser¬ 
voir, a stream of cold water is injected up the vagina or 
the rectum, for the cure of uterine and other discharges, 
and to overcome an obstinate constipation. In the lat¬ 
ter, a downward column of water is directed on the hip, 
shoulders, loins, or wherever needed, for the affections 
above enumerated. — 9. Wet Sheet. This is quite a mod¬ 
ern Innovation in practice, and forms an important 
agent in the Hydropathic system of treatment. Almost 
every kind of disease has been recommended as suited 
to, and deriving benefit from, this species of bath: rheu¬ 
matism and cutaneous diseases in particular. A large 
sheet is immersed in cold water, and instantly wrapped 
round the patient’s person; a succession of blankets are 
heaped over the sheet, the patient placed in bed, and, 
with only his face uncovered, a mass of bed-c'.othes 
thrown over him, where he lies incapable of motion till 
the copious sweat that follows has entirely passed off.— 
See Hydropathy. — See Thermae. 

Bathom'eter, an instrument for determining th* 
depth of the sea. 

Balli'ing'iiiacliiiie, n. A small yan, or wooden 
apartment, constructed on wheels, and drawn into the 
w ater, for the convenience of persons bathing, in which 
they undress and dress themselves. 

Bath'iug-tub,«. A vessel used for bathing, generally 
made of either wood, zinc, iron, or tin. 

Balh'-inetal, an alloy of 4)4 uz. zinc and 1 lb. copper. 

Batliori, Stephen, (ba-to're,) king of Poland, who was 
elected in place of Henry of Valois, 1570. B was a prince 
of great abilities. Under his rule the Ukraine began to 
recover from the state of devastation in which it had 
long lain, and the Cossacks were regularly organized 
He founded the university of Wilna, and d. 1586. Iiis 
name was tarnished by the infamy of his niece, Eliza¬ 
beth B ., wife of Count Nadasdy. By means of large 
bribes, she induced an old man-servant and two female 
servants to kidnap and convey to her, either by strata¬ 
gem or force, young girls from the neighboring country, 
whom she slowly put to death in the dungeons of her 
castle by the most horrible tortures. It is related, that, 
on a certain occasion, having violently struck one of her 
victims, the blood spirted up into her own face, and, as 
she fancied, left the skin whiter wTien it was wiped off. 
An infernal idea instantly possessed her. She invited 
to a grand banquet all the young girls round about, and 
caused 300 of them to be put to death, being under the 
impression that a hath of blood would renew’her youth. 
So monstrous a story is probably exaggerated, but it at 
least shows that she was believed capable of it. Inquiry 
was at length made into the appalling rumors, when it 
was discovered that this female fiend had murdered, in 






294 


BATI 


BATE 


BATE 


♦•old blood, not fewer than 650 maidens. The domestics 
who assisted her were either beheaded or burned alive. 
The countess, who merited certainly the greater punish¬ 
ment, died quietly in 1614, in her fortress of Esej, where 
she had been confined for life. 

Bat-liorse, (baw'hors,) n. [Fr. bat, a pack-saddle.] The 
horse belonging to an officer, or to the baggage-train. 

Ba'tlios, n. [Gr., depth.] ( Rhet.) A term applied to a low, 
tame, and creeping style. This application of the word 
was introduced by Swift, who, in his Art of Sinking in 
Poetry, opposes the bathos to the sublime. 

Rattl'-room, n. An apartment used for bathing. 

Bath'-slieba, (Scrip.) the wife of Uriah. David first 
committed adultery with her, then caused her husband 
to be slain, and afterwards took her to wife. These sins 
displeased Jehovah, who sent the prophet Nathan to 
Pavid, with the parable of the ewe lamb. David bitterly 
repented, but yet was punished. B. was the mother of 
Solomon, whose succession to the throne she took pains 
to secure. She is afterwards mentioned in the history 
of Adonijah, in the title of Psa. li, and among the an¬ 
cestors of Christ, (Matt. i. 6.) 

Rath Spring's, in Berkley co., Virginia, is a mild car¬ 
bonated water; temperature 73° F. 

Bath'stone. n. See Oolite. 

Bat hurst, Allen, E vrl, an English statesman, a zeal¬ 
ous opponent of the measures of Sir Robert Walpole's 
ministry, and the intimate friend of Bolingbroke, Pope, 
Addison, and the other great writers of the time. B. 
1684; D. 1775. 

B., Henry, Earl, son of the preceding, b. 1714. He was 
made, in 1771, Lord High Chancellor of England, and 
was author of the Theory of Evidence, &c. D. 1794. 

Bat h urst, a town of W. Africa, on the S. side of the 
entrance of the Gambia; cap. of the British possessions 
on that river, and seat of a civil lieutenant-governor; 
Lat. 13° 28' N., Lon. 16° 35' W. It stands on the E. end 
of St. Mary’s Island, a low and swampy spot, about 4 m. 
long, and 3 broad. The main street is occupied with 
European stores and private dwellings; the other streets 
are lined mostly with African huts, enclosed within 
gardens. Exp. Gum-Senegal, hides, bees’-wax, ivory,gold, 
tortoise-shell, rice, cotton, African teak, camwood, palm- 
oil, &c. The British established a settlement here in 1816. 
Pop. about,7,000, of which about 200 only are Europeans. 

Batli'nrst, a town of Australia, in the gold region of 
the Macquarrie River, 120 m. from Sydney. Pop. about 
8 , 000 . 

Rath nrst, a port of entry, cap. of Gloucester co., New 
Brunswick, on Bathurst Bay; Lat. 47° 37' N. ; Lon. 65° 
45' W. Pip. about 2,500. 

Bath'urst, a tract of land in the Arctic Ocean, Lat. 75° 
N., Lon. 100° W It was discovered by Sir E. Parry. 

Bath'urst Inlet, in British N. America; Lat. 67° 30' 
N.; Lon. 109° W. 

Bath'urst Island, off N. Australia, 120 m. W. of 
Port Essingtou. It is densely wooded, except at its W. 
extremity, which is sandy and barren. 

Bath'urst Bake, in the central part of Newfound¬ 
land, 40 m. in length by about 6 m. wide. The river of 
Exploits is its outlet. 

Batil'villite, n. (Min.) An amorphous mineral. Dull, 
and of a fawn brown color, looking somewhat like wood 
in the last stage of decay. Opaque. Very friable. In¬ 
soluble in benzole. Comp. Carbon 78 - 43, hydrogen 11-11, 
oxygen 10-46 100. 

Bathyl'lus, a native of Alexandria, rival of Pylades as 
a pantomimist, particularly distinguished in lively and 
voluptuous representations. He was a slave of Maece¬ 
nas, who gave him his liberty, and, according to the tes¬ 
timony of Tacitus, the object of a licentious attachment 
on his part. — In Anacreon’s odes, a handsome boy is 
mentioned under the name of B. — Also, a poet of this 
Dame lived in the reign of Augustus. 

Bathymet'rical, a. Relating to bathymetry. 

Bafthysn'etry, n. [Gr. bathos, depth, and metron, 
measure.] The art or science of sounding, or measuring 
depths in the sea. 

Bati'dese, n.pl. (Bot.) An order of plants, closely allied 
to Empetracece, and composed of a single succulent and 
shrubby plant, Batis niarilima, native of the West Indies, 
where it is occasionally used as an ingredient in pickles. 

Balignolles-lloiiceaux, (ba'teen-yol-maw'so,) for¬ 
merly a suburb of Paris, but now one of the arrond. into 
which thecapital of France is divided. At present occu¬ 
pied by handsome buildings and densely populated, B. 
was, in 1814. au open space, which the Prussians under 
Bliicher used as a camp. 

Batimlftli, a town of Hindostan, prov. of Rajpootana; 
Lat. 30° 12'N.; Lon. 74° 48' E. Its vicinity has been 
celebrated for its breed of horses. 

Bat'ing, p.pr. Abating; excepting. 

11 Could not choose an advocate, 

Whom I would sooner hear on an)- subject, 

Bating that only one, his love, than you.’* — Rowe. 

Batins'koff, Constantine Nicoi.aevitch, an eminent 
Russian poei, b. at Vologda, in 1787. His poetry, severe 
in style and rich in thought, forms an epoch in the his¬ 
tory of Russian literature, from the fact that he was the 
first poet of note who abandoned the French classical 
school, which had inspired the authors of Russia from 
the time of Catherine II. The introduction of the new 
life of romanticism into Russian literature may be dated 
from the appearance of the poems of B. and Ginkoffski. 
D. 1855. 

Batis'can, in Lower Canada, a river falling into the 
St. Lawrence, near a village of the same name, 5 m. from 
St. Anne. 

-*-A post-village of Champlain co., on the St. Lawrence, 
117 m. N.E. of Montreal. 


Bat'ist. n. [Fr. batiste .] (Oim.) A very fine, thick, 
white, linen cloth. It is made of the best white flax, 
called rami, which is cultivated in the N. of France. In 
the 13th century, this manufacture is said to have been 
brought into vogue by Baptista Chambrai, in Flanders, 
and the linen afterwards received from him the name of 
batiste, or cambric (toile dt Chambrai). Different kinds 
of batiste are called linons, claires, cambrics, &c., and 
manufactured not only in France and the Netherlands, 
but also in Switzerland, in Bohemia and Silesia. The 
best comes from India, where it is called bastas. 

Bat let. n. A small bat, or square or round piece of 
wood with a handle, used for beating linen when taken 
out of the buck-basket. 

Bat'ley, a manufacturing town of England, W. Riding, 
co. York, 2 ra. E. of Dewsbury. Pop. 30,000. 

Bat'man, n. [Pers.] (Com.) A weight used in Persia, 
containing 40 sihrs, equal to 13]^ lbs. avoirdupois. 

— [Fr. bdt, a pack-saddle.] (Mil.) In the English army, 
when troops are in the field, each field-officer has a sol¬ 
dier, called batman or bat-horse, who attends to the 
horses, cooking-utensils, &c. 

Batn-el-IIa's'ar (“Womb of Rocks”), a stony dis¬ 
trict, stretching along the Nile; Lat. 21° to 22° N.; Lon. 
30° 40' to 31° 10' E. It is chiefly peopled by Bedouin 
A rabs. 

Bat '-not . n. A net to put over the nests of bats. 

Baton, Batoon, ( ba-tong', ba-toon',) n. [Fr. bdton , 
for baston; L. Lat. bastum; Gr. anabastos, a stick to 
carry a load on, from bastazo, to carry.] A staff or trun¬ 
cheon; specifically, a marshal’s staff of office; a badge 


of honor. 

(Her.) A mark on an escutcheon, denoting bastardy, 
called also bar, bar-sinister, bend-sinister, batton-sinister, 
baston-sinister, more properly bastard-bar, and com¬ 
monly, in modern Heraldry, baton-sinister. The B. is 
comparatively of modern invention, natural children 
in earlier times not having been permitted to assume 
the arms, or even the 
names of their fathers. 

Sometimes a sovereign 
granted permission to 
a bastard to carry the 
bar dexter, in place 
of sinister. Charles 
VII of France allowed 
John, the Bastard of 
Orleans, for his valor 
against the English, to 
turn his sinister trav¬ 
erse to the dexter, with 
which lie and his issue 
afterwards bruised the 
arms of Orleans, as 
dukes of Longueville. 

The same privilege was 
granted to James, Earl 
of M urray, (natural son 
of King James V. of 
Scotland,) by his sister 
Queen Mary, and he 



Fig. 313. 

EARL OF MURRAY’S ARMS. 
(With bar dexter.) 


thenceforth carried the Lion and tressure of Scotland 
thus bruised, quartered with the feudal arms of the 
earldom of Murray. (See Fig. 313.) In modern practice, 
the baton does not touch the extremities of the shield, 
or of the quarter in which the paternal arms are placed, 
but is couped, that is, cut short at the end. — See Gobbon- 

ATED BORDURE. 

Batoni, Pompeo, (ba-to'ne,) an Italian painter, b. at 
Lucca, 1708. His works, the best of which is Simon the 
Sorcerer contending with St. Peter, are celebrated for 
their truthfulness, character, and coloring. 1). 1786. 

Bat'onnier, n. [Fr.] The name given to the elected 
president of the order of the French advocates.— See 
Barreau. 

Baton Rouge, in Louisiana, a town, seat of justice 
of East Baton Rouge parish, and again, since 1882, cap 
of the State. It is pleasantly located on an eminence, 
on the E. bank of the Mississippi, 150 m. above New 
Orleans by the river. B. It. is situated in a district ex¬ 
ceedingly fertile, producing abundant crops of cotton, 
sugar, corn, sweet potatoes, Ac. Pop. (1900) 11,269.— 
During the Civil War, on the 11th of June, 1861, 
a detachment of 300 Confederate troops from New Or¬ 
leans seized the arsenal here, and obtained from it 50,000 
stand of small arms, 4 howitzers, 20 pieces of heavy 
artillery, one 6 and one 12-pounder field-battery, 300 bbls. 
of gunpowder, and a large quantity of other munitions 
of war. On the 21st, the State legislature was convened 
here, when the Confederate flag was raised over the 
Capitol. On the 23d, the members of the Convention 
met, and on the 26th passed a State Ordinance of Seces¬ 
sion. On the 7tli of May, 1862, B. It. was captured by 
a Union flotilla forming part of Farragut’s squadron; 
and on the 10th of Aug. following, it was attacked by a 
Confederate force of about 5,000 men, under General 
Breckinridge; who, after a short but severe battle of 
two hours, were repulsed, and had to retreat. Besides 
their commander, General Williams, the loss of the 
Union troops in this action was reported at 82 killed, 
255 wounded, and 34 missing. The Confederate loss is 
not known; but the Nationals captured about 100 pris¬ 
oners. The city was soon afterward (Aug. 23) evacuated 
by the U. S. forces. 

Baton m, (ba'toom,) a seaport on the E. shore of the 
Black Sea, in Lat. 41° 38' 41" N„ Lon. 41° 38' 55" E. It 
possesses a fine, deep harbor. It was ceded by Turkey] 
to Russia in 1878, and until 1886, was a free port. Pop. 
abt. 10,000. It is now au important Naval Station. 

Batra'cliia. Batraciiuns, Amphibia, n. pi. (Zool.)\ 
A class of animals which were long confounded with! 


reptilia. When young, they breathe by eranrhiae, ot 
gills, and aesemble fishes in the general conformation 
of the body; but they change their forms and acquire 
lungs before becoming adult. Like fishes and reptiles, 
they are cold-blooded animals, their circulation is 
complete, and their respiration comparatively inactive. 
The skin is naked or unarmed, the skeleton very inocm- 
plete, and the heart is composed of a single ventricle and 
two auricles. In their external form they vary consider¬ 
ably, some resembling lizards, and even serpents, but 
generally the body is flat, short, and thick, without a 
tail, with well-developed limbs. The young B. are 
known by the name of tadpoles, or tetrads, and are 
formed for an aquatic life; at birth they have a tail, 
but no feet; gills projecting externally (Fig. 314,1), and 
their skeleton is cartilaginous. But in most B., these 
branchiae soon wither away and disappear, although the 
aquatic life continues; for the tadpole has internal 
branchiae, like fishes, as well as external (Fig. 314, 2){ 



Fig. 314. 

these fixed or internal branchiae, in the tadpole, are 
attached under the neck to cartilaginous arches belong¬ 
ing to the hyoid bones, and are protected by the skin; 
the water reaches them by the cavity of the mouth, and 
escapes by one or two orifices situated under the neck. 
In the tadpole of the frog, the hind feet appear first 
(Fig. 314, 3), and they become of some length before the 
fore-feet are visible; these appear later ( Fig. 314,4). in 
the salamanders it is the reverse; finally, in the siren, 
the hind legs never appear. The tail of the tadpole con¬ 
tinues to grow in the salamander and proteus, with the 
rest of the body; but in frogs, and in many others, the 
tail wastes away and disappears ( Fig. 314,5 and 6). A bout 
the same time the lungs appear, and begin to perform 
their functions, so that at this period the tadpole is 
strictly an amphibious animal; but although this strictly 
amphibious state continues in some, in general it does 
not; the gills disappear, and in the adult there remain 
no traces of such an apparatus. In the B., the lungs 
are two, equal, and the heart is composed of only on* 
auricle and one ventricle. In the higher forms, the ver¬ 
tebrae are convex at one end, and concave at the other; 
but. in some cases the vertebrae are concave at both ends. 
The principal families comprised in the class of B., are 
Ranida: (or frog), Hyloidao (or tree-toad), Salamandri- 
das, and Sirenidje, q. v. 

Bat i-a'cliian, n. and a. (Zodl.) An animal of, or relat¬ 
ing to an animal of, the class Batrachia. 

Ba t rariioid. a. [Gr. batrachos, a frog, and eidns, shape.) 
Of frog-like form. 

Batraeliolites, (bai-trai'ko-lites,)n. pi. [Gr. batrachos, 
a frog, and lithos, stone.] (Geol.) Fossil remains of frogs 
and other animals of the same order. The skeletons, 
vestiges of the soft parts, and imprints of the feet of 
several genera of true batracliians, occur in the tertiary 
strata. In the pliocene deposits on the banks of the 
Rhine at (Eningen, and in the paper-coal of the Eifel, 
several species of frog, toad, and newt have been found. 
Fossil frogs, of a small species very similar to the recent, 
abound in a dark shale overlaid by basalt, in the vicinity 
of Bombay. 

Batraclioniyoin'achy,n. [Gr. batrachomuomachia, 
from batrachos, frog, in us, mouse, and mache. battle.] 
(Lit.) Literally, a battle of frogs and mice. It is the 
title of a Greek mock-heroic poem, usually ascribed to 
Homer, but without any good foundation. It seems to 
be indeed a parody upon the Iliad; and the contests of 
the animals, their single combats, the intervention of 
the gods, and other Homeric incidents, are described with 
much humor. 

Batracliopti'ag'oiis. a. [Gr. batrachos, frog, and 
phagein, to eat.] Feeding on frogs. 

Batrachos'i>ermum. n. [Gr. batrachos, a frog, and 
sperma, a seed.] (Bot.) A genus of plants, order Fnga- 
cece, consisting of delicate, flexible, branched gelatinous 
plants of a green, yellow, red, or purple color, resembling 
somewhat the ova of the frog. They occur in clear, 
slowly running fresh-water streams, and their surface i<* 
covered with minute hairs, which give them a beautiful 
appearance when placed under the microscope. 

Batrachiis, Frog-Fish, n. (Zool.) A genus of acan- 
thopterygious fishes belonging to the family Lophidte. 
The head is of great size, and flattened horizontally, 
which gives the fish an appearance like the head of a 
frog. The species inhabit the southern hemisphere, and 


































BATT 


BATT 


BATT 


295 


he In ambush in the sand, for the purpose of catching' 
thuse fish on which they prey. The grunting frog-fish, 
B grunniens. , inhabiting the Indian and American seas, 
is peculiar for the noise it makes when taken. This is 
like the granting of a pig, and arises from the animal I 
expelling air from the internal cavities, through the 
mouth and gill-flaps. 

Batsniait', re. A Dutch island of the Moluccas, S.W. I 
of fiilolo Area , about 900 sq. m. Lat. 0° 35' S., Lon. 

1 -7° 45' E. Chief town, Batshian, near the centre of the j 
isiand. with a pop. of about 1,200. 

Bats man, Bats'ter, Batter, n. (Sports.) A per¬ 
son who uses the bat when playing at base-ball or cricket. 

Bats'ter, n (Sports.) Same as Batsman. 

Bat sto, in New Jersey, a post-village of Burlington co., 
on a river of the same name,40 m. S.E. of Camden. 

Bat'sto Kiver, flows through Burlington co., in New 
Jersey, and empties into Little Egg Harbor. 

Bats'wing', n. A form of gas-burner with a slit at the 
top. so that the gas issuing from this burns in a flame 
shaped like a bat’s wing. 

Bat la. n. [Hindoo battah, extra allowance to troops in 
the field.] (Mil.) An allowance formerly made to the 
officers in the service of the British East India Company, 
above their regular pay. The effect of the late amalga¬ 
mation of the East India and royal regiments, has been 
to cause an entire alteration in the system of batta al¬ 
lowances. 

Battitlall, (bat-ta'la,) a town of Hindostan, prov. La¬ 
hore, in an open plain, 26 m. N.E. of Umritsir ; Lat. 30° 
43' N., Lon. 75° 6' E. It is considered the healthiest 
place in the Punjab. 

Battalia, (bat-tdVyd), n. [Fr. bataille; It. batta glia; 
Lat. battalia.] ( MU .) The order of battle; general dis¬ 
positions of troops, their divisions, sub-divisions, &c., in 
readiness for action. 

“ Next morning the king pat his army into battalia." 

Lord Clarendon. 

Battalion, (bat-tal’yun,) n. [Fr. bataillon, from bataille, 
Lat. battuere, to beat.J (Mil.) A body of men arrayed 
for battle. Specifically, a body of infantry. IntlieL.S. 
Army, it consists of two, four, six, eight, or ten compa¬ 
nies, according to circumstances, and is commanded by 
the senior officer present. The number of enlisted men 
in the battalion varies from 100 to 1,000, in accordance 
with the minimum or maximum organization of the 
Army. In the field, the Army is divided into separate 
organizations, as follows, viz: Army Corps, Divisions, 
Brigades, Regiments, and Battalions. — In whatever 
manner the armies of Europe differ in other particulars, 
they seldom depart very far from a mean of 1,000 men 
per B. Two or more of these units combine to form a 
regiment. The B. in England is commanded by a 
Colonel; in France, by a Chef de bataillon ; it is usually 
in England, and generally in France, Italy, Ac., divided 
into ten companies. 

Battal'ioned, a. Formed or drawn up into battalions. 

Battan'ta, an island in the Asiatic archipelago; area, 
about 200 sq. m.; Lat. 0° Ob' S., Lon. 130° 25' E. 

Bat'tas. See Sumatra. 

Bat'taszek, a market-town of Hungary, county Tolna, 
on the W. of the Danube; pop. 6,129. 

Battecol'Iali, a maritime town of Hindostan, prov. 
Cauara; Lat. 13° 56' N.; Lon. 74° 37' E. 

Bat tel, n. (Eng. Law.) A trial or combat formerly al¬ 
lowed by the law, in military, criminal, or civil cases, 
where the defendant might fight with the plaintiff; the 
result proving whether he was culpable or innocent. 
This relic of the Middle Ages was only abolished by Act 
of Parliament, 59 Geo. III. c. 46. 

Bat'tel, v. i. [0. Eng. bat, increase, and A. S. dcel, deal, 
portion ] To be indebted to the buttery of a college in 
the University of Oxford, England, for provisions and 
drink. 

—To keep terms at, or reside in, the university. 

—re. Provisions and drink received by Oxford students 
from a college buttery, and also the costs of the same. 

Bat'teler, Bat'tler, n. A student at Oxford univer¬ 
sity who stands indebted in the college-books for pro¬ 
visions and drink received from the buttery;—formerly, 
one who paid for nothing but what he called for, cor¬ 
responding nearly to a sizar at Cambridge. 

—A student who keeps terms, or resides at, the university. 

Bat ten, (bdt'tn,) v. a. To make fat by good feeding; 
to feed plenteously. 

•• Batt'ning our flocks with the fresh dews of night.”— Jfilton* 

—To fertilize soil; to enrich land. 

“ The meadows here, with batt'ning ooze enrich'd."— Philips. 

—r. i. To grow fat; to become obese; to live in pampered 
indulgence or luxury. 

“The lazy glutton safe at home will keep. 

Indulge his sloth, and batten on his sleep."— Dryden. 

Bat'ten, n. [From Fr. baton, a stick or club.] (Car¬ 
pentry.) A scantling of stuff, from 2 to 7 inches broad, 
and from % to 2]^ ins. thick. Battens are employed in 
the boarding of floors, and also upon walls, in order to 
secure the laths on which the plaster is laid. 

(Mar.) Battens are thin pieces of oak or fir nailed to 
the mastheads and to the midship part of the yards. 
Battens of the hatches are a sort of long narrow laths, 
scantlings of wooden stuff, or straightened hoops bf 
casks. They serve, by the help of nailing, to confine the 
edges of the tarpauling close down to the sides of the 
hatchways, to prevent the water from penetrating the 
lower compartments of a ship during a storm. 

(Mech.) The swing utensil of a loom, by which the 
weft or woof is struck home, and in which the shuttle 
runs 

Bat't-eninff. n. ( Arch-i The act of fixing flattens to 
walls, in order to secure tne laths over which the plaster 


is laid; or, the battens in the state of being fixed for 
that purpose. 

Bat'tenkill River, rises in Vermont, and, running 
W., falls into the Hudson, in Washington co., in E. 
New York. 

Bat'tenville, in New York, a post-village of Wash¬ 
ington co., 3» m. N. by E. of Albany. 

Bat'ter, re. (Sports.) Same as Batsman, q. v. 

Bat'ter, v. a. [Fr. battre, from Lat. battuere, to beat or 
strike down.] To beat down; to beat or strike against; 
to beat with successive blows: to beat with violence; to 
demolish: — specifically, to pound or shatter with artil¬ 
lery ; as, to batter a wall. 

“Brilanuia there, the fort in vain 
Had batter'd been with golden rain.”— Walter. 

—To wear or impair with beating, or by use or hard usage; 
to attack with engines of war. 

“ Crowds to the castle mounted up the street, 

Batt'ring the pavement with their coursers' feet."— Dryden. 

— v.i. (Arch.) To slope gently backward, as a wall from 
a line perpendicular to the base. 

Bat'ter, re. [Fr. battre, to beat.] (Cookery.) A mix¬ 
ture of several ingredients beaten together with some 
liquid; as, a fcaffer-pudding. 

“ One would have all things little, hence has tried 
Turkey poults fresh from th‘ egg in batter fried."— King. 

(Arch.) An inclination or sloping backward of the 
face of a wall. 

(Mil.) A cannonade against a fortress by heavy ord¬ 
nance. 

Bat'terer, n. One who batters, beats, or assaults. 

Bat torins-ram, (bat’ter-ing,) re. (Mil.) An ancient 
military engine for battering walls. A long and solid 
beam, armed at one end with a metallic ram’s-head, was 
suspended by the middle, and swung violently and re¬ 
peatedly against the walls of a city or castle, till a breach 
was made. It was sometimes in the lower part of a 
wooden tower built upon wheels, and was worked by 
more than a hundred men; while the upper part of the 
tower was filled with archers and slingers. This ma- 



Fig. 315.—BATTERING-RAM WITH TOWER. 

chine, known to the Romans as Aries, whence the name, 
is mentioned in the Old Testament, appears in sieges on 
the monuments of Raineses II. of Egypt, and was used 
by the Greeks and Romans. When placed upon wheels 
and roofed over, it was called a tettudo. B. It. were often 
of great length, the beam of wood having at the end 
the head of a ram, made of brass or iron. They were 
used extensively in the Middle Ages, and were some¬ 
times called lestudines. 

Bat'ter-rule, re. (Arch.) A plumb-line so contrived, 
that, while the plummet hangs perpendicularly, the 
building may batter or slope, the edge of the instrument 
being made to differ from a vertical line, in proportion 
as the wall is to taper. 

Bat'tersea, a town and par. of England, co Surrey, 4 
m. S.W. of St. Paul's, London, of which city it now 
forms a suburb. The flats, called B. Fields, are now 
formed into a fine public park. A suspension bridge con¬ 
nects with Chelsea on the opposite bank of the Thames. 
Albert and Battersea bridges also cross the Thames at B. 

Battery, (bdt’te-re,) n. [Fr. batterie, from battre, to 
beat.] Act of battering or beating. 

“ Earthly minds, like mud walls, resist the strongest batteries." 

Locke. 

(Mil.) A number of cannon, ranged in order for bat¬ 
tering, and mounted upon a raised platform behind an 
elevation of earth. A battery of this sort is principally 
used in order to defend or retain a position. There are, 
however, many kinds of batteries, distinguished by 
names, referring either to their position or the duties 
which they are required to perform. In gun and how¬ 
itzer batteries there are embrasures through which the 
firing takes place: but mortar batteries have no open¬ 
ings. In field operations, a B. generally consists of 6 
pieces of ordnance, with gunners, horses, ammunition, 
&c. A B. of foot artillery is usually called a field-bat¬ 
tery. in order to distinguish it from that of the horse- 
artillery, which is called a horse-battery. — A Battery 
d’enfilade is a B. formed to sweep the whole length of 
a given straight line.— Cross batteries. Two batteries so 
situated as to play on the same object at a given angle.— 
Battery en eOiarpe. A battery that fires obliquely.— Bat¬ 
tery de rerers. A battery that plays on the backs of the 
enemy — In battery. A term signifying a projecting, as 
a gun. into an embrasure or over a parapet in position 
for firing.— Out of battery, or from battery. To be with¬ 
drawn. as a gun, to a position for loading. — Battery- 


wagon. A wagon or tumbril used to transport all tools 
and materials required for the repair of gun-carriages. 

(Mar.) The armament of heavy guns carried by a 
vessel of war, and distinguished as starboard battery, 
i. e., the tiers of guns in position on the right-hand side 
of the ship; and port battery, those on the left-hand 
side. — See Broadside; Floating-Battert. 

(Phy.) The name of Electrical battery is applied to a 
combination of several electrical jars, which may be 
charged and discharged as one great jar. As the con¬ 
struction of an electrical B. cannot be well understood 
without the preliminary knowledge of the simple jar, or 
Leyden phial, we refer, for a full account of this important 
matter, to the article Leyden Jar. — The Voltaic, or Gal¬ 
vanic battery, is an apparatus used for producing a cur¬ 
rent of electricity by chemical action. The principles 
of its construction, successive improvements, and mar¬ 
vellous applications, will be considered under the head 
Galvanic Battery. 

(Law.) Any unlawful beating or other wrongful phys¬ 
ical violence or constraint, inflicted on a human being 
without his consent. A violent assault. — See Assault. 

Batthyany,(ti(t'ya/i-iie,)a noble Hungarian family, em¬ 
bracing among its members, princes, counts, bans of 
Croatia, bishops, and other high dignitaries. Of this 
family we notice: 

Charles, Prince of B., a lieutenant-field-marshal of 
the German Empire, who distinguished himself in the 
Bavarian War of Succession, and particularly by a vic> 
tory over the French and Bavarians at Pfaflenhofen, on 
the 15th April, 1745. 

B., Casimir, Count de N£meth Cjvar, b. 1817. He 
distinguished himself at the diets of 1840 and 1843-44 
by his uncompromising opposition to the Austrian 
schemes of centralization. In April. 1S49, alter the 
declaration of independence, be was appointed Hunga¬ 
rian Minister for Foreign Affairs. Sharing the fortunes 
of the government, he went to Turkey, was confined at 
Kintahia, released in 1851, and D. at Paris in 1864. Ilia 
extensive estates were confiscated by the Austrians. 

B., Louis, Count de Nemeth Ujvar, Prime Minister 
of Hungary, B. at Presburg, in 1809. He took his seat 
in the house of peers in 1839, and soon established there 
his position as leader of the opposition. When, in 1848, 
the Vienna revolution destroyed the unconstitutional 
administration of the Austrian empire, the relations of 
Hungary to the empire had likewise to be re-modelled. 
The emperor established an Hungarian responsible min¬ 
istry, formed by Count Louis Batthyany. B. did not 
hold the office long, and afterwards took part in piublic 
affairs, chiefly as a member of the diet, and with great 
moderation. Yet, after the Austrians entered Pesth.he 
was arrested in January, 1849, thrown into prison, tried 
by court-martial, and shot on the 6tli Oct., 1849. B. 
died a hero and a martyr. His last words were, "Long 
live my country! ” 

Bat ting, re. (Games.) The management of a bat in 
playing base-ball or other games at ball. — Cotton-wool 
in sheets, prepared for quilts, &c. ; bat. 

Bat'tisli, a. Resembling a bat. (R.) 

“ To beout late in a battish humour." — Gentleman Instructed. 

Battle, (bdt'tl,) n. [Fr. bataille, from battre, to beat; 
Lat. battuere, to strike or bruise.] A striking with re¬ 
peated blows. Specifically, a fight; an engagement; 
contest; conflict; combat. 

(Mil.) A hostile encounter between two large bodies 
of troops, or two armies. In early times, a battle was a 
fierce, tumultuous contest between bodies ot men, with- 
out order or discipline, the issue of which depended upon 
the physical strength or courage of tlie combatants. 
Gradually, however, the superiority of discipline, united 
effort, and the use of improved implements of war, as 
opposed to mere physical strength, began to be seen, 
and led to the changes that have since taken place in the 
training of armies and the conduct of engagements. 
The issue of a battle now depends upon a variety of cir¬ 
cumstances, which renders it always a matter of diffi¬ 
culty to determine beforehand what may be the result. 
These circumstances are constantly changing; and some¬ 
times events, that no human w isdom could have foreseen, 
may occur in the course of a battle, to defeat the w isest 
plans and the most skilful arrangements. It is in lore- 
seeing and providing for the various circumstances of 
each particular case, that the great skill of a general 
consists; and though he may meet with occasional re¬ 
verses, success, in the long run, is generally on the side 
of him who forms his plans with the greatest sagacity, 
and executes them with corresponding vigor and ability. 
It is the skill of a general, rather than the courage of 
the soldier, that now determines the event of a battle. 
Daring courage, undaunted firmness, tlie most active and 
ingenious invention, cool calculation, and thorough self- 
possession, amid scenes of tremendous agitation, and 
under the consciousness that the fate of a whole nation 
may depend on him alone in the trying moment, — these 
are the qualities which a good general cannot dispense 
with for a moment. If it is the character of genius to 
conceive great ideas instantaneously, military genius is, 
in this respect, the greatest. Great generals have there¬ 
fore been, in all ages, the objects of admiration; and as 
a great artist may be no example, in a moral point of 
view, although we admire the genius displayed in liis 
productions, so we cannot but bestow the same kind of 
admiration on the high intellectual gifts of a great 
general. Few situations, therefore, enable a man to ac¬ 
quire higher glory, than that of a great commander in a 
good cause. — If troops meet accidentally, and are thus 
obliged to fight, it is called a rencontre. Further, battles 
are distinguished into offensive and defensive. (if course, 
a battle which is offensive on one side, is defensive on 
the other. — The plan of the battle itself, the position 
















290 


BATT 


BAUC 


BAUR 


of the troops, Ac., is called the order of battle (ordre de 
bataille). There are three maxims as important for a 
general as they are simple :— 1. Know your enemy, his 
strength and intentions. 2. Make all the operations and 
manoeuvres of the parts coincide, as much as possible, 
with the great plan of the battle. 3. Pursue victory to 
the utmost. 

Bat'tle, v. i. To join battle; to contend in fight. 

“ 'TU ours by craft and by surprise to gain: 

'Tls yours to meet in arms, and battle in the plain."— Prior. 

—v. a. See Embattle. 

Battle, a town of England, co. of Sussex, 52 m. S.E. of 
London. It is remarkable for the remains of the abbey 
built by William the Conqueror, in 1067, on the, site of 
the battle of Hastings. Here was deposited the famous 
Roll of Battle. Abbey , in which document the names of 
the leaders of the Norman invasion were enrolled. Rop. 
4,315. 

Bat'tle-array', n. [From battle and array.] Array 
or order of battle; the disposition of forces preparatory 
to a battle. 

“ Two parties of One women, .... seemed drawn up in battle- 
array, one against another." — Addison. 

Battle -axe, n. (Mil.) An ancient weapon of war, which 
appears to have been used from the most remote periods 
in warfare, was made in two forms. The first had a 
single edge only, and was similar to the modern hatchet; 
the second had two edges, and was sometimes called the 
Amazonian axe, from a supposition that weapons of this 
kind were used by those female warriors. Axes were 
much employed as offensive weapons by the Celtic and 
Scandinavian nations. Among the Roman armies the 
B. A. was not much used; it was considered the weapon 
of uncivilized nations. At the siege of the Roman capi¬ 
tal by the Gauls, Brennus is represented as being armed 
with a battle-axe, and Ammianus Marcellinus, several 
centuries afterwards, describes an armed body of Gauls 
aa being all furnished with B.-A.S and swords. In the 
Bayeux tapestry, the English are represented as using 



Fig. 316. — NORMAN BATTLE-AXE. 


the B. A. The pole-axe ( Fig. 316) was introduced by the 
Normans; it had an edge on one side and a sharp point 
on the other. The B. A. fell into disuse towards the 
close of the 16th century. 

Bat't.leboroug'Il, in North Carolina, a post-village of 
Nash co., 60 m. E. of Raleigh. 

Bat tle Creek, in California , a P. 0. of Tehama co. 

—A small tributary of the Sacramento river, which partly 
forms the division between Tehama and Shasta counties. 

Bat'tie Creek, in Michigan, the chief tributary of the 
Kalamazoo river, which, rising in Eaton co., falls into 
that river at the city of Battle Creek. 

—A fine city, in a township of the same name, of Calhoun 
co., 120 m. W. of Detroit, and 13 m. W. of Marshall. 
Pop. (1890) 13,197; (1898) 17,100. 

Bat'tle Creek, in Tennessee, a village of Marion co. 

Bat'tledoor, n. [Sp. batalladur, combatant, from 6a- 
talla, combat, from Lat. battue.re, to thump, strike.] 
(Games.) An instrument used to strike a ball or shuttle¬ 
cock. The B. is generally racquet-shaped, and is com¬ 
posed of a palm or flat board and a thin handle. The 
palm is sometimes constructed of wood, at others of 
stretched parchment or vellum. 

Bat'tlelleld, n. The place or ground where a battle 
has been fought. 

Battle Field, in Mississippi, a village of Lauderdale co. 

Battle Ground, in Georgia, a village of Cherokee 
co., 130 m. N.N.W. of Milledgeville. 

Battle Ground, in Indiana , a post-office of Tippe¬ 
canoe co., 6 m. N. by E. of Lafayette. 

Bat'tlement, n. [It. battagliere, from battaglia, a bat¬ 
tle.] (Arch.) A wall raised on a building or fortified 
place, and furnished with openings or embrasures to look 
through, or to discharge missile weapons through. The 
rising parts of the parapet are called merlons or copes, 
and the open spaces are called crenels, loops, or embra¬ 
sures. The purpose of the contrivance is, that a soldier 
may shelter himself behind the merlon while he shoots 
and observes the enemy through the crenels. The de¬ 
vice is of great antiquity: it has been found represented 
in various forms in the bas-reliefs of Nineveh and Ly- 
cia, and in the Egyptian paintings, and exists in many 
remaining walls and towers of the Greeks and Romans, 
besides those of the mediaeval period. B. were also 
largely given to ecclesiastical and civil buildings in the 
Middle Ages by way of ornament, where they are often 
richly panelled or pierced with circles, trefoils, quatre- 
foils, Ac. On fortifications, the B. are generally quite 
plain, as in fig. 317, or pierced with only a very narrow, 


cruciform, or upright opening, the ends of which some¬ 
times terminate in circles called aiillets, through which 
archers could take aim. 



Bat'tlemented, a. Having battlements. 

Bat'tle-piece, n. (Paint) A picture descriptive of a 
fight or battle. Animated descriptions of battles and 
combats afford subjects of peculiar energy to painting 
as well as to poetry; for in general we love that which 
excites emotion, and keeps the imagination in full ac¬ 
tivity. The painter of battles who possesses genius, 
may express passions and character in his leading fig¬ 
ures, although, from the nature of his subjects, it may 
be more difficult to preserve unity of character, and to 
direct the action to one end, in battles than in historical 
pictures of a more quiet nature. In B. P. the artist has 
scope to give animation, spirit, and action to his figures 
and horses; while a bold and vigorous style, with firm 
and decisive touches, and freedom of outline, are prefer¬ 
able to high finishing, delicate pencilling, or too deter¬ 
mined outline, unless in cabinet-sized pictures of a few 
figures. The battle-painter of talent will place the he¬ 
roes of his action in striking or affecting situations, and 
thereby decide the point of time that his picture repre¬ 
sents. Among the greatest paintings of this kind, are 
the battle of Constantine, sketched by Raphael, and exe¬ 
cuted by Giulio Romano; Lebrun’s battles of Alexander; 
and the battle of the Amazons by Rubens. In smaller 
scenes, such as skirmishes and surprises, Antonio Tetn- 
peste, Hans Snellink, Pet. Snyders. Falcone, Phil. Wou- 
vermans, Ac., are distinguished. The most eminent of 
recent battle-painters are Horace Vernet and Ingres. 

Bat'tling', n. Conflict; encounter; battle, (o.) 

Bat/ton, n. See Batten, and Baton. 

Battue, (bat-ton',) n. [Fr., from battre, to brat.] (Sport¬ 
ing.) A term applied to an unsportsmanlike method, 
adopted by owners of large estates, of killing a great 
quantity of game preserved for the purpose. This 
wholesale slaughter is unaccompanied by any exhibition 
of the skill that may be shown, or endurance of fatigue 
that must be encountered, in the pursuit of game in a 
fair and legitimate way. A party of ten or a dozen gen¬ 
tlemen, each with two guns, which are loaded for them 
by attendant keepers, surround a copse or plantation in 
which a great number of pheasants, hares, and rabbits 
are known to harbor. Men armed with long sticks are 
then sent in, who beat the bushes in all directions, 
which causes the game to quit their retreat, and make 
for other covers. As they come out in the open space, 
they are shot down in all directions as fast as the guns 
can be discharged. 

Batture', n. [Fr., shoals, shallows.] (Law.) An eleva¬ 
tion of the bed of a river under the surface of the water. 
Sometimes also used to signify the same elevation when 
it has risen above the surface. The term is applied prin¬ 
cipally to certain portions of the bed of the river Missis¬ 
sippi. which are left dry when the water is low, and are 
covered again, either in part or in whole, by the annual 
swells. 

Battu'ta, n. [It. battida, from battere, to beat.] (Mus) 
The measurement of time by beating. 

Bat'tye, n. (Sport.) See Battue. 

Bat'd Khan, sovereign of Kaptschak. He was grand¬ 
son of Jenghis Khan, and succeeded to the throne in 
1233. His dominions comprehended all the Mogul con¬ 
quests to the W. of the Caspian Sea. After lending his 
assistance to the grand Khan Oktai in the conquest of 
China, lieoverran andsubjugated Russia, which remained 
under the dominion of the khans of Kaptschak for 250 
years. In 1241, and subsequent years, he conquered and 
wasted Poland and Hungary. D. 1254. 

Baturin, ( ba'too-rin ,) a town of European Russia, gov. 
of Tchernigoff. on the Seim, an affluent of the Desna; pop. 
about 5,500. The Hetman of the Ukraine Cossacks resided 
here from 1699 to 1708. Mazeppa was one of these. 

Batyllus, (ba-til'us,) a beautiful youth of Samos, greatly 
beloved by Polycrates the tyrant, and by Anacreon. 

Batz, n.; pi. Batzen. [Ger.] (Com) A silver coin with a 
mixture of copper, still current in some parts of Switzer¬ 
land. It is worth about 4 cents. 

Baubaii'go Creek, in Indiana, flows into St. Joseph’s 
River a short distance above Mishawaka. 

Bau'toee, Baw'bee, n. [0. Eng. bable; Fr. babiole .] 
A term given in some parts of Scotland and the N. of 
England, to a halfpenny. 

Bau'ble, Baw'ble, n. [Fr. babiole, from the root of 
babe or baby.] A child or baby’s plaything; a trifling 
piece of finery; a gewgaw. 

“ Our author then, to please you in your way. 

Presents you now a bawble of a play.”— Granville. 

Baucis, (baw'sis) (Myth.) An old and infirm woman 
of Phrygia, who with her husband lived in a small cot¬ 
tage, in a penurious manner. When Jupiter and Mer¬ 
cury travelled in disguise over Asia, they came to the 
cottage, and were so pleased with the hospitality they 
received, that Jupiter changed their dwelling into a 
magnificent temple, of which B. and hsr husband Phi¬ 
lemon were made priests. After they had lived happily 
to an extreme old age, they died both at the same hour, 


according to their request to Jupiter, that one might no! 
have the sorrow of following the other to the grave. 
Their bodies were changed into trees before the diors of 
the temple. 

Baudet, Stephen, ( bo’dai ,) a French engraver, b. at 
Blois, 1643, whose chief work is a print of Adam and Eve, 
from a painting by Dominichino; d. 1716. 

Bautlisserlte, n. (Chern.) Carbonate of magnesia. 

Bautl'kin, Baud'ekin, n. [0. Fr. baudequin ; It. 
baldacchino.] The richest kind of stuff used for garments 
in the Middle Ages, the web being gold, and the woof silk, 
and embroidered: made originally at Babylon. 

Baullric, n. (Mil) See Baldrick. 

Bauer, Bruno, (bou'er,) a modern German Biblical critic 
and political writer, b. at Eisenberg, 1808, who, at an 
early age, commenced his theological disquisitions by 
reviewing Strauss’ Life of Jesus, and other works. Many 
of his works contain very bold and speculative opinions, 
and one of them, Christianity Unveiled, was destroyed 
in 1843 at Zurich, before its publication. In his Review 
of the Epistles attributed to St. Paul, he argues that the 
four leading ones were not written by the apostle, but 
are the production of the 2d century. He is the author 
of Western Dictatorship; The Actual Position of Russia ; 
Germany and Russia ; Russia and England, Ac. D.1882. 

Banff, in Missouri, a post-office of Taney co. 

Bailee, n. [Fr.J (Com) A drugget made in France, 
with thread spun upon thick, coarse wool. 

Baug-l*. (br/zhai,) a town of France, dep of Maine et Loire, 
23 m. E.N.E. of Angers. The English, under the Duke of 
Clarence, were defeated here in 1421. Pup 3,515. 

Baiigli'inaii, in Ohio, a post-township of Wayne co., 
15 m. E.N.E. of Wooster; pip. 2,067. 

Baugh's Station, in Kentucky, a post-office of Lo¬ 
gan co. 

Baull illia, (baw-hin'i-a,) n.(Bot) A genus of plants, sub¬ 
order Ccesaljiiniece. The plants of this genus are generally 
remarkable for having the leaves divided into two twia 
lobes. This peculiarity induced Linnseus to give th* 
name Bauhinia to the genus, in commemoration of the 
two brother botanists, John and Caspar liauhin. Most 
of the species are twining plants, found in the woods of 
hot countries, stretching across from tree to tree, and 
forming an almost impenetrable barrier to the traveller. 
The flowers of many are very beautiful. B. porrecta is 
a small tree, a native of the West Indies, and known in 
Jamaica by the name of the Mountain Ebony, from its 
wood being sheathed with black. The bark of one or 
two species is made into ropes, and a gum is procured 
from others. The flowers and buds of B. trrmentosa are 
dried and used in Indians an astringent in cases of dys¬ 
entery ; and the bark of B. I'ari’egrafacontains a sufficient 
quantity of tannin to make it useful in tanning. 

Bauk, Baulk, n. (Carpentry.) See Balk. 

Bau'leah, a large town of Hiudostan, pres, of Bengal, 
on the N. side of the Ganges, 2U m. N.E. of Moorshedubad. 

Bau'lite, n. (Min.) A white transparent mineral, in 
small crystals of the oblique prismatic system, allied to 
felspar, and found in a volcanic mountain of Iceland. Sp. 
grav. 2 65. B.B. fusible in thin splinters into a colorless 
glass. 

Bau'lois, n. A piece of punk stuff used by miners for 
firing a train. 

Baumee'an, or Bamian, a town of Cabul, and the 
Thebes of the East, in the country of the Hazanrehs. oa 
the face of the Kob-i-Baba range of mountains, 56 m. 
W.N.W. of Cabul. Lat. 34° 34' N.: Lon. 68° 8' E. Th* 
valley, on one declivity of which it stands, contains many 
caves, dug in a sort of indurated clay and pebbles, and 
in which rings and relics, coins, Ac., bearingCufic inscrip¬ 
tions, are found; but B. is chiefly celebrated for two 
gigantic maleand female figures cut in alto-relievo, on th* 
face of the mountain, and supposed to be Buddhic. Th* 
male is the largest, and about 120 feet high, but is con¬ 
siderably mutilated. They are not mentioned by any of 
the historians of Alexander the Great, but are referred 
to by those of Tiniour the Great. 

Bauingarten, Alexander Gottlieb, (bourn'gar-ten.) 
a German philosopher of the school of Wolf, B. at Berlin, 
1714. After having studied at Halle, he became profes¬ 
sor of philosophy there, and afterwards at Frankfort on 
the Oder. He may be considered as the creator of th* 
Aesthetics (q. v.) as a systematic science of the beautiful. 
His principal works are: Metaphysica; Ethica Philoso- 
phica; undEEsthetica lnitia Philosophies practical primes. 
D. 1762. 

Baum's Mills, in Missouri, a post-office of Carroll co. 

Baums'town, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of 
Berks co. 

Baur, Ferdinand Christian, (bour) a distinguished 
German theologian and Biblical critic, head of the so- 
called Tubingen School of Rationalist divines, b. 1792, 
While holding a professorship at a seminary in Blaubeu- 
ren, he published, in 1824, his Symbolilc und Mythohgie. 
In 1826 he accepted a call to the chair of theology at 
Tubingen, and henceforward distinguished himself by 
his labors and learned productions in the field of Bibli¬ 
cal criticism, and the history of doctrines. A disciple of 
Hegel, lie applied the principles of bis philosophy to th* 
study of theology and the criticism of the earlioet Chris¬ 
tian literature, with results startling enough.and which 
are still the subjects of grave controversy. Ilis princi¬ 
pal works on the history of Dogmas are: The. Christian 
Gnosis; The Christian Doctrine, of the Atonement; and The 
Christian Doctrine of the Trinity and Incarnation. Of 
his works of New Testament criticism the most impor¬ 
tant are, The Christ Party in the Corinthian Church; Thl 
so-called Pastoral Letters of the Apostle Paul; Paul, the 
Apostle of Jesus Christ; Critical Researches respecting 
the Canonical Gospels, in which he specially attempts to 
disprove the historical character of the Fourth GospaW 
















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297 


and a work on The Origin and Character of the Gospel 
of Mark. D. 1861. 

Baur, Frederick Wilhelm von, a Russian engineer- 
general, B.in Hanau,Germany, 1735,early adopted a mili¬ 
tary life, and in 1755 entered the British service. In 
1757 he obtained the rank of general and engineer-in¬ 
chief. Frederick II. of Prussia ennobled him. In 1769 
he entered into the service of Catherine II., empress of 
Russia, and was employed against the Turks. The em¬ 
press had a high notion of his talents, and employed 
him in making the aqueduct of Tsarskoe-Selo, for sup¬ 
plying Moscow with water, and in deepening the canal 
near St. Petersburg, at the end of which he constructed 
a large harbor, and other important undertakings. D. 
at St. Petersburg, 1783. Baur had for his secretary the 
celebrated Kotzebue, who directed in his name the Ger¬ 
man theatre at St Petersburg. 

Bautain, Louis Eugene Marie, a French philosopher 
and theologian, and very popular preacher, b. at Paris, 
1796. Appointed professor of Philosophy in the College 
of Strasburg in 1816, he became Dean of the Faculty of 
Letters of the same town in 1838, which office he held 
until 1849. He was afterwards appointed Vicar-General 
of the diocese of Paris. In 1853 he became Professor of 
Moral Theology of the Faculty of Theology, Paris. M. B. 
received the Cross of the Legion of Honor in 1840. His 
principal works are, Philosophie-Psychologie experimen- 
tale, 1839; Philosophic Morale, 1842; La Morale de 
VEva nyile comparie a la Morale des Philosopher, 1S35; 
La Religion et la Libertd considerees dans burs rapports, 
1848; Conseils Spirituals, 1858; La Chritienne de nos 
jours, 1859; La Conscience on la regie des actions hu- 
maines, 1860; Lettres Spintuelles, 1861; Etude sur Vart 
de parler en public, 1863. D. 1867. 

Bautru, Guillaume, (bo'troo,) b. at Paris, 1588, was a 
member of the Academy, and a celebrated wit, D. 1665. 

Baut'zen. a walled town of Saxony, cap. of Upper Lu- 
satia, on a height at the foot of which flows the Spree, 
33 rn. E.N.E. of Dresden. It is a fine, well-built place, 
with a cathedral, the tower of which is 300 feet high. 
Manf. Woollens, linens, hosier}', tobacco, &c. This town 
is the centre of a considerable commerce. Near B., on 
May 21 and 22,1813, was fought the battle which bears 
its name. Napoleon I., with 148,000 men, and supported 
by a numerous artillery, attacked the allied Russian and 
Prussian army, numbering 96,000 men, and compelled 
them to retreat, which they did in good order. The loss 
on both sides was very great, including Marshal Du rod, 
the intimate friend of Napoleon. 

Bauxite, n. {Min.) A mineral occurring in round 
concretionary disseminated grains. Also massive oolitic; 
and earthy, clay-like. Color, whitish, grayish, to ochre- 
yellow, brown and red. Comp. Alumina 50'4, sesquioxide 
of iron 26-1, water 23 - 5 100. It is found extensively 

in France, and in other parts of Europe. The purest B. 
is used for the manufacture of aluminium, and is called 
aluminium ore. By fusing B. with soda ash, an alumi- 
nate of soda is produced, which is extensively used in 
calico printing, and which could be employed in the 
manufacture of glass and of ultramarine. It is also pro¬ 
posed to fuse it with common salt, as a first step in a new 
process for the manufacture of soda ash. It is stated 
that from that new mineral a large establishment in 
Newcastle, England, prepares 60 tons of sulphate of 
alumina every month They also make aluminate of 
soda and sulphite of alumina from it, the latter salt 
being of great value in the manufacture of beet-sugar. 

Bava'lite, n. (Chem.) Carbono-phosphate of iron; 
chamoisite; berthierine. 

Bava ria. [Ger. Bayern; Fr. Baviire.] A kingdom of 
Germany, and one of the principal of the secondary Eu¬ 
ropean States. B. is composed of two distinct parts, 
commonly designated the Territory of the Danube and 
Maine, and the Territory of the Rhine. The former, 
which comprises about %ths of the monarchy, extends 
from 47° 20' to 50° 41' N. Lat., and from 9° to 13° 48' 
E. Lon., and is bounded N. by Saxony, the principalities 
•f Renss, and the duchies of Saxe-Coburg-Gotlia and 
Saxe-Meiningen; E. and S. by Austria; and W. by the 
territories of Electoral Hesse, Hesse-Darmstadt, Baden, 
and the kingdom of Wiirteinberg. The Rhine territory, 
or Palatinate, lies on the W. side of that, river, and is 
completely separated from the rest of the Bavarian do¬ 
minions by the interposition of the territories of Baden 
and Hesse-Darmstadt. It is bounded N. by Rhenish 
Prussia and Hesse-Darmstadt, E. by Baden, S. by France, 
and W. by Rhenish Prussia and Hesse-Ilomburg. The 
kingdom extends from 48° 5 j' to 49° 50' N. Lat., and 
from 7° C to 8° 31' E. Lon. — Divisions. The kingdom is 
administratively divided into 8 Kreise, or circles, of the 
following extent and population, according to the latest 
sources of information, and after deduction of several 
small districts N. of the river Maine; embracing a terri¬ 
tory of 291 sq. m., and a population of 32,470, detached 
from B. and annexed to Prussia, in consequence of the 
war of 1866. 


Circles, 

Area in 
Eng. s. m. 

Pop. in 1900 

Capitals. 

Upper Bavaria,. 

Lower Bavaria,. 

Palatinate,. 

6,614 

4.113 

2,206 

4,198 

2,226 

2,798 

3,313 

3,858 

1,323,888 

678,192 

831,678 

553,841 

608,116 

815,895 

650,766 

713,681 

Munich. 

Passau. 

Spires. 

Ratisbon. 

Bayreuth. 

Nuremberg. 

WUrzburg. 

Augsburg. 

Upper Palatinate, ... 
Upper Franconia, ... 
Middle Franconia,... 
Lower Franconia, ... 
Suabia,.— 

29,426 

6,176,057 


Desc. —Viewed as a whole, this country may be con¬ 
sidered as hilly rather than mountainous, although in 
the S. the Alps, in the Zugspitz, attain an elevation of 
10,150 feet; on the E., between Bavaria and Bohemia, 
the Arber and Rachelberg respectively attain to 4,613 
and 4,561 feet. There are numerous other peaks scat¬ 
tered over the country, but none of them rising to more 
than 3,500 feet above the level of the sea. The princi¬ 
pal plains are the valleys of the Lech and Iser, and the 
extensive elevated plateau on the S. of the Danube, 
called the Donau-moss. It is in these plains that the chief 
sources of Bavarian wealth are to be found, — where the 
arts of agriculture are carried to the highest .state of 
perfection. — Rivers. The Danube, the Rhine, and the 
Maine. The first on its right bank receives the Iller, 
Lech, and Iser; while on its left the Wornitz, AltmUhl, 
Naab, and Regen, with a great many more smaller 
streams, are taken iuto its course. The Rhine forms the 
eastern line of the Rhenish sub-division of the kingdom, 
and is merely a boundary river. The Main, which has 
its source in two small streams in Suabia, drains all the 
N. part of the principal territory, and during its course 
receives several affluents. The Danube, however, is the 
principal river in the kingdom, and in its course, through 
the Bavarian territory alone, is fed by no fewer than 38 
streams. — Lakes. These are neither numerous nor of 
great extent. The most remarkable are the Ammer, 
the Wiirm, and the Cliien, which are all situate in the 
S. plateau. The largest is the Chien, which has a circuit 
of about 35 miles. There are some other lakes lying with¬ 
in the range of the Noric Alps, but they are of no great 
size. — Climate. On the whole, temperate and healthy. 
Forests. Extensive, covering nearly a third of the entire 
surface of the country, and composed chiefly of pine 
and fir-trees. — Prod. There are few countries so highly 
favored for productiveness of soil. The principal crops 
are wheat, rye, oats, barley, and, in some districts, maize, 
rice, spelt, and buckwheat. Tobacco, fruit, and potatoes 
are extensively cultivated in the valleys of the Rhine 
and the Main. The hop plant and the vine are also 
largely cultivated; and the wines of Franconia have at¬ 
tained a wide-spread celebrity. The famed Steinwein is 
produced in Steinberg; and the Leistenwein is produced 
in the same district. The choicest of all the Bavarian 
wines, however, are the produce of the vineyards near 
Forst, Deidesheim, and Wachenheim, on the declivities 
of the Hartz Mountains. Cattle-rearing is carried on 
to a great extent, but the stock is generally of an in¬ 
ferior quality, notwithstanding the general excellence of 
the pastures; while swine, poultry, and wild fowl are 
abundant in all parts of the country. — Minerals. The 
principal are salt, coal, and iron. The first was once a 
government monopoly, the second is found everywhere 
throughout the kingdom. Copper, manganese, mercury, 
and cobalt are also found; while there are numerous 
quarries of marble, alabaster, gypsum, and stone, dis¬ 
tributed over various parts of the territory. Porcelain 
clay also abounds in various districts, and is usually of 
the finest quality.— Com. The central situation of B. 
renders her well suited for the transit and carrying 
trades; and to these, Augsburg, Nuremberg, Ratisbon, 
and Spires owed the greater part of their wealth and 
celebrity during the Middle Ages. The 4,000 uiiies oi 
railroad that now intersect her comparatively small ter¬ 
ritory show that this advantageous position is still ap¬ 
preciated at the present day. It is said that the indus¬ 
trial population of the kingdom is decreasing, and this is 
ascribed to the system of industrial protection prevailing 
to the present day, nearly all trades being united in 
guilds, possessing great privileges and monopolies. The 
exports consist chiefly of corn, timber, wine, cattle, 
sheep, butter, salt, iron, leather, glass, hops, fruit, beer^ 
wool, optical and mathematical instruments, wooden 
toys, jewelry, maps, and artistic objects. Beer forms 
a large item of export. The imports consist prin¬ 
cipally of sugar, coffee, spices, dye-stuffs, cotton stuffs, 
silks, woollens, and fine manufactures of all kinds; 
drugs, hemp, and flax. The first railway with locomo¬ 
tives constructed in Germany was that between Nurem- 


gj» 

It 



Fig. 318. — BAVARIAN PEASANTS. 


berg and Ftirth, opened in 1835.— Manners. The Ba¬ 
varians, though all Germans, differ essentially in charac¬ 


ter, according to their descent from the different tribes 
of that people. The inhab. of the Rhenish provinces 
are the most lively, active, gay, and enterprising. The 
Suabians are remarkable for a certain good-natured in¬ 
dolence, which has exposed them to much undeserved 
ridicule. The Franconians are diligent, intelligent, and 
steady. The popul. of the provs. S. of the Danube re¬ 
tain more characteristic peculiarities; and the Bava¬ 
rians, though equally brave and well-disposed with the 
rest, are heavier, more superstitious, and less active, 
though not less industrious. In the valleys of the Alps, 
the dress and manners of the Bavarians and Suabians 
bear a great resemblance to those of the Tyrolese ; and 
the climate inclines them to prefer pasture to arable 
husbandry. The women are here npore in the fields, and 
partake more of the ont-door labor of the men than is 
the case in the N. provs. They drive the cattle up to 
the hills in summer; and their robust health manifests 
itself in the zeal with which they join in the waltz, and 
in their peculiar manner of singing, called Jodeln. — Bel. 
and Educ. Rather more than two-thirds of the pop. are 
Roman Catholics. The kingdom is divided into two 
R. Catholic archbishoprics (Munich and Bamberg), 6 bish¬ 
oprics, 171 deaneries, and 2,756 parishes. The admin, of 
the Protestant Church is under a General Consistory 
(Ober Consistorium), and 4 provincial consistories. Of 
the 3 universities of B., two i Munich and Wurzburg) are 
R Catholic, and one (Erlangen) Protestant. The K. Ca¬ 
tholic Church is richly endowed, possessing property 
amounting to more than $45,000,060, and receiving besides 
annually from the State $650,000. The Constitution guar¬ 
antees complete religious liberty, and all dissenters enjoy 
unrestricted freedom of worship. Elementary schools, 
Volksschulen, exist in all parishes, and attendance on 
them is compulsory for all children till the age of four¬ 
teen. Muuich, the capital, and Wurzburg, Erlangen, 
Nuremberg, Ratisbon, Augsburg. &c.. possess numerous 
literary institutions.— Gov. The Constitution of B. dates 
from May 25, 1818. and was modified in 1848-9. Tbe 
crown is hereditary in the male line. To the king be¬ 
longs the executive power; but his ministers are re¬ 
sponsible for all his acts. The legislative functions are 
exercised jointly by the king and parliament, the latter 
consisting of an Upper House or Chamber of Reichs - 
rathe, composed of members hereditary or appointed 
by the crown; and of a Lower House, or Chamber of 
Representatives, composed of deputies of towns, uni¬ 
versities, and religious corporations. The large income 
of the sovereigns of B., from private domains, has 
been extensively curtailed of late. — Finances, fine 
amount of the public debt, 1904, including the railroad 
debt was about $446,249,939— Army. Since the treaty 
of Nov. 23d, 1870, relative to the entry of B. into the 
German Empire, the army of B. forms a distinct part 
of the German army, having an independent adminis¬ 
tration, under the military sovereignty of the king of 
Bavaria; in time of war it is placed under the cliief 
commaud of the emperor and under the same regula¬ 
tions as exist in the German army. The Bavarian Con¬ 
tingent cousists of two army corps, each divided into 
two divisions. Of the population in 1909,3.028,100 were 
males and 3,147,957 were females; 3.839,168 were Ro¬ 
man Catholics and 1.521.114 were Protestants. By the 
census of 1905 the ponnlation was 6,512,824. Munich, 
the capital and chief city, is one of the leading art 
centres of Europe, and her art galleries and facilities 
for art culture are world renowned. The flag of B. 

( Fig. 319) is red. Its upper part, on the side fastened to 
the staff, is divided into 4 equal squares, of which 2 are 
black, and 2 lozenged white and blue.— Hist. The earliest 
known inhabitants of B 
were the Boii, a tribe of 
Celtic origin; from them 
its old Latin name Boia- 
ria, and the Ger. name 
Bayern, are derived. It 
was annexed to the Ro¬ 
man empire as part of 
Noricum and Vindelicia, 

B. C.15. It subsequent!} 
fell into the power of 
the Ostrogoths and the 
Franks, and, a.d. 788,was 
annexed to the empire 
of Charlemagne. In 1072, B. passed, by imperial grant, 
into the possession of the Guelphs. In 1180, the Emperor 
Frederick I. bestowed it on Otto of Wittelsbach. The Pala¬ 
tinate was separated from B . in 1294, and restored to it in 
1648 by the treaty of Westphalia, which constituted B. 
the eighth electorate. During the war of the Spanish 
Succession, B. suffered severely from following the ad¬ 
verse fortunes of France; but in 1777. the Electorate, 
which had been seized by Maria Theresa in 1744, was re¬ 
stored to it. During the wars of the first French em¬ 
pire, B. being long the firm ally of Napoleon, was re¬ 
warded with large accessions of territory from the spoils 
of Austria and Prussia; and the Bavarian monarch hav¬ 
ing contrived to change sides at a critical moment, when 
the fortunes of Napoleon were still doubtful, was con¬ 
firmed in his extensive acquisitions (or equivalents) by 
the treaties of 1814 ami 1815. Elector Maximilian 
Joseph was made king by Napoleon 1., in 1805, and 
recognized at the Congress of Vienna. In 1848, the dis¬ 
creditable conduct of King Louis, who became infatu¬ 
ated with the notorious Lola Montez, caused his subjects 
to take up arms; after a short conflict they were suc¬ 
cessful, he was, on March 21st, forced to resign in favor 
of his son Maximilian Joseph II., who died March 10th, 
1864, and was sue. by his son, Louis II., who, becoming 
hopelessly insane, was deposed and committed suicide 
the same month, June, 1886. He was sue. by his imbecile 
































































298 


BAY 


BAYA 


BAYE 


prother Ott« I., under tlie regency of his uncle Luitpold. 
In 1870, B. joined Prussia against France, and became 
a unit of the German Confederation in 1871. 

Bava'rian.n.&a. [Fr. Bavarien.] An inhabitant of, or 
anything relating to, Bavaria; as, Bavarian beer is a 
delicious beverage. 

Bave, n. [Fr.] (Med.) Frothy, thick, viscid saliva, 
issuing from the mouth. The term is also applied to 
the frothy liquid which flows from the mouth of rabid 
animals. 

Baveux, Baveuse, a. (Med.) An epithet, occasion¬ 
ally applied by the French to the spongy flesh of a 
wound, which suppurates, and exhibits but little ten¬ 
dency to heal. 

23av'in, n. [Gael, and Ir. baban, a tuft or tassel.] A 
fagot of brush or fire-wood; a piece of waste wood. 
u He’s mounted on a hazel bavin, 

A cropp'd maliguant baker gave him." — Hudibras. 

(Min.) In some parts of England, a term u,;e,d for an 
inferior description of limestone. 

Bav'ing'ton, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Wash¬ 
ington co. 

Bavins and Maevins, (bai're-us, me've-us.) (Lit.) 
Two stupid and malevolent poets, in the age of Augus¬ 
tus, who attacked the superior talents of contemporary 
writers, and have therefore become immortalized by the 
satire and ridicule which they drew upon themselves. 

Baw'bee, n. See Baubee. 

Baw'ble, n. See Bauble. 

Baw'cock. n. [0. Fr. bauds, bold, and coc/.\] A fine 
fellow, (o.) 

"Why, how now, my bawcock? how dost thou, chuck?" — Shake. 

Bawd, n. [Goth, band, to accommodate, to make even, 
smooth, straight. In 0. Fr., baude is bold, insolent, im¬ 
pudent; W. baw, dirt, filth, bawddyn, a base fellow.] 
A procurer or procuress; a pimp; a lewd person; — usu¬ 
ally applied to females. 

■— v. i. To procure; to provide for lewd purposes. 

Bawd'ily, adv. Lewdly; obscenely. 

Bawd'iness, n. Obscenity; lewdness. 

Bawd'rick, n. See Baldrick. 

Bawd ry, n. [0. Eng. bawdery; 0.Fr. bauderie.] The 
practice of bawds. — Obscene or unchaste language, or 
practices. — Illicit intercourse. 

Bawdy, n. Obscene; unchaste; filthy;—generally ap¬ 
plied to language. 

Baw d'y-liouse, n. A place of ill-fame. 

" Has the pope lately shut up the bawdy-house*, or does he 
continue to lay a tax upon sin 7" — Dennis. 

Baw'*horse, n. See Bat-horse. 

Bawl, v. i. [A. S .bellan; Swed. bola; Icel. baula, to 
bellow as an ox ; Lat. balare, to bleat.] To bellow ; to 
shout; to clamor. 

“ And bawl, and hiss, and d-n her into fame.” — Smith. 

•—To cry loudly, as a froward or hurt child. 

" A child was bawling, and a woman chiding it.” — VEstrange. 

Bawl, v. a. To proclaim as a public crier ; as, “ bawled 
about by common hawkers.” — Swift. 

Bawl, n. A loud, continued cry, as of a child. 

Bawl'er, n. One who bawls or shouts. 

Ban ring, n. The act of crying out; the loud crying 
of a child. 

Baw'rel, n. [It. barletta. a tree-falcon.] (Sports.) An 
old name for a species of hawk of large size, used for the 
sport of hawking. 

Baw'sin, and Baw'soii, n. A badger. 

Bax'ter, Richard, a celebrated English nonconformist 
preacher and theological writer, b. in Shropshire, 1615. 
He early entered the Church, and taking sides with the 
Parliamentary party, became chaplain to one of the 
regiments of the Commonwealth, accompanying the 
troops upon all their expeditions, and though not par¬ 
ticipating in actual combat, he witnessed most of the 
bloodshed of the civil war. It was while so employed 
that he wrote his first book, the Saint’s Best. The 
Restoration and the Act of Conformity drove B. into re¬ 
tirement, and shut him out of the pulpit; during which 
time, and till religious animosity had sufficiently abated 
to allow him to resume his clerical functions, he wrote 
his second book, The Call. But, either his republican 
opinions were still offensively prominent, or his enemies 
took advantage of his public preaching to denounce 
him; for, after enduring much persecution, he, then 70 
years old, was brought before Judge Jeffreys, who 
abused him in court, and fined him £500, with imprison¬ 
ment till paid. B. was a prolific writer, a large portion 
of his works being polemical and now little read. His 
most popular books are the Saint’s Everlasting Rest; 
Dying Thoughts; and Call to the Unconverted. His theo¬ 
logical views are set forth in the Methodus Theologies, 
and Catholic Theology; and he has left an account of 
the principal passages of his life in the Reliquice Bax- 
terianee. D. Dec. 8,1691. 

Baxte'rians, n. pi. (Eccl. Hist.) A term applied to 
those who adhered to the theological tenets of R. Baxter, 
which were, — 1st, that, though Christ died in a special 
sense for the el?ct, yet he also died in a general sense for 
all; 2d, The rejection of the dogma of reprobation; 3d, 
That it is possible even for saints to fall away from saving 
grace. — There never existed a separate denomination or 
sect known by Baxter’s name, but his opinions have been 
embraced by a number of great and good men, among 
whom were Dr. Isaac Watts and Dr. Philip Doddridge. 

Bax'ter Spring's, in Kansas, a thriving city of 
Cherokee co., on the Kan. C., Ft. S. & M. R.R., 61 m. S. 
of Fort Scott; an important trading point. Here are 
valuable mineral springs. Pop. (1898) 1,750. 

Bay, a . [Fr. bai; Lat. badim ; Gr. baio ; Copt, bai, a 
palm branch of a reddish color.] Red or reddish; of a 
reddish-brown; inclining to a chestnut color. Gene¬ 
rally used with respect to horses. 


| Bay, n. [Fr. baie; A. S. bige, a turning, bending.] (Phys. 
Geog.) A bending or curving of the shore; an arm, or 
broad inlet of the sea; a small gulf; as thesplendid Bay 
of Naples, partly seen in Fig. 152. The accompanying il¬ 
lustration represents the small but charming bay called 
Durdle, or Barn-door Cove, Isle of Purbeck, on the S. 
English coast. It is remarkable for a natural perforation 



Pig. 320. — durdle bat, (Isle of Purbeck.) 


1. Vertical Portland oolite. 

2. Vertical strata of chalk and flint. 

or archway, formed by the waves in a projecting crag of 
the nearly vertical Portland oolite, which bounds the E. 
cape of the bay. This arch is large enough to admit the 
passage of a boat with the sails up. The YV. side of the 
bay is composed of vertical strata of chalk and flint, and 
is called Bat’s Corner. 

“ Here in a royal bed the waters sleep; 

When tir'd at sea, within this bay they creep.”— Dryden. 

(Law.) A pond-head, or a pond formed by a dam for 
the purpose of driving mill-wheels. 

(Arch.) The open space in a window included between 
the mullions, otherwise called a day or light. — Also the 
quadrangular space between the principal ribs of a 
groined roof, across which the diagonal ribs are extended; 
or the spaces between the principal divisions of a timber- 
roof. The term is also applied to that part of a building 
situated between two buttresses. — The bay of a barn, is 
that part situate between the threshing-floor and the end 
of the building, used for depositing the refuse hay or th® 
corn previous to threshing. 

(Naut.) Sick bay, is that portion of the upper deck of 
a vessel of war set apart for the reception of sick persons ; 
it is usually situated in the bows of the ship. 

Bay, rt. [Fr baie, from Lat. bacca, a berry, the laurel- 
berry.] (Bot.) Formerly a berry, especially of the laurel. 
Now only applied to the laurel-tree. — See Laurus. — 
Used in the plural, it signifies an honorary garland or 
crown originally made of laurel branches. 

“The patriot's honors and the poet’s bays." — Trumbull. 

(Local U. S.) Atract of land covered with bay-trees, (w.) 

Bay, n. [From 0. Fr. abbayer, to bark at; It. baiare, to 
bark as a dog.] A barking at; hence, to keep at bay, 
denotes to keep at barking, to keep in check, to ward off 
an attack, to keep an enemy from closing in; th® bark 
of a dog when his prey has made a stand. 

44 Fair Liberty, pursued and meant a prey 

To lawless power, here turned, and stood at bay." — Denham. 

— v.i. [0 Fr. abbayer; It. baiare , formed from the sound.] 
To bark, as a dog at liis game. 

44 And all the while she stood upon the ground. 

The wakeful dogs did never cease to bay." — Faerie Queene. 

—To immerse; to bathe, (o.) 

44 He feeds upon the cooling shade, and bays 
His sweaty forehead in the breathing wind.”— Spenser. 

— v. a. To bark at; to follow with barking. 

“ 'Tis sweet to hear the watch-dog’s honest bark 

Bay deep-mouthed welcome as we draw near home.”— Byron. 

Bay, in Illinois, a township of Pope co. 

Bay, in Michigan, a N.E. county, area, 466 sq. m. Sagi- j 
naw Bay is on its E. border, and it is watered by the 
Saganin, Saginaw, and Rifle rivers. Surface, even, and 
heavily wooded. Soil, fertile. Cap. Buy City. Pop. 
(1894) 61,292; (1898) 69,500. 

Bay'adere, n. [Fr.; from Portu. bailadeira, a female 
dancer.] A name originally given by the Portuguese to 
the singing and dancing girls of Hindostan. They are of 
two kinds, — those who are employed as priestesses in the 
temples.and those whogo about thecountry as itinerants. 
The former class celebrate with song and dance the fes¬ 
tivals of the gods; the latter are employed by the 
grandees of India to amuse and cheer them at their ban¬ 
quets.— See Alma, and Nautch. 

Bayard, Pierre du Terrail, Seigneur de, (bai'yar,) 
the Bon Chevalier sans Peur et sans Reproche, “Good 
Knight without fear and reproach,” and from whom is 
derived the proverbial saying, —“ Brave as Bayard,” 
was B., 1476, of an ancient and noble French family of 
Dauphine. He early displayed the indomitable resolu¬ 
tion, courage, military skill, and chivalrous generosity, 
contineuce, and honor, which made him the model of 
knighthood, and caused his sovereign, Francis I., to covet 
as an honor the ceremony of being dubbed a knight by 
his hands. As was the practice in the 15th century with 


those who were designed for the profession of arms, 
at 13 years old, was placed as a page in the house of the 
Duke of Savoy, where he remained for five years. On 
the completion of his eighteenth year he entered upon 
the actual duties of a soldier. The first battle at which 
lie fought was that of Fornovo, in 1494, under the ban¬ 
ner of Charles VIII. Two horses were killed under him 
in that field ; and lie himself performed feats that pro¬ 
cured him the approbation of all who beheld him. Sev¬ 
eral years after this he was engaged in the Italian wars 
of Louis XII., wlien, on one occasion, it is said that be 
held a bridge over tlieGarigliano, single-handed, against 
200 Spaniards, and enabled the main body of the Fl ench 
to make good their retreat. In 1513 he fought at the fa¬ 
mous battle of the Spurs, in Picardy, where his valor Saved 
the disgrace of the whole French army. In this field, 
also, fought Henry VIII. of England, then a young man, 
but commanding in person the English forces. On this 
occasion B. surrendered to an English kniglit, but was 
soon exchanged. In the battle of Marignano, fought 
September 13, 1515, B. displayed his usual prowess; 
and in 1522 he defended Mezieres, a frontier town of 
France, against the Count of Nassau, with a force of 
35,000 men, assisted by powerful artillery. B. was as 
conspicuous for military skill as for bravery; yet being 
unfitted for, or disdaining, tlie arts of the courtier, he 
was never appointed to the command of armies, or en¬ 
trusted with tlie conduct of a campaign. Nevertheless, 
in moments of danger and difficulty, he was always 
looked up to for advice. His deatli was of a piece with 
his heroic life. In 1524, he served under Admiral Bou- 
nivet in Italy against the Imperialist under the Con¬ 
stable de Bourbon, and at tlie passage of the Sesia re¬ 
ceived his mortal wound. He refused to he carried off 
the field, saying he would not then, for the first time, 
turn his back on the enemy. Reclining at the foot of 
a tree, he still urged on his comrades, kissed the cross of 
his sword-hilt, and confessed himself to his esquire. The 
constable coming up was affected at the sight, and th® 
noble B., with almost his last breath, is said to hav® 
uttered the rebuke, “ It is not me you should mourn 
for, but yourself fighting against your king and your 
country,” after which he died. His life was written by 
his “ loyal serviteur,” or secretary, and has passed 
through many editions. 

Bay ard, n. [O. Fr. bayart .] A bay horse: often, how¬ 
ever, applied to any horse; and especially, in the old ro¬ 
mances, to Rinaldo’s famous blind steed. 

Bay'ard, in Ohio, a post-village of Columbiana co., 60 
m. S.S.E. of Cleveland, and 12 m. S. of Alliance 

Bayard Tay'Ior. See Taylor. 

Bayazid. or Bajazid, (baj'a-zid,) a walled city of 
Armenia, cap. of a sandjak, 65 m. N.N.E. of Van, and 
32 S.S.W. of Mount Ararat. Lat. 39° 24' N.; Lon. 44° 
26' E. It stands on the declivity of a high bill, at the 
top of which is the citadel. Besides 3 mosques and 2 
churches, it contains tlie monastery of Karu Kilesea, 
celebrated for the beauty of its architecture and internal 
grandeur. Pop. about 5,000. 

Bay'berry, n. (Bot.) See Mtrica. 

Bay berry Tal'low.w. A whitish wax, called also 
Myrtle wax , which covers the fruit of the Bayberry, 
Myrica cerifera, from which it is separated by means of 
boiling water. 

Bay City, in Mich., C. of Bay co., on the right bank of 
tlie Saginaw (which is here spanned by three bridges), 4 
m. from Saginaw Bay. It is an important R. R. Centre, 
and lias a large trade in lumber and salt. On the oppo¬ 
site bank, are Salzburg, Wenona and Banks, known as 
\V. Bay City, and Essex on tlie N. Population in 18Ut( 
27,839; in i897, (est.) 35,000. 

Bayed, a. [From Bat.] Having bays, as a building. 

Bayeux, (oaf's,) a town of France, dep. Calvados, cap. 
of an arrond., 17 m. N. N.W. of Caen. This is a very 
ancient city, with narrow and crooked streets, and a 
magnificent Gothic cathedral. In the old episcopal 
palace, now the Hotel de Ville, is preserved the famoui 
Bayeux Tapestry. Manf. Table linen, calicoes, serges, 
liats, &c. Pop. 10,430. 

Bayeux Tapestry, n. (Pine Arts.) This celebrated 
roll of linen cloth or canvas, 214 feet in length and 20 
inches wide, contains, in 72 distinct compartments, 
a representation, in embroidery, of the events of th® 
Norman invasion of England, from Harold’s leave-taking 
of Edward the Confessor, on his departure for Nor- 



(Bayeux Tapestry.) 


mandy, to the battle of Hastings. It contains the fig¬ 
ures of 623 men, 202 horses, 55 dogs, 505 animals of 
various kinds not hitherto enumerated, 37 buildings, 41 
ships and boats, and 49 trees,— in all, 1,512 figures. These 
are ail executed by the needle, and are believed to have 
been the handiwork of Matilda, the queen of William 
the Conqueror, and by her presented to the Cathedral 























BAYO 


BAYS 


BAZG 


^£$9 


Bayeux. Montfaucon caused researches to be »... t de 
that ended in the discovery of the tapestry in 1728 ; it 
narrowly escaped destruction during the frenzy of the 
first French Revolution, and Napoleon I. had it con¬ 
veyed to Paris in 1803, where it was kept some time and 
exhibited. This piece of tapestry is exceedingly valu¬ 
able, both as a work of art of the period referred to, and 
as correctly representing the costume of the time. It 
lias been engraved, and several works upon the subject 
have been published. 

Bay'liehl, in B7$co?is27i, a N. co., bordering on Lake 
Superior, and including a number of islands in the lake. 
-■Iren, about 1.400 sq. m. Cap. Washburn. Pop. 1 18981 
13,100. ' 

Bay'fieHl, in Ontario, a post-village of Huron co. 

Bay Hill, in Wisconsin, a post-oflioe of Walworth co. 
Bay'ing’, n. The barking of a dog. 

Bay Islands, a small group in the Bay of Honduras, 
about 150 m. to the S. E. of Belize, embracing only 25' 
of Lat., and 1° 15' of Lon. They were proclaimed a 
British colony in 1852, but were ceded to Honduras in 
1859. The chief Island is Ruatan, (q.v. p. 2103); and 
the others of any consequence are Bonacca, Utila, Bur- 
buret, Helena, Guanaja, aud Morat. 

Bayl'donite, n. (Min.) A mineral that occurs in mi¬ 
nute mammillary concretions, with a drusy surface. 
Structure often somewhat reticulated. Lustre strong 
resinous. Color grass-green to blackish-green. Streak 
siskin io apple-green. Subtranslucent. Fracture sub- 
conchoidal, uneven. Comp. Arsenic acid 316, oxide of 
copper 32-8, oxide of lead 30’7, water 4-9 = 100. 

Bay I(‘, (bail',) Pierre, the celebrated author of the His¬ 
torical and Critical Dictionary, li. 1647, at Carla, France. 
He was brought up a Protestant, but having been sent, 
for the completion of his education, to the university of 
Toulouse, he there embraced the Roman Catholic faith. 
Renouncing this soon afterwards, he repaired to study at 
the great seat of Calvinism, Geneva. He obtained the 
appointment of Professor of Philosophy at Sedan, and 
on the suppression of the Protestant university there 
by Louis XIV., in 1681, was chosen Professor of Philos¬ 
ophy and History at Rotterdam. In 1684, he began to 
publish his Nouvelles de la Ripublique des Lettres, and to 
pour forth a series of writings, all more or less tinged 
with that spirit of scepticism which evidenced itself in 
his changes of religion, and which reached its highest 
expression in his Dictionary. His intense and persever¬ 
ing application to study ripened in him the seeds of 
consumption, hereditary in his family. D. 1706.— Few 
writers have attained more celebrity in their own time 
than B., or have more commanded the attention of the 
learned who came after him. He confessed his universal 
Pyrrhonism, and said to Cardinal de Polignac: “ I am 
most truly a Protestant, for 1 protest against all systems 
and sects.” 

Bay'len, or Bui. ex, a town of Spain, prov. of Jaen, at 
the foot of the Sierra Moreua, 22 m. N. of Jaen. It 
commands the road leading from Castile into Andalusia, 
and derives its celebrity from the events which took 
place in its vicinity leading to the Capitulation of Bay- 
len, signed 20th July, 1808, when General Dupont, and 
about 20,000 French troops under his command, surren¬ 
dered to t lie Spaniards on condition of their being con¬ 
veyed to France by the Spanish government; but the 
latter stipulation was not carried into effect. The in¬ 
capacity of Dupont was mainly instrumental in bringing 
about this result, which inspired the Spaniards with 
confidence, and was always regarded by Napoleon as 
the principal source of the French disasters in the Pen¬ 
insula. Pop. 8,614. 

Bay'ley, Richard, an eminent American physician, 
was B. in Conn, in 1745. After completing his profes¬ 
sional education in London, he settled in New York. In 
1792, he was appointed professor of anatomy in Colum¬ 
bia College, where he acquired great celebrity. D. 1801. 
His grandson, James Rosevelt Bayley, an author and 
prelate of the R.C. Church, born, N. Y., 1814, educated 
in the Epis. Church, ordained R. C. priest 1842, made 
Archbishop of Baltimore, 1872. D. 1877. 

Bay'Ior, a N. county of Texas, area of 900 sq. miles. 
Bay nes'ville, in Ya., a p.-o. of Westmoreland co. 
Bayonet, ( bai'o-net,)n . [Fr. baion- 
nette, so called because first made at 
Bayonne, France.] (Mil.) A short, 
pointed, broad dagger or spear, fix¬ 
ed at the end of a musket, rifle, or 
any similar weapon. Military in¬ 
structions, issued to the French 
army in 1646-7, contain the earliest 
notice of this weapon. In 1671, it 
was introduced generally into the 
French army, and called bayonet- 
d-manche. From official docu¬ 
ments it appears that, in 1682, the 
B . was inserted into the barrel 
of the musket. The plug-bayonet 
was used in England until 1690, 
after which date the socket-bay¬ 
onet was introduced. It super¬ 
seded the pike, and was doubtless 
taRen from the sweyne's feather, 
called also swan’s feather, invented 
during the reign of James I. This 
was a long, thin, rapier blade, 
which the musketeer, after dis¬ 
charging his piece, fixed into the 
muzzle. The B., as an offensive 
weapon, has been of great impor- 
tauco in modern warfare; and the 
bayonet-charge, in which every na¬ 
tion thinks that it excels, is one of 


the most terrible manoeuvres of infantry troops. The 
sword-bayonet is a more modern invention, and, when 
detached from the gun, can be used as a weapon by 
itself. . With respect to its different parts, the blade is 
shown at 1; 2 is the hilt; the guard and ring are marked 
3; 4 is the spring which secures the sword to the rifle 
or musket; and the scabbard of the weapon is shown 
at 5. The first victory secured by a charge of the B. 
was that of Landen in 1693. 

(Mach.) A pin which plays in and out of holes made 
to receive it, and which thus serves to engage or disen¬ 
gage parts of the machinery. 

Bay'onet, v. a. To stab or prod with a bayonet. — To 
drive before or compel by the bayonet; as, “To bayonet 
us into submission.” — Burke. 

Bayoitue, (bai-yon',) a strongly fortified seaport of 
France, dep. Basses-Pyrenees, cap. of an arrond. at the 
confluence of the Neve with the Adour, and 58 W.N.W. 
of Pau. Lat. 43° 29' 29" N.; Lon. 1° 28' 33" W. 11. 
is a first-class fortress; the citadel, one of the finest 
works of Vauban, commands the town and harbor; and, 
recently, the fortifications have been still further aug¬ 
mented and strengthened. It is a well-built town, with 
superb quays and promenades. A mint is established 
here. — Manf. Chocolate, liqueurs, glass, sugar, kc. 
There are also extensive yards for the building of ships 
of war and merchant-vessels. The hams of B. have 
long enjoyed a high celebrity. It is the seat of an ex¬ 
tensive contraband trade with Spain. The military 
weapon called the bayonet takes its name from this 
city, where it is said to have been first invented and 
brought into use during the siege of 1523. Though 
often besieged, B. has never been taken; and hence its 
motto, “ Nunquam Polluta.” It was invested by the 
British, 24th Feb., 1814; who sustained considerable loss 
from a sortie made by the garrison. Pop. 27,512. 

Bayonne Conference, a conference was held at B. in June, 
1565, between Charles IX. of France, the queen-mother, 
Catherine de Medicis, Elizabeth Queen of Spain, and the 
Duke of Alva, envoy of Philip II., to arrange plans for 
the repression of the Huguenots. It is generally be¬ 
lieved that the massacre of St. Bartholomew’s Day (q.v.) 
was determined upon at this meeting. 

Bayonne, (Treaty of,) a treaty of peace agreed to, 4th 
May, 1808, and signed on the next day, between Napoleon 
I. and Charles IV. King of Spain. The latter resigned 
his kingdom, and Napoleon I. engaged to maintain its 
integrity, and to preserve the Roman Catholic religion. 
His son Ferdinand VII. confirmed thecession, 10th May. 

Bayonne', a city of N. J., abt. 6 m. S. W. of N. Y. 
city, by rail. A large trade in coal, petroleum aud chem- 
icals is carried on. Pop. (1890) 19,033; 1 1897) abt. 22,000. 

Bayon, (bi'do,) n. [Fr. boyau, a gut, orlongand narrow 
place.] A stream which is the outlet of a swamp near 
the sea. Applied in Louisiana, and neighboring States, 
to the creeks in the lowlands lying on the Gulf of 
Mexico. 

Bay'on Barbary, in La., a p. o. of Livingston parish. 

Bay'ou Chicot, in La., a p. o. of St. Landry parish. 

Bay'ou Chicot, in Louisiana, a village of Calcasieu 
par., about 75 m. N.W. of Baton Rouge. 

Bay'ou Chitto, in Louisiana and Mississippi. See 
Cuitto Bayou. 

Bay'ou Goula, in Louisiana, a post-office of Iberville 
parish. 

Bay'ou Sara, in Louisiana, a prosperous village of 
W. Feliciana par., on the Mississippi, It.5 m. from New 
Orleans. Here are shipped the cotton and grain pro¬ 
duce of the adjacent country. During the Civil War, 
this place was almost entirely destroyed by a Union 
squadron under Admiral Porter, which, on passing up 
the river, was fired upon by guerillas. 

Bay'ou State, n. A term frequently applied to the 
State of Mississippi. 

Bay'ou Teche, (taish,) in Louisiana. An expedition 
was directed against Brasliear City on this bayou during 
the Civil War, 15th Jan., 1863, when the Confederate 
gunboat “ Cotton ” was destroyed by the Union forces, 
and their land batteries silenced. 

Bay'ou Tunica, in Louisiana, a village of W. Feli¬ 
ciana parish. 

Bay Place, in Arkansas, a village of Poinsett co. 

Bay'poor (Vaypoora), a seaport town of Hindostan. 
prov. Malabar, 7 m. S. of Calicut. Lat. 11° 10' N., Lon. 
75° 52' E. 

Bay'port, in Florida, a village, formerly the cap. of 
Hernando co., seated on the Gulf of Mexico, 170 m. 
S.S.E. of Tallahassee. 

Bay'port, in Wisconsin, a township in Ashland co., on 
Lake Superior. 

Bay Bulge, in New York, a village of Kings co. j 

Bay K (i er. in North Carolina, a village of Craven co. 

Bay'-rum- Spiritus Myrci®, n. A spirit obtained by 
distilling the leaves of Myrcia ocris. 

Bay'reuth, a city of Bavaria, cap. of circ. Upper Fran¬ 
conia, on the Red-Maine, 26 m. E. of Bamberg. Lat. 49° 
57' N.; Lon. 11° 40' E. It is a fine and well-built, but, 
of late years, a somewhat dull place. About 2 m. to the 
E. is the Hermitage, with its gardens, terraces, and park, 
formerly the residence of the celebrated Margravine of 
B., sister of Frederick the Great, and authoress of the 
well-known Memoirs. Manf. Porcelain, pipe-heads, lin¬ 
ens, cottons, &c. Pop. 20,053. — B. formerly constituted 
the cap. of an independent principality—the Margraviate 
of Bayreuth, which on the death of the last Margrave, in 
1791, became merged into Prussia. In 1810, Napoleon 
I. transferred B. to Bavaria, in whose possession it re¬ 
mains. Wagner erected an opera house, and estab¬ 
lished in 1878 a great musical school at B. 

Bays, Bayze, n. See Baize. 

Bay-salt, n.(Com.) A salt obtained by a naturale?ap-| 


oration of salt-water on the shore, or on the margin of 
salt marshes, and of a much stronger quality than that 
of the domestic crystals. 

Bay’s Bottom, in Ohio, a post-office of Gallia co. 
Bay Shore, in New York , a village of Long Island, 1 
m. from Fire Island Bay 

Bay Side, in New York, a post-office of Queen’s co. 
Bay Spring's, in Mississippi, a dist. of Tishomingo co. 
Bay State, n. A title popularly given to the State of 

Massachusetts. 

Baytown, in Minnesota, a township and village of 
Washington co., on Lake St. Croix, 16 m. E.N.E. of St 
Paul, and 4 from Stillwater. 

Bay'-tree, n. (Bot.) The Laurus nobilis. an evergreen 
of S. Europe and N. Africa, a wreath from which hat 
been from time immemorial the 1 symbolical crown of 
poets and warriors. The word rendered “bay-tree” ii 
Psa. xxxvii. 35, seems to mean simply a native tree 
green and vigorous. 

Bay View, in Maryland, a post-office of Cecil co. 

Bay View, in Virginia, a P. 0 of Northampton co. 
Bay VUle, in Illinois, a village of Pike co., 5 in. N.E. 
of the Mississippi. 

Bay'-w in'dow, n. (Arch) A window which project* 
outward, so as to form a kind of bay or recess within an 
apartment. It may project 
outwards from the wall either 
in a rectangular, polygonal, or 
semi-circular form, which lat¬ 
ter has often been incorrectly 
termed a bow-window. Win¬ 
dows of this kind are very 
common in the perpendicular 
style. Fine examples of them 
may be seen. 

Bay'-yarn. The same as wool¬ 
len yarn. 

Ba' za, a town of Spain, prov. of 
Granada, 54 m. E. by N. of that 
city. Lat. 37°30'N.; Lon. 2° Fig. 323. — bay-window. 
50'W. The inhabitants are en- (From Haddon Hall, Eng.) 
tirely dependent on agricul¬ 
ture. It was taken from the Moors, after a long 6iege, 
in 1489. Pop. 8,002. 

Bazaar, Bazar, (ba-zar',) n. [Pers. bdzdr, market.] 
(Sometimes called Bezksteen.) An exchange; a market¬ 
place ; a place where goods are exposed to sale.— B. is a 
term originally derived from the Arabic, and literally 
signifies tiie sale or exchange of goods. Among th* 
Turks and Persians it is exclusively applied to a market¬ 
place, whether open or covered, where goods are sold, 
and where merchants meet for the transaction of bnsi- 
ness. The bazaar of Tauris (or Tabriz) in Persia is th* 
most extensive in the world, and that of Khan Khalil, 
at Cairo, which occupies the site of the tombs of th* 
caliphs, contains some valuable records. It was built iD 
1292. The B. at Ispahan is, perhaps, the most magnifi¬ 
cent one in the East. Adrianople and Constantinople 
have each large bazaars. The last-mentioned was built 
in 1462. — The name has of late years been adopted in 
many European and American cities, and is applied to 
places for the sale of fancy goods, kc. 

Bazaine', Francois Achille, a marshal of France, b. 
1811, enlisted as a private in 1831, became general of 
division in 1855, took a command in the French army 
occupying Mexico in 1862, succeeded Forey as com¬ 
mander-in-chief in 1863, and was made a marshal in 
1864. He married a rich Mexican lady, whose family 
sided with Juarez,aud while persuading Maximilian to 
issue rigorous decrees against the Juarists, he was en¬ 
gaged with them in secret plottiugs, in pursuance of 
personal ambitious schemes. In Feb., 1867, he abandoned 
Maximilian and embarked at Vera Cruz with his forces. 
Though violently censured in France, lie soon becam* 
commander-in-chief of the imperial guard at Paris. On 
the outbreak of the Franco-German war in 1870, he was 
placed in command of the 3d corps. On Aug. 9th h* 
took the command of the main French armies collected 
round Metz, and on Oct. 27th he surrendered to Fred¬ 
erick Charles with his entire force of 173,000 men, who 
became prisoners of war. After the signature of the 
preliminary treaty of peace, B., the object of general 
execration, took refuge at Geneva. Returning to Paris 
in 1872, he was brought before a council of war, presided 
over by the Due d’Aumale, and, Dec. 10,1873, condemned 
to death “forhaving, while at the head of an army in the 
open country, signed a capitulation without having 
done all that duty and honor required from a com¬ 
mander, and for having delivered up to the enemy the 
fortress of Metz without having exhausted all the means 
of defending it.” Marshal MacMabon commuted the 
penalty to 20 years’ confinement. In 1874, B. escaped 
from his prison in the Isle of St. Marguerita, and finally 
took refuge in Spain, where he D. 1888. 

Ba'zalgrette, J oseph William, a distinguished Euglish 
engineer, b. 1819, executed the main drainage works of 
Loudon, and built the Thames embankment. 

Ba'zas. an old town of France, dep. Gironde, cap. of an 
arrond., on a rock, 33 m. S.S.E. of Bordeaux, was for a 
long time the residence of the dukes of Gascony. P. 5,721. 
Bazet'ta, in Ohio, a post-township of Trumbull co. 
Bazoclie, or Basoche, (ba-zosh 1 ,) n. (Hist.) The ety- 
mology of this French term is rather doubtful, but 
most writers agree in considering it as a burlesque trans¬ 
lation of the Latin word basilica, a royal palace. When 
justice was administered in the royal palaceofthe French 
kings, the judges, advocates, procurators, and other* 
who were connected with this department, were termed 
clercs de la baznehe. Afterwards, when the administra¬ 
tion of justice became a separate department, a distinc. 
tionwas made between those noblemen whofori»‘' J 



SWORD-BAYONET. 

























300 ' 


BEAC 


BEAD 


BEAL 


royal train, and were called courtiers, and those con¬ 
nected with the court of justice, who were called Clercs 
dt la Bazoche, or Basochians. But as the term bazoche 
implied the having a king, a mock one was appointed, 
who had his officers of state, court, and other parapher¬ 
nalia of royalty. In the beginning of the 14th century, 
Philippe le Bel conferred on this community certain im¬ 
portant privileges. Henry III. suppressed the title of 
king, and conferred the rights and privileges attached 
to that office on the chancellor. Still the bazoche con¬ 
tinued to exist as a body, and retained its pomp and its 
forms. It met twice a week, and heard and decided all 
processes and debates that arose among the clerks. At 
public festivals the Basochians took a prominent place; 
and at the carnival they united themselves to the prince 
of fools, and took part in the acting of low farces and 
mysteries. In their turn they acted a kind of satirical 
morality, in which they took great liberties in railing at 
the vices of the age, and in insulting the favorites of 
fortune. This naturally produced a great outcry against 
them, and at length, in 1540, they were entirely sup¬ 
pressed. 

Bdellia, (del'le-ah,) n. [Or. bdallo, to suck.] ( Zobl.) A 
gen. of animals, class Annelida, and fam. Hirudinidce, or 
leeches. They are found in the fresh waters of Kgypt, 
and a species was known to Herodotus, who asserted 
that it was found parasitic upon the crocodile. 

Bdellium, n. ( Chem.) A kind of gum-resin, the pro¬ 
duce of an unknown plant. It is solid, brittle, of a deep 
brown color, of an acrid and bitter taste, and sweet 
odor. It was much vaunted by the ancients, but is now- 
little used. The resin consists of C^II^Oj. The gum 
consists of resin 59, gum 9-2, mucilage 30-tS, vol. oil 1-2. 
See Balsamodendron. 

Bdellometer, ( del-lorn'e-ter,)n. [Gr. bdella, leech, and 
metron, measure.] (Med.) A cupping-glass, to which are 
attached a scarificator and an exhausting syringe. It 
is used as a substitute for the leech. 

Be, ». i. [A. S. bean; Gael, bco, living, alive; W. bu, a 
being; Or. bios, life; Sansk. bliu.\ To exist; to have 
actual existence. 

“ To be, contents his natural desire ; 

He asks no angel’s wing, nor seraph's Are." — Pope. 

—To have sensations; to be made to be ; to become; to 
remain. (Used as an auxiliary.) 

M Be what thou hop’st to be, or what thou art.' — Shake. 

To let be, to not meddle with, to leave intact or un¬ 
touched; to let alone. — “Let be, said he, my prey.” — 
Dryden. 

Be, a prefix much used in composition, and often con¬ 
veying intensive power; as, becharm, bedeck. It also 
renders intransitive verbs transitive, Ac. 

Beach, n. [Probably from Icel. bakki, a bank.] ( Geol.) 
A shelving tract of sand or shingle washed by the sea 
or a fresh-water lake, interspersed between the water 
and the land on which vegetation grows. The sea-beach 
is the space between low and high w T ater mark, particu¬ 
larly that part of it which is washed by the w r aves; and 
the beaoh of a lake lies between the highest and lowest 
water-marks of its ordinary level.— Raised beaches are 
banks of sand and shingle, with shells, found following 
the bays and recesses of the coast, at various heights 
above the existing beach or sea-margin. These give 
evidence of either elevation of the land, or depression 
of the ocean, and point to times when sea and land 
stood at these successive levels. 

■— v. a. To run or drive upon a beach; used generally in 
the sense of a ship, to avoid sinking. 

Beach-comber, n. A word used in the U. States to 
signify a long wave, or roller of the ocean, that combs 
over a beach. 

Beach Creek, in Pennsylvania, a township of Clinton 
co. 

Beached, ( betcht,) a. Exposed to the waves; stranded; 
driven or placed on a beach; as, “ the ship is beached." 

—Having a beach; possessing a beach for a border. 

•‘Timon hath made his everlasting mansion 
Upon the beached verge of the salt flood.*' — Shake. 

Beach'-flea, n. ( Zool .) See Sand-Flea. 

Beach Haven, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Lu¬ 
zerne co., on the N. branch of the Susquehanna River, 

. 27 m. E.N.E. of Danville. 

Beach Lake, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Wayne 
county. 

Beach Ridge, in New York, a post-office of Niagara co. 

Beach'ville, in Upper Canada, a post-village ofOxford 
co., 22 m. N.E. of London. 

Beach'y, a. Having a beach or beaches. 

" The beachy girdle of the ocean 
Too wide for Neptune's hips.” — Shake. 

Beach'y Head, a bold promontory on the S. coast of 
England, co. of Sussex, 3 m. S.S.W. of Eastbourne. Lat. 
50° 44' 24" N.; Lon. 0° 13' E. It is formed of chalky 
white cliffs, that project perpendicularly over the 
beach to the height of 564 feet. A light-house of the 
first class was erected, in 1828, on the summit of the 
cliff to the W. of the head, 285 feet above sea-level, and 
caverns have been cut in the cliffs, between the Head 
and Cuckmore Haven, in the view of affording places 
of refuge to mariners wrecked on this dangerous coast. 

Beacon, ( be’kn,) n. [A. S. beacen: W. jrigwn, from 
pig, a pike.] A signal-fire; a bale-fire; a light placed 
on an eminence to announce the approach of an enemy, 
and arouse up the country. 

" No flaming beacons cast their blare afar. 

The dreadful signal of invasive war.”— day. 

—BeacoD-fires are of great antiquity, being referred to in 
Scripture (Jerem. vi. 1), and were used by the Greeks and 
Bomans. The intelligence of the capture of Troy is 
represented by AEschylus as having been conveyed to the 


Peloponnesus by signals of this kind. In England, the 
beacons were formerly piles of fagot-wood, but after¬ 
wards poles were erected, to which iron pots were at¬ 
tached. filled with pitch and other combustibles. In¬ 
telligence was quickly conveyed in this manner: and 
the beacons on the border between England and Scot¬ 
land were always carefully watched. These iron bea¬ 
cons were often erected on church-towers, and one is 
still to be seen on the tower of the parish church of 
Hadley, near London. 

(Mar.) An erection placed at the entrance of a bar, 
river, or harbor, to indicate dangerous navigation, as 
sunken rocks, sand banks, Ac. Formerly it was in the 
form of a pole secured by chains to the rock on which it 
is placed, with a large ball formed of iron hoops at the 
top. Vessels anchored in certain places, exhibiting lights 
at night, are called Jloating-beacons or floating-lights. — 
See Light-house. 

—A term used in some parts of England to denote a high 
hill. — Anything which gives notice of danger; as, 
“ The beacon of the wise.” — Shaks. 

— v. a. To afford light, as a beacon ; to light up. 

Bea'con, in Iowa, a post-office of Mahaska co. 

Ilef. eonage, n. Fees or dues paid for the use and 
maintenance of a beacon. 

Bea'con Falls, in Connecticut, a post-office of New 
Haven co. 

Bea'eon-fire. n. A signal-fire. See Beacon 

Bea'con Hill, in New York, a summit of the High¬ 
lands, in Dutchess co., 1,476 ft. above sea-level. 

Bea'conless, a. Without a beacon. 

Bea'consfield, a town of England, co. of Bucks, 24 m. 
W. by N. of London. In the churchyard here lie the re¬ 
mains of Edmund Burke and Edmund Waller. 

Beaconslieltl, Lord. See Disraeli. 

Beall, ( bede,) n. [From A. S. bead, gibed, a pray T er.] A 
little perforated ball of glass, ivory, or other substance, 
worn by women in necklaces, head-dresses, Ac.; and used 
also in the ornamentation of purses, slippers, and a 
variety of fancy articles. — Beads strung on a thread 
(the French chapelet), are used among Roman Catholics 
for reciting the prayers forming the devotion called the 
Rosary, q. v. 

(lnd.) The manufacture of beads is carried on princi¬ 
pally in the small island of Murano, near Venice, and at 
Birmingham, England. Glass tubes, of different colors, 
are first drawn out to various sizes; they are then 
chipped into small cylindrical pieces, which are put into 
a mixture of sand and charcoal, and stirred about until 
the holes in them are filled; they are then placed in a 
pan heated to a dull redness, and stirred about till they 
assume a rounded form from their edges becoming par¬ 
tially melted. When cool, the sand and charcoal, which 
have prevented them front collapsing, is cleared out. 
Bugle-beads are simply’ cylinders of glass 4 or 5 times 
their diameter in length, which are cut from a long 
tube, and used without any further preparation. Beads 
are also made of various hard seeds by drilling a hole 
through their centre. They are also turned front coral, 
ivory, bone, amber, and hard woods. Beads of all kinds 
are much used as articles of commerce in trading with 
savage nations, by whom they are much sought after 
for purposes of ornament. They were anciently much 
used as ornaments, and are, at least, as old as the 
Egyptians. 

—A small pip or piece of metal on a fowling-piece or other 
fire-arm, whereby to take aim; hence the expression 
“ to draw a bead," — i. e. take aim. 

(Arch.) A moulding of a circular section, stuck on the 
edge of a piece of stuff, by a plane of the same name. B. 
are of two kinds, one of which is flush with the surface, 
and the other raised; the former is called a quick-bead, 
and the latter a cock-bead. — Bead and Butt work is a 



piece of framing having the panels flush with the fram¬ 
ing, and stuck or run upon the two edges, which have 
the grain of the wood in their direction. 

(Chem.) A bubble rising to the surface of spirituous 
liquors: — formerly the word, used in the plural, was 
applied to glass globules numbered according to their 
specific gravities, and serving for trying the strength of 
spirituous liquors. 

— v. a. To decorate or distinguish with beads. 

Bead'-house, n. See Bede-house. 

Beadle, (be’dl.) n. [A. S. bydel, from the root of bid; 
beodan.] A messenger or crier of a court, who bids, 
orders, or cites persons to appear and answer before it. 

—A petty officer in a university. — See Bedel. 

—An inferior functionary, employed in church and paro¬ 
chial duties; as, the maintenance of order during divine 


worship, the punishment of petty offenders in the parish 
stocks, Ac. 

“ Thou rascal beadle hold thy bloody . :.nt’ — Chaks. 

Bea'dlesitip. n. The office or function of a bead"'. 

Bead'-proof, a. A term applied to spirituous and 
alcoholic liquors of such a degree of proof, that, when 
shaken, a series of beads or bubbles will remain for 
some time on the surface. 

Bead'-roll, n. Among Roman Catholics, a list or cata¬ 
logue of persons to be prayed for, and numbered on the 
beads of a chaplet, (o.) 

Beadsman. Bedesman, n. A man employed in pray¬ 
ing; generally in praying for another. 

‘‘ For I will be thy beadsman, Valentine.”— Shaks. 

Bead'-tool, n. A cutting tool used in turning, Ac., 
having an edge curved so as to make beads or beading. 

Bead'-tree, n. The Melia azedarach. See Meliace.e. 

Beagle, (be'gl,)n. [Probably from Celt .beagor bige; W. 
bach, little; lr .pig; O. Eng . begele.] (Sports.) A small 
hound or hunting-dog formerly much used in coursing 
hares, and mure remarkable for perseverance than speed. 
Blaine, in the Kncyclopcediuof Rural Spurts, sa^ s: “T here 
are even now several varieties of beagles, but formerly 
there appear to have been several more, from the deep- 
flewed diminutive type of the old southern houud, to the 
fleet and elegant foxhound beagle; to which may be 
added the pigmy breed called lapdog beagles. Beagles 
were formerly distinguished by the rough and the smooth. 
The rough wire-haired or terrier beagle is now seldom 
met with, though it was a hardy and altogether a vermin- 



Fig. 325. — BEAGLE. 


loving breed, and very strongly formed. The North- 
country B. is a nimble and vigorous hound ; he pursues 
the hare with impetuosity, giving her no time to double; 
and should the scent lie high, he will with ea6e run qowd 
two brace before noon.” 

Beak, n. [Du. bek; A. S. piic, from the root pile, point; 
Fr .bee; It. becco; Gr. bikos.] (Zool.) The bill c. a bird. 
See Bill. 

(Bnt.) A hard, short point^like the beak of a bird. 

(Naut.) Beak, or Beak-head, a small platform at the 
fore-part of the upper deck of a ship, generally placed 
at the same height from the deck as the port-sills. — In 
the ancient galleys, a B. was a painted piece of wood, 
strongly ironed and fastened to the prow (Bee Fig. 326), 
for piercing an ehemy’s vessel. 

(Farriery.) A little shoe, at the toe. about an inch 
long, turned up and fastened in upon the lore-part of the 
hoof. 

(Arch.) A little pendent fillet, left on the edge of the 
larmier, which forms a canal behind, for preventing the 
water from running down the lower end of the cornice. 
The Beak-head Moulding is a moulding frequent in Nor¬ 
man architecture, consisting of ornaments of a peculiar 



Fig. 326. — beak-head moulding. 

character, placed at regular intervals on a single mould¬ 
ing. The ornaments may be described as grotesque beads, 
some apparently of animals, and some approaching the 
human form, but all invariably terminating in a pointed 
mouth, and rarely similar in the same moulding. 

—Anything ending in a point like a beak, pike, or peak; 
as the spout of a drinking-vessel, a neck of land, Ac. 

—In England, a vulgarism used to signify a police-magis¬ 
trate ; as, “A’Beckett, the beak." — Thackeray. 

Beak, v. a. (Sports.) To take hold with the beak, in 
cockfighting. 

Beaked, (bekt,) a. Having a beak; ending in a point like 
a beak. 

“And question’d every gust of rugged winds, 

That blows from off each beaked promontory.”— Milton. 

(Zobl.) Rostrate; furnished with a process like a beak. 
Having a long beak-like mouth, like aomr insects. 

(Her.) The same as Armed, q. v. 

Beak'er, n. [Ger. becher, from biegen,t urve, to in¬ 
flect ; Scots. bicker.] A large drinking-cup or glass; so 
named from formerly having a spout in the form f a 
bird’s beak. 

44 And into pikes and musketeers 
Stampt leakers, cups, and porringers.”— Budilras. 

Beak'-liead, n. (Naut.) See Beak. 

Beak '-iron, n. A bickern; an iron tool ending if « 
point, used by blacksmiths. 

Beal, n. [A. S. byte; It. holla.] (Med.) A pimple, pus¬ 
tule, or other small inflammatory eruption. 



































BEAM 


BEAN 


BEAN 


301 


Beal, ». 1. To ripen matter; to gather or come to a' 
head, as an eruption. 

Beale, Lionel, m.d., f.r. s.. a distinguished English 
physician and author, B. 1828, professor of Physiology 
and Anatomy in King’s College, London, editor of The 
Archives of Medicine, and the author of The Microscope 
in its Application to Practical Medicine , The Anatomy of 
the Liver, The Anatomy of Man, Ac., Ac. 

Beale, in Pennsylvania, a twp. of Juniata co.; pop. 1,039. 

Beale'ton, in Virginia, a post-village of Fauquier co., 
20 m. S.W. of Manassas Junction. 

Realls'ville, in Maryland, a P.O. of Montgomery co. 

Beal Isvi 11 e, (beelz'vil,) in Ohio, a post-village of Mon¬ 
roe co., 110 m. E. of Columbus. 

Bealls'ville, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Wash¬ 
ington co., 28 m S of Pittsburg. 

Beal's Bar, in California, a village of Sacramento co., 
about 20 in. E.N.E. of Sacramento city. 

Reals'ville, in Arkansas, a village of Desha co. 

Beam, n. fA. S. beam, a beam, a tree; Ger. baum; Du. 
boom.] (Arch.) A long and large piece of timber, into 
which the feet of the principal rafters, king-posts, Ac. are 
framed; intended also to tie the walls of the building 
together; contra-distinguished from those used in the 
floors, which are called girders, and those which are 
used to support the fronts of houses, which are called 
breast-su m inei-s. 

(Naut.) The beams of a ship are strong thick pieces 
of timber, stretching across the ship from side to side to 
support the decks and retain the sides together. The 
main-beam is next the main-mast. The greatest beam 
of all is called the mid-ship beam. When a ship in¬ 
clines so much to one side that her beams approach to a 
vertical position, she is said to be on her beam-ends. In 
the measurement of a ship, the term beam is used to 
signify breadth at the wales. (See Towage .)—In naval 
affairs, “on the starboard beam ” signifies any point out 
at sea which, viewed from the stern, is at a right angle 
with the keel, and upon f he starboard or right side of 
the ship. In like manner, “on the larboard-beam ” sig¬ 
nifies on the larboard, port, or left side; on the “ weather- 
beam ” signifies that side of the vessel which is towards 
the wind. 

—The shank or oblong part of an anchor. (See Fig. 121.) 

(Agric.) The main part of a plough, to which the 
handles, colter, Ac. are secured, and to the end of which, 
are attached the oxen or horses that draw it. 

( Mech .) A cylinder of wood, making part of a loom, 
on which weavers wind the warp before weaving; also, 
the cylinder on which the cloth is rolled, as it is woven ; 
one being called the fore-beam, the other the back-beam. 

(Steam Eng.) The main lever of a steam-engine, which, 
through the piston-rod at the end and the connecting 
rod at the other, communicates motion from the piston 
to the crank, by turning upon a centre. 

•—A collection of parallel rays emitted from the sun or 
other luminous body. 

11 The evening beam that smiles the clouds away. 

And tints to-morrow with prophetic raj.’’— Baron. 


—Figuratively, that which illumes; as a beam from the 
sun. 

—Any large piece of timber or metal, more long than 
thick in proportion. — The part of a balance which sus¬ 
tains the scales, (A, C, B. Pig. 268.) 

—The horn of a stag, which bears the antlers, royal, and 
top. 

11 And taught the woods to echo to the stream 
11 is dreadful challenge and his clashing beam." — Denham. 

—The pole of a carriage or chariot, dividing the horses 
from each other. 

“ Juturna heard, and seized with mortal fear. 

Forc'd from the beam her brother's charioteer.”— Dryden. 

Beam, v. t. To send forth, as beams; to emit,—followed 
usuallv by forth. 

— v. i. To emit beams or rays of light; to shine. 


*• Norah hath a beaming eye. 

But no one knows on whom it beameth."—Moore, 

Beam'-bird, n. (Zool.) See Flt-catcher. 

Beam'-compass, n. See Cjmpass. 

Beamed, ( bemd,) a. [From beam, the horn of a stag.] 
Having all its antlers put forth, as the head of a stag. 

Beam -engine, n. A steam-engine which communi¬ 
cates motion by the top of the piston-rod, being con¬ 
nected with a beam or lever moving on a central pivot, 
the other end of the beam being in similar connection 
with the crank of the driving-wheel. In the direct-ac¬ 
tion engine no beam is used, the piston working the 
crank. . 

Beam-feather, n. A long feather in the wing of a 
hawk. 

Beam-filling', n. (Arch.) The building of masonry, 
or brick-work, from the level of the under edges of the 
beams to that of their upper edges. B. F. occurs either 
between joists, or floor-beams, or in filling up the tri¬ 
angular space between the top of the wall-plate of the 
roof and the lower edges of the rafters, or even to the 
under surfaces of the boarding or lath, for slates, tiles, 
or thatching. , . , . ., 

(Naut.) The portion of a cargo which is stored be¬ 
tween the beams. 

Beam Tul, a. That emits beams; bright; radiant. 

Beam'ing, p. a. Bright; resplendent. 

Beam'less, a. Giving forth no beams or rays of light. 

E eam'Iet, n. A small ray or beam of light. 

eams'ville, in Ohio, a post-village of Darke co., 98 
in. W. of Columbus. 

Beams'ville, in Upper Canada, a post-village of Lin¬ 
coln co., 22 m. E.S.E. of Hamilton. _ 

Beam'-tree, n. (Bot.) The Pyrus ana. See Ptrcs. 


Beam'y, a. Radiant: shining; emitting beams or rays. 

All-seeing suu 1 

Hide, bide in shameful uigut thy beamy head.”— Smith. 

—Resembling a beam in size and weight. 

“ His double-biting axe and beamy spear.”— Dryden. 

—Having horns or antlers. 

Bean, n. [A. S. bean; W. ffaen, a single bean, from 
ffa, that which is enveloped or covered, as beans.] 
(Agric.) A well-known vegetable, largely cultivated 
both in field and garden, as a highly nutritious aliment 
for man, and a food for horses. All the varieties are 
wholesome and nutritive, but the two species the most 
generally in use as aliment are the Vicia or Faba vulga¬ 
ris, called also coffee bean and Windsor bean, and the 
Phaseolus vulgaris, known under the names of French 
bean, haricot, pole-beaD, kidney-bean, and striug-bean. 
Their scientific characters will be described under the 
names of the genera Vicia and Phaseolus. We here con¬ 
sider them only in an agricultural point of view.— The 
Faba vulgaris, or common bean, of which there are sev¬ 
eral varieties, bears a pod containing several oblong 
rounded seeds, which are used in the soft young state 
for the table,and in the hard dry state for domestic ani¬ 
mals chiefly, either whole or ground into meal. In some 
places, bean-meal is mixed with other meal in making 
coarse bread; or the beans are boiled into a mess with 
fat meat, in which state they are very palatable and nu¬ 
tritious. The most common varieties of garden-beans 
are the Windsor, the Toker, the long-pod, and the Ma- 
zagan, all productive and palatable. In the field the 
tick-bean, the common horse-bean, and the small Dutch 
or Heligoland bean, are preferred, being hardy as well 
as productive. The long pod is usually sown in the 
field, the Mazagan and broad Windsor bean seldom. — 
There is no plant in which the transformation of the 
cotyledons into seed-leaves is more readily traced than 
in the bean. If a bean is planted in moist earth, or 
soaked in water, in a moderate temperature, the cotyle¬ 
dons will swell and soon burst the skin which envelops 
them, separating into two lobes, which open like the 
shells of an oyster. In the part which forms the joint 
an oblong body will appear, which is the embryo stem 
of the plant. This increases rapidly in the earth, and 
pushes a root downwards, and a stem upwards, which 
latter carries the lobes with it till they rise above the 
ground, when they expand, and are transformed into 
seed-leaves. As soon as the seed swells by imbibing 
moisture, the oxygen, which is always present in the 
atmosphere and in water, acts upon the farinaceous sub¬ 
stance in the seed, and takes a portion of carbon from 
it, producing carbonic acid, which is absorbed by the 
surrounding plants, or flies off in the state of gas: by this 
loss the remaining substance becomes a mild fluid 
emulsion, analogous to the milk of animals, which, 
being taken up by the minute vessels of the radicle, 
nourishes and increases them. la proportion as the 
farina in the lobes is gradually exhausted, new vessels 
appear through the substance of the lobes, conveying the 
newly formed j uice from every part of them into the root 
and stem, and, at last, the cotyledons are transformed 
into seed-leaves. The fibres of the roots are by this time 
completely formed, and their extremities, called s/tongi- 
oles, from their appearance when closely examiued, have 
acquired the power of absorbing nourishment from the 
soil. The stem is then considerably advanced in growth, 
having put forth new leaves of a different form from the 
seed-leaves; these last, having now performed their part, 
wither and soon fall off; if they are removed before this 
period, the plant, having lost its nurse, languishes and 
dies. The bean at this stage of its growth requires par¬ 
ticular attention. If the soil is rich and well prepared, 
it will grow rapidly and luxuriantly, and be soon out of 
reach of insects or weeds, and capable of resisting the 
varying influences of the atmosphere; but if the soil is 
poor and parched, and the supply of nutritive juices is 
scauty, the plant will soon show weakness and disease, 
and the only way to prevent a total failure of the crop, 
is to supply by art the deficiency of nature. In very 
poor soils, manure may be applied in a liquid state, or as 
a top-dressiug: intbose which are not exhausted, tillage 
alone will enable the roots to spread, and give them a 
wider range to seek their food in. The soil best adapted 
for beans is a rich strong loam, such as produces good 
wheat. In such a soil the produce is sometimes fifty or 
sixty bushels per acre, but an average crop, on moderate 
land, is about half that quantity. On very rich land, 
beans have produced extraordinary crops, by being sown 
broadcast and very thick, the stems being drawn up to a 
great height in favorable seasons. When the beans 
have pushed their stems, and the proper leaves appear 
above the seed-leaves, the intervals should be carefully 
hoed. The diseases to which beans are subject are, the 
mildew, which is a minute fungus that grows on the 
stems of leaves, and is caused by cold fogs and frequent 
sudden variations of weather: and the black dolphin, an 
insect of the aphis tribe, which appears first in the form 
of a honey-dew on the tops of the plants. For the mil¬ 
dew no remedy or preventative has yet been found. 
■Whenever it has attacked the plants generally, before 
the pods are filled, the best method is to ctit down the 
crop in its green state; and if it cannot be consumed in 
the farm-yard, to plough it into the ground, where it 
will decayrapidly, and bean excellent manuring for the 
succeeding crop of wheat. If allowed to stand, the crop 
will not only be unproductive, but the weeds will infest 
the ground, and spoil the wheat-crop by their seeds and 
roots, which will remain in the soil. Whenever the 
tops of the beans begin to be moist and clammy to the 
touch, it is the forerunner of the aphis. They should then 
be immediately cut off, and this, if done in time, may 
save the crop from the ravages of the insects; but the 




most effectual way to prevent any disease from attacking 
the plants in their growth, is to have the ground in good 
heart, and well tilled. The principal use of beans is to 
feed horses, for which purpose they are admirably 
adapted, and far more nourishing than oa f «. They 
should be bruised or split in a mill, and given to horses 
mixed with hay and straw cut into chaff; this will en¬ 
sure proper mastication and prevent that thickening of 
the wind, as it is called, caused by indigestion, which 
makes beans alone not so ’.veil adapted for the food of hunt¬ 
ers and race-horses. Great quantities of beans are con¬ 
sumed in fattening hogs, to whom they are given whole 
at first, and afterwards ground iDto meal. Bacon bogs 
may be fattened entirely on beans and bean-meal; but as 
this food makes the flesh very firm, it is not so well adapted 
for delicate porkers Bean-meal given tr oxen soon makes 
them fat, and the meat is far better than when oil-cake 
is used for that purpose; mixed with water and given 
as a drink to cows, it greatly increases their milk. A 
small quantity of beaus is generally mixed with new 
wheat when ground to flour; the millers pretend that 
soft wheat will not grind well without beans, and they 
generally contrive that there shall be no deficiency in 
the necessary proportion. Thus a quantity of beans is 
converted into what is considered as wheaten flour.— 
The Phaseolce vulgans or French bean is universally 
cultivated, not only for the mature fruit, but for its ten¬ 
der and succulent pod, being one of the most esteemed 
vegetables for the table. The varieties are innumerable, 
differing 6lightly in their qualities; they may be divided 
into two distinct kinds, the dwarf and climbing; the 
former are the earlier, the latter the more productive. 
French beans are much less hardy than the common 
beans; a very' slight degree of frost will destroy them 
entirely. The early sorts are therefore sown in sheltered 
situations, and occasionally protected by glass frames or 
mats. The climbing beans require the support of sticks 
or wires, round which they twine as they grow, with 
this peculiarity, that the coils turn round the support 
from the right ‘o the left, contrary to the growth of 
some indigenous twisting plants, which turn from the 
left to the right, following the apparent diurnal motion 
of the snn. The best soil lor French beans is a rich mel¬ 
low loam, rather light than otherwise; but, provided 
the ground be well stirred, they will grow in any soil. 
They may be planted in rows, the dwarf sorts at two and 
a half or three feet distance: the runners at four feet. 
As soon as the stems begin to rise above the seed-leaves, 
the intervals should be well hoed with the horse-hoe, 
and the rows by hand. The scarifier or grubber may be 
used to loosen the soil; and when they are somewhat ad¬ 
vanced in growth, the runners may have sticks U> climb 
upon. A row of turnips may’ be sown between every 
two rows of beans; or cabbages may be planted for cat¬ 
tle. The crop may be harvested as soon as the lower 
pods are quite dry and the seeds hard, and threshed 
like other beans. The seeds, when raw, have a bitter 
taste, and are rather tough under the teeth, which makes 
animals refuse to eat them in that state; but when 
boiled, they become soft and pleasant Oxen and pigs 
eat them readily. They contain, according to Einhof, 
84 per cent, of nutritive matter, of which 50 is pure 
farina, the rest gluten and mucilage; they are conse¬ 
quently superior to every other grain or pulse cultivated, 
in point of nourishment; and when it is taken into 
account that they remain in the ground only from May 
to September, and that a crop of cabbages or turnips is 
growing in the intervals at the same time, it will appear 
that the cultivation of this pulse on a large scale might 
add greatly to the resources of agriculture. 

(Med.) When young, all the varieties of the bean are 
equally good and wholesome. In weak stomachs, they 
are able to produce flatulence, but when eaten with 
moderation and with a due proportion of animal food, 
they prove highly beneficial, in consequence of the 
amount of starch add gluten they contain. 

Bean Blossom, in Indiana, a township of Monroe co. 

—A post-office ol Brown co. 

Bean Blossom Creek, in Indiana, rising in Browij 
co., and entering theN. fork of White River, in Monroe co. 

Bean-caper, n. (But.) See Ztgophtllum. 

Bean'-eod, n. A small vessel used in Portuguese rivers. 
It is sharp forward, having its stem bent above into a 
great curve. 

Bean Creek, in Ohio. See Tiffin’s River. 

Bean’-fly, n. A beautiful bluish-black fly, frequently 
found on bean-flowers; it is produced by a maggot 
called Mida. 

Bean -goose, n. (Zool.) a wild goose, A riser Segetum, 

Bean’s Corners, in Maine, a P. O. of Franklin co. 

Bean’s Station, in Tennessee, a post-village of Gran¬ 
ger co., 226 m. E. of Nashville, and 2 from the Gap of 
Clinch Mountain. There are mineral springs here. Ou 
the 14th Dec., 1863, a conflict took place near Bean’s Sta¬ 
tion, between the Confederates under General Longstreet 
and a bodv of National cavalry under Shackleford, Wol¬ 
ford, Graham, and Foster. The contest was somewhat 
sanguinary, Shackleford, who was in chief command of 
the Union troops, losing about 200 men. Lougstreefs 
loss, it was computed, was much greater. The contest 
was indecisive. The Nationals were pushed back nearly 
a mile, but Longstreet being unable to follow up Ilia 
advantage, fell back toward Bull’s Gap. 

Bean-King's Festival, asocial rite principally ob¬ 
served in France, from which country it would seem to 
have been transplanted to Germany. On the evening of 
Twelfth Day, (q. v..) or. as the Germans call it,(in allusion 
to the legend, that the wise men of the East who came 
to worship Christ were three fugs,) Three KiDgs’ Day, 
( Dreikijmgs- Tag,) companies assemble to spend a few 
hours in mirthful relaxation. A large cake is baked. 













302 


BEAR 


BEAR 


BEAR 


with a bean hidden somewhere in it. The cake is then 
divided into pieces, each person present receiving one, 
and whoever obtains the piece with the bean is king for 
tiie year. In this capacity, he holds a mock court, and 
receives the homage of the company, who also amuse 
themselves with other diversions. The Bean King, how¬ 
ever, is compelled to pay for his dignity, for lie has to 
give an entertainment on the next Twelfth Night, that 
an opportunity may be afforded to choose another king. 
In France, this custom was at an earlier period so com¬ 
mon, that even the court indulged in it, although the 
Church, in the 17th c., exerted itself zealously for its 
suppression. The opinion that the B. K. F. owes its ori¬ 
gin to the Roman Saturnalia, when even the children, 
partaking in the universal glee, were wont to elect a 
king, is not destitute of probability. 

Bear, (bar,) v. a. [A.S. beran, beoran; Goth, bairan; 
Lat. fero ; Gr. phero, from the root her; Sanskr. Mire'.] 
To carry; support; sustain; uphold; as, to bear a burden. 

44 And makes us rather bear those ills we have. 

Than fly to others that we know not of." — Shake* 

—To convey; conduct; bring: carry; remove. 

41 My message to the ghost of Priam bear; 

Tell him a new Achilles sent thee there.” — Dryden. 

—To carry as a mark of authority, distinction, or dignity. 

44 And thus he bore without abuse 
The grand old name of gentleman.”— Tennyson. 

—To have or possess mentally; to carry in the mind; to 
cherish; as love, hate. 

44 Darah, the eldest, bears a generous mind, 

But to implacable revenge inclined.” — Dryden. 

—To endure; suffer; undergo; tolerate; permit without 
resentment; as, to bear an affront. 

44 But now I’ll bear no more, nor here remain, 

If there be law or lawyers in all Spain." — Byron. 

—To be answerable or responsible; as, to bear the blame, 
cost, &c. 

44 O more than madmen 1 you yourselves shall bear 

The guilt of blood and sacrilegious war.” — Dryden. 

—To show or exhibit; to advance or bring forward; to re¬ 
late ; as, to bear evidence. 

—To maintain; to carry on, or keep up. 

41 Far as the breeze can bear, the billows foam. 

Survey our empire, and behold our home." — Byron. 

—To admit, or be capable of; to suffer or sustain without 
violence or change. 

44 To bear is to conquer eur fate.” — Campbell. 

—To behave; to conduct; to deport one’s self; to act in 
any character; as, he bears himself like a hero. 

44 So get the start of the majestic world. 

And bear the palm alone." — Shake. 

—To supply with; to afford; to attend. 

44 His faithful dog shall bear him company.”— Pope. 

—To produce or bring forth; to give birth to; as, to bear 
fruit, to bear children. 

44 The same .Eneas, whom fair Venus bore 
To fam'd Anchises on th’ Idean shore." — Dryden. 

To bear a hand. ( Naul .) To help; render assistance; go 
to work; as, “ Bear a hand there! ”— To bear off. To 
keep from reproach: to restrain. —( Naut .) To hold at a 
distance; to keep clear from contact with anything; as, 
to bear off a boat.— To bear the bell. See Bearing the 
Bell, and Bell. 

To bear a body. (Painting.) A color is said to bear a 
body in painting, when it is capable of being ground so 
fine, and mixing with the oil so entirely, as to seem only 
a very thick oil of the same color. 

To bear down. To crush down by force; to overthrow; 
to demolish; as, “ borne down by the flying.”— Sir IF. 
Soott. 

To bear hard. To importunate; to press or urge; as, 
44 Though he bear me hard.” — Ben Jonson. 

To bear out. To support, maintain, or defend to the last. 

44 1 hope your warrant will bear out the deed.” — Shake. 

To bear through. To conduct, or manage. 

44 My hope is 

So to bear through , and out, the consulship. 44 — Jen Jensen. 

To bear up. To keep from sinking, falling, or being dis¬ 
heartened; to support. 

44 But still bear up and steer 
Bight ouward." — Milton. 

To bear date. To be lated, as a letter.— To bear a price. 
To have a certain value or price. 

Bear. V. i. To suffer, as with pain. 

44 They bore as heroes, but they felt as men.”— Pope. 

—To be patient; to endure. 

44 I cannot, cannot bear; ’tis past, ’tis done. 44 — Dryden. 

—To be fruitful; to be productive; — opposed to barrenness. 

44 Melons on beds of ice are taught to bear , 

And, strangers to the sun, yet ripen here.” — Granville. 

—To press; used before on or upon. 

44 These men bear hard on the suspected party, pursue her close 
through all her windings.” — Addison. 

—To take effect; to succeed; as, “He should want to 
bring all our matters to bear.” — Guardian. 

(Naut.) To be situated as to the point of the compass, 
with regard to another object; as, the land bears W. 
by S. 

—To refer to; to relate;—with with, upm, or against. 

44 The sides bearing one against the other." — Bishop Burnet. 

—To render or carry news or intelligence. 

To bear against. To advance forward or approach for 
attack. 

44 As a lion, bounding in his way, 

With force augmented bears against his prey.""— Dryden. 

(Naut.) To bear up or away. To change the course of a 
ship, in order to make her run before the wind after sail¬ 
ing for some time upon a side wind. — To bear in with 


the land. To steer a vessel towards the land.— To bear 
off from the land. To steer a ship from the land, lest she 
should accidentally run aground while under sail.— To 
bear down upon the enemy. To have the advantage of the 
wind; or being to windward, to approach the enemy by 
sailing large or from the wind. 

To bear back. To retreat. — To hear up. To have 
fortitude; uot to sink, faint, or fail; to be firm: to 
be supported; as, to bear up under pain. “It shows a 
greatness of soul that they bear up against the storms 
of fortune.” Broome. — To bear upon or against. To 
lean upon or against. — To bear upon. To act upon; 
as, to bring a ship’s broadside to bear upon a fort.— To 
bear up to. To tend, or move towards; as, “ Sometimes 
bearing up to one another.” Boyle. — To bear with. To 
endure anything unpleasant; to forbear to resent or 
punish; to be indulgent to. 

44 Bear with me, then, if lawful what I ask." Milton. 

Bear, n. [A. S. bera ; Ger. bar; Du. beer.] A well-known 
quadruped, constituting the genus Ursus, in the family 
Ursidai. There are several species of bears. Of all the 
Carnivora they are the most omnivorous in their diet, 
some of them living almost entirely upon vegetable 
food, and nearly all being capable of supporting them¬ 
selves upon it; even the most carnivorous of them, 
however, will seldom attack man, unless provoked to do 
so by aggression, or strongly incited by hunger; but 
when attacked, they prove themselves very formidable 
opponents. They have six incisor and two canine teeth 
in each jaw, twelve molars in the upper and fourteen 
in the lower jaw; pendaetyle, or five-toed feet, armed 
with strong claws, but which, not being retractile, are 
more calculated for digging and climbing, than for tear¬ 
ing prey. For the most part, hears are unsocial animals, 
frequenting the recesses of mountains and caverns, and 
the depths of the forests. During the winter they lay 
up in caves and hollow trees, passing that inclement 
seasou almost without food, and in a comparatively dor¬ 
mant state. In Europe, Asia, and America, bears are 
pretty widely diffused, but in Africa they are more 
rarely found. In the Alpine regions the bear is brown ; 
in some other parts of Europe, black; and in some parts 
of Norway it has been seen of a gray color, and even 
perfectly white. Bears are reported to be very fond of 
honey, in search of which they will climb trees, in order 
to get at the nests of wild bees; for, notwithstanding 
his awkward form, the bear is an expert climber. In 
Russia, the skins of bears are among the most useful as 
well as comfortable articles of winter apparel; and in 
many other northern countries they are made into beds, 
coverlets, caps, and gloves. Generally, bear-skins are 
used for the hammer-cloths of carriages, for pistol- 
holsters, <tc., and the leather prepared from them is used 
for many purposes, as harness, &c., where strength is 
requisite. — The six principal species of the genus are: 
1. The Brown Bear of Europe, the Ursus arctos, which 
belongs to cold regions, and lives on a variety of animal 
and vegetable substances. In the autumn, when the 
animal is very fat and iu full condition, he retires to 
caves or holes in the rocks, where he hybernates, coming 
forth in the spring, gaunt, lean, and almost reduced to 
a skeleton. The brown bear is remarkable for its sa¬ 
gacity, and also for its ferocity, and becomes especially 
sanguinary as it advances in age. 2. The White, or 
Polar Bear, Ursus maritimus. This species is only found 
in very high northern latitudes, along the borders of 
the Arctic Oceau and Hudson’s Bay, but does not ex¬ 
tend either to Siberia, Kamtscliatka, or the islands be¬ 
tween Asia and America. It is uniformly white, attains 
a great size, is very powerful, ferocious, and daring. It 
is an excellent diver and swimmer, and as much at home 
in the water as on the ice or land. Though, like the 
family generally, capable of living on vegetable diet, it 
is, from geographical situation, the most exclusively 
carnivorous of all the bear tribe, and feeds on seals, the 
cubs of whales, morse, aud the carcasses of whales from 
which the whalers have cut out the blubber, and to 
reach which they have been known to swim more than 20 
miles from shore. 3. The Black Bear of America, Ursus 
Americanus. This species is distinguished by its color, 
and a peculiar concave facial outline; he is found in 
mountains and forests, from the Isthmus of Panama to 
the north of Canada, and subsists, in a great measure, on 
berries and vegetable substances, though it preys also 
on small animals and insects, which it hunts for with 
great perseverance, turning over stones and trunks of 
trees in its search after this part of its diet. It is also 



Fig . 327. — Syrian bear. 

very fond of young corn, and, like all the tribe, pas¬ 
sionately addicted to honey, which it obtains by climb¬ 
ing the trees and robbing the hives of the wild bee. 
The black bear never attacks man except in self-defence. 


4. The Grizzly Bear, Ursus horibilis. This species in¬ 
habits the Rocky Mountains of America, and thb hill* 
dipping into the tracts of Oregon and Brit. Columbia; 
and is, of all the tribe, the most savage and ferocious, 
the most dreadful in size and strength, and the most 
terrible in ferocity of nature. The force of his hug is 
enormous, and it is asserted that no animal it could 
grasp could outlive the deadly compression of its vice- 
like grip. 5. The Malay, or Asiatic Bear, Ursus labiatus. 
The Asiatic or long-lipped bear is a native of the moun¬ 
tainous parts of India, and feeds on white ants, rice, 
honey, the palm fruit, berries, &c. This species is timid 
and inoffensive, burrows in the ground, and lives in pairs 
together witli their cubs, which, when alarmed, leap 
upon their parents’ backs, and keep firm hold while the 
dam and sire jog off at a heavy trot to a place of safety. 
6. The Syrian Bear, Ursus Syriacus. The she-bears 
which came out of the woods, “and tare forty and two” 
of the mockers of Elisha (2 Kings ii. 24), are probably 
the first bears on record. This species closely resembles 
the Ursus arctos. 

(Astron.) See Ursa. 

(Naut.) A square piece of wood, made heavy by pieces 
of iron attached to it, for cleaning a ship’s desk. 

(Com.) A term used on the Stock Exchange, and ap¬ 
plied to one who, having sold stock or shares which he 
does not possess, is anxious that such securities should 
decline in value, so that he may be enabled to buy at a 
profit. The term is said to derive its origin from the 
story of the man who sold the bear-skin before lie had 
killed the bear. — See Bearish; Bull. 

Bear, Bio Bear, or Berk, n. [A. S. here, barley.] A 
species of barley distinguished l>y having six rows in 
the ear; winter, or square barley. 

Bear, or Bere Island, a rocky island off the S.VV. 
coast of Ireland, co. Cork, 13 m. \V. of Bantry, in Bantry 
Bay. 

Bear, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Richland co. 

Bear, Bere. [A. S. bere.] (Bot.) See Hordeum. 

Bear'able, a. That can be borne or endured; tolerable. 

Bear ably, adv. In a bearable manner. 

Bear'-baiting - , n. The sport of baiting bears with 
dogs. It was formerly so favorite an amusement in 
England, that Queen Elizabeth did not consider it un¬ 
befitting her sex or rank to attend these rude entertain¬ 
ments. 

Bear'-berry, n. (Bot.) See Arctostaphylos. 

Bear' Braneli, in Indiana, a post-office of Ohio co. 

Bear' Brancll, in North Carolina, a post-office of 
llichmond co. 

Bear Camp River, in New Hampshire, rising in 
the E. part of the State, and falling into Ossipee Luke. 

Bear'-cloth, Bearing-Cloth, n. A cloth for covering a 
new-born child, when taken to church for baptism. 

Bear' Creek, in Alabama, a stream flowing through 
Franklin co., and entering the Tennessee Kiver, neat 
the N.W. limits of the State, between the Alabama and 
Mississippi border. 

Bear Creek, in Georgia, a rill, of Henry co. 

Bear Creek, in Illinois,a township of Hancock coun¬ 
ty. 

—A township of Gallatin co. 

Bear Creek, in Indiana , a post-township of Jay 

county. 

Bear Creek, in Iowa, Jackson co., empties into th* 
Makoqueta River. 

Bear Creek, in Kentucky. It rises in Grayson co., in 
the W. central part of the State, and flowing S.W., enter* 
Greene River, in the E. of Butler co. 

—A post-office of Cumberland co. 

Bear Creek, in Michigan, Lenawee co., embouching 
into Raisin River. 

—A township of Emmet co. 

Bear Creek , in Missouri, a village of Cedar co. 

Bear Creek, in Pennsylvania, in Armstrong county, 
where it joins the Alleghany River. 

—A post-office of Luzerne co. 

Bear Creek, in Tennessee, a post-office of Roane co. 

Bear Creek, in Wisconsin, a township of Sauk coun¬ 
ty. 

—A township of Pepin co., whose name, in 1S60, wa* 
changed into that of Dur\nd, q. v. 

—A post-township of Waupacca co., 38 m. W. of Green 
Bay. 

Bear Creek, (Great,) in Upper Canada, a river which 
flows S.W., and enters Lake St. Clair on the N.W. 

Beard, (beerd,) n. [A.S. beard, from bear; Fr. barbe.] 
The hair that grows on the chin, lips, and adjacent part* 
of the face in men, and sometimes, though rarely, in 
women. Its growth is the distinctive sign of manhood. 
The fashion of the beard has varied greatly at different 
times and in different countries. The earliest notice of 
attention to its growth, is probably in Leviticus, where 
the lawgiver of the Jews (ch. xix. 27) says, “ thou shalt 
not mar the corners of thy beard.” The Hebrews re¬ 
garded a thin, scanty beard as a great deformity; while 
a long, full, flowing beard was esteemed the noblest or- 
nament of personal beauty and dignity. A man’s honor 
was lodged, as it were, in his beard. To insult it by 
word or act was the grossest indignity; to take it respect¬ 
fully in the right hand and kiss it, was a mode of ex¬ 
pressing high esteem and love permitted only to the 
nearest friends. To neglect, tear, or cut it, indicated 
the deepest grief; while to be deprived of it was a 
mark of servility and infamy. These facts explain 
many passages of Scripture; as the gross insult offered 
to David’s ambassadors, (2 Sam. x. 6-14;) the zealous 
indignation of Nehemiah: the treachery of Joab, and, 
perhaps, of Judas, &c. Generally speaking, the growth 
of the beard was cultivated among the uatious of th 44 





BEAR 


BEAR 


BEAR 


303 


.■East, although it must be observed that most of the 
Egyptian figures in the ancient paintings are without 
beards. The ancient Indian philosophers, called Gym- 
.aosopliists, were solicitous to have long beards, which 
wore considered symbolical of wisdom. The Assyrians 
-and Persians also prided themselves on the length of 
their beards; and St. Chrysostom informs us that the 
kings of Persia had their beards interwoven or matted 
with gold thread. The figures on the Babylonian cylin¬ 
ders are usually represented with beards. Aaron Hill, 
in his Account of the Ottoman Empire, draws this dis¬ 
tinction between the Persians and the Turks: “The 
Persians never shave the hair upon the upper lip, but 
•cut and trim the beard upon their chin, according to the 
various forms their several fancies lead them to make 
choice of; whereas, the Turks preserve with care a very 
long and spreading beard, esteeming the deficiency of 
that respected ornament a shameful mark of servile 
•slavery.” The slaves in the seraglio are shaved as a 
mark of servitude. Among the Greeks, aud especially 
among the Greek philosophers, this ornament was held 
in high estimation. Athenaeus tells us that the Greeks 
wore the beard until the time of Alexander the Great, 
•who ordered his Macedonian soldiery to share it off, 
lest the growth of it might give a ready handle to their 
•enemies in battle. Socrates and Plato were honored 
with the distinction of “bearded master” by their pu¬ 
pils; and the origin of the proverb, ek pogon oi sophoi, 
•(wise men from their beards,) arose from this class of 
wise men among the Greeks indulging always in this 
-ornament. The Romans wore the B. until the 5th cen¬ 
tury, A. U. C., when Publius Ticinus Mena brought over 
a colony of barbers from Sicily to exercise their profes¬ 
sion on the Roman chins. Augustus, and the Roman 
omperors till Hadrian, shaved their B. ; and Plutarch 
•says that Hadrian allowed his to grow to hide the scars 
on his face. All the imperial personages after Hadrian 
grew their B. It was customary, on the assumption of 
the toga virilis among the Roman youth, to consecrate 
the first-fruits of their beards to some deity. Homer and 
Virgil, Chrysippus and Pliny the younger, Plutarch 
and Strabo, Diodorus and Juvenal, Perseus and Pru- 
■dentius, all celebrate this ornament on the faces of 
persons distinguished for the length or whiteness of 
their beards. The most curious story of long B. is 
that of a Middle-Age personage—John Mayo, the 
bearded by pre-eminence, who was an exceedingly 
tall man, aud nevertheless, when he untied his beard, 
it flowed down upon the ground; and the Emperor 
Charles V. is said to have been greatly amused by the 
wind making it fly in the faces of the lords of his court. 
The Lombards (or Longbeards), the early French, the 
ancient Britons, and the Anglo-Saxons after they con¬ 
quered Britain, all nourished the growth of their B.s 
with peculiar care. The English clergy, by-and-by, (see 
Knight’s History of England, vol. i. pp. 136 and 165,) 
probably in imitation of those of Western Europe, be¬ 
gan to shave the B., and until the time of William the 
Norman, the whole of whose army shaved the beard, 
there prevailed a bearded class aud a shaven class, in 
short, a laity and a clergy in England. When Duke Wil¬ 
liam conquered England, he insisted rigorously upon car¬ 
rying out the Norman custom of shaving; and he thus 
constrained many of the high-spirited Britons rather to 
abandon their country than their whiskers. But by- 
and-by they got the advantage of their ruthless con¬ 
querors; and the higher classes indulged in the mous¬ 
tache, or the entire B., from the reign of Edward III. 
down to the 17th century. The B. now gradually de¬ 
clined, and the court of Charles I. was the last in which 
•ven a small one was cherished. After the restoration 
of Charles II., mustaches or lip-whiskers continued, but 
the rest of the face was shaved ; and in a short time the 
process of sharing the entire face became universal. 
The B. went out of fashion in France in the reign of 
Louis XIII., and in Spain when Philip V. ascended the 
throne. In Russia, this fashion continued till the time 
of Peter the Great, who compelled the nobility to part 
with these ornaments, sometimes by laying a heavy 
tax upon them, and at others by ordering those he found 
with beards to have them pulled up by the roots, or 
shaved with a blunt razor, which drew the skin after it, 
and by these means scarce a beard was left in the king¬ 
dom at his death; but such a veneration had this 
people for these ensigns of gravity, that many of them 
carefully preserved their beards in their cabinets, to be 
buried with them, imagining, perhaps, that they should 
make but an odd figure in the grave with their naked 
chins. At the present time, the Jews, and the Arabs, 
constant to their ancient customs, continue to let the en¬ 
tire B. grow,when mourning, for a period of 30 days. “ By 
the B. of Aaron,” or “ By the B. of the Prophet,” is 
looked on as the most solemn oath of a Jew or Moham¬ 
medan. Among almost all civilized nations, the ten¬ 
dency is to let the B. grow, though in a way suggested 
by the taste of the individual. 

( Zool .) The gills of oysters and other bivalve mol¬ 
luscs. 

(But.) Prickles or bristles growing on a plant; as the 
awn of a grain. 

( Farriery.) The part of a horse, underneath the lower 
jaw aud above the chin, against which the curb of a 
bridle bears. 

(Astron.) Applied to the rays emitted by a comet in the 
direction in which it moves, in distinction from the tail, 
or rays from behind. 

(Archery.) The barb of an arrow. 

(Printing.) That part of a type which is between the 
shoulder of the shank and the face. 

Beard, v. a. To take or pull by the beard; to seize or 
pluck the beard, in contempt or anger. 


** No man so potent breathes upon the ground, 

But I will beard him.''— Shakes. 

—To oppose or defy to the face; to set at open defiance. 

“And d&r'st thou then 
To beard the lion in his den, 

The Douglas in his hall? ”— Sir IF. Scott. 

Beard'ed, a. Having a beard, as a man. 

“ But woe awaits a country when 
She sees the tears of bearded meD."— Sir IF. Scott. 

—Barbate; having stiff hairs or awns, as a beard. 

“ .... Flew o'er the field, nor hurt the bearded grain.”— Dryden. 

—Barbed or jagged. 

“ Thou should'st have pull'd the secret from my breast, 

Torn out the bearded steel to give me rest." — Dryden. 

Bes rd'en, in Missouri, a village of Gentry co., 80 m. N. 
by E. of Independence. 

Beard'-grass, n. (Bot.) The Andropogon nutans, a 
species of herb, genus Andropogon, q. v. 

Beard less, a. Without a beard; not having arrived at 
manhood. 

(Bot.) Having no awn ; as, beardless wheat. 

Beard'lessness, n. State or quality of having no 
beard. 

Board’s Bluff. in Alabama, a village of Marshall co. 

Board’s Creek, in Georgia, rising in Tatnall co., and 
flowing S. through Liberty co., empties into the Alta- 
maha river. 

Boards'town, in Illinois, a flourishing city, former 
cap. of Cass co., on the Illinois river, 20 m. W. N.W. of 
Springfield. Pop. (1898) 5,360. 

Beards'town, in Tennessee, a post-village of Perry co, 
on Buffalo River, 98 m. S.W. of Nashville. 

Beard’.tongue, (tnng,) n. (Bot.) See PenTstemon. 

Boaror, (fcdr'er,) n. One who bears, sustains, carries, or 
supports. 

" Forgive the bearer of unhappy news.”— Dryden. 

—Specifically, a pall-bearer; one who assists in supporting 
a coffin when being carried to a grave. 

(Arch.) A prop, or anything that supports a body in 
any place; as a wall, post, strut, &c. In guttering, 
bearers are short .pieces of timber for supporting the 
boarding. 

(Law.) One who presents a check, draft, or other order 
for the payment of money. — If a bill or note be made 
payable to bearer, it will pass by delivery only, without 
indorsement; and whoever fairly acquires a right to it 
may maintain an action against the drawer or acceptor. 

(Her.) A supporter. 

(Hort.) A tree or plant yielding produce. 

“ Re-prune apricots,. ...for the young bearers commonly perish." 

Evelyn. 

Bear'field, in Ohio, a prosperous township of Perry 
co. Pop. (1897) 1,150. 

Bear'-fly, n. (Zobl.) An insect. 

Bear Gap, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Northum¬ 
berland co. 

Bear -garden, n. A place in which bears were for¬ 
merly kept for the sport of baiting. — A name sometimes 
given, in modern parlance, to a rude, noisy, turbulent 
assembly. 

Bear Grove, in Iowa, a twp. of Guthrie co. 

Bear'iierd, «. A person who tends bears. 

“ I will even take sixpence in earnest of the bearherd, and 
lead his apes into hell."— Shaks. 

Bearing-, ( bair’ing,) n. Supporting: carrying; sustain¬ 
ing. Specifically, the manner in which one conducts 
one’s self; deportment; mien; gesture; behavior. 

“ That is Claudio; I know him by his bearing.” — Shake. 

—Act of giving birth; producing fruit; as, a tree in full 
bearing. 

—Relation, tendency, influence; used with respect to the 
situation of an object or anything having connection 
with it, or to be influenced by it. 

“ The bearings of this observation lays in the application on 
it."— Dickens. 

(Arch.) The arch or span of a beam, rafter, or other 
piece of timber, or the unsupported distance between its 
points of support. 

(Her.) See Armorial Bearings. 

(Mar.) An arch in the sky intercepted between the 
nearest meridian and any distant object, either discovered | 
by the eye and referred to a point on the compass, or 
resulting from sinical proportion. It is also used to mark 
the situation of any distant object in connection with a 
ship’s position. Sailors often take the bearings of another 
ship, or some object on shore, to save themselves the 
trouble of referring to the compass. 

(Mach.) That part of a shaft or axle which is in con¬ 
tact with the supports. 

(Hort.) The act of producing fruit. 

Bear'ing-cloth, n: See Bear-cloth. 

Bear ing-notes, n. pi. (Mus.) In the tuning of 
keyed instruments, harps, &c., bearing-notes signify 
those notes between which the most erroneous or highly- 
tempered fifth is situated, on which, also, the wolf is 
said to be thrown. Many tuners begin at C and tune 
upwards, through the progression of fifths, C, G, D, A, 
E, B, Qb, Db, and A b, and then stop, and again at C, the 
octave above the former note, and tune downwards 
through the fifths F, Bit, and Kb, and thus the resulting 
fifth Ab Kb produces bearing-notes, owing to each fifth 
having been made more or less flat than the system of 
twelve notes will bear, the least sum of all their errors 
or temperaments being the diaschisma. Some tuners j 
are in the habit of throwing their wolf into the fifth I 
Ab, D6, and others into that of Db, Ob; which last, as! 
being nearest to the middle of the whole progression of 
fiftlxs, seems its most appropriate place for general use.! 

Bearing; the Bell, a phrase conveying the idea of 
excelling in auy art or pursuit. He that takes the lead; 


in anything, or gains the prize in any contest, is said to 
bear away the bell from the rest of the competitors. 
The phrase originated from a custom in vogue in the 
17 th century, of giving a little bell of gold or silver to 
the winner of a horse-race. 

Bearish, (bar'ish,) a. Partaking of the qualities of a 
bear; sulky in temper: boorish in manner. 

(Oom.) A term used on the Stock Exchange to express 
a man’s opinion that prices will fall. 

Bear Island, on the S.W. coast of Ireland, at the 
entrance of Bantry Bay. sheltering the harbor of Bear- 
haven, considered the finest in Ireland. It is 6 m. long, 
by 1J4 broad. 

Bear Islands, in the Northern Ocean, .315 m. S. of Cape 
South, in Spitzbergen; Lat. 74° 30' N.; Lon. 20° E. 

Bear Islands, three islands in Jafiies’ Bay. Lon. 80° 
50'; Lat between 54° 24' aud 54° 46 T N. 

Bear Islands, a group in the N. Polar Sea, off theN.E. 
coast of Siberia, between Lat. 70° and 70°30'N., and 
Lon. 164° and 16->° E. 

Bear Islands, the name of several small islands, 
lying off the coast of Maine and N. Carolina. 

Bear Bake, in Michigan, a post-office of Manistee co. 

Bear Bake, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Warren co. 

Bear Bake (Great), in British N. America, between 
Lat. 65° and 67° N., and Lon. 117° and 123° W. Its area 
is about 14,000 sq. m., and it is 230 feet above the sea. 
It is irregularly shaped, frozen over from December to 
June, and discharges its waters into the Mackenzie, by 
Bear River. 

Bear Bake Mills, in Michigan, a post-office of Van 
Buren co. 

Bear'-like, a. Resembling a bear. 

Bear Mountain, in Pennsylvania, near the N.E. 
part of Dauphin co. Near it is the great Bear Valley 
coal basin. The mountain stands 750 feet above Bear 
Creek, which flows at its foot. 

Bearn, (bei'arn.) an ancient province of France, con¬ 
stituting the dep. of Basses Pyrenees, q. v. The capital 
was Pau, the birthplace of Henry IV. B. was included 
in the country of the Aquitani, according to the three¬ 
fold division of Gaul laid down by Julius Caesar in the 
beginning of his Commentaries. It was subjugated by 
the Romans, and upon the downfall of their empire 
came into the hands of the Goths, from whom it was 
wrested by the Franks under Clovis. It was, however, 
subsequently lost by the Franks, but came again into 
their possession in the time of Charlemagne. In 820, 
Louis le Debonnaire, son of Charlemagne, conferred the 
vice-county of Bearn on the son of the Duke of Gascony, 
and it continued in the possession of his family til) 
1134. By failure of the male line of his posterity it 
passed into other families, as those of the Viscounts of 
Gavaret, the Mon^ades, who were among the chief 
nobles of Catalonia, and the Counts of Foix. These last 
acquired possession of the district of Bigorre, and inter¬ 
married with the royal family of Navarre. By this in¬ 
termarriage the kingdom of Navarre, the principality 
of B., and the counties of Foix and Bigorre, came into 
the hands of one possessor. On the failure of heirs male 
they were conveyed by marriage into the family of 
D’Albret, and augmented by the inheritance of that 
family. Of this family sprang Henry IV.. who inherited 
the country of B. and Lower Navarre, and, as it seems, 
of Foix, with the title of King of Navarre; but the 
country of Upper Navarre, south of the Pyrenees, had 
been wrested from his great-grandfather by the ambi¬ 
tion of Ferdinand V., King of Aragon. On the acces¬ 
sion of Henry to the throne of France, B. was united 
with France, and has continued to be so nnited ever 
since. It was one of the provinces which enjoyed the 
privilege of a local House of Assembly of the nobility, 
clergy, and commons. 

Bearn, (Cape,) a promontory in the dep. Pyr£n£eg 
Orientales. France; Lat. 42° 31' N.; Lon. 3° 7' 30" E. 
Height of lighthouse, 751 feet above the level of the sea. 

Bear Bi ver, in California, rises in the N. of the State, 
on the Sierra Nevada, and empties itself into Feather 
River, 31 m. beloT" Marysville. 

Bear, or Utah River, a stream in Hah. 
which rises near Lat. 41° N., Lon. 111° W., and flowing 
N.N.W. and S.W., falls into the Great Salt Lake, after a 
course of about 400 m. 

Bear’s'-breeeh, n. A vulgar name, sometimes used 
in books on architecture, for plants of tlie genus Acan¬ 
thus, q. v. 

Bear’s'-ear, n. (Bot.) See Auricula. 

Bear’s-ear San'icle, n. (Bot.) See Cortitsa. 

Bear’s-foot, n. (Bot.) A foetid variety of the helle¬ 
bore, and, like all the members of that family, an acrid 
vegetable poison. — See Hellebore. 

Bear’s-grease, ». The grease or oil of the bear. It 
was long supposed that the fat of the Polar bear was 
singularly efficacious in promoting the growth of the 
human hair. But now it is known that the vegetable 
oils are far superior to the animal oils for encouraging 
the growth of. and strengthening the hair. See Bald¬ 
ness. 

Bear'-skin. n. The skin or furry covering of a bear.— 
A thick woollen cloth for overcoats. 

(Mil.) The name commonly given to the shakos or 
head-coverings (made of bear-skin), worn by the Foot- 
Guards of the Household Brigade of the British army; 
also worn by the Grenadier regiments of the French and 
other European troops. 

Bears'ville, in Mew York, a post-office of Ulster co. 

Bears'ville, in Ohio, a village ot Monroe coun¬ 
ty. 

Bear'town, in Pennsylvania, a P. G. of Lancaster co. 















304 


BEAT 


BEAT 


BEAT 


Bear Valley, in California, a post-village of Mari¬ 
posa co., about 10 m. from Mariposa. There are in the 
county several rich gold-mines, and in the town some 
quartz mills. 

Bear Valley, in Minnesota, a P. 0. of Wabashaw co. 

Bear Valley, in Pennsylvania, see Bear Mountain. 

Bear Valley, in Wisconsin, a P. O. of Richland co. 

Bear Wallow, in North Carolina, a post-office of 
Henderson co. 

Bear'-ward, n. A keeper of bears. 

“ The bear-ward leads but one brute.” — VEstrange. 

Bens, ( be'as ,) the anc. ffyphasis, one of the great rivers 
of the Punjab, rising near the Ritauka Pass, in the Hima¬ 
layas. 13,200 feet above the sea, and joining the Sutlej 
at Endressa, 30 m. from Umritsir; Lat. 32° 34' N.; Lon. 
77° 12' E. 

Beas'ley’s Fork, in Ohio, a post-office of .Adams co. 

Beast, (best,) n. [O. Fr. beste; Fr. bite; Ir. biast; Du. 
beest; Lat. bestia, probably from Gael, beo, living; W. 
byw.] Any four-footed animal useful for labor, sport, 
or food. Any irratioual animal as opposed to man. 

" He is like the beasts that perish.” — Ps. xlix 12 20. 

—Figuratively, a man debased by sensual indulgence, ap¬ 
petites, &c. 

" Medea s charms were there, Circean feasts, 

With bowls that turn'd enamour’d youths to beasts "— Drydcn. 

(Games.) A game at cards resembling loo. 

Beast'ing's, n.pl. See Beestings. 

Bcafst isli, a. Debased; brutal; resembling a beast. 

Beast/like, a. Like a beast; brutal. 

Beast'liness, w State or quality of being beastly; 
brutality; coarseness; filthiness; obscenity. 

“ That their own mother loathed their beastliness."— Spenser. 

Beastly, a. Having the nature or.form of a beast or 
beasts. 

Beastly divinities, and droves of gods.” — Prior. 

—Filthy; bestial; obscene; brutish; against the nature 
and attributes of man. 

Beat, (bet,) v.a. (Imp. beat; p.p. beat, beaten.) [Fr. 
battre, to strike, to beat, from the root bat, probably 
formed from the sound; A. S. beatan.] To strike with 
repeated blows. 

Some have been beaten till they know 

What wood a cudgel‘s of by t blow." - Hudibras. 

—To bruise, break, or pound; to pulverize or comminute; 
as, to beat hemp. — To hammer out, to forge, to extend 
or enlarge in surface by beating. 

Nestor furnished the gold, and he beat it into leaves."— Broome. 

—To range over ground, or scour in pursuit of game; as, 
to beat the stubble. 

“ Together let us beat this ample field. 

Try what the open, what the covert yield.".— Pope. 

—To tread; to make a path by marking it with feet-tracks. 

" While I this unexampled task essay. 

Pass awful gulfs, and beat my painful way." — Blackmore. 

—To thresh; to loosen from the husk by repeated blows. 

“ She gleaned in the held, and beat out that she had gleaned.' 

Ruth ii. 17, 

To beat off. To drive back; to repel.— To beat out of 
a thing, i’o give it up; to relinquish anything. 

“ He cannot beat it out of his head, but that it was a cardinal 
who picked his pocket." — Addison. 

To beat the dust. (Manege.) To take in too little ground 
with his fore-legs, as a horse. To perform his curvets 
too precipitately or too low. Webster. — To oeat up. 
To attack suddenly; to make an irruption upon a place; 
to alarm, disturb. 

"Without making the least impression upon the enemy by beat¬ 
ing up his quarters."— Lord Clarendon. 

To beat the wing. To move with a fluttering motion. 
To beat time. (Mus.) To regulate time in music by the 
motion of the hand or foot. To strike, brush, or dash 
against or on, as wind or water. 

" Wiih tempests beat, and to the winds a scorn." Lord Roscommon. 

—To overcome; to subdue; to defeat, as in a contest; to 
vanquish; to conquer 

" He that is beaten may be said 
To lie in honour's truckle-bed."— LTudibras. 

—To harass; to over-labor; to depress, or perplex. 

" So Whackum beat his dirty brains 
T' advance his master’s fame and gains."— Hudibras. 

(Mil.) To beat an alarm. To give notice of sudden 
danger by beat of drum. — To beat the general. See 
General. — To beat to arms. To bring soldiers together, 
when dispersed, by beat of drum. — For other applica¬ 
tions of this verb to military drums, see Assembly ; Call ; 
Chamade; Charge; General; Long-roll; March; Par¬ 
ley; Retreat; Reveille; Rogue’s March; Tattoo; 
Troop, &c. — To beat back. To drive by violence; to com¬ 
pel to retire. 

" Twice have 1 sallied, and was twice beat back.”— Dryden. 

To be beat out. To be exhausted by labor or fatigue.— 
To beat down. To break or batter down: to destroy, as 
a wall. To press down or flatten, as standing corn by 
bad weather. To depress; to crush by repeated opposi¬ 
tion. 

•• Our warriors propagating the French language, at the same 
time they are beating down their power." — Addison. 

—To sink or lessen in value or price. 

•' Beats down the price, and threatens still to buy."— Dryden. 

To beat into. To teach by repeated instruction; to in¬ 
stil ; as, to beat into his head. — To beat the hoof. To 
walk on foot; to pedestrianize. Vulgarly, to pad the 
hoof. 

— v. i. To knock, or strike repeatedly. 

11 And pulpit, drum ecolesiastick, 

Was beat with fist instead of a stick.” — Hudibras . 


—To move in a pulsatory manner; to throb. 

•* But on and up, where nature’s heart 
Beats strong amid the hills.” —Monckton Milncs, 

—To dash, or come at with violence. 

“As they are more or less able to resist the impressions of the 
water that beats against them.” — Addison* 

—To palpitate; fluctuate; be in agitation or doubt. 

"And hear the heart beat with the love it granted." — Byron. 

Naut.) See Beating. 

Sport.) To run one way and then another, when 
hunting a stag. 

'To beat about. To search i n various ways; to try to find. 

" To find an honest man, / beat about." — Pope. 

To beat up for. To go about to enlist soldiers for the 
army; as, to beat up for recruits.— To beat upon. To re¬ 
iterate; to enforce by repetition. 

Beat, n. A stroke; a striking; a blow; as, “ He, with a 
careless beat.” Dryden. — A pulsation; a succession of 
strokes. 

“And oh 1 that quickening of the heart, that beat / " — Byron. 

—A round or course frequently perambulated and trod¬ 
den ; as, a policeman’s beat. 

—A place of habitual resort. 

(Mus.) [Fr. battement.] A transient grace or ornament 
in the performance of a note, denoting that a kind of 
shake is to be made by beginning with the half-tone be¬ 
low the given note, and quickly repeating the given 
note and that: on the contrary, the shake-mark tr is 
effected by beginning on the note above the given one 
(whether a half or whole tone distant), and repeating 
the given note and it alternately. The turn differs from 
both these in using the notes above and below the given 
one. When, therefore, a whole tone lies below any note 
marked for a beat, an accidental sharp is supposed to be 
on the lower note, except that A is seldom thus 
sharpened in a beat. The beat is therefore the reverse 
of the shake (but without the turn), and is generally at 
the distance of a semitone below; and all the notes, ex¬ 
cepting C and F, require the note below to he sharpened 
for the beat. The beat upon B natural, however, is 
seldom with A sharp, on account of the great harshness 
arising from the vicinity of the semiton* BC. In some 
cases of regular accent it is recommended not to make 
the beat with the semitone, unless particularly so 
marked. 

Beal of Drum. See Drum. 

Beat, a. A vulgarism, expressing the sense of being 
utterly fatigued; tired; overspent with exertion; as, 
" he is dead beat.” 

Beat, Beat'en, a. Made smooth by hammering or 
pressing; worn by continued use. 

“ Wbat makes you. sir, so late abroad 
Without a guide, and this no beaten road? " — Dryden. 

—Become trite or common by repetition or frequent use; 
as, a beaten idea. 

Beat'er, n. One who beats or strikes. 

—An implement in plastering, used by laborers for 
tempering or incorporating the lime, sand, and hair to¬ 
gether, when making mortar. 

Beatific, Beatifical, (be-a-tifik) a. [Fr. beatifique; 
Lat. beatus, happy or blessed, and facio, to make.] That 
has the power to make happy or blessed. 

** Than aught divine or holy else enjoy'd 
In vision beatific. ' — Milton. 

Beatifically, (be-a-tif’ik-al-li,) adv. In such a man¬ 
ner as to perfect happiness, 

Beatification, (6e-a-tif'i-kd'shon,)n. A makinghappy 
or blessed; act of beatifying; as, “The beatification of 
bis spirit.” — Bishop Taylor. 

(Iheol.) An act by which the Pope permits a Servus 
Dei, i. e., an individual who died in good repute as a vir¬ 
tuous and holy man, to be worshipped, and his image to 
be placed on the altar within the limits of some diocese, 
province, or town, or within the houses of the religious 
order to which the deceased belonged; defining at the 
same time the peculiar mode of worship allowed, by 
prayers, masses, Ac., until the time when he may be duly 
canonized as a saint. The distinction between beatifica¬ 
tion and canonization is this: the first is a mere per¬ 
mission to honor and worship in some particular district, 
and the object of this veneration is styled Beatus; can¬ 
onization is an injunction to venerate the object of it as 
a saint, Sanctus, acknowledged by the whole Church. 
Originally, it was the bishop of the diocese who allowed 
the veneration or worship of deceased individuals whom 
he deemed worthy of it, and when the worship extended 
to other dioceses, and by degrees to the Church in gen¬ 
eral, “ with the consent, tacit or expressed, of the supreme 
pontiff,” then the worship, which was before that of sim¬ 
ple beatification, acquired the character of canonization. 
But when, in after-times, the question both of beatiiica- 
tion and canonization was referred to the Roman See, 
the pontiffs, in granting the first, always made the dis¬ 
tinction: “dummodo propter praemissacanonizatus, aut 
canonizata, non censeatur.” (Benedicti XIV., Opera, 
vol i. de Servorum Dei Beatificatione.) In the same 
chapter, Benedict XIV. determines the regulations as to 
the proceedings, evidence, Ac., to be gone through pre¬ 
vious to granting the w rit of beatification. It may be 
granted to two classes of individuals, martyrs and con¬ 
fessors. After beatification lias been obtained, a new 
suit and fresh evidence of sanctity are required iD order 
to obtain the canonization of the same individual, and 
a particular office is set apart for him. The ceremony of 
canonization is very expensive, and therefore is not per¬ 
formed very frequently. It is only since tlie pontificate of 
Alexander VII. that the ceremony of beatification has 
been performed in St. Peter’s church, with great solem¬ 


nity. Applications for the honor of beatification are gen¬ 
erally made by the friends or relations of the deceased, or 
by the brethren of the religious order of which he was a 
member; evidence of his conduct and merits is collected, 
and laid before a congregation of cardinals and prelates; 
and counsel is employed by the applicants, while another 
counsel opposes the petition and endeavors to find flaws 
in the evidence. This latter office is performed by a 
legal officer of the Roman See, who has been nicknamed 
Advocatus Diaboli, “ the devil’s advocate,” as he per¬ 
forms what is considered an ungracious part, by oppos¬ 
ing the admission of a candidate into the category of 
the saints. 

Beatify, ( be-al'i-fi ,) v. a. [Lat. beatus, and fado.] To 
make happy; to bless with celestial enjoyments. 

(Theol.) in the Roman Catholic Church, to declare by 
a public act, that a person is blessed, but not canonized, 
after death. 

Beat'ing', n. Act of striking, giving, or laying on re¬ 
peated blows; chastisement by blows; correction. 

“Playwright, convict of public wrongs to men, 

Takes private beatings , and begins again.” — Ben Jonson . 

—Pulsation or throbbing with regularity. 

" .... and the fever of the world 
Hare hung upon the beatings of my heart." — Wordsworth. 

(Naut.) In navigation, the manoeuvre of sailingagainst 
the wiud by tacking, or making tacks, in a zigzag direc¬ 
tion ; as, beating up a river. 

( Mus.) See Beatings. — Beating time, that motion of 
the hand or foot used by performers themselves, or som* 
person presiding over the concert, to specify, mark, and 
regulate the measure of the movements. If the time b* 
common or equal, the beating is also equal; as, down, 
left, up, right, or one down and one up; if the time be 
triple or unequal, the beating is also unequal; as, down, 
left, up, Ac. 

Beat'ing’s, or Beats, n. pi. (Mus) This name, e 1 way® 
used in this sense in the plural, expresses the pulsations, 
throbbings, or beatings, resulting from the joint vibra¬ 
tion of two sounds of the same strength and nearly tb* 
6ame pitch ; that is, of two sounds differing but little, if 
at all, in intensity, and which are almost, hut not ex¬ 
actly, in unison. When two organ-pipes, or two string* 
sounded together, are nearly, but not exactly, of tb* 
same pitch, i. e., are not in perfect tune, they produc* 
throbbings that may be compared to the rapid beating 
of the pulse; and to these, Sauveur, the discoverer of the 
phenomenon, applied ttie term baUemeuts, or B.. which 
has since been adopted by all writers on the subject. Dr. 
Smith has, in his Harmonics, entered fully into the sub¬ 
ject of B., and founded thereon bis well-known system of 
temperament. In his ninth proposition he says, that ‘ if 
a consonance of two sounds be uniform without any B. 
or undulations, the times of the single vibrations of its 
sounds have a perfect ratio; but if it beats or undulates, 
the ratio of the vibration differs a little from a perfect 
ratio, more or less, according as the beats are quicker or 
slower.” His experiment in demonstration of this is 
practical, easy, and satisfactory. “Change,” says Dr. 
Smith, “ the first string of a violoncello for another about 
as thick as the second. Then screw up the first string, 
and, while it approaches gradually to a unison with the 
second, the two sounds will be beard to beat very quick 
at first, then slower and slower, till at last they make a 
uniform consonance without any B. or undulations. At 
this juncture, either of the striugs struck alone, by th® 
bow or finger, will excite large and regular vibrations in 
the other, plainly visible; which show that the times of 
their single vibration are equal.” For the vibrating 
motion of a musical string puts other strings in motion, 
whose teusion and quantity of matter dispose their vi¬ 
brations to keep time with the pulses of ur* propagated 
from the string that is struck; a phenomenon explained 
by Galileo, who observes, that a heavy pendulum may 
be put in motion by the least breath of the mouth, pro¬ 
vided the puffs be often repeated, and keep time exactly 
with the vibrations of the pendulum. “ Alter the ten¬ 
sion,” continues Dr. Smith, in pursuing his experiment, 
"of either string a very little, and the sounds of the two 
will beat again. But now the motion of one string 
struck alone makes the other only start, exciting no 
regular vibrations in it; a plain proof that the vibrations 
of the strings are not isochronous. And while the 
sounds of both are drawn out with an even bow, not 
only an audible but a visible beating and irregularity is 
observable in the vibrations, though in the former case 
the vibrations were free and uniform. Now measure zhe 
length of either string betweeu the nut and bridge, and 
when the strings are perfect unisons, mark, at a distance 
of one-third of that length from the nut, oue string with 
a speck of ink. Then place the edge of the nail on the 
speck, or very near it, and ptess the string, when, on 
sounding the remaining two-tliirds with the other string 
open, a uniform consonance of fifths will be heard, the 
single vibrations of which have the perfect ratio of 3 to 
2. But on moving the nail a little downwards or up¬ 
wards, that ratio will be increased or diminished; and in 
both cases the imperfect fifths will beat quicker or 
slower, accordingly as that perfect ratio is more or less 
altered. — The B. furnish a very accurate mode of deter- 
miniug the proportional frequency of vibrations, when 
the absolute frequency of one of them is known; or the 
absolute frequency of both, when their proportion is 
known; for the B. are usually slow enough to be reck¬ 
oned, although the vibrations themselves can never bs 
distinguished. Thus, if one sound consists of 10(1 vibra¬ 
tions in a second, and produces with another acuter 
sound a single beat in every second.it is obvious that 
the second sound must consist of 101 vibrations in a sec¬ 
ond.— In tuning unisons, as in the case of two or mora 






BEAU 


BEAU 


BEAU 


305 


pipe-*, or strings, the operator is guided by B. Till the 
unisou is perfect, more or less of beating will be heard, 
as the sounds more or less approach each other. “ When 
the unison is complete,” observes Sir John Herschel, 
" no B. are heard; when very defective, the B. have the 
effect of a rattle of a very unpleasant kind. The com¬ 
plete absence of B. affords the best means of attaining 
by trial a perfect harmony. 11. will also be heard when 
other concords, as fifths, are imperfectly adjusted. ( Her¬ 
schel on Sound.) 

Beatitude, (be-at'i-tud,) n. [Fr. beatitude; Lat. beati- 
tudo, from beatus, from beo, to bless, to make happy.] 
Blessedness; felicity; happiness of heaven. 

“ The end of... all men's aim, is beatitude." —Kenelm Dig by. 

—A declaration of heavenly blessedness made by Christ in 
the Sermon on the Mount. 

(Theol.) In the Roman Catholic Church, beatification. 

Bea ton, David, Cardinal Archbishop of St. Andrew’s, b. 
1491. He became Abbot of Arbroath in 1515, Lord Privy 
Seal 3 years later, was sent on several missions to France, 
received a Cardinal's hat in 1538, and in the following 
year became primate. On the death of James V., he, by 
craft and determination, secured to himself the chief 
power in church and state, being named Lord High 
Chancellor of Scotland, and papal Legale. He opposed 
an alliance with England, and especially distinguished 
himself as a persecutor of the reformers. The trial and 
burning of George Wishart for heresy took place under 
his direction, and, a short time afterwards, B. was assas¬ 
sinated at St. Andrew’s, in May, 1546. With his death, 
church tyranny came to an end in Scotland. 

Beatrice Cenei \be-d-tri-’ chc chin’che). See Cenci. 

Be'atl'ice, in Nebraska, a flourishing city, cap. of Gage 
co., on Un. Pac., C., B. & Q., aud C., R. I. & P. RRs., 40 
m. S. of Lincoln ; has extensive manuf. interests and a 
large general trade. Pop. (ls9S) Is,960. 

Beattie. James (beet’te), an English poet, B. 1735. He 
was professor of Moral Philosophy in Aberdeen Univer¬ 
sity. In 1771 he visited London, where he became on 
terms of friendship with Johnson and Reynolds. His 
principal works are, The Minstrel, and an Essay on Truth. 
Died 1803. 

Beat'ty ville, in Kentucky, a post-village, cap. of Lee 
co., 60 m. E.S.E. of Lexington. Pop. (1898) 660. 

Beat'yestown, in Netc Jersey, a village of Warren co. 

Beau (66), pi. Beaux (buz). (Fr.; from Lat. bellus, 
fair, beautiful, handsome.] One who is fond of fine dress; 
a fine, gay man; a fop; a gallant; a lover. 

"Where none admire, tis useless to excel. 

Where none are beaux, 'tis vain to be a belle. — Lyttelton- 

<—This term is specially applied to one who pays too much 
attention to his dress and personal appearance; satiri¬ 
cally he has been described as being “ a woman in every¬ 
thing but the sex,—a man in nothing except the sex.” 

Beaucairc, (bo-kair',)a town of France, dep. Gat'd, cap. 
of a cant., on the right bank of the Rhone, opposite to 
Tarascon, 13 m. E. of Nimes. Lat. 43° 48' 32" N.; Lou 
4° 38' 50" E. Its chief consequence and celebrity is de¬ 
rived from its fair, which commences on the 22d, and 
ends on the 2sth July. This was formerly the great¬ 
est of all European lairs, aud though much fallen off, it 
is still attended by a vast concourse of people, not from 
France only, but also from Germany, Switzerland, Italy, 
Spain, and the Levant. Almost every sort of article, 
whether of convenience or luxury, is there to be met in 
the town. It is said that the influx ol visitors still amounts 
to nearly 100,000, and that the business done here ex¬ 
ceeds 150,000,000 francs, but both these estimates are 

I probably exaggerated The accommodations in the town 
and at Tarascon, not being sufficient for the great and 
sudden influx of strangers to the "fair,” large num¬ 
bers of them are lodged in tents and other erections in 
the meadows along the Rhone, where the fair is held. 
All bills due at this fair are presented on the 27th, and 
if not met, protested on the 28th. A tribunal, instituted 
for the purpose, takes cognizance of, and immediately 
settles, all disputes that grow out of transactions at the 
fair. Detachments from the garrisons of Nimes and 
Tar;iscon assist in keeping order, and everything is con¬ 
ducted with the greatest regularity. The prefect of the 
dep. is always present, and entertains the leading mer¬ 
chants. The communication between B. and Tarascon 
used to be kept up by a bridge of boats, hut this has been 
replaced by a handsome suspension bridge of a total ol 
441 metres, or nearly a mile. 

Boailcou p, (bo-hoop',) in 1 Uinois, a village of Washing- 
ton co. 

Beaucoiip, in Louisiana, a small bayou of Caldwell 
parish, flowing into Bayou Castor. 

Beaufet, (bo'fet ) Same as Buffet, q v. 

Beau fin. (biffin.) ( But .) See Biffin. 

Beau ford, in Minnesota , a post-office of Blue Earth co. 
Beaufort, ( bo’/urt,) Francois de Vendome, Duke dk. 
See Vendome. 

Beau'fort, IIenrt, Cardinal-Bishop of Winchester, n. 
1370, was the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster,and 
half-brother to Henry IV. He was made bishop in 1404, 
and held the office of chancellor several times. B. re¬ 
ceived the red hat of a cardinal, and was created papal 
legate in 1425. He acquired immense wealth, lent large | 
sums to Henry V. and Henry VI., founded the famous 
Hospital of St. Cross at Winchester, and d. 1447. 

Beau fort, Margaret, Countess of Richmond and Der¬ 
by, and mother of Henry VII. of England; b. 1441. She 
founded St. John’s College and Christ's College, Cam¬ 
bridge, and instituted there the Lady Margaret Profes¬ 
sorship of Divinity. D. 1509. 

Bean'fort, or Beaufort-en-Vall£e, a town of France, 
dep. Maine et Loire, near the Couesnon, 16 in. E. of 
Augers. Man/. Canvas and coarse linen. Pop. 5,786. | 


Beau'fort, an inland district of the W. division of the 
Cape Colony, S. Africa; area about 13,000 sq. in. It is 
chiefly used for pasturage. Pop. 7,826. Its capital, of 
the same name, is on the Gamka, 363 m. E. of Cape 
Town. 

Beau'fort, in Missouri, a post-village of Franklin co., 
about 56 m. W.S.W. of St. Louis. 

Beau'fort, in North Carolina, an E. county, bordering 
on Pamlico Sound, at the entrance to Pamlico river, 
which divides it. Surface, level; soil, poor and sandy. 
Cap. Washington. 

—A port of entry and cap. of Carteret co., at the entrance 
of Newport River, and near the sea, 168 m. E.S.E. of 
Raleigh, and 11 N.W. of Cape Lookout. Trade. Impor¬ 
tant in turpentine, resin, Ac. Fort Macon defends the 
harbor, and a light-house has been erected on Cape 
Lookout. 

Beau'fort, in South Carolina, a. S. districtof that State, 
bordering on the Atlantic, and on the Savannah River, 
which separates it from Georgia. Area, 1,540 sq. m. It 
is bounded on the N.E. by the Combahee River, and in¬ 
tersected by the Coosawhatchie, Broad, and Coosaw 
rivers, which empty into the sea by two main channels. 
Soil, sandy and marshy. Surface, generally level. Prod. 
Rice, cotton, Indian corn. Ac. 

—A delightful city and port of entry of the above district, 
situated on a small inlet, called Port Royal River, about 
50 in. from Charleston and 16 from the sea. It possesses 
a good harbor, and vessels drawing 16 ft. of water can 
safely cross the bar. 11. is the summer residence of the 
more aristocratic portion of S. Carolina society.—On Nov. 
9,1861, it was entered, and its arms and munitions of war 
seized by General Sherman, without the least resistance, 
there being on that day but one white man in town. 

Beaufort Bay, in Alaska, on the Arctic Ocean ; Lat. 
70° N.; Lon. 142° W. 

Beaugency, a town of France, dep. Loiret. on the 
Loire, 16 m. S.W. of Orleans, on the railway from Paris 
to Tours. This is a very ancient town, and occupies a 
conspicuous place in the history, and civil, foreign, and 
religious wars of France. It fell successively into the 
hands ofthe Huns, Saxons, Normans, and English; but 
it suffered most during the religions wars of the 16th 
century. Manf. Cloth, wool, &c Pop. 5,557. 

Beatiharnais, ( bo-hdr’nai ,) the name of a noble 
French family, of which the following are historical per¬ 
sonages : — 

B ., Alexandre, Vicomte de. b. at Martinique, 1760. 
He served under Rochumbeau in the war of American 
Independence. On liis afterwards taking up his resi¬ 
dence in France, he was elected a deputy to the States 
General, where ho espoused the democratic or liberal 
party, became president of the National Assembly, and 
played a conspicuous part in the Revolution. B. served 
with distinction in the French army, but became ulti¬ 
mately a victim to the revolutionary tribunal just pre¬ 
vious to the fall of Robespierre, in 1794. His widow, 
Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie, became the first wife 
ot Napoleon I. — See Josephine, (Empress.) 

B., Francois, Marquis de, elder brother of the pre¬ 
ceding, b. 1756. He was a major-general in the French 
army, protested against the unlawful treatment in a 
letter to the president of the National Assembly, and on 
Bonaparte becoming First Consul, recommended him to 
restore the sceptre to the House of Bourbou. He was 
afterwards ambassador to Spain, but fell into disgrace 
with Napoleon, and was banished. He returned to Paris 
after the Restoration, and d. 1823. 

B., EuofIne de, Viceroy of Italy, and a Prince of the 
French Empire, son of Alexandre de B. and Josephine; 
b. in Paris in 1781. After his mother’s marriage to Na¬ 
poleon, he, in 1796, became aide-de-camp to the latter, 
and served with distinction in the campaigns ot Italy 
and Egypt. B. was wounded at Acre, contributed to the 
victory of Marengo, was created Prince of the Empire 
in 1805, and Viceroy of Italy. In 1S06, lie married the 
Princess Amalie Augusta, of Bavaria; and in the same 
year was adopted by the Emperor as his son, and ap¬ 
pointed governor of Lombardy and Venice. He served 
in the campaign of 1809. defeated the Austrians atRaab, 
and distinguished himself at Wagram His military j 
talents were particularly evinced in the retreat from 
Moscow, and in the following campaigns of 1813-14. 
To B. may be mainly ascribed the victory of Liitzen. 
After the fall of Napoleon, he retired to Munich, was 
allowed, by the Treaty of Fontainebleau and the Con¬ 
gress of Vienna, to retain his extensive possessions in 
Italy, and took his place as Duke of Leuchtenberg 
among the Bavarian nobles. His children subsequently 
ranked as members of the imperial family of Russia. 
D. Feb. 21, 1824. 

B., IIortense Eugenie de. See Hortense, (Queen of 
Holland.) 

Beauiiarnois, (bo'har-nwaw.) in Lower Canada, a W 
county, bounded on the S by New York, and on the 
N W by the St. Lawrence. Area, 717 sq m It is 
watered by the Chateaugay River, and some smaller 
streams. Prod. Wool, oats, and dairy produce. Pop. 
14,757. 

—A post-village of the above co., on Lake St. Louis, 33 m. 
S.W. of Montreal; pop. abt. 1,423. 

Beau-itleal, ( bo-i-de'al .) [Fr.] An imaginary stand¬ 
ard of absolute perfection, as conceived in the mind.— 
See Ideal. 

Beau'ish, (bo'ish,) a. Like a bean: foppish; fine, (r.) 

Beau jeii, ( bozh-u(r)e ',) a town of France, dep. Rhone, 
cap. of a can. on the Ardiere, 30 m. N.N.W. of Lyons. It 
is the entrepot of all the products exchanged between 
tiie Saone and Loire. Pop. 4.392. 

Bean lien, (bole-yit(r)e',) a town of France, dep. Correze, 
cap. of a cant, on the Dordogne, 23 m. S. of Tulle. It has 


some trade in wine. Pop. 2,618.— B. is the name of 24 
other small towns in France. 

Beaulieu, S£bastien de Pontaclt de, a celebrated 
French military engineer, aud marshal of France under 
Louis XIV.; was tiie author of Views and 1‘lans of the 
Battles and Sieges of Louis A ' I V. D. 1674. 

Beaulieu, Jean Pierre, Baron de, an Austrian gen¬ 
eral, B. 1725. He was actively engaged as an artillery 
officer during the Seven Years’ war, and in 1792 com¬ 
manded the Austrians against the forces whom the 
French republic sent into the Netherlands, and gained 
several victories over them. In 1796 he was commander- 
in-chief in Italy, and his army was routed in several 
conflicts with General Bonaparte, whose fame was then 
beginning to dawn. D. 1820. I 

Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin, Baron De, (65- 
mar'shay,) b. at Paris in 1732. He was a man of singu¬ 
lar versatility of talent, being by turns politician, artist, 
dramatist, and merchant. — His father was a watch¬ 
maker, and brought up his son to the same profession, 
in which young Beaumarchais showed considerable skill. 
He was also remarkably fond of music, and attained 
great proficiency in playing on the harp and the guitar. 
B. played before the daughters of Louis XV., who, 
being pleased with his musical-skill, admitted him to 
their concerts, and afterwards to their parties. He 
now appeared at Versailles in a rich court-dress, which 
offended a haughty nobleman, who, meeting him one day 
in one of the galleries, asked him abruptly to look at a 
valuable watch that he wore, which was out of order. 
B excused himself, by saying that his hand was very 
unsteady; the other insisting, B. took the watch and 
dropped it on the floor, simply observing, “ I told you 
so.” Notwithstanding this event, he continued to enjoy 
the patronage of the court, which gave him the oppor¬ 
tunity of becoming connected with some of the Fermiers 
Generaux and great contractors It was his ill for¬ 
tune to he involved in several law-suits, some of which 
made great noise in the world, and gained considerable 
notoriety in consequence of the memoirs or pleadings of 
the case, which B. wrote and published. These plead¬ 
ings, which show considerable skill and oratorical power, 
are inserted in the collection of his works. But his fume 
as a writer rests on his plays, and chiefly on the two, 
Le Barbier de Seville (1775). and Le Manage de Figaro 
(1784), which are too well known, both as plays and 
as operas, to require further uotice here. The 
character of "Figaro” was a happy invention, and the 
other principal characters, in both plays, are drawn with 
great skill. The Muriage de Figaro alone produced to 
B 80,000 francs. He wrote a third play, Le Mere. Cou- 
pable, which may be considered as a sequel to the other 
two, but is inferior to them in many respects, and ob¬ 
jectionable in a moral point of view, lie also wrote 
Eugenie, and Les Deux Amis. The subject of the first 
is taken from an adventure which occurred to his own 
sister, and which he relates in his memoirs. Gothe has 
treated the same subject in his drama of Clavigo. At the 
beginning of the American War of Independence (1777), 
B. entered into a speculation for supplying tiie Col¬ 
onies with arms, ammunition, &e.: lie lost several ves¬ 
sels, three of which were taken in one day by the Eng¬ 
lish cruisers in coming out of the river of Bordeaux, 
but the greater number arrived in America, and inspired 
the Colonists with renewed hope. Among other specu¬ 
lations he engaged to supply Paris with water and with 
fire-engines. When the French revolution broke out, 11. 
showed himself favorable to the popular cause, and en¬ 
tered into speculations to supply corn, muskets, &c. 
But his activity in that critical period exposed him to 
suspicion : he was accused and acquitted, then accused 
again, and being obliged to run away, he escaped to Eng¬ 
land and afterwards to Germany. He returned to France 
alter the fall of Robespierre, and then entered into a 
new speculation in salt, by which he lost a large sum. 
He died m May, 1799. B. had considerable talent and 
other good qualities, hut he was very vain and tond of 
distinction He undertook an edition of all the works 
of Voltaire, of whom he was a great admirer; but the 
edition, notwithstanding all his pains and great ex¬ 
pense, proved very indifferent, both as to correctness 
and execution. His complete works were published at 
Paris, in 1 vol. 8vo., 1809 

Beaumaris, ( bd-mor'ris ,) a seaport and picturesque 
bathing resort of England, in N. Wales, co. of Anglesey, 
at the entrance of the Menai Straits, 4 m. N.N.E. of the 
Menai Bridge. J‘op. 2,813 

Beaii-iuomie, (bo-mond,) n [Fr.fceau, fine, and monde, 
world.] The fashionable world; people of politeness, 
gayety and fashion. 

Beaumont. Francis. ( bo'mong ,) a celebrafed English 
dramatic poet, and tiie friend and contemporary of Sliaks- 
peare and Ben Jonson; b. 1686. He studied at Oxford, 
and, in conjunction with his friend and collaborator, 
Fletcher, was author of nearly 50 plays. They were both 
admirable delineators of human nature, and, in their life¬ 
time, their dramas were preferred even to those of 
Shakspeare, whom they made their model. Their works 
have descended to posterity under the twin-title of au 
thorship — “ Beaumont and Fletcher.” D. 1616, and 
was buried in Westminster Abbey. The best edition 
of the writings of B. and F. is that of the Rev. A. Dyce, 
(London, 1834.) See Fletcher, John. 

Beau'mont, Gustave Auguste De La Bonniere De, a 
French publicist and general author, and Member of 
the Institute; b. 1802. He early entered upon the legal 
profession, and, in 1831, was sent with De Tocqueville to 
study the penitentiary system of the United States. 
He was elected deputy in 1839, and, in 1848, Vice-Presi¬ 
dent of the Constituent Assembly. He was subse¬ 
quently ambassador to London and Vienna. B. firs* 












30G 


BEAU 


BEAU 


BEAU 


became known as a writer by his publishing, in conjunc¬ 
tion with M. de Tocqueville, TraiU du Systems Peniten- 
tiaire aux Plats- Unis et de son application d la France, 
(1832.) Among his other works may be named, Marie, 
ou V Esclavageaux fltats-Unis, (1835,)—a work somewhat 
similar to “ Uncle Tom’s Cabin and L'lrlande sociale, 
politique, et religieuse, (1839.) D. 18Gb. 

Benu'mont, in Texas, a city, the. capital of Jefferson 
co., on the Neches river, about 20 m. from its mouth, 
and 300 from Austin City. 

Beaumont', in Lower Canada, a village of Bellechasse 
co., ou the St. Lawrence, 9 m. E. by N. of Quebec. 

Beaumont'-de-Loniag'ne, a town of France, dep. 
Tarn et Garonne, cap. cant., on the Gimone, 21 m. S.W. 
of Montauban. Manf. Coarse cloths, hats, and leather. 
Pop. 5,027. — B. is the name of a vast number of other 
small towns in France. 

Beaune, ( bon',) a town of France, dep. Cote d’Or. cap. 
of an arrond., 23 m. S.S.W. of Dijon. There is a mag¬ 
nificent hospital here, founded in 1414, and endowed by 
Nicholas Rollin,chancellor to Philip, Dukeof Burgundy. 
It is a fine town, with manufactures of cloth, cutlery, 
leather, &c. The principal celebrity of B., however, is 
derived from its being the centre of the trade in the 
wine that bears its name; that is, the best of the second 
growths of Burgundy. Pip. 11,790. 

Beaune, Florimond, a French mathematician, b. at 
Blois, 1601. Ilis labors and discoveries contributed 
greatly to the improvement of the modern analytical 
geometry first introduced by his friend, Descartes. B. 
may be regarded as the proper founder of the Integral 
Calculus, as he first endeavored to deduce the nature of 
curved lines from the properties of their tangents. D. 
1652. 

Beau-plead'er, n. [O. Fr. beau-plaider.] (Eng. Law.) 
This word, which literally signifies fair-pleading, was 
nevertheless formerly applied to a fine imposed for bad 
pleading. The fine of Beau-pleader was set at the will of 
the judge of the court, and reduced to certainty by con¬ 
sent, and annually paid. 

Beatipreau, ( ho'prayn ,) a town of France, dep. Maine- 
et-Loire, cap. arrond., on the Eure, 28 m. S.W. of Angers. 
In 1793, the Vendeaus obtained, near this town, a com¬ 
plete victory over the Republicans under General Ligon- 
nier. Pop. 4,203. 

Beauregard, ( bo'regdr,) Peter Gustavtjs Toutant, 
an American Confederate general, B. in Louisiana, 1816. 
In 1834, he entered the Military Academy at West 
Point, where he graduated in 1838, receiving a com¬ 
mission in the United States Artillery, from which 
he was transferred to the Engineers. Having distin¬ 
guished himself during the Mexican campaign, in 
which he was twice wounded, he was highly spoken of 
in Gen. Scott’s despatches for his gallantry during this 
contest. In 1853, B. was appointed, as captain of engi¬ 
neers, to the duty of surveying the coast fortifications, 
and, later, became Superintendent of the Academy at 
West Point. In 1861, having resigned his commission 
in the U. States army, and joined that of the Southern 
Confederacy, he inaugurated the Civil War by the bom¬ 
bardment of Fort Sumter, in Charleston Harbor, April 
12. He also successfully commanded the Confederate 
army at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861. For this 
service he was made a general. B. was second in com¬ 
mand at the battle of Shiloh, April 6, 1862, and in the 
following year successfully defended Charleston against 
the combined naval and military forces of the Nationals, 
during a siege, which for heroism and tenacity of pur¬ 
pose, on both sides, must ever occupy a prominent place 
in history. After the capture of Richmond, and the 
collapse of the Confederacy, he surrendered to Gen. 
Sherman, in April, ltsoo. Alter the termination of the 
war, Gen B. devoted himself to civil and industrial 
pursuits. Died Feb. 20,1893. 

Beaurepaire, (bawr'pair,) the name of several can¬ 
tons and small towns of France. 

Beauship, ( bo'ship ,) n. Quality or character of being 
a beau. 

—(In a burlesque manner,) a beau; as, “ What his beau- 
ship says.” — Dryden. 

Beauteous, (bu'te-us,) a. Beautiful: fair; handsome; 
elegant in form ; pleasing to the sight. 

“ Prostrate the beauteous ruin lies." — William Pitt. 

Beau'teously, adv. In a beauteous manner. 

Beauteousness, ( bu'te-us-nes,) n. The state or quality 
of being beauteous; beauty. 

*• Front less virtue and less beauteousness. 

The gentiles framed their gods and goddesses.” — Donne. 

Beau'tifter, n. One who, or that which, makes or 
renders beautiful. 

Beau'tiful, a. Full of beauty; lovely; fair; handsome; 
elegant; having the qualities that constitute beauty. 

“And both were young, and one was beautiful.' — Byron. 

See Beautt 

Beau'tifully, adv. In a beautiful manner. 

“ Fine by degrees, and beautifully less.”— Prior. 

Beau'tifulness, n. Beauty; quality or state of being 
beautiful. 

Beau'tify, v. a. [Beauty, and Lat. facio, to make.] To 
make or render beautiful; to adorn; to grace; to deck; 
to embellish. 

“And the one serves to heighten and beautify the other.” 

Atterbury. 

—it. i. To become beautiful; to advance in beauty. 

' It must be a prospect pleasing to God himself, to see his crea¬ 
tion for ever beautifying in his eyes.”— Addison. 

Beau'tiless, a. Without, or destitute of beauty. 

Beauty, ( bu'ty,) n. [Fr. beauU, from beau, belle; Lat. 
bellus, contracted from benalus, from benus, bonus, beauti¬ 
ful, good, pleasant.] The quality of being pretty, hand¬ 


some, fine, lovely; an assemblage of graces, —r propor¬ 
tion of parts, which pleases the senses, particularly the 
eye or the ear; symmetry or harmony of parts; elegance; 
grace; loveliness; fairness; gracefulness. — By modern 
acceptation, beauty expresses, in the higher sense, the 
character of what is naturally, personally, or artistically 
exquisite or fair. The word beauty was first applied to 
objects perceptible by the sight and by an easy tran¬ 
sition, it has been extended to objects perceptible by tue 
sense of hearing; as when we speak of beautiful music, a 
beautiful tune, voice, &c. The instances of words which 
properly signify an impression on one sense being used 
to signify an impression on another sense are very nu¬ 
merous; thus we sometimes pass from the sight to the 
touch, as when we speak of lightness or heaviness of 
form and of color; from the touch to the hearing, as a 
sharp, piercing, thrilling, penetrating, or heavy sound; 
from the touch to the smell, as a pungent smell; from 
the touch to the sight, as harsh and soft coloring; from 
the hearing to the sight, as monotony of color, tone of 
a picture, harmony of colors; from the taste to the sight, 
as mellow coloring; from the taste to the hearing, as 
6\veet music. This proneness to transfer words from one 
object of sense to another does not, however, explain 
why the term beauty should be extended only to agree¬ 
able sounds, and not to agreeable tastes or odors. That, 
however, there is a closer affinity between the percep¬ 
tions of sight and hearing than between those of sight 
and any other sense, it is not difficult to perceive; and 
the fact may be satisfactorily attributed to the following 
causes: — 1. The jricturesque effect which custom, in many 
instances, gives to sounds; as when a tune calls up the 
image of a person’s home or the haunts of his childhood. 
2. The expressive power of sounds, as in the case of the 
human voice, when the expression of the countenance 
corresponds with the tones of the voice and 1 the meaning 
of the words which it utters. 3. The significant power 
of sounds, in consequence of conventional speech. In this 
way they every moment present pictures to the imagina¬ 
tion ; and we apply to the description as to the thing 
described (with hardly any consciousness of speaking 
figuratively) such words as lively, glowing, splendid, lu¬ 
minous, picturesque. To these considerations should be 
added, as a cause conspiring powerfully to the same end, 
the intimate association which in our apprehension is 
formed between the eye and the ear, as the great inlets 
of our acquired knowledge, as the only media by which 
different minds can communicate together, and as the 
organs by which we receive from the material world the 
two classes of pleasures which, while they surpass all the 
rest in variety and duration, are the most completely 
removed from the grossness of animal indulgence, and 
the most nearly allied to the enjoyments of the intellect. 
The unconsciousness we have in both these senses of any 
local impression on our bodily frame may perhaps help 
to explain the peculiar facility with which their percep¬ 
tions blend themselves with other pleasures of a rank 
still nobler and more refined.— But although the epithet 
beautiful is never applied to the perceptions of any sense 
except those of seeing and hearing, yet it is extended to 
the results of some intellectual processes, as when we 
speak of a beautiful chain of reasoning, a beautiful poem, 
a beautiful metaphor, a beautiful language, a beautiful 
machine, a beautiful contrivance of nature, Ac. When 
the word beauty is thus employed, it is merely a vague 
term of praise, and is nearly synonymous with admirable. 
The word beauty is often applied to a syllogism or a prob¬ 
lem ; but then it means clearness, point, or precision, or 
whatever else be the characteristic excellence of that to 
which it is applied. As the effect of beauty in visible 
objects is to produce admiration, all beautiful objects are 
also admirable ; and thence it was an easy step to apply 
the epithet beautiful to things which produce admira¬ 
tion, although this feeling did not arise from the cause 
which produces it in the contemplation of visible objects. 
Similar transfers may bo observed in other words; thus 
the word law properly signifies a general command 
given by one intelligent being to another; but because 
the effect of such a command is to produce an uniformity 
of conduct in the persons to whom it is addressed, the 
term law has been extended to those operations of na¬ 
ture in which an uniformity of phenomena prevails, 
although the cause of the uniformity is altogether dif¬ 
ferent. — In the following remarks on the nature and 
causes of beauty, we shall limit ourselves to the original 
and appropriate meaning of the word in question, viz., 
the beauty of visible objects. The beauty of visible ob¬ 
jects consists of two parts, viz., the beauty of color and 
the beauty of form, .which, although closely connected 
with each other, arise from different sources, and from 
sources of a different character, inasmuch as the one 
appears to be,in most cases, a simple emotion, and there¬ 
fore an ultimate fact, of which no explanation can be 
given, while the other is a pleasure derived from associa¬ 
tion, which is susceptible of analysis. There cannot, in 
our opinion, be any doubt that certain colors, and cer¬ 
tain arrangements of colors, are naturally, and in them¬ 
selves, pleasing to the eye. Children are observed to 
take delight in brilliant colors before they have learned 
to connect any agreeable ideas with them. The analogy 
of the other senses would, d priori, lead to this conclu¬ 
sion : for as there are certain odors, tastes, and sounds 
which are naturally pleasing or displeasing to the nose, 
the tongue, and the ear, so it may be presumed that 
there are certain colors, and combinations of colors, 
which are naturally pleasing or displeasing to the eye. 
Although one branch of beauty is entirely founded on 
association, the feeling of beauty cannot be derived from 
association alone. It is the province of association to 
impart to one thing the agreeable or disagreeable effect 
of another; but association can never account for the 


origin of a class of pleasures different in kind from all 
the others we know. If there was nothing originally 
and intrinsically pleasing or beautiful, the associating, 
principle would have no materials on which it could 
operate. This origin of the feeling of beauty appears 
to us to consist in the pleasure derived from the contem¬ 
plation of colors, and is such that the mind dwells on it 
with pleasure. Hence the form of the antelope, the swan, 
or the tiger, is considered beautiful, because we taka 
a satisfaction in contemplating the movements which 
those forms are admirably fitted to produce; but the 
form of the pig’s snout is not considered beautiful, be¬ 
cause the mind flies with disgust from the filthy pur¬ 
poses for which that animal employs it. So, likewise, 
we call the outward form of the arms, legs, neck, &c. 
of the human figure, beautiful, when their form is suited 
to their respective uses; but no one finds any beauty in 
the form of the human stomach, or intestines or liver, 
though equally well fitted for their several ends, because 
they suggest the notion of processes which men do not 
willingly contemplate. Perhaps, in strictness, it might 
be thought that the simple emotion derived from the 
color of objects, is alone properly entitled to be consid¬ 
ered as the feeling of beauty; and that the beauty of 
form in any object, derived from a sense of its fitness to 
its end, is only a pleasing association, allied indeed to 
the feeling of beauty by a close analogy, but still dis¬ 
tinct from it. This question (which in fact is merely 
verbal), we have not sufficient space to discuss at length; 
nevertheless, it appears to us that all ages and nations 
have agreed in speaking of the beauty of form, as well 
as of color, and that we are justified in considering as 
included in the feeling of beauty those emotions which 
are susceptible of analysis, as well as those W’hich are 
not.— A certain degree of cultivation is necessary to 
the perception of beauty. Savage nations appear to be 
nearly or quite destitute of any notion of it, in the 
works both of nature and art, or at least their admira¬ 
tion, as in children, is confined to gaudy and shining 
triukets, and ornaments of the person. The practice of 
tattooing, however, is doubtless founded on notions of 
beauty, more mistaken even than those which formerly 
led the ladies of Europe to cover their hair with powder 
and pomatum; or, as it seems now’to be the growing 
fashion, to disguise the natural beauty of their hair with 
yellowish, red, or golden preparations. In the low’er 
orders of civilized nations, the same indifference to- 
beauty maybe generally observed, in proportion to their 
coarseness and ignorance. The early development of 
the sense of beauty among the Greeks, which is so strik¬ 
ingly show n both in their mythology and poetry, and in 
their works of art, is a proof of their early culture and 
of their great superiority, even in a half savage state, to 
the barbarous nations by which they were surrounded. 
Another thing essential to the perception of beauty, ia- 
sensibility of mind, arising from the develoument of th# 
social affections, and the cultivation of the benevolent 
feelings. The custom, prevalent in some countries, of 
planting flowers on graves, and of offering nosegays to 
the images of saints or of the Virgin, is a mark at once 
of a feeling of beauty and of sensibility of mind. On 
the other hand, persons of a sour, phlegmatic, morose, 
and misanthropic temperament, are little alive to the 
beauty of outward objects or works of art. It was, 
doubtless, from a sense of the incompatibility of a feel¬ 
ing for beauty, with absence of all social and benevolent 
sympathies, that Milton represents the Devil as insen¬ 
sible to the beauties of Paradise: 

“ The Fiend 

Saw undelighted all delight, all Rind 

Of living creatures, new to sight and strange.” 

As on the one hand, all the antisocial passions, as anger, 
jealousy, envy, fear, &c., are inconsistent with the per¬ 
ception of beauty; so the social passions sharpen and 
facilitate it, as love and pity, which, as Dryden says, 

“ melts the mind to love.” Hence, loveliness in the human 
race is intimately connected with beauty, as the desire 
of sex is heightened and stimulated by the beauty of 
form, color, and expression; but it is not identical with 
it, for lovers are often not only blind to the defects of 
their mistresses, but sometimes even admire them on 
that very account; whence love is proverbially said to be 
blind. A third requisite to the perception of beauty is 
serenity and cheerfulness of mind, and the absence of 
overpowering care or affliction, which engrosses the fac¬ 
ulties and prevents them from taking pleasure in the 
relations of outward objects. This inconsistency is well 
illustrated by the reflections of Hamlet, when he is op¬ 
pressed with a sense of the painful task imposed upon 
liim by his father’s spirit (Act II. sc. 2.) — On the rela¬ 
tion of the beauty of outward objects to the beauty of 
works of art, we can only observe, that of the three arts 
of design, viz., architecture, sculpture, and painting, the 
two last are purely representative arts, while the first 
alone creates objects which have a use beyond the mere 
gratification of the taste. The beauty of buildings there¬ 
fore belongs to the class of objects which we have been 
above examining; while the beauty of pictures a»d stat¬ 
ues, though closely connected with the same range of 
ideas, yet forms a class apart, and requires the considera¬ 
tion of additional elements peculiar to itself. These are 
derived in great measure from the capabilities of the 
respective arts, as dependent on the materials which 
they work with and the effects which they are thus able 
to produce. There are many objects beautiful in nature 
which cannot be represented with advantage by the 
painter or sculptor; on the other hand, there”are many 
objects disagreeable in nature which are beautiful in a 
picture, because a picture is an abstraction, a represen¬ 
tation of the color and outline of an object, without any 
of those accompanying circumstances which in the 





BEAV 


BEAV 


BEAV 


307 


reality may cause disgust to the other senses, and thus 
prevent the mind from enjoying that pleasure which it 
might otherwise derive through the organ of sight alone. 
Hence those things in nature which are peculiarly fitted 
to be subjects for the painter, are properly said to have 
picturesque, beauty, as those forms and postures which 
would appear to most advantage in marble, might, as has 
been truly remarked, be said to have sculpturesque 
beauty. There are certain general characteristics of 
these two arts, as, that, while painting best represents 
expression, sculpture best represents character; and 
while painting embraces a vast variety of subjects, 
sculpture confines itself almost exclusively to the human 
figure and some of the nobler animals, which maybe here 
pointed out; but to determine the peculiar provinces of 
these two arts, respectively, requires a separate investi¬ 
gation, with reference not to the general subject of 
beauty, but to the capabilities and advantages of each, 
and would be materially assisted by a knowledge of those 
mechanical processes and mysteries of art which the 
professed sculptor or painter can themselves alone pos¬ 
sess. — See Esthetics ; Ideal ; Sublimttt. 

Beau'ty-beainiug, a. Diffusing beauty; radiant 
with beauty. 

Beau'ty-spot, n. A patch, or spot, placed on the face 
to direct the eye to some other feature, or to heighten 
the beauty of the whole. 

Bean'ty-wan'ing, a. Declining in beauty. 

Beauvais, ( bo-vai ',) an ancient city of France, cap. 
dep. Oise, on the Therain, 41 m. N. by W. of Paris; Lat. 
49° 26' 7" N.; Lon. 2° 5' E.; on a branch line of the rail¬ 
way from Paris to Boulogne. It is a large, but ill-built 
city. Had the cathedral been finished on its original 
plan, it would have been the finest Gothic edifice in 
France, but the choir only is complete. The church of 
St. Stephen, erected in 997, is celebrated for its fine 
painted glass windows. Manf. Cloths, linens, and flan¬ 
nels. B. existed under the Romans, and was held by 
the Normans and the English, from the latter of whom 

• it was wrested in the 15th century. In 1472, it was 
besieged by Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, 
and chough without a garrison, the citizens, led on by 
the heroine Jeanne Fouquet (surnamed Hachette), re¬ 
pelled the enemy. An annual festival is still celebrated 
in honor of this event. 

Beaux-esprits, ( boz-ez-prez',) n. pi. A French com¬ 
pound word applied to men of wit or genius. It is now 
somewhat antiquated, and is almost invariably used in an 
ironical sense. 

Beaver, ( be'vur ,) n. [A. S. beafer; Dan. baever; Sw. 
and Goth, befwer; Lat.. fiber, from fibra, the edge or bank 
of a river.] ( Zool.) The common name of the genus 
Castor, family Sciuridce. There are but two species, the 
European B., Castor fiber, and the American B., Castor 
Canadiensis, so much alike that the description of the 
one may be applied to the other indiscriminately. The 
B. may be readily distinguished from every other quad¬ 
ruped by its broad, horizontally flattened tail, which is 



Fig. 328. — AMERICAN BEAVER. 


(Castor Canadiensis.) 

of a nearly oval form, but rises into a slight convexity 
on its upper surface, and is covered with scales. The hind 
feet are webbed, and together with the tail, w r hich acts 
as a rudder, serve to propel it through the water with 
considerable facility. It is about three feet long, exclu¬ 
sive of the tail, which is one foot more; its color is a 
deep chestnut, the hair very fine, smooth, and glossy; 
but it occasionally varies, and is sometimes found per¬ 
fectly black. The incisor teeth are very large and hard; 
so hard, indeed, that they were used by the N. American 
Indians to cut bone and to fashion their horn-tipped 
spears, till they were superseded by the introduction of 
iron tools from Europe. Of all quadrupeds the B. is 
considered as possessing the greatest degree of natural 
or instinctive sagacity in constructing its habitation: 
preparing, in concert with others of its own species, a 
kind of arched caverns or domes, supported by a founda¬ 
tion of strong pillars, and lined or plastered internally 
with a degree of neatness and accuracy unequalled by 
the art of any other quadruped. But it should seem, 
however, that the architecture of the B is nowhere so 
conspicuous as in the northern parts of America. The 
favorite resorts of the B. are retired, watery,and woody 
situations. In such places they assemble to the num¬ 
ber of some hundreds: living, as it were, in families, and 
building their arched receptacles. From this we may 
perceive to what a degree animals, unassisted either by 
language or reason, are capable of concurring for their 


mutual benefit, and of attaining, by dint of numbers, 
those advantages which each, in a state of solitude, 
seems unfitted to possess; for, if we view the B. only in 
the light of an individual, and unconnected with others 
of its kind, we shall find that many other quadrupeds 
excel it in cunning, and almost all in the powers of an¬ 
noyance and defence. When kept in a state of solitude 
or domestic tameness, it appears calm and indifferent to 
all about it; without attachments or antipathies; and 
never seeking to gain the favor of man, nor aiming to of¬ 
fend him. Few subjects in natural history have more 
attracted the attention of travellers, or have been more 
minutely described by naturalists, than the instinctive 
building operations of the B., and they have accord¬ 
ingly had attributed to them powers so marvellous, as 
to render ridiculous that which, if regarded merely 
as a high species of animal instinct, could not fail 
to command universal admiration. The situation of 
the U.-houses is various. Where the B. are numer¬ 
ous, they are found to inhabit lakes, ponds, and rivers, 
as well as those narrow creeks which connect the nu¬ 
merous lakes of North America; but the two latter 
are generally chosen by them, when the depth of water 
and other circumstances are suitable, as they have 
then the advantage of a current to convey wood and 
other necessaries to their habitations, and because, 
in general, they are more difficult to be taken than 
those that are built in standing water. They always 
select those parts that have such a depth of water 
as will resist the frost in winter, and prevent it 
from freezing to the bottom. The B. that build their 
houses in small rivers, or creeks, in which the water is 
liable to bo drained off when the back supplies are 
dried up by the frost, are wonderfully taught by instinct 
to provide against that evil by making a dam quite 
across the river, at a convenient distance from their 
houses. The U.-dams differ in shape according to the 
nature of the place in which they are built. If the 
water in the river, or creek, have but little motion, the 
dam is almost straight; but where the current is more 
rapid, it is always made with a considerable curve, con¬ 
vex towards the stream. The materials made use of 
are drift-wood, green willows, birch, and poplars, if 
they can be got; also mud and stones, intermixed in such 
a manner as must evidently contribute to the strength 
of the dam; but there is no other order or method ob¬ 
served in the dams, except that of the work being carried 
on with a regular sweep, and all the parts being made 
of equal strength. In places which have been long 
frequented by B. undisturbed, their dams, by frequent 
repairing, become a solid bank, capable of resisting a 
great force both of water and ice; and as the willow, 
poplar, and birch generally take root and shoot up, they 
by degrees form a kind of regular planted hedge. The 
H.-houses are built of the same materials as their dams, 
and are always proportioned in size to the number of 
inhabitants, which seldom exceeds 4 old, and 6 or 8 
young ones. Instead of order or regulation being ob¬ 
served in rearing their houses, they are of a much ruder 
structure than their dams; for, notwithstanding the 
sagacity of these animals, it has never been observed 
that they aim at any other convenience in their houses, 
than to have a dry place to lie on; and there they 
usually eat their food, which they occasionally take 
out of the water. It frequently happens that some of 
the larger houses are found to have one or more parti¬ 
tions, if they deserve that appellation, but it is no more 
than a part of the main building left by the sagacity of 
the B. to support the roof. On such occasions, it is com¬ 
mon for those different apartments, as some are pleased 
to call them, to have no communication with each other 
but by water; so that, in fact, they maybe called double 
or treble houses, rather than different apartments of 
the same house. So far are the B. from driving stakes 
into the ground when building their houses, that they 
lay most of the wood crosswise, and nearly horizontal, 
and without any other order than that of leaving a hol¬ 
low or cavity in the middle. When any unnecessary 
branches project inward, they cut them off with their 
teeth, and throw them in among the rest, to prevent 
the mud from falling through the roof. It is a mistaken 
notion that the wood-work is first completed and then 
plastered; for the whole of their houses, as well as their 
dams, are from the foundation one mass of mud and 
wood, mixed with stones, if they can be procured. The 
mud is always taken from the edge of the bank, or the 
bottom of the creek or pond near the door of the house; 
and, though their fore-paws are so small, yet it is held 
close up between them under their throat; thus they 
carry both mud and stones, while they al way's drag the 
wood with their teeth. It is a great piece of policy in 
these animals to cover the outside of their houses every 
fall with fresh mud, and as late as possible in the au¬ 
tumn, even when the frosts become pretty severe, as by 
this means it soon freezes as hard as a stone, and pre¬ 
vents their common enemy T , the wolverine, from dis¬ 
turbing them during the winter; and as they are fre¬ 
quently seen to walk over their work, and sometimes 
to give a flap with their tail, particularly when plung¬ 
ing into the water, this has, without doubt, given rise 
to the vulgar opinion that they use their tails as a 
trowel, with which they plastered their houses; whereas 
that flapping of the tail is no more than a custom which 
they always preserve, even when they become tame and 
domestic, and more particularly so when they’ are 
startled. In the more northern climates, the habita¬ 
tions of these animals are finished in August, or early 
in September, when they begin to lay in their stores. 
During the summer months they regale themselves on 
the choicest fruits and plants the country affords; 
but in winter they subsist principally on the wood 


of the biroh, the plane, Ac. When the frost is very 
severe, the hunters sometimes break large holes in 
the ice; and, on the B. resorting to these apertures to 
breathe the fresh air, they either kill them with their 
hatchets, or cover the holes with large substantial nets. 
This being done, they undermine and subvert the whole 
fabric; when the B., expecting to make their escape iu 
the usual way, fly with precipitation to the water, and, 
rushing to the opening, fall directly into the net. The 
B. is pursued both for its fur, and for the sake of a 
peculiar odoriferous secretion, termed castor or castoreum, 
q. v., which is contained in two little bags, the inguinal 
glands, each about the size of a hen’s egg. The fur was 
formerly a most important article of commerce; but 
the animals have in recent times‘been exterminated 
from so many extensive tracts which they once inhab¬ 
ited, that it is now far less considerable than it was half 
a century ago. To this may be added, that the present 
custom of using silk and other materials in lieu of B 
fur in the manufacture of hats, has wonderfully les 
sened the demand for it, as well as reduced the price. 
The foregoing account relates to the American beaver. 
The European species does not boast of such architectu¬ 
ral habits, but lives in burrow's along the banks of the 
Rhone, the Danube, the Weser, and other large northern 
rivers; yet, from some of the descriptions which have 
been given of it, it may be inferred that, considering 
the material within its reach, its instinctive skill is 
not greatly inferior to that which dwell* ou this side of 
the Atlantic. 

Bea'ver, n. and a. The fur of the beaver; a hat made 
of its fur; —or, adjectively, anything made of the fur of 
the beaver; as, a beaver hat. 

Bea'ver, n. [0. Fr. bevere, for beuveur, drinker; from It. 
bevere, from Lat. bibere, to drink.] (Mil.) The part of a 
helmet that covered the lower part of the face, and 
which, raised up or let down, enabled the wearer to drink. 

“I saw young Harry with his beaver up.” — Shaks. 

The B. was often taken for the helmet itself. 

Bea'ver, in Illinois, a flourishing township of Iroquois 
county. 

Bea'ver, in Indiana, a township of Newton co. 

—A township of Pulaski co. 

Bea'ver, in Iowa, a flourishing township of Butler 
county. 

—A township of Guthrie co. 

—A township of Polk co. 

Bea'ver, in Minnesota, a flourishing township of Fill¬ 
more county. 

—A post-village of Winona co., on Whitewater River, 
about 22 m. W.N.W. of Winona. 

Bea'ver, in Missouri, a post-office of Douglas co. 

Bea'ver, in Ohio, a township of Columbiana co. 

Beaver, in Oklahoma, an extreme N. W. co., forming 
the “ pan-handle” of the Territory. Cap. Beaver. Pop. 
(1897) abt. 3,750. 

—A village, cap. of above co. Pop. (1897) abt. 200. 

Bea'ver, in Pennsylvania, a co. in the W. part of the 
State, on the frontier of Ohio. Area, 650 sq. m. It is 
watered by the Ohio and Beaver rivers. Surface, un¬ 
dulating, with a rich soil. Bituminous coal and lime¬ 
stone are largely found. Cap. Beaver. 

—A flourishing and fine post-town, cap. of the above co., 
situated on the Ohio, 28 m. N. of Pittsburg, and 230 W. 
of Harrisburg. 

—A township of Clarion co. 

— A township of Crawford co. 

—A township of Columbia co. 

—A township of Jefferson co. 

—A township of Snyder county, 40 m. N.N.W. of Harris¬ 
burg. 

Bea'ver, in Texas, a post-office in Wichita co. 

Bea'ver, in Utah, a large co. in the southwestern part 
of that State, bordering on Nevada, and drained by 
Beaver river. The central part is mountainous, and the 
soil generally sterile. Lead is found in the county in 
some abundance. Pop. (1898) 3,840. 

•—A town, cap. of the above co., situated on Beaver river, 
in a valley surrounded by mountains, in which lead, 
iron, and copper are abundant. Pop. (1898) 2,120. 

Bea'ver, in Washington, a post-village of Clallam co., 
6 m. S. of Olympia. 

Bea'ver Bay, in Minnesota, a post-village, former cap, 
of Lake co. 

Bea'ver Brook, in New York, a post-office of Sulli¬ 
van co. 

Bea'ver Centre, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 

Crawford co. 

Bea'ver City, in Indiana, a post-office of Newton co. 

Bea'ver Creek, in Alabama, Marengo co., emptying 
into the Tombigbee River.—Another, entering the Ala¬ 
bama River in Wilcox co. 

—A township of Dale co. 

Bea'ver Creek, iu Colorado, a post-office of Fremont 
county. 

Bea'ver Creek, in Illinois, a township of Bond co., 

80 m. S. of Springfield. 

Bea'ver Creek, in Indiana, a creek entering White 
River in Martin co. 

Bea'ver Creek, in lotoa, rises in Boone co., and en¬ 
ters the Des Moines River in Polk co.—A tributary of 
Iowa River, emptying into the latter,near Marengo, in 
Iowa co. 

Bea'ver Creek, in Maryland, a township of Washing¬ 
ton co. 

Bea'ver Creek, in Michigan, Lenawee co., a creek 
flowing into Raisin River, near Adrian. 

—A post-office of Gratiot co. 

Bea'ver Creek, iu Missouri, a creek entering White 
River in Taney co., a little below Forsyth. — Liitle Bea¬ 
ver Creek enters the above in the same county. 























308 


BECA 


BECK 


BECO 


bea -.ver Creek, in Ohio, flows into the Maumee, in 
Wood co.—Another falls into Lake Brie in Lorain co. 

—A township in Greene county, about 10 m. W.N.W. of 
Xenia. 

Bea'ver Creek, in South Carolina, a creek entering 
into Cougaree River, in the S.E. of Lexington District. 

Ilea'ver Crossing-, in Nebraska, a post-office of Sew¬ 
ard co. 

Bea'ver Dam. in Indiana, a post-village of Kosciusko 
co., about 14 m. S.W. of Warsaw. 

Bea'ver Dam, in Kentucky, a post-office of Ohio co. 

Bea'ver Ham, in North Carolina, a P. O. of Union co. 

Bea'ver Dam, in Ohio , a post-village of Allen co., abt. 
10 m. N.E. of Lima. 

Bea'ver Dam, in Wisconsin, a flourishing city of 
Dodge co., on Beaver Dam creek, about 45 m. N.E. of 
Madison. There are hero many factories and mills, and 
also the Wayland University. Pop. (1897) abt. 6,300. 

Beaver Dam Creek, in Georgia, rising in Burke 
co., and entering Briar Creek near Jackson borough.— 
Another in Elbert co, flows S.E. into the Savannah 
River, about 70. m. E. of Ellerton. 

Beaver Dam Creek, in Michigan, flows into the 
Shiawassee River, in Saginaw co. 

Beaver Dam Depot, in Virginia, a post-office of 
Hanover co., 40 nr. N.E. of Richmond. 

Beaver Dam River, in Wisconsin, rises in Fox 
Lake, Dodge co., and flows into Rock River. 

Bea'ver Dams, in Maryland, a village of Queen 
Anne co. 

Bea'ver Dams, in New York, a P. 0. of Schuyler co. 

Bea'ver Calls, in Minnesota, a vill.,cap. of Renvilleca 

Bea'ver Calls, in New York, a post-office of Lewis co. 

Bea'ver Calls, in Pennsylvania, a P. O. of Beaver co. 

Bea'ver Head, m Montana, a S.W. county bordering 
on Idaho. The “ Great Divide ” of the Rockies extends 
along its S.W. boundary. Pop. 4,655. Cap. Dillon. 

Bea'ver Islands, a group near the N. end of Lake 
Michigan, between 45° 30'and 46° 50' N. Lat., and about 
85° 30' W. Lon. — Big Beaver, the principal one, has an 
area of about 40 sq. m. 

Bea'ver Kill, in New York, a P. 0. of Sullivan co. 

Bea'ver Lake, in Indiana, is situated in Jasper co., 
and is the largest of the lakes in that State, covering 
1,600 acres. 

Bea'ver Dick, in Kentucky, a post-office of Boone co. 

Bea'ver Xeadows, in Pennsylvania , a post-village, 
of Carbon co., 11 m. from Mauch Chunk, and about 100 
N.W.of Philadelphia; the neighborhood abounds in rich 
coal mines. 

Bea'ver Bond, in South Carolina, a post-office of 
Lexington District. 

Bea'ver-rat., n. The musk-rat. 

Bea'ver Bidge, in Tennessee., a P. 0. of Knox co. 

Bea'ver Biver, iu Minnesota, a township of Renville 
co. 

Bea'ver Biver, in New Hampshire, a river rising in 
Rockingham co., in the S.E. part of the State, and fall¬ 
ing into the Merrimac, near Lowell. 

Bea'ver River, in New York, rises in Herkimer co., 
iu the N.E. of the State, and falls into Black River, in 
Lewis co. 

Bea'ver River, in Pennsylvania, a river formed by 
the union of the Mahoning and Shenango, in the W. 
part of the State; flows S. into the Ohio, near the town 
of Beaver. 

Bea'ver Spri-ngs, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Snyder co. 

Bea'verteen, n. (Manf.) A kind of fustian made of 
coarse twilled cotton, shorn after dyeing. 

Bea'vcrlon, in Alabama, a post-office of Jones co. 

Bea verton, in Illinois, a village of Boone co., about 
12 m. N.E. of Rockford. 

Bea'verton, in Upper Canada, a post-village of York 
co., on Lake Simcoe, at the entrance of Beaverton River, 
75 m. N. by E. of Toronto. 

Bea'vertown, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Sny¬ 
der co., about 14 m. S.W. of New Berlin. 

Bea'ver Valley, in Alabama, a post-office of St. 
Clair co. 

Bea'ver Valley, in Delaware, a P. O. of New Castle co. 

Bea'ver Valley, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Co¬ 
lumbia co. 

Bea'verville, in Illinois, a post-office of Iroquois co. 

Bea'vin's Giilrh. in Montana, a mining district or 
camp, some m. N. of Virginia City. 

Beb'eerine, n. ( Chem .) A white, bitter powder, ob¬ 
tained by the same process as quinine, from the bebeeru. 
Form. C^HoiOg- — The sulphate, occurring in the form 
of shining scales, is used in medicine as atonic and feb¬ 
rifuge. 

Bebeeru, n. (Bot .) See Nectandra. 

Beblind', v. a. To blind. 

Beblub'bered, a. [From be and blubber.] Foul or 
swelled with weeping. 

Beeafieo, (bekfa-fe'ko,) n.; pi. Becaficoes. [It. 6ecca- 
Jico, from beccare, to 
peck, and fico, a fig; 

Sp. becafigo; Fr. bee- 
figue.] (Zobl.) The 
Fig-eater, Sylvia hor- 
tensis, a small bird of 
the warbler family. 

It is an inhabitant of 
the southern part of 
Europe, and princi¬ 
pally of the island of 
Cyprus. It is highly 
prized by gourmands 
for th delicacy of its 
flavor. 


| Becalm, ( be-kdm ',) v.a. To make calm or quiet; to 
still; to appease. 

“ Perhaps prosperity becalmed his breast; 

Perhaps the wind just shifted from the east.”— Pope. 

—To keep from motion, as a ship when without wind. 

A man becalmed at sea.” — Locke. 

Becalm'Dig, n. A calm at sea. 

Became', imp. of Become, q. v. 

Be'can, or Bekan, a parish of Ireland, co. Mayo, in 
the barony of Costello; pop. about 5,000. 

Becancour', in Lower Canada, a village of Nicoletco., 
at the union of the Becancour River with the St. Law¬ 
rence, 80 in. S.W. of Quebec. 

Because, (be-lalz 1 ,) cony. [A. S. be for by, and cause.] 
By cause; for this cause that; ou this account that; for 
the cause or reason next explained. 

Because of, (prep.) On account of; by reason of. 

“ Such as lengthens fibres without breaking, because of the 
state of accretion.” — Arbuthnot. 

Beceabunga, n. [Lat. beccabunga; L. Ger. becke- 
bunge.] See Brooklime. 

Beceafumi,D omenico, (bek-ka-fto'me,) an Italian shep¬ 
herd, u. at Siena, 1484, who became one of the best 
painters of the Sienese school. His St. Sebastian is 
one of the finest pictures in the Borghese Palace, Rome. 
I). 1549. 

Bccca'ria, Cesare Bonesana, Marquis De, an Italian 
political philosopher, b. at Milan, 1738. He is chiefly 
known as author of the celebrated Treatise on Crimes 
and Punishments, which first appeared in 1764, and ad¬ 
vocated great reforms iu criminal legislation. It passed 
through 6 editions in the first two years, and was soon 
read all over Europe. It brought, however, a storm of 
persecution on the author, who was protected by the 
Austrian governor of Milan, and made professor of Po¬ 
litical Philosophy. D. 1793. 

Becea'ria, in Pennsylvania, a township of Clearfield 
co., 16 m. S. of Clearfield. 

Bec'cles, a town of England, co. Suffolk, on the Wave- 
ney, 95 m. N.E. of London, and 13 S.E. of Yarmouth. 
Malting is the principal industry. Pop. 4,64S. 

Bee tie Cnillier. (be c' de kweel’yair,)n. [Fr.] (Surg.) 
An instrument used for the extraction of halls. It con¬ 
sists of an iron rod, 7 or 8 inches long, having at one 
extremity a small cavity,into which the ball is received 
to be drawn outwards. 

Bee Fig’ue, n. (Zobl.) The French name for the Bo- 
cafico and other species of birds of the Warbler family. 

Bechamel, (bish'a-mel,) n. [Fr. bichamelle; Ger. be¬ 
chamel.] (Cookery.) A kind of fine, white broth or 
sauce, thickened with cream. 

Bechance', v. a. [From be and chance.] To befall; to 
happen to. 

“ All happiness bechance to thee at Milan. '—Shales. 

Bechance', adv. By accident; by chance; fortuitously. 

Becharan', v. a. To charm; to captivate. 

Beetle de Mer, (bash' de mar'.) [Fr.] (Zobl.) See 
IIolothuria. 

Becker, John Joachim, (bek'er,) an eminent German 
chemist, b. at Speier, 1630 ; author of the first theory of 
chemistry. He was of a roving disposition, residing 
for some time at Vienna, and assisting iu a variety of 
manufactures; and afterwards at Haarlem, where he 
invented a machine for throwing silk, D. 1684. His 
principal works are, Physica Subterrunea, Institutiones 
Chymicce, and Epistolie Chymicce. 

Bechstein. Johann Matthias, ( bek'stine ,) a celebrated 
German ornithologist, who, intended for the Church, re¬ 
linquished theology for natural history; and, in 1785 
was made professor of the Botanic Institute of Salz- 
mann, at Schnepfenthal. In 1791 he proposed to the 
Duke of Gotha to create a forest-school; but not meet¬ 
ing with success, he resolved to establish one, at his own 
cost, at Kemnote, near Walterhausen. He afterwards 
published a journal devoted to forest science, called 
Diana-, and in 1800 offered his services to the Duke of 
Saxe-Meiningen, who gave him the direction of a bo¬ 
tanic academy, newly founded at Dreissacker. B. at 
Walterhausen, 1757 ; d. 1822. — Bechstein’s whole life 
was spent in enriching natural history with most im¬ 
portant observations. He published many valuable 
works, of which may be named, German Natural His¬ 
tory, Forest Entomology, Complete. Course of Forest Sci¬ 
ence, and the Natural History of Cage-birds, which latter 
has been translated into English, and has passed 
through several editions. 

Beelitelsville, (bek'telz-vil,) in Pennsylvania, a post- 
office of Berks co. 

Beck, n. [A.S. becc; Icel. beckr.] A small stream or 
brook. This word enters into the composition of the 
names of many English places; as Wei beck. Sand beck, &c. 
The German word bach has the same signification, and 
in like manner forms part of the names of various places; 
as Gries&ac/i. 

—[A. S. beacen, beacn..] A sign or signal with the hand or 
head; a nod; implying a command or call. 

“ Quips, and cranks, and wauton wiles, 

Nods, and becks and wreathed smiles.”— Milton. 

— v. i. To make a sign with the head or hand; to nod. 

— v. a. To not ify by a motion of the head or hand, amount¬ 
ing to a call or command. 

Beck, Anthony. See Beke. 

Beek'er. The name of several Germans known as 
writers, poets, musicians, painters, Ac., but whose bi¬ 
ographies do not call for any special notice. 

Beek'er, in Minnesota, a co. in the W.N.W. of the 
State. Area, abt. 1400 sq. m. The Buffalo River, the 
Red River of the North, and other smaller streams, 
drain it. Surface, billy. Pop. 9,400. Cap. Detroit City. 

Beck'ersville. in Pennsylvania, a P. 0. of Berks co 

Bech et,«. ( Naut.) A piece of rope placed so as to I 


confine a spar or another rope ; a handle made of rof* 
in a circular form. 

—A spade for digging turf. 

Beck'et, (St. Thomas A’,) Archbishop of Canterbury, 
the sun of a Loudon merchant, the story that bis mother 
was a convert from Mohammedanism is false. B. 1117, 
and studied at Oxford and Bologna, and entered the 
church. Henry II., in 1158, made B. his Chancellor, and 
in 1162 he was appointed to the primacy. He now laid 
aside all pomp and luxury, and led a life of monastic 
austerity. In the controversy which immediately arose, 
respecting the limits of civil and ecclesiastical authority, 
B. asserted against the king the independence of the 
Church, and refused to sign the “ Constitutions of Clar¬ 
endon.” By a council or parliament, held at North¬ 
ampton, in 1164, B. was condemned and suspended from 
his office. He escaped, in disguise, to France, where he 
obtained the protection of its king. In response to his 
excommunication of the clergy who signed the “ Con¬ 
stitutions,” and some of the king's officers, the king, 
in 1166, banished all the relations of B.. and forbade all 
communication with him. War with France followed. 
Peace was made in 1169, between Henry and Louis, and 
two papal legates, Gratian and Vivian, were sent by 
Pope Alexander III., to settle the dispute with B. The 
conference took place in France, but was fruitless, the 
legates resolutely siding with their co-ecclesiastic. In 
1170, a meeting took place between the king and the 
Archbishop at Fretteville, where they were professedly 
reconciled, and B. returned to Canterbury. He at once 
published the Pope's sentence of suspension against the 
Archbishop of York, and other prelates, who had 
crowned Prince Henry. The king’s angry expressions, 
on learning this, induced four of his barons (Richard 
Brito, Reginald Fitzurse, Hugh de Morville, and Wm. 
Tracy) to go immediately to Canterbury; and after un¬ 
successfully remonstrating with B., they followed him 
into the cathedral, and murdered him on the steps of 
the altar, 31st Dec. 1170. The king der.i°d all share in 
this deed and was absolved; hut in 1174 he did penance* 
at the murdered prelate’s tomb. B. was canonized by 
Alexander III., in 1172. His remains were, in 1220, trans¬ 
lated to a splendid shrine, which attracted crowds of 
pilgrims, and was loaded with rich offerings. This im¬ 
mense treasure was seized by Henry VIII., and the 
shrine destroyed in 1538. 

Beck'et, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Derkshire 
co., 135 m. W. by 8. of Boston. 

Beck'et Centre, in Massachusetts, a post-office of 

Berkshire co. 

Beck'etsville, in Alabama, a small village of Tallae 

poosa co. 

Beckett's Store, in Ohio, a P. 0. of Pickaway co. 
Beck'fortl, William, an English author, b in London, 
1760. He was the sou of a wealthy London merchant, 
was inoculated with a passion for arehitecture and the 
fine arts, and, in erecting the once famous Fonthill A bbey, 
spent in a very few years the sum of $1,365,000. An 
excellent scholar, and possessed of a fine taste in almost 
every branch of art, he collected in his “Abbey” one of 
the finest and most extensive libraries in Europe, and 
his pictures ami objects of virtu werealmost unequalled. 
His vast expenditure, and the loss of a large portion of 
liis West India property, rendered it necessary to sell 
his mansion, which, with all its rich and rare contents, 
was sold in 1822. On this occasion, the catalogues 
alone brought the sum of $36,000. But his chief claim 
to remembrance rests on his Oriental romance of Vathek. 
B. was also the author of many other works, aud d. 
1844. 

Beck'ley, in West Virginia, a village, capital of Raleigh 
co., about 50 m. S.E. of Charleston, and 10 ni. W. of 
New River. 

Beck'ley svi lie, in Maryland, a post-office of Balti¬ 
more co. 

Beck mann, Johann Anton, a German author, b. 1739. 
He was a professor at Gottingen, and his principal work, 
the History of Discoveries and Inventions, has obtained 
a wide celebrity. D 1811 

Beck'on, v. i. To make a sign to another by nodding^ 
winking, or a motion of the hand or finger, Ac. 

“ I see a hand you cannot see, 

Which beckons me away.’ — Tickell. 

—v. a. To nod or make a significant sign to another. 

“ With this his distant friends he beckons near. 

Provokes their duty and prevents their fear.” — Dryden. 

Beck'on, n. A beck; a nod; a sign made without 
speaking; as, “At the first beckon.'' — Lord Boling- 
broke. (r.) 

Beck's Creek, in Illinois, a post-office of Shelby co. 
Becksherick, (bek'she-rik,) two towns of Hungary, 
the Great and the Little., standing on the river Theiss; 
the former 45 in. from Temesvar, and the latter 10 ; pop. 
of the former, 15,317. 

Reek's Mills, in Indiana, a post-office of Washing¬ 
ton co. 

Beck's Mills, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Wash¬ 
ington co. 

Beck’s Station. in Indiana, a P. 0. of Hamilton co. 
Beeiotnl', v.a. To cloud to obscure; to darken; to 
overshadow. 

Become, (be-kum',) v. i. (Imp. became; pp. become.) 
[A. S. becuman — be and cuman; Ger. kommen .] To corns 
to,or come to be; to enter into some state or condition; 
to be; to be made; to he changed to. 

“ So the least faults, if mixed with fairest deed. 

Of future ill become the fatal seed.” - Prior. 

To become of. To be the fate of; to he the end of; t» 
be the subsequent, or final condition of. 

“ Perplex’d with thoughts, what would become 
0/ me, and all mankind.” — Milton. 



Pig. 329. — becafico. 

(Sylvia hortensis.) 








BED 


BEDA 


BEDF 


309 


—»■ a. To go or enter into ; to suit or be suitable to; to 
be appropriate to; to befit; to accord with; to add grace 
to; to be worthy of. 

She . . bowed low, that her right well became. 

And added grace unto her excellence." — Faerie Queene. 

Becom ing', a. That pleases by propriety or fitness; 
fit; suitable; appropriate ; befitting; comely; graceful. 

“ To make up my delight 
No odd becoming graces." — Sir J. Suckling. 

Becom'ingly, adv. After a becoming or proper 
manner. 

Beeom'ingness, n. Congruity ; state or quality of 
being fit. appropriate, or becoming. 

Becquerel, ( bek'ker-el ,) Antoine C£sak, an eminent 
French physician, and member of the Institute; b. 
1788. In early life he served in the French army in 
Spain as an officer of Engineers. In 1816, he resigned 
his commission as “ chef de bataillon ” of the Engineers, 
and devoted himself to scientific pursuits. In 1829, B 
became Professor of Physics in the Museum of Natural 
History. He has been a voluminous writer on chemistry 
and electricity, and his industry in the collecting of 
facts is very remarkable. His principal works are, 
Traite de, V Electricite et du Magnetisme (Paris, 18114—40); 
Traiti d’ Electro-Chimie ; Traitt de. Physique appliquee 
d la Chimie et aux Sciences Naturelles; Elements de Phy¬ 
sique terrestre et de Mltforologie (1847); and Traite de 
V Electricite et du Magnetisme (1?>55). He invented a new 
psychometer in 1886. D. Jan. 1S78. 

Becrip'ple, v. a. To cripple; to lame; to maim, (r.) 

Bec'tive, a parish in Ireland, in the co. Meath. Here 
are the ruins of a fine abbey, built in 1146. 

Bed, n. [A. S. bed; Icel. bed; Du. bedde; Ger. belt. Ety¬ 
mology uncertain.] Something to rest or sleep on; a 
couch ; an article of furniture to sleep or rest on. 

“ Oh I a mighty large bed ! bigger by half than the great bed 
at Ware." — Fctrquhar. 

-Lawful cohabitation; marital connection. 

“ George, the eldest son of this second bed." — Lord Clarendon. 
-A plat of earth in a garden, slightly banked or raised 
above the surrounding level. 

“Herbs will be tenderer and fairer, if you take them out of beds." 

Bacon. 

—The channel of a river, or of any volume of water. 

“Down sunk a hollow bottom, broad, and deep, 

Capacious bed of waters." — Milton. * 

-The superficial earthwork, or ballast of a railway. 

To be brought to bed. To be delivered of a child; often 
used with the particle of; as, “ she was brought to bed of 
a daughter.” 

“ Ten months after Florimel happen'd to wed, 

And was brought in a laudable manner to bed." — Prior. 

To make the bed. To put the bed in order after it has 
been used. 

“I keep his house ... and make the beds and do all myself." Shake. 

To put to bed. To deliver of a child. 

(Hist.) In early ages it was the practice of mankind 
to stretch themselves upon the skins of animals, which 
was the custom of the Greeks and Romans, and of the 
ancient Britons before the Roman invasion; after which 
event, the skins, spread for this purpose on the floors of 
apartments, were changed for heath and rushes; and, in 
the course of time, the introduction of agriculture sup¬ 
plied the more civilized of the English with the greater 
comfort and convenience of straw beds. The beds at the 
inns of this period were filled with the soft down of 
reeds, and those of the Roman patricians with feathers. 
In Wales, as late as the end of the 12th century, the 
beds of the humbler class were stuffed with rushes, and 
straw was used in the royal chambers of England at the 
close of the 13th. Beds appear to have been the chief 
domestic treasures in England during the 14th century, 
and were considered of sufficient importance to be named 
in the wills of the sovereigns and the chief nobility. 
Anne, Countess of Pembroke, for instance, in 1367, gave 
to her daughter abed, “ with the furniture of her father’s 
arms.” Edward, the Black Prince, bequeathed to his 
confessor, Sir Robert de Walsham, a large bed of red 
camora, with his arms embroidered at each corner; 
while to another friend he left another bed of camora, 
powdered with blue eagles; and, in 1385, his widow gave 
“ to my dear son, the king, my new bed of red velvet, 
embroidered with ostrich feathers of silver, and heads 
of leopards of gold, with boughs and leaves issuing out 
of their mouths.” — The great chamber was often used 
as a sleeping-room by night and a reception-room by 
day. Shaw, in his Decorations of the Middle Ages, gives 
the interior of a chamber in which Isabella of Bavaria 
receives from Christine of Pisa her volume of poems. 
The queen is seated on a couch covered with a stuff in 
red and gold, and there is a bed in the room furnished 
with the same material, to which are attached three 
shields of arms. The walls of the chamber were either 
hung with tapestry or painted with historical subjects. 
In the East, the bed was anciently, and is still, a divan, 
or broad low step around the sides of a room, like a low 
sofa, which answered the purpose of a sofa by day for 
reclining, and of a bed by night for sleeping, (Exod. viii. 3; 

2 Sam. iv. 5-7.) Sometimes it was raised several steps 
above the floor, (2 Kings i. 4; Psalms cxxxii. 3.) It was 
covered very differently, and with more or less ornament, 
according to the rank of the owner of the house. The 
poor had but a simple mattress or sheep’s-skin; or a 
cloak or blanket, which also answered to wrap them¬ 
selves in by day, (Exod. xxii. 27 ; Deut. xxi v. 13.) Hence 
it was easy for the persons whom Jesus healed, to take 
up their bed and walk, (Mark ii. 9-11) Bedsteads, how¬ 
ever, were not unknown, though unlike those of modern 
times. (See Deut. iii. 11; 1 Sam. xix. 15; Amos, vi. 4.) 

10 


The Jews only laid off their sandals and outer garments | 
at night. — In our country, as in Europe, the modern bed I 
is a case or sack of ticking, filled with chaff, wool, feath¬ 
ers, or any other soft material, and placed upon a raised 
wooden or iron framework, which is called the bedstead. 

(Hygiene.) Few people, perhaps, give sufficient heed 
to the fact, that, out of the allotted term of man’s life — 
the threescore and ten years of the Scripture,— twentt- 
three tears, at least, are passed in oblivion, in a state 
of unconscious sleep, stretched lethargically in bed, not 
only wasting the oil of life in unprofitable repose, but, 
by excess of inaction, weakening the frame, and impair¬ 
ing it for the responsible duties it is left to perform. 
That the bed is the necessary vehicle for the great natu¬ 
ral medicine of life, — sleep, — no one will deny. It is 
against the abuse of the bed that the few remarks we 
have to make are advanced, — against the manner in 
which it is made to minister to luxurious ease, and en¬ 
courage indolent and enervating habits, and the wanton 
sacrifice of time to which the bed ministers from being 
made so sensually soft and tempting. Were our beds 
more simply fashioned, and made of articles more con¬ 
ducive to health, the hours now wasted in idleness or 
sleep would be most materially abridged, and beneficially 
improved. The modern bed of luxury is so near in all 
its features to the couch of Morpheus, as fabled by the 
Roman poet, that, with its downy feathers, deep and 
sweeping curtains, it seems less the instrument to bodily 
rest and repose than the courted residence of profound 
oblivion. As a general rule, featherbeds are more hurt¬ 
ful than beneficial, by absorbing all the animal impu¬ 
rities given off by the body in sleep, and afterwards re¬ 
turning thorn to the sleeper; and when it is remembered 
how many years a feather bed is used before its feathers 
are cleaned and purified, it seems a marvel that more 
injurious effects are not the consequence. The bed 
should stand with the head to the wall, in the centre of 
the room, raised two feet from the floor; the bottom 
should be made of laths instead of ticking, as admitting 
a freer circulation; a couple of mattresses, the top one 
made of horse-hair and cotton, or wool, or instead, what 
is better, the French spring mattress, will be found more 
conducive to health and rest than a feather or down 
bed. The curtains should never be close drawn round 
the entire bed, and the top of the bed should be open. 
Children, as a rule, should never sleep on feather beds, 
or be closely surrounded by curtains. For the invalid, 
numerous contrivances have been invented, in the shape 
of beds in which both air and water have been employed 
as a sustaining medium ; of the latter, one of the most 
useful is made by filling a series of cylinders of vulcan¬ 
ized India rubber (like bolsters) with water, and con¬ 
fining them together by cords, which, with a sheet and 
blanket over all, makes a light, elastic bed, which has 
the advantage of accommodating itself to every motion 
of the patient’s body. — See Rest, and Sleep. 

(Geol.) A layer; a stratum. — See Stratum. 

(Gunnery.) See Mortar-bed. 

(Masonry.) The beds of a stone are the two surfaces 
which generally intersect the face of the work in hori¬ 
zontal lines, or in lines nearly so; the higher surface is 
called the upper-bed, and the lower the under-bed. In 
the general run of walling, they are the two surfaces 
which are placed level in the building. — In cylindrical 
vaulting, the beds of a stone are those two surfaces 
which intersect the intrados of the vault, in lines parallel 
to the axis of the cylinder. — In conical vaulting, with 
an horizontal axis, they are those two surfaces, which, if 
produced, would intersect the axis of the cone. — The 
bed of a slate is the lower side placed in contiguity with 
the boarding or the rafters.—A bed-moulding is that 
portion of a cornice which is situated immediately below 
the corona. 

(Mech.) The foundation, or solid and fixed part of a 
machine upon which the working parts are fastened; 
as, “ the bed of a lathe; ” “ the bed of an engine.” 

Worcester. 

(Law.) The channel of a stream; the part between 
the banks worn by the regular flow of the water. 
From bed and board. See Divorce. 

Bed, v. a. To lay in a place of rest or security; as, to 
bed a stone. 

'• Let coarse bold hands from slimy nest, 

The bedded fish in banks outwrest." — Donne. 

—To sow or plant: to lay in any hollow place. 

—To lay in horizontal order; to stratify. 

“ Tour bedded hairs, like life in excrements, 

Start up, and stand on end.”— Shake. 

— v. i. To go to bed ; to cohabit with; to use the same bed 
with; to occupy a bed. 

'• They have married me : 

I'll to the Tuscan wars, and never bed her."— Shake. 

Beda. See Bede. 

Bedab'ble, v. a. To moisten; to sprinkle or wet with 
moisture. 

" Bedabbled with the dew, and torn with briars."— Shake. 

Bed'agrat, n. A name applied to the sacred books of 
the Buddhists in Burmah. 

Bedajf'gle, v. a. To bemire ; to soil clothes by letting 
them sweep the ground in walking. 

Bfidarienx, (bed'ah-roo,) a town of France, dep. II e- 
rault, on the Orb, 20 m. N. of Beziers. It is neat and 
well-built, and is one of the most industrious towns of 
its size in France. Manf. Cloth, stuffs, hosiery, hats, 
paper, soap, &c. Pop. 9,995. 

Bedark'en, v. a. To obscure; to darken. 

Bedash', v. a. To bespatter; to bemire by throwing 
dirt upon; to wet with water thrown upon. 

“That all the standers by had wet their cheeks, 

Like trees bedaeh <i with rain.' — Shake. 


Bedaub', v. a. To daub over; to besmear; to soil with 
anything thick or dirty. 

“ Pale, pale as ashes, all bedaub’d in blood."— Shake. 

Bedaz zle, r. a. To dazzle greatly; to confound the 
sight by too strong a light; to make dim by lustre. 

“ My mistaken eyes, 

That have been so bedazzled by the sun."— Shake. 

Bedaz/zlingdy, adv. In such a manner as to bedazzle 

Bed -bug-, n. (ZuSl.) See Bug. 

Bed'-chair, n. A chair for the sick, with a movable 
back, to sustain them while sitting up iu bed. 

Bed'-chamber, n. An apartment or chamber for a 
bed, or for sleep and repose. 

Lords of the B. are officers of the English Royal House¬ 
hold under the Groom of the Stole, (See Groom.) The 
Lords of the B. consist usually of the prime nobility of 
England. Their high office—an object of great ambi¬ 
tion, from the access it gives to the person of the sover¬ 
eign — is performed by ladies called Ladies of the Bed¬ 
chamber, and Bed-chamber Women, in the reign of a 
queen. Queen Victoria has eight Ladies of the Bed-cham¬ 
ber, and three extra; and eight Bed-chamber Women, 
and one extra. In 1839, Sir Robert Peel, on forming a new 
ministry, made the unusual request to be permitted to 
ebauge the ladies of the bed-chamber, a request which 
he said circumstances justified. This being declined, he 
resigned his premiership. 

Bed'clothes, n.pl. Coverlets, blankets, sheets, Ac., 
for a bed. 

“ And in his sleep does little barm, save to his bedclothes about 
him." — Shake. 

Bed'der, Bedet'ter, n. The nether stone of an oil- 
mill. 

Bed ding, n. [A. S. bedding, bedingi] A bed and its 
furniture; a bed; the materials of a bed, whether for 
man or beast. 

“ Aroite return'd, and as in honour tied 
His foe with bedding, and with food supply'd."— Dryden. 

(Geol.) The state or position of beds and layers. 

Bed'dington, in Maine, a township of Washington 
co., about 38 m. E. by N. of Bangor; pop. 134. 

Bede, or Beda, (beed,) surnamed the “ Venerable,” an 
English monk and ecclesiastical historian, b. at Durham, 
678. He was ordained priest about 703, and had already 
obtained a wide reputation for learning and piety. His 
whole life was spent quietly in his monastery at Yarrow, 
devoted to study and writing. His most important work 
is the Ecclesiastical History of England, published about 
734, and highly esteemed as one of the most trustworthy 
sources of early English history. It was written in 
Latin, and was translated into English by Alfred the 
Great. The earliest printed edition appeared in 1474. 
He also wrote, among other works, a Chronicle from the 
Creation to a.d. 725, and he completed a Saxon trans¬ 
lation of the Gospel of St. John on the day he died, 26th 
May, 735. His remains lie in Durham Cathedral, and 
his church at Yarrow was restored in 1866. 

Bedeck', v. a. To deck; to adorn; to grace. 

“ That so bedeck’d, ornate, and gay. ,r — Milton. 

Bedegnar, ( bed'e-gar ,) n. [Per. bdddwardah.] An ex¬ 
crescence, which makes its appearance on different spe¬ 
cies of wild roses, and which is produced by the punc¬ 
ture of a small insect, Cynips rosce. It is lightly as¬ 
tringent, and was formerly employed as a lithontriptic 
and vermifuge. 

Bede'-taouse, n. [A. S. bead, prayer, and house.] An 
alms-house; a dwelling-house formerly set apart for re¬ 
ligious persons dwelling near the church, in which the 
founder was interred, and for whose soul they were re¬ 
quired to pray. 

BedeJ, (bid’l,) n. [L. Lat. bedellus.] An officer of a uni¬ 
versity, whose functions resemble those of a marshal in 
heading processions of dignitaries, students, Ac. This 
term is confined to Oxford and Cambridge universities, 
England. 

Be'delry, n. The limit or extent of a bedel’s functions 

Bedes'mail, n. A prayer-man; a man who prays for 
another. 

Bedevil, (be-dev’l,) v. a. To throw into utter disorder 
and confusion, as if by the agency of evil spirits. 

—To spoil or corrupt. 

Bedev'illed, a. Thrown into utter disorder or con¬ 
fusion. 

‘ Bedevilled . . . worse than St. Bartholomew."— Sterne. 

Bedew, (be-du’,) v. a. To moisten, as if with dew; to 
moisten gently. 

“ Bedew her pasture's grass with English blood." — Shake. 

Bedew'er, n. Any one who, or anything which, bedews. 

Bed fellow, n. One who lies with another in the same 
bed; a bed-companion. 

“ Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellows.'’ — Shake. 

Bed ford, John, Plantagenet, Duke of. Regent of 
France, 3d son of Henry IV. of England, b. 1390. He was 
created Constable of England in 1403, and sent to succor 
Harfleur in 1416. In 1422, Charles VI. of France died, 
and long years of war followed between the rival claim¬ 
ants for the crown, Charles VII. and Henry VI. B. se¬ 
cured the alliance of the Dukes of Burgundy and Brit¬ 
tany, and obtained a long series of military successes. 
The tide turned at the siege of Orleans, w hich was raised 
by Joan of Arc. The Duke of Brittany had previously 
abandoned the English cause; the Duke of Burgundy 
did the same in 1435; and B. died at Rouen, Sept., 1435. 

Bed'ford, John Russell, Duke of. k. g., distinguished 
for his princely patronage of letters, the fine arts, and 
every branch of social industry; b. 1766. He was versed 
in literature, fond of science, and a passionate lover of 
agriculture; to the improvement of which he devoted 
years of his life, and the expenditure of vast sums o/ 









310 


BEDI 


BEDO 


BEE 


money. B., was the father of the celebrated statesman, 
John Bussell ( g.v.) Died in 1839. 

Bed'ford, an inland co. of England, having N. and 
N.W. the counties of Huntingdon and Northampton; S. 
Hertford; E. Huntingdon, and Cambridge; and W. 
Buckingham and Northampton. Area, 295,582 acres, 
of which about 250,000 are arable, meadow and pasture. 
Surface, diversified; soil, fertile. Prod. Cereals and 
beans, ana large quantities of vegetables for the London 
markets. Prin. towns. Bedford, Biggleswade, Leighton, 
Buzzard, Luton, and Dunstable. This county was part 
of the Saxon kingdom of Murcia. Pop. (1895) 166,000, 

Bedford, a borough and cap. of above co., on the Ouse, 
45 m. N.N.W. of London. Manf. Straw-plaiting.—John 
Bun.van was imprisoned from 1‘660 to 1672 in the jail 
here; and in it he wrote the first portion of the Pil¬ 
grim 's Progress. Pop. (1898) 28,023. 

Bed'ford, in Illinois, a post-village of Pike co., on the 
Illinois river, about 54 m. S.E. of Quincy. 

—A village of Henderson co. 

Bed'ford, in Indiana, a flourishing city, the cap. of 
Lawrence co., situated on an elevation, 3 m. from the 
E. fork of the White river, and 75 m. S.S.W. of Indian¬ 
apolis. Pop. (1898) 3,930. 

Bed'ford, in Iowa, a post-town, cap. of Taylor Co., on 
the Chic., Burl. & Quincy K.R., 70 m. S.E. of Council 
Bluffs. Pop. (1898) 2,350. 

Bed'ford, in Kentucky, a township and village, cap. of 
Trimble co., about 40 m. from Frankfort, and 6 from the 
Ohio River. 

Bed'ford, in Massachusetts, a prosperous post-township 
of Middlesex co., on Concord River, 14 m. N.W. of 
Boston. Near the village are mineral springs, with good 
accommodations for visitors. 

Bed'ford, in Michigan, a post-township of Calhoun 
county. 

—A township of Monroe co. 

Bed'ford, in Minnesota, a village of Wright co., on the 
Mississippi River, about 33 m. N.W. of St. Anthony. 

Bed'ford, in Missouri, a post-village of Livingston co., 
on Grand River, about 85 m. E. by S. of St. Joseph. 

Bed'ford. in New Hampshire, a post-township of Hills¬ 
borough co., abt. 20 m. S.E. of Concord. 

Bed'ford, in New York, a village of Saranac township, 
Clinton county, on the Saranac river, 140 m. N. of Al¬ 
bany. 

Bed'ford, in New York, a village and railroad station 
of King’s co., on the Long Island Railroad; now part of 
the borough of Brooklyn, New York. 

Bed'ford, in New York, a thriving post-village of West¬ 
chester co., 125 m. S. by E. of Albany. 

Bed'ford, in Ohio, a post-village and township in Cuya¬ 
hoga county, on the Cleveland and Pittsburg rail¬ 
road. 

—A township of Meigs co. 

—A township in Coshocton co. 

Bed'ford, in Pennsylvania, a S. county bordering on 
Maryland ; area, about 1,000 sq. m. It is intersected by 
numerous streams, among which is the Raystone, a 
branch of the Juniata river. The surface is mountain¬ 
ous, being traversed by many ridges of the Alleghany 
range. The soil is mostly unfit for cultivation, but B. 
is rich in iron ore, and mines of stone coal are exten¬ 
sively worked. Capital, Bedford. 

—A post-borough, cap. of the above county, in a town¬ 
ship of the same name, 104 m. W.S.W. of the city of 
Harrisburg, and a few miles east of the chief eleva¬ 
tions of the Alleghany Mountains.—Distant about a 
mile and a half from the town of Bedford are the 
celebrated saline and sulphurous springs. The princi¬ 
pal, the Mineral or Anderson's Spring, contains carbonic 
acid, sulphate of magnesia, chlorides of calcium and so¬ 
dium, and carbonate of iron, but not in large quantities; 
hence, the main action of the water is diuretic. At some 
distance from the springs, there is a chalybeate water; 
and about 10 m. S.W. of B., at Milliken’s Cove, a strong 
sulphurous spring. The climate of B. is agreeable, and 
the springs are much resorted to. 

Bed ford, in Tennessee, a central co., area about 550 sq. 
m. The surface is undulating, and the soil, extensively 
cultivated, is fertile, and watered by Duck River. Cap. 
Shelbyville. 

Bed'ford, in Virginia, a county bounded N.E. by the 
James River, S.W. by the Staunton River, and N.W. by 
the Blue Ridge Mountains. Here are the splendid Peaks 
of Otter (see Fig. 159), 420 feet above the sea. The 
county is highly picturesque and productive. Capital, 
Liberty. 

Bed'ford City, in Quebec, a post-village of Missisquoi 
co., about 45 m. S.E. of Montreal. 

Bed'ford Island, a coral reef, enclosing a lagoon, In 
the S. Pacific, Lat. 21° 8' 30" S.; Lon. 136° 38' W. 

Bed'ford Level, an E. district of England, comprising 
about 450,000 acres of what is called the “ Fen ” country, 
in the counties of Cambridge (including the whole of 
the Isle of Ely), Suffolk, Norfolk, Huntingdon, North¬ 
ampton, and Lincoln. It was a mere waste of fen and 
marsh, until the time of Charles I., when, in 1634, a char¬ 
ter was granted to Francis, Earl of Bedford, who under- 
to»lc to drain the level, on condition of being allowed 
95,000 acres of the reclaimed land. He accomplished 
the undertaking at an enormous expense, and it now 
forms one of the most fertile and grain-productive dis¬ 
tricts in the kingdom. 

Bed'ford Station, in New York, a post-office of 
Westchester co. 

Be'dias, in Texas, a post-office of Grimes co. 

Bedight, ( he-dlt ',) t>. a. [A.S. dihtan, to set in order.] 
To array or deck with ornaments or finery; to adorn; 
to decorate. 

“ The maiden, fine bedight, Kis love retains." — Qay. 


Bedim', v. a. To make dim; to obscure or darken. 

11 1 have bedimm'd 
The noontide sun." — Shaks. 

Bedizen, ( be-di'zn,)v.a. [Be and dizen. Of uncertain 
etymology.] To dress over-much ; to adorn gaudily; to 
deck showily. 

** Remnants of tapestried hangings . . . with which he had be¬ 
dizened his tatters." — Sir Walter Scott. 

Bed'iain, n. [Corrupted from Bethlehem.] The name of 
an hospital for lunatics, in St. George’s Helds, London, 
originally founded in 1545, in the buildings of a reli¬ 
gious house, called Bethlehem, of which it retained the 
name. The name is often applied in England, in a gen¬ 
eral sense, to any mad-house or lunatic asylum; also to 
a madman, a lunatic, a dweller in Bedlam; and, adjec- 
tively, to anything belonging to a mad-house; as, “A 
bedlam beggar.” — Shaks. 

Bedlamite, n. An inhabitant of a madhouse; a mad¬ 
man. 

“ In these poor bedlamites thyself survey, 

Thyself less innocently mad than they.” — Fitzgerald. 

Beil'maker, n. A person who makes beds. A term 
used principally at the English universities of Oxford 
and Cambridge. 

“ x W as deeply in love with my bedmaker, upon which I was rus¬ 
ticated forever." — Spectator. 

Bed'mar, Alfonso de la Cueva, Marqois of, Cardinal 
Bishop of Oviedo, an eminent Spanish diplomatist; b. 
1572. He was sent ambassador to the republic of Venice 
by Philip III., in 1607, and, in 1618, he took part with 
Don Pedro of Toledo, governor of Milan, and the Duke 
d’Ossuna, then Viceroy of Naples, in a conspiracy to 
overthrow the republic of Venice, by firing the arsenal, 
pillaging the mint and the treasury of St. Mark, and 
massacring the Doge and senators. The plot failed, 
and many Frenchmen and Spaniards were arrested and 
executed. B. was allowed to retire. He was created 
cardinal in 1622, was afterwards Spanish governor of the 
Netherlands, made himself detested by the Flemings, 
and retired to Rome, where he d. 1655. 

Bed'millSter, in New Jersey, a township of Somerset 
co. 

Bed'minster, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of 
Bucks co., 35 m. N. of Philadelphia. 

Bed'-moulding, n. (Arch.) See Bed. 

Bednore, (bed-nore',)& town of Hindostan, cap. of adist. 
of Mysore; Lat. 13° 50' N., Lon. 75° 6' E.; 150 m. N.W. 
of Seringapatam, and 360 W.N.W. of Madms. It is 
situated on one of the best roads in the W. Ghauts, 
which leads from Mangalore. When Hyder Ali took it, 
in 1763, it was said to be 8 m. in circumference, and it 
afforded him considerable plunder. In 1783, it was taken 
by the English, who, in the following year, were dis¬ 
lodged by Tippoo Saib. It has no manufactures, but 
possesses an increasing trade. 

Bed of Justice, [Fr., Lit de Justice.] (Hist.) Literally, 
the seat or throne upon which the king of France was 
accustomed to sit when personally present at parlia¬ 
ments. From this original meaning, the expression 
came, in course of time, to denote a solemn proceeding 
resorted to by the monarch, in order to carry some 
measure against the will of the parliament. A bed of 
justice was a solemn session of the king in the parlia¬ 
ment, for the purpose of registering or promulgating 
edicts as ordinances. According to the principle of the 
old French constitution, the authority of the parliament, 
being derived entirely from the crown, ceased when the 
king was present; and consequently all ordinances en¬ 
rolled at a bed of justice were acts of the royal will, and 
of more authenticity and effect than decisions of par¬ 
liament. The ceremony of holding a bed of justice was 
as follows: — The king was seated on the throne, and 
covered; the princes of the blood-royal, the peers, and 
all the several chambers were present. The marshals 
of France, the chancellor, and the other great officers 
of state, stood near the throne, around the king. The 
chancellor, or, in his absence, the keeper of the seals, 
declared the object of the session, and the persons 
present then deliberated upon it. The chancellor then 
collected the opinions of the assembly, proceeding in 
the order of their rank; and afterwards declared the 
determination of the king in the following words: “Ze 
roi, en son lit de justice, a ordonne et ordonne qu'il sera 
procedi <1 Venregistrement des lettres sur lesguelles on <1 
deliberi.” The last bed of justice was assembled by Louis 
XVI., at Versailles, on the 6th of August, 1788, at the 
commencement of the French Revolution, and was in¬ 
tended to enforce upon the parliament of Paris the 
adoption of the obnoxious taxes, which had been pre¬ 
viously proposed by Calonne, at the Assembly of No¬ 
tables. 

Bedouins, Bedoweens, n. pi., (bed'on-een.) [Fr. bidou- 
ins; Ar. beddwi, rural, dwelling in the desert, from badd, 
to lead a nomadic life.] Numerous and warlike tribes of 
Arabs, who dwell in the deserts of Arabia, Egypt, and 
N. Africa. They are supposed to be the descendants of 
Ishmael the “ wild man,” whose “ hand was against every 
man, and every man’s hand against him,” (Gen. xvi 12,) 
B. c. 1920. The Bedouins live at a distance from cities 
and villages, in families under sheikhs, or in tribes under 
emirs. Their dwellings are huts, tents, ruins, and cav¬ 
erns. With their herds and their beasts of burden, which 
carry what little property they possess, they wander in 
search of fresh water and pasture. They are good horse¬ 
men, and generally fond of hunting. The more peaceful 
tribes exchange horses and fat cattle for arms and cloth 
with neighboring nations. Other hordes are open rob¬ 
bers ; and it is dangerous to travel through their coun¬ 
try without a guard or a passport, which the different 
chiefs sell. Terrible encounters have been the conse¬ 
quence of travellers refusing to part with their property 


without resistance. Notwithstanding this, even the 
predatory Bedouins hold the rites of hospitality sacred; 
and the most defenceless enemy is sure of their protec¬ 
tion if they have once allowed him shelter. But the 
Bedouin considers every one his enemy who is not his 
brother, kinsman, or ally. Ever careful of his own 
safety, he attacks no camp or caravan unless sure of his 
superiority. To a determined resistance he yields, and 
saves himself by speedy flight. A terror to neighboring 
nations, the rapacious Bedouin lives in a state ot constant 
watchfulness, — poor, ignorant, wild, rude, but free and 
proud of his liberty. He is remarkable for a temperance 
in diet amounting almost to abstinence. His mode of 
life has undergone little change since the time of Moses, 
(b. c. 1571-1451,) and Mohammed, (a. d. 570-632,) but 
since the conquest of Northern Africa in the 7th century, 
the Bedouin has enjoyed a wider field for rapine, which 
extends from Arabia to the Atlantic Ocean. 

Bed'-paii, n. A necessary utensil ibr the service of a 
bed-ridden person. 

Bed'-pieee, Be<l-plate, n. (Mach.) The foundation- 
plate of an engine, a lathe, Ac. 

Bed'post, n. A post at the corner of a bed. 

Bfdrag'gle, v. a. [be and draggle.] To soil in the dirt, 
as garments, &c. 

“ Poor Patty Blount, no more be seen 
Bedraggled in my walks so green.” — Swift. 

Bedrench', v. a. To drench; to soak with water; to 
wet through. 

Bed'rid, Bedrid'den, a. [A. S. bedrida.] Confined 
to the bed by age or infirmity. 

*• Lies he not bedrid l ”— Shaks. 

Bed right, Bed'rite, n. The privilege of the marriage- 
bed. 

“ Whose vows are that no bedrite shall be paid 
Till Hymen’s torch be lighted." — Shaks. 

Bed'room, n. A sleeping apartment ; a lodging-room. 

Bedrop', v. a. To sprinkle, as with drops. 

Bed'-side, n. The side of the bed. 

Bed'-site, n. A place set apart in a room for a bed. 

Bed'staff, n. A wooden pin formerly used to stick in 
the sides of a bedstead, to hold the clothes in a fixed 
position. 

" Hostess, accommodate us with a bedstaff." — Ben Jonson. 

Bed stead, n. A frame for supporting a bed. 

” Chimneys with scorn rejecting smoke; 

Stools, tables, chairs, and bedsteads broke.” — Swift. 

Bed'-steps, n. pi. Steps for mounting an unusually 
high bed. 

Bed'-straw, n. Straw used for beds. 

(Bot.) The Galium verum, used formerly to fill beds 
with straw. See Galium. 

Betl'swerver, n. One who is false to the marriage- 

bed; one who swerves from his proper bed. 

“She’s a bedswerver, even as bad as those 
That vulgars give the boldest titles to.” — Shaks. 

Bed'-tick, n. A case of linen or cotton cloth, used for 
containing the feathers, or other material, that consti¬ 
tutes a bed. 

Bed'-time, n. The hour of going to rest; the usual 
time of retiring to sleep. 

“ I would it were bed-time , Hal, and all well.” — Shaks . 

Bed lick', v. a. To duck in water; to immerse. 

Bed ling;', v. a. To cover, or manure with dung. 

Bed list', v. a. To sprinkle or cover with dust. 

Bed'ward, adv. Toward bed. 

“ As merry as when our nuptial day was done. 

And tapers burnt to bedward.” — Shaks. 

Bedwarf, v. a. To stunt; to hinder in growth; to 
make little. 

Bed'-work, n. Work done in bed; work performed 
without manual toil. 

“ They call this bedwork, mapp’ry, closet war.”— Shaks. 

Bedye', v. a. To dve or stain. 

Bee, n. [A. S. beo, probably from buan, byan, to inhabit, 
to dwell; Du. bye; Lat. apis; Fr. abeille.] (Zool.) The 
generic name of a family of Hymenopterous insects, for 
the classification of which, see Apid,e. — Of all the in¬ 
sect tribe, none have more justly excited the attention 
and admiration of mankind than the Bee; and yet, al¬ 
though it has engaged the study of naturalists for two 
thousand years, we still occasionally find, in the economy 
of this social and industrious little animal, some obscurely 
known or unelucidated fact, which is thought worthy of 
the labors of those who devote their time and abilities 
to the pursuitandadvancementof this interesting branch 
of natural science. — The most important species is the 
Honey* Bee, or Hive Bee , Apismellifica, so long celebrated 
for its wonderful polity, the neatness and precision with 
which it constructs its cells, and the diligence with which 
it provides during the warmth of summer a supply of 
food for the support of the hive during the rigors of the 
succeeding winter. In its natural state, the Honey-Bee 
generally constructs its nests in hollow trees; but so 
universally is it now domesticated that we rarely find it 
otherwise than hived in our country, where they have 
been probably imported early from Europe. — Honey 
and wax are the two valuable articles of commerce for 
which we are indebted to this useful insect. Now, if we 
examine the structure of the common Bee. the first re¬ 
markable part which presents itself is the proboscis, 
ligula or tongue. It is an instrument serving to extract 
honey from flowers, and is adapted both for lapping 
and sucking; is tubular in form, though not strictly a 
tube, and complicated in structure. When thus sucked 
or lapped up out of the nectary, the honey is conveyed 
to the honey sac, which corresponds to the crop in other 
insects, where it undergoes but little if any change, and 
is transferred or disgorged into the cells destined to re¬ 
ceive it. While the bee is busy extracting the. sweets of 







BEE 


BEE 


BEE 


311 


the flowers, it becomes covered with the farina or pollen 
of the anthers; this pollen it wipes off with the brushes 
of its legs, collects every particle together, and kneads 
it into two little masses, which it lodges on the broad 



Fig. 330. — no vet-bee. 

Lite male, or Drone; 2 the neuter,or Worker; 3 the female,or Queen. 

surface of the tibia of each hind leg, where a series of 
elastic hairs over-arches a concavity, and acts as a sort 
of lid or covering, (d. Fig. 331.) Thus employed, the 
Bee flies from flower to flower, increasing its store of 
honey, and adding to its stock of kneaded pollen, which 
is called bee-bread. The abdomen is divided into six an- 
nulations or rings, which are capable of being contracted 
or extended at pleasure; and the insect is internally fur¬ 
nished with a honey-bag, a venom-bag, and a sting. The 
honey-bag, which is as transparent as crystal, contains 
the honey which the bee has brushed from the flowers, 
the greatest part of which is carried to the hive, and 
poured into the cells of the honeycomb, while the re¬ 
mainder serves for the bee’s own nourishment. Wax is 
a peculiar secretion in little cells beneath the scales of 
the abdomen. It is from honey that the wax, by some 
internal process, is elaborated. The wax oozes out be¬ 
tween the abdominal rings, in the form of little laminae; 



a 

Fig. 331. 


а. Proboscis of the hive-bee. 

c. The tongue. 

б. The hinder-leg of the worker-bee. 

d. The part on which the pollen is carried. 

(Magnified.) 

it is then worked with the mouth, and kneaded with sa¬ 
liva that it may acquire the requisite degree of dnctility 
for the construction of the comb, which is finished with i 
a substance called propolas, a glutinous or gummy resin¬ 
ous matter procured from the buds of certain trees.—The 
sting is composed of three parts; namely, the sheath, 
and two extremely small and penetrating darts, each of 
which is furnished with several points, or barbs, which, 
rankling in the wound, render the sting more painful. 
This instrument, however, would prove but a feeble 


weapon, if the bee did not poison the wound. The sharp- 
pointed sheath first enters, and this being followed by 
the barbed darts, the venomous fluid is speedily injected. 
Sometimes the sheath sticks fast in the flesh, and is left 
behind; but the death of the bee invariably follows.— 
Having examined the bee singly, we now proceed to an 
inquiry into its habits as a member of asocial community. 
Viewed in this light, we behold an animal active, vigiiant, 
laborious, aud disinterested ; subject to regulations, and 
perfectly submissive. All its provisions are laid up for 
the community; and all its arts are employed in build¬ 
ing a cell, designed for the benefit of posterity —A bee- 
hivecontains three kinds of individuals,—a queen, drones, 
and workers; the queen is a female, and not only the 
ruler, but in great part the mother of the community; 
the drones are males, and the workers are abortive fe¬ 
males. The sole office of the queen appears to be the 
laying of eggs, and this occupies her almost incessantly, 
as a single one only is deposited in each cell, thus caus¬ 
ing her to be in continual motion ; she is slow and ma¬ 
jestic in her movements, and differs from the workers in 
being larger, having a longer body, shorter wings, and a 
curved sting. The queen is accompanied by a guard 
of workers, an office which is taken in turn, but 
never intermitted ; in whatever direction she wishes to 
travel, these guards clear the way before her, always with 
the utmost courtesy turning their faces towards her; and 
when she rests from her labors, approaching her with 
humility, licking her face, mouth, aud eyes, and appear¬ 
ing tofondleher with their antenuse. — The drones are all 
males; they are smaller than the queen, but larger than 
the workers; they live on the honey of flowers, but 
bring none home, and are wholly useless, except as being 
the fathers of the future progeny; when this office is 
accomplished, they are destroyed by the workers. A 
buzzing commences in the hive, the drones and the 
workers sally forth together, grapple each other in the 
air, hug and scuffle for a minute, during which operation 
the stings of the workers are plunged into the sides of 
the drones, who, overpowered by the poison, almost in¬ 
stantly die. — The workers are the smallest bees in the 
hive, and by far the most numerous: they have a longer 
lip for sucking honey than either of the others; their 
thighs are furnished with a brush for the reception of the 
pollen of flowers, and their sting is straight. The work¬ 
ers do the entire work of the community; they build the 
cells, guard the hive and the queen, collect and store the 
houev, elaborate the wax, feed the young, kill the drones, 
&c. The average number of these three kinds of bees 
in a hive is, one queen, 200 drones, Mid 30.000 to 
40,000 workers, or six to eight quarts by measurement. 
The eggs are long, slightly curved, and of a pearly 
white color; when laid, they are covered with a 
glutinous matter, which instantly dries, attaching them 
to the bottom of the cell. The queen, under normal 
conditions, lays all the eggs, and is capable of deposit¬ 
ing as many as four thousand in a day. she ordinarily 
mates but once, flying from the hive, from which the 
male or drone bees follow. Seminal fluid, sufficient to 
impregnate the eggs she will lay in from three to five 
years, is stored in a sac at the time of mating. She is 
able to control the opening of the sac so that the eggs 
may or may not be fertilized. If fertilized, they develop 
workers or queens, according to the quality aud kind 
of food given to the young or larvae; then the pro¬ 
duction of queens or workers also depends on the size 
or shape of the cell in which they are developed. If 
not fertilized, they produce drones or males. The time 
it takes to develop also influences the production of 
queens, workers or drones, the tjueen being produced 
in 15%. the workers in 21 and the drone in 24 days 
from the oviposition to the imago or adult state. The 
eggs hatch in a few days, and produce little white mag¬ 
gots, which immediately open their mouths to be fed; 
these the workers attend to with untiring assiduity. 
In six days each maggot fills up its cell; it is then 
roofed in by the workers, spins a silken cocoon, and be¬ 
comes a chrysalis. When the queen-bee has an inclina¬ 
tion to deposit her eggs, she goes forth, accompanied by 
six or eight working bees as a guard, whose stomachs 
are filled with honey. She is very deliberate in her mo¬ 
tions, and seems to proceed with great caution. She first 
looks into a cell, and if she finds it perfectly empty, she 
draws up her long body, inserts her tail into the cell, 
and deposits an egg. In this way she slowly proceeds 
till she has dropped ten or twelve eggs, when, perhaps 
feeling exhausted, she is fed by one of the attendant bees, 
who have surrounded her all the time. This is done 
by the bee ejecting the honey from its stomach into the 
mouth of the queen. tVheu this has been done, the bee 
goes awaj', ami another takes its place. The operation 
of laying her eggs again goes on, and is succeeded by the 
same mode of feeding,—the attendant bees frequently 
touching the antennae of the queen with their own. 
When the operation of laying the eggs is completed— 
and it generally occupies some time—the queen retires 
to that part of the hive which is most filled with bees. 
During her progress, the surface of the comb is very 
little intruded upon, and the space seems purposely to be 
left unoccupied. Some few of the cells, however, in a 
brood-comb, are passed over by the queen, and after¬ 
wards filled either with honey or farina. These serve 
as deposits of food, from which the neighboring brood: 
may be fed more readily, as such cells are never covered 
with wax. — The queen, for nearly a year, lays no 
eggs that are destined to produce queens; it there¬ 
fore follows that, if any evil befall her, the hive 
is left without a queen. It sometimes happens that 
she dies, or is taken away by the owner of the 
hive, to observe the result. For twelve hours, little 
notice is taken of the loss; it appears not to be known. 


and' the workers labor as usual. After that period, a 
hubbub commences; work is abandoned; the whole 
hive is in an uproar; every bee traverses the hive at 
random, and with the most evident want of purpose. 
This state of anarchy sometimes continues for two days; 
then the bees gather in clusters of a dozen or so, as 
though engaged in consultation, the result of which 
seems to be a fixed resolution to supply her loss. A few 
of the workers repair to the cells in which are deposited 
the eggs of the workers; three of these cells are quickly 
broken into one, the edges polished, and the sides 
smoothed and rounded, a single egg being allowed to re¬ 
main at the bottom. When this egg hatches, the mag¬ 
got is fed with a peculiarly nutritive food, called royal 
bee-bread, which is never given t;o any maggots, but 
such as are to produce queens. Work is now resumed 
over the whole hive, and goes on as briskly as before; 
on the sixteenth day the egg produces a aueen, whose 
appearance is hailed with every demonstration of de¬ 
light, and who at once assumes sovereignty over the 
hive. When, under ordinary circumstances, a young 
queen emerges from the chrysalis, the old one frequently 
quits the hive, heading the first swarm for the season, 
and flying to some neighboring resting-place, is observed 
by the owner, captured, placed under a new hive, and a 
new colony is immediately commenced. Before a swarm 
leaves the hive, sure indications are given of the in¬ 
tended movement; the workers leave their various oc¬ 
cupations and collect in groups, especially near the 
door of the hive, as though in consultation on the im¬ 
portant event about to take place.— As the summer ad¬ 
vances, many queens are hatched, but the workers do 
not allow them instant liberty, as severe battles would 
take place between them and the reigning queen, in 
which one would be killed; the workers, therefore, 
make a small hole in the ceiling of the royal cell, 
through which the captive queen thrusts her tongue, 
and receives food from the workers. In this state of 
confinement the young queen utters a low querulous 
note, which has been compared to singing. When the 
reigning, or newly created queen, finds one of these cap¬ 
tives, she uses every effort to tear open the cell and de¬ 
stroy her rival. To prevent this, the workers often in¬ 
terpose, pulling her away by the legs and wings; to this 
elie submits for a short time, when, uttering a peculiar 
cry, called hei; voice of sovereignty, she commands in¬ 
stant attention and obedience, and is at once freed from 
her assailants. The cocoons spun by the maggots of 
the workers and drones completely envelop the chry¬ 
salis; but that spun by the maggot of the queen ap¬ 
pears imperfect, covering only the upper end of the 
chrysalis. It has been supposed that they are thus de¬ 
signedly exposed to the attacks of other queens, and 
their destruction, before emerging, facilitated. When 
the chrysalis of the queen is about to change to a per¬ 
fect insect, the bees make the cover of the cell thinner 
by gnawing away part of the wax; and with so much 
nicety do they perform this operation, that the cover 
at last becomes pellucid, owing to its extreme thinness. 
—The combs of a bee-hive comprise a congeries of 
hexagonal cells, built by the bees as a receptacle for 
honey, and for the nurseries of their young; each comb 
in a hive is composed of two ranges of cells, backed 
against each other. The base or partition between this 
double row of cells is so disposed as to form a pyra- 
midical cavity at the bottom of each. There is a con¬ 
tinued series of these double combs in every well-filled 
hive—the spaces between them being just sufficient to 
allow two bees, one on the surface of each comb, to pass 
without touching. Each cell is hexagonal, the six sides 
being perfectly equal. This figure ensures the greatest 
possible economy of material and space; the outer edges 
of the cells are slightly thickened, in order to gain 
strength; the same part is also covered with a beautiful 
varnish, which is supposed to give additional strength. 
The construction of several combs is generally going on 
at the same time; no sooner is the foundation of one 
laid, with a few rows of cells attached to it, than a sec¬ 
ond and a third are founded on each side, parallel to the 
first, and so on till the hive is filled — the combs which 
were commenced first being always in the most advanced 
state, and therefore the first completed. The design 
of every comb is sketched out, and the first rudiments 
laid by a single bee. This foundress-bee forms a block 
out of a rough mass of wax, drawn partly from its ow n 
resources, but principally from those of other bees, 
which furnish wax from small sacs, in which it has been 
secreted, that are situated between the segments of the 
body of the bee; taking out the plates of wax with their 
hind-feet, and carrying it with their fore-feet to their 
mouths, where it is moistened, masticated, and rendered 
soft and ductile. The foundress-bee determines the rela¬ 
tive position of the combs, and their distance from each 
other, the foundations which she marks serving as 
guides to the ulterior labors of the wax-working bees, 
and of those who build the cells, giving them the ad¬ 
vantage of the margins and angles already formed. The 
mass of wax prepared by the assistants is applied by the 
foundress-bee to the roof or bottom of the hive, and 
thus a slightly double convex mass is formed; when of 
sufficient size, a cell is sculptured on one side of it by 
the bees, who relieve one another in the labor. At the 
back, and on each side of this first cell, two others are 
sketched out and excavated. By this proceeding the 
foundations of two cells are laid, the line betwixt them 
corresponding with the centre of the opposite cells. As 
the comb extends, the first excavations are rendered 
deeper and broader; and when a pyramidal base is fin¬ 
ished. the bees build up walls from its edges, so as to 
complete what may be called the prismatic part of the 
cell. The cells intended for the drones are considerably 

















312 


BEEC 


BEEF 


BEEM 


larg__ aud more substantial than those for the workers, 
anil being formed subsequently, they usually appear 
nearer the bottom of the combs. Last of all are built 
the royal cells for the queens. Of these there are usu¬ 
ally three or four, sometimes ten or twelve in a hive, 
attached completely to the central part, but not unfre- 
quently to the edge of the comb. The form of the royal 
cells is an oblong spheroid, tapering gradually down¬ 
wards, and having the exterior full of holes. The mouth 
of the cell, which is always at the bottom, remains opeD 
until the maggot is ready for transformation, and it is 
then closed like the rest. When the queen has emerged, 
the cell in which she was reared is destroyed, and its 
place is supplied by a range of common cells. The 
site of this range may be always traced by that part 
of the comb being thicker than the rest, and forming a 
kind of knot. The common breeding-cells of drones 
and workers are occasionally made the depositories of 
honey; but the cells are never sufficiently cleansed to 
preserve the honey undeteriorated. The finest honey 
is stored in new cells constructed for the purpose of 
receiving it, their form precisely resembling that of the 
common breeding-cells. These honey-cells vary in size, 
being larger or smaller according to the productiveness 
of the sources from which the bees are collecting, and 
according to the season. It is remarkable that all ani¬ 
mals which have been long under the protection of 
man seem to lose a part of their natural sagacity. In 
those countries where the bees are wild, and unprotect¬ 
ed by man, they are always sure to build their waxen 
cells in the hollows of trees; but with us they appear 
improvident in their choice, and the first green branch 
which stops their flight, is deemed sufficient for their 
abode. It does not even appear that the queen chooses 
the place where they are to alight; for numbers of the 
swarms, when they conceive a predilection for any par¬ 
ticular branch, spontaneously settle on it; others fol¬ 
low their example, and at last the queen herself, finding 
the majority of the swarm convened together, conde¬ 
scends to place herself among them. The queen being 
settled, the rest of the swarm soon flock around her, 
and in about a quarter of an hour the whole body seems 
to be perfectly at rest. When a hive sends out several 
swarms in a year, the first is always the best, as well as 
the most numerous; for, having the greatest part of the 
summer before them, they have the more time for mak¬ 
ing wax and honey, and consequently their labors are 
the most valuable to their proprietor. Though the 
swarm is principally made up of the younger bees, those 
of all ages generally compose the number of emigrants; 
and as a single hive sometimes contains upwards of 
40,000 inhabitants, such a vast body may well be sup¬ 
posed to work with great expedition. 

Bee, n. A body or gathering of persons, who, through 
mere benevolence, meet at one time and unite in doing 
a job of work, or contributing articles of necessity for 
the benefit of a newly settled person or family. [Canada 
and U. States.] 

(Mas.) A combination of reeds, connected with the 
mouthpiece of an oboe, and other similar wind instru¬ 
ments. 

—pi. ( Naul.) Pieces of plank bolted to the outer end. 
of a ship’s bowspirit, used to reeve the foretopmast-stays 
through. 

Bee, in Texas , a S. county, watered by the streams 
Aransas, Blanco, Medio, Papelota, and Chiltepin. Area. 
about 1,000 sq. m. Soil, light, sandy, aud generally poor. 
Cap. Beeville. Pop. (1898 ) 7,500. 

Bee'be Plain, in Vermont, a post-office of Orleans co. 

Bee'be Springs, in Alabama, a village of Etowah co. 

Kee'-hird. n. (Z.ijl.) See Fly-catcher. 

Bee Branch, in Arkansas, a P. O. of Van Buren co. 

Bee'-bread, n. [bee and bread.] A brown, bitter sub¬ 
stance, the pollen of flowers collected by bees, as food 
for their young. 

Beech, n. [A. S. be.ee, boc; Ger. buche ; Uat.fagus; Gr. 
phegos, from phago, to eat.] (But.) A forest-tree, genus 
Fagos, q . v . 

Beech, in Missouri, a post-office of Dunklin «,o. 

Beech Creek, in Pennsylvania , a post-township of 
Clinton co. 

Beechen, ( betch'n,) a. Pertaining to the beech ; con¬ 
sisting of the wood or bark of the beech. 

Beech'er, Catherine Esther, an American authoress, 
and eldest daughter of Dr. Lyman Beecher, b. 1800. For 
10 years she was directress of a ladies’ seminary at Hart¬ 
ford, Conn., during which time she published a Manual 
of Arithmetic and a series of elementary books of in¬ 
struction in Theology, and Mental and Moral Philosophy. 
In 1832, she removed with her father to Cincinnati, and 
for two years acted as principal of an institution devoted 
to female instruction in that city. Being compelled by 
failing health to resign this labor, Miss B. devised a 
plan for the promotion of female Christian education, 
through a National Board, with normal schools and com¬ 
petent teachers. The completion of this scheme has 
been the object of her life, and for its promotion she 
has written, among other works. Domestic Service; Duty 
of American Women to their Country, Treatise on Do¬ 
mestic Economy ; Physiology and Calisthenics (1856); 
and Common Sense applied to Religion (1857). D. 1878. 

Beecher, Charles, an American divine and writer, 
b. 1815, brother of the preceding. His works include 
the Incarnation, or Pictures of the Virgin and her Son 
(1849); Pen Pictures of the Bible (1855), &c. 

Beech'er, Edward, d.d., an American divine and po¬ 
lemical writer, and elder brother of the preceding, was 
b. in ii804, and graduated at Yale in 1S22, in which uni¬ 
versity ho was appointed tutor in 1825. He filled the 
office of pastor at Park Street Chapel, Boston, from 1826 
to 1831j that of President of linois College, Jackson¬ 


ville, 1831-1844, and pastor at Salem Street Church, 
Boston, 1846^56. He was. in 1864, pastor of a church 
at Galesburg, Ill., and was author of Baptism, its Imports 
and Modes; The Conflict of Ages, &c. Died in 1896. 

Beech'er, Harriet. See Stowe. 

Beech'er, Henry Ward, an eminent American author 
and divine, and another scion of a highly gifted family, 
b. in 1813, at Litchfield, Conn. He graduated at Am¬ 
herst College in 1834, and studied theology under his 
father, Dr. Lyman Beecher, at Lane Seminary. He first 
settled as a Presbyterian minister atLaurenceburg, Ind., 
in 1837, removed in 1839 to Indianapolis, and became 
Pastor of the Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, N. Y., an or¬ 
ganized body of worshippers calling themselves “ Ortho¬ 
dox Congregational Believers,” in 1847. In 1850 he pub¬ 
lished Lectures to Young Men, and Industry and Idle¬ 
ness ; in 1855, The Star Papers, a series of articles con¬ 
tributed to the “ New York Independent,” and, in 1858, 
a second series of the same. Life Thoughts, 25,000 copies 
of which were sold soon after publication, appeared in 
1858. B. is said to have had the largest and wealthiest 
uniform congregation in the U. S., and he wasalso very 
popular as a public lecturer. In April, 1865, he was 
requested by the U. S. government to deliver an oration 
at Fort Sumter, on the anniversary of its fall, and the 
replacing upon it of the national flag. He edited the 
Christian Union from 1870 to 1881. His Life of Jesus and 
Yale Lectures on Preaching are among his latest works. 
A complete ed. of B.’s Sermons was pub. in 1870. D. 1887. 

Beech'er, Lyman, d.d., an American divine and miscel¬ 
laneous writer, distinguished not only for his own per¬ 
sonal merits, but as the father of the gifted subjects of 
the five preceding notices, was b. at New Haven, Conn., 
in 1775. After being educated at Yale, he studied the¬ 
ology under the auspices of President Dwight, aud, in 
1798, was ordained and settled at East Hampton, Long 
Island. He removed to Litchfield, Conn., in 1810, where 
he remained till 1826; during which period of time he 
was engaged in the promotion and furtherance of many 
works tending to religion and education. In the last- 
named year, he became Pastor of the llanover Street 
Church, Boston, and remained so until 1832, when he be¬ 
came Pres, of the Lane Theological Seminary at Cincin¬ 
nati. This appointment he resigned in 1842, and retired 
to Boston, and eventually to Brooklyn, where he D. 10th 
Jan., 1863. His chief writings consist of sermons and 
addresses, and a work on Political Atheism. A collec¬ 
tion of his literary labors was published in Boston, in 
1852. His Autobiography and Correspondence, edited by 
his son, Rev. II. W.Beecher, in 2 vols., was publishedin 
New York, in 1864-5. 

Beech'ey, Frederick William, an Arctic explorer and 
author, a. in London, 1796. He entered the navy early 
in life, and in 1818-19 took part in the great Arctic ex¬ 
peditions under Sir John Franklin and Sir Edward 
Parry. In 1S21 he surveyed the N. coast of Africa. In 
1825 he commanded in another Polar expedition, and 
the results of this voyage, which lasted three years, 
were published under the title of Narrative of a Voyage 
to the Pacific and Behring's Straits, to Cooperate with the 
Polar Expedition in 1825-8; and largely contributed to 
the progress of geographical enterprise and physical 
science. In 1856, he was elected President of the Royal 
Geographical Society. D. 1856. 

Beech Fork, in Kentucky, a P. O. of Washington co. 

Beech'g’all, n. An excrescence on the leaf of a beech, 
which contains the maggot of a fly. 

Beech Grove, in Indiana, a post-office of Rush co., 
about 35 m. E. by S. of Indianapolis. 

Beech Grove, in Tennessee, a vill. of Coffee co. 

Beech Hill, in West Virginia, a P. O. of Mason co. 

Beech Band, in Kentucky, a P. O. of Washington co. 

Beech Band, in Ohio, a post-office of Licking co. 

Beech'-must, n. The fruit or nuts of the beech-tree. 

Beech'-oil, n. The expressed oil of the mast of the 
beech. 

Beech Spring:, in Virginia, a post-office of Lee co. 

Beecli'-tree, n. The beech. 

Beech'wood. in Wisconsin, a P. 0. of Sheboygan co. 

Beech Woods, in Arkansas, a P. O. of Newton co. 

Beech'y , a. Made of beech. 

Beechy Mire, in Indiana, a post-village of Union co. 

Bee Creek, in Illinois, a post-office of Pike co. 

Bee Creek, in Missouri, a village of Platt co., 35 m. 
N.W. of Independence. 

Bee'der. a large prov. of Hindostan, in the Deccan; 
chiefly between Lat. 17° and 20° N., having on the N. 
Aurungabad and lierar; E. Hyderabad and Gundwana; S. 
Hyderabad, and W. Beejapoor and Aurungabad; it is in¬ 
cluded in the Nizam’s dominions, and divided into 7 dis¬ 
tricts. It is hilly but not mountainous, and watered by 
many rivers, of which theManjera and Godavery are the 
chief, and is generally fertile. It is but thinly peopled, 
the Hindoos being to the Mohammedans as three to one; 
before the conquest by tin' latter it was comparatively 
populous. Three languages, the Telinga, Mahratta, and 
Canarese, are spoken. The Bliainenee dynasty reigned 
here after the Mohammedan conquest, and fixed on 
the city of Beeder as the capital. The Moguls conquered 
it at the end of the 17th, and the Nizam early in the 
18th century, whose successors now hold it. 

Beeder, a fortified city, and cap. of the above prov., 13 m. 
N.W. of Hyderabad, and 325 E.S.E. of Bombay. It pos¬ 
sesses some fine architectural remains, and was formerly 
famous for its tutenague ware. 

Bee'-eater, re. ( Zool .) The Merops apiaster, a bird that 
feeds upon bees. See Meropid*. 

Beef, n. [Fr. bceuf; Lat. bos, bovis; Gr. bcrus, probably 
from boskd, to feed.] The flesh of an ox, bull, or cow. — 
The plural, Beeves, is applied to oxen, bulls, and cows, 
when fit for food. 


(Hygiene.) Beef is one of the most nutritions article 
in the class of animal food, and, though less easily di¬ 
gestible than mutton, it is, in cases of great debility, aud 
where, from impoverished blood, the vital powers are 
very slow, preferable to every other kind of flesh-creating 
aliment. As mutton is preferable, as an article of food, 
for the early and later periods of life, beet is the most 
suitable for youth and middle age, both because it re¬ 
quires more mastication in the eating, and also for its 
possessing more lasting and sustaining properties; for, 
being slower of digestion, it remains longer in the 
stomach as a supporting agent. — See Food. 

— a. Consisting of the flesh of black-cattle or neat-cattle; 
i. e., of the ox, bull, or cow. 

Beef-eater, n. A hearty, well-fed person; — so called 
from the nutritive properties of beef. 

—[0. Fr. buffetier, from buffet, a side-board.] A name pop¬ 
ularly given in England to the ‘•Yeomen of the Guard,” 
attached to the court of the English sovereigns. Differ¬ 
ences of opinion exist as to the origin of this term; but it 
is generally believed to be derived from the French 
buffetier, from their waiting at the royal table on great 
occasions. They were first constituted by Henry VII. 
in 1485, and have continued as a royal institution, and 
with nearly the same costume, to the present day. 

(Zool.) See Buphaga. 

Beefing 1 , n. A term used, in some parts of England, to 
denote a bullock sufficiently fat to be slaughtered. 

Bee'-flower, n. (Bot.) See Ophrys. 

Beef-steak, n. A steak or collop of beef broiled, or 
for broiling. 

Beef-steak Club. The name of a convivial and 
social club, founded in London during the reign of Queen 
Anne. It was limited to 60 members, consisting of the 
most eminent statesmen, wits, artists, and men of letters 
of the period. It flourished until the year 1867, when 
it became extinct. During its existence of upwards of 
150 years, it comprised on its roll of membership many 
of the most illustrious names in English history and lit¬ 
erature. At its meetings, the club invariably dined 
off beef-steaks, and each member wore at his button-hole 
a silver gridiron attached to a silk ribbon. 

Beef-tea', n. (Med.) An infusion of beef, much used in 
debilitating maladies, and during convalescence. It may 
be made as follows : take 2% pounds of lean beef; cut it 
in small pieces, and place it in three parts of water in an 
earthen pipkin; let this simmer, but never boil, until the 
liquor is condensed to Y% pints; then strain carefully. 
It ought to be entirely free from fat or grease. 

Beef-wood, n. See Casuarina. 

Bee'-ga rden, n. An enclosure to keep hives of bees in. 

Bee'-^Iue, n . See Propolis. 

Beehive, (be 1 hive,) n. [Bee, and A.S. hyfe, house.] A case 
or box in which bees are kept. They are usually made 
of straw or wood. The former substance is still preferred 
by some, the honey being liable to melt in wooden hives 
during hot weather. Glass hives, or hives with glass 
doors or windows, so as to observe the motions of the 
bees, are now much used, while in Greece and Turkey the 
hives are principally made of earthenware. The shape 
of a B. is not of much consequence, but it is considered 
of importance to have the hive so constructed as to be 
enlarged above or below at pleasure. B. should always 
bo situated in the neighborhood of flowers. Honey 
made from heather-flowers is much esteemed in Scot¬ 
land; and when the season of the heather-bloom comes 
on, a large number of hives are removed to the moors 
and hills. In Egypt, hives are removed from place to 
place on the Nile in barges:* in order to reach the places 
where particular flowers are iu season. The moveable 
comb hive, has, in this country at least, entirely replaced 
the antiquated straw hives, the combs are built iq 
frames, side by side, and thus easily removedand replaced. 

Beehive-house, n. (Arch.) A term applied to small, 
round, stone huts which are found in Ireland. They are 
very rudely built, and are supposed to be the relics of 
the most ancient architecture of the island. The doors 
have flat tops, and are wider down below than above, as 
in the buildings of Egypt. When a B.-H. is found alone, 
it is mostly near the site of an ancient oratory. This 
favors the notion that they were the dwellings of the 
priests. When two or three B.-II. are clustered together, 
they are usually connected by a passage, and are often 
underground, resembling the Piets’ houses, or earth 
huts, found on the north-east coast of Britain. Ruhis of 
B.-H. exist in the western islands of Scotland. 

Beek'inan, in New York, a post-township of Dutchess 
co., 14 m. S.E. of Poughkeepsie, watered by Fishkill 
Creek. 

Hoe km a n town, or Beek'man, in New York, a 
post-village and township of Clinton county, on the 
west shore of Lake Champlain, near the town of Platts- 
burg. 

Beeltl, Bield, n. A term used, in some parts of Eng¬ 
land and Scotland, to denote a place of refuge or protec¬ 
tion. 

Bee'Ier’s Station, in West Fa,, a P.O. of Marshall co. 

Bee'-line, n. A straight line drawn from one place to 
another, like the course of a bee’s flight. 

Beel'zebub, (“The Prince of the Devils,” Matt. xii. 
24.) ( So~ipt.) This name is derived from Baal-zebub, 
an idolatrous deity among the Ekronites, signifying 
lord of flies, fly-baal, fly-god; whose office was to protect 
his worshippers from being tormented by the gnats and 
flies, with which that region was infested. It is some¬ 
times written Beel-zebue, which signifies, probably, the 
dung-god. The Jews seem to have applied this appella¬ 
tion to Satan, as being the author of all the pollutions 
and abominations of idol-worship. 

Bee'-master, n. One who keeps bees. 

Bee'nuerville, in New Jersey, a P. O. of Sussex co. 



























































BEER 


BEES 


BEFO 


315 


Bee’iuol, n. (Mus.) See Bemol. 

Bee'-moth, n. (Zool.) See Wax-moth. 

Been, (bin.) [A. S. 6eon.] The past participle of the 
verb to be. 

Beer, n. [A. S. beor, here, barley; Ger. bier; Fr. biere. 
See Ale.] A fermented liquor which has not undergone 
the process of distillation, prepared from any of the 
cereals, as wheat, beans, peas, &c., but chiefly from bar¬ 
ley flavored with hops and other bitter ingredients. 
The constituents of all the varieties of the B., ale, porter, 
£c., are the same, differingonly iu the quantity of water, 
or in color, from the malt being more or less charred in 
the kiln-drying.—Nearly all seeds contain a large quan¬ 
tity of starch; and when they begin to germinate, a 
peculiar nitrogenous substance, called diastase, is formed. 
This product, acting as a ferment, converts the starch 
into sugar. This process is called malting, and the sub¬ 
sequent partial conversion of the sugar into alcohol is 
called brewing. The two processes are intimately con¬ 
nected together. In malting, the barley is first placed 
in a large tank or trough, and water is then run in, until 
there is sufficient to cover the grain. The barley then 
absorbs the water, and swells up; the amount of water 
absorbed showing the excellence of the barley. After 
remaining in the trough for about forty hours, the 
water is drained off, and thograin is thrown out on the 
floor. It lies in a heap, or couch, as it is called, for 
twenty-six hours. During this time more of the super¬ 
fluous water drains away, and the grain rises about ten 
degrees in temperature. This is caused by the incipient 
germination of the barley. A primitive stem and little 
rootlets begin to appear. This process is technically 
called sweating ; and as goon as the temperature rises 
high enough, the partial germination is stopped by a 
process called flooring, The warm grain is spread along 
the floor to a depth of 15 inches, and is repeatedly turned 
and re-turned with spades over a larger space, until the 
layer is only six inches deep. After undergoing this 
process, in which the radicles attain their greatest 
length, the grain is removed to a drying-kiln, and sub¬ 
mitted to various degrees of heat, according to the 
quality of malt required. During the heating, the com¬ 
ings, or shoots, drop off; they are afterwards separated 
from the grain by wire sieves. (See Malt.) The differ¬ 
ent varieties of malt, known under the names of pale, 
amber, and broivn, can be produced from the same kind 
of barley by varying the heat of the drying-kiln. Pale 
malt is produced at the proper temperature; amber malt 
is slightly scorched; and brown malt is scorched to the 
full extent that the kiln will permit. Pale, amber, or 
brown malt is selected according as the beer is to be 
pale ale, brown ale, or porter. Before 1730 the ordinary 
malt liquors in London were ale, beer, and twopenny. 
It was a common custom to call for a tankard of three 
threads, — meaning an equal mixture of three kinds of 
malt liquor. This was very troublesome to the publican; 
and a brewer named Harwood invented a beverage 
which united the flavors of beer, ale, and twopenny. It 
was called entire, or the entire butt; and as it was a 
healthy, nourishing liquor, very suitable for porters and 
working-men, it received the name of porter. In brew¬ 
ing, the malt undergoes six processes : 1. the grinding; 
2. the mashing, or infusing with hot water; 3. the boil¬ 
ing of the worts with hops; 4. the cooling; 5. the fer¬ 
menting; 6. the clearing, storing, &c. In the first pro¬ 
cess the dried malt is ground into a coarse powder. 
When ground into fine powder, it is liable to coagulate 
into heaps, while undergoing the second operation, 
namely, the mashing with hot water. This is conducted 
in a large receiver, called a mash-tun, made with wooden 
staves and hoops. Water previously heated to 130° 
Fahr, in a copper, is run into this mash-tun, and the 
crushed malt is shaken into it until there is sufficient to 
absorb the whole of the water, when thoroughly stirred 
up. either with long poles or with stirrers worked by- 
machinery. Diastase, which was slightly formed during 
the process of fermentation, is at this period of the pro¬ 
cess again developed, and the starch contained in the 
grain is rapidly converted into grape sugar. As the 
temperature of the water falls to 140° Fahr., a fresh 
supply of water, at 190° Fahr., is added to the mixture; 
after remaining from two to three hours on the malt, 
the water, which assumes a very sweet taste, is run oft' 
into a vessel called an underbade. This running is 
termed the first mash, and the tun is filled up with a 
fresh supply of hot waiter, called the second mash; these 
two mashes are afterwards run together. The mixed 
fluids in the underback are called the sweet worts. In 
order to brew a definite quality of beer, it is necessary 
that the brewer should prepare his worts in a regular 
manner. The quantity of saccharine matter present is 
ascertained by means of an instrument called a saccha- 
rometer, similar in principle to the hydrometer. (See 
Saw barometer.) When the sweet worts are reduced to 
the proper strength, they are pumped up from the un¬ 
derback into a covered boiler, when they are boiled for 
some time, together with a certain quantity of hops. 
When the boiling is complete, the hops are drained off, 
and the boiled wort is set to cool in large shallow pans 
or vats, and is then ready for fermentation. For this 
purpose, the wort is run into fermenting-vats, a certain 
quantity of yeast being added. When fermentation has 
proceeded sufficiently far, it is stopped by skimming off 
the surface froth, until the beer stops working. The 
beer is now run into vats, or casked into casks, and 
nothing remains to complete the operation but the fining 
process, which is effected by adding to the beer a solu¬ 
tion of isinglass dissolved in acid beer. There is hardly 
a substance sold which is more frequently adulterated 
than beer. Large quantities of quassia are annually 
imported for no other purpose than to replace hops in 


the manufacture of bitter ale. Adulteration of beer has 
of late become so systematized, that there are men who 
make a regular trade of beer-doctoring. Among the 
hundreds of ingredients used for this purpose may be 
reckoned quassia, gentian, and wormwood, to give bitter¬ 
ness ; ginger, orange-peel, and caraway, to impart pun¬ 
gency ; alum and blue vitriol, to enable the beer to pre¬ 
serve a frothy head; cocculus indicus, nux vomica, and 
tobacco, to intoxicate; and salt, to promote thirst. The 
natives of Abyssinia, and many tribes of Africa, brew 
beer from millet-seed, anil also from the seeds of the 
Poa abyssinica. Millet-seed is also used as a source of 
brewing beer, by the inhabitants of the lower Himalaya, 
the Crim Tartars, and the natives of Sikkim. Long 
before the landing of the Spanish in South America, 
the Indians brewed maize-beer, or chica; it is still made 
by them, and has a bright yellow color, and an agree¬ 
able acid taste. The production of beer in the U. S. has 
reached 39,000,000 hectrolitres a year, as against over 
6,000,000 in Canada, Central aud South America, and 
Mexico. The number of breweries throughout the 
world in the year 1895 was estimated by the Viennese 
Gambrimis at 43,988, and their output at 214,269,958 
hectolitres (or 5,659,726,670 gallons). 

B**«*r, [Heb., “a well.”] (Script.) A station of the He¬ 
brews in Moab, where God gave them water. 

Beerb'hooni. or Birb'oom, ( Virablmmi, the “land of 
heroes.”) A dist. of Hindostan, British presidency of 
Bengal, lying chiefly between Lat. 23° 25' and 24° 25' 
N., and Lon. 86° and 88° E : liavingN.the dist. ofBhau- 
gulpoor, E. Moorshedabad and Nuddea; S. Burdwan aud 
the Jungle Mehals ; aud W. Ramgur. Area, 3,870 sq.m. 
It is hilly, covered with jungle, and but thinly inhabited. 
Prod. Coal, iron, rice, sugar, and silk. lb-in. towns. 
Soory. Nagore, Serampoor. Pop. abt. 1,000,000. 

Beer Creek, in Ind., Jay co., flows into the Wabash. 

Beer'-honse, n. A house or tavern where beer is sold. 

Bee Bulge, in Missouri, a village of Knox co. 

Beers, in Pennsylvania, a village in Alleghany co. 

Beersheba, (beer-she'ba,) [Ileb., the “Well of the 
Oath.”] (Anc. Geog.) A city at the S. extremity of the 
Holy Land, 28 m. S.W. of Hebron. Few places have 
been noticed in history during so many centuries as 

, Beer-sheba. Abraham called that place Beer-sheba, be¬ 
cause there they sware both of them, when he made a 
covenant with Abimelech. And Abraham planted a 
grove in Beer-sheba, and called there on the name of 
the Lord, the everlasting God. (Gen. xxi. 14,31.) About 
B. C. 1804, Abimelech went to Isaac from Gerar, and they 
sware one to another; and it came to pass the same day, 
that Isaac’s servants came and told him concerning the 
well which they had digged, and said unto him, we have 
found water. And he called it Sheba; therefore the 
name of the city is Beer-sheba unto this day. (Gen. xxvi. 
23, 33.) The town that afterwards rose here was first 
assigned to Judah, and then to Simeon. Here Samuel 
established his sous as judges. It was a seat of idolatry 
in the time of Uzz.iah. Atter the captivity, it was re- 
peopled by the Jews, and continued a large village many 
centuries after the coming of Christ. Dr. Robinson 
found its site at Bir-es Seba, on the border of the great 
desert south of Canaan—the ruins of a small straggling 
city, and two deep stone wells of excellent water, sur¬ 
rounded by stone troughs, and bearing the marks of 
great antiquity. 

Beers'ville, in Indiana, a village of Knox co., on the 
Western fork of White River. 

Beer'y, a. Of, or resembling beer; bemused by beer; 

as, he is a beery customer. 

Bees, (St.) Head, a promontory on theN.W. coast of 
England, being the most W. point of the county of Cum¬ 
berland, about 3 m. S. of Whitehaven. Lat. 54° 30' 55" 
N.; Lon. 3° 37' 24" W. There is a light-house here, 333 
feet above the sea. 

Beeslia, (be'sha,) n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, order 
Graminaceee, nearly allied to the Bamboo, but differing 
from it in having the seed enclosed in a fleshy pericarp. 
Two species are known, both natives of the E. Indies. 

Bees'ley’s Point, in New Jersey, a post-office of Cape 
May co. 

Bees'kow, a town of Prussia, prov. Brandenburg, on 
the Spree. 18 m S.W. of Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Man/. 
Cloth, linen, beer, leather, &c. Pop. 4,704. 

Bee Spring-, in Kentucky,a P. 0. of Edmonson co. 

Beest'ings, (also, but incorrectly, written Biestings.) 
[A. S. beosting, by sting ; Ger. beest; Du. biest.] The first 
milk yielded by a cow after calving. 

Bees'-wax,(l/eVi»iii.-.!,) «. (Chem.) It is now generally 
admitted that this useful substance, obtained from the 
honeycomb after the expression of the honey, is a true 
animal secretion; for bees feed on sugar only, and con¬ 
tinue to deposit it in large quantities. At ordinary tem¬ 
peratures, B.-W. is a tough solid yellow substance, hav¬ 
ing a specific gravity of 0-96. and fusing at about 145°. 
When exposed to the air in thin slices, it becomes 
bleached; but nitric acid is generally employed for this 
purpose. Chlorine cannot be used for this purpose, as 
it is eliminated in suffocating fumes of hydrochloric acid 
when the wax is burned. Wax consists chemically of 
myricine, insoluble in boiling alcohol; cerine, a crystal¬ 
line substance slightly dissolved by boiling alcohol; and 
ceroleine, which is dissolved in cold alcohol. The pro¬ 
cess for bleaching wax is simple but tedious. The wax 
is cut in pieces, melted, and agitated with a small por¬ 
tion of very dilute sulphuric acid, which facilitates the 
separation of impurities. When perfectly clean and 
bright, it is sliced by a cutting-machine into very thin 
sheets, and exposed to light and air for eight or ten 
weeks, during which time it is remelted once or twice.— 
See Candles; Vegetable Wax. 


(Med.) Wax is a principal ingredient in many phar¬ 
maceutical preparations, entering into nearly all the 
kinds of ointments and plasters, and some few of the 
cerates, in the Pharmacopoeia. Its active principle is 
attributed to the white, crystalline substance called 
cerine. There are two kinds of B. IV. in the shops, the 
natural yellow ceraflava, aud the white cera alba. The 
latter is obtained by bleaching the former. 

Beet, n. [Du. biet; Ger. beete; Lat. beta.] (Bot.) The 
common name of the genus Beta, q. v. 

Beethoven, Ludwig Von, (ba-to'vain,) one of the great¬ 
est musical composers of modern times, was b. at Bonn, 
in 1770. His genius was very early displayed, and his 
musical education was begun by hifffather, and continued 
by the court organist who introduced him to the works 
of Sebastian Bach and Handel. He soon attempted com¬ 
position, and showed wonderful facility in improvisation. 
About 1790, he settled at Vienna, where Mozart quickly 
recognized his marvellous powers. Whei^about 40 years 
of age, he was attacked with deafness, which became 
total, and lasted through life. He became, gradually, 
the victim of morbid irritability, and hopeless melan¬ 
choly, ending in confirmed hypochondria, and, finally, 
dropsy and delirium. He continued to compose, however, 
long after he had ceased to hear himself play, and re¬ 
ceived homage and honors from all parts of Europe. D., 
unmarried, at Vienna, in March, 1827. The works of B. 
are very numerous, and in every variety of style—orches¬ 
tral, chamber-music, pianoforte, and vocal music. Among 
the most celebrated are the opera of Pidelio; the orato¬ 
rio of the Mount of Olives; the cantata Adelaide; Sin- 
foniu Eroica (Heroic Symphony); Sinfonia Pastorale 
(Pastoral Symphony); Concerto in C Minor; Sonata 
Path£tique; and the Sonata with Funeral March. Vast 
power, intense passion, and infinite tenderness are mani¬ 
fested in all his compositions, which abound no less in 
sweetest melodies than in grand and complicated har¬ 
monies. His Life has been written by Schlosser, Von 
Seyfried, aud others; and an English translation of his 
Letters, by Lady Wallace, was published in 1866. A 
statue of B., by HUlinel, was erected at Bonn, in 1845. 

Beetle, (be'tl,) n. [A. S. bell, or bytl, from bealan, to 
beat; from bat.] An instrument to beat with. Specifi¬ 
cally, a heavy wooden instrument resembling a mallet 
or rammer used to drive stones into pavements, &c. 

“ They are as shards, and he their beetle."— Shake. 

— n. [A. S. Intel, probably from bitan, to bite.] (Zool.) This 
term is commonly used to designate those insects which 
are covered by a strong horny substance; the abdominal 
part of the body being protected by two sheaths under 
which the wings are folded. Hence the term is synon¬ 
ymous with Coleoptera, q. v. 

— v. a. To use the instrument called a beetle. 

— v.i. To jut; to be prominent; to hang over. 

“Each beetling rampart, and each tower sublime .”—Wordsworth 

Bee'tle-brow, n. An overhanging or prominent brow- 

Bee'tle-browefi, a. Having prominent brows. 

“ Enquire for the beetle-brow'd critic.”— Swift. 

Bee'tle-liea<I, n. A stupid, obtuse fellow. 

Bee'tle-lieatlefi, a. Having a head like a beetle} 
stupid; obtuse. 

“ A beetle-headed, flap-ear’d knave."— Shake. 

Bee'tle-svock, n. The handle of a beetle. 

Beet ling, n. (Man/.) A process applied to cotton 
shirting, in which the yarn is so treated as to give the 
cloth a hard appearance, in imitation of linen. It was 
first employed upon linen shirting. A number of wood¬ 
en stampers, placed in a row, strike upon the cloth as it 
passes under them, producing the effect required. 

Bee'town, in Wisconsin, a post-village and township 
of Grant co., 24 m. S.S.E. of Prairie du Chien. 

Beet'raee. in Iowa, a post-oflice of Appanoose co. 

Beet'-radish, Beet -rave, n. [Fr. betterave.] The 
red beet, Beta vulgaris. See Beta. 

Beet'-root, n. See Sugar. 

Beeves, n. pi. See Beef. 

Bee'ville, in Texas, a town, the capital of Bee co. 

Befall', v. a. [A. S. be/eallan.] To fail to; to happen 
to; to occur to. 

— v. i. To happen; to come to pass. 

“ Whatever chance befall :— 

’Tis better to have lov’d, aud lost, 

Than never to have loved at all.*’— Tennyson. 

Beffroi. See Belfry. 

Befit', v. a., [be andTo fit; to suit; to be suitable;, 
to become. 

“ Blind is his love, and best befits the dark."— Shaks. 

Befit ting;, p. a. Fit; suitable; becoming. 

Beflat'ter, v. a. To flatter much, or to an undue extent. 

Beflow'er, v. a. To scatter or rain over with flowers, 
or with pustules, &c. 

Befoam', w. a. To foam over; to cover with foam, (r.) 

Befogged, (be-fogd',) a. To be involved in a fog. 

Befool', v. a. To fool; to infatuate ; to delude. 

** Men befool themselves infinitely."— South. 

Before', prep. [A. S. be/orn, or be for an.] Near the 
fore part; in front of; as, to stand be/ore the fire. 

“ Who shall go 

“ Before them, in cloud and pillar of fire.” — Milton. 

—In advance of; previous to; anterior to. 

“ Before this treatise can become of use.” — Swift. 

—In preference to; prior to; superior to, in dignity, or¬ 
der, &c.: as, “The eldest son is before tl*e younger in 
8uccession.’ , In presence of; in sight of; face to face. 

“ See we fall before, thee! 

Prostrate we adore thee.” — Dryden. 

—In the power of; noting the right of choice. 

** And all the year, before thee for delight.” — Dryden. 

Before the beam. (Naval Arch.) An arc of the horizon 











316 


BEGG 


BEGO 


BEGT 


comprehended between a line which crosses a ship’s 
length at right angles, and some object at a distance 
before it; or between the line of the beam and that 
point of the compass which the stem points to. 

Before the wind. (Naut.) In the direction of the wind, 
so as to be impelled by its full force. 

Before', adv. Further onward; in front; on the fore 
part. 

•* And that which was before, came after." — Butler. 

—In time preceding; sooner than; hitherto. 

“ You tell me, mother, what I knew before. 

The Phrygian fleet is lauded on the shore.” — Dry den. 

Before'-cited, a. Cited previously. 

Before'liaiul, adv. In a state of anticipation; pre¬ 
viously; antecedently; often followed by with. 

“ Quoth Hudibras, 1 am beforehand 
In that already, with your command." — Hudibras. 

—At first; by v^ty of preparation; preliminary. 

“ When the lawyers brought extravagant bills. 

Sir Roger used to bargain beforehand." — Arbuthnot. 

— a. In an accumulative state as regards wealth or pro¬ 
perty. 

“Stranger's house is at this time rich, and much beforehand." 

Bacon. 

Before-mentioned, a. Mentioned before. 

Before'tinie, adv. Aforetime; formerly; of old time. 

Befort, or Belfort, ( be'for,) a town of France, in the 
former dep. Haut-Rhin, on the Savoureuse, 38 m. S.S.W. 
of Colmar. It is a strong place, and was fortified by 
Vauban. It resisted successfully, for several months, a 
formidable German army in 1870, and did not sur-ender 
till after the close of the war. B. has manufactures of 
importance. 

Befoul', v. a. [A. S. befylan.] To make foul; to soil; 
to pollute. 

Befrec'kle, v. a. To freckle; to cover with various 
spots. 

Befriend', t>. a. To favor; to act as a friend to. 

“ Brother-servants must befriend one another.” — Swift. 

Befriend'ment, n. The act of befriending, or being 
a friend to. 

Befringe', v. a. To decorate as with a fringe; to sup¬ 
ply with fringe. 

“Clothe spice, line trunks, or, fiutt'ring in a row. 

Befringe the rails of Bedlam and Soho." — Pope. 

Befurred, ( be-ferd',) a. Covered with fur. 

Beg, n. [Turk, beg.] See Bet. 

Beg, v. a. [Sw. begxra, to ask, to crave; Ger. brgehren.] 
To ask or supplicate in charity; to ask earnestly; to 
crave, solicit, petition, supplicate; to entreat for. 

“ See how they beg an alms of flattery."— Young. 

—To take anything for granted; to assume without evi¬ 
dence or proof. 

“ We have not begged any principles or suppositions."— Burnet. 

—v. i. To ask alms or charity; to practise begging; to 
live upon alms. 

“Xcannot dig; to beg I am ashamed." — Luke xvi. 3. 

Beg:, (Bough,) a small lake of Ireland, co. Antrim, 
adjoining Lough Neagh; length 4 m., breadth lJ/j. 

Be'ga, Big'gah, w. [Hindoo, bighd.] A land-measure 
of Bengal, equal to about a third of an acre. 

Be ga, Cornelius, an eminent Dutch painter of cattle 
and landscape subjects, b. 1620. He was one of the most 
distinguished pupils of Adrian van Ostade. D. 1664. 

Began', imp. of Begin, q. v. 

Begard. ( be-gUr ',) a town of France, dep. C6tes-du- 
Nord, 3 m. N.W. of Guingamp; pop. 4,600. 

Begem', v. a. To deck or adorn with gems, or as with 
gems. 

“These lonely realms bright garden isles begem " — Shelley. 

Beget', v. a., (imp. bkgot, begat; pp. begot, begotten.) 
[A. S. begetan, — be, and getan, to get.] To get or gain; 
to obtain; to attain. Specifically, to procreate; to gen¬ 
erate. 

“ ’T was he the noble Claudian race begat." — Dryden. 

—To cause; to produce, as an effect. 

“ Love is begot by fancy, bred 
By ignorance, by expectation led."— Granville. 

Beget'ter, n. One who begets, procreates; a sire; a 
father. 

“ No share of that goes back to the begetter, 

But if the son Sghts well, and plunders better."— Dryden. 

Beg'gable, a. Which may be begged. 

Beg'gar, n. One who begs; one who lives by begging; 
a suppliant; a petitioner. There must necessarily exist 
in every country certain persons who have not the 
means, ability, or perhaps, the will, to earn a livelihood 
for themselves, and who are thus dependent for subsist¬ 
ence upon the charity of others. These constitute the 
poor; when they have to solicit charity, they are beg¬ 
gars. The laws of several of the U. States punish beg¬ 
ging as an offence. 

—One who assumes what be does not prove; as, “ These 
shameful beggars of principles.” — TiUolson. 

— v. a. To reduce to beggary; to impoverish. 

** The mi9er with heav'n, . . . cheaply wipes his score, 

Lifts up his eyes, aud hastes to beggar more.”— Gay. 

•—To exhaust; to deprive. 

“ For her own person, 

It beggar'd all description.*’ — Shake. 

Beg'gar-brat, n. A beggar’s child ; a child that begs. 

Beg'garliness, n. The state of being beggarly; 
meanness of living; poverty. 

Beg'garly, a. Like a beggar; mean; contemptible; 
extremely poor; in the condition of a beggar. 

u The beggarly last doit.” — Coivper, 

—Produced, or occasioned by beggary. 


Beg'garly, adv. Meanly; indigently; despicably. 

" Hath he revealed, that it is his delight to dwell beggarly t " 

Hooker. 

Beg'gar myXeigh'bor. v. (Games.) An easy game 
at cards, played chiefly by children. The whole pack is 
dealt out to two plavei s, and the cards are held with the 
backs upward; each player then turns up a single card 
in turn. When you play an ace, your adversary must 
give you four cards; three for a king, two for a queen, 
and one for a knave; and when the requisite number 
are laid down, you win the trick, and place the cards so 
won at the bottom of those in your hand. If, however, 
your opponent turns up an honor, while paying for that 
which you have previously paid, you must pay for it in 
a similar manner, according to its value, and so on until 
the cards of one or the other are exhausted. The player 
who first exhausts his adversary’s hand, and gets all the 
cards into his own, is said to beggar his neighbor. 

Beg'gar's-licc, n. ( Bot .) The prickly fruit or seed of 
certain plants (as some species of Echinospermum and 
Cynoglossum) which fasten on the clothing of those who 
pass by them. 

Beg'gary, n. State of a beggar, of one in extreme in¬ 
digence; poverty in the utmost degree. 

“ My virtue then shall be. 

To say there is no vice but beggary." — Shake. 

Begliards. Begliards, ( beg’hards,) n. pi. (Eccl. 
Ifist.) A term applied to several religious orders, as well 
ns heretics, during the Middle Ages. It was probably 
first used to describe those half monks of the third order 
of St. Francis, who arose in the Ilth century. They 
must not be confounded with the later sectaries, a branch 
of the Fraticelli, condemned by the 15th General Coun¬ 
cil, that of Vienna, 1311-1312. This mistake was so often 
made at the time that Pope John XXI. or XXII., by a 
decretal, declared the last-mentioned to be execrable 
impostors, and in no way connected with the B. of the 
third order of St. Francis. Mosheim shows the name is 
derived from the Old German word beggen, or beggeren, 
to beg, with the word hard subjoined; that it signified, 
to beg earnestly and heartily; and he accounts by this 
derivation for the indiscriminate manner in which it 
was applied to so many orders and sects. The subject is 
involved in inextricable confusion from the many con¬ 
flicting accounts of different authorities. The B. disap¬ 
peared about the end of the 14th century. 

Bagliar'mi, or Bagir'mi, in Central Africa, a country 
divided from the kingdom of Bornou in the W. by the 
Shari or Grand River, and bounded on the N. by Lake 
Tsad, and on the E. by the Waday kingdom. It extends 
southward to about 10° N. Its greatest length is about 
240 m.; breadth 150; and general elevation about 1,000 
feet above the sea. Bivers, Benuwe, Logon, and Shari. 
According to Dr. Barth’s Travels in Central Africa, the 
soil, partly composed of sand, and partly of lime, pro¬ 
duces the grains and fruit common to that region. The 
inhabitants are generally pagans, but Mohammedanism 
has been introduced among them. They are physically 
superior to the neighboring races, the women being es¬ 
pecially handsome. The Sultan, tributary of the king¬ 
dom of Bornou, is absolute in his own dominions. Cap. 
Mesna. Pip. about 1,500,000. 

Begild', v. a. To overlay with gold or gilding. 

Begin', v. i. (imp. began ; pp. begun.) [A. S. gynnan, 
agmnan, and beginnan, from the root gin, gen, or gyn; 
Gr. ginomai, to come into being, to be or become.] To 
be or become; to take rise; to come into existence; to 
commence. 

“ Ere the base laws oT servitude began, 

When wild in woods the noble savage ran.” — Dryden. 

—To do the first act; to take the first step; to commence 
any action or state. 

“ We poets ia our youth begin in gladness ; 

But thereof comes in the end despondeucy and madness." 

Wordsworth 

— v. a. To enter upon: to commence; to originate. 

“ They have been awaked, by these awful scenes, to begin reli¬ 
gion.”— Watts. 

—To trace from anything, as the first ground. 

“ The apostle begins our knowledge in the creatures, which 
leads us to the knowledge of God."— Locke. 

Begin'ner, n. The person who begins; one in his ru¬ 
diments; one who first enters upon anything; an inex¬ 
perienced person; a tyro; a young practitioner. 

Regin'ning. n. The first cause, act, state, or origin. 

“ Wherever we place the beginning of motion." — Swift. 

—That which is first; commencement; entrance into being. 
"In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. " Gen. 1.1. 

—The first ground, materials, or rudiments. 

“ That is the true beginning of our end." — Shake. 

Begin'ningless, a. With no beginning; having no 
beginning. 

Begird', v. a. (imp. begirt, begirded; pp. begirt.) [A.S. 
begyrdan, — he and gyrdan, to gil d. See Gird.] To gird 
round about; to bind; as, with a band or girdle. To 
surround; to encompass; to enclose; to encircle. 

“ Abroad begirt with men, and swords, and spears, 

His very state acknowledging his fears." — Prior. 

Beg'lerlieg, n. [Turk., from beg, pi. begler. See Bey.] 
Formerly, in the Turkish empire, the title of the gover¬ 
nor-generals of the provinces. They were next in rank 
to the Grand Vizier. 

Beg'Ierbeglic, n. The province governed by a beg- 
lerbeg. 

Begleys, in Kentucky, a post-office of Perry co. 

Begnaw, (bemaw',) v. a. To bite; to gnaw; to eat 
away; to nibble largely; to corrode. 

“ The worm of conscience still begnaw thy soul.” — Shake. 

Begone I interj. [be, imper. of the verb to be, and gone, 


participle of go.] Get you gone! go hence 1 Away! De« 
part 1 

“ Begone I dull Care, I prithee begone from me." 

A/usicat Companion, 1687. 

Begonia, ( be-go'ni-a,) n. (Bot.) A genus cf plants.order 
Begoniacece. The species are natives of tropical regions, 
but many are now cultivated in all countries as orna¬ 
mental plants. The leaves are oblique or unequal, (more 
developed on one side of the midrib than on the other,) 
and are often richly tinged witli crimson. The flowers 
are of a delicate pink color, and grow in cymes. The 
young stems aud leaves of the species B. rnalabarica 
and tuberosa are used as pot-herbs in the countries 
where they grow wild. Of the numerous species which 
adorn our conservatories, B. argyrostigma and discolor 
are perhaps the most beautiful. B. discolor, or two- 
colored B., is a Chinese species, and is remarkable for 
the very rich crimson of the under-surface of the leaf, 
which is short and broad. 

Begonia'cese, n.pl. (Bot.) An order of plants, alliance 
Cucurbitales. Diag. Dry fruit and placenta? projecting 
aud meeting in the axis. Herbaceous plants or succu¬ 
lent under-6hrubs, with an acid juice; the B. have per¬ 
fectly unisexual flowers, with a superior calyx, gener¬ 
ally colored pink, consisting, in the sterile flowers, of 
from two to four pieces,aud in the fertile flowers of from 



Fig. 332. — begonia malabarica. 

1. Fertile flower. — 2. Fruit. — 3. The same, cut through hori¬ 
zontally.—4. Seeds.—5. One seed magnified —6. The same, out 
through to show the embryo ia its natural positiou iu the albumen. 

five to eight. The stamens are numerous; the style 
simple; the stigmas three, often forked, and having a 
wavy or twisted appearance. These latter originate 
from a three-cornered, three-celled ovary, containing a 
multitude of little seeds, which changes to a thin-sided 
capsule with three extremely unequal wings. The leaves 
are always more or less unequal-sided, and have highly- 
developed membranous stipules at their base. They are 
chiefly found in tropical countries, particularly in Asia 
aud America. The order has only 159 species in 3 gen¬ 
era, the typical one being the Begonia q. v. 

Begored', a. [be and gore.] Besmeared with gore or 
blood. 

Begot', Begot'ten, pp. of Beget. Procreated; gen¬ 
erated. 

“ But base begotten on a Theban slave."— Dryden. 

Begrease', v. a. [he and grease.] To grease; to anoint, 
daub, or soil with grease, or any unctuous matter. 

Begrime', v. a. To make grimy; to soil with dirt much 
impressed; to bespatter with smut. 

“As Diana’s visage is now begrim'd, and black 
As my own face."— Shake. 

Begrim'er, n. A person who begrimes another. 

Begrudge', v. a. To grudge: to envy the possession of. 

Begshetir, (begsher’.) a river, lake, and town of Tur¬ 
key in Asia, prov. of Karamania. The lake is about 20 
m long, and from 5 to 10 broad, containing many small 
islands. It is supposed to be the ancient Caralites. 

Begta'shi, n. A religious order in the Ottoman empire, 
which had its origin in the 14th cent. The name is be¬ 
lieved to be derived from that of a celebrated dervish, 
Hadji Begtash, to whom also the order appears to owe 
its institution. The members use secret signs and pass¬ 
words as means of recognition, in the same way as is 
done by the Masonic orders, some of them indeed ap¬ 
pearing to be identical with those of freemasonry. Al¬ 
though numbering many thousands of influential per¬ 
sons in its ranks, the society does not appear to exercise 
any material influence in the religion or politics of Tur¬ 
key. 







BEHI 


BEHR 


BEJA 


317 


Beguile. (be-giV,) v. a. [6r and guile. See Guils.] To im¬ 
pose on by guile, artifice, or craft; to delude; to deceive. 

“ Aad often did beguile her of her tears.”— Shake. 

—To elude, evade, or cheat by craft, or artifice. 

" When misery could beguile the tyrant s rage.”— Shake. 

—To wile away ; to pass pleasantly ; to amuse. 

“ With these sometimes she doth her time beguile ; 

These do by fits her phantasy possess .”—Sir J. Davies. 

Beguile'meut, n. Act of beguiling or deceiving. 

Beguir er. ». A person who, or anything which, be¬ 
guiles, evades, or deceives. 

Beg’uil'ingly, adv. In manner to beguile or deceive. 

Beg'uilt'y, v.a. [be and guilty.] To make guilty, (o. & r.) 

Beguinage. (bd'geen-deh',) n. [Fr.; Ger. Beguinenhiiu- 
ser. 1 A convent of Beguines. 

Beg'uines. Beg-ut'tse, (ba'ffeens,) n.pl. [Fr.] (Eccl. 
Hist.) An order of “ praying ladies,” as Mosheim styles 
them, which rosein the Netherlands, and spread through 
France and Germany during the 12th and 13th centuries. 
They were pious women, virgins, or widows, who formed 
themselves into societies, under the direction of a su¬ 
perior of their own sex. The first establishment of 
which any record remains was at Nivelles, in Brabant, 
founded, according to some authorities, in 1207. and, ac¬ 
cording to others, in 1224. They soon became so nu¬ 
merous that Matthew Paris speaks of 2,000 Beguines in 
Cologne and its neighborhood, about the year 1243. 
They are still to be met with in some parts of France, 
Holland, and Germany, where they devote themselves to 
attendance on the sick, and the education of young 
females. 

Be'grum, n. A title given in India almost exclusively to 
sovereign ladies, princesses, or other females of the 
highest rank.—This term is sometimes satirically ap¬ 
plied, in English society, to a wealthy lady, whether 
European or Hindoo, who visits, or comes to reside in, 
England. 

Began', pp. of Begin, q. v. 

Bebaban'. a town of Persia, prov. Fars, in a fruitful 
country, about 3 m. E. of the ruins of the ancient city 
of Aragian. Pop. about 10,000. 

Behaini. See Behem. 

Behalf, ( be-haf ,) n. [A. S. behabban — be, and habban, 
to have. See Behoove.] Need: necessity; profit; con¬ 
venience; advantage; favor; cause; support; account; 
sake: part; side. 

“ He might in his presence, defy all Arcadian knights, in the 
behalf oi hia mistress's beauty ."—Sir P. Sidney. 

Behap'pen, v. a. To happen, or befall to. 

Behar. See Bahar. 

Behave, (be-hdv’,) v. a. To hold; to restrain ; to govern; 
to carry or bear; to conduct; to manage. (Used with 
the reciprocal pronoun.) 

" To their wills wedded, to their errors slaves, 

No man, like them, they think, himself behaves." Sir J. Denham. 

— v. i. To act; to conduct one’s self; as to ha ve behaved 
well or ill. 

Behavior, (be-hdv'i-er,) n. The way in which a man has, 
possesses, or demeans himself generally, or on a specific 
occasion. Conduct; deportment; demeanor; manner. 

“A gentleman that is very singular in his behaviour." Sir R. Steele. 

{Law.) Carriage of one’s self, with respect to propriety, 
morals, and the requirements of law. Surety of being of 
good B. is a larger requirement than surety to keep the 
peace. 

Behbehan, ( be’be-han ,) a town of Persia, prov. of 
Fars, 130 m. from Shiraz, in a fertile plain ; pop. abt. 4,000. 

Behead, (be-hed',) v. a. To cut off the head; to decapi¬ 
tate ; to shorten by the head. 

Beheading, re. The act of cutting off the head. See 
Decapitation. 

Beheld', pret. and pp. of Behold, q. v. 

Be'heni, Martin, a celebrated geographer, b. at Niirn- 
berg in 1436. In 1480, he went to Portugal, accom¬ 
panied Diego Cam on an expedition of discovery along 
the coast of Africa, and rendered valuable services. In 
1492, he revisited his native city and there constructed 
the famous terrestrial globe, on which are traced his dis¬ 
coveries. He then returned to Portugal, and D. at Fayal, 
in 1506. Attempts have been made to prove that B. was 
the discoverer of America, but without success. 

Behemoth, ( be'he-moth .) [Heb., beasts, the plural of 
greatness, for the Great Beast, or the Water-ox.] (Scrip.) 
A huge amphibious animal, described in Job xl. 15-24. It 
has been identified by some commentators with the ele¬ 
phant, but more generally with the hippopotamus, q.v. 

Beh'enic Acid. {Cbmi.) A crystalline fat acid, fusing 
at 170°, found in the oil of Ben, or Moringa oleifera, — 
the basis of Macassar oil. 

Behest', re. [be, and A. S. htese, from hatan, to call, name, 
or command ] Declared will or order; command; pre¬ 
cept; mandate. 

“Od high behests his angels to and fro 
Pass d frequent."— Milton. 

Behind', prep. [A. S. behindan .] On or at the hinder 
part; on or at the back of; in the rear of; following 
another: posterior to. 

“Which he had caused his horsemen to take behind them on 
their horses.' — Knolles. 

—Remaining after; left after the departure of. 

“ I must be cruel only to be kind; 

Thus bad begins and worse remains behind." — Shaks. 

—Inferior to in dignity, worth, or attainments; as, he is 
behind the age. 

—adv. In the rear; backward; as, to look behind one. 

—Remaining; not yet brought forward, or presented. 

" We cannot be sure that we have all the particulars before us; 
and that there is no evidence behind." — Locke. 

—Past; backward, or posterior in time of order or succes¬ 
sion. 


Behind'hand, a. [behind and hand.] In arrears; as, 
to be behindhand in one’s payments. — In a state of 
backwardness; as, to be behindhand with work. (Gener¬ 
ally followed by with.) 

“ Consider whether it is not better to be half a year behindhand 
with the fashionable part of the world, than to strain beyoud his 
circumstances." — Spectator. 

Beh'men, or Bohme, Jacob, a religious mystic, b. in 
Upper Lusatia, Germany, in 1575, and settled as a shoe¬ 
maker at Gorlitz, in 1595. In 1610 he commenced the 
publication of a series of works in which he professed to 
enjoy a revelation of inward light from the Holy Ghost, 
that enabled him to perceive the secrets of nature and 
religion. He was opposed by Gregorius Richter, pri¬ 
mate of Gorlitz, and was compelled to retire to Dresden, 
but eventually returned to his home, where he d. in 
1624. The Behmenites, as a religious sect, may be said 
to be extinct, but B. has still many devoted admirers at 
the present day. It is impossible, within our limits, to 
give an intelligible account of the system of B. For¬ 
merly his doctrines were viewed with great contempt 
by all but his own immediate followers; but latterly this 
unlettered rustic, this man of earnest principle and pious 
heart, has come to occupy a high plate among the phi¬ 
losophers of his country. Hegel places him at the head 
of modern speculative philosophers, and Tieck and No- 
valis were enthusiastic admirers of his writings. Pro¬ 
fessor Maurice, in his article on Moral and Metaphysical 
Philosophy, (Encyclopaedia Metropolitans, ) says, “That 
his obscurity was in a great degree the effect of unac¬ 
quaintance with scientific language; but that through 
it all may be traced deep thoughts respecting God and 
man, by which philosophers might be greatly profited.” 
After Behmen’s death, his opinions spread over Germany, 
Holland, and England. His works were translated into 
English by the celebrated William Law, of Oxford. 
Henry More has written upon the views of Behmen, and 
it is said that many autograph extracts from the works 
of Behmen were found among the papers of Sir Isaac 
N e wton. 

Beh'menites, n.pl. (Eccl. Hist.) Disciples of the ten¬ 
ets of Behmen, q . v . 

Behn, Aphra, (bain,) a miscellaneous writer in the 
reign of Charles II. of England. Her writings, consist¬ 
ing of novels, poems, and plays, were relished in their 
day, but are now only remembered for their immorality. 
D. 1687. 

Behold', v. a., (imp. and pp. beheld.) [A.S. bthealdan, 
pp. behealden, from healdan, to hold.] To hold or keep 
the eyes fixed upon; to look steadfastly on; to look 
upon; to view; to consider; to regard with attention. 

•• Man looks aloft, and with erected eyes. 

Beholds his own hereditary skies.” — Dryden. 

— v. i. To look; to direct the eyes to an object; to direct 
or fix the mind or attention. 

“ Behold the child, by Nature's kindly law, 

Meased with a rattle, tickled with a straw." — Pope. 

Beholden, (be-hold'n.) pp. or a. Holden or bound in 
gratitude; obliged; indebted. 

“Wherein I must acknowledge myself beholden to you.” — Bacon. 

Behold'er, n. One who beholds; an eye-witness; a 
spectator. 

41 Was this the face. 

That, like the sun, did make beholders wink ? Shaks. 

Behold'ing', ppr. Fixing the eyes upon; looking on; 
seeing; contemplating; regarding with attention. 

44 Beholding heaven, and feeling hell." — Moore. 

Behon'ey, v . a. [be and honey.] To make sweet with 
honey. 

Behoof, ( be-hSf,)n. [From A. S.behajian. See Behoove.] 
Need; necessity; advantage; profit; benefit. 

“ Which careful Jove, in Nature's true behoof. 

Took up, aud iu fit place did reinstate.” — Milton. 

Behoove, (be-hdv',) v. a. [A. S. behafian, to be fit, to 
have need of; Ger. behuf, allied to haben, to have.] To 
be fit, or meet for; to be needful, or necessary for. 

“ But should you lure the monarch of the brook. 

Behooves you then to ply your finest art.” — Thomson. 

Behoovefal, a. Useful: profitable; advantageous, (r.) 

44 Madam, we have culled such necessaries 
As are behoovefal for pur slate to-morrow." — Shaks. 

Behove'. See Behoove. 

Behring;, Titus, (ba'ring,) a Dane, b. 1680, entered the 
service of Russia, and was appointed by the Empress 
Catherine to command an expedition of discovery in the 
Sea of Kamtschatka. He left St. Petersburg in Febru¬ 
ary, 1725, and after exploring several rivers, travelled 
overland by the way of Yakutsk, on the Lena, to Ok¬ 
hotsk, then crossed over to Bolcheretsk, and arrived at 
Nischnei Kamtschatka-Ostrog. Here he built a small 
boat, and sailed on the 20th of July, 1728. coasting 
Kamtschatka till he reached, in Aug., (67°IS' N.Lat. by 
his observations.) a cape, which, from the land beyond 
it trending so much to the westward, he supposed to be 
the north-easternmost point of Asia. In this conjecture, 
however, as has since been proved, B. was mistaken; 
the point reached by him must have been Serdre Ku- 
men; but with this conviction on his own mind, and 
the approach of winter, he determined to retrace his 
steps, and he returned in safety to Nischnei Kamtschat ka. 
In 1733 he took command of another expedition, fitted out 
on a very large scale. After several exploratory excur¬ 
sions, he stationed himself at Yakutsk, directing various 
detachments of his officers down the rivers on different 
points of the Frozen Ocean. In 1740 he reached Okhotsk, 
where vessels had previously been built for him. in 
which he sailed for Awatska Bay, where he founded the 
present settlement of Petropaulovski. and passed the 
winter. His discoveries to the northward being deemed 
sufficiently satisfactory, he was now directed to proceed 


to the eastward towards the American continent. H* 
left Awatska in Jime. 1741, steering lo the S.E., but hav¬ 
ing reached the parallel of 46° without seeing land, he 
altered his course to the N.E., and on the 18th of July, 
(having been tbrty-four days at sea,) he descried very 
high mountains covered with snow in Lat. 58]^° N., 
having made, according to his reckoning, 50° of E7 Lon. 
from Awatska. He now followed the coast to the north¬ 
ward, but his crew suffering from sickness, he re¬ 
solved to return to Kamtschatka, when, Nov. 3,1741, he 
was wrecked on the island which now bears his name, 
and d. on the 8th of the following month. The survi¬ 
vors of his crew reached Kamtschatka in a small vessel 
which they built from the wreck, and thus some ac¬ 
count of this ill-fated voyage was preserved. 

Behr'ing’s Island, a small island in the Paciflo 
Ocean, Lat. 55° 22' N., Lon. 166° E., the most W. of the 
Aleutian chain. It is 90m. long, rocky and desolate, un¬ 
inhabited, and only remarkable as the place where the 
great navigator whose name it bears, breathed his last. 

Bollr ing's Strait, the channel which separates the 
N.E. of Asia (Tom the N.W. corner of America, and 
which connects the N. Pacific with the Arctic Ocean. It 
is formed, in its narrowest part, by two remarkable 
headlands, the extreme points E. and IV. of the conti¬ 
nents to which they belong: Cape Prince ot Wales, on 
the American coast, in Lat. 65° 46' N., Lon. 168° 15' E.; 
and East Cape, on the shore of Asia, Lat. 66° 6' N., 
Lon. 169° 38' W. The distance between these two 
points is about 36 m.; but N. and S of them, the laod 
on both sides rapidly recedes, and, on the N. especially, 
it trends so sharply that the name of “strait” is not 
very applicable to any part beyond the capes in that 
direction. It is usual, however, to regard it extending 
along Asia from Tchukotskoi Noss, in 64° 13', to Serdre 
Kumen in 67° 3' N., which gives it a length of 400 m.; 
its width between Tchukotskoi Noss (173° 24') and Cape 
Rodney, on the opposite shore of America, (166° 3' W.,) is 
about 250 m. Shoal water appears to be principally con¬ 
fined to the bays and inlets on the American side. There 
are a few islands scattered here and there along the 
strait; and one of some size, St. Lawrence or Clerke’s 
Island, lies at a short distance S. from its entrance. The 
temperature is low, and N. of the two capes there is 
always a store of ice throughout the year. Fogs and 
hazy weather are almost perpetual, and the strait is 
frozen over every winter. This strait was discovered 
in 1728, by Vitus Behring, (q. r.,) but the complete 
results of the discovery were left for Capt. Cook, who, 
in 1788, made a thorough and accurate survey of both 
coasts. It may, perhaps, be interesting to know, that 
a very old Japanese map of the world, now in the Brit¬ 
ish Museum, lays down the leading features of this strait 
with surprising accuracy. 

Bei'la, or Bela, an inland town of Beloochistan, cap. 
prov. of Lus, on a rock, on the N. bank of the Poorally; 
Lat. 26° 11' N.. Lon. 66° 36' E., and 50 m. N. of the In¬ 
dian Ocean. It is a clean and tidy town, inhabited mostly 
by Hindoos. 

Be'lng, p.pr. [From Be.] Existing; existing in a cer¬ 
tain state. 

—re. Existence; a particular state or condition, as opposed 
to non-existence, or nonentity. 

44 Thee, Author of all being, 

Fountain of Light."— Milton. 

—A person existing; any living creature, whether material 
or spiritual, actual or ideal. 

44 Ah fair, yet false! ah being foil’d to cheat 
By seeming kindness, mixt with deep deceit 1"— Dryden. 

—An intelligent or living existence or spirit, in contradis¬ 
tinction to a thing without life. 

— adv. Since; for as much as; inasmuch as. 

“And being you have 

Declined his means.”— Beaumont and Fletcher. 

Bei'ra, a province of Portugal. — See Beyra. 

Beiram. See Bairam. 

Beirout, Beyrut. See Beyrout. 

Beit, (bite,) an Arabic word, which properly signifies a 
tent or hut, but is likewise employed to denote any edifice 
or abode of men. It is often found as a component part 
of proper names in the geography of those countries 
that have become subject to the Arabs, as ,Beit-al-Har&m, 
i. e. “ the edifice of the sanctuary.” The Hebrew word, 
corresponding to the Arabic Beit, is Beth, which we 
find employed in a manner perfectly analogous in the 
Old Testament; in the name Bethlehem (in Arabic Beit- 
Lahm, or Bed-al-Lahm), i. e. “ the house of bread.” The 
same word, Beth, is, in Syriac, still more extensively used 
as a component part of geographical names. 

Beit-el-FaUih. ( bite-el-fa-ke ,) a maritime town of Ara¬ 
bia, 100 in. W. of Sana, on the Red Sea. This place, the 
hottest in Tehama, is the centre of the Yemen trade in 
coffee. Pop. 10,000. 

Beith, a flourishing inland town of Scotland, county 
of Ayr, 9 m. S.W. of Paisley. Manf. Cottons and mus¬ 
lins. The famous Dunlop cheese is made in the neighbor¬ 
hood. Pop. about 6,000. 

Be it so. A phrase of supposition or anticipation, equal 
to suppose it to be so; or of permission, as, let it be so. 

44 My gracious duke, 

Be’t so she will not here, before your grace."— Shaks. 

Beita'llah, re. [Ar., “house of God.”] The name of 
the temple at Mecca, which contains the Kaaba, q . v. 

Beja, ( baizh'ah ,) a town of Portugal, 36 m. from Evora. 
It stands on a hill and is surrounded by walls flanked by 
forty towers. Pop. about 6.000. 

Bejapoor, (befa-poor,) a large prov. of the Deccan, 
Ilindostan, comprised partly in the British dom. and 
partly in those of the Rajah of Sattara aud the Nizam, 
and containing the Portuguese territory of Goa. It ex¬ 
tends from 15° to 18° N. Lat., and between 73° and 78° 











318 


BELA 


BELE 


BELG 


E. Lon., having N. prov. Aurangabad; E, the same prov. 
and that of Hyderabad; S., the Toombuddra and Wurda 
rivers ; and W., the Indian Ocean ; length, 320 m., by 
200 m. average breadth. Its W. districts are very moun¬ 
tainous, being intersected by the W. Ghauts. The prin¬ 
cipal rivers are the Krishna, or Kistnah, Toombuddra, 
and Beema. The Krishna is remarkable as forming the 
boundary between two regions in which distinct lan¬ 
guages and architectural characteristics prevail: N. of 
that stream the Mahratta tongue is spoken, and the 
roofs of the ordinary houses are pitched and thatched ; 
S. of its banks the Canara language prevails, and the 
houses are flat-roofed and thatched with mud and clay. 
The Ramooses, a tribe resembling the lower castes of the 
Mahrattas, with the thievish habits of the Bheels, but 
more subdued and civilized, inhabit the hills joining the 
Ghautsin Sattara, between Poonah on the N., Coolapoor. 
and Bejapoor, E. After the dissolution of the Bhamanee 
empire of the Deccan, in 1489, Adil Shah established in 
B . a dynasty which lasted till 1689. The country was 
afterwards ruled by the Mahrattas, and after long years of 
anarchy, was partially subjected by the English in 1818. 

Bejapoor, ( Vijayapura, “ the impregnable city,”) the an¬ 
cient cap. of the above prov. under the Bhamanee dynasty. 
Is 115 m. S.E. of Sattara Lat. 16° 46' N.; Lon 75° 47' 
E. In the beginning of the 17th century, it was a city of 
great size and grandeur, but at present it consists merely 
of an immense number of mosques, &c., with a popula¬ 
tion of 20,000. 

Be' jar, a fortified town of Spain, prov. of Salamanca, 
and 48 m. S. of Salamanca city. Man/. Woollens; it is 
also famous throughout Spain for its hams. There are 
mineral waters close by. Pop. 12,751. 

Bejaun'tlice, t>. a. [be and jaundice, q. v.] To infect, 
or infuse with jaundice. 

Bejes'uit, v. a. [5c and Jesuit.] To make Jesuitical; 
to initiate into, or infect with, Jesuitism. 

BeJ um'ble, v. a. [6e and jumble.] To make a medley 
of; te throw into confusion. 

Be'kah, n. [Ileb. beka, half part, from bdka, to split.] 
(Script.) A half-shekel; in weight, five pennyweights; 
in money, about 5 cents. This sum, each Israelite over 
20 years old was obliged to pay as a poll-tax for the ser¬ 
vice of the Temple. 

Belie* Chari.es Tii.stone, ph.d., f.s.a., f.r.g.s., an Eng¬ 
lish geographer, explorer, and author, B. in London, 
1800. In 1834, he published Origines Bibliccei or, ‘‘Re¬ 
searches in Primeval History,” one of the first attempts 
to reconstruct history on the principles of the young 
science of geology. B.’ s historical and geographical 
studies of the East led him to consider the great impor¬ 
tance of Abyssinia for commercial and other intercourse 
with Central Africa; and he accordingly proceeded to 
Shoa, in S. Abyssinia, which country he reached in the 
beginning of 1851. Thence, he went alone into the in¬ 
terior, where he explored Godjam and thecountrieslying 
to the W. and S., previously almost entirely unknown 
to Europeans. The result of these researches was pub¬ 
lished in A Statement of Facts, &c. (1st edit., Lond. 1845). 
On his return to Europe, there appeared, successively, 
from his pen, An Essay on the Nile, and its Tributaries, 
(London, 1847:) On the Sources of the Nile in the Moun¬ 
tains of the Moon, (1848;) On the Sources of the Nile, 
(1849;) and M'.moire Justificatif en Rehabilitation des 
Fires Paez et Lobo, (Paris, 1848.) Among his other 
works are, On the Geographical Distribution of Lan¬ 
guages in Abyssinia, (Edin. 1849;) and The Sources of 
the Nile, with the History of Nilotic Discovery (London, 
1860.) — Dr. B. left England, in Nov. 1865, on a fruitless 
mission to obtain the release of his fellow-countrymen 
in Abyssinia (q. v.), and published The British Captives 
in Abyssinia, in 1867. D. 1874. 

Bel, (Myth.) the chief idol of the Babylonians. — See 
Baal. 

Belst'bor, or Bela'bonr, v. a. [be and labor.] To ply 
with diligence or assiduity; to employ one’s self care¬ 
fully upon. 

“If the earth is belaboured with culture, it yieldeth corn.” Barrow. 

—To beat soundly; to thump; to cudgel. 

“ He secs virago Nell belabour. 

With his own staff, his peaceful neighbour."— Swift. 

Belace', t>. a. To inflict punishment with a strap; to 
chastise with a rope’s end. 

Belair', in Georgia, a post-village of Richmond co., 10 
m. W. of Augusta. 

Bel Air, in Illinois, a village ot Clarke co. 

Belair', in Illinois, a village of Crawford co. 

Belair', in Maryland, a town, the capital of Harford 
co., 22 miles N. E. of Baltimore. Pop. in 1891,1,416; in 
1897 (est.), 1,696. 

Belair', in South Carolina, a village of Lancaster co. 

Belair', in Vermont, a village of Orleans co., on Barton 
river, 40 miles N. bv E. of Montpelier. 

Belam', v. a. To beat or bang. An expression used 
in some parts of England. 

Belamour, ( bel'a-mdor ,) n. A flower, but of what 
kind is unknown. 

“ Her snowy brows like budded belamours." — Spenser. 

Bel and the Dragon. (Eccl. Hist.) The name of an 
apocryphal and uncanonical book of Scripture. It was 
always rejected by the Jewish church, and is extant 
neither in the Hebrew nor Chaldee language, nor is 
there any proof that it ever was so; hence St. Jerome 
terms it “ the fable of Bel and the Dragon.” 

Belated, a. Late in time; benighted; too late. 

Belat'edness, n. A being too late. 

Belaud, (bi-lawd',) v. a. [be and laud.] To laud, or 
praise highly. 

Belay', v. a. [beand lay.] ( Naut .) To make a rope fast by 
turns round a pin or coil, without hitching or seizing it. 


Belay'ing-pin, n. (Naut.) A wooden pin, made of 
ash, and turned in a lathe, 16 inches long and 1% inch 
in diameter at the upper end; used for belaying a rope. 

Bel'bend, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Luzerne co. 

Belbeys, ( bel'bez,) a town of Lower Egypt, on the E. 
bank of the Nile, 28 m. from Cairo; pop. abt. 5,000. 

Belch, ( belsh,) v. a. [A. S. bealcan, from bade, the stom¬ 
ach; allied to bulge, bilge.] To swell or heave out; to 
eject, as wind from the stomach; to eructate. 

“ And, when they're full, 

They belch us." — Shake. 

—To eject violently from within ; to cast forth. 

“ All heav'n appear'd 

From those deep.throated engines belch'd." — Milton. 

— v. i. To eject wind from the stomach. 

“ The symptoms are, . . . belchitigs and distensions ot the 
bowels."— Arbuthnot. 

—To issue out, as by eructation. 

“ The waters boil, and, belching from below. 

Black sands as from a forceful engine throw.”— Dryden. 

Belch, Belching', n. The act of throwing out from 
the stomach, or violently from within; eructation. 

Bel'cher, Sir Edward, f.r.s., an English naval officer 
and explorer, b. 1799. In 1836 he was commissioned to 
explore the western coasts of America and the Indies, 
and was absent six years; during which time he had 
sailed around the world. On his return he published a 
Narrative of his voyage. In 1852, he commanded the 
expedition in search of Sir John Franklin, and brought 
homo the crews of the ice-bound vessels, Oct. 1854. He 
afterwards published The Last of the Arctic Voyages, 
(London, 1855.) D. 1877. 

Bel'cher, in New York, a post-office of Washington co. 

Bel'cliertown, in Massachusetts, a thriving post¬ 
township of Hampshire co., 70 m. W. by S. of the city 
of Boston. 

Belcll'ite, a small town of Spain, 22 m. S.S.E. of Sara¬ 
gossa; pop. 2,878. Here, on June 18, 1809, the Spanish, 
under General Blake, were completely routed by the 
French under Suchet. 

Bel'dam, Bel'dame, n. [Fr. belle, fine, or handsome, 
and dame. J Originally, a good dame; now, by corruption, 
an old woman; an old witch, hag, or weird-like woman. 

“ I weep for woe, the testy beldam swore."— Dryden. 

—Grandmother, a counter-equivalent to belsire, grand¬ 
father. (Poet, and R.) 

** To show the beldame daughters of her daughter."— Shake. 


Bel'den, in Indiana, a post-village of Wabash co., on 
the Wabash River, 34 m. W.S.W. of Fort Wayne. 

Bel'denville, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Pierce 
co., 14 m. E. of Prescott. 

Beleaguer, ( be-le'gcr,) v. a. [Ger. beldgem, be, by, and 
lagern, to lay.] To surround with an army; to blockade, 
or block up; to besiege. 

“The Trojan camp, then beleaguered by Turnus and the 
Latins.”— Dryden. 



Belea'gtierer, n. One who beleaguers; one who be¬ 
sieges a place. 

Belect'ure, v. a. [be and lecture.] To administer a lec¬ 
ture to; to bore with unwelcome advice or reproof; to 
lecture frequently. 

Belee', t>. a. [6e and lee.] To place on the lee, or in a po¬ 
sition not exposed to the wind. 

Belem, ( be'lem ,) a town of Portugal, 2 m. from Lisbon. 
It is historically interesting as the place from whence 
Yasco de Gama set sail on his voyage of Oriental dis¬ 
covery. It was taken in November, 1807, by the French, 
the royal family of Portugal embarking from its quay 
for Brazil as they entered. In 1833. it was occupied by 
Dom Pedro’s troops. Pop. about 5,000. 

Be'lem, in Brazil. See Para. 

Be'lemnite, n. One of the Belemnites, q. v. 

Be'lem n ites, n. (Gr. belemnon, an arrow or dart.] 
(Pal.) A genus of fossil mollusca. — See Belemnitida: 
Belemnit'idie, n. pi. (Pal.) A family of fossil mol¬ 
lusca belonging to the class Cephalopoda, or Cuttle¬ 
fishes. The shell of these animals 
consists of an internal horny pen, as 
in other dibranchiate cephalopoda of 
a spatuliform shape, broad in front, 
narrow posteriorly, and provided later¬ 
ally with two small wing-shaped ex¬ 
pansions, which unite posteriorly, and 
form a large conical cavity, at the bot¬ 
tom of which are transverse partitions, 
separating the whole into numerous 
small chambers pierced laterally with 
a siphon, and containing air. This pos¬ 
terior portion receives externally a cal¬ 
careous deposit of a regular conical 
shape, more or less thick, and some¬ 
times of considerable length. It is 
this terminal portion that is generally 
called the Belemnite. It is sometimes 
10 inches long, which indicates that 
the entire animal, with its arms out¬ 
stretched, must have been several feet 
in length. The spatuliform part with 
the wings is called the guard, and the 
chambered conical cavity is called the 
phragmo-cone, (a septum or division.) 

The object of this structure is evi¬ 
dently to support the body of the ani¬ 
mal when it was alive, and give solidity 
to it, while at the same time, being di¬ 
vided into chambers filled with air, it 
■was light, and thus well adapted for 
supporting it in the water. It was 
lodged in the middle of the fleshy body 
of the animal, which in structure must 


have resembled the recent genus Onychoteuthis, and, to 
judge of some specimens of the shell, must have been 
four or more feet in length. Nearly a hundred species 
of the genus Belemnites have been found in a fossil state, 
ranging from the lias to the gault, and distributed over 
all Egypt. The phragmo-cone of the belemnite is ex¬ 
ceedingly delicate, and usually owes its preservation to 
the infiltration of calcareous spar. The guard is very 
variable in proportions, being sometimes only half an 
inch longer than the phragmo-cone, at others one or two 
feet in length. The animals appear to have been gre¬ 
garious, from the exceeding abundance of their remains 
in many localities, and to have lived at a moderate 
depth of water. The B. is popularly known under the 
names of Spectre-candle, Arrow-head, Thunder-stone, Tick, 
Petrified finger. Sic. 

Be'Ieii, in New Mexico Territory, a post-bffice ol Va¬ 
lencia co. 

Belesis, (bel'e-sis.) a Chaldiean, who raised Arsaces to 
the throne of Media, for which he was rewarded with 
the government of Babylon, b. c. 770. When Sardana- 
paltis, with his gold and silver, was burnt in his palace, 
B. was permitted to take away the ashes, and extracted 
therefrom immense treasures. 

Bel-esprit, (bcl'es-prre',) n.; pi. Beaux-esprits, (boz'es- 
pree'.) [Fr. beksprit, fine wit.] A man of fine spirit, wit, 
or genius. 

Belew’s Creek, in Missouri, a post-office of Jeffer¬ 
son co. 

Belfast', the chief commercial and manufacturing city 
of Ireland, in the counties Antrim and Down, at the con¬ 
fluence of the river Lagan with Carrickfergus Bay, 102 
m. N. of Dublin, and 78 S.E. of Londonderry. It is after 
Dublin the largest and most important town in Ireland. 
The houses, mostly of modern construction, are of brick; 
the streets are wide, airy, well-paved, and flagged. There 
are many fine religious edifices here, while of educa¬ 
tional establishments the principal is Queen’s College, 
opened in 1S49. Numerous literary and scientific in¬ 
stitutions flourish, and everything about betokens a 
wealthy and prosperous state of things. B. is the nu¬ 
cleus of the Irish linen manufacture. This trade is 
now in a flourishing condition, and rapidly increasing. 
The other chief branches of industry are linen and cot¬ 
ton weaving, iron founding on an extensive scale, and 
bleaching. There are also print and chemical works, 
oil, alabaster, and barilla mills, tanneries, felt manufac¬ 
tories, ship-building yards, &c. B. has railway communi¬ 
cation with nearly the entire country, and steamship 
traffic with London, Liverpool, Glasgow, and Fleetwood. 
The bay is peculiarly favorable to the purposes of com¬ 
merce, being safe and easy of access, and permitting 
vessels drawing 16 ft. water at neaps, and 18 ft. water at 
spring-tides, to reach the quays. The imports into B. 
annually average $40,000,060and the exports $37,000,000. 
Pop. in 1895, 255,950. 

Belfast', in Iowa, a post-village of Lee co., on the De# 
Moines River, 18 m. W.S.W. of Fort Madison. 

Belfast', in Maine ,-a sea-port, and seat of justice of 
Waldo co., 30 ill. S. of Bangor, and 30 m. from the ocean, 
at the head of Penobscot Bay. The town, pleasantly 
situated but indifferently built, is divided into two parts 
by tlie Paasaggassassawakeag River, or stream. Vessels 
of the largest class may enter the harbor, and the town 
is extensively engaged in coastwise commerce and to 
some extent in the fisheries and other industries. Pop. 
(1890) 5,294; (1898) 5,350. 

Belfast', in New York, a post-township of Alleghany 
co., 60 m. S.E. of Buffalo, on the Genesee River. 

Belfast', in Ohio, a post-office of Clermont co. 

—A village qf Highland county, 72 m. S. by W. of Co¬ 
lumbus. 

Belfast', in Pennsylvania, a twp. of Fulton co. 

—A post-office of Northampton co. 

Belfast, in Tmn., a post-vill. of Marshall co. 

Bel'ford, in North Carolina, a village of Nash co. 

Bel'fort, in Prance. See Befort. 

Bel fry, n. [Fr. beffrni, a tower, from Celt, bereffreid — 
her, to carry, and freid, fear, alarm; L. Lat. belfredus.] 
(Arch, and Mil.) That part of a steeple wherein the 
bells are hung; and more particularly the timber-work 
by which the bells are supported. — The name seems de¬ 
rived from that of an old warlike machine called the 
beffrni, or belfry, used in military sieges in the ancient 
anil medieval times. It was a movable tower, as high as 
the walls of the besieged town. The object of such 
towers was to cover the approach of troops. Sometimes 
they were pushed on by pressure, sometimes by capstans 
and ropes. The highest were on six or eight wheels, and 
had as many as twelve or fifteen stories or stages; but 
it was usual to limit the height to three or four stages. 
They were often covered witli raw hides, to protect them 
from the flames of boiling grease and oil directed against 
them by the besieged; and there was a hinged draw¬ 
bridge at the top, to let down upon the parapet of the 
wall, to aid in landing. The lower stage frequently had 
a ram, while the others were crowded with archers, ar- 
balisters, and slingers; or there were bowmen on all 
the stages except the top, which had a storming or 
boarding party. — See Batterinq-ram. 

Belgse, (bel'je.) (Hist.) An ancient Celtic people, who 
originally settled in Germany, and passed at an early 
period into Gaul, whither they were attracted by the 
superior fertility of the soil. Caesar, who quartered his 
legions in their conntry during the winter b. c. 54-55. 
describes them as one of the three great tribes among 
whom Gallia was distributed. He also refers to a nation 
of Belgse, as inhabiting the southern portions of Britain ; 
but tlie history of this people, and its identity or other- 

i wise witli the Gallic tribe of the same name, is involved 

] in obscurity. — See Belgium. 














BELG 


BELG 


BELG 


319 


Belffftnm, (bel-gatom',) a strongly fortified town of 
Hindostan, in the British presidency of Bombay, 55 m. 
N.W. of Dharwar; Lat. 15° 52' N„ Lon. 74° 42' E. It was 
taken by the English in 1818. Pop. about 8,000. 

Bel'gartl, a town of Prussia, prov. Pomerania, cap. of 
a circle, 16 m. S.S.W. of Coeslin, at the coufluence of the 
Leitnitz with the Persante, and almost eutirely sur¬ 
rounded by water. Manf. Cloth. Pqi. 5,447. 

Bel'gian, a. [See Belgic.] ( Geog .) Belonging, or re¬ 
lating to Belgium, or the Netherlands. 

*— n. A native of Belgium. 

IJoljgic, (hel'jik,) a. [Lat. Bdgicus, — Belgse , the Belgians.] 
Pertaining, or relating to the Belgse, the ancient pos¬ 
sessors of the Low Countries, (now the Netherlands.) 

Beljf iojoso, ( bel-jo-yo’so ,) CristinaTrivulzio, Princess 
di, b. in Milan, 1808. Devoted to Italy and liberty, 
she could not make up her mind to live at Milan under 
Austrian despotism, and took up her residence in Paris, 
where she became a leader of fashion, and a distin¬ 
guished cultivator of literature and art. Sympathizing 
with her countrymen in their endeavor to free them¬ 
selves from the Austrian yoke, she, in 1847, raised, and 
equipped at her own expense, a cavalry force of 200 
men. For this act her property was confiscated, and she 
was banished, whereupon she retired to a farm in Asia 
Minor. Eventually her sentence of banishment was re¬ 
voked. Under M. Arago she studied mathematics, and 
she is said to have been conversant with the Chinese 
language. She is author of Recits Turco-Asiatiques, 
Asie Mineure, Htitoire de Motion de Savoie , &c. D, at 
Milan, 1871. 

Belgiojo'so, a town of Northern Italy, prov. Pavia, 9 
m. E. of the latter city, and 23 S.S.E. of Milan. It is 
well built, has a magnificent aqueduct, and a fine castle, 
in which Francis I. spent the night subsequent to the 
battle of Pavia. Pop. about 4,000. 

Belgium, ibeVje-um,) a kingdom of Europe, situated 
between France, Holland, and Prussia. Its territory is 
small as compared with the great European States, but 
the important position which this country has occupied 
in the political, military, commercial, and agricultural 
history of Europe — its former celebrity in manufactures 
and the fine arts—and its present rapid progress in 
every industrial pursuit and social improvement, give it 
a peculiar interest. B. extends from 44° 30' to51° 30' N. 
Lat, and from 2°33’ to 6° 5' E. Lon. On the N., its boun¬ 
dary line is formed by Holland; on the E. by Prussia; 
on the S. by France; and on the W. by the North Sea. 
The general outline of the territory forms a triangular 
figure, of which the longest side extends on the French 
frontier, from a point midway between Furnes and Dun¬ 
kerque to oue 9 m. S.E. of Arlon, or 5 E. from Longwy. 
The greatest length of the kingdom from N.W. to S.E. 
is 64 leagues, or about 193 Eng. m.; and the greatest 
breadth from N.E. to S.W., 42 leagues, or about 127 m. 
— Divisions , area and population. Belgium is divided into 
the nine provinces of Antwerp, capital city, Antwerp; 
East Flanders, capital, Ghent; West Flanders, capital, 
Bruges; Hainault, capital, Mons; Limburg, capital, 
Hasselt; Brabant, capital, Brussels; Liege, capital, 
Li&ge; Namur, capital, Namur; and Luxembourg, 
capital, Arlon. Brussels is the capital of the State. 
These provinces formerly constituted the duchy of Bra¬ 
bant, the marquisate of Antwerp, the principality of 
Liege, the seignurie of Mechlin (or Malines), the com- 
tes of Flanders, Hainault, Louvain and Namur, and the 
duchies of Limburg and Luxembourg. They embrace 
an urea of 11,373 sq.m., and in 1906 had a population of 
6,693.548, B. being the most densely populated country 
in Europe. Of these about 2,590,000 speak the Flemish 

B language, while the Walloon is predominant in some of 
the provinces, being spoken by a population of about 
2,000,000. The French, the language of the minority, has 
been, since 1794, the official language of the court and, 
the governmental authorities, though of late years the 
Flemings have actively endeavored to have their lan¬ 
guage restored to its former supremacy. There are four 
universities—at Ghent, Liege, Louvain and Brussels— 
though education is not well developed, only 77 percent, 
of the adult population being able to read and write.— 
Gen. Desc. The N. and W. provinces of B. may, in their 
flatness, fertility, dykes and canals, be regarded as a con¬ 
tinuation of Holland. This portion of the kingdom is so 
densely peopled, that it presents to the traveler the ap¬ 
pearance of one vast continuous village. The S. and E. 
provinces have an opposite character; they are generally 
more thinly peopled and less cultivated, and exhibit a 
most irregular, mountainous surface, with marshy tracts 
of land and extensive forests. With the exception of the 
hilly districts in the S. and E. the whole territory presents 
a series of nearly level plains, traversed by numerous 
streams, delightfully diversified by woods, arable lands, 
and meadows of brilliant verdure, enclosed by hedge- 

I 1 row trees, and thickly studded throughout with towns 

and villages. On the coast, downs, or dunes , of fine loose 
sand extend from Dunkerque as far as Holland. In 
breadth they vary from lto3 m., and rise in the highest 
parts to 40 or 50 ft.— Mount. No elevation in B. is prop¬ 
erly entitled to the appellation of mountain; a ramifica¬ 
tion of the chain of the Ardennes extends in a N.E. di¬ 
rection through Luxembourg, Namur, and Liege, and 
forms a mountainous crest, which separates the waters 
of the Meuse from those of the Moselle. Another off¬ 
shoot of the Ardennes rises parallel with this, on the N. 
banks of the Sambre and .Meuse, between Mons and 
Maestricht. The highest points of elevation are about 
2,200 ft. above the sea: and one of these is the hill which 
overlooks the celebrated springs and town of Spa.— For¬ 
ests. A space of about one-fifth of the surface of B. is 
covered with woods and forests. Of the latter, the prin¬ 
cipal are those of Hainault, Luxembourg, Soignies, and 


St. Hubert. The two former are remains of the once 
immense forest of Ardennes. All the common trees of 
Europe are abundantly found in them. Arboriculture 
is fostered with assiduity, and government laws vigi¬ 
lantly enforce its care and management. — Rivers. B. is 
one of the best watered countries in Europe. All its 
streams find their outlets in the North Sea. The Scheldt 
in the W., and the Meuse in the E., can alone be prop¬ 
erly denominated rivers. The principal affluents of the 
Scheldt, are the Deudre, Leune, Dyle, Geete, Demer, and 
Nethe, on the E.; and the Lys, and Dunne, on the W. 
The Meuse on the E. is joined by the Semoy, Lesse, 
Ourthe, Vesdre, Ac.; and on the W. by the Sambre, Jaar, 
and several smaller streams. The total length of navi¬ 
gable rivers is 962,746 metres.— Olim. The climate of B. 
is less chilly and damp than that of Holland; however, it 
is certainly humid, compared with that of France and Ger¬ 
many', and may be considered as very similar to that of 
England. The numberof rainy day's averages 170. The 
mean annual temperature is 10-52 centigrades; the 
temperature of the hottest month is 20° 36’, and of the 
coldest0°85’; difference 19°51’.— Minerals. Considerable: 
coal, lead, iron, copper, zinc, marble, and building-stones. 
In coal it is the richest country in Europe, England ex- 
tepted. Mill-stones, grind-stones, whet-stones, and slates 
are largely exported. — Min. Waters. This kingdom pos¬ 
sesses several springs of medicinal mineral waters, as 
those of Spa, (celebrated throughout Europe.) Chaud- 
fontaine, Morimont, andTongres.— Zoiil. All the domestic 
animals of the other European countries are found in B. 
Flanders, however, is noted for its breed of draught- 
horses ; and another variety of this animal, the Luxem¬ 
bourg Cob, is a valuable breed.— Agric. Although culti¬ 
vation is carried on to a great extent, yet about l-12th 
of the whole surface remains still intact; 1-Sth consists 
of grass lands, the best of which are in the two prov. of 
Flanders; and the arable lands occupy one-half. Wheat, 
rye, barley, oats, hemp, flax, tobacco, hops, and vegeta¬ 
ble products, comprise the leading results of Belgian 
agriculture. Madder, too, is extensively cultivated. Hus¬ 
bandry is, in general, well conducted and remunerative; 
the farms are neatly kept, and compact, though small, 
rarely exceeding 100 acres. Chicory and beet are being 
raised in increasing quantities, and the flax crop is an 
object of the greatest care and attention.— Manf. Wool, 
in B., is the object of an immense industry; the woollen 
manufactures of Verviers and its environs alone employ¬ 
ing a population of 50,000 operatives. Flannels, serges, 
camlets, carpets, flax fabrics, silks, velvets, and lace of 
the finest descriptions, ribbons, hosiery, hats, paper, Ac., 
Ac., are most extensively and profitably carried on. The 
working of metals, as iron, copper, and tin, is very 
important; the manufacture of cannon, fire-arms, and 
locomotive engines being an especial feature of the 
metallurgical industry of B. — Commerce. The foreign 
trade of Belgium, resembling that of France, is offi¬ 
cially divided into general commerce, including the 
sum-total of all international mercantile intercourse, 
and special commerce, comprising such imports as are 
consumed within, and such exports as have been pro¬ 
duced in, the country. The principle articles of export 
include coal, flax, linen, woolen and cotton goods, glass, 
nails and fire-arms. Of these more than a third are sent 
to France, and most of the remainder to Germany, Hol¬ 
land and England. The carrying trade is almost wholly 
in the hands of the British. Belgium having but a small 
merchant marine, m 19o4 there entered 9,963 vessels, 
ofll,136.239 tons, and cleared 9,056 of 11,144.849 tons. Of 
these less than 300 dealt with the U. S., with which B. 
lias very little commerce. The total exports for the year 
1906 aggregated $437,289,000; the imports §577.040,0o0. 
Of the imports, tood-stufls constitute no inconsiderable 
proportion. Ot the territory of the State less than 60 per 
■ cent, is under cultivation, and the large manufacturing 
population obtains much of its food from abroad. Of 
minerals, the annual production of coal is about 20,000,- 
000 tons; of iron and steel, 750,000 tons.— Railways. In 
B. the State is a great railway proprietor, and the State 
Railway is the largest source of revenue. It was the first 
work of the kind ever undertaken by any government, 
or on so great a scale by any proprietary; the entire 
leDgth, 330 miles, was completed in 1844. The govern¬ 
ment system of railways is now 2,018 miles in length; 
those owned by private companies, 792 miles. The cost 
of the State lines has been §388,000,000. Of government 
telegraphs there are 4,617 miles. The canals are 280 
miles in length, the total length of navigable waters 
being 854 miles.— Inhab. The Belgians have been suc¬ 
cessively subjected to the influence of so many different 
governments—French, Austrian, Spanish, Dutch — that 
they possess no distinctive or peculiar national character. 
The apathy and persevering industry of the Dutch is 
blended with the vivacity and self-assurance of the 
French, without producing an agreeable compound. The 
Belgian burghers have always displayed a passionate 
fondness for social liberty—an iinpatienceof control that 
embroiled them with their rulers, and involved them in 
ruinous disasters during successive centuries. The 
wealthy denizens of the cities have very generally 
adopted the language, fashions, dress, manners, and 
amusements of the French. The Belgians are passion¬ 
ately fond of music and dancing, as is evidenced even in 
the carillons of their numberless churches. — Religion 
and Education. The Roman Catholic religion is professed 
by nearly the entire population. The Protestants do 
not amount to 13,000, while the Jews scarcely number 
2,000. The fullest liberty is allowed in the expression 
of religious opinions and the choice of modes of worship. 
B. contains 6 Roman Catholic dioceses; the clergy of 
which receive from the national treasury an annual in¬ 
come of $718,180; the Protestant Church, $8,925; the 


Jews, $1,880; and the English Episcopal Church, $2,036. 
Education is far from being generally diffused among 
the people, although much progress towards it has been 
made within the last 10 years. Education, which was 
compulsory under the Dutch government, has ceased to 
be so since 1830. The proportion of the educated popu¬ 
lation may be estimated at 3o per cent.— Const, and Gov. 
According to the charter of 1831, B. is a “constitutional, 
representative, and hereditary monarchy.” The legisla¬ 
tive pow er is vested in the King, the Chamber of Rep¬ 
resentatives, and the Senate. The royal succession is in 
the direct male line in the order of primogeniture. The 
king's person is declared sacred; and his ministers 
are responsible for the acts of the government. The 
representatives or deputies, and tlie'senators,are chosen 
directly by the people, universal suffrage having been 
enjoyed since the adoption of the revised constitution of 
1893, which was the result of a vigorous pressure by the 
people upon the government. Previously the suffrage 
was restricted to those paying a small amount of direct 
taxes. The legislators are elected for four y r ears, their 
number being in the proportion of one senator for two 
deputies. The executive government is organized under 
six departments, viz.: the departments of Foreign Affairs, 
Justice, Finance, Public Works, War, and the Interior.— 
Finances. The public budget estimates tor 1900 were 
based upon a revenue of555,863,927 francs (Sill,172,788) 
of which 237,009,000 fr. were the proceeds of the'rail- 
waysand the remainder from various smaller sources. 
The estimated expenses were 557,805,481 francs (or 
§111,561,096). The public debt amounted to 3,117,038,- 
048 fr. (or §623,407,630) of which 2.897,078,216 fr. were 
bonded at 8 per cent, and 219,959,632 fr. at 2% per cent. 
B. has no floating debt.— Army. The army is formed by 
conscription, to which every able man over 19 years of 
age is liable. Substitution, however, is permitted. Under 
the law of 1873 the peace strength is fixed at 47,000 men, 
the w ar strength at 108,000. There is, in addition, a na¬ 
tional guard of over 30,000 men, with a reserve of 90,000. 
The army is bit ended solely for defence, and there are de¬ 
fensive fortifications at Antwerp, Dendermonde, Namur, 
Li5ge, and other places.— Towns. Besides those before 
mentioned, the other principal places are Tournay, Ypres, 
Louvain, Verviers, Mechlin, Ostend, Nieuport, Ac.— His¬ 
tory. B. anciently formed a part of the 3d division of 
Gaul, and w.as called by the Romans, Belgia, Belgium, 
and Gallia Belgica, and its people were the least civilized 
and most courageous of all the Gallic nations. In the 
3d, 4th, and 5th centuries, successive invasions of Salian 
Franks from the North changed the character of the 
Belgic people; a change still further increased by the 
introduction of Christianity, and the foundation of 
monasteries. The fierce and valiant warriors who for¬ 
merly occupied the soil, were succeeded by an abject 
race of serfs, who cultivated the domains of haughty 
lords and an imperious priesthood. The latter enjoyed 
immense possessions, and against them, as against the 
despotic Franks, the Flemings formed associations cal led 
OiUlen (Guilds); these formed the origin of all the ancient 
municipal corporations, and within a century alter the 
time of Charlemagne, Flanders was covered with corpo¬ 
rate towns. At the end of the 11th century, when the 
devotion for the crusades induced many of the nobles to 
part with their lands in order to obtain the means of 
equipping armies against the Saracens, their wealthy 
vassals, the Flemish burghers, bought them, and were 
thus enabled to purchase independence, and a jurisdic¬ 
tion of their own. They consequently formed themselves 
into municipalities, and built stately towm-halls, as tro¬ 
phies of their liberties. When the rest of Europe was 
subject to despotism, and involved in comparative igno¬ 
rance and barbarism, the court of the Counts of Flanders 
was the chosen seat of liberty, civilization, and useful 
knowledge. The provinces came under the dominion of 
the Dukes of Burgundy about the middle of the 15th 
century. Under this dynasty, the commercial and manu 
facturing towns of the Low Country enjoyed a remark¬ 
able prosperity. In the Flemish court of Philip the 
Good, Duke of Burgundy, about 1455, luxurious living 
W'as carried to a vicious and foolish excess. The wealthy 
citizens were clad in gorgeous velvets, satins, and jewelry, 
and their banquets were given with almost incredible 
splendor. The arts were cultivated with great success. 
Van Eyck invented thebeautilul oil-colors lor which the 
Flemish school of painting is renowned. Painting on 
glass, polishing diamonds, lace, tapestry, and chimes 
were also invented in Belgium, at this period. Most of 
the magnificent cathedrals and town-hails in the country 
were built in thel3thandl4th centuries. History, poetry, 
and learning were much cultivated; and the University 
of Louvain was the most celebrated in Europe. In 1477, 
B. passed under the dynasty of the empire of Austria; 
and after many years of contest between the despotic 
Maximilian (the husband of Mary of Burgundy) and the 
democratic Flemings, the government, in 1519, descended 
to his grandson, Charles V., King of Spain. The amazing 
prosperity of the Provinces experienced a rapid and fatal 
decline under the tyrannic fanaticism of Philip II., and 
the cruelty of the Duke of Alva, q. v. Commerce and 
trade in Flanders dwindled away, and the great cities 
were half deserted. B. remained under Spanish dominion 
until the memorable victory of Ramifies, in 1706, alter 
which it was again subjected to Austria; and having 
been several times conquered by, and reconquered from 
the French, it was incorporated, in 1795, with the French 
Republic, and divided into departments. By this union, 
B. secured a suppression of all the old feudal privileges, 
exemption from territorial contributions, the abolition 
of tithes, a more extensive distribution of real property, 
a repeal of the game laws, an admirable registry law, 
a cheap system of tax collection, the advancement of 










820 


BELI 


BELK 


BELL 


education in central schools and lyceums, a uniform 
system of legislation by the creation of codes, publicity 
of judicial proceedings, trial by jury, and the general 
use of the French language. By the Congress of Vienna, 
the provinces of B. were annexed to those of Holland, 
to form the kingdom of the Netherlands, which existed 
until the Revolution of 1830. A national congress elected 
Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, King of the Belgians, 
4th June, 1831, and he ascended the throne on the 21st 
of July following. A war with Holland followed, and 
it was not until 1839, after the treaty of peace concluded 
between Leopold I. and the King of the Netherlands, 
that all the States of Europe recognized the new king¬ 
dom of Belgium. On the death of Leopold I., 10th Dec., 
1865, his son Leopold II. (the present king), succeeded 
to the throne. Early in 1869, a dispute broke out be¬ 
tween B. and France, with respect to the Custom duties 
levied on their respective frontiers; but owing, perhaps, 
to the peaceful advice given to B. by Great Britain, 
this cloud on the horizon of European politics passed 
away. 1878 witnessed the overthrow of the Clerical 
party in the B. parliament. 

Bel gium, in TFis, a twp. of Ozaukee co.. on Lake Mich. 

Belgrade, (bel graid',) the capital of the kingdom of 
Servia, on the Danube, at its junction with the Save; 
Lat. 44° 47' 57" N., Lon. 20° 28' 14" E. From its position, 
on the limits of the Austrian and Turkish empires, at 
the confluence of two great rivers, its great strength, 
and the numerous sieges it has sustained, much interest 
has long been attached to B. Its citadel, on a steep hill 
100 feet high, near the centre of the town, occupies a 
most formidable position. It has been very strongly 
fortified; and if it were properly repaired and garrisoned, 
it would be all but impregnable. Since 1869, B has been 
greatly improved. Its educational institutions are 
numerous, and there is a theatre devoted to the na¬ 
tional drama. In the same building with the high 
school there is a valuable collection of national anti¬ 
quities, as well as an extensive library. The commerce 
of B. is not so great as would be anticipated from its 
favorable position. It holds direct commercial relations 
with Vienna, Constantinople, and England. Its princi¬ 
pal industrial products arecotton-stuffs. carpets, leather 
and fire-arms.— Manuf Inconsiderable, consisting, prin¬ 
cipally of carpets, silk goods, saddlery, &c. The Turks, 
under Solyman the Magnificent, took Belgrade in 1522, 
and held it till 1688. when it was taken by the Imperial¬ 
ists. Two years after, it again fell into the hands of 
the Turks; and though it has since been repeatedly 
taken by the Imperialists, they have, in most instances, 
soon after restored it to its Ottoman masters. It was 
taken, in 1807, by the Servian insurgents, who, on being 
obliged to abandon it in 1813, burnt the suburbs, and 
partly destroyed the fortifications The citadel was 
evacuated by the Turks in 1867, and on Aug. 21, 1878, 
the independence of Servia was solemnly proclaimed at 
B. by Prince Milan. Pop. (1897), abt. 55,000. 

Belgrade', in Maine , a post-township of Kennebec co., 
67 m. N.N.E. of Portland. 

Belgrade', in Minnesota, a township of Nicollet coun¬ 
ty- 

Belgrade', in Missouri, a post-office of Washington co. 

Belgrade', in Texas, a village of Newton co., on the 
W. bank of the Sabine River, about 55 m. N. by E. of 
Sabine city. 

Belgrade Mills, in Maine, a post-village of Kenne¬ 
bec co., about 16 m. N.W. of Augusta. 

Bel gra'via, n. The most fashionable quarter of the 
West End of London, the English metropolis, extend¬ 
ing from Hyde Park Corner to Pimlico. 

Belgra'vian, a. Belonging to Belgravia, or to English 
fashionable life; as, “ Belgravian mothers.” Thackeray. 

Belial, (be'li -al,) n. [Heb. belial — beli, not, without, 
and yaal, use, profit ] (Scrip.) Literally, a worthless 
fellow. A man of B., a son of B., a daughter of B., 
mean, in the Bible, a wicked person. B., if emphatically 
used, means the worst of spirits. Thus, in the passage, 
“ What concord hath Christ with Belial t” (2 Cur. vi. 15.) 
Compare Milton’s PUradise Regained, book ii. v. 147-152 : 

“ So spake the old serpent doubting, and from all 
With clamor was assur’d their utmost aid 
At his command; when from amidst them ros* 

Belial, the dissolutest spirit that fell, 

The sensuallest, and, after Asmodai. 

The fleshliest incubus, and thus advised.** 

Beli'bel, v. a. [be. and libel.] To libel or traduce. 

Belie', v. a. [be and lie. A.S. be, and letjgan, to lie, de¬ 
ceive, from lig, a lie; Ger. beiugen.] To lie to; to calum¬ 
niate ; to slander. 

“ Thou dost belie him, Percy, thou beliest him.”— Shake. 

x-To give the lie to; to convict of falsehood; to show to 
be false. 

“ Their trembling hearts belie their boastful tongues.”— Dryden. 

—To represent falsely; to mis-state anything. 

**In the dispute, whate’er I said, 

My heart was by my tongue belied."—Prior. 

—To counterfeit; to feign resemblance of; to mimic. 

** The walk, the words, the gesture could supply. 

The habit mimick, and the mien belie." — Dryden. 

—To fill with lies. (o. and r.) 

Belief, ( be-lef ',) n. [A.S. gele.af geleafan, from the root 
of leave, A.S. leaf.] An assent, credit, or reliance given to 
word or testimony; an affirmation or proposition, with¬ 
out direct or definite personal evidence; conviction; 
confidence; as, the belief of one’s sense. — The thing be¬ 
lieved; the object of belief. 

" Superstitious prophecies are not only the belief of fools, but 
the talk sometimes of wise men.”— Bacon. 

—Doctrine, opinion, or tenet held out or advanced for 
acceptance.—A firm persuasion of; assurance held on 
presumptive evidence or testimony. 


(Theol.) That state of mind in which one acquiesces 
in some truth, real or supposed No doubt, every man 
in the world who believes in anything, even the most 
superstitious idea that ever found credence, does so be¬ 
cause he has some kind of a vague perception that the 
object of his belief is real and true. But the act of be¬ 
lief itself has puzzled the wise, throughout all ages, ex¬ 
actly to describe its character. One man alleges the 
act is intellectual, another says it is moral, a third 
affirms that it is emotional, and a fourth, who is likely 
as near the truth as any of the previous three, avers 
that it bears all those various characters at different 
times, and when applied to different subjects. First it 
is intellectual, then it is moral, anon it is emotional; 
and it is as easy to describe it, as it is to give a definition 
of instinct or of intuition. The reason of this apparent 
obscurity in the meaning of this word, is, because men 
have no more general term that they are accustomed 
to apply to the same object. It is, accordingly, impos¬ 
sible to get behind belief, so as intelligibly to describe 
its character. It is emphatically “ the light of all our 
seeing.” There are, properly, four sources from which 
the sound beliefs of men are made up1st, there is in¬ 
tuition or instinct; 2d, there is our ordinary* experience; 
3d, there are our scientific convictions, derived from tie 
exercise of the two sources of knowledge, deduction 
and induction; 4th, there is testimony. These consti¬ 
tute the sources of our real convictions; hut feeling and 
imagination have a great share in giving rise to illusory 
notions and superstitious beliefs in the minds of men. 
Man is responsible for every belief, real or illusory, 
which he maintains, provided, always, it were possible 
for him to discipline himself properly in the various 
kinds of knowledge, in which he exercises his beliefs. 
This arises from the fact that we all have pow’er over 
our minds in directing them to one object or another of 
study; and if this act, which is admitted on all hands 
to be voluntary, be really so, for every voluntary act we 
commit, either directly or indirectly, we are entirely 
responsible. Belief is, no doubt, indirect in its connec¬ 
tion with the conscience, but it is not, therefore, wholly 
irresponsible. 

Reliev'able, a. That may be believed; credible. 

Believe, (be-lev’,) v. a. To give belief or credit to; to 
assent to; to rest in; to trust in ; to credit; to be firmly 
persuaded of; to deem to be true; to put confidence in. 

— v. i. To exercise belief or faith; to have a firm per¬ 
suasion of anything; to confide. (Sometimes followed 
by the particle in or on.) 

“ Now God be prais’d, that to believing souls 
Gives light iu darkness, comfort in despair.”—* Shake* 

—To suppose; to deem; to think. 

“ Though they are, I believe, as high as most steeples in England.” 

Addison. 

Believ'er, n. One who believes; one who gives credit 
to an assertion or evidence beyond his own knowledge. 

(Eccl. Hist.) This name, now used as synonymous with 
Christian, was restricted, in the first centuries of Chris¬ 
tianity, to those Christians who had been admitted into 
the church by baptism, in contradistinction to catechu¬ 
mens, who, not having been baptized, were not entitled 
to church privileges. 

Believ'injfly, adv. In a believing manner. 

Belike', adv. Probably; likely; perhaps. 

** Meaning belike, some ruin or foundation thereof.”— Raleigh. 

Belime', v. a. [be and lime.] To besmear, cover, or en¬ 
snare with lime. 

Be lin'd a, in Iowa, a post-village of Lucas co., abt. 42 
m. S.S.E. of Des Moines. 

Belisa'rius, the great general of the Roman Emperor 
Justinian, was a native of Illyria. He commanded an 
expedition against the king of Persia about 530: sup¬ 
pressed an insurrection at Constantinople; conquered 
Gelimer, king of the Vandals, and put an end to their 
dominion in Africa; was recalled and honored with a 
triumph. In 535, B. was sent to Italy to carry on war 
with the Goths, and took Rome in 537. He was there 
unsuccessfully besieged by Vitiges, whom he soon after 
besieged in turn, and captured at Ravenna, but was re¬ 
called, through jealousy, before he had completed the 
conquest of Italy. B. recovered Rome from Totilus in 
547, and was recalled the next year. He was afterwards 
sent against the Huns. He was charged, in 563, with 
conspiracy against Justinian, but was acquitted. That 
he was deprived of sight, and reduced to beggary, ap¬ 
pears to be a fable of late invention. D. 565. A Life 
of this great soldier, by Lord Mahon (now Earl Stan¬ 
hope), was published in London, 1835. 

Belit'tle, v. a. [be and little.] To make little or less of. 
Used in the U. States in a moral sense. 

Belize, or Balize, a British colony on the Bay of Hon¬ 
duras, in the Caribbean Sea; Lat. between 15° 54' and 
18° 30' N.; Long, between 88° and 90° W. It forms the 
S. E. part of the peninsula of Yucatan, which here 
divides the Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico. 
Area, 19,000 sq. m. Pop. abt. 25,000, nearly one-fifth of 
the number being in the town of B., which stands at the 
mouth of a river also of the same name. Prod. Sugar, 
coffee and indigo, mahogany, cedar, logwood, and other 
dye-woods, form articles of export. This colony, that 
came into the possession of the British in 1783. is not 
considered unhealthy, though it contains an immense 
swamp. 

Belk'nap, in New Hampshire, a central county. Area, 
390 sq. m. It is bounded on the W. by the Pemigewasset, 
and on the S. by the Winnipiseogee River, the two prin¬ 
cipal branches of the Merrimac and Winnipiseogee 
Canal. Surface is hilly; soil, generally fertile. (Up. 
Laconia. Pop. (1898) 20,980. 

Belk'nap, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of Arm¬ 
strong co., about 15 m. N.E. of Kittauniug. 



Fig. 334. 

THE GREAT BELL OF MOSCOW. 


Belk'nap, in Texas, a village of Young co., on the Bn* 

zos River. 

Bell, n. [A. S. bell, bella, from bellan, to bellow.] A 
hollow body of cast metal, used for giving sounds by 
being struck. 

(Hist.) Small gold B., intermixed with pomegranates, 
are mentioned as ornaments worn upon the hem of the 
high-priest’s robe (Kxod. xxviii. v. 3, 4.) Among the 
Greeks, we find, that, in camps and garrisons, patrols used 
hand-bells, at the sound of which the sentinels were to 
answer. At Rome they were in domestic use. The large 
bells now used in 
churches are said to 
have been invented 
by Paulinus, bishop 
of Nola in Campania, 
about the year 400, 
whence the Nola and 
Campana of the low¬ 
er Latinity. They 
were probably in¬ 
troduced into Eng¬ 
land very soon after 
their invention. — 

They are first men- 
tioned.by Bede about 
the close of the 7th 
century. The city of 
Nankin in China was 
anciently famous for 
the largeness of its 
bells, as we learn 
from Father Le Comte; but they were afterwards far 
exceeded in size by those of the churches in Moscow, 
principally by that given by the Empress Anne, weigh¬ 
ing 432,000 pounds, and probably the largest in the 
known world. It was broken in 1737. — The material 
of which B. were originally composed was, in all likeli¬ 
hood, merely cast-iron. That now used is a compound 
of 80 parts of copper, ana 20 of tin. This is the theo¬ 
retical proportion, and Indian gongs are made exactly in 
accordance with it. In ordinary B., that proportion of 
copper remains the same, but some lead and zinc is sub 
stituted for part of the tin. This alloy is very remark¬ 
able for its great elasticity, and, therefore, great car 
pacify of sound. 

(Arch.) The body of a Corinthian or Composite capital, 
supposing the foliage stripped off. is called the bell; the 
same is applied also to the capitals in Gothic architec¬ 
ture which in any degree partake of this form. It is 
sometimes called a drum. 

—Anything in the form of a bell, as the cup of a flower. 

To bear away the bell. See Bearing the Bell. 

To bear the bell. To be the first, as the bell-wether of a 
flock of sheep. 

To curse by bell, book, or candle. See Curse. 

To lose the bell. To be defeated or worsted in any race 
or trial of bodily skill. 

*■ In single fight he lost the beU."—Fairfax. 

To shake the bells. To agitate, or give notice or alarm; 
derived from the bells of a hawk. 

To bell the cat. To put a bell on, to encounter and 
cripple one of a greatly superior force: — a phrase de¬ 
rived from the fable of the mice resolving to put a bell 
on the cat, to guard them against his attack. 

Bell-Diving. See Diving-bell. 

Bell, v. n. To Income bell-shaped. 

—To callor bellow, as the deer in rutting-time. 

** The wild buck bells from ferny brake.”— Walter Scott. 


Bell, Sir Charles, f. r. s., an eminent anatomist, and 
professor of surgery in the university of Edinburgh, 
where he was B. in 1774. In 1804, he settled in London, 
where he speedily made a high reputation. He was the 
author of many professional works of the highest au¬ 
thority, but he is chiefly celebrated for his discoveries 
in connection with the nervous system, which gained 
for him an European name. D. 1842. 

B^ll, John, an English sculptor, b. in Norfolk, 1800. 
His principal works are: a Girl at a Brook, (1832;) John 
the Baptist, (1837;) Andromeda, (1851;) Ac. 

Bell, Thomas, f.r.s., f.l.s., &c., an English naturalist, b. 
at Poole, Dorset, 1792. He entered at Guy’s and St. 
Thomas’s Hospitals in 1814, became a member of the 
Royal College of Surgeons in 1815, and an honorary 
fellow of that body in 1844. He was elected a Fellow 
of the Linntean Society in 1815, of the Royal Society in 
1828, of the Geological Society iu 1817; was president of 
the Ray Society from its institution till 1859, acted aa 
secretary of the Royal Society from 1848 till 1853, and 
was president of the Linna-au Society from 1853 till 1861, 
and occupied the chair of zoology at King’s College, 
London, (1882), lectured at Guy’s Hospital from 1816 to 
1860, and was a member of the Academy of Sciences 
of Philadelphia, the Natural History Society of Boston, 
&c. Mr. Bell was known as the author of a work on 
The Anatomy and Diseases of the Teeth; a Monograph 
of the Fossil Malacostracous Crustacea of Great Britain ; 
Natural History of British Mammalia ; Natural His . 
tory of British Reptiles ; and Natural History of British 
Crustacea. D. 1880. 

Bell, in Ohio, a post-office of Highland co. 

Bell, in Pennsylvania, a thriving township of Jefferson 
county. 

—A township of Clearfield co. 

Bell, in Texas, a county in the central part of the 
State. Area, 850 sq. m., watered by the Leon River and 
Lamposas Creek. The surface, which is uneven, M 
adapted to pasturage. Cap. Belton. 

Bel'la, Stefano Della, a famous Italian engraver, b. at 
Florence, in 1610. He attained to great excellence in 















BELL 


BELL 


BELL 


321 


&is etchings, which procured him first the patronage of 
the Medici family, and subsequently that of Cardinals 
Richelieu and Mazarin, who employed him to engrave 
many battles, sieges, &c. Among bis etchings, about 
l,40u in number, one of the most admirable is the view 
of the Rout Neuf, Paris. D. 1666. 

Belladonna, ( bel-la-don'na ,) n. [It., a fair lady.] ( Bot.) 
See Atropa. 

Bclladon'na Idly, n. (Bot.) A beautiful species of 
the genus Amaryllis, q. v. The flowering-stem is about 
18 inches in height, and bears at its summit a cluster of 
drooping flowers of a delicate rose-color. 

Beriaghy, a village of Ireland, in co. Londonderry; 
pop. about 800. 

Bel'Iag'hy, a village of Ireland, co. Sligo. 

Bell Air, in Georgia, a post-village of Richmond co., 
about 12 m. W. by S. of Augusta. 

Bell Air, in Illinois, a post-office of Crawford co. 

Bell' air, in Iowa, a flourishing township of Appanoose 
county. 

Bell Air, in Missouri, a post-village of Cooper co. 
about 40 m. N. by E. of Jefferson City. 

Bellaire', in Ohio, a thriving city of Belmont co., on 
the Ohio river, about 5 m. below Wheeling. Manuf. of 
iron and glass. Pop. in 1890,9,934; in 1897 (est.) 12,500. 

Bellary, (bel'cu-re,) one of the Balaghauts qeded dis¬ 
tricts of British India, presidency of Madras, and occu¬ 
pying the W. section of Ballaghaut. Area, 13,058 sq. m. 
Cap. of same name, with 30,400 inhab. 

Beiiasyl'va, in Pennsylvania, a P. 0. of Wyoming co. 

Bella'trix, n. [Lat., a female warrior.] (Astron.) A 
star of 2d magnitude, on the W. shoulder of the constel¬ 
lation Orion. 

Bellay, Jean du, (bel'ai,) a French poet and cardinal, 
B. at Lire, near Angers, 1492. By his great abilities he 
attracted the notice of Francis I., who made him his ad¬ 
viser, and employed him in important affairs of state. 
He was appointed bishop of Paris in 1532, and created 
Cardinal in 1535. In the following year, during the ab¬ 
sence of Francis I., he was left at Paris with the title of 
Lieutenant General, and was subsequently made Arch¬ 
bishop of Bordeaux. Through the influence of the car¬ 
dinal of Lorraine, Du Bellay lost his rank after the death 
of Francis, and spent the rest of his life at Rome. He 
was a promoter of learning, and is celebrated for his 
odes, both French and Latin. D. 1560. 

Bell'-birtl, n. ( Zodl .) The Arapunga alba, a bird 
nearly allied to the Cotingas and Wax-Wings, native of 
Guiana, and distinguished by a fleshy cylindrical appen- 
dageabove the base of the bill. Its voice is very peculiar, 
and much resembles the tolling of a bell. Waterton 
asserts that the sound it emits may be heard at a dis¬ 
tance of 3 miles. It is of a pure white color, and about 
one foot in length. 

Bell, Book, and Candle. See Excommunication, 
and Curse. 

Bell Brook, in Ohio, a post-village of Greene co., 70 m. 
S.W. of Columbus. 

Bell'buckle. in Tennessee, a post-village of Bedford 
co., 51 m. S.S.E. of Nashville. 

Bell'-cag'e, n. Same as Belfry, q. v. 

Bell'-can'opy, n. A canopy containing a bell in 
harness. 

Bell Centre, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Crawford 
co., on the Kickapoo River, about 25 m. N.E. of Prairie 
du Chien. 

Bell'-chamber, n. The room containing one or more 
large bells in harness. 

Bell' -cot, Bell-oable, Bell-turret, n. (Arch.) A small 
open turret, situate on the apex of the gable of small 



Gothic churches, generally at the E. or W. end of the 
nave, for the purpose of sustaining one or two bells. It 


is sometimes of an hexagonal or multangular plan, cov¬ 
ered with a pyramidal roof, or spire, of which kind the 
Fig. 335 represents a beautiful specimen, copied from 
Corston church, Wiltshire. 

Bell'-crank, n. (Mech .) A bent lever, used for chang¬ 
ing a vertical into a horizontal motion, or vice versd. 
Belle, (bel.) n. [Fr, from Lat. bellus, fine, gay, beautiful.] 
A gay or fine young lady; a lady of superior beauty, 
and much admired. 

14 "What motive could compel 
A well-bred lord t’ assault a geutle belle t 
O say, what strouger cause, yet uuexplor'd, 

Could make a gentle belle reject a lord ? '* — Pope. 

Belle Air, in Indiana, a post-village of Clay co. 
Belle Air, in Iowa, a post-office of Johnson co. 

Belle Alliance, (l»a,) in Belgium, a hamlet, about 
13 in. from Brussels. It is remarkable for being the 
centre of operations of the battle of Waterloo, and 
where Napoleon commanded in person during the con¬ 
flict called by the Prussians the battle of La Belle Alli¬ 
ance. Here, also, Wellington and Bliicher met after 
the battle,18 June, 1815. 

Belle Centre, in Ohio, a post-village of Logan co., on 
Mad River, about 60 m. N.W. of Columbus. 
Belle'chasse, in prov. of Quebec, the name of a co. 
bordering N.W. on the St. Lawrence River, and S.E. on 
tli© State of Maine. Pop. of North B , 12,117 ; of South 
B., 5,520. Divided into N. and S. ridings. 

Belle Creek, in Nebraska, a township of Washington 
co. 

Belle Creek, in Minnesota, a post-township of Good- 
hue co., about 12 m. S.W. of Red Wing 
Belled, (held,) a. Ilung with bells. 

Belle-de-nuit, ( bel'dc(r)-nwe.) [Fr., beauty of night.] 
(Bot.) The French name of the Marvel of Peru, q. v. 
Bel'leek, a parish and village of Ireland, co. Fermanagh, 
on the Erne River, 4 m. E.S.E. of Ballyshannon. 
Belle'font, in Missburi, a village of Laclede co., on 
the Gasconade River, about 65 m. S. by W. of Jefferson 
City. 

Beliefontaine, (belfon-tain,) in Indiana, a village of 
Jay co., 7 m. E. of Portland. 

Beliefontaine, in Minnesota, a village of Scott co.,on 
Spring Lake, about 65 m. S. by W. of Jefferson City. 
Beliefontaine, in Mississippi, a P. O. of Webster co. 
Beliefontaine, in Missouri, a village of St. Louis co., 
about 14 m. W.S.W. of Iowa City. 

Beliefontaine, in Ohio, a flourishing town of Lake 
township, the cap. of Logan co., 116 m. N.N.E. of Cin¬ 
cinnati. Pop. (1890 ) 4,245; (1897) about 5,700. 
Belle'fonte, in Alabama, the former cap. of Jackson 
co., near the W. hank of the Tennessee river, 166 miles 
N. E. of Tuscalooosa. 

Bellefonte, in Missouri, a village of Pulaski co. 
Bellefonte', in Pennsylvania, a flourishing post-bor 
ough of Spring township, cap. of Centre co., on Spring 
Creek, 80 m. N.W. of Harrisburg, in the middle of a rich 
mineral district. It has a fine court-house, and contains 
several forges, mills, glass-works, and many beautiful 
private residences. B. has several newspapers and 
banks. Spring Creek affords abundant water-power. 
Pop. (1890) 3,946; (1897) about 4,300. 

Bellefount, in Missouri, a village of Washington co. 
Belle Fountain, in Iowa, a village of Mahaska 
co., on the Des Moines River, 11 m. W. of Oskaloosa, and 
80 W.S.W. of Iowa City. 

Bellefount'ain, in Wisconsin, a P. 0. of Columbia co. 
Bellegarde, (befyard,) a fortress of France, dep. of 
Pyreuees-Orientales, on the Spanish frontier, 18 m S. 
of Perpignan. It is a fortress of the first class, con¬ 
structed in the reign of Louis XIV., to command the pass 
of Perthus.— Also the name of several small French 
towns. 

Belle Haven, in Virginia, a P. 0. of Accomack co. 
Belle Isle, in British North America, an island in the 
Atlantic Ocean, at the entrance of the Strait of Belle 
Isle. Lat. 52° N, Lon. 55° W. 

Belle Isle, in New York, a post-village of Onondaga 
co., 137 m. W. by N. of Albany, 

Belle Isle, id Virginia, a small island of a few acres, 
in the James River, in front of Richmond. It was con¬ 
verted by the Confederates into a place of confinement 
for the Union captives, and on this small, barren spot, 
without shelter against the frost, there were at one time 
no less than 11,000 captives. 

Belle-Isle-en-JIer, an island of France, in the At¬ 
lantic, 8 m. S. of Quiberon Point, being included in the 
dep. of Morbihan. It is almost everywhere surrounded by 
high steep rocks. Its N.W. end is in Lat. 47° 32' N., and 
its S. port in Lat. 47° 16' N. It is about 11 m. in length, 
and 6 m. in breadth. Palais, the capital, has a pop. of 
4,076, generally engaged in the sardine fishery. —This 
island was purchased in 1658 by Fouquet, intendant of 
finance to Louis XIV., and was exchanged in 1718 by his 
descendant for the county of Gisors. In 1761 it was 
taken by the English, and restored to France in 1763. 
Belle Isle, or Bellisle, (Straits of,) in British 
North America, one of the outlets of the Gulf of St. Law¬ 
rence, between the coasts of Labrador and Newfound¬ 
land, Lat 52° N., Lon. 55° W.: 80 m. long, by 12 wide. 
Belle-Isle, Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet, Count 
OF, a marshal of France, B. 1684. He distinguished him¬ 
self in the war of the Spanish Succession, became lieut.- 
general in 1732, took part in the siege of Philipsburg, 
and procured the cession of Lorraine to France. Created 
marshal of France about 174o, he commanded in Ger¬ 
many against the Imperialists, took Prague, was sent as 
ambassador to the Piet at Frankfort, and procured the 
election of Charles VII. Being taken by the English, 
he was brought to England, where he was confined some 
months. He was afterwards created duke and peer, ad¬ 


mitted to the French Academy, and made minister of 
war in 1757. D. 1761. 

Belle'mont, in Tennessee, a village in Fayette co., abt. 
40 in. of Memphis. 

Belle'monte, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Lan¬ 
caster co. 

Belle'monte, in Missouri, a post-village of St. Louis 
co., about 12 in. N. of St. Louis, and 4 m. S. of the Missis¬ 
sippi River. 

Belle Plain, in Missouri, a village of Clark co., about 
20 m. N.N.W. of Keokuk. 

Belle Plain, n New Jersey, a post-office of Cape 
May co. 

Belle Plaine, in 1mm. a city,of Benton co., on 
C. & N.W. R.R. Pop. (1898) 3,420. 

Belle Plaine, in Minnesota, a post-village of Scott co., 
on the Minnesota River, about 40 m. from the city of 
Saint Paul. 

Belle Plaine, in Wisconsin, a post-township of Sha¬ 
wano co., 34 m. W.N.W. of Green Bay. 

Belle Point, n Ohio, a post-village of Delaware co., 
on the Scioto River, about 24 m. N.N.W. of Columbus. 
Belleport, in Nero York, a village of Suffolk co., Long 
Island, 210 m. S.S.E. of Albany. 

Belle Prairie, in Illinois, a township of Livingston 
co. 

—A post-office of Hamilton co. 

Belle Prairie, in Minnesota, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Morrison co., on the Mississippi. 

Belle Biver, in Michigan, rises in Lapeer co., and 
enters the St. Clair River at Newport. 

—A post-office of St. Clair co. 

Belle Riv'ifere, in prov. of Quebec, a village of Two 
Mountain co., 33 m. N.E. of Montreal. 
Belleroplion, (bel-ler'o-fon.) (Myth.) A son ofGlaucns, 
king of Ephyre, by Eurymede, was at first called Hippo- 
nous. The murder of his brother, whom some call Al- 
cimenus and liellerus, procured him the name of Bellero- 
phon, or murderer o/Bellerus. After this murder, Beller- 
ophon fled to the court of Proetus, king of Argos, whose 
wife became enamored of him; and because he slighted 
her passion, she sought to destroy him. He, however, 
escaped her machinations, was introduced to the court 
of Jobates, king of Lycia, and after a number of adven¬ 
tures, in one of which he conquered the Chimsera, he 
married the daughter of Jobates, and succeeded to the 
throne of Lycia. 

Belleroplion, n. (Pal.) A genus of fossil shells, the 
animals of which are unknown, hut which are supposed 
to have been allied to Carinaria, the structure of whose 
shell it resembles. 

Belleroplion, n. (Hist.) The name of a notorious 
English vessel, Capt. Maitland, to which Napoleon I. 
surrendered himself voluntarily on the 13th of Oct., 
1815, “confident,” as he said, “in the honor and hospi¬ 
tality of England.” — See St. Helena, Lowe (Hudson.) 

Belles-Fettres, (bel-let'ter.) n.pi. [Fr., from belle, fine, 
and lettre, a letter, pi. lettres, learning.] (Lit.) A term 
borrowed from the French, now fallen into disuse, but 
which, same fifty years since, was employed indifferently 
with the phrase “polite literature.” to signify those 
branches of learning which are not included under the 
denominations of Arts and Sciences. It never acquired 
a strict and well defined meaning, but was widened or 
narrowed by different writers, at their pleasure, so as at 
one time to embrace the whole cycle of knowledge, and 
at another to be confined to a few given objects. This 
vagueness has led to its becoming nearly obsolete. 
Belle Valley. in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Erie 
co., 7 m. S.E. of Erie. 

Belle Vernon, in Ohio, a post-village of Wyandot 
co., about 50 m. S.W. of Sandusky City. 

Belle Vernon, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of 
Fayette co., on the right hank of Monougabela River, 
about 28 m. S. by E. of Pittsburg. 

Belle'view, in Georgia, a post-village of Talbot co., 60 
m. W. of Macon. 

Belle view, in Illinois, a post-village of Calhoun co., 
about 2 m. E. of the Mississippi River. 

Belleview, in Kentucky, a post-village of Christian co., 
10 m. from Hopkinsville, the county-seat. 

Belleview, in Louisiana, a village of Bossier parish, 
about 20 m. N.E. of Shrieveport, and 1 m. S.E. of Lake 
Bodeau. 

Belleview, in Missouri, a township of Washington 
county. 

—A post-office of Iron co. 

Belleview, in Pennsylvania, a village of Jefferson co. 

5 ni. S. of Brookville, the county-seat. 

—A village of Lebanon co., about 28 m. E.N.E. of Harris¬ 
burg. 

Belleview, in Tennessee, a post-office of Davidson co. 
Belleview, in Texas, a post-office of Rusk co. 

Belle' vi lie, in Alabama, a post-village of Conecuh co., 
10 m. N.W. of Sparta. 

Belleville, in Arkansas, a village in Desha co., on the 
S. hank of Arkansas River, about 8 rn. S.E. of Arkansan 
Post. 

Belleville, in Illinois, an important city, cap. of St. 
Clair co., 110 m. S. of Springfield, and 14 m. S.E. of St. 
Louis. B. is a place of great activity of trade, and it 
possesses many manufactories. It has a fine court-house 
and other public buildings. Pop. in 1890,15,631. 
Belleville, in Indiana, a post-village of Hendricks co, 
119 m. W S.W. of Indianapolis. 

Belleville, in Michigan, a post-village of Wayne co., 
on Huron River, about 27 m. W.S.W. of Detroit. 
Belleville, in Minnesota, a post-village of Fillmore 
co.. about 22 m. S.E. of Preston. 

Belleville, in New Jersey, a post-village and township 


























































322 


BELL 


BELL 


BELL 


of Essex co., 3 m. from Newark, and 10 m. W. by N. of 
New York. 

Belleville, in New York, a post-village of Jefferson 
co., on Sackett’s Harbor, 190 m. N.E. of Albany. 

Belleville, in Ohio , a village of Hendricks co., 19 m. 
W.S.W. of Indianapolis. 

—A post-office of Richland co. 

Belleville, in Pennsylvania , a post-village of Mifflin 
co., about 8 m. W. by N. of Lewiston. 

Belleville, in Tennessee , a village of Cumberland co., 
about 00 m. W. from Knoxville. 

Belleville, in Tennessee, a village of Dickson co., on 
the left bank of the Cumberland River, about 28 m. N. 
W. of Nashville. 

Belleville, in Texas, a village of Zaphata co., on the 
Rio Grande, about 50 m. N.VV. of Rio Grande City. 

Belleville, in West Virginia, a post-village of Wood 
co., near the Ohio River. 

Belleville, in IVisconsin, a post-village of Dane co., on 
Sugar River, in Montrose township, 20 m. S.S.W. of 
Madison. 

—A village of Jefferson co., near Rock River, about 8 m. 
N. by E. of JefTerson. 

Belleville. in prov. of Ontario, a town, cap. of Hastings 
co., on the Bay of Quinte, 50 m. W. of Kingston. It is 
a fine and flourishing place, with iron-foundries, distil¬ 
leries &c. Pop. (1897) about 10,000. 

Belleville, in France, formerly a suburb, but now 
an arrondissement of Paris. 

Bellevoir, in North Carolina, a post-office of Chat¬ 
ham co. 

Bellevue, in Georgia, a village of Putnam co. 

Bellevue, in Alabama, a post-office of Dallas co. 

Bellevue, in Iowa, a fine city of Jackson co., on the 
Mississippi River, 24 m. below Dubuque, and 13 from 
Galena. 

Bellevue, in Kansas, a village of Jackson co., about 
24 m. N. of Topeka. 

Bellevue, in Louisiana, a post-office of Bossier parish. 

Bellevue, in Michigan, a thriving post-village and 
township of Eaton co., on Battle Creek, 120 miles from 
Detroit, aud 16 miles north of the city of Mar¬ 
shall. 

Bellevue, or Bellview, in Minnesota, a township of 
Morrison co., on the Mississippi River, 

Bellevue, in Nebraska, a post-village in Sarpy co., on 
the Missouri River, 12 m. from Omaha city. 

Bellevne, in Ohio, a post-village of Lymestone town¬ 
ship, in Huron co., 45 m. S.E. of Toledo, 91 m. from Co¬ 
lumbus, and 15 from Lake Erie. 

Bellevue, in Virginia, a post-office of Bedford co. 

Bellevue, or Bellview, in Wisconsin, a township of 
Brown co., on the E. side of Eox River, near the town 
of Green Bay. 

Belley', a town of France, dep. of Ain. 42 m. E. from 
Lyons; Lat. 45°45' 29" N., Lon. 5° 41' 19" E.; pop. 4,891. 

Bellezane', in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Washing¬ 
ton co. 

Bell Factory, in Alabama, a post-office of Madison co. 

BellTair Mills, in Virginia, a post-office of Staf¬ 
ford co. 

Bell'lield, in Virginia, a station on the Petersburg R. 
R.. in Sussex co., 40 m. from Petersburg. 

Bell'-flower, n. [bell and flower.] (Hot.) See Campa¬ 
nula. 

Bell'font, in Ohio, a village of Columbiana co. 

Bel l'-foilntier, n. A man whose occupation is to found 
or cast bells. 

Bell'-fountlry, n. A place where bells are founded 
or cast. 

Bell'-gable, n. (Arch.) See Bell-Cot. 

Bell'- hanger, n. One who hangs and fixes bells. 

Bellicose. Bellicous, a. [Lat. bellicosus.] Pugna¬ 
cious, warlike, belligerent; inclined for contention or 
fighting. 

Bellied, (bel'lid ,) p.a. Swelled or prominent like the 
belly; swelled out in the middle; as, pot-bellied, big -bel¬ 
lied, &c. 

Belli- 'erence, n. State or quality of being bellige¬ 
rent; warfare; act of making or waging war. 

Bellig'erent, n. [Lat. belligerens, from belligero — hel¬ 
ium, war, and gero, to wage.] A term applied to nations 
waging or carrying on war against each other. 

— a. Of warlike or quarrelsome nature, or actually en¬ 
gaged in war. 

Bellig , 'eroiis, ft. [Lat. beUiger.] Same as Belligerent. 

Selling, n. [A. S. bellan, to bellow.] The noise made 
by a roe in rutting-time. 

— a. [From bell. ] Growing or forming like a bell. 

Bellingham, in Massachusetts, a post-township of 
Norfolk co., 30 ni. S.W. of Boston, intersected by branches 
of Charles River. The boot and shoe manufacture 
flourishes here. 

Bellingham, in Washington, an unimportant village, 
the former cap. of Whatcom co., on a fine bay of the 
same name, formed by the Gulf of Georgia, about 125 
m. N. by E. of Olympia. 

Bellini, (bel-le'ne,) the name of a Venetian family which 
produced several remarkable painters. The earliest 
was Jacopo B., who died in 1470. He was a pupil of the 
celebrated Gentile da Fabriano, and one of the first who 
painted in oil. — His eldest son, Gentile B., born 1421, 
died 1501, was distinguished as a portrait-painter, and 
also as a medailleur. Along with his brother, he was 
commissioned to decorate the council-chamber of the 
Venetian senate. Mohammed II., having by accident 
soen some of his works, invited Gentile to Constantinople, 
employed him to execute various historical works, and 
dismissed him laden with presents. The Preaching of 
St. Mark iB his most famous piece. D. 1507.—His more 
celebrated brother. Giovanni B., born 1426, died 1612, 


was the founder of the older Venetian school of paint¬ 
ing, aud contributed greatly to its progress. His works 
are marked by naivete, warmth, and intensity of color¬ 
ing. His best works are altar-pieces. His picture of 
the Infant Jesus slumbering in the lap of the Madonna, 
and attended by angels, is full of beauty and lively ex¬ 
pression. His Holy Virgin, Baptism of the Lord, and 
Christ and the Woman of Samaria, are also much ad¬ 
mired. 

Bellini, Vincenzo, a celebrated musical composer, b. at 
Catania, in Sicily, 1802. He was educated at Naples, 
under Zingarelli, and before he had completed his 20th 
year, ho had produced Bianca and Fernando at the the¬ 
atre St. Carlo. This was succeeded by various other 
operas, of which 11 Pirata, La Sonnambula, Nonna, and 
1 Puritani , (1827-34,) are the best, and have gained for 
him an undying celebrity. Ilis moral character stood 
high, and his manners and compositions were in har¬ 
monious accordance — agreeable, tender, and elegant. 
D. near Paris, Sept. 23, 1835. 

Bellip'otent, a. [Lat. bellipotens, from helium war, 
and potent, powerful.] Powerful; puissant; mighty in 
war. (r.) 

Bei lis, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, order Asteracere, 
sub-order Tubulijlorce; the Daisy, q. v. 

Bell'-jar, n. A jar of bell-shape used by chemists. 

Bell'-less, a. Having no bell; without a bell, (r.) 

Bell'-man, n. [Bell and man.] A public crier; one 
who goes about ringing a bell to direct public notice to 
something. 

‘ The bellman of each parish, as he goes his circuit, cries out 
every night, 'Past twelve o clock."'— Swift. 

Bell'-metlll, n. [Bell and metal.) The metal of which 
bells are made. — See Bell. 

Bell'inore, in Indiana, a post-village of Parke co., abt. 
8 m. E. of Rockville. 

Bell'-moutlied, a. Expanded at the mouth or muz¬ 
zle iu bell-form ; as, a bell-mouthed gun. 

Bel'loti, n. (Med.) That variety of colic produced by 
the effect of lead on the system. 

Bello'na, n. [Lat. Bellona, from helium, war.] (Myth.) 
The goddess of war, and sister or wife, or sister-wife and 
charioteer of Mars. The Romans paid great adoration to 
her. The temple of B., in Rome, stood iu the Circus 
Flaminius, near the Porta Carmentalis, and was the 
place where foreign ambassadors, aud generals returning 
from their campaigns, were received by the senate. Be¬ 
fore its gates was raised a column, called Columna Bel- 
lica, against which a javelin was hurled as one of the 
previous forms in the declaration of war (Ov Fast. vi. 
201.) Her priests were named after her, Bellonarii. 
Lactantins (i. 21.) describes them as cutting their flesh 
most ferociously in her worship ; and Tertullian (4 and 9, 
de Pallia) adds, that, having collected the blood, which 
flowed from these gashes, in the palms of their hands, 
they pledged the Neophytes who were initiated into their 
mysteries, and then broke out into the ravings of vati- 
ci nation. 

Bello na, n. (Astron.) The 42d asteroid, discovered by 
Luther iu 1854. 

Bello'tia, in Texas, a village of Yates co. 

Bello'na, in Virginia , a village of Chesterfield co., on 
the James River, about 14 m. W. of Richmond. 

Bel'lot Strait, the passage separating North Somerset 
from Boothia Felix, and connecting Prince Regent’s In¬ 
let with Peel Strait, Sound, or Franklin Channel. Its E. 
entrance was discovered by Capt. Kennedy during 
his search for Franklin, and named in honor of Joseph 
Rene Bellot, a distinguished French naval officer, who 
joined the expedition, under Capt. Kennedy, sent to 
search after Sir John Franklin; and who, in 1853, hav¬ 
ing accompanied that under Captain luglefield, was 
drowned while crossing the ice. 

Bel'low, v. i. [A. S. bellan ; imitative of the sound.] To 
make a hollow, loud noise, as a bull. 

“ What bull dares bellow, or what sheep dares bleat, 
Within the Hod's den.”— Dryden. 

—To make a loud outcry; to bawl, vociferate, or clamor. 

■‘This gentleman is accustomed to roar and bellow so terribly 
loud, that he frightens us."— Tatter. 

—To roar, as the sea in a storm; to make a loud, hollow, 
continued noise. 

“ The rising rivers float the nether ground - 

Aud rocks the bellowing voice of boiling -eas rebound.” Dryden. 

Bel'low, n. A loud outcry; a roar, roaring. 

Bel'lo wer, n. One who bellows, or makes aloud noise. 

Bel lows, Henry Whitney, d.d., an American divine 
and author, B. at Boston, Mass., 10th June, 1814, grad¬ 
uated at Harvard Coll, in 1832, entered the University 
School of Cambridge, Mass., in 1834, and was ordained 
pastor of the First Congregational Society of New York 
in 1838. F’rom 1846-1850, he wrote articles for the 
Christian Inquirer. His oration, known as the Phi Beta 
Kappa oration, is highly esteemed. In 1857 he wrote his 
Defence of the Drama, which brought upon him a host 
of assailants of the Puritanical school, and also delivered 
a series of lectures before the Lowell Institute in Boston, 
on The Treatment of Social Diseases. Dr. B. was made 
President of the Sanitary Commission of the U. States 
in 1862. Ed. of Chris. Ex., 1866-71. D. Jan. 30, 1882. 

Bellows, (bH'loz,) n. sing, and pi. [A. S. bilig or bylig, 
from balg, bulge, belly; Goth, balgs; Gael, balg, bolg, a 
leather bag, a wallet, belly; builg, bellows.] A machine 
contrived to propel air through a tube or orifice. It is 
used for blowing fires, supplying the pipes of organs, 
and other purposes, and is constructed according to vari¬ 
ous forms; but the principle is the same in all of them. 
The dimensions of a space in which air is confined are 
contracted; the air, being permitted to escape only at a 


small opening rushes out with a velocity proportional 
to the pressure aud to the smallness of the opening. 
Bel'lows Falls, in 17., a p. v. of Windham co.. on 
the Connecticut River, 80 m. S. by W. of Montpelier. 
It possesses medicinal springs and some manufactories. 
Bel'lows-lish, n. (Zoiil). 8ee Centrischs 
Bel'lo ws-niender, n. One who mends bellows.<S7i«fc» 
Bell-pepper, n. (Bot.) The red pepper, a species of 
Capsicum, q . v . 

Bell'port, in New York, a post-office of Suffolk co. 
Bell'-pull, n. A cord or wire to pull a bell with. 
Bell'-puneti, n. An instrument to test the collection 
of fares. When a fare is paid, the record thereof ;4 
made, simultaneous with the ringing of a small bell 
contained within the. B. P. 

Bell'-ringrer, n. One whose business is to ring a church 
or other bell. 

Bell'-rock, (Geog.) A dangerous ledge of rocks, off the 
coast of Scotland, in the German Ocean, opposite to the 
Frith of T'ay, 12 m. E. of Buttonness 1‘oiut. The ledge 
is about 850 yards in length, by about 110 in breadth. 
At low water, some of its summits appear from 4 to 8 ft. 
above the level of the sea, but at high water they are 
always covered. Many vessels have been lost on this 
rock, over which the sea breaks with tremendous fury. 
To lessen the chance of such disasters, alight-liouse, 115 
ft. high, has been constructed, in Lat. 56° 26' N., Lon. 
2° 23' W.; and during foggy weather, bells are tolled 
every half minute. 

Bell'-roof, n. (Arch.) A roof of which the cross section 
resembles a bell. 

Bell '-rope, n. A rope or cord attached to a bell, to 
ring it by. 

Bells, n. pi. (Naut.) On board a ship, the time is divided 
into periods of four hours each, and as each hall-hour 
passes it is marked by striking on a bell. This bell is 
usually hung to the beam of the forecastle, but some¬ 
times it is attached to a beam near the mizzen-mast. 
One stroke on the bell denotes that half an hour lias 
passed, two strokes that an hour has passed, and so on, 
adding a stroke fur each half-hour. Thus,five bells’’ 
would signify that two hours and a half had passed, and 
“ eight bells ’’ signifies that the four hours, or complete 
“watch,” is over. The bell on which the time is struck 
is sometimes used during foggy weather to show that 
the ship is on a starboard tack ; when she is on a port-, 
tack, a drum is beaten. 

Bells'boroug'li, in Ky., a village of Ohio co. 

Bell's Cross Roads, in Virginia, a P.0, of Louisa co> 
Bell's Depot, in Tennessee, a P. 0. of Haywood co. 
Bell'-sliapeil, a. (Bot.) Shaped like a bell. 

Bell's Banding 1 , in Alabama, a village of Monroe co. 
Bell’s Mills, in Pennsylvania, a P. 0. of Jefferson co. 
Bell's Store, in Arkansas, a post-officeof Ouachita co. 
Bell'ton, in West Virginia, a post-office of Marshal! 

co., 35 m. S.S.E. of Wheeling. 

Bell'town, in Tennessee, a post-office of Monroe co. 
Bell-trap, n. A contrivance, usually air-tight, con¬ 
sisting of an inverted cup, the edges of which dip into 
a trench, gutter, or canal, holding water, and formed at 
the top of a pipe, for the purpose of preventing foul 
smells from ascending from a drain into the air. 
Bel'luine, a. [Lat. belluinus; from bellua, beast.] 
Beastlike; brutal. (R.) 

“ At this rate, the animal and belluine life would be the best.'* 

Atltrbury. 

Belluno, (bel-loo’no.) [Anc. Bellunum.] A city of N. 
Italy, cap. of a province of same name, on the S. bank 
of the Piave, 48 m. N. of Venice: Lat. 46° 7'46"N.; 
Lon. 12° 13' 51" E.; pop. 14,576.— Napoleon conferred 
the title of Duke of Belluno on Marshal Vicior, q. v. 
Nearly destroyed by an earthquake, June 29,1S73. 
Bell'ville, iu Florida, a post-village of Hamilton co. 
Bell'ville, in Texas, a post-village of Austin co., abt. 60 
m. W.N.W. of Houston, and 25 N.E. of Columbus. 
Bell'-wether, n. A wether or siieep which leads the 
flock, with a bell hung on its neck. 

Bell'wood, in Penna., a post-borough of Blair co., on 
Penna. lt.R., 8 m. S.W. of Tyrone. Pop. (1898) 1,760. 
Bell'-wort, n. (Bot.) See Uvularia. 

Belly, n. [A. S. bcelg, bal ig; Gael, balg, a leather bag, 
womb, belly.] The Abdomen, q . v . 

—The womb. (o. and r.) — That part of anything which 
swells or bulges out. 

“ An Irish harp hath theconcave. or belly, not along the strings, 
but at the end of the strings." — Bacon. 

—The hollow part of a compass-timber, the round part of 
which is called the back. 

— v. a. To swell out; to fill, as a sail, (r.) 

“ Your breath, with full consent, bellied his sails." — Shake. 

— v. i. To swell and become protuberant, like the belly. 

“ The pow'r appeas'd, with winds suffic’d the sail, 

The bellying canvas strutted with the gale." — Dryden. 

Belly-ache, (bel'li-ake,) n. A vulgarism for the colic, 
or pain in the bowels. 

Bel ly-band, n. A band or girth that goes round the 
body of a horse, and holds the saddle or harness firmly 
in its place.— (Naut.) A band or canvas used to strength¬ 
en a sail. 

Bel ly-bound, a. A vulgarism expressive of being 
constipated or costive in the bowels. 

Bel'ly-braee, n. ( Steam Engineering.) A cross brace, 
stayed to the boiler, between the frames of a locomo¬ 
tive. 

Bel'ly-doublet, n. A doublet overhanging and cover¬ 
ing the belly. 

“ Your arms crossed on your thin belly-doublet." — Shake. 
Bel'ly-fretting, n. (Farriery.) The chafing of a 
horse’s belly with a girth. 

—A severe pain in a horse’s belly, caused by worms. 










BELO 


BELO 


BELT 


323 


Belly-full, a. As much food as fills the belly ; plenty, i 
Used, in a vulgar sense, to signify repletion, or more 
than enough. 

Bel'ly-jfotl, n. A man who makes a god of his belly; 
a glutton, to.) 

“ Apicius, a famous belly-god." — Hakcwill. 

Bel'ly-pineliert, a. [belly and pinched, pp. of pinch.] 
Starved, or pinched with hunger, (o.) 

Bel'ly-roll, n. (Hort.) A roller protuberant in the 
middle, to roll land between ridges, or in hollows. 

Mortimer. 

Bel'ly-slave. n. A slave to appetite. 

Belly-timber, n. A vulgar phrase to denote food, 
or nutriment for the body. 

Belly-worm, n. A worm that breeds in the belly. 

Bel'moml. in Iowa, a post-village of Wright co., on the 
Iowa river, about 42 m. N.E. of Fort Dodge. 

Bel'mont, in Arkansas, a post-village of Crawford co. 

Bel mont, in California, a post-village and township 
of San Mateo co. 

Bel'mont, in Illinois, a flourishing township of Iro¬ 
quois county. 

—A village of Pike co., 70 m. W. of Springfield. 

Bel'mont, in Iowa, a township of Warren co. 

Bel'mont, in Kansas, a post-village and township of 
Kingman county, about 100 miles S. by W. of To¬ 
peka. 

Bel'mont, in Kentucky, a post-village of Bullittco., on 
the Louisville and Nashville R.R., 25 m. of Louisville. 

—A village of Campbell co. 

Bel'mont, in Maine, a post-township of Waldo co., 
about 35 m. E. by N. of Augusta. 

Bel'mont, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Middle¬ 
sex co., about 6 m. from Boston. 

Bel'mont, in Minnesota, a post-office of Martin co. 

—A village of Jackson co., on the Des Moines River, about 
66 m. W.S.W. of Mankato. 

Bel'mont, in Missouri, a village in Mississippi co., on 
the Mississippi River, opposite Columbus. Here, on the 
7th Nov., 1861, occurred a battle between the Confede¬ 
rates under Generals Polk and Pillow, and the Union 
troops commanded by General Grant, in which, after 
desperate fighting on both sides, the latter obtained a 
victory. The Union loss was 485; that of the Confede¬ 
rates, 632. 

Bel'mont. in Nevada, a township of Nyeco. 

Bel'mont, in New York, a thriving post-village, cap. of 
Alleghany co., on the Geuesee River and the Erie R.R., 
92 m. W. by N. of Elmira, 

—A township of Franklin co., 25 m. W. of Plattsburg, 
drained by the Chateaugay River. 

Bel'mont, in Ohio, an E. county, bordering on the Ohio 
River, which separates it from Virginia. Area, ,170 sq. 
m. The surface is diversified by hills, and drained by 
many creeks. Soil, generally excellent. The Baltimore 
& Ohio Railroad passes through it. Cap. St. Clairsville. 
Pop. (1898) 61,600. 

—A post-village of the above co., about 22 m. W. of Spring- 
field, and 22 W. by S. of Wheeling. 

Bel'mont, in S.Carolina. a village of Newberry district, 
about 65 m. W.N.W. of Columbia. 

Bel'mont, in Texas, a post-village of Gonzales co.,about 
52 m. S. of Austin city. 

Bel mont, in IFiscoimn, a township on the S.E. limits 
of Portage co. 

Belmonte, a town of S. Italy, prov. Cosenza, on a 
mountain not far from the Mediterranean, 14 in. W.S.W. 
of Cosenza; pop. 4,720. 

Bel monte, in Indiana, a village of Laporte co., 11 m. 
S. by W. of Laporte. 

Belmonte, in Mississippi, a village of Panola co., on 
the Tallahatchie River, 7 m. above Panola, the county- 
seat, and 167 N. of Jackson. 

Belmonte, or Belmont, in Wisconsin, a village of Fay¬ 
ette co., about 60 m. W.S.W. of Madison. 

Bel'mont Bantling', in Missouri, a post-office of 
Mississippi co. 

Belmul'let, a small seaport town of Ireland, co. Mayo, 
on Blacksod Bay; pop. 905. 

Beloclt', v. a. [A. S. beluean.] To lock, or fasten, as 
with a lock. 

“ This is the hand, which with a vow’d contract 
Was last belock'd in thine."— Shake. 

% 

Belteil, in Lower Canada, a post-village of Vercheres 
co., on the river Richelieu, 24 m. N.E. of Montreal. 

Beloit, in Ohio, a post-office of Mahoning co. 

Beloit, in Wisconsin, a post-township of Rock co., about 
12 m. S. by W. of Janesville. 

—A city of Rock co., on Rock river, 50 m. E.S.E. of Madi¬ 
son. B. is well built, has fine public buildings, and is 
the seat of Beloit College, founded in 1846. Pop. in 
1890, 6,315; in 1897, about 8,200. 

Belomancy, (bel'o-mdn-see,) n. [Fr. bclomancie; Gr. 
belomantia, from belos, an arrow, and manteia, divination.] 
A mode of divination by arrows, practised among the 
Arabs and other nations of the East. 

Belon. Pierre, ( bel'awng ,) a very eminent French 
naturalist, b. 1517. He studied medicine and botany 
and owed to the friendly aid of the cardinals of Tournon 
and Lorraine a good education, and the means of making 
extensive travels- in Europe and in the East. He was 
highly esteemed by Henry II. and Charles IX., and won | 
a great reputation by his numerous works on natural 
history and the Observations made during nis travels. 
Ho was assassinated in the Bois de Boulogne, 1564. The 
genus of plants Bellonia has been named after him. 

Bel'ona, Belone, »*. ( Zodl .) See Garfish. 

Belong', v. i. [Dut. belangen, to concern — be, and long- 
en, to reach to.] To pertain to; to appertain to; to be 


the property of, to be the province or business of; as, a 
wife belongs to her husband. 

The declaration of these latent philosophers belongs to another 
paper." — Boyle. 

—To relate, or have relation to ; to adhere or be appendant 
to. 

“ He went into a desert place belonging to Bethsaida." Luke ix. 10. 

—To be native to, or have a legal residence, settlement, 
&c., whether by birth or naturalization, so as to be en¬ 
titled to claim a maintenance from the civic or parochial 
authorities. 

“ Bastards also are settled in the parishes to which the mothers 
belong." — Blackstone. 

Belong 1 ', v. a. To be deserved by. (o. and R.) 

44 More evils belong us than happen to us. M — Ben Jonson . 

Belonging* n. A quality, attribute, or property per¬ 
taining to one. (o.) 

“ Thyself and thy belongings 
Are not thine own so proper, as to waste 
Thyself upon thy virtues." — Shaks. 

Belonging, t\ a. Pertaining to; being the property 
or quality of; being the concern of; being appendant 
to; as, all the goods belonging to him. 

Beloocliee, Belooch, ( bel'oo-kis ,) n. (Geog.) A na¬ 
tive or denizen of Beloochistan. 

— a. Belonging to Beloochistan, or its people. 

Beloochistan. now preferably Baluchistan (bel-oo'- 
chiftan.). (Anc. Gedrosia, the laud of the Iehthyophagi, 
Oritse, Arabitae, &c.). A country of S. Asia, lying be¬ 
tween 24° 50' and 30° 20' N. Lat., and 57° 5O' and 69° 
18' E. Long.; the N. and W. boundaries have been in 
process of final settlement only since 1896. It may be 
thus generally described:—One portion, which includes 
Quetta and Bolan (until 1883 under the Khan of Kalat), 
is now a province of British India; another, compris¬ 
ing the Bori and Zohl valleys, is directly under the 
British Political Agent; a third is occupied by the 
Marri and Bugti tribes; and the fourth may be 
styled the Native State, a loose kind of confederacy 
composed of the Kalat, Sarawan, Jhalawan and other 
tribes under the nominal chiefship of the Khan 
of Kalat. The country is very diversified; the 
climate in the higher part being extremely cold, 
while the heat, during the summer season, is scarcely 
supportable in the plains. There is a general scarcity 
of water. A large proportion of the country is moun¬ 
tainous, the eastern part especially being so.— Prod. All 
sorts of grain and vegetables, and the finest fruits flour¬ 
ish abundantly. In the N. districts, madder, cotton, and 
indigo are produced, the latter of excellent quality. 
Assafoetida, which is a favorite kind of food among the 
Beloochees, grows among the hills. Trees of large size 
are seen, although generally B. does not seem to be a 
woody country. — Min. Gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, 
limestone, marble, rock-salt, sulphur, and saltpetre.— 
Zool. The domestic animals are horses, mules, asses, 
camels, dromedaries, buffaloes, black-cattle, sheep, goats, 
dogs and cats, besides fowls and pigeons. There are 
neither geese, turkeys, nor ducks. The wild animals are 
lions, tigers, leopards, hysenas, wolves, jackals, tiger- 
cats, wild dogs, foxes, hares, mongooses, mountain-goats, 
antelopes, elks, red and moose deer, and wild asses, 
which inhabit both the mountains and the plains. Of 
birds there are almost every species to be met with 
either in Europe or India.— Inhabitants. This country is 
occupied principally by two great classes of inhabitants, 
namely, the Beloochees and Brahooes, differing from 
each other in their outward appearance, as well as in 
their manners. These are divided into an infinite variety 



Fig. 336. — nadir shah, (king of Persia.) 
(From Fraser’s Hist, of “Nadir Shah.") 


of tribes, which it is impossible to enumerate. In their 
domestic life, the Beloochees are almost all pastoral; 
they usually reside in ghedons or tents, made of black 
felt or coarse blankets, stretched over a frame of wicker¬ 


work. An assemblage of these constitutes a village, and 
the people a kheil or society. Though naturally indo¬ 
lent, they are fearless of danger, and in battle fight with 
great gallantry. They are a race of lawless robbers, 
however, and undertake distant excursions in quest of 
booty, or for the purpose of carrying off the inhabitants 
of other countries for slaves. — Rel. All the Beloochees 
are Mohammedans of the Sooaee faith, and entertain a 
great antipathy to otiier sects. Polygamy is common 
among them, and the number of slaves is limited only 
by one’s ability to keep them.— Area, about 130,000'sq. 
m. Pop. est. at 500,000. Almost all the inhabitants of 
B. are nearly barbarous and uncivilized. Neither the 
Beloocheekee nor Brahooekee are,written tongues, and 
he is greatly honored, and called mooUee. who can read 
the Koran. They are quite ignorant of all the countries 
in their neighborhood. Medicine they are totally unac¬ 
quainted with; and to cure a fever they will shampoo or 
thump the body all over. This country was quite un¬ 
known to Europeans until the time of Alexander the 
Great; and tor ten centuries afterwards there are no rec¬ 
ords of B. A caliph of Bagdad, in the year 92, of the 
Hegira, led an army through it to Scinde; it was after¬ 
wards taken possession of by Musaood, son of the-Emp. 
Mahmoud, and was governed by his dynasty till 1739, 
when Nadir Shah (Fig. 336), having conquered it, be¬ 
stowed it on the Khan of Cabul. The present Khan of 
Kalat, Mir Mahmud Khan, succeeded his father in 1893, 
the latter having been deposed for barbarous cruelty. 

Belop'tera, n. [Gr. belos, dart, pteron, wing.] (Pal.) 
A fossil resembling a belemnite, hut less pointed, and 
having a wing-like projection or process on each side. 
It occurs in Tertiary strata, and was evidently the inter¬ 
nal bone of a cephalopod.—The name Belosepia (Gr. se¬ 
pia, cuttle-fish) is given to another kind of belemnite 
found in Tertiary deposits; and that of Beloteuthis (Gr. 
teuthis, squid) to one shaped like a spear-head occurring 
in the Lias. 

Beloved, (be-luvd',)p. a. [be and loved, from tore.] Loved; 
greatly loved; dear to the heart. 

And to his eye 

There was but one beloved face on earth." — Byron. 

Below, (be-lo',)prep, [be and iow.] Under; beneath; not 
so high. 

" He 11 beat Ausidius* head below his knee, 

And tread upon his neck." — Shaks. 

—Inferior to: low in relation to, or in comparison of. 

" His Idylliums of Theocritus are as much below his Manilins 
as the fields are below the 6Urs."— Felton. 

—Unbefitting; unworthy of. 

" Tis much below me on his throne to sit." — Shaks. 

Below', adv. In a lower place; beneath, with respect 
to any object. 

" This said, he led them up the mountain's brow. 

And shewed them all the shining fields below. '— Pope. 

—On earth; as opposed to heaven, or the skies. 

"And let no tears from erring pity flow 
For one that s bless d above, immortaliz'd below. —Smith. 

—In hell; in the regions of the dead. 

“ When suffering saints aloft in beams shall glow, 

And prosperous traitors gnash their teeth below." — TickeU. 

—A court of lower or inferior jurisdiction; as, at the trial 
below. 

Bel'passi, in Oregon, a post-village of Marion co., 
15 m. N.E. of Salem. 

Bel’per, a market-town of England, in Derbyshire, 7 
m. N. of Derby. Man/. Cottons, silks, nails, &c. Pop. 
10,560. 

Bel'pre, in Ohio, a post-village of Washington co., on 
the N. bank of the Ohio River, about 15 m. S.W. of Ma¬ 
rietta, and opposite Parkersburg in Virginia. 

Belstinm, Thomas, an eminent English Unitarian di¬ 
vine, at one time head of the theological academy of 
Daventry, and for the last 20 years of his life minister 
of Essex Chapel, London. He wrote many polemical 
treatises,and published anew translation of the Epistles 
of St. Paul. His work on Christian Evidence obtained 
much popularity. D. in his 80th year, 1S29.—His brother, 
William B., who D. 1827, aged 75, is author of History 
of Great Britain, from the Revolution to the Treaty of 
Amiens, in 12 vols. 8vo. 

Belshazzar. (6ei-s/idz'zar,)was the last king of Babylon, 
of the Chaldsean dynasty. He is the Nahonnedus of 
Alexander Polyhist, Nabonnidochus of Megasthenes, 
Labynetus of Herodotus. Naboandelns of Josephus. B. 
was the son of Queen Nitocris. In 538 or 539 u.c., during 
the night when Babylon was stormed by Cyrus, B. was 
making an impious feast, at which he and his courtiers 
drank out of the sacred vessels which had been carried 
away from the temple of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, 
his grandfather. He was terrified by the apparition of 
the hand which wrote upon the wall (see .VIene); and 
in the same night was slain by one of his eunuchs, who 
brought his head to Cyrus. 

Bel'sire, n. [0. Fr.] A grandfather or progenitor, (o.) 
See Beldam. 

Belsnnce, Henri Francois Xavier de, (bel-soom,) a 
French prelate, b. in Perigord, 1671, and was made 
bishop of Marseilles in 1709. He showed his zeal and 
charity during the plague in 1720, and his devotion will 
always be worthy of admiration. He was offered, in 
1723, the bishopric of Laon, but refused it, saying, he 
“ would not leave a church to which he had devoted hia 
life;” and he also refused the bishopric of Bordeaux, 
1729. D. at Marseilles. 1755. 

Bel'swagger, n. [Bell and swagger.] A bully; a 
whore-master. 

" Tou are a charitable belswagger ."— Dry den. 

Belt, n. [A.S. belt; Icel. belli; Lat. baltevs. a girdle or 





















324 


BELT 


BELY 


BEMB 


belt.] A leathern girdle; a band; a circlet or bandage; 
as, a sword-belt. 

*• Then snatched the shining belt, with gold inlaid ; 

The belt Eurytion’s artful hands had made."— Dryden. 

—Anything resembling a belt, which confines or girds. 

“ Within the belt of rule."—Shales. 

{Arch.) A string-course and blocking-course; a course 
of stones projecting from a wall, either moulded, plain, 
fluted, or enriched. 

(Aslron.) The dark stripes or zones that appear on 
the surface of the planet Jupiter parallel to its equator. 

1 (See Jufiter.) Orion's Belt is figured by three stars in 
a direct line with each other, situated horizontally in 
the centre of the constellation. 

( Surg .) A broad bandage applied to the abdomen, so 
as to support and make methodical pressure upon it. 

( Mech .) A band which, by wheels and pulleys, connects 
the different rotatory parts of machinery. It is gener¬ 
ally made of leather. 

(Her.) A badge or mark of the knightly order. — Bu¬ 
chanan. 

(Farriery.) A disease in sheep. 

— v. a. To gird or encompass, as with a belt; to encircle. 

“ Belted with young children.' —De Quincy. 

—To shear, as the buttocks and tails of sheep. 

Belt, n. (Geog.) The name given to two of the three 
straits by which the Baltic Sea is joined to the Cattegat. 
They are distinguished by the addition of Great and 
Little.—The Great Belt, which is the middle one, and the 
widest outlet for the waters of the Baltic, begins on the 
S., about 54° 50' N. Lat., between the S. extremity of the 
island of Langeland and the YV. shores of Laaland, and 
terminates on the N. between Rees Ness on the island 
of Zealand, and the S. extremity of Samsoe. Its length 
may be about 70 m. — The narrowest part of the strait is 
at its S. extremity, where it is, properly speaking, divided 
into two straits by the island of Langeland; for the nar¬ 
row sea between that island and those of Arroe, Taasiug, 
and Fionia is comprehended under the name of Great 
Belt, and is hardly more than four miles in breadth. The 
principal branch between Langeland and Laaland is 
rather more than 8 m. wide. To the N. of the northern 
extremity of Langeland the breadth of the strait varies 
between 16 and 24 m.—Except near the shores, the depth 
of the water is considerable, but very irregular, varying 
from five to twenty-five fathoms. But some small and 
low islands and many shoals render the navigation diffi¬ 
cult and dangerous, and on that account the passage of 
the Sound is preferred. Between Nyborg in Fionia and 
Corsoer in Zealand, a regular communication is estab¬ 
lished by steamboats and smacks. In the good season 
the passage is not difficult; but in the latter part of the 
autumn and in winter it is difficult and dangerous, es¬ 
pecially on account of the pieces of floating ice which 
in severe weather become very numerous, and are some¬ 
times cemented together by hard frost. It is then some¬ 
times necessary to make one part of the passage in a 
Bledge and the other in a boat. When, in such circum¬ 
stances, snow begins to fall, the small island of Sprogoe, 
which lies in the strait, but considerably nearer to the 
coast of Fionia than to that of Zealand, offers a place of 
refuge. — The Little Belt, the most western of the three 
straits, begins on the 8. between the islands of Arroe and 
Alsen,and extends bet ween the island of Fionia and Jut¬ 
land, to the capes called Oger Ness on F’ionia, and Bi- 
cornsknudde on Jutland. Its length is upwards of 80 m., 
and its width varies from 8 to 10. Towards the S. ex¬ 
tremity, between the islands Arroe and Alsen, it is gen¬ 
erally above 10 m. across. At Assens. a town of Fionia, 
it narrows suddenly to about five, and farther north it 
grows by degrees narrower, so that between the town of 
Middelfart on Fionia, and the opposite coast at Snoghoe, 
the distance hardly amounts to % of a m. The depth 
of the water is considerable, varying from five to four¬ 
teen fathoms; but the navigation is dangerous, on ac¬ 
count of the low islands (Arroe, Baagoe, and Fanoe), the 
numerous shoals, and the violent currents which con¬ 
stantly run through the etrait from S. to N. — See Bal¬ 
tic Sea. 

Bel tane, or Beltein, n. ( Traditions .) The name of 
a kind of festival, formerly common to all the Celtic 
nations, and traces of which still exist in some parts of 
Ireland and Scotland, on the 1st of May. In Ireland, 
we find two B., one on the 1st of May, the other on the 
21st of June. To the B., also, in all probability, the fires 
which were formerly and are perhaps yet lighted in many 
parts of England on Midsummer Eve, are to be referred. 
B. signifies the fire of Baal, the worship of whom is sup¬ 
posed to have existed in England, Scotland, and Ireland 
in the remotest period of Bruidical superstition. B. was 
therefore the fire lighted in honor of the Sun, whose 
return and visible influence upon the productions of 
the earth was thus celebrated. La na Beal tina, and 
Nem na Beal Una, in the Irish language, are the day and 
eve of Beal’s fire. (Fairy Legends and Traditions of the 
South of Ireland.) — The following account of the B. is 
given in Focaluir Gaoidhilge-Sax-Bhcaria, or an Irish- 
English Dictionary (by O’Brien), printed at Paris. 4to. 
1768.— “Bedltine, or Hit-tine, ignis Beli Dei Asiatici: i. e. 
tine Beil, ‘ May-day,’ so called from large fires which the 
Druids were used to light on the summits of the highest 
hills, into which they drove four-footed beasts, using at 
the same time certain ceremonies to expiate the sins of 
the people. This pagan ceremony of lighting these fires 
in honor of the Asiatic god Belus, gave its name to the 
entire month of May, which is to this day called mi na 
Beal-tine in the Irish language. Dr. Keating, speaking 
of this fire of Beal, says, that the cattle were driven 
through it and not sacrificed, and that the chief design 
of it was to keep off all contagious disorders from them 


for that year; and he also says, that all the inhabitants 
of Ireland quenched their fires on that day, and kindled 
them again out of some part of that fire.” — In Sir John 
Sinclair s Statistical Account of Scotland, the minister 
of Callander in Perthshire, speaking of “peculiar cus¬ 
toms,” says: “Upon the first day of May, which is called 
Beltan or Beltein-day, all the boys in a township or ham¬ 
let meet in the moors. They cut a table in the green 
sod, of a round figure, by casting a trench in the ground 
of such circumference as to hold the whole company. 
They kindle a fire, and dress a repast of eggs and milk 
in the consistence of a custard. They knead a cake of 
oatmeal, which is toasted at the embers against a stone. 
After the custard is eaten up, they divide the cake into 
so many portions, as similar as possible to one another 
in size and shape, as there are persons in the company. 
They daub one of these portions all over with charcoal, 
until it be perfectly black. They put all the bits of cake 
into a bonnet. Every one, blindfold, draws out a portion, 
lie who holds the bonnet is entitled to the last bit. Who¬ 
ever draws the black bit is the devoted person who is 
to be sacrificed to Baal, whose favor they mean to im¬ 
plore, in rendering the year productive of the sustenance 
of man and beast. There is little doubt,” the writer adds, 
“of these inhuman sacrifices having been offered in this 
country as well as in the East, although they now pass 
from tlie act of sacrificing, and only compel the devoted 
person to leap three times through the flames, with 
which the ceremonies of this festival are closed.” 

Belt ed, a. Wearing a belt; having a belt or belts. 

“A prince can make a belted knight."— Burns. 

—Marked, or adorned with a band or circle; as, a belted 
stalk.—Worn in the belt. 

Belteshazzar, (bel-te-shdz'ar.) [Ileb., “who lays up 
treasures in secret.”] A title of honor given to Daniel in 
Babylon. 

Belting, n. Material for the fabrication of belts; belts 
taken collectively. 

Bel'ton. in S. Carolina, a post-village of Anderson dis¬ 
trict, 27 m. S. by W. of Greenville, 

Bel'ton, in Texas, a city of Bell co., 90 m. N.N.E. of 
Austin. Pop. (1897) about 3,500. 

Belts'ville, in Maryland, a post-village of Prince 
George’s co., 12 m. N.E. of Washington. 

Beltur'bet, a market-town of Ireland, co. Cavan, on 
the Erne, 9 m. N.N.W. of Cavan. 

Belu'ga, n. [Russ, bieluga, a sturgeon.] ( Zool.) A genus 
of Cetacea belonging to the Delphinidce, or Dolphins. It 
has a broad blunt head, and no produced snout; thus 
differing from the rest of the family to which it belongs. 
Its form is principally characterized by the softness of 
its curves, and the clear white color of its skin, which is 
so tender that it often fails to retain the harpoon. The 
B. also differs from the ordinary family of dolphins in 
having fewer teeth, which fall out before the animal is 
old, and it has no dorsal fin. It usually attains the length 
of thirteen feet, and feeds principally on fish. 

Be ilis. (Myth.) The chief deity of the Babylonians and 
Assyrians. The Chaldee Bel, as well as the Hebrew 
Baal, means Lord. The Greeks were apt to substitute 
Zeus for Belus, and the Romans Jupiter. He was sup¬ 
posed to be the son of the Osiris of the Egyptians; and 
according to Herodotus, B. was the father of Ninus. 

Belute', v. a. To bemuddle. 

Belvedere, (bel've-deer,) n. (Arch.) A small building 
constructed at the top of a house or palace, and open to 
the air, at least on one side, and often on all. The term 
is an Italian compound, signifying a “ fine view; ” and 
in Italy it is constructed expressly for that purpose, 
combined with the object of enjoying the cool evening 
breeze, which blows fresher on the house-top than in 
the confined streets. Mauy houses in Rome have B., 
for the most part of a simple form. The most celebrated 
construction of this kind at Rome, which is in the Va¬ 
tican, was built by Bramaute in that part called the 



Fig. 337. — the belvedere of the Vatican. 

(Built by Bramante.) 


court of the B. The form of this building is semicir¬ 
cular, and it stands over an enormous niche, a remark¬ 
able feature in the facade, of which the belvedere makes 
a part. From this belvedere the view is one of the finest 
that can be imagined, extending over the whole city of 
Rome and the Campagna, bounded by the distant Apen¬ 
nines, the tops of which are covered with snow for a 
large part of the year. B. are not uncommon in France, 
but the term is applied rather to a summer-house in a 
park or garden, than to the constructions on the tops 
of houses, although small edifices, similar to those in 
Italy, are sometimes constructed on the tops of build¬ 
ings for the purpose of commanding a tine view. 


Bel'videre, in Illinois, a flourishing township and city, 
cap.of Boone co., on the Kishwaukee river, 75 m. W.N.W. 
of Chicago, and 15 E. of Rockford. Pop. (1897) 5,000. 

Bel'videre, in Iowa, a post-village of Monona co., on 
Maple River, about 8 m. E. of Onawa. 

Bel'videre, in North Carolina, a township of Perqui¬ 
mans co. 

Bel'videre, in New Jersey, a town, cap. of Warren co., 
situated on both sides of Request Creek, at its junction 
with the Delaware, 13 m. above Easton, and 65 W. of 
New York city. Manf. Cotton and iron. 

Bel'videre, in New York, a post-village of Amity town¬ 
ship, Alleghany co., on the S. side of the Geneses River, 
379 m. from New York city. 

Bel'videre, in Vermont, a township of Lamoille co., 
30 m. N. by E. of Montpelier. 

Bel'videre. in Wisconsin, a township of Buffalo co., 
on the Mississippi River. 

Belvidere Landing, in Vermont, a post-office of 

Lamoille co. 

Belvisia'eese, n. pi. (But.) A small order of plants, 
alliance Myrtales. — Diag. A plurilocular ovary, mono- 
petalous coronetted flowers, valvate calyx, indefinite, 
monadelphous stamens, and amygdaloid cotyledons. 
This order comprehends ouly two genera, namely, As- 
teranthos, and Napoleona or Belrisia. These include 
four species, which are large shrubs, with smooth lea¬ 
thery leaves, all growing in tropical Africa. The flow¬ 
ers grow in threes, sessile in the axils of the leaves, and 
are extremely curious. The calyx is a thick leathery 
cup, divided into five segments. The corolla consists of 
three distinct whorls of united petals; the outer one 
turning back over the calyx; the second one is a nar¬ 
row membrane divided into numerous segments; and 
the third forms an erect cup, and contains the stamens, 
which are united, so us to make a sort of inner cup. 
The fruit is a soft berry, with large kidney-shaped seeds. 
The pulp of the fruit is edible, and the pericarp con¬ 
tains much tannin. 

Be lye, v. a. See Belie. 

Belzo'ni, Giovanni Battista, an enterprising traveller, 
whose researches in Egypt have been of great service 
to those engaged in the study of its antiquities, was b. 
at Padua. He came to England in 1803; and becoming 
involved in pecuniary difficulties, while residingin Lon¬ 
don, he obtained a livelihood by the display of feats of 
strength and activity at Astley’s amphitheatre, for 
which his colossal stature and extraordinary muscular 
powers eminently qualified him. At length he left Eng¬ 
land, and entered on his travels through Egypt, in 1815. 
In 1816 he sent the busts of Jupiter, Mcmnon, &c., to 
the British Museum ; published a narrative of his opera¬ 
tions in 1820; and in the following.year exhibited a 
model of the splendid tomb which he had discovered 
near Thebes. But, while making preparations for pass¬ 
ing from Benin to Houssa and Timbuctoo, he was 
attacked by dysentery, and D. at Gato in 1823. 

Bern', in Wisconsin, a post-office of Green co. 

Beni. Joseph, a Polish general, b. in Galicia, 1795. 
His first experience was in the French expedition 
against Russia in 1812. He was afterwards professor in 
the school of artillery at Warsaw; took part in the in¬ 
surrection of 1830, and in 1848 joined the Hungarian 
army. He obtained several successes against the Aus¬ 
trians and Russians in the following year, but after the 
defeat at Temesvar, he retired into Turkey, and was 
made a pasha. D. 1850. 

Be'ma, n. [Gr. bema, a step.] ( Greek Antiq.) A stone 
platform or hustings, 10 or 11 feet high, with an ascent 
of steps, on the place Puyx.at Athens, on which speakers 
stood when addressing public assemblies of the people. 

Beinail', v. a., [be and mad.] To make mad; to turn 
the brain. 

Beman'gle, v. a. [6e and mangle.] To mangle; to rend 

to pieces. 

Bemask', v. a. [be and mask.] To conceal; to mask. 

Bemaiil', v. a. To bruise; to give a severe beating to. 

Bemaze', v. a. [be, and 7«uzr.] To confuse ; to bewilder. 

“ Intellects bemaztd in endless doubt.’* — Cowper. 

Benibatoo'ka.f Ray of,) a safe and commodious bay on 
the N.W. coast of Madagascar, Lat. 16° S., Lon. 46° E.—. 
Majunga, on the N. side, is the only important town on 
the bay. 

Bembec'idte, n. pi. (Zool.) A family of Hymenopterous 
^insects, peculiar to hot climates, and, in some instances, 
very much resembling wasps both in Bize and color. 
B. rostrata, an insect about the size of a wasp, is the 
type of this family, and is remarkable for having the 
lower parts of the mouth prolonged into a long trunk or 
proboscis. 

Bem'bex, n. (Zool.) A genus of the fam. Bembecida:, 
q. v. 

Bembid'id.e, n. pi. (Zool.) A family of minute carniv¬ 
orous coleopters, which generally frequent damp situa¬ 
tions, such as the banks of rivers, ditches, &c. They are 
usually of a bright blue or green metallic color, having 
2 or 4 pale-yellow spots on the elytra. 

Bem'bo, Pietro, a noble Venetian poet, and miscella¬ 
neous writer, b. 1470. He was secretary to Leo X., and 
promoted to be bishop of Bergamo and cardinal by Paul 
III.; and author of a history of Venice, an important 
and extensive work on the Italian language, &c. D. 1547. 

Bein bridge Beils. (Geol.) A group of upper eocene 
strata, resting on the Osborne or St. Helen’s series, and 
capped by the Hempstead beds. It is principally devel¬ 
oped in the Isle of Wight. Beginning at the bottom, the 
B. limestone is at first seen, consisting of a pale-yellow, 
cream-colored limestone, interstratified with clay or 
crumbling marl, and from 20 to 25 ft. thick. Upon 
this comes the oyster-bed, a few feet of greenish sands, 
containing oysters ( Ostrcea vectensis) in great abundance 




































BENA 


BEND 


BEND 


325 


capped by a band of hard septerian stone. Resting on 
this are unfossiliferous mottled clays, alternating with 
fossilil'erous laminated clays and marls. The latter con¬ 
tain the characteristic shell Cyrena pulchra. Lastly 
come the marls and laminated gray clays containing 
Melania turritissima. Immediately above this is the 
black band, forming the base of the Hempstead series. 

Bement, in Illinois, a post-village of Bement township, 
Piatt county, 21 miles east-north-east of the city of 
Decatur. 

Bemin'gle, re. a. [be and mingle .] To mix; to mingle. 
( R 0 . 

Bern ml Islands, in the W. Indies, a small group of 
the Bahamas; Lat. 25° 40' N.; Lon. 79° lu' W. 

Bemire', v. a. [be and mire. J To drag or sink in the 
mire; to cover with mire. 

“The loving couple well bemir’d. 

The hor*e, and both the riders, tir'd. ’ — Swift. 

Bemoan, (be-mon',) v. a. [be and moan.] To express 
sorrow for; to lament; to bewail; to mourn for. 

11 He falls, he fills the house with heavy groans. 

Implores their pity, and his pain bemoans." — Dryden. 

—To express sympathy with, (r.) 

Bemoau'er, n. A person who laments. 

Bernock', v. a. [be and mock.} To ridicule; to treat 
with mockery, (r.) 

“ Bemock the modest moon." — Shafts. 

Bemock', v. i. To laugh in a mocking manner. 

Benioisten, ( be-mois'n,) v. a. [be and moisten.] To 
moisten; to wet. 

Be'inol, n. ( Mus.) See B flat. 

Bemouru', v. a. [be and mourn.] To mourn or grieve 
over. 

Bemuf'fle, t>. a. [be and muffle.] To muffle; to wrap up. 
11 Bcmufflcd with the externals of religion." — Sterne. 

Bemused, (be-mazd’,) a. [beandmitse.] Wrapt in rev¬ 
erie; sunk iu contemplation: overcome with musing.— 
(Used generally in an ironical sense.) 

“ Is there a parson mnch bemus'd in beer ? "— Pope. 

Be'mus Heights, in New York, a post-village of 
Saratoga co., ou the Champlain Canal, 24 m. N.E. of 
Albany. 

Be'mus Point, in New York, a post-office of Chatau- 
qua co. 

Ben, n. [Heb., a son.] A prepositive syllable found in 
many Jewish names, as Ben-dacid, Ben-asser, which the 
German Jews have changed into •• suhn,” as Mendelssohn, 
Jacobssnhn, &c., — a custom practised by the Israelites 
in foreign countries, in consequence of their having no 
family name. 

Ben, Bein, or Bliein, n. [Gael.] This word has been 
adopted in English to indicate the most elevated sum¬ 
mits of the mountain ranges which traverse Scotland to 
the north of the Friths of Clyde and Forth, of which the 
most important are Ben-Nevis, Ben-Macdhui, Ben-Law- 
ers, and Ben-Cruachan. It is essentially the same word 
as the Welsh Pen, the primary signification of which is 
“ head,” and hence it may be considered as equivalent to 
“mountain summit” or “mountain head.” The term 
Pennine, applied to a division of the Alps, is doubtless 
derived from the Celtic Pen or Ben. 

Ben, (Oil of.) ( Client.) A whitish-yellow, thickish oil, 
obtained in Egypt, Ceylon. &c., from the seeds of the 
Hyperanthera mnringa. It is chiefly used by perfumers, 
as it possesses the property of seldom turning rancid. 

Benai'ah, son of Jehoiada, and commander of David’s 
bodyguards. 

Ben ares, a territory of British India, forming a part 
of the north-western provinces, and containing the dis¬ 
tricts of Benares, Mirzapore, Ghazepore, and Juanpore; 
lying chiefly between Lat. 24° and 26° N., and Lon. 82° 
and 84° 30' E.; having N. Goruckpore; E. Bahar; S. the 
Berar ceded district; and W. the territory of the rajah 
of Rewah, and the diet, of Allahabad and Juanpore. 
Area, 8,670 sq. in. It consists, for the most part, of a cul¬ 
tivated flat, on both sides of the Ganges, and is, besides, 
well watered by the Goomtee, Caramnassa and Sone 
rivers. — Prod. Wheat, barley, legumes, flax, indigo, 
sugar, and large quantities of opium. The latter is a 
government monopoly, and Bahar and Benares are the 
only prov. in the Bengal presidency in which it is per¬ 
mitted to be grown. This prov. is among the most 
flourishing in India, and is yearly increasing in trade 
and prosperity. Muslins, gauze, and brocades are the 
principal manufactures. Cap. Benares. Pop. abt. 8,u00,000. 

( Before 1775, B. belonged to the Nabob of Oude, who, iu 
that year, ceded it to the British. 

Benares, (Skr. Varanashi, or Kasi, “ the spiendid,”) a 
large and celebrated city of Hindustan, cap. of prov. and 
district of the same name, and one of the 6 chief provin¬ 
cial cities in the presidency, at the head of a judicial di¬ 
vision ; Lat. 25°18'33"N., Lon.83° E.; on the N.W. bank 
of the Ganges, about 300 ft. above sea-level, 65 in. E. of 
Allahabad, and 390 N.W. of Calcutta, on the E. Indian 
Railway from Calcutta to Delhi. B. is the “ most holy ” 
city of the Hindoos — the ecclesiastical metropolis, in 
fact, of India — and is resorted to by pilgrims from all 
quarters, especially from the Mahratta countries, and 
from even Thibet and Burmah. It is certainly the rich¬ 
est, as well as probably the most populous, city in the 
peninsula. Its first view is extremely fine. It extends 
about 4 in. along the bank of the river, which is consid¬ 
erably elevated, and adorned with large ghauts or land 
ing-places. with long and handsome flights of steps. Its 
buildings, which are crowded, are built of stone or brick, 
and uniquely lofty; here and there are seen the sculp¬ 
tured pyramidal tops of small pagodas; and the great 
mosque of Aurungzebe, with its gilded dome glittering 
in the sun, and two minarets towering one above the 
other, form a grand and imposing coup d'aeil. The streets 


are extremely narrow, but the city is well drained and 
healthy. The principal building is the Mosque above 
mentioned, and there are besides numerous Hindoo 
temples and fakir-houses. B. is crowded with mendi¬ 
cant Brahmin priests. Only 110th of the population are 
Mohammedans; Europeans, Persians, Armenians, Tar¬ 
tars, See. are settled here, and carry on a considerable 
trade in shawls, silks, muslins, cottons, diamonds, Ac. 



Fig. 338. — benares. 


The Hindoo Sanskrit College is the chief seat of native 
learning in India. This city is believed by the Hindoos 
to form no part of the terrestrial globe, but to rest upon 
the point of Siva’s trident; hence, they' say, no earth¬ 
quake ever affects it. In 1017, it was taken by Sultan 
Malunoud, and from 1190 followed the fortunes of the 
Delhi Moguls. Since 1775, it has belonged to the Brit¬ 
ish. 

Ben'bow, John, an English admiral, b. 1650 at Shrews¬ 
bury-. His skill and valor displayed during an action 
with a Barbary pirate at the head of a superior force, 
gained him the confidence of the nation, and he was 
made a captain in the royal navy by James II. Rear- 
admiral in 1700, he had his leg carried away by a chain- 
shot during an engagement with the French commo¬ 
dore Du Casse, in 1702, and he d. in Jamaica, 1702. 

Ben'bow, in Missouri, a township of Marion co. 

Ben'burb, a village of Ireland, co. Tyrone; pop. about 
450. 

Bench, (bensh,) n. [A. S. bcenc. See Bank.] A long 
seat, distinguished from a stool by its superior length. 

—A long table, at which mechanics, &c. ply their trade; 
as, a joiner's bench. It is usually 10 or 12 ft. long, and 
about 2]/2 wide. 

—A judge's seat in a court of law.—The judges taken col¬ 
lectively, as distinguished from counsellors and advo¬ 
cates, who are called the bar. 

—The King’s or Queen’s Bench is the name given in Eng¬ 
land to the supreme court of common law. 

Bench, v. a. To furnish with benches. 

" Twas bench'd with turf, and goodly to be seen, 

The thick young grass arose in fresher green."— Dryden. 

—To seat or place ou a bench or seat of honor. 

•' His cupbearer, whom I from meaner form 
Have bench'd, and rear'd to worship."— Shake. 

— v. i. To sit on a bench or seat of justice. 

“ Bench by his side ; you are of the commission."— Shake. 

Beneh'er. re. (Eng. Law.) A senior member of any of 
the Inns of Court iu England, viz., the Inner Temple, 
Middle Temple, Lincoln’s Inn, and Gray’s Inn. The 
management of the affairs of each Inn is committed to 
its own body of benchers ; out of which body one is annu¬ 
ally chosen as treasurer. The sole power of calling stu¬ 
dents to the bar, by which they become barristers, and 
of disbarring them, and thereby depriving them of their 
qualification, for misconduct, is vested in the benchers, 
subject to an appeal to the judges as visitors to the inn. 

•* I was taking a walk iu the gardens of Lincoln's Inn ; a favor 
that is indulged me by several benchers, who are grown old with 
me.”— Tatter. 

—An alderman of a corporation. 

Beneli'-inarlt, re. (Levelling.) A term applied to a 
mark showing the starting-point in levelling along a 
line, and to similar marks affixed at convenient distances 
to substantial or permanent objects, to show the exact 
points upon which the levelling staffs were placed when 
the various levels were read, thus facilitating reference 
and correction. 

Bench -planes, n. pi. ( Carpentry.) A carpenter or 
joiner's set of planes; as, the jack-plane, trying-plane, 
long-plane, the jointer, and the smoothing-plane. 

Beneh'-table, re. (Arch.) A low stone seat around the 
interior of the walls of many churches. 

Bencli'-warrant, re. (Law.) A process issued by a 
court against a person guilty of some contempt, or in¬ 
dicted for some crime. 

Bencoolen, (ben-koo'len, 7 a seaport of the island of 
Sumatra, and the principal settlement of the Dutch on 
that island. It stands on the W. coast; Lat. 30° 47' 6" S., 
Lon. 102° 19' E. The town, small but well built, is said 
to be unhealthy. The imports consist chiefly of cloths, 
rice, tobacco, sugar, &c., from Batavia; opium and 
various fabrics from Bengal and the Coromandel coast; 
printed cottons, and cutlery and hardware from Europe. 
Pop. 13,200. 

Bend, v. a. (imp. bended or bent ; pp. bended or bent ; 
bended in solemn style.) [A. S. bendan, from bound, a tie,| 


anything that ties, binds, or bends (a bow.)] To stretch; 
to strain, or crook by straining, as a bow. 

44 And fills the white and rustling sail, 

And bends the gallant mast.”— Allan Cunningham. 

—To turn out of a straight or direct line or course. 

“ Your gracious eyes upon this labour bent.”—Fairfax. 

—To subdue ; to cause to yield by straining; to make sub¬ 
missive. 


“ Except she bend her humour."— Shake. 

—To apply closely; to incline; to apply. 

“ He was no longer able to bend his mind or thoughts Is any 
public business."—Sir IT. Temple. 

—To put anything in order for use. by straining. 

•• As a fowler was bending his net, a blackbird asked him what 
be was doing."— L‘Estrange. 

(Naut.) To fasten; as, to bend a sail, a cable: i.t. to 
fasten a sail to the yard, or a cable to the anchor. 

To bend the brow. To knit the brovy; to frown; to scowl. 

“ Some have been seen to . . . bend their brows, bite their lips, 
beat the board, and tear their paper.”— Camden- 

— v.i. To be crooked; to crook, or be curving; to overhang. 

“ He who hath bent him o'er the dead.”— Byron. 

—To incline; to lean or turn; to purpose; to resolve upon. 

*• A state of slavery, which they are bent upon with so muck 
eagerness and obstinacy.”— Addison. 

—To yield; to bow in prayer or submission. 

“ While each to his great Father bends." — Coleridge. 

Bend, re. [See Bent.] A deflection from a straight line; 
a curve or crook; a flexure, or incurvation. 

" And that same eye, whose bend doth awe the world, 

Did lose its lustre."— Shaks. 

(Her.) Two parallel lines, drawn from left to right, or 
from the dexter chief to the sinister base of an escut¬ 
cheon, which lines may be either straight, or indented, 
engrailed, &c. It is one of the nine principal ordinaries, 
occupying a fifth part of the field when uncharged, but 
a third part when it has any device or charge upon it. 
When the term B. is mentioned without any addition. 



the B. dexter is always meant. It is supposed to repre- 
sent a shoulder-belt, or scarf worn over the shoulder. 
The B. has four diminutives, — the bendlet, half the 
width of the B .; the garter, a third; the ribbon, a quar¬ 
ter; and the cost, which does not touch the extremities 
of the shield, and is often borne on either side of the B. 
When charges are placed in the direction of the B. from 
the dexter chief to the sinister base, they are said to be 
in bend, per bend, bendy, Ac. — For Bend Sinister, see 
Baton. 

(Com.) Among curriers and leather-sellers, a butt of 
leather. 

(Naut.) The form of the ship from the keel to the top 
of the side; as, the midship bend, Ac. Bends are the 
strongest planks of a vessel's side, to which the beams, 
knees, and futtocks are bolted. They are frequently 
called Wales. 

—A knot by which one rope is fastened to another, or to 
an anchor. 

(Mining.) Indurated clay; a name given by miners to 
any indurated argillaceous substance. 

Bend'able, adv. That may be bent or curved. 

Ben'deiiiann, Edward, "a celebrated painter of the 
Diisseldorf school, b. in Berlin, Dec. 3,1811. After re¬ 
ceiving a good literary education, he became a stu¬ 
dent at the Diisseldorf Academy under the well-known 
Schadow, who soon discovered that B. had chosen his 
true vocation. When only 21 years of age, he exhibited 
at Beilin a large painting, The Grief of the Jews, sug¬ 
gested by Psalm cxxxvii. It was popularized by means 
of lithographs, and is now in the Cologne Museum. In 
1833 he executed a picture, afterwards engraved by 
Felsing —Two Young Girls at the Fountain, which was 
purchased by the Society of Arts of Westphalia. In 1837 
he exhibited at Paris a large canvas, Jeremiah amid the 
Ruins of Jerusalem, with which he gained the gold 
medal. This picture, of which Weiss published a good 
lithograph, is in the private gallery of the King of Prus¬ 
sia. Harvest followed, which was engraved by Eichens. 
The success of this piece led B. to produce others of the 
same class, such as The Shepherd and Shepherdess, from 
one of Uhland's idyls, and The Daughter of the Servian 
Prinoe, from a Servian ballad. After becoming appoint¬ 
ed professor in the Academy of Arts of Dresden, 1838, lis 
received a commission to decorate the royal palace, and 
undertook the grand frescoes upon which, above all, his 
reputation is founded. The progress of this undertaking 
was interrupted by a disease of the eyes, which the 
artist contracted in Italy. B. executed a fresco of 
Poetry and the Arts; a design fora monument to Sebastian 
Bach, which was afterwards erected at Landstein; a 
portrait of the Emperor Lothaire II. for the city of 
Frankfort, besides many other portraits of celebrated 
Germans, and among them that of Schadow’s daughter, 
whom he married in 1838. In 1860 he succeeded his 
father-in-law as Director of the Academy at Diisseldorf. 

Ben'der, a fortified town of Russia in Europe, in Bes¬ 
sarabia, on the Dniester, 58 m.W.N.W. of Odessa. It 
was taken and stormed by the Russians in 1770 and in 
1800. Near it is Vamitza, a village celebrated as th* 
asylum granted by Achmet III. to Charles XII. of Swe¬ 
den alter the battle of Pultowa. q. v. 
































326 


BENE 


BENE 


BENE 


Bend'er, n. One who, or that which, bends or makes 
crooked. 

—An instrument used for bending anything. 

—In Canada and U. States, a vulgarism to denote a spree, 
drinking-bout, jollification, <&c. 

Ben'clersville, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of 
Adams co., 14 in. N. of Gettysburg. 

Bending, />. a. Incurvatiug; stooping; subduing; 
leaning; applying closely. 

—n. The act of the incurvation of a body from a straight 
to a crooked form : as wood by heating it. 

Benri'ing-strakes, n. pi. (Naut.) Two strakes 
wrought near the coverings of the deck, worked all 
lb re and aft, about 1 or 1% inches thicker than the rest 
ot the deck, and let down between the beams and edges 
so that the upper side is even with the rest. 

Beml'-leatlier, n. (Cbm.') Among curriers, the best 
quality of leather. 

Bend'let, Bendy, n. (Her.) See Bend. 

Bene. See Nota Bene. 

Beneaped', a. (Naut.) See Neaped. 

Beneath', prep. [A. S. beneath, benythan — be, and 
nythan, downwards, lower.] Below; under; lower in 
place. 

" Some lie beneath the churchyard stone. 

And some before the speaker .'—Praed. 

—Under; not equal to, as overborne by pressure, power, 
weight, or authority. (Used in a figurative sense.) 

41 And oft on rocks their tender wings they tear, 

And sink beneath the burdens which they bear."— Vryden. 

—Lower in rank, excellence, dignity, &c.; unbecoming; 
unworthy of; as, that man is beneath one’s notice. 

" He will do nothing that is beneath his high station.”— Atterbury. 

Beneath', In a lower place; under. 

" The earth which you take from beneath will be barren and un¬ 
fruitful." — Mortimer. 

—Below; as opposed to heaven or any superior region. 

“ Trembling I view the dread abyss beneath, 

Hell’s horrid mansions, and the realms of death." — Yaldcn. 

Ben'edek, Ludwig, a distinguished general in the Aus¬ 
trian service, B. in 1804, at Odenburg, Hungary. After 
undergoing the usual course of training at the Military 
Academy of Neustadt, he entered the Austrian army as a 
cornet in 1S22, and attained the rank of colonel in 1843. 
Two years later he exhibited his great military talents 
during the insurrection in Galicia, which he succeeded in 
completely quelling in the w r est, and thereby enabling 
Gen. Cullin tocarry Podgorze by assault. Ordered,in 1847. 
at the head of the regiment Gyulai, to join the army in 
Italy, he took part in the memorable campaign of 1848 un¬ 
der Radetzky, distinguishing himself in the retreat from 
Milan, at Osone, and especially at the battle of Curta- 
tone, for which he received the order of Maria Theresa. 
In 1849 he contributed to the reduction of Mortara, 
and to the victory of Novara. After this lie was trans¬ 
ferred to Hungary, and was wounded at Raab and Szege- 
den. Ten years later, in the war of Italian indepen¬ 
dence, Gen. B. was one of the few Austrian generals who 
exhibited any very great military capacity, and distin¬ 
guished himself at Solferino, his division being the last 
to leave the field. He was Governor of Hungary for a 
few months in 1860; and, in the critical state of affairs 
in Italy, was soon after appointed to the chief command 
of the Austrian army in that country. Summoned by 
the emperor to command the Austrian army in the war 
with Prussia, General B. sustained a defeat at Sadowa 
July 3,1866, and was soon after superseded by the Arch¬ 
duke Albert. D. 1881. 

Benedicite, (ben-e-dis'i-te.) n. [Lat.] ( Eccl. Hist.) The 
hymn or songof the Three Children in the Fiery Furnace, 
from the Latin version, beginning, Benedicite omnia 
operaDominum. The singing of the B. has been in uni¬ 
versal use as early as the time of Chrysostom. It is sung 
in both the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches. 

Ben'edlct, St., the founder of the order of the Bene¬ 
dictine monks, was born at Nursia, in the dukedom of 
Spoleto. in Italy, in the year 480 a. d. He was sent to 
Rome when very young, and there received the first part 
of his education; when 14 years of age, he removed to 
Subiaco, a desert place about 40 miles distant, where he 
was concealed in a cavern; his place of retirement, for a 
considerable time, being known only to his friend St. 
Romanus, who is said to have descended to him by a 
rope, and supplied him daily with provisions. The 
monks of a neighboring monastery subsequently chose 
him for their abbot; their manners, however, not agree¬ 
ing with those of Benedict, he returned to his solitude, 
whither many persons followed him and put themselves 
under his direction, and in a short time he was enabled 
to build no fewer than 12 monasteries. About the year 
S28 he retired to Monte Cassino, where idolatry was still 
prevalent, and where a temple to Apollo yet existed. 
Having converted the people of the adjacent country to 
the true faith, he broke the statue of Apollo, overthrew 
the altar, and built two oratories on the mountain, one 
dedicated to St. Martin, the other to St. John. Here St. 
Benedict also founded a monastery, and instituted the 
order of his name, which in time became so famous and 
extended all over Europe. It was here, too, that he com¬ 
posed his Begula Monachorum, which does not. how¬ 
ever, seem to have been confirmed till fifty-two years 
after his death, when Pope Gregory the Great gave his 
sanction to it. Authors are not agreed upon the place 
where St. Benedict died: some say at Monte Cassino; 
others affirm it to have been at Rome, whither he had 
been sent by Pope Boniface. Stevens, in the Continua¬ 
tion of Dugdale's Monasticon, places his death about the 
year 543, others in 547; the day, however, stands in the 
calendar fixed to March 21. Gregory the Great, in the 
•oeond Book of his Dialogues, has written a Life of St. 


Benedict, and given a long detail of his supposed mir¬ 
acles. 

Ben'cdict I., Pope, succeeded John III., 575; D. 578, 
and was himself succeeded by Pelagius II. 

Benedict II., succeeded Leo ii., 684; b. 685, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by John V. 

Benedict HI., succeeded Leo IV., 855. During his pontifi¬ 
cate, the Saracens were ravaging Apulia and Campania. 
D. 858, and was succeeded by Nicholas I. 

Benedict IV., succeeded John IX., about 900. He crowned 
Louis, son of Boson, emperor and king of Italy. D. 903, 
and was succeeded by Leo V. 

Benedict V., succeeded John XII. in 964, and was appointed 
by the Romans in opposition to Leo VIII. The Empe¬ 
ror Otho, supporter of Leo, appeared before Rome with 
an army, reduced the city by famine, and a new assem¬ 
bly of the clergy declared to be null the election of B., 
who was exiled. D. 965. 

Benedict VI., succeeded John XIII, 972. After the death 
of the Emperor Otho I., the Romans imprisoned /?., who 
was strangled in the castle of St. Angelo, 974. We know 
nothing of Donus II., mentioned as the next pope, ex¬ 
cept that he d. after a few months, and was succeeded by 

Benedict VII., of the family of Conti, elected 975. During 
his pontificate, the Emperor Otho II. came repeatedly 
to Rome, where he d., 984. B. died about the same time, 
and was succeeded by John XIV. 

Benedict VIII., of the same family, succeeded Sergius IV., 
1012. In 1016, the Saracens from Sardinia having landed 
on the coast of Tuscany, B. attacked and defeated them. 
He crowned the Emperor Henry II., and his wife, in the 
church of St. Peter. D. 1024, and was succeeded by his 
brother, John XIX. 

Benedict IX., a relative of the two preceding popes, succeed¬ 
ed John XIX., 1034. lie was then very young, some say 
only ten years old. He was distinguished by his licen¬ 
tiousness and profligacy', and by the state of anarchy in 
which Rome was plunged during his pontificate. lie 
was deposed in 1048, and d. in a convent, 1054, being 
succeeded by Leo IX. 

Benedict X., was elected by a faction after the death of 
Stephen IX., 1058; but the council of Siena nominated 
Nicholas II. B. did not submit till the following year, 
when N icholas made his entrance into Rome. D. 1059. 

Benedict XI., a Dominican, succeeded Boniface VIII., 1303. 
Contemporary historians speak highly of his character 
and virtues. D. 1304, and was succeeded by Clement V. 

Benedict XII., Jacques Fournier, a native of France, suc¬ 
ceeded John XXII., 1334, the popes residing then at 
Avignon. His strictness in enforcing discipline among 
the monastic orders excited many enemies against him, 
who endeavored to cast aspersions upon his character. 
D. 1342, and was succeeded by Clement VI. 

Benedict XIII.,Cardinal Orsiui, succeeded Innocent XIII., 
1724, but it was with difficulty that he could be made 
to accept of the pontificate. Benedict lived with the 
greatest frugality, and has been called more a monk than 
a pope. His great fault was his implicit confidence in 
Cardinal Coscia, to whom he left the entire management 
of his government, and who much abused it. He died 
February, 1731. His works were published in 1728, in 
three volumes folio. He was succeeded byClement XII. 

Benedict XIV., was born at Bologna in 1675, of the noble 
family of Lambertini. In 1728 he received a cardinal’s 
hat; and in 1731 was nominated archbishop of Bologna. 
On the death of Clement XII. (1740), the cardinals were a 
long time deliberating on the choice of a successor. Lam¬ 
bertini, by way of quickening them, said, “ Why do you 
waste your time in discussions? If you wish for a saint, 
elect Gotti; a politician, choose Aldrovandus; a good 
companion, take me.” This sally pleased them so much, 
that they elected him at once. He reformed abuses, in¬ 
troduced good regulations, cultivated letters, encouraged 
men of learning, and was a patron of the fine arts. His 
tolerance is well known, and it exposed him to the cen¬ 
sure of the rigorists among the College of Cardinals. 
Without exhibiting anything like indifference to the doc¬ 
trines of the Church of which ho was the head, ho showed 
urbanity and friendliness towards all Christians, of what¬ 
ever denomination, whether kings or ordinary travellers, 
who visited his capital. His correspondence with Fred¬ 
erick the Great, concerning the ecclesiastical affairs of 
the province of Silesia, which that sovereign had con¬ 
quered from Austria, was carried on by him in the most 
conciliatory and liberal spirit. The Protestants of Ger¬ 
many revered B. With regard to France, he carefully 
avoided everything that could in the least encourage 
the fanatical party in that country in reviving the per¬ 
secution against the Protestants of Languedoc. Seeing 
France distracted by quarrels between the Jesuits and 
the Jansenists, the court and the parliament, the priests 
and the philosophers, and lamenting amidst all this the 
licentiousness of Louis XV. and his courtiers, and the 
weakness and incapacity of the ministers, he used to ex¬ 
claim that “ France ought indeed to be the best governed 
country in the world, for its government seemed to be 
left entirely to the care of Providence.” (Botta, Stoma 
d'Italia, lib. 46.) — B. was learned, not only in theology, 
but in history and literature, and had also a taste for 
the fine arts. His works were published at Rome, in 12 
vols. 4to. D. 1758, and was succeeded by Clement XIII. 

Ben'edict. Juuus.an eminent musician and composer, b. 
at Stuttgart,in 1804. Heat an early age showed so much 
musical talent, that, having commenced his studies under 
Hummel, at Weimar, he >vas introduced to the notice of 
Weber, who, though he had always refused to take pupils, 
was induced to alter his resolution in B.’s favor. At the 
age of 19, he was, on Weber’s recommendation, engaged 
to conduct the German operas at Vienna, and was after¬ 
wards employed in a similar capacity at the San Carlo 
and the Fondo, at Naples. In 1827," his first dramatic 


work, an opera in two acts, called Giacinta ed Ernesto, 
was produced at the Foudo, but, being essentially of Ger¬ 
man style and color, it did not please the Neapolitaa 
public; nor was he more successful with a grand opera 
afterwards performed at the San Carlo. In 1830, he re¬ 
turned to Stuttgart, where his opera I Portoghesi in Goa, 
which had been coldly received at Naples, found a more 
congenial audience. After a visit to Paris, and a second 
residence of several years at Naples, B. came to London, 
in 1835, chiefly at the instance of his friend Madame 

. Malibran. In 1836. he undertook the direction of ft .. 
Opera Buffa at the Lyceum. Here, his operetta Un An¬ 
no ed un Giomo, originally produced at Naples, was well 
received, and after this, B. turned his attention to the 
English musical stage. His first English opera. The 
Gipsy's Warning, was produced in 1838 with remarkable 
success. The German version of this opera has been 
received with much favor at several of the principal 
theatres of his native country. His subsequent operas, 
Tiie Briaesof Venice, and The Crusaders, hud a long run at 
Drury Lane. lie has composed music for the pianoforte, 
of which instrument he is a great master, and, also, many 
orchestral and vocal pieces of considerable excellence. 
As a composer, B.'b reputation will rest on his English 
operas, which, in addition to their dramatic power and 
beauty, have the merit of being truly English in style 
and character. In 1850, be accompanied Jenny Lind as 
conductor and pianist to the U. States and Havana, and 
shared in her unexampled success in a series of 122 con¬ 
certs. After his return to England, he formed a choral 
society, "The Vocal Association,” and conducted the 
Italian operas at Drury Lane, and Her Majesty’s Theatre 
during the seasons of 1859 and 1860, when he brought 
out an Italian version of Weber’s Oberon, with recita¬ 
tives and additions chiefly from his master’s works, which 
was very favorably received. In 1862, his opera, The 
Lily of KHlarnry, was produced at Covent Garden, and 
has since been performed at several of the principal 
theatres in Germany. Of late years, B. has produced 
two cantatas only, Bichard Cceur de Lion, 1863 ; and St. 
Cecilia, 1866. Knighted by Queen Victoria. 1871. D. 1885. 

Ben'tMlict, in Maryland, a village of Charles co., on 
the W. bank of Patuxent River, about 38 m. S.S.W. of 
Annapolis. 

Benedict, Ben'etlicB, n. A term employed to de¬ 
note a newly married man. (Derived from “ Benedick,” 
one of the characters in Shakspeare’s comedy of Much 
Ado about Nothing.) 

Benedic'ta, in Maine, a township in Aroostook coun¬ 
ty- 

Benedic'tine, a. Belonging, or relating to, the monks 
of the order of St. Benedict, or Beunet. 

IJened ic'l i lies. n. pi. (Eccl. Hist.) An order of monks 
in the Roman Catholic Church, founded by St. Benedict 
or Bennet, who introduced monachism into Western 
Europe, and erected his first monastery on the site of a 
temple of Apollo, on Monte Cassino, abt.. 50 m. from 
Subiaco, in Italy, A. D. 629. The order spread rapidly in 
Europe. St. Benedict himself founded several monas¬ 
teries, and his example was followed by others. The 
monks took the vows of chastity, obedience, and pov¬ 
erty. By some authorities, the B. are said to have been 
introduced into England by Augustine in 596, and by 
others the event is assigned to a later period, Dunstan 
(925-988) being considered the first English abbot of that 
order. Towards the end of the 8th century, they had 
become so numerous that Charlemagne caused inquiry 
to be made whether any other kind of monks existed 
than those of the order of St. Benedict. The austeri ty 
of their habits soon became relaxed, and Matthew Paris 
mentions a reformation that was attempted in 1238. 
Their merits in collecting, preserving, and multiplying 
copies of classical manuscripts must not be forgotten, 
and the order is every way distinguished for the numer¬ 
ous services rendered to literature. There were sev¬ 
eral branches of the B. living under the same rule, but 
observing a different discipline,— the chief being the 
Cluniacs, established in 912, the Carthusians, founded in 
1080, and the Cistercians or Bnnardines, founded in 
1098. The dress of the B. was black, and hence they 
have been called Black Monks or Friars, or the Black 
Monks of St. Benedict. According to an inquiry insti¬ 
tuted by Pope John XXI. (1316-1334), this order had at 
that time produced 20 emperors, 10 empresses, 47 kings, 
50 queens, 24 popes. 68 princes, 100 princesses, 200 car¬ 
dinals, 7,000 archbishops, 15,000 bishops, 15,000 abbots, 
and 4,000 saints, besides a host of other dignitaries both 
in church and state. There were nuns as well as monks 
of this order.—For a notice of the learning of the/?., see 
Maur, (St.) 

Benediction, ( ben-e-dik’shon,) n. [Lat. benedictio — 
bene, well, and dico, dictum, to speak.] The act of in¬ 
voking the favor of God, prosperity, long life, and other 
blessings upon individuals. 

(Eccl. Hist.) The ceremony of blessing is of a very 
remote antiquity. We find in the Scriptures, that the 
patriarchs, before they died, solemnly bestowed their 
blessing on their sons. Isaac, giving by mistake to his 
younger son Jacob the blessing w hich he intended for 
liis elder son Esau ( Genesis xxvii.), is an interesting in¬ 
stance of this custom. In Numbers vi. 23-26, the words 
are specified in which the high-priest was to bless the 
people of Israel. Aaron blessed the people, “ lifting his 
hand towards them.” ( Leviticus ix.) Christ, after his 
resurrection, and before parting from his disciples at 
Bethany, “ lifted up his hands and blessed them.” (St. 
Luke xxiv. 50.) In the early Church, the bishop gave 
his blessing to the people with his hands extended to¬ 
wards them. In the Roman Catholic Church it is the 
custom for the bishop to lift up his right hand towards 
the people with the fingers extended, and with it to 







BENE 


BENG 


BENG 


327 


describe the sign of the cross, in commemoration of the 
Redemption. The priests also give the benediction, but 
with some difference in the form and words, and they 
can only give it at mass, or while administering tiie sac¬ 
rament, or in other solemn ceremonies ; hut the bishop 
has the power of giving it anywhere or upon any occa¬ 
sion ho may think fit. In the Roman Pontificate are 
found the various forms of benediction. One of the 
most impressive instances of this ceremony is that of 
the Pope, in full pontificals, attended by the cardinals 
and prelates, giving his benediction “Urbi et Orbi” on 
Easter Sunday after mass, from the great gallery in 
the lront of St. Peter’s church, while the vast area be¬ 
neath is filled with kneeling spectators. The be.nedic- 
torium is the vase containing the holy water, which is 
placed at the entrance of Catholic churches for the use 
of the people, who dip their fingers into it and cross 
themselves as they go in and out. The water is blessed 
by the priest, and is mixed with salt. 

Ben eel ic'tive, a. Giving a blessing. 

Benedic tory, a. Giving good wishes for one’s welfare. 

Benefac'tion, n. [Lat. be.nefactio — bene, well, and 
/ado, factum, to make, to do.] The doing of a favor or 
good office ; act of conferring a benefit.— A benefit con¬ 
ferred, especially a charitable donation. 

41 One part of the benefactions was the expression of a grateful 
and generous mind.” — Atterbury. 

Benefac tor, n. He who confers a benefaction ora 
benefit. 

44 Whoever makes ill returns to his benefactor , must needs be a 
common enemy to mankind.” — Swift. 

Be iiel’fic'tress, n. A female who confers a benefit. 

Benefice, ( ben'e-fis ,) n. [Lat. beneficium.] A benefit, 
advantage, or kindness conferred. Specifically, an ec¬ 
clesiastical living conferred by a patron, but which is in¬ 
ferior to that of a bishop; a church endowed with a 
revenue for the performance of divine service. 

44 Much to himself he thought, but little spoke, 

And undepriv'd, his benefice forsook.” — Dryden. 

Benefited, (ben'e-fist,) a. Possessed of a benefice or 
church preferment. 

Beneficence, ( be-nef'i-sens ,) n. [Lat. beneficentia — bene, 
well, rightly, and/aa'o, to make, to do.] The practice 
of doing good ; active goodness, kindness, or charity. 

“ Love and charity extend our beneficence to the miseries of 
our brethren.” — Rogers. 

Beneficent, a. Doing good; kind; bountiful; lib¬ 
eral ; munificent; charitable. 

44 But Phcebus, thou, to man beneficent, 

Deiight'st in building cities." — Dryden. 

Beneficently, adv. In a beneficent manner. 

Beneficial, (ben-e-f'shi-al,) a. Conferring benefits; 
helpful; advantageous; profitable; generally succeeded 
by to. 

44 Not any thing is made to be beneficial to him."— Hooker. 

(Law.) B. interest, is the profit, benefit, or advantage 
resulting from a contract or the ownership of an estate, 
as distinct from the legal ownership-or control. 

Benefi'cially , adv. Advantageously; profitably; help¬ 
fully. 

Benefi'cialness, n. Usefulness; profit; helpfulness. 

Beneficiary, ( ben-e-fi'shi-a-ri,) n. One who holds a 
benefice. 

44 In the first case . . . the beneficiary is obliged to serve the 
parish church in his own proper person."— Ayhfie. 

—A person who is benefited or assisted. 

44 The Duke of Parma was tempted by no less promise, than to 
be made a feudatory, or beneficiary king of England."— Bacon. 

Benefi'eient, a. [Lat. benefaciens.] Doing good, 
(o. or it.) 

Benefi cium Na'turse. [Lat., a benefit of nature.] 
(Med ) A term used by the French pathologists for cases 
in which diseases have got well without medical treat¬ 
ment. With them, Benefice de nature means also a spon¬ 
taneous diarrhoea, often acting favorably either in the 
prevention, or cure, of disease. 

Ben'efit, n. [Fr .bienfait — bien, well, and fait, from 
faire; Lat. bene/actum, — bene, well, and facio, to make, 
to do.] A good deed; an act of kindness; a favor con¬ 
ferred. 

‘‘When noble benefits, shall prove 
Not well disposed."— Shake. 

—That which is useful or beneficial; advantage; gain; 
profit; service. — A performance in a theatre, or other 
public place of amusement, for the behoof of some per¬ 
son or persons; as, it is his benefit to-night. 

— v. a. To do good to; to advantage; to do a service to. 

44 He was so far from benefiting trade, that he did it a great in¬ 
jury.”— Arbuthnot. 

— v. i. To gain advantage; to make improvement. 

44 To tell you therefore what I have benefited herein."— Hilton. 

Benefit of Clergy, See Section II. 

Bene'gre, v. a. To darken; to make dusky or black. 

Be'ne-plaei'to, n. [It., at pleasure.] ( Mus .) This com¬ 
pound word, noted on a piece of music, signifies that it 
may be played according to the will or taste of the per¬ 
former. 

Benetier', n. A vessel to contain holy water; a font. 

Benevente, a sea-port town of Brazil. 

Beneven'to, (anc. Beneventum,) a city of S. Italy, 
cap. of a prov. of same name, between and near the con¬ 
fluence of the Calore and Sahato, 32 m. N.E. of Naples. 
The modern town is almost entirely constructed out of 
the ruins of the ancient; and, in fact, hardly any Italian 
town can boast cf so many remains of antiquity as B. 
Of these the most perfect is the Arch of Trajan, erected 
about a. d. 114. — Near B., 1266, was fought the great 
battle between Charles of Anjou and his rival Manfred, 
in which the latter was killed, and his army totally de¬ 
feated. During the reign of Napoleon I., B. was formed 
20 


into a principality conferred on M. de Talleyrand. In 
1815, it again reverted to the Pope. In I860, it was an¬ 
nexed to the kingdom of Italy. Pop. 16,500. 

Bene v'ola, in Maryland, a post-office of Washington co. 

Benev'olence, n. [Lat. beuevolentia — bene, well, and 
volo, to will or wish.] Good-will; the disposition to do 
good; kindness of heart; love to mankind; charitable¬ 
ness ; benignity. 

44 Grasp the whole worlds of reason, life, and sense, 

In one close system of benevolence." — Pope. 

—An act of kindness; good done: charity given. 

(Hist.) A voluntary gratuity first granted to the king 
of England, Edward IV., by his subjects. Under the 
subsequent monarchs, B. became anything but a volun¬ 
tary gift, and its illegal claim and collection was one of 
the prominently alleged causes of the rebellion of 1640, 

Benev'olent, a. (Lat. benerolens.] Having good will, 
or a disposition to do good; kind; affectionate; chari¬ 
table. 

“Thou good old man, benevolent as wise."— Pope. 

Benev'olently, adv. In a kind or benevolent man¬ 
ner; with good-will. 

Ben'ezet, Antony, an American philanthropist, b. at 
St. Quentin, 1713. At an early age he removed with his 
family from France to Philadelphia, where they became 
members of the Society of Friends. This excellent man 
devoted his life to acts of charity. He published several 
valuable tracts in favor of the emancipation of the ne¬ 
groes, and of the civilizing and christianizing the In¬ 
dians, and also against the use of ardent spirits, on be¬ 
half of the Society of Friends, &c. Every step of his 
life was marked by a good action or a good thought. He 
used to say that 4 * the highest act of charity in the world 
was to bear with the unreasonableness of mankind.” He 

D. in 1784, and his funeral was attended by persons of 
all religious denominations. A fine eulogium was pro¬ 
nounced upon his remains by an American officer. 44 1 
would rather,” said lie, “ be Antony' Benezet in that 
coffin, than George Washington with all his fame.”— B. 
was not a great man, in the worldly sense of the term, 
but he was a good man, and, as such, he ranks, in our per¬ 
sonal estimation, far above many celebrated persons of 
whom we write, but without approving their deeds. 

Ben'ezet, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of Elk co. 

lienford's Store, in Pennsylvania, a township of 
Somerset co. 

Ben Franklin, in Texas, a P. 0. of Lamar co. 

Ben'gal, in Michigan, a post-office of Clinton co. 

Bengal, (ben-gawl’,) a territory of Asia, in Hindostan, 
the most important and extensive of the 9 provinces 
of British India. It extends between Lat. 19° and 29° 
N., and Lon. 82° and 91° E., having N. Bootan, Nepaul, 
and the Indus; W. the latter river and the Sikh and 
Rajpoot territories; S. those of Berar, the Madras presi¬ 
dency, and the Bay ot Bengal; and E Burmah. Total 
area, 198,090 sq. m. The N. W. provinces were separated 
from it in 1833, and Assam in 1874. It now comprises, 
1st. The basin of the Ganges, including Bengal Proper, 
and Behar; and 2d. The ill-watered country of Chota- 
Nagpore and Orissa, to the W. and S.W. The prov¬ 
ince is divided into 47 districts. — Desc. The surface of 
this vast territory has, in different parts, every variety 
of elevation and aspect. But by far the largest portion 
consists, notwithstanding, of immense plains, including 
the basins of the Ganges and Brahmapootra. Exclu¬ 
sive of the Himalaya and Garrows mountains, which 
bound it N. and E., it lias no mountains of importance, 
with the exception of the Vindhyan range, S. of the 
Ganges. No part of India is so well stocked with rivers. 
Among them are the great streams of the Ganges, with 
its many tributaries, the Jumna, Chumbul, Gugra, Ac., 
and the Brahmapootra, in the E., which, as well as the 
Ganges, fall, in proximity to each other, into the Bay 
of Bengal. Every variety of scenery is met with in this 
province. In the N. is a vast congeries of mountains, 
backed by the Himalayas, and covered generally with a 
dense forest vegetation. The W. parts of Delhi trench 
on the Indian desert, and partake of its characteristics 
accordingly; while other parts are flat, fertile, and 
highly cultivated. The Doab is flat, grassy, and deficient 
in timber. The central prov. are generally level, well- 
wooded, and highly productive; while those towards the 
coast, as Orissa, Ac , are low, swampy, and in many 
parts form a dense jungle. The Burmese prov., further 

E. , have dense forests and jungles, rice-plains, and a 
rocky coast.— Geol., t£c. Granite, porphyry, gneiss, mica, 
hornblende, sandstone, limestone, and copper and iron 
ores abound in the N. Coal, in conjunction with iron, 
is found in many districts. In Behar. and other places, 
immense efflorescences of nitre and muriate of soda are 
found, and exported to a large extent. Salt is a govern¬ 
ment monopoly. Diamonds are obtained in Bundelcund, 
and silver and gold-dust in many of the rivers.— dim. 
Tiie upper prov. are, on the whole, temperate; the lower, 
subject to great heat and burning winds. Mean annual 
temperature at Calcutta, 78° 39' Fahr.— Veget. Prod., ct-c. 
Indigo is the principal staple, covering more than 1,000,- 
000 acres, and yielding a return of about $20,000,000. 
Teak, saul, sissoo, banyan, ebony, rattans, bamboos, are 
indigenous; oaks and pines abound in the hill forests; 
and along the coasts of the Bay of Bengal flourish the 
cocoa, areca, and other palms. Rice is extensively 
cultivated, and is the staple article of food to the na¬ 
tives. Grain also forms a large crop. Opium, a govern¬ 
ment monopoly, yields an annual export to China of 
$25,000,000 in value. Coffee, pepper, and tobacco are 
also largely exported.— Zobl. B. is the home of the 44 man- 
eating” and other tigers, w”d elephants, alligators, rhi¬ 
noceroses, leopards, wolves, bears, Ac. A great variety 
of birds exist, as also fish in great profusion, and ser¬ 
pents both noxious and innocuous. Silk-worms are «x- 


tensively cultured — lnhab. A great variety of races exist 
in B. Hindoos, Mahrattas, Mongols, Sikhs, Rajpoots 



Pig. 340. — urdhabahus, or oodoobahoos. 
(From “Les Hindous,” by Solvyn.) 


Cooshe8.— Religions. The two prevailing creeds are tha 
Mohammedan, and, chiefly, Brahmaism. The accom¬ 
panying figure may give an idea of the voluntary tor¬ 
tures encouraged by the Hindoo religion. It represents 
devotees of the Urdhabahus or Oodoobahoos sect, wha 
extend one or both their arms above their heads till 
they remain of themselves thuselevated, and allow their 
nails to grow till they completely perforate the hand.— 
The share of B. in the enormous exportations of 
British India may be estimated by its output, during 
the year 1895,of Rx. 4,054,280 of rice; Rx. 85,153 of wheat; 
Rx. 5,596,874 of opium; Rx.3,477,582 of indigo; Rx.431,- 
591 of cotton, and Rx. 3,577,853 of seeds; its exports 1o 
Great Britain alone representinga sum of $65,000,000. At 
latest report, B. had 38,200,300 acres under rice, 1,620,200 
acres under wheat, and 11,636,000 under other food 
grains; 1,083,400 under sugar cane, 110,800 under tea, 
201,200 under cotton, 3,253,800 under oil seeds. 614,200 
under indigo and 730,500 under tobacco. The land 
revenues then contributed by B. amounted to Kx. 3,871,- 
432, the total gov'ernment revenue being Rx. 19 022,243 
as against an expenditure of Rx. 8,521,801. The army 
estimate for B., second only to that of the Punjab con¬ 
tingent, calls for 62,590 men. At the present date, B 
has 4,156 miles of metalled and 31,392 of unmetalled 
roads maintained by public authority. Chief towns; 
Calcutta (British capital of India); Delhi, Benares, 
Moorshedaliad, Dacca, Behar, Patna, Agra, Allahabad, 
Lucknow, Lahore, Ac. Pop. (1895) 71,350,000.— History. 
See Hindostan ; India, Ac. 

Bengal', n. [Skr. bangga.) (Com.) A sort of thin, light 
stuff, made of silk and hair, for women’s apparel, origi¬ 
nally brought from Bengal. It is an imitation of striped 
muslin. 

Bengal', fBay of,) (anc. Gangeticus Sinus.) a portion 
of the Indian Ocean, from Cape Negrais on the E., to the 
delta of the Godavery on the W , and extending from 
thence to Farther India. The Ganges, Brahmapootra, 
and the Godavery disembogue themselves into it. Lat. 
between 16° 30' and 23° N. Tiie Sea of Bengal ex¬ 
tends to Lat. 8° N., between the islands of Junkseylon 
and Ceylon. 

Bengalee', n. An inhabitant of Bengal. 

B. Language. The B.. spoken by a pop. of more than 2® 
millions, spread over a territory of about 100,01*0 sq. m., 
is, like the numerous vernacular dialects spoken in N. 
India, apparently descended from the ancient classical 
language of the country, the Sanskrit. Its alphabet com¬ 
prises 14 vowels iind diphthongs, and 33 consonants. The 
ground-work of the B. language is altogether Sanskrit, 
just as that of the Italian or Spanish is Latin, wiih a 
comparatively small addition of words which cannot bs 
traced to that source. But the refined system of gram¬ 
matical inflexions, which constitute so prominent a char¬ 
acteristic of the Sanskrit language, has in B. almost 
entirely disappeared; and the want of terminations, 
marking the cases and numbers of the noun, or the per¬ 
sons and tenses of the verb, is supplied by particles and 
other auxiliary words, often rather clumsily subjoined 
(hardly ever prefixed) to the mutilated stems of San¬ 
skrit words. 

Bengalese', n. pi. The natives of Bengal. 

— a. Relating, or pertaining to Bengal, or its people. 

Bengal'-ligllt, n. (Pyrotechny.) A species of fire¬ 
work, composed of a mixture of one part of tersulphide 
of antimony, two parts of sulphur, and six of nitrate 
of potash. The materials are finely pulverized and 
thoroughly mixed. When ignited, the compound throw,' 
out a remarkably brilliant and penetrating light. It ia 
used in cases of shipwreck, and illuminates the air faa 























328 


BENI 


BENIv 


BENN 


a large space around. As the mixture contains anti¬ 
mony, tlie fumes are poisonous; consequently, this light 
cannot be used with safety except in the open air; it is, 
however, much used in pyrotechny. 

Bengal-stripes, n. (Cum.) Ginghams; a cotton 
fabric woven with colored stripes. 

Benga'zy, (anc. Hesperides and Berenice,) a small niarit. 
town of N. Africa, district Barca, reg. Tripoli, on the 
E. coast of the Gulf of Sidra; Lat. 32° 7' 30" N.; Lon. 
20° 2' E. It is finely situated on the margin of an ex¬ 
tensive and very fertile plain, but is miserably built, 
and filthy in the extreme. It is believed that B. occu¬ 
pies the site of the anc. Berenice , which bad the gar¬ 
dens of the Hesperides in its vicinity. Pop. 2,500. 

Ben'gel, Johann Albrecht, a German theologian and 
philologist, b. 1687. He studied at Stuttgart, and Tu¬ 
bingen, and became pastor and head of a school at Den- 
kendorf. He especially applied himself to the critical 
study of the Greek Testament, of which he published 
an ed. in 1723. Among his other works are Apparatus 
Criticus Nmi Testamenti, a work of great value for its 
suggestive condensed comments, which first appeared in 
1742, and has been several times reprinted, &c. An 
attempt has been made to adapt B.’ s “Gnomen”to Eng¬ 
lish readers of the present day, in the Critical English 
Testament, by Blackley and Hawes, published in 1866. 
D. 1752. 

Benguela, ( ben-gwe'la ,) a district of W. Africa, the 
limits of which are usually considered to be the Coawra 
River on the N., the Cumene River on the E., the moun¬ 
tains behind Cape Negro on the S., and the shore from 
that cape to the mouth of the Coanza on the YV. Ac¬ 
cording to this outline, it extends from 9° to 16° S. Lat., 
and from 12° to 17° E. Lon. — B. appears to be mountain¬ 
ous throughout its whole extent. The rivers are numer¬ 
ous and important, and as the direction of the mountains 
is from N.E. to S.W., the chief of them run in a N.W. 
course to the Atlantic. This is the case with the large 
river, without a name, which falls into the ocean at 
Cape Negro, and with the Cobal, Coporao, Catumbela, 
and Cuvo. Nowhere in Africa is vegetation more abun¬ 
dant or more varied ; nowhere are lions, tigers, elephants, 
rhinoceroses, hippopotami, and other large animals, 
more numerous. The coast is excessively unhealthy; 
but the interior is salubrious, and apparently well fitted 
for cultivation of all kinds — every degree of tempera¬ 
ture being experienced at different elevations. Battel, 
who resided in different parts of the interior for a con¬ 
siderable time, never, amongst all his miseries, com¬ 
plains of the climate. — B. is inhabited by independent 
tribes, whose habits and manners do not differ from 
those of other negroes—with the exception of one, the 
Gagas, or Gigas, a wandering herd of robbers, who ap¬ 
pear to approximate more closely to perfect barbarism 
than any other, even of the African race. — The Portu¬ 
guese have long had settlements in B., but their power 
does not seem to extend far beyond their forts. — The 
native cap., B. Velha (Old B.), on the coast, Lat. 10° 45' 

8 ., Lon. 15° 5' E., has a convenient harbor, called Hen’s 
Bay. — St. Felipe de B , the Portuguese cap., once nearly 
destroyed by an invasion of elephants, is in Lat. 12° 12' 

5., Lon. 15° E.; pop. abt. 3,000. A military hospital 
was built there in 1868. 

Beii-lla dad, the name of three kings of Damascene 
Syria, who successively made war upon the kings of Is¬ 
rael. The last, son of Hazael, was thrice defeated by 
king Jehoash (2 Kings xiii.) 

Benha'tlen, in Florida, a post-office of Wakulla co. 

Ben ham's Store, in Indiana, a P. O. of Ripley co. 

Ben-lieyl, n. (Mining.) A term used among the 
miners in Cornwall, England, to denote a rich lode of tin. 

Be'ni, is the status constructus of the plural of the Ara¬ 
bic word Ebn or Ibn, “a son.” It occurs in Eastern 
geography as a component part of many names of fami¬ 
lies or tribes, as Beni Temim, “ the sons of Temlin,” i. e. 
the tribe of Temfm, or the Temfmides; Beni Omayyah, 

“ the sons of Omayyah,” i. e. the family known in his¬ 
tory under the current name of the Oinmiades; Tiak 
Beni Israel, “ the desert of the sons of Israel,” the name 
ef a dreary wilderness towards the north of Mount 
Sinai. 

Be'ni, a river of Bolivia, formed by the junction of all 
the streams that rush down from the Eastern Andes be¬ 
tween 14° and 18° S. Lat. Flowing through the pro¬ 
vince of Moxos, it joins the Mamore to form the Madeira. 

Benic Acid. (Chem ) A fatty acid, fusing at 125°, found 
in certain kinds of oil of ben. 

Benicar'lo, a maritime town of Spain, fn Valencia, on 
the Mediterranean, 25 m. S. of Tortosa. The surround¬ 
ing territory produces large quantities of a dark-red 
colored wine, of considerable strength and flavor; pop. 
7,366. 

Benicia, (ben-ish’yah,) in California, a large city and 
former cap. of the State, in Solano co.,on the N. side of the 
Strait of Carquinez, connecting San Pablo and Suinen 
bays. The capitol, built in 1853, for the meeting of the 
State legislature, is a fine brick edifice, standing on a 
elope half a mile front the water-front of the city. Here 
are situated the extensive depOt, machine shops, and 
foundries of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. It is 
also the government depot for the coast, including ex¬ 
tensive barracks, &c. Considerable quantities of arms 
and ammunition are stored and repaired here. Around 
the city are several quarries of hydraulic cement of the 
best quality, which is extensively manufactured; ships 
of the largest size may enter the harbor close to the city. 
B is noted for its many excellent schools, colleges, and 
academies. 

Beil'icke, n. A kind of military fete among the Turks, 
somewhat resembling a joust or tournament, but to the 
exclusion of iadies. 


Benight', v. a. [be and night.] To involve in night or 
darkness; to darken; to enshroud with the shades of 
night. 

** A Rtorm begins, the raging waves run high, 

The clouds look heavy, and benight the sky.” — Garth. 

—To overtake with night; to surprise with theicoming on 
of night. 

“ Being benighted, the sight of a candle ... directed me to a 
young shepherd's home.” — Sidney. 

—To overwhelm in darkness, gloom, or ignorance; to keep 
from moral or intellectual light. 

Benig’n, ( be-nin',) a. [Fr. benin, benigne; from Lat. be- 
nignus — bene, well, and genus, kind; from bonus, good.] 
Of a good kind or nature; kind; friendly; affectionate; 
generous; favorable. 

"We owe more to Heav’n, than to the sword, 

The wish’d return of so benign a lord.”— Waller. 

—Exhibiting graciousness, kindness, favor. 

“What Heaven bestows upon the earth in kind influences and 
benign aspects.” — South. 

(Med.) Applied to diseases of a mild character; as, a 
benign fever. — Also to medicines whose action is not 
violent. 

Benig'nant, a. Kind; gracious; favorable; benign. 

lienig’iiautly, ado. In a benignant manner; gra¬ 
ciously. 

Benig'nity, n. [Fr. benignite; from Lat. benignitas. 
See Benign.] Quality of being benign, or benignant; 
goodness of heart or disposition; kindness of nature; 
graciousness; actual goodness; beneficence. 

“ The king was desirous to establish peace rather by benignity 
than blood.” — Sir J. Hayward. 

—Wholesome quality; salubrity; geniality to vital nature. 


Ben-I,aw'ers, a mountain of Scotland, in Perthshire 
adjoining Loch Tay, about 3,948 feet in height, and pre¬ 
senting an average of 1U0 feet above all the mountains 
of the district. 

Ben-Leil'i, a mountain of Scotland, in Perthshire, about 
3,000 feet high. 

Ben-Loin ond, a mountain of Scotland, in Stirling¬ 
shire, the key of the Western Highlands, and standing 
grand and majestic as the sentinel of Loch Lomond, of 
which it forms the southern boundary. It is distin¬ 
guished from other mountains of any altitude in Scot 
land, in being covered wilh vegetation to its top, which 
is 3197 feet from the level of the sea. 

Ben-VIacdhui, (ben-mak-doo'i.) in Scotland, is the 
highest summit of the Cairngorm Mountains, which run 
between Aberdeen, Banff, and Inverness, and overhangs 
the southern side of Loch Aven, over which it towers 
4,305 feet. 

lieiiinore'IIead. in Ireland. See Fairhead. 

Benne, n. (Bot.) See Sesamum. 

Benneek'enstein, or Ben'kenstein, a town 

of Prussia, prov. of Saxony, reg. Erfurt, on the Rapbode, 
at the foot of the Hartz, in an enclave situated in tha 
duchy of Brunswick, 13 m. N.N. W. of Nordhausen. 
Man/. Iron, nails, baskets. Fop. 4,645. 

Ben'iier, in Pennsylvania, a township of Centre coun¬ 
ty. 

Ben'nersville, in Pennsylvania , a village of Centre 
co., situated in Half-Moon Valley, 12 in. S.W. of Belle- 
fonte, and 98 m. N.W. of Harrisburg. 

Ben'net, n. [Fr .benoite; Ger . benedictenkraut.] (Bot.) 
An old name of the Avens. See Geum. 

Ben net’s Creek, in Md., iu Frederick co., flows W. 
into the Monocacy River. 


“ By reason of the benignity of the serum.” — Wiseman. 

Benignly, ( bt-nin'li,) adv. Favorably; kindly; era Bennett Island, in Arctic Circle,discovered by the 
* * ’ v J J 6 “ Bennett Expedition” of the N. Y. Herald , under De 


ciously. 

Benin, (ben'in,) a country of Africa, near the E 


Long, in 1881, lat. 76° 41' N., long. 153° 30' E . 


and 4° and 8° E. Lon. It has S. the Gulf: W. Da¬ 
homey; N.W. Yariba; and N.E. and E., the lower Ni¬ 
ger. On the coast, the country is level, but it rises grad¬ 
ually, till, in the central parts, the continuation of the 
Kong Mountains attains an elevation of 2,500 ft. It is 
well watered, for the continuation of the Niger com¬ 
prises more than 140 m., that is, more than 7-10ths of 
the whole sea-board. The W. branch of this delta is the 
stream which has always been called the river of B.\ 
the one farther E. is the main limb, formerly called the 
Nun, but demonstrated by Lander to he the Niger 
The productions, climate, animals, and habits and cus 
toms of the people are similar to those of Ashantee, q 
v. Since the abolition of slavery in civilized countries 
B. has lost its principal trade. Slaves are now sold 
only to native masters. B. exports salt, palm-oil, and 
blue coral. The country is well peopled. Without speak¬ 
ing of the cap. Benin, q. v., the town of Warre has 5,00u 
inhabitants. 

Benin, the capital of the above country, Lat. 6° 15' N., Lon 
5° 53' E., on the right hank, and 110 m. from the mouth, 
of a large stream hitherto called the River of B., but 
now known to be one of the numerous mouths of the 
Niger. There is an almost continual market for indige¬ 
nous products and European wares. Pop. about 16,000. 
Gatto, or Agatton, is the port of Benin; it lies about 40 
m. down the river, is accessible to cralt of 60 tons, and is: 
said to be larger and more populous than B. itself. 

Benin, (Bight of.) The name given to the coast, of B. It 
has no ports, except at the entrance of unnavigable riv¬ 
ers, and scarcely there, if the vessels he of large burden 

Benin, (River or,) called also the Formosa, falls into the 
Gulf of Guinea, in Lat. 5° 40' N., Lon. 5° E. It is a del 
toid branch of the Niger, commencing at Kirree, about 
100 m. above Benin, and its whole course, inclusive of 
windings, may be stated at about 210 m. 

Bcn'ison, )i. A benediction ; a blessing, (r.) 

Benjamin, the youngest son of Jacob and Rachel, 
(Gen. xxxv. 16—18.) Rachel died immediately after he 
was born, and with her last breath named him Ben-oni, 
the “son of my sorrow;” but Jacob called him B., “son 
of my right hand.” He was a great comfort to his 
father, who saw in him the image of the beloved wife he 
had buried, and of Joseph, whose loss he also mourned. 
He could hardly ho persuaded to let him go with his 
brethren to Egypt. The tribe of B., small at first, was 
almost exterminated in the days of the Judges, but 
afterwards it greatly increased. On the revolt of the 10 
tribes, B. adhered to the camp of Judah; and the two 
tribes ever afterwards closely united. King Saul and 
Saul of Tarsus were both Benjamites. 

Ben jamin, n. [A corruption of Benzoin, q. ».] (Bot.) 
A name sometimes given to the Styrax benzoin. — See 
Styrax. 

(Chem.) See Benzoin. 

Benjamin of Tu<lela, one of the earliest travel¬ 
lers of the Middle Ages, who visited the central regions 
of Asia; he was author of a Hebrew work of travels, 
which, though interesting and romantic, is remarkable 
chiefly for its misrepresentations. The last translation 
into English is by Asher, Loudon, 1841. — B. was born in 
Navarre,Spain. D. 1173. 

Benjamin, Marcus, A.M., Ph.D., editor and scientist, 
was boni^at San Francisco, on Jan. 17, 1857, being ninth 
in descent from John B., who came from England to 
Boston in 1632. Dr. B. was educated at Columbia Col¬ 
lege and in Europe; has filled several important editorial 
places and scientific government appointments, and in 
1890 became editor of the U. S. National Museum at 
Washington; is a member of the London Chemical 
Society and of numerous scientific and patriotic socie¬ 
ties. His literary work is notable for scholarly research 
and exactness. 


tremity of the Gulf of Guinea, between 4° and 9° N. Lat., Ben'nett, James Gordon, one of the most celebrated 
• ~ ~ ■ " " ------ journalists in the U. States, B. at New Mill, Keith, iu 

Scotland, about 1S00. He was educated for the priest¬ 
hood at a Roman Catholic seminary at Aberdeen, but 
did not follow out the intention of his parents. In 
April, 1819, during a period of great commercial depres¬ 
sion, lie left his native land tor America, where he at¬ 
tempted to earn his living as a teacher, hut with very 
indifferent success. In 1822 lie obtained a situation on 
a Charleston newspaper, which he did not hold long, and 
repaired to New York, where he became an active mem¬ 
ber of the Fourth Estate. The first number of the New 
York Herald, of which he was the founder, appeared 
May 5, 1835. This speculation proved most successful, 
and Mr. B. amassed a very large fortune. He was in¬ 
contestably a man of great abilities, penetration, and 
judgment. D. June 1, 1872. 

Bennett, James Gordon, son of the foregoing, born in 
1841, succeeded his father as publisher of the Herald; 
has been prominent in public enterprises, as the Jean¬ 
nette Arctic expedition, and Stanley’s search for Living¬ 
stone; part owner Bennett-Mackav cable lines, &c. 
Ben'nett, John Hughes, an English physician and 
author, B. at London, 1812. He received his degree at 
the University of Edinburgh, in 1837, and soon after 
founded in Paris the “Parisian Medical Society,” of 
which he was the first president; and afterwards spent 
two years iu Heidelberg. On returning to Edinburgh, 
in 1841, he published a work on Cod-liver Oil, &c. In 
1843 he was appointed Pathologist to the Royal Infir¬ 
mary, and commenced a long series of investigations in 
histology, morbid anatomy, and clinical medicine, which 
appeared in various medical journals, and in separate 
works. In 1848, Dr. B. was appointed Professor at the 
Institute of Medicine of the Edinburgh University. In 
1856 he published a work ou Clinical Medicine, which 
has reached three editions in our country. Dr. B. was 
a member of many medical societies in Europe and 
America. In addition to the works already mentioned, 
lie also wrote. On Inflammation of the Nervous Centres; 
Treatise on Inflammation: Cancerous and Canceroia 
Growths; Principles and Practice of Medicine; On the 
Pathology and Treatment of Pulmonary Consumption; 
Lectures on Molecular Physiology; Pathology and Thera¬ 
peutics, &c. D. 1875. 

Ben'nett, William Cox, a popular English poet, B. 182Q 
His best known works are, Poems (1850); War Songs 
(1855); Queen Eleanor's Vengeance, die. (1859); Our 
Glory Boll, National Poems (1866). A collective edition 
of his poems appeared in 1862. 

Ben'nett, Sir William Sterndale, one of the English 
musical composers who have gained a European reputa¬ 
tion; b. 1816. He early formed a iriendship with Men¬ 
delssohn, and accompanied him, in 1836, to Leipzig, 
where several of bis works (as the overtures to the 
Naiades, and the Wood Nymph) were performed. Hie 


overtures, concertos, sonatas, cantatas, &c. bear the high¬ 
est distinction. In 1856, B. was appointed Professor of 
Music at Cambridge. At the opening of the l.oudon 
International Exhibition, 1862, B. was invited, iu con¬ 
junction with Auber, Meyerbeer, and Verdi, (each repre¬ 
senting his own country,) to compose a piece, when he 
set music to Tennyson’s ode, Uplift a Thousand Voices, 
written for the occasion. Knighted, 1871. D. 1875. 

Bennett’s Bayou,indri,a v. of Fulton co. 

Bennettsburgh, in New York, a P. 0. of Schuyler co. 

Bennett’s Corners, in Ohio, a P. 0. of Medina co. 

Bennett’s Creek, in New York, a P. 0. of Steuben co. 

Bennett's Creek, in North Carolina, flows from tha 
N. into the Chowan River at the S. part of Gates co. 

Bennettstown, in Kentucky, a P. 0. of Christian co. 

Ben'nettsville, in South Carolina, a post-village o* 
Marlborough district, abt. 8 m. E. of Great Pedee River, 
and 100 E.N.E. of Columbia. 












BENT 


BENT 


BENT 


329 


Ben'nettsville, in New York, a P.O. of Chenango co. 

Bennett’s Vineyard, in North Carolina, a P. 0. of 
Richmond co. 

Ben-Sfev'is, in Scotland, a mountain of Inverness- 
shire, rising abruptly from the plain near Loch Eil to a 
height of 4,368 feet, and probably the highest elevation 
in Great Britain. 

Ben'ningsen, or Ben'nigsen, Levin August, Baron, 
an eminent Russian general, B. in Hanover, 1745. He 
entered the service of Catherine II., and distinguished 
himself by great gallantry, in the war against Poland. 
He was commander-in-chief at the battle of Bylaw. In 
1813 he led a Russian army into Saxony, took part in 
the battle of Leipzig,and beleaguered Hamburg. D.18'26. 

Ben'nington, the name of several parishes in Eng¬ 
land, none of them with a pop. above 1,200. 

Ben nington, in Illinois, a township of Marshall 
county. 

Ben'ning'toii, in Indiana, a post-village of Switzer¬ 
land co., 8 m. N.VV. of the Ohio River at Vevay. 

Ben nington, in Iowa, a post-village of Marion co., 
on the Des Moines River, about 25 m. S.E. of Fort Des 
Moines. 

Ben'nington, in Kansas, a P. 0. of Ottawa co. 

Ben'nington, in Michigan, a post-township of Shia¬ 
wassee co., about 80 m. N .W. of Detroit. 

Ben nington, in New Hampshire, a post-township of 
Hillsborough co. 

Ben'ning'toii, in New York, a post-township of Wy¬ 
oming co., 25 m. S.E. of Buffalo, drained by Cayuga 
Creek. 

Ben nington, in Ohio, a township of Licking coun¬ 
ty. 

—A post-township of Morrow co., abt. 30 m. N.N.E. of 
Columbus. 

—A village in Putnam co., abt. 10 m. W.S.W. of Sandusky 
city. 

Ben'n ingion, in Pennsylvania, a village of Blair co. 

Ben'nington, in Vermont, a S.W. county; area about 
700 sq. m. It is watered by the Battenkill, Hoosick, and 
Deerfield rivers. B. isgenerally mountainous, and most 
of its soil is unfit for cultivation. There are rich quar¬ 
ries of marble, and beds of yellow ochre and iron ore. 
Caps., Benuington and Manchester. 

—A post-township of the above co., 117 m. S. by W. of 
Montpelier; containing Bennington, one of the county 
capitals. Here, Aug. 16, 1777, the English, under Cols. 
Baum and Breyman, were defeated by the national 
troops under Gen. Stark and Col. Warner. Bennington 
is one of the principal manuf. towns of the State, having 
extensive knit-goods works and one of the largest woolen 
factories in the country. Pop. (1897) about 7,000. 

Ben'nington Furnace, in Pennsylvania, a P.O. 
of Blair co. 

Ben'nington Village, in Vermont, a manufactur¬ 
ing village of B. township, B. co. There are several 
factories, foundries, tanneries, &c. 

Benoit, the French name for Benedict, q. v. 

Bcno'na, in Michigan, a twp. of Oceana co. 

Beu'owm, a town of Soudan, Central Africa, forming 
a caravan station between Timbuctooand Senegal; Lat. 
15° 5' N.; Lon. 9° W. 

Bensa'lem, in Pennsylvania, a township of Bucks 
county. 

Benserade, Isaac de, (bon-sa-rad ',) a French poet, b. 
1612, and patronized by Richelieu, Mazarin, and Louis 
XIV. His madrigals, sonnets, and songs, as well as his 
wit and conversational powers, rendered him a great 
favorite at court. He was called, by way of pre-eminence, 
le poete de la cour. D. 1691. 

Ben'shee, n. See Banshee. 

Bens'heiin, a town of the grand-duchy of Hesse- 
Darmstadt, 15 m. S. of Darmstadt; pop. 4,561. 

Ben'son, in Kentucky, a twp. of Franklin co. 

Boh sou, in New York, a post-village of Hamilton co., 
abt. 50 m. N.N.W. of Albany. 

Ben'SOll. in Vermont, a post-township of Rutland co., 
60 m. S.W. of Montpelier. 

Ben'son Centre, in New York, a post-office of Ham¬ 
ilton co. 

Beu'soil Grove, in Iowa, a township of Winnebago 
co. 

Beu'son Banding, in Vermont, a post-office of Rut¬ 
land co. 

Ben’s Run, in West Virginia, a P. 0. of Tyler co. 

Bent, imp. and pp. from Bend, q. v. 

— p. a. Bended; inflected; inclined; prone to, or having 
a fixed propensity towards; determined. 

«—». State of being bended or curved ; flexure or flexion. 

14 Strike gently, and hold your rod at a bent a little."— Walton. 

.—Declivity; descent; as, the bent of a hill, (r.) 

4 * Beneath the low ring brovr, and on a bent, 

The temple stood of Mars omnipotent." — Dryden. 

leaning or bias of mind; inclination. 

4 * They fool me to the top of my bent." — Shake. 

—Tendency; determination; fixed purpose. 

44 Yet vrt saw them forced to give way to the bent and current 
humor of the people." — Sir W. Temple. 

—Close application, (r.) 

44 Let there be propensity and bent of will to religion."— South. 

Bent, Bent'-grass, n. (From bind, as O. Ger. bant, 
that which binds, from bintan, to bind; Sansk. bandh.] 
(Bot.) The common name of the genus Agrostis, q. v. 

—A stalk of coarse grass. — In the pi., Bents, it is applied 
to the withered stalks standing on a pasture after the 
seeds have dropped. 

Bent Branch, in Kentucky, a post-office of Pike co. 

Bent Creek, in Virginia, a post-village of Appo¬ 
mattox co., on James River, at the mouth of Beut Creek, 
112 m. W. of Richmond. 


Ben'tliani, Jeremy, b. 1748, a distinguished English 
jurist and political writer. He was the father of that 
class of political economists styled “ Utilitarians,” whose 
doctrine it is to view everything according as it is af¬ 
fected by the principle of “ the greatest happiness of 
the greatest number.” His published works are nume¬ 
rous, and those which remain in MSS., or unpublished, 
though printed, more so. But a very difficult and pro¬ 
lix style has rendered him rather the instructor of writ¬ 
ers than of the reading public in general; and his 
works, which have been translated into many languages, 
are better known and appreciated on the Continent of 
Europe tliau in his own country. He was a man of 
primitive manners, unblemished character, and zeal¬ 
ously alive to what he considered the interest of the 
people at large. His best known works are, Introduc¬ 
tion to the Principles of Morals and Legislation; Theory 
of Rewards and Punishments; Panopticon, which treats 
of prison discipline; Rationale of Judicial Lvidenct. 
D. in Loudon, 1832, leaving his body to be dissected for 
the benefit of science. 

Bentlia'niia, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, ord. Corna- 
cece. They are Asiatic trees or shrubs, and their fruit is 
formed of many small drupes grown together. The B. 
frugifera, a native of Nepaul, is a small tree, with lan¬ 
ceolate leaves, and a reddish fruit resembling the mul¬ 
berry, but larger, and edible. The flowers are fragrant. 

Ben'tinck, William, 1st Earl of Portland, a distin¬ 
guished statesman, and the favorite of William Ill , 
B. in Holland, 1648. At an early age he became page to 
the Prince of Orange, served him with the utmost de¬ 
votion throughout his life, and attended him affection¬ 
ately on his death-bed. He negotiated with Charles II. 
the marriage of the Princess Mary to the Prince of 
Orange; took the leading part in the preparations for the 
descent of his master on England in 1688, and accom¬ 
panied him thither. He was made privy councillor and 
a member of the House of Peers, as Earl of Portland, 
lie served in the wars preceding the peace of Ryswick, 
and negotiated this peace. Sent ambassador to France 
in 1698, he took a prominent part in the secret treaties 
for the partition of the Spanish monarchy; and was, in 
consequence, impeached of high-treason by the House 
of Commons, but was acquitted. D. 1709. 

Ben'tinck, William Henry Cavendish, 3 d Duke of 
Portland, B. 1738, Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland in 1782, 
and Chancellor of the University of Oxford in 1792; he 
soon after joined Mr. Pitt's party. He held the office of 
Home Secretary of State from 1794 to 1801, succeeded 
Lord Granville as First Lord of the Treasury in 1807, 
and D. 1809. 

Ben'tinck, Lord George, second son of the 4th Duke 
of Portland, B. 1802. In 1826 he became private secre¬ 
tary to his uncle George Canning, who was then becre- 
tary for Foreign Affairs. In 182" he was returned to 
the House of Commons for the borough of King’s Lynn, 
for which he sat till the close of his life. His dislike of 
Sir Robert Peel was decided and undisguised; but his 
hostility was principally shown in his opposition to the 
doctrines and policy of free trade. D. 1848. His politi¬ 
cal biography was published by Mr. Disraeli. 

Ben'tinck, Lord William Charles Cavendish, 2d son 
of the 3d Duke of Portland, B. 1774. He became gover¬ 
nor of Madras in 1803. Here the singularity of his re¬ 
forms in reference to the beards and turbans of the Se¬ 
poys led, in 1806, to the mutiny of Vellore, which caused 
him to be recalled. In 1827, he was appointed to the 
governor-generalship of India. He effected the aboli¬ 
tion of the Suttee, or the practice of widow-bunning, 
which, in 1829, was declared illegal. In 1835 his health 
began to fail, when he resigned his office, and left Cal¬ 
cutta. D. at Paris, 1839. 

Bent'ing-tiine, n. The time when pigeons feed on 
bents, before peas are ripe. 

“Rare htnting-times, and moulting mouths may come, 

When, lagging late, they cannot reach their home.’'— Dryden. 

Bentivoglio, ( ben'ti-vole'yo ,) Guido, a celebrated Ital¬ 
ian cardinal, and papal legate at the court of France; 
B. 1579. Among other works, he wrote A History of 
the Civil Wars of Flanders ; Memoirs, Ac. B. was one 
of the seven cardinals, who as Inquisitors-General signed 
the condemnation of Galileo. He had been a disciple of 
the great philosopher, d. 1644. 

Bent'ley, Richard, d.d., an eminent English divine and 
philologist, B. 1662. He studied at Cambridge, took or¬ 
ders, and was appointed first Boyle lecturer at that uni¬ 
versity. He early became distinguished for his classical 
learning, and, in 1693, was named librarian to William 
III. Soon afterwards broke out bis quarrel with the 
philosopher Boyle, the main result of which was B.’s 
famous Dissertations on the Epistles of Phalaris. In 
1700, he was appointed Master of Trinity College, Cam¬ 
bridge, and soon after, Archdeacon of Ely. Working 
hard as a scholar, and effecting improvements in his col¬ 
lege, he nevertheless, by his arrogance, selfishness, and 
offensive measures, involved himself in miserable quar¬ 
rels and litigation with the college seniors: and after 
obtaining the Regius Professorship of Diviuity, he was 
degraded and deprived by the senate. This sentence, 
after years of litigation, was annulled. His writings are 
very numerous, but we can only name his editions of 
Horace , Homer, and Terence, and his Remarks on the 
Discourse of Preethinking. D. 1742. 

Bent'ley, Robert, f.l.s., an eminent English botanist, 
b. 1821. He is Dean of the Medical Faculty; Professor 
of Botany in King’s College, London; Professor of Ma¬ 
teria Medica and Botany in the Pharmaceutical Society 
of Great Britain; Professor of Botany in the London 
Institute, and Lecturer on Botanv to the London and 
Middlesex Hospitals. In 1865-6, B. was President of the 


“ British Pharmaceutical Congress.” Among his works 
are, A Manual of Botany, and lie also, in concert with 
Dr. Farre and Mr. Warrington, edited Pereira’s Manual 
of Materia Medica and Therapeutics. D. Dec. 28. 1893. 

Bent'ley’s Springs, in Maryland, a post-office of 
Baltimore co. 

Bent ley SI at ion, in Illinois, a P.O. of Hancock co. 

Bent'leyville, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of 
Washington co. 

Bent'ley ville, in Virginia, a village of Halifax co., 
on Staunton River, 115 m. S.W. of Richmond. 

Bent'ly Creek, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Bradford co. 

Ben'ton, Thomas Hart, an American author and states¬ 
man, B. in Orange co., N. Carolina, in 1782. He first 
engaged in the study of the law, and, in 1811, com¬ 
menced practice in Kasliville, Tenn. He afterwards 
removed to Missouri, where, in 1820, he was elected one 
of her first U. States senators. For a period of 30 years 
he took a leading part in the discussion of the great 
questions which came before the Senate, and was espe¬ 
cially prominent in the debates on the U. States Bank, 
and the sub-treasury, which latter cause he warmly sup¬ 
ported. His timorous opinions on the slavery question, 
and bis general political independence of thinking, lost 
him his election in 1851. In 1854, be was again defeated. 
In 1853, B. published tlie 1st vol. of his autobiographical 
work, Thirty Years’ Yitw; or a History of the Work¬ 
ing of the American Government for Thirty Years. 
W bile the 2d vol. was in progress, Bits house at Wash¬ 
ington was destroyed by fire, by which calamity hi 9 
library and manuscripts perished. In 1850, B. was re¬ 
turned by Missouri to the House of Representatives. 
He there distinguished himself by his speeches in oppo¬ 
sition to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, as a violation of the 
Missouri compromise, and his services were appreciated 
by the country, but he was again thrown out in the 
next election of members for Congress. His vigorous 
canvass of the State, as Democratic candidate for the 
governorship, in 1856, will be long remembered. He 
was, however, defeated, and supported Mr. Buchanan for 
President in opposition to Col. Fremont, his own son-in- 
law. His advocacy of the Pacific Railroad and other 
undertakings connects his name with scientific progress. 
He D. at Washington, April 10,1858. 

Ben'ton, in Alabama, the former name of the co. Cal. 
houn, q . v . 

—A post-village of Lowndes co., on the Alabama River, 
about 35 m. W. of Montgomery, 

Ben'ton, in Arkansas, a post-village, capital of Saline 
co., 25 m. S.W. of Little Rock, and 2 N.E. of Saline 
River. 

Ben'ton, in California, a P. 0. of Mono co. 

Ben'ton, in Florida, a former name of a W. county 
bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. Its area was about 
2.000 sq. m. The Withlacoochee river watered it on 
the N. Surface, diversified. Soil, sandy, producing 
sugar, Indian corn, and rice. It is now subdivided. 

Ben'ton, in Illinois, a village of Adams co. 

—A post-village, and cap. of Franklin co., situated on 8 
prairie near Big Muddy River, 152 m. S. by E. of Spring- 
field. 

—A village in the N. part of Henderson co.. 2 m. E. of the 
Mississippi River. 

—A township of Lake co. 

Ben'ton, in Indiana, a county in the W.N.W. part of 
the State, bordering on Illinois ; area, 414 sq. m. It is 
drained by Pine and Sugar creeks. Surface, generally 
undulating; soil, fertile. Pop. 12,000; cap. Fowler. 

—A post-village and township of Elkhart co., on the Elk¬ 
hart River, 7 m. S.E. of Goshen, the co. seat. 

—A township of Monroe co. 

Ben'ton, in Iowa, a co. in the E. central part of the 
State. Area, 720 sq. m. It is traversed by Cedar and 
Iowa Rivers, and Prairie Creek. Soil, fertile. Cup. Vin¬ 
ton. 

—A post-office of Mills co. 

Ben'ton, in Kentucky, a post-village of Marshall co., od 
C lack's River, about 270 m. W.S.W. of Frankfort. 

—A village of Mercer co., on Chaplin River. 

Ben'ton, (formerly SEBAsTicooK,)in Maine, a post-town¬ 
ship of Kennebec co., on the Sebasticook River, about 
100 m. N.E. of Portland. 

Ben'ton, in Michigan, a township of Berrien co., near 
Lake Michigan. 

—A township of Eaton co. 

—A post-office of Washtenaw co. 

Ben'ton, iD Minnesota, a central co., with an area of 
about 400 sq. m. Bounded on the W. by the Mississippi 
River, and is drained by the Elk River, the W. fork of 
Run River, and Little Rock Creek. The surface is diver¬ 
sified and well wooded. Cap. Sauk Rapids. 

—A township of Carver co. 

Ben'ton, in Mississippi, a post-village of Yazoo co., about 
40 m. N. of Jackson, and 11 E. of Yazoo city. It was 
formerly the county-seat. 

Ben'ton, in Missouri, a W. central co., area, 770 sq. m. 
It is intersected by the Osage River, which flows E., re¬ 
ceiving La Pomme de Terre and Grand rivers. The co. 
is ■also watered by Tebo, Heaver, and Cole Camp creeks. 
The general character of B. is broken: the N. portion 
being undulating prairie, and the remainder rough tim¬ 
bered land. There are some excellent bottom lands in 
the central part, under a good state of cultivation. Prod. 
Corn, wheat, oats, rye, tobacco; mules, horses, Ac. Lead 
ore is abundant. Cap. Warsaw. 

Ben'ton, in Missouri, a post-village, cap. of Scott co., 
240 m. E.S.E. of Jefferson city 

Ben'ton, in New Hampshire, a post-township of Grafton 
co. 

Ben'ton, in New York, a post-village and township of 









330 


BENZ 


BENZ 


BERA 


Yates co., on the W. shore of Seneca Lake, about 180 m. 
W. of Albany. 

Ben'lon, in Ohio, a village of Brown co., about 40 m. E. 
of Cincinnati. 

—A post-village of Hancock co., about 80 m. N.N.W. of 
Columbus. The post-office is called Benton Ridge. 

—A post-village of Holmes co., 92 m. N.E. of Columbus. 

—A township of Paulding co. 

—A township of Pike co. 

—A village of Portage co. 

Ben'ton, in Oregon, a co. in the \V. part of the State. 
Area, about 1,070 sq m. It is bounded on the E. by the 
Willamette river, and is watered by the Alsea and 
Yaquiua rivers, and some smaller streams. Cap. Cor¬ 
vallis. Pop. (1898) 19,200. 

Ben'ton, iu Pennsylvania, a post-township of Colum, 
bia co. 

—A township of Luzerne co. 

Ben'ton, in Tennessee, a N.W. co., bounded E. by the 
Tennessee and N.W. by the Big Sandy rivers. Area, abt. 
400 sq. m. Sail, fertile. Cap. Camden. 

—A flourishing post-vill., cap. of Polk co., 4 m.S. of Hia- 
wassee River, and 75 S.S.W. of Knoxville, 

Ben'ton, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Lafayette co., 
in Benton township, 13 m. N. of Galena, Ill., and 85 S.W. 
of Madison, 

Ben'ton Centre, in New Tori-, a post-village of Ben¬ 
ton township, Yates co., 180 m. W. of Albany. 

Ben'ton Harbor, in Michigan, a thriving town of 
Berrien co., on Lake Michigan. Pop. in 1890, 5,314; 
1897, about 7,000. 

Ben'ton’s Berry, in Louisiana, a post-office of Liv¬ 
ingston par. 

Beu'ton’s Ferry, iu West Fa., a P. 0. of Marion co. 

Ben ton's Fort, in Iowa, a post-village of Van Buren 
co., on the Des Moines River, about 6 m E. of Keosauqua. 

Ben'tonsville, in N. Carolina, a. post-village of John¬ 
son co., 17 m. W. of Goldsborough. — A series of battles 
was fought here, 18th to 21st March, 1865, between the 
Union forces commanded by Gen. Sherman, and the 
Confederates under Gen. Johnston, in which, after severe 
fighting, the Nationals achieved a victory, after losing, 
in the aggregate, 1,643 men. The loss sustained by the 
Confederates is unknown, but was doubtless heavy; they 
losing in prisoners alone 1,625 men. 

Ben'tonville, in Arkansas, a post-village, cap. of 
Benton co., 225 m. N.W. of Little Rock. 

Ben'tonville, in Indiana, a post-village of Fayette 
co., 11 m. N.W. of Connersville, the co. town. 

Ben'tonville, in Ohio, a post-village of Adams co., 12 
m. from the Ohio River, and 108 S.S.W. of Columbus; 
pop. 310. 

Ben'tonville, in Tennessee. See Benton. 

Ben'tonville, in Virginia, a post-office of Warren co. 

Bent’s Fort, now Bent Canon, in Colorado, a post- 
office of Las Animas co. 

Bent'y, a. Prolific of bents, or stalks of withered 
grass; as, benty pastures. — Resembling, or pertaining 
to, a bent, or withered grassy stalk. 

Benumb, (be-num',) v. a. [A.S. beniman, benyman; pp. 
benumen — be, and niman, to take, to take away or seize; 
O. Ger. beniman, to take away.] To take away or deprive 
of sensation; to make torpid ; to stupefy with cold. 

“ My sinews slacken, and an icy stiffness benumbs my blood." 

Denham. 

Benumb'edness, n. Deprivation of sensation or feel¬ 
ing. 

Benumb'ment, n. Act of being made torpid, or be¬ 
numbed. 

Be'nuwe, a river of Africa. See Tchadda. 

Benvenne', in Pennsylvania, a P. O. of Dauphin co. 

Benvenu'to Felli ni. See Ceujni. 

Ben'ville, in Indiana, a post-office of Jennings co. 

Ben'wood, in IF Virginia, a post-village of Marshall 
co., on the Ohio River, 4 m. S. of Wheeling. 

Benyerta, ( ben-yer'ta ,) the name of two lakes of N. 
Africa, about 30 m. from Tunis; the one salt, and the 
other fresh. 

Ben'zamide, n. ( Chem.) A substance obtained by acting 
on chloride of benzole with ammonia, or by boiling hip- 
puric acid with brown oxide of lead. 

Ben'zie, in Michigan, a co. in the N.W. part of the 
lower peninsula. Area, 440 sq. m. Lake Michigan is 
its W. boundary. Cap. Frankfort. Pop. (1898) 8,320. 

Ben'zile, n. (Chem.) A yellow, oily solid, crystallizing 
in hexagonal prisms, fusing at 19734°! i ns °l ulj le in water; 
soluble in alcohol and ether; subliming without decom¬ 
posing; obtained by acting on fused benzoine with 
chlorine, or by heating benzoine with nitric acid. 

Ben'zlne, Benzole, n. (Chem.) A brilliant, colorless 
liquid, exhaling a powerful odor of coal-gas; it boils at 
176°, and is very inflammable, burning with a smoky 
flame. It was first obtained by Faraday from a liquid 
produced by compressing oil-gas, and was called by him 
bicarburetted hydrogen. Mitscherlich afterwards ob¬ 
tained it from benzoic acid; and, latterly, Mansfield has 
procnred it in large quantities from coal-naphtha and 
gas-liquor. It has a specific gravity of 0-85°. Exposed 
to a temperature of 32°, it condenses into crystalline 
masses, which melt at 40°. It is insoluble in water, but 
dissolves freely in alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine. 
It is extensively used in the arts, being an excellent 
solvent for India-rubber, gutta-percha, wax, camphor, 
and fats. The property of dissolving fats and oils, added 
to its great volatility, renders it very useful for remov¬ 
ing grease-stains from articles of dress. It is sold for 
this purpose under the name of benzine collets, at about 
three or four times its real value. It has lately received 
a most important application as the source of aniline. 
It forms substitution compounds with bromine, chlo¬ 
rine, and iodine, by tho replacement of one, two, or three 


atoms of hydrogen by one, two, or three atoms of these 
bodies, giving rise to mono-, bi-, and tri-chlorobenzole, 
&c. It also forms similar compounds with peroxide of 
hydrogen, the most important of which is nitro-benzole, 
or artificial oil of bitter almonds. It is made by adding 
benzole very gradually to fuming nitric acid. On cool¬ 
ing, the nitro-benzole separates as an oil, and is purified 
by washing and redistillation. It is a yellowish oil, 
which solidifies in needles at 37°, and boils at 415°. It 
has a sweet taste, and its odor closely resembles that of 
bitter almonds. The vapor, when inhaled, acts as an anaes¬ 
thetic. It is much used in perfumery under the name 
of essence of mirbane. Its principal use is in the manu¬ 
facture of aniline for dyeing purposes, by passing sul¬ 
phuretted hydrogen through it, or by acting on it with 
protacetate of iron. Form. C 12 H 6 . 

Ben'zinger, in Pennsylvania, a post-townslup of Elk 
co., 100 m. N.W. of Harrisburg. 

Ben'zoene, n. (Chem.) See Toluyl. 

Benzo ic Acid, (Flowers of Benjamin.) (Chem.) A 
beautiful, flaky, crystallized salt, like scales of snow. It 
is obtained from gum-benzoin. It is also found in the 
balsams of Tolu and Feru, in storax, and in the urine of 
herbivorous animals. It is easily prepared by sublima¬ 
tion. The powdered gum-benzoin is placed in a shallow 
iron pan, which is covered with a cone of bibulous paper. 
A heat of 300° Fahr. is applied to the pan, and the whole 
apparatus is covered by a second cone much larger than 
the first, made of non-absorbent paper. The vapors of 
B. acid rise through the bibulous cone, and condense on 
the inside of the larger one; being thus prevented from 
falling back into the heated gum-benzoin. B. acid has 
an agreeable aromatic odor, and a hot, bitter taste. It 
melts at 248°, sublimes at 293°, and boils at 462°. Its 
vapor may be kindled, burning with a smoky flame. It 
dissolves in 200 parts of cold water and 25 of hot. It is 
readily soluble in ether and alcohol. It combines with 
the alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, forming ben¬ 
zoates. It forms sulpho-, nitro-, and chloro-benzoic, by 
the substitution of atoms of sulphuric acid, peroxide of 
nitrogen, and chlorine, for atoms of hydrogen. Its other 
compounds are too numerous and unimportant to men¬ 
tion here. Form. C 14 H 5 O 3 HO.— B. Acid is an ingredient 
of fumigating powders and pastils. It enters into the 
composition of Friar’s balsam, a veterinary medicine, 
and of the cosmetic virgin's milk, made of two drachms 
of the alcoholic solution of benzoin with one pint of 
rose-water. 

( Med.) B. acid acts as a stimulant, anti-spasmodic, and 
expectorant, and is eminently useful in all bronchial af¬ 
fections, more especially in dry irritating coughs. 

Benzo'ic Alcohol. (Chem.) The alcohol of the ben¬ 
zoic series, — the hydrated oxide of toluyl, i. e.: 

C U II 7 + 0 + HO = C H I1 8 0 2 

Toluyl, or benzoene. Benzoic alcohol. 

It bears the same relation to benzoic acid that vinous 
alcohol does to acetic acid. Oxidizing agents convert 
it into benzoic acid. It is a colorless oily fluid, rather 
heavier than water, and boiling at 400°. 

Benzo'ic Ether. (Chem.) Oxide of benzoene, or toluyl. 
It is procured by heating benzoic alcohol and anhydrous 
boracic acid together in a closed vessel for some hours. 

Benzo'ic Group. (Chem.) One of the groups of the 
benzoic series, (which see.) The members of the benzoic 
group are analogous to those of the vinic or ethylic 
group, being all derived from a primary radical benzoyl, 
as those of the latter group are from ethyl, (which see.) 
They are nearly all obtained from oil of bitter almonds. 

Benzo'ic Series. (Chem.) A very perfect and numer¬ 
ous series of organic compounds, containing 8 groups: 

1. Phenylic group. 5 . Anisic group. 

2. Quinonic “ 6 . Cinnamic “ 

3. Benzoic “ 7. Naphthalic “ 

4. Salicylic “ 8. Indigotic “ 

The benzoic series has lately been rendered very impor¬ 
tant from containing benzole and aniline, the sources of 
the coal-tar dyes. 

Benzoin', n. (lint.) A genus of plants, ord. Lauracece. 
The spice-wood, B. odoriferum, found in moist woods in 



Fig. 341. — spice-wood, (Benzoin odoriferum.) 

the U. States and Canada, is a deciduous shrub, 6-12 ft. 
high; leaves obovate-lanceolate, veinless, entire; sexes 
polygamous; yellowish-green flowers in umbels, appear¬ 
ing in advance of the leaves; berries Bcarlet. It has an 


aromatic flavor resembling gum benzoin, and the bark 
an agreeable spicy taste. 

Ben'zoin, Gum-Benjamin. (Chem.) See Sttrax. 

Ben zoine, n. (Chem.) A substance isomeric with es¬ 
sence of bitter almonds, hydride of benzoyl, from which 
it is produced by the action of an alcoholic solution of 
potash, the oil being slowly changed into a crystalline 
mass. 

Benzole, n. See Benzine, and Benzoline. 

Benzoline, n. The same as Benzine, q. v. 

Benzon'ia, in Michigan, a post-village, former cap. of 
BeDzie co., 10 m. from Lake Michigan. 

Benzoyle', n. (Chem.) The radical of all the members of 
the benzoic group, capable of playing the part of an 
elementary substance in uniting with oxygen, chlorine, 
&.c., and therefore resembling the elements in its chemi¬ 
cal tendencies, from which resemblance it is spoken of 
as a quasi-element or compound radical. 

Benzoylc, Hydride of, (Oil of Bitter Almonds,) 
n. (Chem.) The bitter-almond cake, left after the ex¬ 
traction of the fixed oil, is mixed with water and fer¬ 
mented, until the whole of the amygdalin is decomposed. 
The mass is then distilled, and the distillation is purified 
by agitating it with milk of lime and chloride of iron. 
The hydro-cyanic acid contained in it is thus transformed 
into Prussian blue. Pure hydride of benzoyle is not 
poisonous. It is a limpid, highly refractive, inflammable 
liquid, which boils at 356°, and dissolves in 30 parts of 
water. Alcohol and ether dissolve it in all proportions. 
Exposed to the air, it gradually absorbs oxygen, and 
becomes converted into benzoic acid. — Form. C^HjOjU. 

Bepaint', v. a. To cover with paint. 

Bener'iwitrtred, a. That is adorned with false hair; 
periwigged. 

Bepinch', v. a. To pinch; to mark with pinches. 

“ In their sides, arms, shoulders, all bepincht." — Chapman. 

Beplas'ter, v. a. To cover with plaster; to embellish; 
as, “ Beplastered with rouge.” — Goldsmith. 

Bepow'der, v. a. To cover with powder; to sprinkle 
with powder. 

Bepraise, (be-praz’,) v. a. To praise greatly or extrav¬ 
agantly. 

Beprose’, v. a. To reduce to prose, (r.) 

Bep n fleet , (be-pUfft’,) a. [be and puff.] Puffed up. 

Bepur'ple, v. a. [be and purple.] To 6 tain or tinge of a 
purple color. 

Bequeath, (be-kweth’,) v a. [A. S. beewathan — be, and 
eweethan, to say, to speak. See Quoth.] To declare one’s 
will of determination. Specifically, to give or leave by 
will or testament; used in relation to personal property. 

" Mj father bequeath'd me by will but a poor thousand cwwdi.” 

Shake. 

—To leave, hand down, or transmit to posterity. 

" For freedom's battle, once begun. 

Bequeath’d by bleeding sire to son, 

Though baffled oft, is ever won.”— Byron. 

Bequeath'able, a. Susceptible of being bequeathed. 

Bequeath'er, n. A person who bequeaths. 

Bequeath'ment, n. Act of bequeathing; a bequest, 

legacy. 

Bequest, (be-kwest',) n. (Law.) That which is be¬ 
queathed ; something left by will; a legacy. 

“ He claimed the crown, . . . pretending an adoption, or bequetf 
of the kingdom unto him by the Confessor.' —Hale. 

Bequote', v. a. To quote frequently. 

Beranger, (bai-rawnzh’ai,) Jean Pierre de, one of 
the greatest lyric poets that France has produced, B. at 
Paris, 1780. To bis grandfather, a tailor, and to an 
aunt by the father s side, he was indebted for his early 
nurture and education. When he was 10 years of age, 
he went to reside at Peronne in Picardy, with his aunt, 
and here he led for some time an indolentand unsettled 
life, trying several occupations, including that of a pot¬ 
boy, and settling in none, till lie was at last apprenticed 
to a printer in the town, and from this period gave him¬ 
self up to literary pursuits. In 1795 his father took him 
to Paris, where he wanted his assistance in certain bank¬ 
ing operations in which he was engaged; but, in 1798, 
the bank failed, and B. bade adieu to financial opera¬ 
tions for ever. During the period that followed, he pro¬ 
duced his best songs; but embittered by disappointment, 
and hopeless of success, he collected all the poems 
he had written and sent them to Lucien Bonaparte, 
the brother of Napoleon I. (then First Consul), who 
was known to be a liberal patron of literature, and, in 
this instance, did not belie his reputation. With the 
assistance thus rendered, B. soon found employment 
for his pen. In 1805-6, he assisted in editing Landon’s 
Annates du Musee, and, in 1809, he was attached to the 
university with a small salary of 1200 francs, which, 
however, sufficed for all his wants. Meanwhile he went 
on cultivating the Muses, and delighting all who knew 
him with the songs, chiefly amatory, which lie then 
composed. In 1815 he first came before the world as an 
author, though many of the poems then printed bad 
been circulated in manuscript, and the sensation pro¬ 
duced by this first publication was immense. France 
hailed in B. a poet who was not only able to sing of 
love and wine, but who gave the noblest and most heart- 
stirring expression to that sense of blighted glory and 
wounded pride which then smouldered in the breast of 
the whole people. His second series of songs, published 
in 1821, cost him his place and three months’ imprison¬ 
ment in St. Pelagie; and for his third series, published 
in 1828, he was condemned to nine months’ imprison¬ 
ment, and a fine of 10,000 francs. But the fine was paid 
by tho poet’s admirers; while from behind his prison- 
bars B. kept up such a deadly fire on tiie government, 
that he contributed, more effectually to destroy it than 
all the blows of tho heroes of the “ ThreeGlorioiis Days.” 
After the ejection o f Louis Philippe to the throne, hi 












EERB 


BERB 


BERE 


331 


declined to accept of any reward for his services, and re¬ 
tired first to Passy, next to Fontainebleau, and finally 
to Tours, where he completed what he called his Me- 
moire* Chantanls by the publication of his fourth series 



Fig. 342.— b£ranger. 


of songs. Speaking of these masterpieces of poetic skill, 
Gdthe says: “ Beranger was never at school, never 
studied at a university. But his songs are, nevertheless, 
so full of mature cultivation, of grace, wit, and subtlest 
irony, they are so artistically finished, and their languago 
is so masterly, that he is admired, not only by France, 
but by the whole of civilized Europe. Ilis songs have 
shed tears of joy into millions of hearts; they are fa¬ 
miliar even to the working-classes; and at the same time 
they are so high above the level of commonplace, that 
the intercourse with these graceful spirits accustoms 
and compels the people to have better and more gener¬ 
ous thoughts.” At the revolution of February, 1848, B. 
was elected to the Constituent Assembly ; but after one 
or two sittings, he sent in his resignation, and finally 
retired from the storm and turbulence of political life. 
His last years were solaced by the kindness of his nu¬ 
merous friends, who admired in him the straightforward 
honorable man as well as the national poet. Though a 
republican at heart, B. looked on Napoleon I., in his 
rise from a simple artillery officer to be Emperor of the 
French, as an incarnation of the national spirit: and he 
did so much to perpetuate the superstitious reverence 
of the people for his name, as to pave the way for the 
advent of his nephew and successor (Napoleon III.) to 
the imperial throne. IIeD.1857. — Inhis Autobiography, 
a posthumous publication, B. has given a most inter¬ 
esting account of his struggles with fortune, his private 
adventures, the development of his mind, the origin of 
his works, the manner of their success, the friendships 
and the persecutions they brought him, and the reasons 
of his retirement from public life. 

Bcrar, (bui-rdr',) one of the central provinces of British 
India, comprising Nagpoor, and a considerable por¬ 
tion of Gundwanah, between Lat. 17° 48' and 22° 43' 
N., Lon. 75° 24' to 82° 48' E.; greatest length. N. to 
S. 330 m.; breadth, 300 m. Area, 56,723 sq. m. It is 
watered by the Wurda, the Pain-Gunga, the Maha- 
nuddy, &c. The soil is fertile, producing dry grains, 
flax, sugar, betel, tobacco, and large quantities of cot¬ 
ton.—After the fall of the Mogul empire, the Mahrattas 
overran B., and held it until 1853, when the English 
added this rich prov. to their possessions. Chief city, 
Nagpore. 

Herat, ( bai-rat', ) a town of Turkey-in-Europe. in the 
N. part of Albania, on the Tuberathi, 28 m. N.E. of Av- 
lona; Lat. 40° 48' N.; Lon. 19° 52' E. It consists of an 
acropolis or citadel, on the summit of a high hill, and 
of a lower town. Merchants import foreign goods 
through the port of Avlona. Scanderbeg failed in an 
attempt to take this town, which has always been re¬ 
garded as the key to this part of the country. P. 10.00U. 

Berate', v. a. [be and rale.] To rate or chide vehe¬ 
mently ; to scold. 

Berat'tle, v. a. [be and rattle.] To fill with noise or 
vociferation ; to make a noise at in contempt. 

“ These are now the fashion, and so berattle the 
Common stages as they call them.” — S/iaks. 

Beratin', a walled town of Bohemia, cap. of circ. of the 
same name, on the Beraun, 20 m. W.8.W. of Prague. 
Min/. Earthenware and fire-arms. Coal mines and 
quarries of marble exist in the neighborhood. In the 
vicinity, in 1756, the Austrians gained a signal victory 
over the Prussians. Fop. abt. 4,500. 

Beran'ilite, re. (Min.) A phosphate of the peroxide 
of iron. 

Berbe'ra, a seaport of E. Africa, in the country of the 
Somauli. on the Gulf of Aden, 160 m. E.S.E. of Zeyla; 
Lat. 10° 25' 16" N.; Lon. 45° 7' 57" E. 

Berltera'les, n. (Bat .) The Berberal alliance, in¬ 
cluding the orders Vroctracece, Famariacem, Berberi- 
dacece, Vilaceoe, Pittosporacece, Olacacecr., Cyrillaceae. — 
Diag. Ilypogynous exogens, with monodichlamydeous 
flowers, unsymmetrical in the ovary, sutural, parietal, 
or axilo placentae, definite stamens, and embryo enclosed 
in a large quantity of fleshy albumen. 

Berberida'ceic, n. pi. (Bot.) An order of plants, 
alliance Berberales. — Diag. Regular symmetrical flow¬ 
ers, sutural placenta;, stamens opposite the petals, and 


recurved anther-valves.—They are herbaceous perennial 
plants, for the most part hairless, but very often spiny. 
Leaves alternate, compound, usually without stipules. 
Flowers solitary, racemose, or panicled. Sepals 3—4-6, 
deciduous, in a double row, surrounded externally by 
petaloid scales. Petals hypogynous, sometimes with an 
appendage at the base in the inside. Carpel solitary; 
style rather lateral; stigma orbicular; fruit berried or 
capsular; seeds crustaceous or membranous: albumen 
between fleshy and horny; embryo minute.—This order 
includes 12 genera and 100 species, natives of moun¬ 
tainous places in the temperate part of the N. hemi¬ 
sphere. 



1. An expanded flower. —2. The calyx without the petals. — 
3. An ovary cut through, showing the position of the ovules. 


Ber'berine, v. ( Chem.) A yellow bitter principle 
contained in the alcoholic extract of the root of the 
berberry. 

Ber'beris, Berberry, Barberry, a genus of plants, order 
Berberidaceae. It consists of numerous species, found 
in temperate climates in most parts, except Australia. 
These are shrubs, often spiny, with yellow flowers and 
acid berries. The three whorls of organs in the flower 
are each made up of six parts; thus, there are six sepals 
in the calyx, six petals in the corolla, and six stamens. 
The latter are remarkable for their irritability; for, if 
touched at the base by an insect, or even with the point 
of a pin, they start up from their natural inclining posi¬ 
tion, and close upon the pistil. The most interesting 
species is B. vulgaris, the common barberry, which is 
usually a bush from four to six feet high, but which, in 
Italy, sometimes becomes as large as a plum-tree. It is 
a very ornamental plant, especially when covered with 
fruit. The berries are of an oval shape, and, when ripe, 
generally of a bright red color, but sometimes whitish, 
yellow, or almost black. They are very acid, and not 
fit to be eaten raw; but when boiled with sugar, they 
form a most refreshing preserve. They are sometimes 
picked, to bo used for garnishing dishes, and occasionally 
they are put into sugar-plums or comfits. The bark 
and stem are very astringent, and yield a bright yellow 
dye. A fungus, which has been named sEcidium berbe- 
ridis, is frequently found on the undersideof the leaves; 
and the common but erroneous opinion, that the mi¬ 
nute spores of this parasite will produce rust in corn, 
has prevented the general employment of the B. as a 
hedge-plant, for which it is admirably adapted.— It is 
found in the United States in hard gravelly soils. 

Berberry, n. (Bnt.) See Berberis. 

Ber'bers, n. pi. The general appellation given to the 
mountain tribes of Barbary, and those inhabiting the N. 
frontiers of the Great Desert of Sahara. These tribes 
descend from a common stock, and are believed to derive 
their name from the Greek and Latin Barhari. The 
entire population of this country appear, in ancient days, 
to have called themselves Berbers, although the term is 
now used in the above restricted sense only. Upon the 
advent of the Arabs, the aborigines would seem to have 
migrated to the region of the Atlas, where their race is 
now found living in almost a nomadic state. In Algeria, 
they are known under the name of Kabyles, and in Mo¬ 
rocco. as Shellnohs. The B. of the Desert are called 
Tuariks by the Arabs, have become infused with the 
negro blood, and are estimated to number about 3 
millions. They are of middle height, dark, strongly- 
knit, and with facial characteristics partaking more of 
the European than the Eastern type. They are a wild, 
turbulent race, always involved in wars, foreign or do¬ 
mestic, tenacious of their independence, and resisting 
any advanced degree of civilization. They possess herds, 
and practise husbandry, besides engaging in the manu¬ 
facture of such rude implements and fabrics as serve 
their necessities. In religion, they are Mohammedans 
of the most fanatic class. 

Berbice, (ber-beece',) a river of Guiana, S. America, 


rising in the mountains about 100 m. from the coast, 
and entering the Atlantic Ocean 10 m.from New Am¬ 
sterdam, at Lat. 6 ° 21' N., Lon. 57° 12' W. 

Berbice, a district of British Guiana, between 6 ° and 
7° N. Lat., and 57° and 58° W. Lon.; pop. about 22,000. 

Bercllta, (bairg'ta.) [O. Ger. per acta, shining; whence 
the name Bertha.] (Ger. Myth.) A spiritual being, 
probably the same, under a different name, as the Hulda 
of N. Germany ; but in N. Germany, Hulda is regarded 
as a benign spirit; whereas, in S. Germany, B. is looked 
upon as a malevolent being, and her name is made use 
of to frighten disobedient children. B. is especially 
charged with the overlooking of spinners. 

Ber'cy, in France, formerly a town in the dep. of Seine, 
now an arrondissement of Paris. 

Bertla, a small river of S. European Russia, govt, of 
Taurida, falling into the Sea of Azof. In the summer 
months it is partially dry. On its E. bank stands the 
small town of Petrofsky, the principal station of the 
Azof Cossacks. 

Ber tlasli, n. A kind of neckcloth at one time used in 
England. < 

Bertliansli, (ber-de-ansk',\ a thriving maritime town 
of S. Russia, govt. Taurida, at the mouth of the Benia, 
on the N. shore of the Sea of Azof, 150 m. N.E. of Sim¬ 
feropol ; pop. 12,486. 

Beni■ t oiloV. a town of Russia in Europe, govt. Vol- 
hynia. on its S.E. confines, 24 m. S. of .litomir. It is 
dirty and ill-built, and is principally inhabited by Jews. 
It is, however, the centre of a considerable trade. Its 
fair is much frequented. 

Bere'a. (Anc.Geng.) A city of Macedonia, S.W. of Pella, 
and near Mount Bermius. It was afterwards called 
Irenopolis, and is now called by the Turks Boor, or Cara 
Veria. Paul preached the gospel here with success. 

Bere'a, in Kansas, a post-office of Franklin co. 

Bere'a, in Kentucky, a post-office of Madison co. 

Bere'a, in Ohio, a post-village of Cuyahoga co., 12 m. 
S.W. of Cleveland 

Bere'ans, n. pi. (Eccl. Hist.) A sect of dissenters from 
the Church of Scotland, founded in 1773, by the Rev. J. 
Barclay, who D. in 1798. They believe that the Bible is 
the sole source of information respecting the existence 
and attributes of the Deity, that the Psalms relate ex¬ 
clusively to Christ, and that unbelief is the unpardon¬ 
able sin. Their title was adopted in imitation of the 
ancient Bereans, who “received the word with all readi¬ 
ness of mind, and searched the Scriptures daily.” ( Acts 
xvii. 2.) They are also known as Barclayans. 

Bereave', v.a. (pret. bereaved, bereft; pp. bereaved, 
bereft.) [A. S. bereafian — be, and renjian, to seize, to 
rob, to spoil.] To deprive of; to strip; to make destitute. 

44 Madam, you have bereft me of all words.”— Shake. 

—To take away from. 

“ Controls them and subdues, transmutes, bereaves, 

Of their bad influence, aud their good receives.”— Wordsworth, 

Bereave'ment, n. Act of bereaving; state of being 
bereft; deprivation. 

Bereav'er, n. One who, or that which, bereaves. 

Bereft', pp. of Bereave, q. v. 

Berege', n. See Barege. 

Bereng'a'riaiis, n. pi. (Eccl. Hist.) A name given to 
the followers of Berenger, or Berengarius, Archdeacon 
of Angers. — See Berenger. 

Berenger, ( ba-ronzh'ur,) or Berengarius, of Tours, a 
theologian of the lltli century. He was b. atTours, 998, 
long held an ecclesiastical office there, and was after¬ 
wards archdeacon of Angers. He was thoroughly versed 
in the philosophy of his age, and did not hesitate to ap¬ 
ply reason to the interpretation of the Bible. He denied 
the dogma of transubstantiation, and no less than seven 
councils were held respecting him, at three of which he 
was condemned, and at four he was prevailed on to make 
retractions more or less fully. Though failing thus in 
courage in the presence of his persecutors, he, neverthe¬ 
less, continued to teach what he believed. D. 1088. 

Beren'ger, (or Berengario,) Jacopo, a celebrated 
anatomist and physician of the 16th century. B. at 
Carpi, Italy, and d. at Ferrara, 1550. He made several 
important anatomical discoveries, and is said to have 
been the first who used mercury in syphilitic diseases. 

Berenice, ( ber-e.-ni'se,) the common name of the female 
branch of the Egyptian Ptolemies; but from the prac¬ 
tice common with the Persians and Egyptians of family 
intermarriages, and the union of brother and sister, the 
lives of most of the princesses who bear this name are a 
record of vice and immorality. The most celebrated of 
these women was B., the daughter of the renowned 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, the founder of the Alexandrian 
Library,and she married her reigning brother Evergetes, 
for whose sake, while absent on an expedition, as a 
mark of sorrow and humiliation, she cut off all her hair, 
and offered it up as a propitiatory sacrifice to the gods. 
She was ultimately put to death by her own father, 
about 220 years b. c. 

Berenice, a daughter of Herod Agrippa I., who was 
the son of Aristobulus, who was the son of Herod the 
Great. (Acts xii.; Matthew ii.) She was the sister of 
Herodes Agrippa II., before whom Paul preached a.d. 63 
(Acts xxv. 13), and the wife of Herodes of Chalcis, who 
seems to have been her uncle, and left her a young 
widow. Titus, the son of Vespasian, fell in love with 
Berenice, who had taken an active part at the time 
when Syria declared in favor of Vespasian against Vitel- 
lius. (tacit. Hist. ii. 2, 81.) Berenice was then a young 
and very handsome woman. After the capture of Jeru¬ 
salem she came to Romo (a. d. 75), and Titus is said to 
have been so much attached to her that he promised to 
marry her: but on the death of his father he sent Bere¬ 
nice from Rome, much against his will »»a >>ers, when 







332 


BERG 


BERK 


BERL 


he found that the proposed match was disagreeable to 
the people. (Suetonius, Titus.) Juvenal (Sat. vi. 156) 
appears to allude to this Berenice and her brother 
Agrippa. Racine has written a tragedy on the subject 
of Titus and Berenice. 

Bereni'ce, an ancient city of Egypt, on a deep bay of 
the Red Sea, 20 m. S.W. of Ras-Bernass. We are indebt¬ 
ed to Belzoni for the resuscitation of this long-lost city, 
from which have been exhumed many interesting an¬ 
tiquities. 

Ber'esford, William Carr, Viscount, a distinguished 
British general, b. 1768. He early entered the military 
service of his country, and after having served with 
distinction in India and other parts of the world, he 
joined, in 1808, the British army in Spain, and fought at 
Corunna. In 1809, he was appointed to command the 
Portuguese troops in the field, with the rank of field- 
marshal. On the 16th May, 1811, he defeated Marshal 
Soult at Albuera. In 1814 he was raised to the peerage. 
In Spain, he was created Duke of Divas, and in Portu¬ 
gal, Conde di Francesco. He was subsequently governor 
of Jersey, and in 1828, Master-General of the Ordnance. 
D. 1854. 

Beresi'na, or Berezina, a riverof Russia in Europe; 
it rises in the dist. of Dissna, govt. Minsk, which it trav¬ 
erses from N. to S.; after receiving various affluents, 
and being joined by a canal with the Don, it falls into 
the Dnieper, near Ritcliitza, in Lat. 58° 28' N., after a 
course of 200 miles. This river has been rendered famous 
on account of its disastrous passage by the French army 
during the retreat of Napoleon 1. from Russia, in 1812. 

Berg, n. A burgh or borough. See Burgh, Borough. 

—A large mass of ice. See Iceberg. 

Berg, Frederick William Rambert, a Russian general, 
chiefly notorious for the severity with which he treated 
the unfortunate population of Poland during the insur¬ 
rection of 1863, and which excited the horror and indig¬ 
nation of the civilized world. 

Bergamo, ( bair-ga'mo ,) a prov. of Italy, in W. Lom¬ 
bardy, lying between the Lakes Como and Garda, and 
extending for nearly 100 m. in length, by a width of 45 
to 50. Surface. In the S. are rich, level pastures, grad¬ 
ually ascending towards the N., where the land rises in 
easy swells, till, approaching the Tyrol, the hills become 
mountains densely and beautifully wooded. B. yields 
pasturage for great flocks of sheep in the S., and goats 
in the N.; the chief products being olives, chestnuts, 
an,d wool, while the mountains furnish iron, marble, and 
grind-stones. Fop. 363,754. 

Bergamo, a walled town of N. Italy, cap. of above prov., 
between the Serio and the Brembo, 29 m. N.E. of Milan. 
It is well built, has fine ecclesiastical edifices, and pub¬ 
lic buildings, and the Carrarese school for free instruc¬ 
tion in music, painting, and architecture. Manuf. Silks, 
woollens,cotton, iron. A great fair is annually held on 
the 22d Aug. and 14 following days, when all the prod¬ 
ucts of Lombardy are exposed, silk being the staple 
article. B. was anciently a Roman city. From 1428, it 
was under the protection of the republic of Venice; 
was taken by Louis XII. in 1809; and fell to Austria in 
1815, and in 1860 was incorporated with the new king¬ 
dom of Italy. The Bergamesque dialect is peculiar, and 
one of the most corrupted forms of the language spoken 
in Italy. 

Ber'gamot, n. [Fr. bergamotte.] A choice variety of 
pear, shaped like an apple, and very juicy. 

—A particular kind of snuff, flavored with bergamot. 

" Give the nose its bergamot. —Cowper. 

(Manf.) A coarse kind of tapestry, invented at Ber¬ 
gamo, in Italy, whence the name. 

Essence or Oil of B. A fragrant essential oil, obtained, 
by expression or distillation, from the Bergamot orange, 
a species of the genus Citrus, q. v. It is extensively em¬ 
ployed in perfumery for scenting pomades, and as an 
ingredient in most compound essences, such as Eau de 
Cologne, Eau de Millefleurs, &c. 

Bergamlcr, n. (Zooi.) See Sheldrake. 

Ber gen, Dirk van den, a celebrated Dutch landscape 
and animal painter, who was a pupil of Vanderveldt; B. 
at Haarlem in 1645 ; D. 1689. 

Ber'gen, one of the S. provinces of Norway, bounded 
on the N. by Drontheim, S. by Christiansand, E. by 
Aggershaus, and W. by the N. Atlantic Ocean. It is divid¬ 
ed into two amts, viz., S. Bergenhus, and N. Bergenhus. 
Area, 590 geog. sq. m. The whole province is extremely 
mountainous, and entirely surrounded on its E. frontier 
by the towering range of the Norwegian Alps, while 
on its W. seaboard, the coast-line is cut iuto deep fiords, 
bays, and estuaries, presenting a wild, rugged, and 
deeply-rifted frontier to the ocean. Prod. Timber, tar, 
fish and cattle. Pop. 267,354. 

Bergen, a large and fortified seaport-town, aud cap. of 
the above prov., is situated at the bottom of a deep bay, 
190 m. W.N.W. of Christiania; Lat. 60° 24' N.; Lon. 5° 
18' E. B. (like nearly all Norwegian towns) is almost 
entirely built of woo’d, and has, accordingly, been fre¬ 
quently subjected to calamitous fires. Manf. Salt, tar, 
turpentine; it also carries on a considerable trade in 
timber and fish. 

Ber'geH, a town of Prussia, cap. of the island of Rugen, 
in the Baltic, 15 m. N.E. of Stralsund. It stands almost 
in the centre of the island. Pop. about 4,000. 

Ber'gen, in Minnesota, a post-township of McLeod 
county. 

Ber'gen, in New Jersey, a N.E. co., bordering on New 
York; area, 350 sq. m. Cap. Hackensack. 

Ber gen, in New York, a twp. of Genesee co. 

Ber'gen, in Wisconsin, a township of Vernon county, 
on the Mississippi River, about 14 miles below La 
Crosse. 


B«“rsron-op-Zonin. or Berg-op-Zoom, (bairgen-op- 
zoom,) a strongly fortified town of the Netherlands, on 
the Zoom, prov. Brabant, 22 m. YV.S.W. of Breda, near 
the E. Scheldt, and on the railway from Antwerp to 
Rotterdam. Manf. Anchovies, and earthenware. — B. 
was one of the first towns occupied by the States-Gen- 
eral. In 1622 it stood a memorable siege by the Span¬ 
iards, who retired, after losing 10,000 men. In 1747 it 
was taken by the French, and again in 1794. In 1814 it 
was nearly taken by the British by a coup de main, but 
they were finally repulsed with considerable loss. Pop. 
9,779. 

Ber'gen Point, in New Jersey, a P. O. of Hudson co. 

Ber'ger, in Missouri, a post-village of Franklin co., on 
the S. bank of the Missouri River, 50 m. of Jefferson city. 

Bergerac, (bairzh'e-rak',) a thriving aud well-built 
town of France, dep. Dordogne, in an extensive and fer¬ 
tile plain, on the Dordogne, 27 m. S.S.W. of Perigueux. 
Manf. Iron aud copper goods, Ac. Pop. 13,317. 

Ber'ger’s Store, in Virginia, a P.O. of Pittsylvania co. 

Bergh'em, Nikolaas, a Dutch landscape and portrait 
painter, B. at Haarlem, 1624. He was a good etcher, in 
addition to his merits as a painter. One of his pictures 
is in the National Gallery, London. D. 1683. 

Berg'lioltz, in New York, a post-office of Niagara co. 

Berg'man, Torben Olaf, an eminent Swedish chemist, 
B. 1735. He studied at Upsal University, where he be¬ 
came, in 1767, professor of chemistry. His discoveries 
and services to science were very numerous. He proved 
the acid properties of carbonic acid, discovered oxalic 
acid, and was one of the first to make chemical analyses 
of mineral bodies, lie made experiments in electricity, 
and published an Essay on Elective Attractions. D. 1784. 

Berg'inelll, n. [Sw. and Ger., mountain meal.] (Geol.) 
A whitish earth, consisting almost entirely of the flinty 
shields of microscopic plant-growths, (see IIiatomacKjE.) 
It occurs in bog and ancient lake deposits in many parts 
of Northern Europe, and, during times of great scarcity, 
it has been, when mixed with flour, eaten as food. Some 
writers assert that hundreds of cart-loads are consumed 
every year by the inhabitants of the north of Sweden. 
From analysis.it does not appear tocontaiuany positive 
nutriment. 

Ber'goo, n. See Wadat. 

Bergues, (bairg',) a town of France, dep. Nord, on the 
Colme, 5 m. S.S.E. of Dunkerque. The town is strongly 
fortified by Vauban, and has the means of laying the 
plain around it under water. Though old, it is pretty 
well built. Pop. 6,624. 

Be-riberi, ber-e~be're.) (Med.) A peculiar form of scro¬ 
fula, found only to exist in the East Indies, aud having 
several characters of the disease known in the West In¬ 
dies as elephantiasis. This disease comes on with spas¬ 
modic twitchings of the lower extremities, darting up¬ 
ward to the chest and throat, and producing great de¬ 
bility, oedema, or swelling of the legs and body, accom¬ 
panied by a congested state of the brain, drowsiness, and 
coma. 

Berina, (bai-re'na,) a mountain of the Rhmtian Alps, 
36 m. from Coire, and remarkable for its extensive gla¬ 
cier. Its pass between the Upper Engadine and the 
Valteline is at a height of 7,672 ft. 

Bering. See Behring. 

Berja, ( bairzh'a,) a town of Spain, on the S. slope of the 
Sierra de Gador, 22 m. W. of Almeria; p<rp. 10,000. 

Berkeley, (burk'le,) George, an English philosopher, 
B. 1684. lie was educated at Trinity Coll., Dublin, and 
afterwards took orders, becoming Dean of Derry. In 
1728, he went in company with some friends to Rhode 
Island, in the hope of founding there a missionary in¬ 
stitution for the benefit of the N. American Indians. 
His scheme failing, he returned to England, and, in 1734, 
became Bishop of Cloyne. In philosophy, B. is an Ideal¬ 
ist, and his doctrines are the natural reaction against 
the prevailing materialism of his age. His most impor¬ 
tant works are, the Principles of Human Knowledge; 
Dialogues of f/ylbs awl Philonous ; Minute Philosopher; 
Analyst; and Theory of Vision. Ilis two works on the 
properties of Tar-water, Sin's, and Further Thoughts, at¬ 
tracted much celebrity. D. 1753. 

Borke'ley, Miles Joseph, f.l.s., m.a., a distinguished 
English naturalist, b. 1803. He was a member of the 
principal learned societies of Europe. 1>. July 30, 18 n9. 

Berke'Iey. a town and parish of England, co. of Glou¬ 
cester, situated in a rich country, 101 m. W. by N. of 
London. It is noted for its ancient castle, which is one 
of the most perfect specimens of the Norman style in 
Great Britain. In one of its gloomy chambers King 
Edward II. is supposed to have been murdered in 1327. 
Pop. of parish (1898 ) 5,240. 

Borke'ley. in California, a city of Alameda co., on So. 
Pac. R.R, and San Francisco Bay, 7 m. N.E. of San 
Francisco; seat of the University of California. Pop. 
(1898) 10,250. 

Berkeley, in West Virginia, a N.E. county, separated 
from Maryland by the Potomac. Area, about 250sq.m. 
Bounded by Opequan Creek on the S.E., and traversed 
by Back Creek. Surface. Mountainous. Soil. Fertile 
in the valleys and bottom-lands. Limestone, coal, and 
iron are found in plenty. Cap. Martinsburg. Pov 
in 1890, 18,649. 6 * 

Berkeley Springs, in West Virginia, a post-town 
and cap. of Morgan co., about 3 m. from the Potomac 

, River, and 125 m. W. of Baltimore. For the Springs, 
see Virginia (Mineral Waters of). 

Berkley, in Alabama, a post-office of Madison co. 

Berkley, in Indiana, a flourishing township of Jas¬ 
per co. 

I Berkley, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Bristol 
co., 35 m. S. of Boston, on the E. side of the Taunton 

| River. 


Berkley Rapids, in Iowa, a village of Benton co.,ou 
the Cedar, about 15 m. W.S.W. of Cedar Rapids. 
Berks, or Berkshire, ( burk'shur ,) an inland co. of 
England, having N. Oxford aud Bucks, from which it is 
separated by the river Thames, E. Surrey, S. Hamp¬ 
shire, and W. Wiltshire, and a part of Gloucester. Area, 
451,210 acres. This is a very beautiful co., with every 
variety of soil and surface, and well timbered. Wind 
sor Castle, the chief residence of the English sovereigns, 
is in this co. Prin. Towns. Reading (.the cap.), Windsor, 
and Abingdon. 

Berks, in Pennsylvania, a S. E. county; area, 920 sq. 
m. It is drained by the Schuylkill River, which flows 
through it in a S.E. direction, and by Tulpehocken, 
Maiden, Manatawny, and Littlo Swatara creeks. The 
Kittatinny, or Blue Mountain, forms its N.W. boundary, 
and its S.E. central part is cut by the South Mountain 
or Blue Ridge. The soil is highly productive, and under 
good cultivation. Iron mines are numerous. Cap. 
Reading. 

Berk'shire, in Illinois, a village of Kane co., 50 m. 
YV. by N. of Chicago. 

Berk'shire, in Massachusetts, a W. co., of about 1000 
sq. in., drained by the Housatonic, Deerfield, Farming- 
ton, and Hoosick rivers. Surface uneven, Saddle Moun¬ 
tain, in the N. part, being the highest point in Massa¬ 
chusetts. Soil, fertile, and presenting fine pastures. 
Marble, iron-ore, and limestone are plenty. Cup. Pitts¬ 
field, Pop. (1898 ) 90.150. 

■—A post-office of the above co. 

Berk'shire. in New York, a post-township of Tioga 
co., 15 m. N.N.E. of Owego. 

Berk'shire, in Ohio, a post-village and township of 
Delaware co., about 24 miles N.N.E. of the city of Co¬ 
lumbus. 

Berk'shire, in Vermont, a post-township of Franklin 
co., about 50 m. N. by E. of Montpelier, on the N. side 
of Hissisque river. 

Berk'shire Hill, in New York, a section of farm¬ 
ing-land of great fertility, on the heights between the 
East and West Owego creeks, in the township of Berk¬ 
shire, Tioga co. 

Berk'shire Valley, in New Jersey, a village of 
Morris co., N.E. from Morristown. 

Berlen'gas, a group of rocky islands in the Atlantic, 
off the W. coast of the Portuguese prov.of Estremadura, 
10 m. N.W. of Peniche. 

Ber'liehing'en, Gcetz Von, surnamed the “ Iron 
Hand,” a brave and turbulent German noble, b. at Jax- 
thausen in Wiirtemberg, 1480; d. 1562. He was almost 
constantly at war, was put under the ban of the empire 
by Maximilian, and was killed during the siege of a 
fortress in which he had taken refuge. His story was 
dramatized by Gothe. 

Ber lin, the capital of the kingdom of Prussia, and 
of the German Empire, in the province of Branden¬ 
burg; Lat. 52° 3u' 16" N.; Lon. 13° 23' 58" E. Its 
streets are broad and straight, some of them ornar 
mented with rows of trees; squares regular and spa¬ 
cious; houses all of brick, and mostly stuccoed over; 
public buildings and monuments, numerous and mag¬ 
nificent; so that, notwithstanding its sameness, the 
want of bustle and liveliness, and the poverty of its 
environs, B. is one of the finest cities in Europe. It 
was founded in the 12th century. Up to a very recent 
date, B. was a walled city; and some of its 19 gates 
still remain, the principal of which is the Branden¬ 
burg Gate, surmounted by a gigantic car of Victory. 
Among the principal structures are, the Netherland 
Palace and the palace of the Emperor, museum, 
opera house, arsenal (one of the finest in Europe), 
university, and the palace of Monbijou, occupied by 
Peter the Great when he visited this city. An eques¬ 
trian statue, by Rauch, erected in honor of Frederick 
the Great, stands in the street Vnter den Linden, and 
is one of the grandest monuments of its kind in Europe. 
The Spree, intersecting the city, is crossed by about 40 
bridges. The street XJnter den Linden is the finest in 
B. ; it is nearly a mile in length, and the favorite prom¬ 
enade of the wealthy and the fashionable. The Scldoss 
Flats, or square of the palace, ranks as the noblest of 
the squares that adorn this city. B. possesses many 
celebrated literary institutions, hospitals, and asylums. 

It may be regarded as the political and literary metro¬ 
polis of N. Germany, and is distinguished alike for the 
number and celebrity of her statesmen, philosophers, 
scholars, and artists. Its press is very active, and about 
3,000 persons are engaged in literature, aud the various 
trades connected therewith. B. is one of the principal 
manufacturing cities of Germany. Among other branches 
are included the fabrication of steam-engines, woollens, 
cottons, ribbons, porcelain, hardware, paper, carriages, 
watches and jewelry, tobacco, sugar, Ac. All the great 
railway lines of the kingdom centre in B., which has, 
besides, a large command of inland navigation extending 
to Hamburg and the Elbe on the W., to Stettin and 
Swinemiinde on the N., and to the Vistula on the E. 
Owing to the flatness of the ground on which it is built, 
the drainage of the city vas formerly very imperfect; 
but this defect has been remedied of, late years, by the 
establishment of a thorough system of drainage. There 

are numerous places of amusement in and near B _ 

The theatres and opera-house are well attended, and 
there is no city, Vienna excepted, where music is more 
universally patronized, or where the opera is better per¬ 
formed or more heartily appreciated, than in B. The 
city is the seat of an extensive commerce, and the 
centre of the financial transactions of the kingdom. 
Berlin was taken by the Austrians and Russians in 1760: 
and was occupied by the French from 1806 to 1812. In 
1565 B. had a pop. of 12,000, which had risen to 90,000 








BERM 


BERN 


BERN 


3 , 3.3 


in 1740; yet, for many years afterwards it was still des¬ 
cribed as a large tract enclosed with walls and built over 
in such a way as to cover the greatest amount of space 
possible with prick structures, in accordance with the 
wishes of its autocratic founder. Its becoming the cap¬ 
ital ut the new German Empire in 1871, however, opened 
,, n ,' au '.'“expected era of prosperity and importance. 
Gy 1880, its pop. had reached 1,122,360; at the latest 
census, taken in 1900, the population approached the 
two million mark, being 1,888,326. 

Ber '»v Treaty Of. (Euro. Pol.) The treaty made 
in 18,8 at San Stepliano (see San Stephaxo) proving 
unsatisfactory to some of the European powers, notably 
so to Great Britain, a Congress was called at Berlin 
represented by Germany, England, Russia, Austria 
France, Italy, and Turkey and presided over by Prince 
Bismarck, in this same year, when the following 
partial partition and rectification of the boundaries of 
Turkey were decided upon, viz.: Bulgaria “is consti¬ 
tuted an autonomic tributary principality, under the 
Suzerainty ot the Sultan, with a Christian government 
and a national militia. The principality is limited on 
the S. by the Balkins. The Prince to be elected by the 
population, confirmed by the Porte and the European 
powers. The plan to be prepared by an Assembly of 
Nobles, convoked at Tirnova.” Full religious liberty 
is to be enjoyed,and Bulgaria to bear a part of the pub¬ 
lic debt of the empire. “South of the Balkins there 
shall be formed the province of Eastern Roumelia 
under the direct political authority of the Sultan, hav- 
ing administrative autonomy and a Christian governor- 
general” appointed by the Porte, with the assent of 
the powers. Full religious liberty is to be enjoyed. 
“Bosnia and Herzegovina to be occupied and adminis¬ 
tered by Austro-Hungary, with the exception of the 
Sandjak of Novi-Bazar.” Spizza is incorporated with 
Dalmatia. “ The independence of Montenegro is recog¬ 
nized, and Antivari to be annexed thereto,” but to be 
closed to war-ships of all nations. M. is to have no 
flag or ships of war, the Consuls of Austria to protect 
her merchant flag. Montenegro shall bear a portion 
of the Turkish national debt. “The independence of 
Servia is recognized,” full religious liberty enjoyed, 
and she to bear a share of the public debt of Turkey. 
Rodmania “is recognized as independent,” and full re¬ 
ligious liberty enjoyed; R. to give back to Russia that 
part of Bessarabia, containing abt. 2,500 sq. m., taken 
under the treaty of Paris (Crimean War), and receives the 
Dobrudscha and also the territory south, as far as a line 
starting east of Silistria and joining the Black Sea, 
south of Mangalia; exact lines of boundary to be fixed 
by a European commission. The fortifications on the 
Danube from the Iron Gates to its mouth to be razed, 
and no ships of Avar shall navigate the Danube down¬ 
wards from the Iron Gates. In all parts of Turkey full 
religious liberty is to be enjoyed; and in no part of the 
empire shall differences of religion be motive for unfit¬ 
ness in anything pertaining to civil and political rights. 
Ardahan, Kars, and Batocm are ceded to Russia, the 
latter to be a commercial port only. The island of 
Cyprus is ceded to Great Britain, and for which she 
agrees to pay to Turkey a stipulated sum annually, and 
Great Britain, under treaty made with Turkey, June 
4th, 1878, engages to defend the Asiatic dominions of 
the Sultan against any further attack: while the Sul¬ 
tan is to introduce necessary reforms, to be agreed 
upon between the two powers. In accordance with a 
protocol to the Berlin treaty, a rectification of the 
frontier is to be made between Turkey and Greece. 
Upon the authority of Lord Beaconsfield, Turkey, ex¬ 
cluding Bosnia and Bulgaria, retains in Europe 60,000 
sq. m. of territory, which is less than she would have 
lost by the treaty of San Stephano. The latter pro¬ 
vided for a territorial extension of Bulgaria nearly 
three times greater than the Berlin treaty, Avith other 
territorial losses in both Europe and Asia. The total 
area lost to Turkey by the treaty of Berlin, amounts to 
about 71,000 miles of territory. See Le TraiU de B., 
annote et commente, par B. Brunswik. Paris, 1879. 

Berlioz, ( bair'le-oz ,) Hector, a French musical com¬ 
poser, b. at La C6te St. Andre, Isere, 1803. He has pro¬ 
duced many symphonies and operas, respecting the 
merits of which there has been much difference of opin¬ 
ion. Some have thought them extravagant in charac¬ 
ter, Avhile Liszt was of opinion that they possessed high 
merit, and Paganini testified his sense of B.'a genius by 
presenting him with an order on his bauker for Si,000, 
declaring him equal to BeethoA’en. His literary Avorks, 
principally Lex S"ir(es (le VOrchestre, evince a thorough 
knowledge of the A'ast range of musical topics. D. 1869 

Berm, (burn,) n. (Fort.) A ledge or pafhAvay, from 3 to 
8 feet in width, at the bottom of the outside of a ram¬ 
part, Avhere it joins the scarp or inner side of the ditch. 
It is almost on a level Avith the natural surface of the 


ground; and serves in part as a passage-Avay for the 
troops of the garrison, and in part as a means of pre¬ 
venting the ditch from being filled with earth and rub¬ 
bish, when the rampart is battered by the besiegers. 

Ber'meo, a sea-port of Spain, on its N. coast, prov. of 
Biscay, 16 m. N.E. of BilbaS; pop. abt. 4,304. 

Ber'mondsey, a suburb of London, England, in¬ 
cluded in the borough of SouthAvark. 

Bermu'da Hundred. in Virginia, Chesterfield co., 
2 m. N. by W. of City Point, near the mouth of the Appo¬ 
mattox River. Pop. 877. This place was fortified during 
the civil war, in May.^1864, by General Butler, who pur¬ 
posed offensive measures against Petersburg: but being 
deprived of two-thirds of his effective force, to reinforce 
the army operating against General Lee, he reported 
that “the necessities of the army of the Potomac had 
bottled him up at Bermuda Hundred.” 


Bermu'das, (The,) or Somer’s Islands, a group of 
small islands, about 300 in number, in the N. Atlantic 
Ocean, belonging to Great Britain, stretching N.E. by E. 
and S.W. by \V., abt. 20 m.. the light-house on Gibb’s Hill 
being situate in Lat. 32° 14' 54” N., Lon. 64° 53' W., 
580 in. S.E. of Cape Hatteras. Area, about 30 sq. m. 
When viewed from the sea, theelevation of these islands 
is trifling, the highest land scarcely attaining to a height 
of 200 ft. Their general aspect is similar to the W. In¬ 
dia Islands, and they are almost everywhere surrounded 
by extensive coral reefs, the channels through which are 
extremely intricate, aud can only be salely navigated by 
native pilots. The principal islands are those of Ber¬ 
muda, St. George, Ireland, and Somerset. The protec¬ 
tion afforded to shipping by their numerous bays, aud 
their position in the track of the homeAvard bound W. 
India vessels, have led to the conversion of the B. into 
a maritime rendezvous, aud as, likewise, the British 
naval station in W. Indian waters. The harbor of St. 
George’s Island has been greatly improved, is fortified, 
protected by a breakwater, and has water and space 
enough to float the entire U. States navy. — Prod. Prin¬ 
cipally, fruits, vegetables, maize, and tobacco. Pine¬ 
apples are very abundant and largely exported. — Clitn. 
Mild and salubrious; almost realizing the idea of a per¬ 
petual spring. Fish abounds, and forms a profitable 
source of industry to the inhabitants. Breadstuff's, &c. 
are imported from the D. States, aud manufactured 
goods from England.—Hamilton, on Bermuda Island, is 
the seat of the colonial government. Pop. 15,884. These, 
islands Avere discovered by Bermudez.a Spaniard, in 1522, 
and settled bv the English in 1607, and are supposed to 
be the “still vexed Bermoolhes," mentioned in Shaks- 
peare’s Tempest. — Pulmonary invalids are occasionally 
sent to Bermuda from the U. States. It affords a good 
winter retreat, provided due care be taken in selecting 
a locality sheltered from the strong Aviuter winds. 
Hamilton has been recommended with this view. 

Berimi'dinn, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Adams 
co., 19 m. S by W. of Harrisburg. 

Bern, in Switzerland. See Berne. 

Ber'naele, or Barnacle Goose, n ( Zool .) A bird 
which inhabits the Arctic regions, and in its autumnal 
migrations visits the more temperate countries of our 
Northern States. The length of the B. goose, Barnicla 
leucopsis, is rather more than ttvo feet. The bill is black; 
the forehead, 
sides of the head, 
and the throat 
are pure white; 
the rest of the 
head, neck, and 
shoulders,black; 
the upper part 
of the plumage 
is marked with 
blue, gray,black, 
and Avhite; and 
the legs are 
black The his¬ 
tory of this bird 
has been render¬ 
ed singularly re¬ 
markable by the 
marvellous ac¬ 
counts which 
Avere related in 
the darker ages concerning its growth: it being a re¬ 
ceived opinion that the B. Avas produced in a kind of 
arripede, the Lepas anattfera of Linmeus, gtOAving on 
rotten ships, timber, and other kinds of wood and trees 
which lie under water on the coasts. — There are other 
species of B., as the Bernicla rujicollis, which inhabits 
the Arctic countries of Asia; the B.leucoptera, found in 
the Falkland Islands. Avhere it is called the Bustard 
goose; and the B. antarctica, which inhabits Terra del 
Fuego. 

Bernadotte, Charles John XIV., (ber'na-dot',) King 
of Siveden and Nonvay, whose original name Avas Jean 
Baptiste Jules Bernadotte, Avas the son of a laAvyer at 
Pau, in France, and b. in 1764. He received a good 
education, and was designed for the bar, but he suddenly 
abandoned his studies and enlisted as a private in the 
Marines. For 9 years, B. attained only the rank of ser¬ 
geant, but in 1792 he had become colonel. In 1793, he 
distinguished himself under General Kleber, and Avas 
made general of brigade, and shortly afterwards, of di¬ 
vision. On the Rhine and in Italy, he still further ac¬ 
quired distinction, and he shoAA'ed that his talents were 
not those of a mere soldier, by his conduct in a some¬ 
what difficult embassy to Austria. Betiveen him and 
Napoleon there seems to have been a constant distrust, 
if not actual hatred; nevertheless, B. received a mar¬ 
shal’s staff on the establishment of the Consulate, and 
Avas created Prince of Ponte-Corvo, in 1806. In 1810, 
he was elected croAvn prince, and heir to the throne of 
SAveden, and the following year he succeeded to Charles 
XIII. of SAveden. Napoleon, then emperor, reluctantly 
consented to this nomination, knowing Avell that B. 
would turn soon an enemy to France. From the in¬ 
stant that he became crown-prince of Siveden, B. showed 
a determination to give all his energies to his adopted 
country; he formed a secret alliance Avith Russia in 1812. | 
and, in 1813, took command of the combined armies of 
N. Germany against France. At no time, during half a 
century before his accession, had Sweden known such 
peace and prosperity as that in which he left her at his 
death in 1844. 

Ber'nadotte, in Illinois, a post-village and township 
of Fulton co., on Spoon River, 65 m. N.W. of Springfield. 



Pig. 344. 

bernacle goose, (Bernicla leucopsis.) 


Bernalillo, a W. central county of New Mexico Ter¬ 
ritory, traversed by the Rio Grande and Rio Puerco, and 
also Avatered by the Zuni and Rio San Jose. Surface, gen¬ 
erally mountainous. Soil, fertile and grain-producing. 

, Cap. Albuquerque. 

—A post-office of the above co.; pop. 745. 

Ber nard, Pierre JosEPH,(or dentil Bernard, as 
he is commonly called after Voltaire,) a French poet; a. 
at Grenoble, 1710. He shoived, at an early age, a great 
taste for poesy, and Avas at first only an attorney’s clerk, 
but afterwards became secretary to Marshal de Coigny, 
who had command of the army of Italy. After the mar¬ 
shal’s death, he obtained a lucrative appointment, and 
was noAV able to indulge his poetic faculties. He wrote an 
opera, Castor and Pollux, which met with jgreat success; 
the Art of Loving, and a number of odes, songs, &c. 
Ilis works were collected and reprinted in 1803. D. 1775. 

Ber'nard.fGreat St..,) (anc. MontJovis,) the name of 
a famous pass of the Pennine Alps, in SAvitzerland, lead¬ 
ing over the mountains from Martigny to Aosta, Savoy. 
In its highest part it attains to an elevation of 8,150 feet, 
being almost impassable in winter, and very dangerous 
in spring, oAving to the avalaliches. Very near the sum¬ 
mit of the pass, and on the edge of a small lake, is the 
celebrated hospice founded by Bernard de Menthon, 
and occupied by brethren of the order of St. Augustine, 
Avhose especial duty it is to assist and relieve travellers 
crossing the mountain. In searching for travellers who 
have lost their Avay, or been buried in the suoav, they avail 



Pig. 345. — CONVENT OF THE GREAT ST. BERNARD. 


themselves of a peculiar breed of dogs of extraordinary 
size and sagacity. The brethren have faithfully dis¬ 
charged the arduous duties imposed upon them, and have 
rescued hundreds of travellers from a premature death. 
The hospice is a massive stone building; it possesses 
some, but not much, independent property, and is prin¬ 
cipally dependent on collections made in the 8aauss can¬ 
tons aud other States, and on donations from the richer 
class of travellers. In 1800, when the road was not 
nearly so good as it has since been made, Napoleon led 
an army of 30,000 men, Avith its artillery and caA T alry, 
into Italy by this pass. The railway at present extends 
to Martigny, at the foot of the Great St. Bernard, and 
on the Italian side to Biella, so that the mountain is 
easily crossed. 

Ber'nard, (I.ittle St—) a mountain of Switzerland, 
one of the range called the Graian (or Grecian) Alps, 
lying betAveen Savoy and Piedmont, and 10 m. S. of 
Mont Blanc. This mountain is",076 feet above sea-level, 
and has an establishment conducted on the same prin¬ 
ciples as the one ©n the Great St. Bernard, only much 
smaller in its details. 

Bernard, St., ( bair'nar .) Abbot of Clairvaux. was 
born of a noble family in Burgundy, in 1091. He was 
carefully trained by pious parents, and sent to study at 
the university of Paris. At the age of 23 he entered the 
recently founded monastery of Citeaux, accompanied by 
his brothers and above twenty of his companions. He 
observed the strictest rules of the order, and so distin¬ 
guished himself by his ability and acquirements that he 
was chosen to lead the colony to Clairvaux, and xvas 
made abbot of the neAv house; an office which he filled 
till his death. His fame attracted a great number of 
novices, many of whom became eminent men. Among 
them AA-as Pope Eugenius III., six cardinals, and many 
bishops. In 1128 he prepared the status for the order 
of Knights Templars. Popes and princes desired his 
support, and submitted their differences to his arbitra¬ 
tion. By his influence Innocent II. was recognized as 
lawful Pope; he had a public debate with Abelard oa 
some doctrines of his philosophy, and procured his con¬ 
demnation ; courageously opposed the doctrine of the 
Immaculate Conception of the Virgin and the festival 
instituted in its honor: Avas founder of 160 monasteries; 
and was the chief promoter of the second crusade. At 
the Council of Vezelai, in 1146, he spoke ac if inspired 
before the king and the nobles of France, and Avith his 
own hand gave them their crosses. He then preached 




























334 


BERN 


BERQ 


BERR 


the crusade in Germany, persuaded the Emperor Conrad 
to join it, and refused the command which was offered 
him. His prediction of success was falsified. St. Bernard 
was the vehement adversary of Arnold of Brescia, and 
procured his banishment from Home and from Zurich. 
He successfully attacked the doctrines of several so-called 
heretics. He steadily refused the offers of several arch¬ 
bishoprics and other dignities, preferring to remain 
abbot only. His character and his writings have earned 
him the titlo of “ Last of the Fathers.” The power, 
tenderness, and simplicity of his sermons and other 
works have secured the admiration of Protestants and 
Catholics alike. Dante introduces him in the last cantos 
of the “ Paradise” with profound reverence and admiring 
love; and Luther studied his writings with the same 
feelings St. Bernard died at Clairvaux in 1163, and was 
canonized in 1174. The best recent biographies of St. 
Bernard are, the German by Neander, and an English 
one by .1. C. Morison. 

Bernardin <te St. Pierre. See St. Pierre. 

Bmiardines, (ber'nardins.) n.pl. {Eccl. Hist.) An 
order of monks named after St. Bernard, a celebrated 
Franciscan friar of the 14th century, by whom the order 
was reformed, but not founded. Their origin dates from 
the 12th century, and they differ little from the Cister¬ 
cians. q. v 

Ber nardin, St., an Italian monk, n. at Massa-Carrara, 
1380, whose courage and charity were conspicuous dur¬ 
ing the plague which ravaged Siena in 1400. In 1404 
he entered the order of Franciscans, and was sent to the 
Holy Land. On his return to Italy he founded above 
300 monasteries He was much respected by the Emperor 
Sigismund, and his eloquence had the most beneficial 
effect on all classes in Italy. D. at Aquila, 1444. He was 
canonized in 1450, his festival being on the 20th of May. 

Bwnard's, in New Jersey, a township of Somerset 
county. 

Hor nardstan, in Massachusetts, a post-township of 
Franklin co., 100 m. W.N.W. of Boston. 

Bev'nardsville. in New Jersey, a post-village of 
Somerset co., 35 miles N.E. of Trenton. 

Bernau, (ber'now,) a town of Prussia, prov. Branden¬ 
burg, on the Panko, 15 m N.E. of Berlin. Man/. Silk, 
velvets, linen, and calicoes. 

Ber'nay, a town of France, dep. Eure, on the Charen- 
tonne. 26 m. W.N.W. of Evreux. Man/. Woollens, lin¬ 
ens, yarns, paper, Sec. Pep. 8.322. 

tlern'hu rg, a town of North Germany, in the duchy 
of Anhalt, on the Saale, 23 m. S. of Magdeburg. It is 
well built and has some manufactories and trade. Pop. 
in 1895, 28,326. 

Berne, or Bern, (bern,) the largest, geographically speak¬ 
ing, of the 19 cantons of Switzerland, and ranking as the 
second in political importance, is bounded on the N by 
the cantons Aargau and Solothurn or Soleure, S. by the 
Valais, E. by Uri, Lucerne, and Unterwalden. and W. by 
Freiburg, Vaud, and the Jura; length, N.W. to S.E., 
82 m.; greatest breadth, 62 m. Area, 2,562 sq. m. Its 
surface is generally mountainous, intersected, however, 
by fine and fertile valleys, as those of the Aar, Hasli, 
Grindelwald,andSimmenthal. Itiswateredby therivers 
Eminen, Simmen, Kander, and Thiel, the tributaries of 
the Aar and Rhine. Its lakes, Neufchatel, Bienne, 
Thun, and Brienz, are formed by the expansion of the 
rivers Thiel and Aar. Prod Grain, hemp, dairy pro¬ 
duce, See. ; agriculture prevailing only to a partial ex¬ 
tent. Man/. Linens, woollens, wire, wooden toys, and 
watches. Cap. Berne. Pop. (1895) 537,000.— B. is one 
of the Protestant cantons, and joined the Swiss Con¬ 
federation, being the eighth canton, in 1352. 

Berne, the chief city of the above canton, was, by the de¬ 
cision of the Council of the Confederation, in 1848, de¬ 
clared to be the political capital of the commonwealth. 
It is a fine, clean, well-built town, on the Aar, 23 m. S. 
of Basle, and possesses many fine public edifices, more 
notably, the Cathedral, erected 1421-1502. The most 
remarkable feature in the town are the arcades, running 
in front of the houses down both sides of the two chief 
streets. The inhabitants are serious and reserved, and 
proud of the ancient glory of their city. The aristocracy, 
or “patricians,” as the old families were called, lived se¬ 
cluded from the other classes. The town has bears for 
its arms; and some of these animals are maintained in 
a place called Barengraben (“ bear’s ditch”), on funds 
appropriated to that special purpose. Man/. Watches, 
wooden clocks, and toys, linen, woollen, and silk fabrics. 
Pop. (1895 ) 47,270.— it. was founded by Duke Berthold 
V. of Zahringen, in 1191, and was made a free and 
imperial city by a charter from the Emperor Frederick 
II. dated May, 1218. 

Bern, in Minnesota, a post-office of Dodge co. 

Bern, in New York, a post-township of Albany co., 22 
m. N. of the latter city. 

Bern, in Ohio, a township of Athens co. 

—A post-township of Fairfield co. 

—A post-office of Noble co. 

Bern, in Pennsylvania, a flourishing township of 
Berks co. 

Bernese', n. sing, and pi. ( Geog .) A native, or natives, 
of Berne. 

—a. Belonging, or relating, to Berne, or its people. 

Bernhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, one of the greatest 
generals of his age. was born in 1604. He entered the 
army, and early distinguished himself. After being en¬ 
gaged in several affairs of minor importance, he joined 
the army of Gustavus Adolphus, in 1631, in the war 
against the House of Austria. He took part in the siege 
of WUrzburg, assisted at the passage of Oppenheim, took 
Mannheim, and drove the enemy from the Palatinate. 
He commenced the conquest of Bavaria, completed the 
Victory of Liitzen after the fall of Gustavus, and drove 


the Austrians from Saxony. He afterwards had a com¬ 
mand subordinate to Marshal Horn, and was harassed 
by intrigues. He took Ratisbon, which was soon lost, 
and, with Horn, was defeated at Nordlingen, in Septem¬ 
ber, 1634. Soon after he accepted a subsidy from the king 
of France, and concerted operations with Richelieu. In 
1638 he won the battle of Rheinfeld, and took Alt-Brei- 
sach. D. 1639. 

Bern'hard’s Bay, in New York, a post-office of Os¬ 
wego co. 

Berni, Francesco, (baiPne,) an eminent Italian poet, b. 
in Tuscany, 1490. He remodelled Boiardo’s Orlando lu- 
namorato, and was the author of Rime Burlesche. The 
gracefulness and purity of his diction have been seldom 
equalled; his humor, though broad, is not low; and 
though his themes or allusions are often licentious, his 
works display many traits of moral feeling, which would 
do no discredit to a better age. D. 1536. 

Bernier, Francois, ( bair'ne-ai ,) a French traveller and 
physician, whose account of his travels was much appre¬ 
ciated; as he visited countries before unknown to Euro¬ 
peans, and threw considerable light on the state of In¬ 
dia up to the time of Aurungzebe, at whose court he re¬ 
sided twelve years, during eight of which he held the 
appointment of physician to the emperor. He was a 
favorite of the emir Danichmand, who took him to Cash- 
mere; and on his return to France, Bernier publisued 
his travels and philosophical works. D. 1688. 

Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo, (bair-ne’ni,) called II Cava- 
liere B, was b. in Naples, 1598, and obtained among 
his contemporaries the reputation of being the modern 
Michael Angelo, on account of his success as painter, 
statuary, and architect. At the age of 18, he produced 
the Apollo and Daphne, in marble, a masterpiece of 
graco and execution. Being appointed architect of Ur¬ 
ban VIII., he executed many works in St. Peter’s; built 
the Palace Barberini and the Campanile of St. Peter’s; 
visited Paris in 1665, his journey being a triumphal pro¬ 
cession; at 70 executed the monument of Alexander 
VII., and ten years later sculptured the figure of Christ 
in bas-relief for Queen Christina, continuing in the inde¬ 
fatigable pursuit of his art, as sculptor and architect, 
till the period of his death, in 1680. 

Bor'iiis, Francois Joachim de Pierre, Cardinal de, a 
French poet, patronized by Mad. de Pompadour. lie 
was sent as ambassador to Rome, and at length arrived 
at the dignity of cardinal. B. 1715 ; d. 1794. 

B pr'non. in Rhode Island, a village of Woonsocket 
township, Providence co., about 12 m. N. of Providence. 

Bernouilli, Jacques, (bair-noo-eel'e,) a distinguished 
mathematician, b. at Basle, 1654. He was destined for 
the Reformed Church, but his inclination led him to the 
study of mathematics, which he pursued privately, and 
without any assistance but from books, in 1676 he set 
out on his travels, and at Geneva devised a method of 
teaching a blind girl to write. He wrote a treatise on 
the comet, which appeared in 1680, and soon after went 
to Holland, where he studied the new philosophy. He 
returned to Basle in 1682, and read lectures on experi¬ 
mental philosophy and mechanics. About 1684, Leib¬ 
nitz published, in the Acta Eruditorum at Leipsic, 
some essays on his new calculus differentialis, but with¬ 
out discovering the method. Bernouilli, however, and 
his brother, discovered the secret, and were highly 
praised by Leibnitz. His works were printed at Geneva, 
1741. D. 1705. 

Bernouilli, Jean, brother of the above, and like him 
an eminent mathematician, b. 1667. In 1695, he was 
appointed professor of mathematics at Groningen, and 
on the death of James he returned to Basle, where he 
succeeded him in the professorship of mathematics. In 
1714 he published a treatise on the management of ships; 
and in 1730, his memoir on the elliptical figure of the 
planets gained the prize of the Academy of Sciences. 
His writings were published at Geneva in 1742. D. 1748. 

Bernouilli, Dani,el, son of the last-named, and, like his 
father and uncle, highly skilled in mathematics. Among 
his works is to be noted the Traite de Hydrodinamique, 
the first treatise on that subject. He was member of 
the academies of Paris, Berlin, and St. Petersburg, and 
f.r.s. of Loudon; b. 1700; d. 1782.—Other members of this 
family were also distinguished for their mathematical 
attainments, and it is stated that the list of foreign as¬ 
sociates of the French Academy of Sciences constantly 
included the name of B. from 1699 to 1790. 

Bernouse', n. See Burnous. 

Bernstatlt, (bern'stat,) a town of Prussia, prov. Silesia, 
reg. of Breslau, on the Wida, 24 m. E. of Breslau. Man/. 
Cloth and linen. 

Beriistorft", Johann IIartwio Ernst, Count, a cele¬ 
brated statesman in the service of the king of Denmark, 
b. at Hanover, 1712. He was employed in divers embas¬ 
sies, and afterwards held the office of foreign minister to 
Frederick V. for about 20 years, resigning in 1770. D. 
1772. 

Bernstorff. Andreas Peter, Count, nephew of the above, 
and also in the service of the king of Denmark. He 
was appointed prime minister in 1769, when he ceded 
to Russia the Gottorp part of Holstein in exchange for 
Oldenburg and Delmenhorst. He introduced a new sys¬ 
tem of finance, and prepared the abolition of villanage 
in Schleswig and Holstein. B. 1735. D. 1797. 

Bern'ville, in Pennsylvania, a village of Berks co., 
on Tulpehocken Creek, 12 m. N.W. of Reading. 

Beroe, ( ber'o-e,) n. [Fr. berde; Gr. beron, one of the 
Oceanid®.] (Zoul.) The Cydippe pilous, a small marine 
animal belonging to the class Acaleph.i:, q. o. 

Berquin, Arnauld, an elegant French writer, B. 1749. 
He is chiefly known as the author of L’Ami des En/ans 
(The Children’s Friend), and other interesting works for 
children. D. 1791. 


Ber'rie, in Ohio, a thriving township of Athens co. 

Berried (bePid), a. ( Bot.) Furnished with or hav¬ 
ing, berries. 

Ber'rien, in Georgia, a S. co. Area, about 750 sq. m. 
The Allapaha bounds it on theE., and the Little river 
on the W. Cap. Nashville. Pop. (1898) 11,200. 

—A village of Heard co., 8 miles W.S.W. of Franklin. 

Ber'rien, in Michigan, a S.W. co. bordering on Indiana 
and Lake Michigan. Area, about 600 sq. m. It is 
watered by Galien, Pawpaw, and St. Joseph’s rivers. 
Surface. Diversified. Soil. Generally fertile. Products, 
corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, wool, hay, pork, fruits, Ac. 
Has some manufactures. Cap. St. Joseph. Pop. (1898) 
47,890. 

—A township in the above co. 

Ber'rien Cen'tre, in Georgia, a P. 0. of Berrien co. 

Ber'rien Spring's, in Michigan, a post-village, for¬ 
mer cap. of Berrien co., on St. Joseph river, 15 m. S.E. 
of Benton Harbor. Is in a prosperous farming and 
fruit-growing region : has medicinal springs, and is a 
favorite summer resort. Pop. (1898 ) 850. 

Berry, ( ber're ,) n. (Bot.) See Bacca. 

—A mound. See Barrow. 

—One of the ova or eggs of a fish. 

In berry. Impregnated with ova or spawn. 

— v. i . To bear or produce berries. 

— v. a. To impregnate with eggs or spawn. 

Berry, (bair'e,) an ancient province of France, now 
forming the departments of Cher and Indre, q. v. It gave 
title at various times to French princes, the younger son 
of Charles X. being the last who held it. 

Ber'ry , C iroline Ferdinande Louise, Duchesse de, b. at 
Naples, 1798, was the daughter of Ferdinand I., king of 
Naples and Sicily,and was married(1816) to the Duke of 
Berry, the 2d son of Charles X. He was assassinated on a 
Sunday, while handing the duchess to a carriage as she 
came out of the opera-house. She passed through a 
variety of troubles, and in 1830, after the French revolu¬ 
tion, accompanied Charles X. to Holyrood Palace, in 
Edinburgh. In 1832. a movement in La Vendee took 
place in her favor, which was speedily suppressed. She 
was in hiding at Nantes, when, being betrayed by a con¬ 
verted Jew, she was found in a small hole behind a stove, 
where she had been enclosed for sixteen hours, and was 
carried to the castle of Blaye. In 1833 she was released, 
having re-married a son of the Prince of Lucchesi-Palli, 
with whom she retired to Sicily. D. 1870. 

Berry, in Wisconsin, a tnriving township of Dano 
county. 

Ber'ryman, in Illinois, a township of Jo Daviess 
county. 

Ber'ryshnrgh, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of 
Dauphin co., 39 m. N. of Harrisburg. Coal is plentifu* 

here. 

Berry's Ferry, in Kentucky, a post-office of Livings¬ 
ton co. 

Berry’s Fick, in Kentucky, a P. 0. of Butler co. 

Berry's Mill, in Maine, a P. 0. of Franklin co. 

Berry's Mill, in Kentucky, a village of Union co. 

Ber'rysville, in Indiana, a township of Knox co., 16 
m. E. by S. of Vincennes. 

Ber'rysville, in Ohio, a post-village of Highland co., 
6 m. S.E. of Hillsborough. 

Ber'ryton, in Illinois, a post-village of Cass co., about 
30 m. W.N.W. of Springfield. 

Berry town, in Delaware, a village of Kent co., 14 m. S. 
by W. of Dover. 

Ber'ry ville, in Arkansas, a post-village, cap. of Carroll 
co., 44 m. N.E. of Fayetteville. Pop. (1898) 750. 

Berry ville, in Mississippi, a village of Scott co., 40 m. 
E. by N. of Jackson. 

Berry ville, in Missouri, a post-office of Pettis co. 

Berry ville, in Virginia, a post-town, cap. of Clark co., 
on Nor. & West. R.R., 12 m. E. of Winchester, and 60 
m. W.N.W. of Washington, D. C. Pop. (1898) 765. 

Berry er, Pierre Antoine, (bair're-ai,) the most distin¬ 
guished French advocate of modern times, was B. in 
Paris, 1790. His father, an advocate of the Paris bar, 
confided him to the care of the Oratonens of Juilly, 
where he proved a turbulent and indolent pupil, at the 
same time showing sufficient intelligence and piety to 
reconcile him to his teachers. It was his desire to be¬ 
come a priest; but yielding to the wishes of his father, 
he pursued the study of the law with the greatest ardor. 
Earnestly attached to the cause of Legitimacy, he pro¬ 
claimed, in 1814, in presence of the magistrates and law 
students of Rennes, the fall of Napoleon, and mounted 
the white cockade. A tumult ensued, and the prefect 
ordered the arrest of the author, who fortunately es¬ 
caped to Nantes. B was one of the royal volunteers, 
who took arms during the Hundred Days, to support 
the ancient dynasty, and to avert the mischief of a 
second invasion. At the Restoration he exerted himself 
energetically to moderate the spirit of Bourbon rule, and 
defended Marshal Ney. He always pointed out the 
dangers of reaction. Even in defending the cause of 
the royalists, he professed the maxims of a wise liberty, 
and protested against every attempt at corruption and 
vengeance. His pleadings for Lamennais in 1833, for 
Audrey de Puyraveau and Voyer D'Argenson in 1834, 
and for Prince Louis Napoleon in 1840,breathe the s-’ine 
spirit of frankness and liberality. B. entered the Cham¬ 
ber of Deputies for the dep. of the Haute Loire in 1830, 
and was the brilliant organ, but not the passive instru¬ 
ment, of his party. After the fall of the Bourbons he 
remained in France to watch over the Interests of the 
dynasty. To prove his fidelity to his party, be paid a 
visit to Charles X.,at Goritz, in 1836, and anotner to the 
Count de Chambord, in London. In the republican as¬ 
semblies which followed the revolution of Feb., 1848, B. 
confined himself chiefly to questions of finance and ad 








BERT 


BERT 


BERY 


335 


ministration. Faithful to the principles of parliamentary 
rule, he took an active part in the reunion of the 10th 
arrondissement,where the National Assembly proclaimed 
the fall of the President. Since the coup d'etat, he took 
no part in politics, except by his participation in the 
attempts for a fusion of the two branches of the Bour¬ 
bons. In Feb., 1852. B. was elected a member of the 



French Academy, and his inaugural speech contained 
some allusions to the degradation of the Lower Empire, 
and was on that account obnoxious to the government 
of Napoleon III., who ordered its suppression. In less 
than 24 hours, however, the interdict was removed. In 
the midst of political agitations, B. still maintained his 
position as the first advocate at the French bar. The 
more recent displays of his forensic talents were in 1858, 
when he defended the Count de Montalembert, and in 
1860-61, in the case of Patterson vs. Bonaparte. In 
conjunction with Thiers, and other members of the 
monarchical party, B. determined, in 1863, to offer him¬ 
self as a candidate for the Corps Legislatif. a step which 
necessitated his acknowledging the government of the 
emperor, and taking the oath of allegiance. He was 
elected, and by his firm attitude in behalf of moderate 
progress, and some brilliant specimens of oratory, made 
his influence, and that of his small though growing 
party, sensibly felt at the Tuileries and throughout the 
nation. In 1864, while on a visit to Lord Brougham, B. 
was entertained at a banquet given in his honor by the 
English bar, in the hall of the Middle Temple, London. 
B was the apostle of free education in France, and was 
esteemed, in Paris, more than a prince, minister of state, 
or marshal of France. From the palace of the Tuileries 
to the workshop of the artisan —everywhere, and in 
every station of life, his admirers were numbered by 
myriads. His eloquence was so complete that he became 
the popular advocate of an unpopular cause. Separated 
in everything else, the salons of the Faubourg St. Ger¬ 
main, and the counting-houses of the Faubourg St. An¬ 
toine, were united to listen to and applaud this great 
orator. D. Nov. 29,1868. 

Bers, n. A sort of electuary, composed of pepper, seed 
of the white hyoscyamus, opium, euphorbium, saffron, 
&c. The Egyptians used it as an excitant. 

Bersaglieri, ( ber'salryair'i ,) n. pi. [It.] A corps of 
riflemen or sharpshooters, introduced into the Sardinian 
army by General Della Marmora, about the year 1849. 
They took part in the Russian war, and assisted at the 
battle of the Tchernaya, 16th Aug., 1855. They were 
also employed in the Italian wars of 1859 and ’ 66 . They 
Dumber nearly 50,000 men. 

Ber'serlier, n. ( Scandinavian Myth.') A redoubtable 
hero, the grandson of the eight-handed Starkader 
and the beautiful Alfhilde. He despised mail and hel¬ 
met, and, contrary to the custom of those times, went 
always into battle unharnessed, his fury serving him in¬ 
stead of defensive armor. By the daughter of King 
Swafurlam, whom he had slain in battle, he had twelve 
sons, who inherited the name of B., along with his war¬ 
like spirit. 

Berth, n. [See Birth.] ( Naut.) A station in which a 
ship rides at anchor; convenient sea-room to moor a 
ship.—A sleeping-room in a ship for officers, passengers, 
or crew. 

.—Office; situation; employment; as, “He has a good 
berth.” 

A wide berth. (Naut.) To keep at a distance from the 
land, or from another vessel; as, “ to give it a wide berth.” 

— v. a. To give or find anchorage-ground, or a discharging- 
station for a ship; as, she was berthed in the East India 
Docks. — To allot to each seaman a place for his ham¬ 
mock ; as, to berth a ship's company. 

Ber'tha, the name of several famous women of the 
Middle Ages, half historical, half fabulous, (seeBERCHTA.) 
St. Bertha, whose day is kept on the 4th July, Avas the 
beautiful and pious daughter of Charibert, king of the 
Franks, Avho, having married (560 a. d.) iEthelbert, king 
of Kdut, became the means of his conversion, and of 
the spread of Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons. In 
the romances of the Charlemagne cycle, there figures a 
Bertha, called also Berthrada with the Big Foot, as the 
daughter of Count Charibert of Laon, wife of Pepin the 
Little, and mother of Charlemagne. In the romances of 
the Round Table, again, Bertha is the name of a sister 


of Charlemagne, who makes Milo d’Anglesis the father 
of Roland. Better known is Bertha, daughter of Burk- 
hard, Duke of the Allemanui, and wife of Rudolf II., 
king of Burgundy beyond Jura, who, after Rudolf’s death 
(937), acted as regent for her infant son, Konrad; she 
afterwards married Hugo, kiug of Italy; and died to¬ 
wards the close of the 10th century. This queen had the 
characterof beiugan excellent housekeeper, and is repre¬ 
sented on seals and other monuments of the time as sit¬ 
ting on her throne spinning. 

Berthier, Alexandre, ( bair'te-ai ,) Prince of Neuf- 
chatel and Wagram, b. at Versailles, 1753. Having ob¬ 
tained a commission in a regiment of Dragoons, be 
served in the American revolutionary war, in which ho 
acquired considerable reputation. During the French 
Revolution he became commandant of the national 
guard at Versailles, and in this situation he exerted 
himself to check the excesses of the populace. During 
the reign of terror he served under La Fayette, and 
afterwards under Bonaparte, in his first Italian cam¬ 
paign. From this time he accompanied Napoleon in 
all his campaigns as chief of staff; for which posi¬ 
tion he was eminently fitted, though as a general 
his talents were not above mediocrity. In 1803 he 
married a Bavarian princess. In 1805 he was created a 
marshal of the empire, grand huntsman of the empire, 
and chief of the first cohort of the Legion of Honor. In 
1806 he became Prince of Neufchatel, and in 1809 Prince 
of Wagram. In 1810 he officiated as Napoleon’s proxy 
in the marriage of Maria Louisa. On the restoration of 
Louis XVIIl.be accepted the situation of captain of one 
of the companies of the gardes-du-corps. On the re¬ 
turn of Napoleon he retired to Bamberg, where, on the 
20th of March, 1S15, he died by falling from a window, 
from which he was surveying the entrance of the Rus¬ 
sian troops into the town. His death is enveloped in 
mystery, as it has been asserted by some that he was 
thrown from the window by force, though it does not 
appear that there is any sufficient authority for that 
supposition. 

Berthier, a N.W. co. of prov. of Quebec, on the St. 
Lawrence. Area, 9.500 sq in. It is watered by the 
Assumption and other smaller rivers. Lake Maskin- 
onge is in the N.E. part of the co. Prod. Flax, oats, 
and tobacco. Cup. Berthier-en-Haut. Pop. 19,804. 

Bertliier-en-Bas. or Bellechas.se de Berthier, a 
post-vill. of prov. of Quebec, co. of Bellechasse, on the 
right bank of the St. Lawrence, 24 m. S.W. of Quebec. 

Berthier-eii-IIaiit, a post-vill. of prov. of Quebec, 
co. Berthier, on the N. bank of the St. Lawrence, abt. 
65 m. N.E of Montreal 

Berthollet, Claude Louis, ( bair'tnl-ai ,) Count, one of 
the most eminent chemists of his age, was b. in Savoy, 
1748, and studied medicine at Turin. He afterwards 
settled in Paris, where he became intimate with Lavoi¬ 
sier, was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences, 
and made a professor at the normal school. He accom¬ 
panied Napoleon to Egypt; and, during the Empire, was 
made a senator and an officer of the Legion of Honor; 
but he was one of the first to desert his patron, when 
his fortunes were on the decline; and he received the 
title of Count from Louis XVIII. His principal work 
is Essai de Statique Chimique, 1803 : but he wrote many 
other valuable essays, and also had a large share in the 
reformation of chemical nomenclature. D. 1822. 

Bertholie'tia, n. (But.) A genus of plants, order 
Lecythidacece, so named iu honor of Berthollet, q.v. The 
only species known is B. excelsa, a tree 100 to 120 feet 
high, forming large forests on the banks of the Oronoko. 
Its stem does not branch till near the top, whence its 
boughs hang down in a graceful manner. Its leaves are 
undivided, arranged alternately upon the branches, 
about two feet long, and five or six inches wide, of a 
brilliant green. Its flowers are yellowish-white, with a 
calyx having a deciduous border, divided into two pieces, 
a corolla of six unequal petals joined together at the 
base, and a very great number of white stamens joined 
into a thick fleshy ring. The fruit, chiefly known in the 
trade as Brazil-nut, also under the name of Castanha, 
Juvia, Para nut, Almendron, &c., is a spherical case, as 
big as a man’s head, 
with four cells, in each 
of which are six or 
eight nuts; its shell is 
rugged and furrowed, 
and covered with a 
rind of a green color. 

The nuts are irregu¬ 
larly triangular bod¬ 
ies, having a hard 
shell, which is very 
much wrinkled, and 
which is fixed to a cen¬ 
tral placenta by their 
lower end; their seed 
is a firm almond, of 
a pure white color, 
yielding a quantity of 
oil well suited for lamps; but the kernels are chiefly ex¬ 
ported as articles of food. They are delicious when quite 
fresh, but are very apt to become rancid. 

Bert'houcl, or Bergdorf, a town of Switzerland, cant. 
Berne, on the Emmen, 13 m. N.E. of Berne. In the 
castle here, Pestalozzi laid the foundation of his educa¬ 
tional system. B is the depot for the celebrated Em- 
menthal cheese. Pop. 4,675. 

Ber'tie, in N. Carolina, a N.E. co., at the W. extremity 
of Albemarle Sound; bounded E. by the Chowan, and S. 
by the Roanoke River, and drained by Cashie River ; 
area, about 900 sq. m.; surface nearly level; soil fertile; 
cap. Windsor. ~ 



Pig. 347. — BRAZIL NUT. 


Bertino'ro, a town of Central Italy, prov. Forli, 7 m. 
S.E. of the latter town, on the railway from Bologna to 
Ancona. Excellent wines are produced in its environs. 
Pop. 6,615. 

Ber tram, in Iowa, a post-township of Linn co., 18 m. 
S.W. of Cairo. 

Bertrand, Henri, Count, (ber-tron',) a distinguished 
French general, and the companion in exile of Napoleon 
I., b. 1770. He would have earned a bright name on the 
page of history merely by his military achievements 
during the wars of the first empire, were not those 
achievements cast comparatively into the shade by the 
steadfast fidelity with which he clung to Napoleon — 
aiding that great soldier to gain some of his most splen¬ 
did victories, covering him when in retreat and peril, as 
alter the murderous affair of Hanau; following him in 
his exile to Elba; returning with him to share all the 
perils of Waterloo, and, finally, the long martyrdom of St. 
Helena. After the death of Napoleon, B. returned to 
France, and was wisely restored to all his dignities by 
Louis XVIII. In 1830, he was appointed commander of 
the Polytechnic School; and b>uk part, in 1840, in the 
expedition which brought back the remains of Napoleon 
to France. D. 1844. 

Bertrand tin Gnesclin. See Duguesclin. 
Bertrand', in Michigan, a post-village and township 
of Berrien co., on St Joseph’s River, 14 m. S.S.E. of 
Berrien. 

Bertrand', in Missouri, a village of Mississippi co., 18 
ni. S.W. of Cairo. 

Bertrand Prairie, in Louisiana, a post-office of 
Winn parish. 

Ber'tying', n. (Naut.) The rising up of a ship’s sides. 
Bervic, Charles Clement Balvay, (bair’vec,) a French 
engraver, B at Paris, 1756. His best engravings are: 
The Laocoon ; Education of Achilles; Rape of Dejanira; 
and, above all, the full-length engraving of Louis XVI. 
from the picture by Callet, one of the finest works of the 
kind ever produced. D. 1822. 

Ber'ville, in Michigan, a post-office of St Clair co. 
Ber'wick, James Fitzjames, Duke of, (ber'rik,) b. 1670, 
was a natural son of James II., king of England, and 
Arabella Churchill, sister of the Duke of Marlborough. 
His first military service was under Charles, Duke of 
Lorraine, in Hungary, and he was present at the siege 
of Buda, and the battle of Mohacz. He was created Duke 
of Berwick in 1687; accompanied James II. to France, 
at the Revolution, served under him in Ireland, and was 
at the battle of the Boyne. He became lieutenant-gen¬ 
eral in the French army, was naturalized in France, after¬ 
wards commanded in Spain, and by the victory of Al¬ 
manza secured the throne to Philip V. He especially 
distinguished himself by the defence of Provence and 
Dauphiny in 1709, against the superior forces of the Duke 
of Savoy, which has always been regarded as a triumph 
of strategic skill. He was killed at the siege of Philips- 
burg, in 1734. He left memoirs of his own life. 

Ber wick, a maritime county of Scotland, having 

N. and N.E. Haddingtonshire and the German Ocean, 
S.E., S., and W. the English border, and the counties of 
Roxburgh and Edinburgh. Area, 302,951 acres. Farm¬ 
ing is carried on here in the most prosperous and im¬ 
proved manner; agriculture monopolizing the entire 
industry of this wealthy county. It is watered by the 
Tweed, and other rivers. Cap. Greenlaw. Pop. 36,474. 

Ber'wick-npon-Tweed, a fortified town and sea¬ 
port of Great Britain, situated between England and 
Scotland, and belonging to neither, — forming, as it is 
called, the “ town and county of Berwick-upon-Tweed,” — 
lies on the N. bank of the Tweed, 47 m. E.S.E. of Edin¬ 
burgh. It is a fine, well-built, and ancient town, pos¬ 
sessing an extensive commerce, and much engaged in 
the fisheries. B. was for centuries an object of conten¬ 
tion between the English and the Scots, each people by 
turns occupying and possessing it, until the accession of 
James I. to the English throne. 

Ber'wick, in Illinois, a flourishing post-village and 
township of Warren county, about 15 m. S.S.W. of 
Galesburg. 

Ber'w'ick, in Louisiana, a village of St. Mary’s parish, 
on the W. bank of the Atcliafalaya, 80 m. W. by S. of 
New Orleans. 

Ber'wick, in Maine, a flourishing township of York 
county. 

Ber'w ick, in Ohio, a village of Marion co., on the Sci¬ 
oto River, about 6 m. S.W. of Marion. 

—A post-village of Seneca co., 9 m. S.W. of Tiffin. 
Ber'wick, in Pennsylvania, a township of Adams 
county. 

—A post-borough of Briar Creek township, Columbia co., 
on the N. branch of the Susquehanna River, 95 m. N.N.E. 
of Harrisburg. Iron and coal ores are abundant in the 
neighborhood. 

—A borough in the above township, also known under the 
name of Abbottstown, its post-office. 

Ber'yl, n. [Gr. beryllion; Lat. beryllus; probably from 

O. Hob. bahar, to be pure, clear, bright.] (Min.) A variety 
of emerald, q. v.,both being double silicates of alumina 
and glucina, and differing only in their coloring-matter, 
which is oxide of iron in the B., and oxide of chromium 
in the emerald. It is a precious stone, sometimes yellow¬ 
ish, occasionally almost colorless, but more often of a 
greenish-blue tinge, and then called also Aquamarina. 
From its lovely color and great hardness, B. is much 
valued as a jewel, although not so much as the emerald. 
Its finest crystals come from Brazil and Siberia. — The 
opaque or common B. is greenish or yellowish white, 
and is found in N. America, in prisms 4 feet long, their 
planes being 5 inches in breadth. — B. occurs chiefly in 
veins that traverse granite or gneiss, or is imbedded in 
granite. 


N 









336 


BESI 


BESS 


BEST 


lsCT a. Like a beryl; of alight or bluish green. 

Beryl'liuin, n . See Glucinum. 

Berze'Iia, in Georgia, a post-village of Columbia co., 
20 m. W. of Augusta. 

Berzelius, Johann Jakob, Baron, ( ber-ze'le-us ,) one of 
the greatest chemists of modern times, b. 1779, in Ost- 
gothland, Sweden, where his father kept a village-school. 
After graduating at Upsal, in 1804, he repaired to Stock¬ 
holm, where he became an assistant to Sparrmann, who 
had accompanied Captain Cook in one of his voyages 
around the world; and at his death. in 1806, he succeeded 
him in the chair of Chemistry, which he continued to 
fill for forty-two years. His patient labors and ingenious 
investigations have done more to lay the foundations of 
organic chemistry than those of any other chemist. To 
him pre-eminently belongs the honor of applying the 
great principles which had been established by Dalton, 
Davy, Gay-Lussac, and himself, in inorganic chemistry, 
to the study of the laws which regulate the combinations 
forming .he structuresof the animal and vegetable king¬ 
doms ; uud of thus opening the way for the discoveries 
of Mulder, Liebig, Dumas, and others. To him, chemistry 
is indebted for the discovery of several new elementary 
bodies, more especially selenium, thorium, and cerium; 
and to his skill as a manipulator may be traced many 
of the analytical processes at present in use. All the 
scientific societies of the world contended for the honor 
of enrolling his name among their members. D. 1848. 

Bessiii£on (bai-sang'sawng,) a town of France, cap. 
of the dep. Doubs, on the river of the same name, 45 m. 
E. of Dijon. The town is very strongly fortified, and is 
one of the bulwarks of France on the side of Switzerland. 
B. is generally well built, but the streets are narrow 
and gloomy. It is the seat of an archbishopric. Watch¬ 
making is the most important branch of industry. In 
1875 B. turned out 419,684, and in 1876, 455,968 watches. 
B. is very ancient. It was laid waste by Attila, and 
has since undergone many vicissitudes. It came, along 
with Fra he Comte, into the possession of France in 
1674. 

Bosayl©', n. [Nor. Fr. besayle; W. Fr. bisa'ieul. — See 
Ayle.] A great-grandfather. — (Eng. Law.) A writ, now 
abolished, which lay where a great-grandfather died, 
seized of land, and on the day of his death, a stranger 
abated or entered and kept the heir out. 

Bescrawl', v. a. To scrawl or scribble over, (o.) 

Bescreen', v.a. To cover with a screen; to shelter; 
to conceal. 

“ What man art thou, that, thus bescreen'd in night, 

So stumble8t on my counsel." — Shaks. 

Bescrifo'fole, v. a. [be and scribble.] To scribble over. 

Beseech', v. a., (imp. and pp. besought.) [A.S. be, and 
secan, to seek.] To -?ek from; to ask or pray with ur¬ 
gency; to entreat; to implore. 

4 * I, in the anguish of my he» r t, beseech you 
To quit the dreadful purpose of your soul."— Addison . 

—To beg; to petition; to solicit; to ask. 

"Before I come to them, I beseech your patience."— Bishop Sprat. 

Beseech'er, n. A person who beseeches. 

Beseech ingly, aUv. Ic beseeching manner. 

Beseech'nieiit, n. Act of earnestly entreating or be¬ 
seeching. 

Beseem', v. a. [Ger. ziemen, geziemen, to be suited, to 
behoove; Swed. and Goth, scema, to become.] To be¬ 
come ; to be fit; to be fitting for; to be worthy of, or 
decent for. 

“ What form of speech, or behaviour, beseemeth us in our prayers 
to Almighty God ? "— Hooker. 

Beseem'ing;, n. Fitness ; handsomeness. 

— a. Appropriate; fit; handsome. 

“ Verona’s ancient citizens 
Cast by their brave beseeming ornaments."— Shaks. 

Beseem'ingly, adv. In a beseeming manner. 

Beseeming''ness^ n. Act or quality of being be¬ 
seeming. 

Beseem'ly, a. Suitable; becoming: fit: orderly. 

Beset', v. a. (pret. and pp. beset.) [A.S. besettan — be 
for by, and settan, to set or place.] To set upon; to sur¬ 
round. 

—To block me, besiege, waylay, hem in. 

“ And therefore hated, therefore so beset. 

For daring single to be just."— Milton. 

—To entangle ; to embarrass; to perplex; to press on all 
sides, without any means of escape. 

44 Draw forth thy weapon, we ’re beset with thieves."— Shaks. 

Beset'ment, n. The state or condition of being be¬ 
set. (r.) 

Beset'ting, v. a. Surrounding; besieging; waylaying; 
entangling, without probable means of escape; pressing 
upon; as, a besetting foible. 

Beshrew', v. a. To wish a curse to. 

44 Nay, quoth the Cock, but I beshrew us both, 

If I believe a saint upon his oath." — Dryden. 

Beshroud'ed, a. Shrouded; covered with a shroud. 

Beside', Besides', prep. By or at the side of; near. 

44 T ,4 e sweetest thing that ever grew 
Bieide a human door." — Wordsworth. 

—Out of the straight course or order; out of; not accord¬ 
ing to. 

44 It is beside my present business to enlarge upon this specula¬ 
tion."— Locke. 

— Over an : above; distinct from. (Generally written be¬ 
sides.) 

44 Doubtless, in man there is a nature found, 
beside the senses, and above them far." — Davies. 

— adv. By the side of; placed at the side of; in addition 
to; moreover; over and above; except; not included in 
the number. 

44 Besides, you know not, while you here attend, 

Th‘ unworthy fate of your unhappy friend." — Dryden. 


Besiege', v. a. To lay siege to; to surround with armed 
forces; to beset; to invest; to hem in. 

“ The queen ... intends here to besiege you in your castle." Shaks. 

Besiege'ment, n. State of being besieged. 

Besieger, (be-se'jur,) n. One who lays siege to; one 
employed in a siege. 

44 There is hardly a town taken, in the common forms, where 
the besiegers have not the worst of the bargain.” — Swift. 

Besieg'iiijffly, adv. In a besieging manner. 

Beslab'ber, v. a. Same as Beslaver. 

Beslav'er, v. a. To defile or cover with slaver; to be- 
slabber. 

Beslob'ber, Beslub'ber. v.a. [6c and slobber, 
slubber.] To soil, daub, or smear with spittle or saliva. 
(Used in a vulgar sense.) 

Besmear', v. a. To smear over; to bedaub ; to coat or 
overspread with anything greasy, adhesive, or dirty ; to 
soil. 

44 Her gushing blood th pavement all besmear'd.' — Dryden. 

Besmear'er, n. One who besmears. 

Besmoke', v. a. [be and smote.] To foul with smoke.— 
To harden or dry in smoke. 

Besmut', v. a. [A. S. besmytan.] To blacken or befoul 
with soot. 

Besnow', v.a. To cover with snow; to make white 
as with snow. 

Besntift - ', v. a. To render unclean by snuff-taking. 

Besom. (be'zom,)n. [A.S. besm, besma, pi. besman, rods, 
twigs; 0. Ger. besamo; Ger. besen.] A bundle or brush 
of twigs or rushes bound together for sweeping; a broom. 

44 A proud young fellow came to him for a besom upon trust." 

Bacon. 

— v. a. To sweep or brush, as with a besom. 

Be'somer, n. A person who uses a besom. 

Besort', v.a. [6c and sort.] To suit; to fit; to become. 

44 Such men as may besort your age, 

And know themselves aud you " — Shaks. 

Besot', v. a. To make sottish; to infatuate; to stupefy; 
to make dull or senseless. 

44 Or fools besotted with their crimes. 

That know not how to shift betimes. 4 — Hudibras. 

—To make ; to doat on. (r.) 

"• Paris, you speak 

Like one besotted on your sweet delights.' — Shaks. 

Besot'tedly, adv. In a foolish or besotted manner. 

Besot'tedness, n. Infatuation ; foolishness. 

Besot'tingly, adv. In an infatuated or besotted 
manner. . 

Besought', pp. of Beseech, q v. 

Bespang le, ( be-spang’gl,) v. a. To adorn with span¬ 
gles : to dot or sprinkle with something brilliant or 
shining. 

44 Not Berenice’s locks first rose so bright, 

The heav’us bespangling with dishevell’d light." — Pope. 

Bespat'ter, v. a. To spatter over; to soil with mud, 
filth, &c. 

44 His weapons are the same which women and children use: a 
pin to scratch, aud a squirt to bespatter ." — Swift. 

—To asperse with calumny or reproach. 

44 Fair Britain, in the monarch blest 
Whom never faction could bespatter." — Swift. 

Bespawl', v. a. [6e and spawl.] To daub or soil with 
spittle. 

Bespeak', v.a. (imp. bespoke; pp. bespoke, bespoken.) 
To speak, utter, show, or declare; to address. 

44 At length with indignation thus he broke 
His awful silence, and the powers bespoke." — Dryden. 

—To speak for, order, or engage beforehand. 

44 Here is the cap your worship did bespeak." — Shaks. 

—To indicate or show beforehand; to forebode. 

44 They started fears, bespoke dangers, and form'd ominous prog¬ 
nostics in order to scare the allies." — Swift. 

—To betoken; to show; to indicate by outward appearance. 

44 He has dispatch'd me hence. 

With orders that bespeak a mind compos'd.' — Addison. 

Bespeak', n. A term used to signify a special perform¬ 
ance in a theatre for the benefit of one of the com¬ 
pany; as, 44 Miss Snivellici’s bespeak.” — Dickens. 

Bespeak'er, n. One who bespeaks. 

Bespeckle, ( be-speck'l,) v. a. To mark with speckles 
or spots. 

Bespew', v. a. To daub with spew or vomit. 

Bespice', v. a. To season with spices. 

“ Thou raight’st bespice a cup, 

To give mine enemy a lasting wink. ' — Shaks. 

Bespirt', Bespurt,', v. a. To spirt over, (o.) 

Bespit', v. a. [be and spit.] To daub with spittle. 

Bespoke', imp. and pp. of Bespeak, q. v. 

Bespot', v. a. To mark with spots. 

Bespread', v. a. To spread over; to cover over. 

44 His nuptial bed, 

With curious needles wrought, and painted flowers bespread." 

Dryden. 

Besprent', p.a. [0. Eng. besprengyd.) Sprinkled over. 

44 What gentle ghost, besprent with April dew, 

Hails me so solemnly to yonder yew ?" — Ben Jonson. 

Besprin'kle, v. a. To sprinkle over, to scatter over. 

44 A purple flood 

The bed besprinkles, and bedews the ground. 4 — Dryden. 

Besprink'Ier, n. One who, or that which, sprinkles 
over. 

Besprinklings, n. pi. Sprinklings of any liquid. 

Bessarabia, ( oes'sa-rai'be-a ,) or Eastern Moldavia, 
the most S.W. part of Russia in Europe, having E. 
the Dniester, S. the Black Sea and the Danube, W. 
the Pruth, and N. Galicia. Lat. between 44° 45' and 
48° 40' N., and Lon. between 26° 95' and 30° 30' E.; 
area, 18,018 sq. m. The N. is somewhat mountainous 
and well-wooded, but the S. consists of plains, in many 


places sandy and arid, in others marshy and pjoduo 
tive. Large crops of wheat, barley, and millet are pro. 
duced. Hemp, flax, and tobacco are also extensively 
cultivated,aud grazing is largely practised; indeed,tin 
breeding of cattle aud the exportation of hemp, hides, 
and tallow, constitute the chief branches of industry. 
Towns, Akerman, Bender, Eishenau, and Isncail. Pop. 
1,026,346. In 1878, under the Berlin treaty . v.), a part 
of B. which was lost to Russia in 1856 was restored. 
Bessa'rion, John, b. at Trebizond, 1390, one of the 
most eminent restorers of learning in the 15th century, 
and founder of the noble library of St. Mark, at Venice, 
was a monk of the Order of St. Basil. He was drawn 
from his monastery in the Peloponnesus, where he had 
passed 20 years, to accompany the emperor John Palaj- 
ologus to the great council of Florence, where he effected, 
1439, a union of short duration between the Greek ana 
Roman churches. He was made a cardinal by Pope 
Eugenius, and had afterwards the title of Patriarch of 
Constantinople given him by Pius II. He spent the last 
30 years of his life at Rome, devoting himself to the 
promotion of literature, and discharging several impor> 
tant embassies. An admirer of Plato, he wrote a work in 
defence of the Platonic philosophy in answer to George 
of Trebizond. D. 1472. 

Bes'sel. Friedrich Wilhelm, one of the most eminent 
German astronomers, B. at Minden, 1784. In 181®, lie 
became director of an observatory erected by the king 
of Prussia at Konigsberg. Here he pursued his labors 
uninterruptedly, aud in 1818 produced his Fundamental 
Astronomies, a work which struck the greatest philoso- 
pliers with admiration, and placed his reputation on tbs 
highest pinnacle of scientific renown, lie produced 
many other works, and was elected a member of most of 
the celebrated learned societies of the world. D. 1846. 
Bessemer. See Iron, Steel. 

Bessieres, Jean Baptiste, (besse-air,) Marshal of 
France, and Duke of Istria, B. in Languedoc, 1768. He 
first served in the Constitutional Guard of Louis XVI . 4 
distinguished himself in the Italian campaign of 179$ 
especially at Roveredo and Rivoli, and became from that 
time the intimate friend of Napoleon. He accompanied 
him to Egypt, contributed to the victory of Marengo, 
was created marshal in 1804, and soon after Duke of 
Istria. He overthrew the Russian imperial guards at 
Austerlitz, and took part in the battles of Jena and Ey- 
lau. He served in Spain, in the campaign of Wagram, 
and in the expedition to Russia, lie was killed by a 
shot while making a reconuoissance of the field of Liit- 
zen, the day before the battle, May, 1813. 

Best .a. [A.S. betest, betst, from bet, better, Goth, batista, 
batists, most useful.] First in regard to value or useful¬ 
ness ; having good qualities in the highest degree; ex¬ 
ceeding or excelling all; as, he is the best man. 

44 When the best things are not possible, the best may be mad* 
of those that are. ’— Hooker. 

—Most advanced ; most complete. 

44 For pointed satire I would Buckhurst choose, 

The best good man with the worst-natured muse." 

Bari of Bochesttr. 

Best, n. The utmost; the highest endeavor; as, to do 
one’s best. 

44 Who does the best his circumstances allow. 

Does well, acts nobly ; angels could no more. 4 ’— Young. 

At best. In the utmost applicable degree to any par¬ 
ticular case. 

44 My friend, said he, our sport is at the best." — Addison. 

To make the best of. To carry anything to its greatest 
fruition or perfection; to improve to the utmost; as, to 
make the best of a bad job. 

“Alnaschar, in order to make the best of it, laid it out in 
glasses. ”— Addison. 

Best, adv. In the highest degree; beyond all others; 
superlatively; as, to like one best. 

“ He shall dwell in that place where he shall Choose, in one of 
thy gates, where it liketh him best.‘‘~Deut. xxiii. 16. 

—To the most advantage; with the greatest success. 

44 He Jesfcan paint them, whoshall feel them most."— Pope. 

—Most particularly; most thoroughly; as, the 6 es<-knowm 
man. 

Best is often used in composition, forming a compounf 
word. 

4 The Christian religion discovers itself to be the most generouf 
and best natured institution thatever was in the world.' TiUotson 

Bestaill', v. a. To mark with stains; to spot. 

44 We will not line his thin bestained cloak 
With our pure honors."— Shaks. 

Bestead', v. a. (imp. and pp. bestead.) To stead, ot 
fill the place of; to stand in the stead of; to assist; t® 
serve; to profit. 

44 Hence, vain deluding joys I .... 

How little you bestead, 

Or fill the ttxed mind with all your toys!"— Milton 

Best evidence, (Law.) means the best evidence of’ 
which the nature of the case admits, not the highest or 
strongest evidence which the nature of the thing to b« 
proved admits of ; e. g. a copy of a deed is not the best 
evidence; the deed itself is better. 

Bes'tial, a. [Lat. bestialis, from bestia, ; east.] Be¬ 
longing to a beast, or to the class of beasts. 

“ His wild, disordered walk, his haggard eyes, 

Did all the bestial citizens surprise " — Dryden. 

—Brutish; beastly; vile; low; depraved; sensuaL 

4i 1 have lost the immortal part of myself, an • 

What remains is bestial." — Shaks. 

Bestial'ity, n. [Fr. bestiality.] The quality or natnrt 
of beasts; beastliness. 

“ What can be a greater absurdity than to affirm bestiality to 
be the essence of humanity/’— Arbuthnot. 

—Unnatural commerce with a beast. 










beta 


BETE 


BETH 


337 


BpsHalitr, v. a. To make a beast of; to brutalize. 1 

Bestially, <o/r Brutally; in a manner below humanity. 

Bestiarii, (bes-te-air'e-e,) n. pi. [Lat.] (Hist.) Among 
the Romans, men who fought with wild beasts in the 
games of the circus. They were either persons who 
tought for the sake of pay, (auctoramentum,) and who 
were allowed arms, or they were criminals, who were 
usually permitted to have no means of defence against 
the wild beasts. 

Bestick', v. a. (imp. and pp. bestick.) To stick over 
as with sharp points. 

“ Truth shall retire, 

Bestuck with slaud'rous darts aud works of faith 
Rareljr to be found.” — Milton. 

Bestir', v. a. To stir up; to put into brisk or vigorous 
action; to move with lile and vigor. (Generally with re¬ 
ciprocal pronoun.) 

" But. as a dog that tarns the spit. 

Bestirs himself, and plies his feet.” — Ihtdibras. 

Bestorm', v. a. To overtake with a storm. 

Bestorm', v. a. To agitate; to toss about; to rage. 

Bestow', v. a. [A.s. be. and stow, a place; Frisian, sto, a 
principal place] To set, lay, or place; to lay up; to de¬ 
posit for safety. 

“And when he came to the Tower, he took them from their 
hand, and bestowed them in the house." —2 Kings v. 24. 

—To apply; to make use of; to dispose of. 

“ Otherwise the whole force of the war would infallibly have 
keen bestowed there.” — Swift. 

•—To give; to confer;—used generally with on or upon. 

" But hia nature was such as to bestow it upon himself."— Sidneg. 

•—To give in marriage. 

“I could have bestowed her upon a fine gentleman, who ex¬ 
tremely admired her." — Tatter. 

Bestow'age, n. Stowage, (r.) 

Bestowal, (be-sto'al,) n. Act of bestowing; disposing. 

Bestow er, n. One who bestows; a giver; a disposer. 

Bestow'ment, n. Act of bestowing; bestowal. 

—Donation; that which is bestowed. 

Bestrad'dle, r. a. [be and straddle ] To bestride. 

Bestraugtlt, (be-strawf,) a. Distracted; mad; out of 
one’s senses. 

“ What 1 I am not bestraught." —Shaks. 

Bestrew, ( be-stro ',) v. a. (imp. bestrewed; pp. be¬ 
strewed, bestrown.) To strew or strow; to scatter over; 
to besprinkle. 

41 So thick bestrewn, 

Abject and lost lay these, covering the flood.”— Milton. 

Bestride', v. a. (imp. bestrid or bestrode; pp. bestrid, 
bestridden.) To stride or step over; to place a leg on 
each side of something; to ride upon. 

44 The bounding steed you pompously bestride, 

Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride." — Pope. 

—To step over; as, to bestride the threshold of a house. 

44 Than when I first my wedded mistress saw 
Bestride my threshold." — Shaks. 

Bestrode', imp. of Bestride, q. v. 

Bestrown'. imp. of Bestrew, q. v. 

Bestnck', imp. of Bestick, </. v. 

Bestud', v. a To set with studs; to adorn with bosses. 

** And so bestud with stars, that they below 
Would grow inur’d to light.” — Milton. 

Bet, (bet,) n. [A. S. bad, a pledge; badian, to give or take 
a pledge.) A pledge; a wager; that which is laid, staked, 
or pledged in a contest. 

44 His pride was in piquet, 

Newmarket fame, and judgment at a bet.” — Pope . 

— 1 >. a. [A. S. badian.] To give a pledge; to lay a bet, or 

wager. 

44 Complained and sigh’d, and cry’d, and fretted, 

Lost every earthly thing he betted." — Pope. 

Bet. The old imp. of Beat. (Now obsolete or vulgar.) 

Beta, n. [Lat., from Celt, belt, red.J ( Bot.) A genus of 
plants, ord. Chenopodiaceae. Diag. Calyx 5-sepalled; sta. 
5; styles 2, very short, erect, with acute stigmas; seed 
reniform, imbedded in the fleshy calyx; stems furrowed; 
leaves alternate; flowers glomerate, green, in spikes or 
paniculate racemes. — Four species are cultivated as es¬ 
culents; the others are mere weeds. We shall only occupy 
ourselves with the former. 1. Beta vulgaris (Common 
beet) is said to be found in a wild state in S. Europe; it 
is however chiefly known as a plant cultivated in gar¬ 
dens, for its carrot-like sweet and tender roots. Several 
sorts are mentioned, varying in the size, form, color, and 
sweetness of their roots: of these, however, two are 
much more worth cultivating than the others, namely, 
the small red and long yellow varieties; they are the 
most delicate, the sweetest, and have the richest color 
when served at table. Beet-roots can only be obtained 
in perfection in a rich, light, sandy soil, through which 
they can readily penetrate; in stony or stiff situations 
the roots become forked, and are deprived of their suc¬ 
culence. The seeds are sown in drills or in beds, at the 
end of March or beginning of April, and are to be well 
covered with soil; the plants are to be thinned to the 
distance of a foot apart; in Sept., the roots may be taken 
up. and should be packed in sand, in some dry place out 
of the reach of frost. In this country, beet is chiefly em¬ 
ployed as an ingredient in salads. — 2. Bela altissima 
(Mangel-wurzel) is a much larger and coarser plant than 
the common beet, from which it is principally known by 
its roots being marked internally with zones of red and 
pink or white. Its native country is unknown; by 
some it is reckoned a mere variety of the common beet, 
hut this is scarcely probable, considering that it is per¬ 
manently reproduced from seed. Mangel-wurzel is an 
objeot of extensive cultivation for feeding cattle; its 
leaves afford a very nutritious food for all kinds of live¬ 
stock, and the roots, from their extreme sweetness, are 


by many farmers considered the most valuable of all the 
agricultural plants upon which cattle are fed in winter. 
They, however, require to be preserved from frost, and 
are better adapted to warm climates and a light rich 
soil than to colder latitudes. In cultivating the mangel- 
wurzel, it will he found 
advantageous to soak the 
seeds in water till they 
are just beginning to ger¬ 
minate, and then to sow 
them, taking care that 
they are speedily covered 
in with soil; for, from 
the bony nature of the 
seeds, it will often hap¬ 
pen that they will lie 
some weeks in the soil 
before they begin to grow, 
by which valuable time 
is lost; or that they will 
fail altogether, especial¬ 
ly if the weather should 
be dry, as it often is at 
the time of sowing, which 
is the middle of May.— Fig. 34S. — beet-root. 

3. Beta cycla (Chard-beet) is inferior to the two last in 
the size of its roots, but is remarkable for the thickness 
of the ribs of its leaves, which are white, yellow, green, 
orange-colored, or deep crimson, in different varieties. 
It is cultivated like the common beet, but the leaves 
only are used in soups, or their ribs are cut out and 
stewed like sea-kail. They have however an earthy 
taste, which it is uot in the power of cookery wholly to 
remove, on which account they are little esteemed. 
The French call this species Poiree d cardes; it is said | 
to have been introduced iuto France from Portugal; but 
its native station is unknown.—4. Beta maritima (Sea- 
beet), unlike the three last, is a prostrate plant, with 
numerous entangled branches, and a tough woody root. 
It is a common European shore-plant, preferring a 
chalky soil. Its leaves are small, ovate, deep green, 
crenelled. rather sharp-pointed, flat, succulent, and 
placed on loug stalks. Its flowers are green and ar¬ 
ranged in spikes, each being subtended by a small leafy 
bract. It is a perennial, and one of the most valuable 
plants known as a substitute for spinach; its leaves 
when dressed are extremely delicate and well-flavored, 
and easily reduced into that pulpy substance which con¬ 
stitutes the great merit of good spinach. It thrives in a 
garden witboutany sort of care, and is rather a handsome 
plant when growing among rubbish, for its leaves are 
of a particularly rich green, and not liable to be scorch¬ 
ed by the sun, or to be injured much by insects. It is 
increased by seeds, which it yields in abundance. — The 
beet, principally B. vulgaris, yields sugar equal to that 
of the cane; of this species, the purple-leaved is the most 
esteemed for the kitchen, and the green-leaved for ex¬ 
tracting sugar. As a source of sugar, the B. is cultivated 
on a large scale in many parts of the world; and it is 
believed that upwards of 400,000,000 lbs. of beet-root 
sugar are annually produced in Europe, and chiefly in 
France. The cultivation of the B. for 6 ugar purposes 
should be of great importance in our country, as evi¬ 
denced by the high prices of sugar-cane since the begin¬ 
ning of the Cuban w ar. This interesting matter will be 
further examined under Sugar. 

Betake', i>. a. (imp. betook ; pp. betaken.) [Swed. and 
Goth, betaga; be, and taga, to take.] To take to; to 
commit to; to resort; to have recourse to; to apply. 
(Used with the reciprocal pronoun.) 

44 But when ourselves to action we betake , 

It shuns the mint, like gold that chjmists make.” — Dryden. 

Betak'en, pp. of Betake, q. v. 

Betel, ( be-tl.) [Fr. betel; Sp. belle, betel brete; Fg. betel, 
bethel, betelhe; Malabar, beetla-codi J A narcotic mastica¬ 
tory, used by the Malays and other Eastern races, not 
only for chewing, but for the object of dyeing the teeth 
black, and imparting a deep red to the lips — colors re¬ 
garded as a mark of beauty and distinction, especially 
by the females. The mode of preparing this morsel for 
use is very simple. A small quantity of lime as large 
as a pea is placed on a piece of betel-nut, or fruit of the 
Areea catechu, (see Areca,) and enclosed in a leaf of siri, 
or betel-pepper. (See Chavjca.) The roll is taken be¬ 
tween the thumb and fore-finger, and rubbed violently 
against the front gums, while the teeth are closed firmly, 
and the lips opened widely. It is now chewed for a 
moment, and then held between the teeth and lips so as 
to partly protrude from the mouth. A profusion of red, 
brick-colored saliva now pours out of each corner of the 
mouth, while the man is exerting himself at his oar, or 
hurrying along under a heavy load. When he is rich 
enough to enjoy tobacco, a small piece of that luxury is 
held with the siri between the lips and teeth. The leaf- 
tobacco is cut so fine that it exactly resembles the “fine- 
cut” of civilized lands; and long threads of the fibrous, 
oakum-like substance are always seen hanging out of 
the mouths of the natives, and completing their disgust¬ 
ing appearance. This revolting habit prevails not only 
among the men, but also among the women; and when¬ 
ever a number meet to gossip, as in other countries, a 
box containing the necessary articles is always seen 
close at hand, and a tall, urn-shaped spittoon of brass is 
either in the midst of the circle, or passing from one to 
another, that each may free her mouth from surplus 
saliva. Whenever one native calls on another, or a 
stranger is received from abroad, invariably the first 
article that is offered him is the siri bos.— The narcotic 
effects of this masticatory have not been experimen¬ 
tally investigated by travellers. To one not accustomed 
to betel-chewing, the nut is powerfully astringent in the 



mouth and throat, while the quicklime often remove! 
the skin and deadens the sense of taste. After a while 
it causes great giddiuess. Ou those accustomed to use 
it, however, the B. produces sweet, continuous and 
sustained exhilarating effects; and that thjse are of a 
most agreeable kind, may be inferred from the very ex¬ 
tended area over which the practice of betel-chewing 
prevails. 

Betel'geuse, (-je-uze,) n. (Astron.) A star of the 1st mag. 
7]4° E- of Bellatrin, on the E. shoulder of the constella¬ 
tion Orion. It comes to the meridian on the 21st of 
January. 

Be'tel-nut. n. The nut of the Areca catechu. — Se« 
Areca, and Betel. 

Beth. [Heb.: Ar. beit, house.] In Scripture, this word 
forms a part of many compound names of places, and 
sometimes means the place or dwelling ; and at others, 
the temple. 

Beth'aito, in Illinois, a post-village of Madison co., 10 
m. E. of Alton. 

Betlia'iiia, in North Carolina, a post-village of For¬ 
syth co. 

Bethany, (beih'a-ne.) (Anc. Geog.) A village on tl4 
eastern slope of Mt. Olivet, 2 m. E.S.E. of Jerusalem, 
and on the road towards Jericho. It was often visited 
by Christ, (Matt. xxi. 17 ; Mark xi. I, 12; Luke xix. 29.) 
Here Martha and Mary dwelt, and Lazarus was raised 
from the dead, (John xi.) Here Mary anointed the Lord 
against the day of his burying (John xii.); and from the 
midst of his disciples, near this village which he loved, 
he ascended to heaven, (Matt. xxiv. 50.) Its modern 
name, Aziriyeh, is derived from Lazarus. It is a poor 
village of some twenty families. 

Beth any, in Connecticut, a post-township of New Ha¬ 
ven co., 8 m. N. by W. of New Haven. 

Belhany. in Georgia, a village of Greene co., 35 m. 1 
by E. of Milledgeville. 

—A village of Jefferson co. 

Bethany, in Indiana, a village of Bartholomew co.. 1 
m. W. of Columbus, 

Bethany, in Illinois, a village of Christian co., 20 nx 
S.E. of Springfield. 

Bethany, in Michigan, a township in the N. part of 
Gratiot co. 

—A township of Branch county, about 60 miles north of 
Adrian. 

Bethany, in Missouri, a village of Clay co., 15 m. 
N.N.E. of Liberty. 

—A post-village, cap. of Harrison co., 155 m. N.W. of Jef¬ 
ferson City. 

Bethany, in New York, a township of Genesee co.,240 
m. N. by W. of Albany. 

j —A post-village of B. township, Genesee co., abt. 35 m. 
S.W. of Rochester. 

Bethany, in Ohio, a post-village of Butler co., 20 m. 
N.N.E. of Cincinnati. 

Bethany, in Pennsylvania, a. post-borough of Dvberry 
township, Wayne county, 3 miles north of Hones* 
dale. 

Bethany, in S. Carolina, a village of York district, 
about 10 m. N.N.W. of Yorkville. 

Bethany, in West Virginia, a post-village of Brooks 
co., on Buffalo Creek, 7 m. from the Ohio River, and 16 
m. N.E. of Wheeling. 

Bethany Church, in North Carolina, a village of 
Iredell co. 

Bethaven, (beth-ai'ven.) (Anc. Geog.) A plain and 
desert near Bethel on the E. (Josh, vii.12: xviii. 12.) It 
seems to be reproachfully used at times for Bethel itself, 
after the golden calves were there set up ; Bethel mean 
ing the house of God, and B., the house of sin. 

Beth Eden, in South Carolina, a village of Newberry 
district. 

Beth'el. [Heb., house of God.] (Anc. Geog.) A city W. 
of Hai, on the confines of the tribes of Ephraim and 
Benjamin, and occupying the spot where Jacob slept 
and had his memorable dream, (Judges i. 23.) Thirty 
years after, he again pitched his tent there. Here the 
ark of the covenant, aud probably the tabernacle, long 
remained. After Solomou, it became a seat of gross 
idolatry,—Jeroboam choosing it as the place for one of 
his golden calves, from the sacredness previously afr 
tached to it, (1 Kin. xii 29.) The prophets were charged 
with messages against B. The first of these was ful¬ 
filled by Josiah; and the others in the later desolation 
of B., where nothing but ruins can now he found. Its 
site was identified by Dr. Robinson, in the place now 
called Beitin, 20 m. from Jerusalem, towards Shechem. 

Beth'el, n. A name given in England to a dissenting 
chapel. - 

—In England and U. States, a place of worship appointed 
for seamen. 

Beth'el* in Alabama, a P. 0. of Wilcox co. 

B« th'el, in Connecticut, a post-village and township of 
Fairfield county, about 25 miles north-west of New 
Haven. _ 

Beth'el. in Georgia, a post-village of Glynn co., on 
Turtle River, about 70 m. S.S.W. of Savannah. 

Beth'el, in Illinois, a post-village of Morgan co., 4$ m, 
W. of Springfield. 

!—A township of McDonough co. 

Beth'el, in Indiana, a thriving township of Posey 
county. 

—A post-village of Wayne co. 

Beth'el. in Iowa, a post-village of Fayette co., about 48 
m. W. of the Mississippi River. 

Beth'el, in Kentucky, a post-village of Bath co. 

Beth'el. in Maine, a post-township of Oxford county, 
on the Androscoggin River, 70 miles N.N.W. of Port¬ 
land. 












338 


BETH 


BETH 


BETH 


Bethel, in Michigan, a post township of Branch coun- [ 
ty. 

—A township of St. Clair co. 

Beth el, in Minnesota, a post-township of Anoka coun¬ 
ty. 

Beth'el, in Missouri, apost-village of Shelby co., on the 
N. Fork of North River. 

Beth'el, in New York, a post-village and township of 
Sullivan co, 120 m. S.S.W. of Albany. 

Beth'el, in Ohio, a township in Clark co. 

—A post-village in Tate township, Clermont co., 33 m. S.E. 
of Clermont. . 

—A township of Miami co. 

—A township of Monroe co. 

Beth'el, in Oregon, a post-village of Polk co.,12m. N.E. 
of Dallas. 

Beth'el, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of Berks co., 
35 m. N.E. of Harrisburg. 

—A township of Delaware co. 

—A township of Fulton co. 

<—A township of Lebanon co. 

Beth'el, in Tennessee, a post-office of Giles co. 

Beth'el, in Texas, a post-office of Anderson co. 

Bethel, in Vermont, a post-township of Windsor co., 35 
m. S. of Montpelier, and 39 N. of Windsor. This place 
in an inexhaustible quarry of soapstone. 

Beth'el, in IK Virginia, a p.-vill. of Mercer co. 

Beth'el College. See Mac LEMoRneviLLE. 

Beth'el Corners, in New York, a post-office of Cay¬ 
uga co. 

Beth'el Springs, in Tennessee, a P. 0. of McNairy co. 

Beth'enconrt, Jean de, (bai'ten-koor,) a Norman 
baron, who was chamberlain to Charles VI., king of 
France, and being ruined in the war with England, 
sought to repair his fortunes in foreign countries, and 
made a descent from Spain on the Canary Isles, in 1402. 
Not having sufficient force, however, he returned, and 
obtained reinforcements from Henry III. of Castile, with 
which he was successful, and was crowned king in 1404, 
under the title of Louis. He converted the greater por¬ 
tion of the Canaries to Christianity, and in 1405 re¬ 
ceived from the Pope the appointment of bishop to the 
islands. The following year he went to Normandy, 
where he passed the remainder of his days. D. 1425. 

Bethesda, ( be-thez'da,) a mineral spring, or pool, of 
Judea, without the gates of Jerusalem, on the E. side 
of the city, and below the rock of the Temple. The 
word signifies a house of mercy, from the cures said to 
be effected, in diseases of all natures, by the bathers in 
its solitary waters. The pool, or, more properly, the 
walled tank, was surrounded by 5 alcoves or porticoes, 
in which the patients undressed and waited for the favor¬ 
able hour to immerse themselves. This auspicious time, 
according to the Evangelists, was when an unseen angel 
entered the water, and imparted celestial virtue to the 
fluid, when the water wa> thrown into commotion; and 
the sooner advantage could be taken of this sudden 
agitation, the more potent was the medicinal effect on 
the patient, the water being inoperative when at rest, or 
stagnate in the reservoir. This phenomenon was caused 
unquestionably by the periodical rise of the spring; and 
as the water was no doubt a chalybeate, from the red 
•chre, or powder, said to be precipitated, the spring 
would be naturally stronger and more beneficial when 
fresh from its mineral bed, and before the atmosphere 
had time to precipitate its medicinal virtues. (John v. 2.) 
It is now dry, and used as a depot for dirt and rubbish. 

Bethes'lla, in Ohio, a post-office of Belmont co. 

Bethes'da, in Pennsylvania, a P. 0. of Lancaster co. 

Bethes'da, in Term., a vill. of Williamson co. 

Bethink’, v. a. (imp. and pp. bethought.) To caTl to 
mm3; to bring to recollection. (Generally accompanied 
with the reciprocal pronoun.) 

“I have bethought me of another fault."—S7faks. 

— v. i. To think upon; to consider; to recollect. 

“ And make him bethink himself, whether this attempt be worth 
the venture.”— Locke. 

Bethlehem, (beth'le-hem.) (Anc. Geog.) A small city 
of Judea, about 6 m. S. cf Jerusalem, at the foot of a 



Fig. 349. — BETHLEHEM. 


hill covered with vines and olives, and about five or six 
miles south-east of Jerusalem. It was here that David 


and Christ were born, and, ns the place of the nativity, 
no part of Palestine is so fraught with interest to the 
devotee or tourist than a spot so divinely sacred. The 
present B. has about 300 houses, and a population of 
2,500 Greeks, Armenians, and Turks, the former chiefly 
employed in the manufacture of rosaries, crucifixes, aud 
beads. Every part of the neighborhood, where fancy or 
tradition can mark the footsteps of the Saviour, has 
been covered with a shrine, oratory, qr cell, though the 
great architectural feature is the magnificent church, 
built by the Empress Helena, over the spot said to be 
the actual site of the birthplace. The edifice is in the 
form of a cross, and bears the name of the founder. In 
a rich grotto, adorned with silver, and hung with crystal 
lamps always burning, a silver star, with the words 
Hie de Virgine Maria Jesus Christ natus est, marks 
the spot of the nativity. The manger stands in a low 
recess cut in the rock, a few feet from this star. The 
church is subdivided among the Latins, Greeks, and 
Armenians, each community having a separate portion 
of the edifice for devotional purposes. 

Bethlehem, in Connecticut, a post-village of Litch¬ 
field co., 30 m. N.W. of New Haven. 

Betli'lehem, in Indiana, a post-village and township 
of Clark county, on the Ohio river, 18 m. below Madi¬ 
son. 

—A township of Cass co. 

—A villageof Hamilton co.,abt.l5m. N. of Indianapolis. 

Bethlehem, in Iowa, a P. 0. of Wayne co. 

Bethlehem, in Maryland , a P. 0. of Caroline co. 

Bethlehem, in New Hampshire, a post-town of 
Grafton co., 75 m. N. by E. of Concord. 

Bethlehem, in New Jersey, a post-township of Hun¬ 
terdon co., 13 m. N.W. of Flemington. 

Bethlehem, in New York, a township of Albany co., 
on the Hudson River, 5 m. S. of Albany. 

Bethlehem, in Ohio, a township of Coshocton coun- 
ty. 

—A village and township of Stark co., 60 m. S. by E. of 
Cleveland. 

Bethlehem, in Pennsylvania , a township of North¬ 
ampton co., 7 m. W. by S. of Easton. 

—A thriving manuf. borough in the above township, on 
the Lehigh river, 61 m. N. of Philadelphia. B. was 
founded in 1741 by the Moravians, who have there a fine 
church, a large seminary,’and other buildings. Pop. in 
1890, 6,762; in 1897, abt. 7.500. See South Bethlehem. 

Beth'lehemites, Bethleheinite, n. An insane 
person ; a lunatic. — See Bedlamite. 

— pi. (Eccl. Hist.) An order of monks who flourished in 
the 13th century. They were also styled Star-bearers, 
from their wearing a red star of five rays, with a blue 
circle in the middle, on their breast, in memory of the 
star which appeared to the wise men. They established 
themselvesin England in 1257. — Another order bearing 
this name was instituted at Guatemala, Central America, 
in 1660. They attended the sick in hospitals. Innocent 
XI. confirmed the order in 1687, and ordered the breth¬ 
ren to follow the rule of St. Augustine. 

Beth'nal Qreen, an eastern division of London, in 
Middlesex, including Victoria Park. 

Bethou£h t', prut, and pp. of Bethink, q.v. 

Beth-Pe'or. (Anc. Geog.) A town of Moab, infamous 
for the worship of Baal-peor. In the adjacent valley 
Moses rehearsed the law to Israel, aud was buried. 

Bethsai'da, [Ileb., place of fishing.] (Anc. Geog.) A city 
in Galilee, on the W. shore of the lake of Genesareth. 
It was the birthplace of the apostles Philip, Andrew, 
and Peter, and was often visited by Christ. — Another, 
B. of Gaulonitis, N. of the same lake, and E. of the 
Jordan. Near this place, Christ fed the five thousand. 
This town, enlarged and called Julias by the tetrarch 
Philip, is now little but ruins. 

Betbshe'an, or Betti'slian. (Anc. Geog.) A town, 
more generally known by the name of Scythopolis, 
which was situated 2 m. W. of the Jordan, at the ex¬ 
tremity of the valley of Jezreel, an arm of the great 
plain of Esdrselon, running down from it to the valley 



Fig. 350. — bethshean. 


of the Jordan in a S.E. direction. Tt stood on the brow, 
just where the former valley drops down by a rather 
steep descent to the level of the latter. B. was assigned 
to Manasseh, though not at otico subdued, (Josh. xvii. 
11-16.) The dead body of Saul was fastened to its walls. 


(1 Sam. xxxi. 10-12; 2 Sam. xxi.12.) The place it. now 
called Beisan, and is about 24 m. S. of Tiberias. Th« 
present village contains 70 or 80 miserable houses. The 
ruins of the ancient city are of considerable extent, 
along the banks of the rivulet which ran by it, and on 
the side of the valley; bespeaking it to have been nearly 
3 m. in circuit. 

Bethshe'mesh, [Ileb., “house of the sun.”] (Anc. 
Geog.) A city of Judah, 15 m. W. of Jerusalem, chiefly 
memorable for a battle between Judah and Israel, in 
which Amaziah was deieated. (2 Kin. xiv. 12-14.) 

Betlliimp', v. a. [be and thump.] To belabor or cudgel 
soundly. 

4 ‘ I was never so bethumpt with words. 

Since first 1 call d my brother’s father dad.”— Shale*. 

Bethune, (bai-toon’,) a fortified town of France, dep. 
Pas de Calais, on a rock, at the foot of which is the Brette, 
18 m. N.N.W. of Arras; pop. 8,611. 

Betide', v. a. (imp. betid or betided ; pp. betid.) [a.d. 
tidan, from tid, time, season ] To happen to; to befall 
to; to bechance to; to come to. 

“ Said be then to the palmer, reverend sire,_ 

What great misfortune hath betid this knight."— Spenser. 

—To come to pass; to happen. 

“ Let me hear from thee in letters 
Of thy success in love; and what news else 
Betideth here in absence of thy friend."— Shahs. 

Retime', Betimes', adv. By the time; seasonably} 

in good season or time. 

“ Send succours, lords, and stop the rage betime." — Shahs. 

—Early; soon; in a short time. 

" Short is the date, alas I of modern rhymes ; 

And ’tis but just to let them live betimes." — Pope. 

Bet'lis, or Bit'lis, a town of Turkish Armenia, 18 m. 
W. from the W. extremity of Lake Van. Lat. 36° 35' N.; 
Lon. 42° 50' E. Pop. 15,000. 

Beto'ken, ?>. a. [A S. betcecan. See Token.] To show 
or signify by a token or sign; to signify. 

“ Ceremonies lit to betoken such intents."— Hooker. 

—To foreshow; to portend; to presage; indicative of 
something about to happen. 

11 The kindling azure, and the mountain's brow 
Ilium d will) Quid gold, his near appro^h 
Betoken glad." — Thomson. 

Bet oil, (be-tong',)n. [Fr. bCton; Lilt. bitumen, fossil tar.] 
(Masonry.) The French concrete, composed by first 
mixing the proper proportions of lime and sand, either 
by hand or by a pug-mill, in the same manner as for 
ordinary mortar. 

Beto'nica, Betony, n. [Fr .betnine.] (But.) A genus 
of plants, order Lamiacece. There are 2 species, the 
flowers and leaves of which were formerly employed in 
medicine. They have been abandoned as having little 
or no virtue. 

Betook', imp. of Betake, q. v. 

Betorn', a. Torn or rent to pieces. 

Betoss', v. a. To toss about; to agitato violently; to 
make commotion. 

" What said my man, when my betossed soul 
Did not attend him as we rode 7 " ~Shake. 

Betrap', v. a. To ensnare: to entice into a trap. 

—To clothe, deck, or caparison with trappings. 

Betray', v. a. [be, aud Lat. traders; It. tradire; Fr. 
trahir. j To deliver up by treachery or iraud; to sur¬ 
render by breach of trust. 

4t ’Tis an old tale and often told. 

Of maiden true betrayed for gold.”— Sir Walter Scott. 

—To violate confidence; to treacherously injure. 

“ How, wouldst thou again betray me? "— Milton. 

—To disclose or reveal treacherously, clandestinely, or in 
breach of trust. 

’* Be swift to hear, but be cautious of your tongue, lest you be. 
tray your ignorance. ' — Wolfs. 

—To mislead; to render liable to inconvenience. 

“ His abilities created him great coniideuce; and this was lilts 
enough to betray him to great errors . ' — King Charles I. 

—To indicate; to show what would rather be concealed. 

“Nor, after length of years, a stone betray 
The place where once the very ruins lay.’—Addison. 

—To fail in regard to reliance placed upon; as, the legs of 
a drunken man betray him. 

Betray al, a. Act of betraying; treachery. 

Betray 'er, n. One who betrays; a traitor. 

“ They are only a few betrayers of their country."— Swift. 

Betray'ment, n. Betrayal; act of betraying. 

Betrim', v. a. [be and trim.] To deck; to decorate; to 
dress; to place in order; to embellish. 

“ Thy banks with pionied and twilled brims 
Which spongy April at thy hest ketrims."—Shahs. 

Betroth', v. a. [6e and troth.] To pledge the troth or 
truth to; to affiance; to vow or promise to bo true and 
faithful. 

“ Bv soul's public promise she 
Was sold then, and betroth'd to Victory."— Cowley. 

—To espouse; to contract with a view to marriage. 

“ And what man is there that hath betrothed a wife, and hath 
not taken her ? "—Deut. xx. 7. 

—To nominate to a bishopric, in order to consecration. 

“ If any person be consecrated a bishop to that church, where- 
unto he was not before betrothed, he shall not receive the habit 
of consecration."— Ayliffe. 

Betroth'al, n. Act of betrothing; betrothment. 

Betroth'ment, n. (Law.) A contract between a man 
and a woman, by which they agree that at a future time 
they will marry together. The contract must be mutual; 
the premise of the one must he the consideration for the 
promise of the other. It must be obligatory on both 
parties at the same instant, so that each may have an 
action upon it, or it will bind neither. Either party maf 



















BETU 


BEUS 


BEWA 


339 


call upon -lie other to fulfil the engagement, and, In case 
of refusal or neglect to do so within a reasonable time 
after request made, may treat the B. as at an end, and 
bring action for the breach of the contract. For a breach 
of the B. without a just cause, an action on the case 
may be maintained by either party for the recovery of 
damages. 

Betrnst', v. a. To entrust; to put into the confidence 
of another, (r.) 

" Whatsoever you would betrust to your memory, let it be dis* 
posed in a proper method."— Watts. 

Bet rusliin nt, re. Act of entrusting. 

Bet'sey Bake, in Michigan, a post-office of Grand 
Traverse co. 

Bet'so, re. [It. pezzo, a piece of money.] The smallest 
Venetian money; its value is about a farthing. 

Bet'ter, a., comp, of good. [A. S bet, more, better; betere, 
betera, better.] Having good qualities in a greater de¬ 
gree than another; as, that is a better style. 

' The better part of valour is discretion."— Shake. 

“■Superior; preferable, in regard to fitness, convenience, 
rank, &c. 

•• Better fifty years of Europe than acycle of Cathay."— Tennyson. 

“Improved in health; recovering from sickness; as, the 
fever has left him, and he is much better. 

To be better off To be in improved or better condition. 

Bet'ter, re. Superiority; advantage, (usually preced¬ 
ing of.) 

* The gentleman had so much the better o/the satirist. ‘—Prior. 

“Improvement; higher excellence. 

'■ The Corinthians that morning, as the days before, had the 
better.”— Sir P. Sidney. 

—A superior; as, he has more arrogance than his betters. 
(Nearly always used in the plural.) 

Bet'ter, adv^ comp, of well. In a more excellent manner; 
with greater success; as, better late than never. 

“More correctly, or fitly. 

“ The better to understand the extern, of our*knowledge, one 
thing is to be observed.’ —Locke. 

“More; in a higher degree; as, she loves him better than 
me. 

Bet'ter, n. a. [A. S. beterian, betrian, from bet, betera.'] To 
make better; to improve ; to ameliorate; to benefit; to 
correct; to repair; to amend: to advance. 

" With well-tim d zeal, and with an artful care. 

Restor’d and better'd soon the nice affair."—- Cowley. 

Better, re. One who bets. See Bettor. 

Bet'tering’, re. [A. S. betrung.] Act of improving; im¬ 
provement. 

Betterment, re. A making better; improvement. 

(Law.) Improvement made to an estate, which ren¬ 
ders it better than mere repairs. The term is also ap¬ 
plied to denote the additional value which an estate 
acquires in consequence of some public improvement, 
as laying out or widening a street, &c. 

Bet'termost, a. Best, (r.) 

Bet ting’, re. the laying of a wager. See Gaming. 

Bettini, Domenico, ( bet-te'ne,) an Italian painter, B. at 
Florence, 1644, was pupil of Mario de Fiori, and almost 
equalled his master. He was the first to group flowers 
and fruits in landscapes, instead of drawing them de¬ 
tached, as was previously the style. D. 1705. 

BettOll'g’ia, re. ( Zoiil.) A genus of kangaroos. 

Bet'tor, re. One who bets or lays a wager. 

Betts' ville, in Ohio, a post-village of Liberty township, 
Seneca co., 48 m. W.S.VV. of Sandusky city. 

Bet'ty, re. (A cant word.) An instrument used by 
thieves to break open doors. 

“[It. bocelta .] A Florence flask, or pear-shaped bottle, 
wound around with straw, and used to hold olive-oil. 

Bet'nla, re. [Lat., from Celt., birch.J iBot.) The birch, a 
genus of trees or shrubs, order Betulacece. The genus 
is characterized by its flowers growing in catkins, the 
scales of which are thin and three-lobed, and by the 
scales subtending three flat fruits, each furnished with 
two styles, and expanded into a thin wing on either 
side, these fruits are what are vulgarly called birch- 
seeds. The species are, with one exception, found be¬ 
yond the tropic :n the northern hemisphere; the species 
of the southern hemisphere is a little evergreen plant 
called B antarctica, of which little is recorded except 
that it inhabits Terra del Fuego. Among the American 
species, the most remarkable, and at the same time the 
most valuable of the genus, is B. papyracea, the paper or 
canoe birch. (See Fig. 102.) It grows in great quanti¬ 
ties between Lat. 43° and 73° N., and often acquires the 
height of 70 feet. Its wood is sometimes used in North 
America for cabinet-makers’ work; but it is not of much 
value for exposure to weather, as it soon decays if sub¬ 
jected alternately to damp and dryness. Its bark is the 
part which is the most esteemed; this part is said to be 
so durable that old fallen trees are stated to be fre¬ 
quently found with their form so well preserved that 
one would think them perfectly sound, but upon ex¬ 
amining them it is found that the whole of the wood is 
rotted away, and nothing is left but the sound and solid 
case ot bark. This part is used for a number of useful 
purposes; log-houses are sometimes thatched with it; 
little boxes, cases, &c., and even hats, are manufactured 
from it; but its great value is for making canoes. For 
the purpose of obtaining pieces sufficiently large for 
such a purpose, the largest and smoothest-barked trees 
are selected, in the spring, two circular incisions at the 
distance of several feet are made, and a longitudinal in¬ 
cision on each side; then, by introducing a wedge of 
wood between the trunk and bark, the latter is easily 
detached. With threads prepared from the fibrous roots 
of the white spruce fir (Abies alba), the piece* of bark 
are sewn together, over a light frame-work of wood, and 
the seams are caulked with the resin of the balm of 


Gilead fir. Canoes of this 6ort are so light as to be easily 
transported upon the shoulders of men. It is said that 
one capable of carrying four persons and their baggage, 
only weighs from forty to fifty pounds. Several varieties 
are found in the plantations of this country; they differ 
principally in the breadth and downy character of the 



1. Inside of a barren scale with the anthers detached 

2 Inside of a fertile scale, with the ovaries attached. 

3. Inside of a scale with their ripe fruits. 

4. A ripe fruit natural size. 

6. The same magnified 

6 A transverse section of the same, 
leaves, and in the hairiness of the branches. The true 
B. papyracea has branches and leaves with scarcely any 
hairs; the variety B trichoclada has extremely hairy 
branches and heart-shaped leaves; and that called B. 
platyphylla has very broad leaves. B. lenta, the black 
or mahogany birch, has catkins short, erect; branches 
quite smooth: leaves thin, cordate, oblong, tapering 
to a point; stipules very large and membranous. None 
of our birches produce timber so valuable as this. Its 
wood is hard, close-grained, and of a reddish brown. It 
is abundant in the Middle States, as in New York, New 
Jersey, and Pennsylvania, but more to the south it only 
appears on the summits of the Alleghanies. Deep rich 
soil is what it prefers; and when it attains its greatest 
dimensions, which are as much as seventy feet of height 
and three of diameter, it is a handsome tree, budding 
remarkably early in the spring, when its leaves are 
covered with a short thick coat of down: this disappears 
later in the season, and leaves them of a bright and 
lively green. — Among the European species, B. alba, 
the common birch, the most beautiful of the European 
forest-trees, grows, uuder favorable circumstances, to the 
height of 60 to 70 feet. The leaves are small, of an 
ovate-triangular shape, and doubly serrated. The bark 
is smooth and silvery white, and the outer layers are 
thrown off as the trunk increases in diameter. 

Betulacese, i bet-u-lai'se-e) (Bot.) The Birch worts, 
an order of plants, alliance Amentales. — Diag. A two- 
celled ovary, a solitary pendulous ovule, and a superior 
radicle. — This order contains but 56 species in the two 
genera, Alnus and Betula, q. v. 

Bet'uline, re. (Cheat.) A resin contained in the bark 
of the black birch, Betula nigra. 

Betu'tor, v. a. To instruct. (R). 

Bet'wati, a river of India that has its source in Lat. 
23° 14' N., and Lon. 77° 22' E., and joins the Jumna in 
Lat. 25° 57' N., and Lon. 80° 17' E., at abt. 30 m. E.S.E. 
of Calpee. 

Between, ( be-twen ',) prep. [A S. betweonan, betwynan, 
from be, and txvegen, two.] In the intermediate space ; 
betwixt. — In the middle of. — From one to another.— 
Bearing relation to two. — Belonging to two. 

Castor and Pollux with only one soul between them.'* — Locke. 

—Noting difference of one from the other. 

•'Children quickly distinguish between what is required from 
them, and what not. ' — Locke. 

Between-«leck.s, re. ( Naut.) The space contained 
between any two whole decks of a ship. 

Bet wit’, v. a. To taunt; to twit. 

Betwixt, (be-twikst',) prep. [A.S. betwyx, betwyxt, from 
be, and twegen, two.] It has the same signification with 
between, and is indifferently used for it. 

Beu'dantite, re. (Min.) A hydrous silicate of lead 
and peroxide of iron with phosphate of peroxide of iron. 
It occurs in small black and brown rhombohedrons in the 
district of Nassau on the Rhine. Named after Beudant, 
a French mineralogist. 

Ben'lah. in IV. Ga., a twp. of Johnson co. 

Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand, Baron Von, b. in Dres¬ 
den, Jan. 13, 1809, studied at Gottingen and Leipzig, and 
entered the Foreign Office. After holding the post of 
Assessor of Land-survey, in 1832, he spent between two 
and three years in visiting Switzerland, France, and 
England. He bocame Secretary ot the Saxon Legation 
at Berlin in 1836. occupieo the same post at Paris in 


1838, was ChargS d’Affaires at Munich in 1841, in Lon¬ 
don in 1846, and Ambassador to the Court of Berlin in 
1848; Minister of Foreign Affairs for Saxony in Feb., 
1849, receiving the portfolio for Agriculture in the fol¬ 
lowing May. He took a prominent part in the discus¬ 
sions preceding the treaty of 1852, and in 1853 became 
Minister of the Interior, when he resigned his post as 
Minister of Agriculture. On the breaking out of the 
Danish war, in 1863, Baron Von Beust distinguished him¬ 
self by his fidelity to Federal interests, and by a rebuke 
he administered to Lord Russell in answer to a despatch 
from the latter. He represented the Germanic Diet at 
the London Conference of 1864, during the continuance 
of which he twice visited Paris to confer with the Em¬ 
peror Napoleon, whose guest he was afterwards at F'on- 
tainebleau. After the war between Austria and Prus¬ 
sia, Baron Von Beust was made Minister of the House¬ 
hold by the Emperor of Austria, Nov. 14,1866, and Presi¬ 
dent of the Council on the retirement of Count Belcredi, 
Feb. 4, 1867. The Emperor ot Austria, acting under 
B.’s advice, made great concessions to Hungary, besidei 
important reforms in the administration of the empire. 
Appointed minister to Englan'd, Dec. 1871. D. 1886. 

Bev'an’s, in New Jersey, a post-village of Sussex co. 

Bev'el, re. [Fr. buvean; Ger. bitgd, from biegen, to 
bend, to bend into a curve or angle.] (Arch.) An in¬ 
strument for taking angles. One side of a solid body 
is said to be bevelled with respect to another when the 
angle contained between their two sides is greater or 
less than a right angle. The term splay is nearly sy¬ 
nonymous with B.; but it is applied to openings which 
have their vertical sides sloped for the purpose of en¬ 
larging the aperture. — This name is also given to the 
instrument with which carpenters and masons work 
surfaces which aro required to slope at the same angle. 
In its simplest form it is a piece of wood, with a thin 
plate of steel working in a groove at one end, so that it 
may form any angle with the wood less than two right 
angles. 

(Her.) Applied to a chief, open or broken, like a car¬ 
penter's rule. 

— 1 > a. To cut or form to a bevel angle. 

— v. n To slant, or incline off to a bevel angle. 

Bev'el Angle, re. A term used among artificers to 
denote an angle which is neither a right angle nor half 
a right angle. 

Bev'el-gear, re. (Mech.) A species of wheel-work, in 
which the axles of 
two wheels working 
into each other are 
neither parallel nor 
perpendicular, but 
inclined to one an¬ 
other in a certain 
angle. Wheels of 
this kind are also 
called conical wheels, 
because their teeth 
may be regarded as 
cut in the frustum 
of a cone. — See 
Wheed. 

Bev'elled, p. a. 

F’ormed to a bevel 
angle. 

Bev'elling’, n. — 

(Naut.) In ship¬ 
building, the winding of a timber, &c., agreeably to 
directions given from the mould-loft. 

Bev'erage, re. [It. beveraggio, from bevere, from Lat. 
bibere, to drink: Fr. breuvage, from O. Fr. beuvrage .] 
Any liquor for drinking; a Drink, q. v. 

Bev'erlcy, a town of England, in the East Riding of 
Yorkshire, 8 m. from Hull; pop. 10,226. 

Bev'erly, in Illinois, a post-village and township of 
Adams co., abt. 3 m. E.S.E. of Quincy, situated in a 
rich farming district. 

Bev'erly, in Kentucky, a P. O. of Christian co. 

Beverly, in Massachusetts, a flourishing post-town of 
Essex co, on an inlet of Ann Harbor, opposite Salem 
with which it is connected by a bridge, 16 m. N.N.E. of 
Boston. 

Bev'erly, in New Jersey, a thriving city of Burlington 
co., on the Delaware river, 15 m. above Philadelphia. 
Steamboats between Philadelphia and Burlington touch 
at this place. Pop. in 1897, about 2,200. 

Beverly, in Ohio, a post-village of Washington co., on 
the Muskingum River, 30 m. above Marietta, and 60 
below Zanesville. 

Beverly, in W. Virginia, a post-village, capital of Ran¬ 
dolph co., in Tygart’s Valley River. 

Beverly Farms, in Massachusetts, a P. O. of Essex co. 

Be'vier, in Missouri, a post-village of Macon co., 75 m. 
W. of Hannibal, and 5 W. of Macon city. 

Bev'ile, re. (Her.) See Bevel. 

Bev'ilport, in Texas, a, village of Jasper co., on the 
Angelina River, about 7 m. W. of Jasper, the co. seat. 

Bev'is Tavern, in Ohio, a post-office of Hamilton co. 

Bev'y, re. [Etymol. uncertain.] A flock of birds, par¬ 
ticularly of quails.— A company, or assembly, especially 
of females. 

** Nor rode the nymph alone; 

Around a bevy of bright damsels shone.” — Pope* 

Bewail, (be-wal’,) v.a. To utter a wail of distress for} 
to bemoan; to lament; to express deep sorrow for. 

Yet wise Enaius gave command to all 

His friends, not to bewail his funeral." — Denham. 

— 1 \ re. To utter or express deep grief. 

Bewail'able, a. Lamentable. 

Bewail er, re. One who bewails. 

Bewail'iitg, re. Lamentation. 



352.— BE VEL-G EAR. 










340 


BEYK 


BEZO 


BIAR 


Bewail'men t, n. Act of bewailing; lamentation; 
grief. 

Beware, ( be-wdr',) v. v . [A.S. bewerian , bewarian, from 
be, and warian, to guard against; Sw. and Goth, bewara, 
to guard.] To guard one’s self from ; to guard against; 
to avoid ; to take care of; to regard with caution. — It 
is observable that this verb, occurring chiefly in the im¬ 
perative mood, is not declinable, and is only used in such 
forms of speech as admit the word be ; thus we say, he 
may beware, let him, beware, he. will beware; but not, he 
did beware, or, he has been beware. 

Bewclley, ( bude'Ie ,) a town of England, in Worcester¬ 
shire, on the Severn, 14 m. from Worcester. 

Beweep', v. a. [A. S. bewepan, to bewail.] To weep 
over; to lament. (r.) 

Bevvliis'per, v. n. To whisper, (r.) 

Bewhore', v. a. To corrupt with regard to chastity. 
(r.) — To pronounce to be a whore. 

Bexvil'der, v. a. [Ger. verwildern ; Du. verwilderen.] 

’ To lead or bring into the state of one in a wild or wil¬ 
derness, who knows not his way; to confuse; to puzzle; 
to perplex. 

"It is good sometimes to lose and bewilder ourselves in such 
studies." — Watte. 

Bewil'deredness, n. The stateof being bewildered. 

Bewil'deringly, adv. In a perplexing manner. 

Bewil'derment, n. State of being bewildered, or act 
of bewildering. 

Bewitch, ( bi-wich ',) v. a. To affect by witchcraft, fas¬ 
cination, or charms. 

“ Look how I am bewitch'd ; behold, mine arm 
Is like a blasted sapling withered up." — Shake. 

•—To enchant; to fascinate; to charm; to overpower by 
charms. 

“ The charms of poetry our souls bewitch."— Drydcn. 

Bewitched', p. a. fascinated; charmed. 

Bewitch'edness, n. State of being bewitched. 

Bewitch'er, n. One who bewitches. 

Bewitch'ery, n. Fascination; charm; resistless at¬ 
traction. 

Bewitch'ing, n. The act of enchantingor fascinating. 

—a. That has power to bewitch or fascinate; that has 
power to control by the acts of pleasing. 

Bewitcll'ingly, adv. In a fascinating manner. 

Bewitcll'ingness, n. Quality of being bewitching. 

Bewitch'ment, n. Power of bewitching or charm¬ 
ing; stateof being bewitched: fascination. 

Be'wits, n. pi. (Falconry.) Straps of leather by which 
bells are fastened to a hawk’s legs. 

Bew'ley ville,in Kentucky, a township of Breckinridge 
co. 

Bewray, ( be-ra. ',) v. a. [A. S. be, and wregan, to accuse; 
Icel. raegia; Kris, wmgia, wreia .] To point out; to dis¬ 
cover perfidiously, (r.) 

Bex'ar, in Georgia, a village of Corveta co., 120 m. W. 
N.W. from Milledgeville. 

Bex' ar, in Texas, a S.E. central co., once consisting of 
an immense territory, but afterward subdivided. Area, 
1,180 sq. m. Surface, somewhat diversified, and fairly 
well watered by numerous creeks and smaller streams. 
Soil, fertile, near the streams, and suited for stock 
raising. Products, cotton, corn, millet, pecans, wool, 
butter, vegetables, fruits, hides, and cattle. Cap. San 
Antonio, an old Spanish settlement, but now a pros¬ 
perous city and R.R. center. Pop. (1898) 61,250. 

Bey, (ba,,) n. [Turk, beg.] A Turkish and Tartar title of 
dignity, used with no very accurate application for prince, 
lord, or chief, and frequently subjoined to the proper 
names of persons of rank. 

Beylic, ( ba'lik,) n. A province governed by a bey. 

Beyond', prep. [A. S. begeond, begeondan. ] Before; at 
a distance not yet reached. 

“What’s fame? a fancy’d life in others breath, 

A thing beyond us, even before our death: 

Just what you hear, you have.”— Pope. 

—On the farther side of; as, beyond sea.— Farther onward 
than. 

“ He that sees a dark and shady grove. 

Stays uot, but looks beyond it oa the sky."—Herbert. 

►-Part; out of the reach of. 

“ This is matter of fact, and beyond all dispute."— Bentley. 

•-Above; proceeding to a greater degree than 

“ His expenses are beyond his income."— Locke. 

—Above in excellence. 

“ His satires are incomparably beyond Juvenal’s.”— Dryden. 

—Remote from; not within the sphere of. 

"With equal mind, that happens, let us bear: 

Nor joy, nor grieve, too much for things beyond our care." 

Dryden. 

To be beyond, to deceive; to circumvent. 

—adv. At a distance; yonder. 

"Lo ! where beyond he lieth, languishing.”— Spenser. 

Beyond Sea. (Law.) In England, a term signifying 
out of the kingdom. The courts of Pennsylvania have 
decided that the phrase means out of the U. States. — In 
the various statutes of limitation, the term Out of the 
State is now generally used. 

Beyra, or Beira, (bai-t'ra,) a province of Portugal, 
bounded on the N. by the province of Tras-los-Montes 
and Entre-Duero-e-Minho, on the E. by Spain, on the S. 
by Portuguese Estremadura and Alentejo, and on the 
W. by the Atlantic. Lat. between 39° 30'and41° 30'N.; 
Lon. between 6° 40' and 9° 50' W. Area, 5,817 sq. m. 
Desc. Mountainous in general; and, where fertility 
exists, wheat, barley, and rye are extensively cultivated. 
Its honey is in great repute, and the valley of Mondego 
produces fine oranges, lemons, figs, and other fruits. The 
Inhabitants, however, are mostly employed in agricul¬ 
ture, and immense numbers of cattle, sheep, and swine 
are pastured. — Rivers. The Douro in the N., Tagus in 


the S., the Aguada in the N.E., and the Mondego in the 
centre. Towns. Coimbra [cap.), Ovar, Oveiro, and La- 
mego. Pop. 1,277,244. 

Bey rout', Beirout, Beirut, (bi-root',) a town and the 
principal seaport of Syria, on the S. side of an extensive 
bay open to the N., 48 m. S.S.W. of Tripoli, 19 m. N.N.W. 
of Sidon, and about 3 in. S. from Cape Beyrout, the 



latter being in Lat. 32° 49' 45" N., Lon. 35° 26' E. There 
are here no public buildings of any especial beauty, 
nor are there many remains of antiquity to be seen. B. 
has no port, but there is a good anchorage ]/$ m. from 
the town, in 6 or 7 fathoms; and large ships may anchor 
a little further off in 10 or 20 fathoms. After centuries 
of neglect, B. has, in recent times, again become a place 
of some importance. — Exp. Galls, madder, gums, silk, 
wine, and oil. — Imp. Muslins, cottons, tin, hardware, 
cloths, and W India produce. A plentiful supply of 
water from the river Nahr Beyrout, and a great number 
of wells, modify, in some degree, the heat of the atmos¬ 
phere, and render the town much cleaner than the gen¬ 
erality of those in the E. The neighborhood is very fer¬ 
tile.— B. is the ancient Berytus. a Phoenician town of 
great importance, and so named from the number of its 
wells. Though destroyed in Alexander's wars, it rose 
again under the Romans, and flourished greatly, till 
utterly destroyed by an earthquake in 551 It again 
rose to eminence under the Saracens, though frequently 
stormed by the Crusaders, and again retaken. — B. is 
famous in the Christian legends as the scene of St. 
George’s victory over the Dragon. — Pop. about 70,000. 

Be'za. See BJze. 

Bez'an, n. (Com.) A cotton cloth manufactured in the 
E. Indies. 

Bezant, ( be-zdnt’.) (Numis.) A gold coin struck at By¬ 
zantium, (Constantinople;) it varied in weight and in 
value. There were, also, white or silver B — According 
to Camden, a piece of gold, which was anciently offered 
by the king of England on high festivals, was called a 
bizantine, and valued at $75,00. 

(Her.) A circle, or. The name is derived from the 
gold coin. It was probably introduced into coat-armor 
by the Crusaders. 

Bezant'ler, n. The second branch of a stag’s horn. 

Beze, Theodore de, (bai’za,) an eminent French Protes¬ 
tant theologian and reformer, B. at Vezelai, 1519. After 
studying at Orleans and Bourges, he went, in 1539, to 
Paris, where he spent nine years, and then went to Ge¬ 
neva and married a woman to whom he had long been 
secretly engaged. Soon afterward he was appointed pro¬ 
fessor of Greek, at Lausanne, a post which he held for 
ten years. In 1558, he was sent to ask the intercession 
of several German princes in behalf of the persecuted 
Huguenots in France. The next year he settled at Ge¬ 
neva, and was thenceforth the associate of Calvin till his 
death, and his successor as Professor of Theology and 
head of the Protestant party. B. undertook a mission 
to the King of Navarre, and succeeded in winning him 
to the side of the reformers. He took a leading part at | 
the celebrated Colloquy of Poissy, and was allowed to 
preach in Paris. He attended the Prince of Condb daring 
the civil war, and was at the battle of Dreux. B. took 
part in several other synods and conferences between 
the opposing religious parties. His wife died in 1588, 
and lie married again in a short time. His energy and 
activity of mind, like his bodily health, continued un¬ 
abated till he was nearly 80 years of age. and he only 
ceased preaching in 1600 Among his works are a Latin 
translation of the New Testament, and Histoire des 
Eglises Ref armies era France. D. 1605. 

Bez'el, or Bezil, re. That part of a ring in which the 
stone is fixed. 

Beziers, ( baiPe-ai,) a city of France, dep. Ilerault, on 
a fertile hill, in a rich country, at the junction of the 
Canal du Midi with the Orb, 38 m. S.W. of Montpellier. 
Its situation makes it the centre of a considerable trade, 
but it is principally distinguished by its distilleries, 
which are extensive, and produce brandy little inferior 
to that of Cognac. In 1209, during the first crusade 
against the Albigenses, B. was besieged by the Catholic 
army, who, having carried it by assault, committed, at 
the instigation of the Pope’s legate, an indiscriminate 
massacre of those found within its walla, whether here¬ 
tics or not. 

Bezoar, ( he-zor’.) [~Fr. bizoard ; Per. b&d-zahr, from bdd, 
wind, and zahr, poison, i.e., driving away poison ] A 
word applied to concretions found in the stomachs of 


various animals, and called Bezoar-stones. They are 
brittle egg-shaped masses, about the size of a small 
walnut, and are mostly dark olive in color. On being 
cut open, they present the appearance of a nucleus sur¬ 
rounded by concentric deposits. They occur principally 
in the stomachs of Oriental goats, deer, and antelopes, 
and were formerly looked upon as possessing super¬ 
natural properties. They were supposed to cure all dis¬ 
eases, and act as antidotes against every poison; and 
were so much sought after as to he worth ten times 
their weight in gold. The most valued of these was ob¬ 
tained from the wild goat of Persia, and was called the 
Lapis Bezaar Orientalis. They are found, more or less, 
in all herbivora, and sometimes occur in the stomach* 
of persons living much on farinaceous food. They con¬ 
tain lithofellic and ellagic acids. 

Bezoar'dic, n. (Med.) A term applied to medicines, as 
antidotes, cordials, having the properties that were sup¬ 
posed to belong to the bezoar. 

— a. That is composed of bezoar. or possesses its properties. 

Bezoar'-goat, re. (Zobl.) The Indian antelope. 

Bezo'nian, n. [It. bisogno, need, want.J A scoundrel; 
a beggar. (R.) 

‘ Under which king, Bezonian t speak, or die "— Shake. 

Bezout, (bai'zoot,) Etienne, a French mathematician, 
member of the Academy of Sciences, b. 1730. He wrote 
a course of mathematics for the use of the navy; another 
for the corps of artillery; a general theory of algebraic 
equations; and other esteemed works. D. 1783. 

Bezou'tian, n. (Math.) A term applied to the ra-ary 
quadric whose discriminant is the symmetrical deter¬ 
minant obtained by eliminating, according to Bezout’s 
abridged method, the variable, from two binary quantic* 
of the same degree (re). 

Bezou'tics, re. (Math.) See Elimination. 

Bliadrinatll, (bad-ri-nath'’,) a small town of Hindos- 
tan, prov. Kumaon,80 m N. of Almorali, 10,294 ft. above 
the level of the sea; Lat. 30° 43' N.; Lon. 79° 39' E. It 
is remarkable for a temple much venerated by the 
Hindoos. 

Bliaino, or Bamo, a town of the Birman empire, cap. 
of a Shan principality, on the Irrawaddy, 180 m. N.N.E. 
of Ava, and 20m W. of theChinese border; Lat. 24°10’ 
N., Lon. 96° 45' E. Next to Ava and Rangoon, it is the 
largest place in the empire, and contains 2,000 houses, 
mostly inhabited by Chinese. Pop. 30,000. 

Bhang'? (bang,) n. The common Indian name for the 
seed-capsules and larger leaves of the native hemp, em¬ 
ployed for making the Hashish, g.v. 

Bliat/gong, a city of N. Hindostan (Nepaul), 8 m. 
E.S.E. of Catinandoo; Lat. 27° 40' N.; Lon. 85° 8 ' B. 
Though much decayed, it is still the favorite residence 
of the Nepaulese brahmins. 

Bhatneed ', a town of Hindostan, prov. ltajpootana, 
cap. of the Bhatty country, 195 m. W S.W. of Delhi; 
Lat. 29° 36' N.; Lon. 74° 12' E. 

Bliaugulpore, or Boglipoor, (bog-le-poor',) a town of 
British India, cap of a district of same name, on the 
Ganges,104m.N.VV.ofMoorshedahad ; pop. about 30,000. 
The district, supposed to he inhabited by the aborigine* 
of Hindostan, is situated between Lat. 24° and 26° N., 
Lod. 86 ° and 89° E. Pop. 2,019,990. 

Bliooj, (bonj,) a city of Hindostan, cap. of the prov. 
Cutch, 35 m. N. of the Gulf of Cutch ; Lat. 23° 15' N., 
Lon. 69° 52' E.—This town is celebrated for its gold 
and silver works. Near it is a temple dedicated to the 
Nag, or cobra-capello. Pop. 20,000. 

Bliopaul, or Bopaul, (bo-pawl',) a state of Hindostan. 
tributary to the British, between Lat. Z 2 ° 30' and 23° 30* 
N., and Lon. 77° and 79° E.; area, 6,772 sq. m. The 
capital town is of the same name. The country is full 
of jungles, and the ruling people are Patans. 

Blmrtpore. or Bhurtpoor, iboort-poor',) a small ter¬ 
ritory of Hindostan, under the protection of the British, 
with a capital of the same name, situated abt. 33 m. N. 
of Agra, in Lat. 27° 17' N., and Lon. 77° 23' E. Area, 
1,946 sq. m. B. is inhabited by Jauts, who settled here 
about 1700 a. d. 

Bi-, [Lat. bis. twice,] a prefix signifying two, twice, or 
double; as, bicarbonate of potash, acompound of potash 
with two atoms of carbonic acid ; bilocular, two-celled; 
bivalve, two valves, Ac. 

Biafra, (Bight of,) (be-afra,) an inlet of the Atlantic, 
on the W. coast of Africa, containing the islands of Fer¬ 
nando Po, Prince, and St. Thomas. It lies within Lon. 
5° and 10° E. 

Bialystok, (be-al'e-stok.) [Russ. Bjeloslock.] An ad¬ 
ministrative district of Russia in Europe, formerly a 
part of Poland, now a part of the govt, of Grodno; Lat. 
between 52° and 54° N.; Lon. between 22° and 24°. 
Area, 3,436 sq. m. Forests are extensive, and agriculture 
is almost the only employment. Pop. about 260,000. 

Bialystok, cap. of the above territory, Lat. 53° 7'36" N.. 
Lon. 23° 15' E., is a handsome town. 

Bia'na,a town of Hindostan,prov. Agra; Lat. 25° 57'N.: 
Lon. 77° 8 ' E. 

Bianca, in Minnesota, a post-village of Wright co., abt. 
44 m. N.W. of St. Anthony. 

Bianchi'ni, Francesco, an Italian astronomer and an¬ 
tiquary, b. at Verona, 1662. He improved many astro¬ 
nomical instruments, and discovered the spots on the 
planet Venus. His principal work is Universal History. 
in Italian. D. 1729. 

Bian'gnlar, Bian'gulate, Bian'gulated, a. 

Having two angles. 

Biard, Pierre, (be'ar,) a French sculptor and architect 
b. at Paris, 1559. His chief work is the equestrian 
statue of Henry IV., placed over the great entrance to 
the Hotel de Ville, Paris. D. 1609. 

Biard, Auguste Franjois, a French painter, b. at Lyon, 
1800. Aftel studying in the Academy of Fine Arts of 















BIBL 


BIBL 


BIBL 


341 


bis native place, he visited Spain, Greece, Syria, and 
Egypt, and his sketches rapidly found their way into 
public collections and private galleries. Later, his love 
of travel led him to visit Russia, Norway, Lapland, 
Greenland, and Spitzbergen. B. was chiefly successful 
in the delineation of comic and burlesque groupings, 
always taken from life. His principal works were: Arabs 
overtaken by the Simoom in the Desert; Odalisque of 
Smyrna; The Sequel of a Masquerade; A Skirmish of 
Masquers with the Police; The Family Concert; Slave 
Market on the Gold Corst of Africa; Combat with Polar 
Bears; A Ball on an English Corvette , &c. I). 1882. His 
wife, from whom he separated in 1843, devoted herself 
to literature, and was known under the name of Lionie 
d'Aunet. She published many novels, but her best work 
was Voyage d'une Femme au Spitsberg, a narration ot the 
journey which she took with her husband. 

Biarritz (be'ar-reetz 1 ), a seaside village of France, in 
the department of the Basses Pyrenees, 5 miles from 
Bayonne; pop. 1,938.—This place is much frequented 
for the sake of its baths and the beautiful scenery in its 
vieinity, and from its having been once the chosen 
marine residence of Napoleon III., Emperor of the 
French, who built a chateau here. Its fine sandy beach 
is noted along the coast. 

Biart ic'ulate, a. f Lat. bis, two, and articulus, joint.] 
Applied to the antennae of insects when they consist of 
hut two joints, and also to the abdomen under the same 
circumstances, as in the Nycteribia biarticulata. 

Bi 'as, one of the seven sages of Greece, and a native of 
Priene, la Ionia, celebrated for his practical knowledge 
and strict regard to justice. He flourished about 550 B. C., 
and died at a very advanced age. 

Bi n. \ Fr. biais, a slope, from Lat. obliquus , oblique, 
slanting; It. bieco.] The weight lodged on one side of 
a bowl, which turns it from the straight line. 

*• Madam, we ll play at bowls — 

— ’Twill make me think the world is full of rubs, 

And that my fortune runs against the bias. — Shake. 

leaning of the mind; inclination; propensity; bent; 
disposition; anything which influences. 

*• Morality influences men's lives, and gives a bias to all their 
actions."— Locks. 

Bi 'as, v a. {Imp. biassed ;pp. biassing, biassed.) To cause 
to slope; to turn out of a straight line or course; to 
incline to one side; to give a particular direction to the 
miud; to incline; to warp; to prejudice, 
fil 'as, ado. Across; diagonally. 

Biauric'nlate, a. [Lat. bis, two, and auricula, an 
auricle.] ( Anat .) Applied, in comparative anatomy, to a 
heart with two auricles, as in most bivalve molluscs, 
and in all reptiles, birds, and mammals. 

Biax'al, a. (Mm.) That has two axes. 

Bib, n. [Lat. bibo, to drink ] A small piece of cloth 
worn by infants over the breast while drinking or im¬ 
bibing nourishment. 

—v.n. To tipple: to sip: to drink frequently; as, “He 
was constantly bibbing.'” — Locke. 

Biba'cious, a. [Lat. bibax, fci&am.] Addicted to 
drinking. 

Bibasic, ( bi-bds'ik ,) a. (Chem.) Noting acids which 
require two equivalents of a protoxide of a base to form 
a neutral salt, such as the pyrophosphoric, lactaric, and 
malic acids. 

Bibb, in Alabama, a central county, traversed by the 
Cahawba River; surface hilly; soil partly fertile. Area, 
1,030 sq. m. Cap. Centreville. 

Bibb, in Georgia, a central county, bounded S.4V. by 
Echaconnee Creek, and crossed N. to S. by the Ocmulgee 
River; area, 250 sq. m.; surface hilly; soil generally 
poor: cap. Macon. 

Bibber, (bib'er,) n. [From Lat. bibo, to drink.] A 
drinker; a tippler; a man given to drinking; as, a 
win e-bibber. 

Bi bbiena, (beeb-be-ai'na,) Bernardo, a Roman cardinal, 
B. 1470. He entered the service of the Medici, and was 
made cardinal by Leo X., who employed him on several 
important missions. Aspiring to the papacy, he is said 
to have excited the Pope’s jealousy, and is supposed to 
have been poisoned. Bibbiena wrote a famous comedy 
called Calandira, which is still in repute among the 
Italians. D 1520. 

Bi bbiena,( 6 ee 6 -&e-ai'?ia,)GluSEPPE da, an Italian painter 
and architect, e. at Bologna, 1096. He introduced a new' 
form into the building of theatres, and w'as the inventor 
of modern theatrical decorations. D. 1756. 
Bib'ble-Bab'ble, n. Prating; idle talk. 

Bibbs, n. pi. (Naul.) Pieces of timber bolted to the 
hounds of a mast, to support the trestle-trees. 
Biberach, ( be’bai-rak,) a town of Wiirtemberg, circ. 
of the Danube, in a fertile valley, on the Ries, 22 m. 
S.S.W. of Dim. Near the town are the mineral waters 
•f Jordansbad. B. is the birthplace of Wieland; and in 
1796, the French, under Moreau, defeated the Austrians 
in its vicinity. 

Bib'io, n. (Zodl.) A genus of insects, sub-fam. Bibirmi- 
dce. They are of small size; their flight is slow and 
heavy; they are found in damp, marshy places; and some 
species are troublesome pests to our domestic animals. 
Bibion'idse, n. pi. (Zodl.) A sub-fam. of dipterous in¬ 
sects, distinguished from all the other Tipulidse, by 
having the body and legs shorter and more robust; 
antennae cylindric; and wings large. 

Bibira', n. (Bot.) See Nectandra. 

Bib'itory, a. [Lat. bibo, bibitus, to drink.] Belonging 
to drinking or tippling. 

Bible, n. [Gr. biblion, diminutive from biblos, a book : 
from byblos. the papyrus, or the inner bark of it, which 
was made into paper for hooks.] The Book, by way of pre- 
•aaiueice ; tue Holt Scriptures ; the volume containing 


the collected books of the Old and New Testaments. 
The Greek word in primitive use was r/ ypatpr), or, ra hpa 
ypappara ; and ra (jt(i\ia is not fouud till the5th century, 
applied to the Sacred Writings by St. Chrysostom. The 
name Old Testament first occurs in St. Paul’s Second 
Epistle to the Corinthians (iii. 14), written in a. d. 55 . 
The canon is generally believed to have been closed by 
Simon the Just, about b. c. 292. The Apocrypha (q. v.) 
was added B. c. 150. The Old Testament canon consists 
of 39 books, divided into 929 chapters, containing 592,439 
words. Of this portion of the B., the oldest edition is 
the Septuagint, translated into the Greek, according 
to the tradition of Aristeas, B. c. 277, by 72 Jews. The 
work was undertaken at the desire of Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus. The books of the New Testament, written in 
Hellenistic Greek, were first collected about the middle 
of the 3d century. Peter (2d Epistle iii. 16), in 65, speaks 
of St. Paul’s Epistles as though they had been collected 
in his time. Doubtless, the separation of the genuine 
from the spurious had already commenced when St. 
Peter wrote. The New Testament is divided into 27 
books containing 265 chapters. The Sacred Writings 
were translated by the early Christians into various 
languages. Eusebius says, “ They were translated into 
all languages, both of Greeks and barbarians, through¬ 
out the world, and studied by all nations as the oracles 
of God.” Many of the Fathers bear similar testimony. 
Origen published a B. called Hrxapla, in 6 columns, 
with different versions, and, on adding to, called it the 
Octapla. The division of the B. into chapters has been 
erroneously attributed to Stephen Langton, Archbishop 
of Canterbury, in 1206. The Psalms were always divided 
as at present, and Hugo de Sancto Caro, a Dominican 
friar, and afterwards a cardinal, who compiled the first 
concordance to the B., divided the matter into sections,] 
and the sections into under-divisions; and these sections I 
are the chapters. He flourished about 1240, and D. in 
1262. Rabbi Isaac Nathan, in 1445, introduced regular 
verses. These alterations have since been much im¬ 
proved. In the Latin translation of the B., by Paginus 
of Lucca, published at Lyons in 1528, Arabic numerals 
are placed in the margin, opposite the verses. 
b. o. Early Translations. 

277. (circ.) The Septuagint. The Old Testament is 
translated into Greek. 

100. Old Syriac version. 

A. D. 

128. Aquila, a Jewish proselyte, translates the Old 
Testament into Greek. 

176. Theodotion translates the Old Testament. 

205. Lynjmachus, by order of Septimus Severus, trans¬ 
lates the Old Testament into Greek. 

200-300. Coptic translation. 

300-400. Ethiopie version. 

360. Gothic version, by Uphilas. 

405. Jerome completes the Latin vulgate, commenced 
about 385. 

410—413. Armenian version. 

709. Saxon translation of the Psalms. 

721. Saxon translation of the Gospels. 

725. Bede’s Saxon translation of the whole Bible is 
completed. 

864. Slavonian translation. 

1160. French translation of the whole Bible, by Peter 
de Vaux. 

1290. English translation. 

1380. Wyckliffe’s English version. 

Earliest Printed Bibles in Different Languages. 


Translation, 

N T. 

Bib. 

Place of Printing. 



1455 




1462 

Mentz. 



1467 



1471 




1475 

Cologne. 

Valencia. 



1478 



1487 



1488 

Prague. 

Hebrew, (Old Testament,) 

1516 

1488 


1522 

1534 

Wittenberg. 


1525 

1529 


1526 

Antwerp. 

[Uncertain.] 

Geneva. 

Upsal. 

Copenhagen. 


1535 





1534 

1541 

Danish.-. 

1524 

1550 


1560 



1562 

Geneva. 

Frankfort or Basle. 
Ostrog. 

Stockholm. 


1556 

1569 


1519 

1581 


1548 

1642 

Welsh... 

1567 

1588 

Hungarian. 

1574 

1589 


Icelandic. 

1584 

Holum, Iceland. 


1585 

1596 


1593 

Cralitz, [Moravia.] 
Cambridge, U. S. 
Rouen. 

Geneva. 

Virginian Indians . . 

Vulgate, ( Eng. edition,)... 

1661 

1638 

1663 

1635 

Turkish. 

1666 



1602 

1685 

l>ondon, 

Belfast. 


1704 

Lapponic. 

1755 

Manx.. 

1763 




1767 

1781 

1802 

1783 

Edinburgh. 

Lisbon. 

Copenhagen. 

Ca.eutta. 

Portuguese. 

Greeulandic. 

1799 

Chinese. 

1814 



Remarkable Editions of English Bibles. 

A. D. 

1526. Tyndale’s New Testament. ( Antwerp .1 

1530. Tyndale’s Pentateuch. (Marburg,Hesse.) 

1531. Joye’s Isaye (Isaiah). (Strasburg.) 

1535. Bartholetus, first Latin Bible printed in England, 
(4to. London). — Tyndale and Coverdale’s folio, 
1537. Matthew’s Bible. (Folio.) 

1537. An edition of Coverdale’s Bible. (4to. Soulhivark.) 
1539. The Great (or Cromwell’s Bible) (London). The 
first Bible printed by authority in England. 

1539. Taverner’s Bible. (Fblio, Londtm.) 

1540. Cranmer’s edition of the Great Bible. (Fol. London.) 
1560. Geneva Bible. (4 to. Geneva.) 

1568. Parker’s or the Bishop's Bible. (Fol London.) 
1571. The Gospels, in Saxon and English. The Saxon 
irom the Vulgate, and the English from the Bish¬ 
op’s Bible. (London.) 

1576. Genevan Bible (Fol. Edinburgh.) The first Bi¬ 
ble printed in Scotland. 

1609. First Roman Catholic Bible in England.(4 to.Douay.) 
1611. The Royal, or King James I.’s, Bible. ( Fol. London.) 

1632. The “Wicked ” Bible. (Gvo. London.) 

1633. First Scottish edition of Authorized Bible. (Svo. 

Edinburgh.) 

1657. Walton’s I'olyglott Bible. (Fol. London.) 

1717. Vinegar Bible. (Fol. Oxford.) 

1850. Wyckliffe’s Bible. (4to. Oxford.) 

1869. The Amer.S. Union (Baptist) revised translation. 
1878. Bible and Commentary. Ed. by F. C. Cook, with 
many able assistants. Known as The Speaker’s 
Commentary, as it was undertaken at the instance 
of the Speaker of the English House of Commons 
in 1863. Vol. I. issued, London, 1878. 

1885. The New Version, of which the New Testament 
was issued in 1881, and the old in 1S85. 

For list of beoks in the Bible, see Canon of Scripture. 
Bime-oatli, n. An oath on the Bible; a sacred obli¬ 
gation. 

Bib'ler, n. [Lat. bibo, to drink.] A tippler. 

Bible Societies, n. pi. The following are tno prin¬ 
cipal associations formed for the dissemination of tha 
Scriptures, with the date of institution: 

A. D. 

1649. New England, re-incorporated in 1661. (American.) 
1662. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 
Wales. ( Welsh.) 

1698. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. (Eng.) 
1701. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in For¬ 
eign Parts. (English.) 

1709. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in 
Scotland. (Scottish.) 

1712. Society at Halle. (German.) 

1750. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge among 
the Poor. (English.) 

1780. Naval and Military Bible Society. (English.) 

1785. Society for the Support and Encouragement of Sun¬ 
day Schools. (English.) 

1792. French Bible Society. 

1803. Society for Promoting a more Extensive Circula¬ 

tion of the Scriptures both at Home and Abroad. 
(English.) 

1804. British and Foreign Bible Society, being the So¬ 

ciety of 1803 remodelled. 

“ German Bible Society. 

" New York Bible Society. 

1805. Berlin Society, changed to Prussian Bible Society 

in 1814. 

1808. Philadelphia Bible Society. 

1813. Russian Bible Society. Suspended in 1826. 

1817. American Bible Society. 

1831. Trinitarian Bible Society. 

1850. American Bible Union, N. Y. 

Since the revolution in Italy of 1859, and that in 
Spain of 1868, Bible societies have been established in 
both countries. 

Some of these societies have a large number of braneh 
establishments. Pope Pius A ll. issued a bull at Rome, 
June 29,1816, against Bible societies, denouncing the 
movement as a crafty device, by which the very foun¬ 
dations of religion are undermined. 

Bib'lical, a. PertainiDg to the Bible. 

Bib'lically, adv. In accordance with the Bible. 
Bib'licism, n. Biblical doctrine, learning, or litera¬ 
ture. (R.) 

Bib'licist. n. One skilled in Biblical knowledge. 
Bibliographer, n [See Bibliography.] One versed 
in bibliography. 

Bibliographic, Bibliographical, a. Per¬ 
taining to the history of books. 
Bibliograpll'icaily, adv. In a bibliographical 
manner. 

Bibliography, (bib-li-og’ra-fe,) n. [Fr.; from Gr. 
biblos, and grapho, to write, to describe.] A description, 
account, or history of books. The knowledge which is 
required to classify books, according to the various sub¬ 
jects on which they treat, lias been termed intellectual 
B.; that of the internal peculiarities of books — the 
number of editions through which they have passed, 
the printer or publisher, their date as to time and place, 
their form and size, and their comparative complete¬ 
ness, correctness, typographical beauty, and rarity — 
material B. The first branch borders closely on the pro¬ 
vince of criticism; for the most valuable bibliographi¬ 
cal works, being what are termed in French catalogues 
raisnnnes , are those in which the books are accompanied 
with some remarks on the character of their contents. 
The second branch of B. has been of late years culti¬ 
vated with all the ardor attached to a fashionable an d. 
somewhat eccentric pursuit. The lovers of rare edi¬ 
tions and curious copies of works, from being, to bortww 






































































342 


BICA 


BICU 


BIEN 


a French term, Bibliophiles, formed some years ago a 
peculiar sect entitled Bibliomaniacs, with whom the 
fancy for books had become apassion, like that of Dutch 
connoisseurs in tulips and pictures. Many works of 
novel and curious research in this department of litera¬ 
ture have been produced to guide their taste. The fol¬ 
lowing list contains a selection of works, which, from 
the critical matter which they contain, may be con¬ 
sidered to belong to the history of literature, as well as 
of books and editions : — Lowndes’s Bibliographer's Man¬ 
ual of Enghsh Literature, giving an account of rare, 
curious, and useful books, new edition by Bohn; a valu¬ 
able work (1868). Darling’s Cyclopcedia Bibliographica, 
a library manual of theological and general literature 
and guide to books (Loudon, 1857-8). A Critical Dic¬ 
tionary of English Literature and British and American 
Authors, by S. A. Allibone (Phila., 1859-69, and a Supple¬ 
ment, 1891). Horne’s Manual of Biblical Bibliography. 
Dibdin’s Library Companion, 1824. Ebert's Allgemeines 
biblingraphisches Lexikon. 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1821-30); (an 
English translation of this work has appeared in 4 vols. 
6vo. (Oxford, 1837). Heinsius’s Allgemeines Biicher-Lexi- 
kon, with Supplements, 11 vols. (Leipzig, 1812-52). 
Ersch's Handbuch der Deutschen Literatur, 2d edition, 4 
vols.; (Leipzig, 1822-40); (3d edition, by Geissler, 1845). 
Vater’s Literatur der Grammatiken Lexica, and Worter- 
sainmlungen alter Sprachen der Erde, 2d edition (Berlin, 
1847. Brunet’s Manuel du Libraire et de VAmateur des 
Livres, 5th edition, 6 vols. 8vo. (Paris, 1866). Querard’s 
La France Litteraire, 10 vols. (Paris, 1827-42). De Bure’s 
Bibliographic Instructive, ou, Traiti de. la Gmnnissunce 
des Livres rares et singuliers, contenanl un Catalogue 
raisonne de la plus grande partie de ces livres precieux 
qui ont paru successivement dans la Rcpublique des Let- 
tresdepuis /’invention del’imprimerie, 7 vols. 8vo. (Paris, 
1763-8.) M. Barbier’s Dictionnaire des Anmymes et Pseu- 
dmymes, 4 vols. 1822-25. 

Biblioiutry, n. [Or. biblion, a book, latreia, wor¬ 
ship.] Worship of a book. 

Bibliolog'ical, a. Pertaining to bibliology. 

Bibliology, n. [Gr. biblion, a book, and logos, dis¬ 
course, treatise.] A treatise on books; bibliography.— 
Biblical literature, doctrine, or theology. 

Bib'liomancy, n. [Gr. biblion, and mantria, prophe¬ 
cy.] Divination by the Bible, sometimes called Sortes 
Biblica, was a common practice among the early Chris¬ 
tians, who were accustomed to regulate their conduct 
by opening the Sacred Scriptures, and accepting the 
passage which first presented itself as a guide. Al¬ 
though condemned by the councils of Vannes in 465; 
Agde, in 506, and Orleans in 511, this mode of divina¬ 
tion was practised for many years. The Mohammedans 
exercise a similar divination by means of the Koran. 
The ancients used tho works of Homer and Virgil in 
the same manner — the Sortes Homericoe, and the Sortes 
VbrgiliancB being popular means of prognosticating fu¬ 
ture events. 

Blblloma'nia, Bibliomant, n. [Gr. biblion, and ma¬ 
nia, madness.] Book-madness; a rage for possessing rare 
and curious books. — See Bibliography. 

Biblioina'niac, n. One who has a rage for books. 

Biblioniani'acal, a. Relating to bibliomania. 

Biblioma'nianism, n. The same as Bibliomania. 

Biblioni'anist, n. The same as Bibliomaniac. 

Bibliope^'ic, a. Relating to the binding of books. 

Bibliopegy, n. [Gr. biblion, and pegnunai, to make 
fast.] The art of binding books. 

Bib'liopliile, Bibliopb'ilist, n. A lover of books 
or bibliography. 

Bibliopli'ilism, n. [Gr. biblion, and phileo, to love.] 
Love of books or bibliography. 

Bibliopbo'bia, n. [Gr. biblion, and phobeo, to fear.] 

A dread of books. (R.) 

Bibliopole. Bibllop'olist, n. [Gr. biblion, a book, 
and poleo, to sell.] A bookseller. 

Bibliopol'ic, Bibliopol'ical, Bibliopolis'- 

tic, a. Relating to booksellers, or bookselling. 

Blbliop'olisin, n. The business of selling books. 

Bibliot'aphist, n. [Gr. biblion. and taphos, a burial.] 
One who hides or buries books. 

Bibliotlie'ca, n. [Lat., from Gr. biblion, and theke, a 
case, box, or repository; from tithemi, to put or place.] 
Properly, a repository for books ; a library. — In litera¬ 
ture, a treatise giving an account or list of all the writers 
on a certain subject; thus, we have bibliothecas of the¬ 
ology, law, philosophy, &c. There are, likewise, uni¬ 
versal bibliothecas, which treat indifferently of all kinds 
of books; also select bibliothecas, giving an account of 
none but authors of reputation.—See Bibliography. 

Bibliotli'ecal, a. Relating to a library. 

Bib'liotheke, n. [See Bibliotheca. Fr. bibliothfque.] 

A library. 

Bib'list, n. One who makes the Scriptures the sole rule 
of faith. — A biblical scholar. 

Biborate »f Soda, re. (Che ire.) The chemical name 
of Borax, q. v. 

Bibulous, a. [Lat. bibulus, from bibo, to drink.] 
Spongy; that has the quality of imbibing fluids or 
moisture. 

Bib'ulus, Lucius Calpurnius, Consul of Rome at the 
same time with Caesar. Opposing at first the democratic 
measures proposed by his colleague, he saw that his 
resistance was useless, and took no further part in 
public affairs. The wits of Rome were accustomed to 
designate that period as the year of the consulate of 
Caius and Julius Csesar, alluding to Caesar’s two pre¬ 
nomens. D. about 40 b. c. 

Bical'carate, a. [Lat. bis, twice, and calcar, a spur.] 

( Zool .) Applied to a limb or part armed with two 
spurs. 

■ical'lose, Bical'Ious, a . [Lat. bis, and callus, hard 


flesh.] (Bot.) That possesses two small callosities or 
protuberances. 

Bicanere, or Biekaneer, ( bik'a-neer ,) a territory 
of Ilindostan, prov. Rajpootana, chiefly between Lat. 27° 
and 29° N.; having N. the Bhatty country , S. the Joud- 
poorand Seypoordom.; E. Hurrianaand theShehawutty 
country, and W. Jesselmeer and the great desert, of 
which it forms a part; area, 18,000 sq ro. The soil is 
sandy and only irrigated by wells. The Rajah has been 
under British protection since 1818. 

Bicanere, the cap. of the above dom., in the Indian des¬ 
ert, 145 m. N.N.VV. of Ajmeer; Lat. 27° 57' N.; Lon. 73° 
2' E. The desolation around it is as great as that of the 
wildest tract of Arabia. 

Bicap'sular,a. [Lat. bis, and capsula, capsule.] (Bot.) 

Having two capsules, containing seeds, to each flower. 
Bicar'bide of Hydrogen. See Marsh-Gas. 
Bicar'bonate, w. (Chem.) A carbonate containing 
two equivalents of carbonic acid to one of the base. 
Bicar'inate, re. [Lat. bis, and carina, keel.] (Bot.) 
That has two keel-like projections, as the upper palea of 
grasses. 

Bice, Bise, re. [Etymol. uncertain.] (Painting.) A 
light-blue color prepared from smalt. From it, by a mix¬ 
ture with yellow orpiment, another color is formed of a 
green hue, bearing the same name. 

Bieent'enary, re. See Nonconformists. 

Biceph alous, (bi-sef'a-lus,) a. [Lat. bis, and Gr. 

cephale, the head.] Having two heads. 

Bi'eeps, re. [From Lat. bis. and caput, head.] (Anat.) 
The name of two muscles of the upper extremities, which, 
rising by two narrow tendons from different parts of the 
scapula, or shoulder-blade, are inserted one into each 
radius or outer bone of the fore-arm—the principal flexor 
of the fore-arm.—Also, the name of a set of muscles of 
the thighs, acting as flexors of those limbs. — See Skel¬ 
eton. 

Bieetre, ( be-sai’tr,) a village of France, 1 m. from Paris, 
where, in the reign of Charles V , a large building was 
erected for disabled soldiers, but which was destroyed in 
the wars under Charles VI. It wasieuuilt by Louis XIII., 
and was used as a military asylum until the Hotel des 
Invalides was established at Paris. It was afterwards 
used as an hospital for the old, the sick, and the insane, 
and also served as a prison. A fort was built in 1842. 
Bichat, (bee-shah,) Marie Francois Xavier, an eminent 
French physiologist, B. 1771. He went to Paris in 1793, 
and studied under Desault, who soon made him his friend 
and associate. He was an indefatigable student and ob¬ 
server, and made very numerous experiments and dis¬ 
coveries in anatomy. His spiendid researches have shed 
a new light on physiology, by giving an intelligible ac¬ 
count of the several tissues and organs of the body, and 
of their varied functions, llis great work is the Ana- 
lomie generate appliquee d la Physiologic etdla Medecine. 
He also wrote Recherches Physiologiques sur la Vie et la 
Mort, Traite des Membranes, and Anatomic Descriptive. 
D. 1802. 

Bichloracet'ic Acid. (Chem.) A product recently 
obtained. Form. HO C 4 IICIJO 3 . 

Bichro mate, re. [See Chromium.] (Chem.) A sal* 
containing two equivalents of chromic acid to one of tue 
base. 

Bicip'ital, Bieip'itons, (bi-sip'it-al.) a. [Fr. bicip¬ 
ital; Lat., from bis, and caput, capitas, the head.] Re¬ 
lating to the biceps; as, the B tubercle, a prominence 
near the upper extremity of the radius, to which the 
tendon of the biceps is attached. 

Bick'cr, (bik'er,)v. re. [W. bicra; Scot, bicker; probably 
from the root of beak or pick.] To skirmish; to fight 
off and on; to quarrel; to scold; to contend in petulant 
altercation. 

“ I see thy furv; if I longer stay, 

We shall begin our ancient bickerings." — Shake. 

—To quiver; to ply backward and forward. 

“ And from about him fierce effusion roll’d 
Of smoke, and bickering fiame, and sparkles dire.”— Milton. 

—re. A beaker. (Prov. Eng.) 

Bick'erer, re. A skirmisher; a quarreller. 
Bick'erirtg’, re. A skirmish; a quarrel. 

Bick'ern, re. [Corrupted from beak-iron.] An iron end¬ 
ing in a beak or point, as the pointed part of an anvil. 
Bick'erstafie, Tsaac, a popular play-writer, was born 
in Ireland about 1735. At the age of eleven he became 
page to the lord-lieutenant, Lord Chesterfield, and was 
afterward an officer of the marines, but was dismissed 
from the service and fled the country, dying abroad. 
Among his plays were: The Maid of the Mill; Be 
Would if He Could; The Hypocrite; The Captive, &c. 
Bicol'lig'ate, a. [Lat. bis, and colligo ,1 bind together.] 
(Zool.) Connected by a basal web, as the anterior toes 
in birds. 

Bi color, a. [Lat. bis, and color\ That has two colors. 
Bicon jiigate, a. [Lat. bis, and conjugo, to join to¬ 
gether.] (Bot.) Twice paired, as when the petiole of a 
compound leaf forks twice. 

Bi'corn, Bicorn'ous, a. [Lat. bis, and cornu, a 
horn.] Having two horns, or two hornlike processes. 
Bieor'nis, a. [See Bicorn.] (Anat.) Sometimes ap¬ 
plied to the hyoid bone, from its having two processes 
like horns. — Also, to the uterus of most quadrupeds 
that has two horny divisions. 

Bicor'poral, a. [Lat bis, and corpus, a body.] Hav¬ 
ing two bodies. 

Bicru'ral, a. [Lat. bis, and crus, crucis, a leg.] Having 
two legs. 

Bicus'pid, a. [Lat, bis, and cuspis, a point.] (Anat.) 
Any thing having two points. Some anatomists use 
this word to define the teeth, as the cuspidati, teeth with 
one point, or the canine; bicuspidati, teeth with two 
points, the two teeth immediately behind the canine; 


the multi cuspidati, or many-pointed, the molar teeth. 
Bieus'pidate, o. (Bot.) Having a double point. 
Bi'eycle, re. See Section II. 

Bid, v. a. (imp. bib or babe ; pp. bid or bidden.) [A.S. bid 
dun; Goth, bidjan.] To interest; to beseech; to request) 
to invite. ( 0 .) 

“Go ye therefore into the highways, and as many as ye shafl 
And, bid to the marriage.’’ — Matt. xxii. 9. 

—To require; to demand; to command. 

“ Thar .es heard the numbers as he flowed along, 

And bade his willows learn the Sfcoving song.’’ —Pops. 
—[A S. brodan; Du. biedm, to offei, nroffer.] To offer; tc 
propose; to bring forward; to propose to give. 

“ He that bids most shall have it.’’ — Collier. 

—To pronounce or declare; to proclaim. 

“How bid you welcome to these shattered legions ? " — Philips. 

To bid beads, to distinguish each head by a prayer.* 
To bid fair, to make fair promise. 

Bid, n. An offer to pay a specified price for an artid® 
about to be sold at auction. 

Bid'al, Bii/ale, or Bid'all, re. [ bid and ale.] An ancient 
custom in England, by which friends are invited to 
drink ale at some poor man’s house, and there to con* 
tribute something to his relief. 

Bidassoa, (be-das-so’a.) a river which, rising in the 
Spanisli Pyrenees, forms the boundary between that 
country and France, and falls into the Bay of Biscay be¬ 
tween Andaye and Fontarabia. At its mouth is an is¬ 
land, where, in 1659, was concluded the treaty of tha 
Pyrenees. 

Bid 'deford, in Maine, a manuf. city of York co., on 
Saco river, about 14 m. S. W. by S. of Portland. Pop. 
in 1890,14,443 ; in 1897, about 16,000. See Saco. 
Bid'der, re. One who offers to pay a specified price for 
an article offered for sale at public auction. 

(Law.) Ttie B. has a right to withdraw his bid at any 
tirns before it is accepted, which acceptance is generally 
manifested by knocking down the hammer. 

Bid'diiig 1 , re. Command; order. 

“ A! his second bidding darkness fled. 

Light shone, and order from disorder sprung.’’ — Milton. 

(Com.) Offer of a specified price; act of making bids at 
public auction. 

—Invitation to a wedding. (Prov. Eng.) 
Bid'ding-Prayer, re. (Eccl. Hisl.) A form of prayer 
for tho souls of benefactors, said before sermons and 
homilies, in the Roman Catholic Church.—"The 55th 
canon of the Church of England enjoins that before all 
lectures, the preachers or ministers shall move the peo¬ 
ple to join with them in prayer in a certain form. This 
form is called bidding-prayer, because in it the preacher 
is directed to bid the people to pray for certain specified 
articles. It is now rarely used. 

Bid'dle, Nicholas, an American financier, b. in 1786; 
was graduated at Princeton College, and entered tho 
Penna. legislature, where he became distinguished for 
his aggressiveness and energy. Was appointed president 
of the U. S. Bank in 1823, and held that position until 
the end of 1836, when he was made president of tho 
second U. S. Bank. This institution he handled with 
much skill for a time, but in October, 1841, it was forced 
to suspend. Indictment proceedings were begun against 
B. and others, on a charge of conspiracy to defraud, but 
were never pressed. D. in 1844. 

Bid'dy, re. A childish name for a hen, or a chicken; 
also, for a servant-girl. 

Bide, (bid,) v. re. [A.S. bidan, to tarry, to remain.] To 
dwell; to inhabit; to remain. ( 0 .) 

— v. a. To endure; to suffer. 

“Poor naked wretches wheresoe'er you are, 

That bide the peltiug of this pitiless storm I " — Shake. 

—To wait for; to abide. See Abide. 

Bideford, (bid’e-furd,) a seaport-town of Devonshire, on 
the Torridge, 2 m. from Barnstaple. Manf. Earthen¬ 
ware, woollens, and carpets. Pop. about 6,000. 
Ifidens, re. [Lat. bis, and dens, a tooth, the achenia hav¬ 
ing 2 (or more) barbed teeth ] (Bot.) The Burr-Mari¬ 
gold, a genus of plants, sub-ord. TubuliJiortB. — Diag. In¬ 
volucre nearly equal, double, scaly or leafy at the base; 
rays few, neutral; disc perfect; receptacle chaffy, flat; 
pappus of 2-4 awns, rough backwards; achenia quadran¬ 
gular. Many species are found in the U. States, and 
among them, B. frnndosa. a common weed, often called 
beggar-ticks, found in moist, cultivated fields. Its stem 
is 2 feet high, sending out many spreading branches; 
flowers in clusters at the end of the branches, without 
rays, yellow, surrounded by a large and leafy involucre, 
blossoming in August. 

Biden'tal, Biden'tate, Biden'tated. a. [See Bidens.) 
(.4rea<. and Bot.) Applied to an animal that has but two 
teeth, as the Delphinus bidens; or to a part furnished 
with two tooth-like processes. 

Bidet, (bee-day’.) [Fr.] A small horse. Hence, perhaps, 
applied to a chamber bathing-apparatus, which has to 
be bestridden. It is a useful arrangement, in case of 
hemorrhoids, &c. 

Bid'-hook, re. ( Naut .) A hook belonging to a boat. 
Bid'xvell, in California, a tnriv ng township of Butts 
county. 

—A post-village, called also Bidwett’s Bar, in the abov® 
township, 9 m. E.N.E. of Oroville. 

Bie'berite, re. (Min.) A hydrated sulphate of cohalt 
and magnesia, which occurs in flesh-red and rose-colored, 
translucent, friable stalactites, and in crusts investing 
other minerals, in rubbish of old mines at Bieber near 
Hanau. 

Biehle, in Missouri, a post-office of Perry co 
Bielefeld, (bel'e-felt,) a town of Prussia, 26 m. from 
Minden. It is the centre of the Westphalian trade, auc 
has manf.e''' leather, soap, vvoohen stuffs. &c. 









BIG 


BIGC 


BIGH 


343 


Biel 'er,in California, a coast-village of Sonoma co.,45| 
m. W.N.W. of Santa Rosa. 

Bielgorod, (bele-gor'od',) a town of Ru. sia in Europe, 
73 in. from Koursk. 

Biella, (be-ail'la,) a town of N. Italy, cap. of a prov. of 
same name, on the Cervo, 50 m. from Tuvin. 

Bienne, (Fake of,) (be-ain',) in Switzerland, 16 m. 
from Berne. It is 10 m. long, by 1 to 3 broad, and con¬ 
tains the island of St. Pierre, which was the residence 
of Rousseau in 1765. — At its N. extremity stands a 
small town of the same name. 

Biennial, ( bi-en'ni-al ,) a. [Lat. bis, twice, annus, a 
year.] Continuing for two years; as, a biennia! plant.— 
Taking place once in two years; as, a biennial meeting. 

—-n. (Bot.) A plant which springs from the seed one year, 
but does not flower and seed until the second year, when it 
perishes. The B. root is commonly enlarged at the close 
of the first season, by an accumulation of nutriment in¬ 
tended for the support of the plant during its flowering 
and fruiting. The carrot or the turnip is a familiar ex¬ 
ample of such a root. 

Bieil'nially, adv. Once in two years; at the return 
of two years. 

Biensi, (bains,) n.pi. [Fr., goods.] (French Law.) This 
term includes all kinds of property, real and personal. 
B. are divided into B. meuble.s, movable property, aud 
B. immeubles, immovable property. This distinction 
between movable and immovable property gives rise, in 
the civil as well as in the common law, to many impor¬ 
tant distinctions as to rights and remedies. 

Bienville, ( bain'vil,) in Louisiana, a N.W. par., bound¬ 
ed W. by Lake Bistiueau, and traversed by Black Lake 
and Saline bayou. Lake Bistineau, which enters Red 
river near the S.W. of the parish, is navigable by steam¬ 
boats for about 60 m. Cap. Arcadia. Pop. (1898) 16,200. 

Bier, (ber,) n. [Fr. biere; A. S. beer; Pers. bir, from the 
root of bear.] A carriage or frame of wood for convey¬ 
ing dead human bodies to the grave. 

Bierstarit, ( ber'staht,) Albert, an American painter, b. 
at Diisseldorf, 1829. He has made himself famous by 
his wonderful pictures of American scenery, chief among 
which are, A Storm in the Rocky Mountains; aud The 
Domes of the Yosemite, Ac. D. Feb. IS, 1902. 

Biestirig, Beestning. or Colostrum, n. [A.S. beast, byst¬ 
ing.] The first milk yielded by the cow immediately 
after the birth of the calf. This word is often used in 
the plural form, biestings. — See Beestings. 

Bifacial, a. [Lat. bis, and facies, face.] That has the 
opposite surfaces alike. 

Biia'rious, a. [Lat. hifarias.] Twofold; having two 
parts. 

( Bot.) Two-ranked ; arranged in two vertical rows, — 
frequently applied to flowers and ovules. 

Bifa'riously, adv. In a bifarious manner. 

Bi'fer, n. [Lat. bis, and fern, to bear.] (Bot.) Applied to a 
biferous plant, i.e., to a plant that hears fruit twice a year. 

Bif 'erons, a. (Bot.) That bears fruit twice a year. 

Bif fin, n. (Cookery.) An apple baked slowly and 
pressed flat, as a Norfolk biffin, 

Bi'ficl, Bif'iclate, Bif'idatetl, a. [Lat. bis, and 
fuvlo, to cleave.] (Bot.) See Cleft. 

Billo'rate, Biflo'rous, a. (Bot.) Having two flow¬ 
ers; two-flowered. 

Bi'foltl, a. [Lat. bis, and Eng. fold.] Twofold; double; 
of two kinds, degrees, Ac.; as, bifold authority 

Bifo'liate, a. [Lat. bis, and folium, a leaf.] (Bot.) 
Having two leaves; two-leaved. 

Bifo'liolate, a. (Bot.) Applied to leaves consisting 
of two leaflets. 

Bifollic'ular, a. [Lat. bis, and folliculus, a sack.] 
(Bot.) That has two follicles. 

Bifo'rate, a. [Lat. bis, and for is, a door.] (Bot.) Hav¬ 
ing two perforations or apertures, as the anthers of the 
Rhododendron. 

Bif 'orine, n. (Bot.) A minute oval sac found in the 
interior of the leaves of some Araceous plants. It tapers 
to each end, where it is perforated, and is apparently 
composed of two bags, one within the other, the inner 
bag being filled with the fine acicular crystals or 
spiculse, called raphides. When the B. is placed in wa¬ 
ter, it discharges its spicul® with considerable violence, 
first from one end, and then from the other, recoiling at 
every discharge, and eventually emptying itself, when 
it becomes a flaccid, motionless bag. 

Bi'form, Bi'formed, a. [ Lat. bis, and forma, form.] 
Having two forms, bodies, or shapes. 

Biform'ity, n. A double form, (r.) 

Bifront'ed, a. [Lat. bis, and fruns, the front.] Having 
two fronts. 

Bifur'cate, 15i fil r'cated , a. [Lat. bis, and furcus, a 

I fork.] Two-forked; divided into two branches. 

Bifurcation, n. A forking, or division into two 
branches. 

Bifur'cous, a. (Bot.) Two-forked. 

Big, a. [0. Ger. pigo or piga, a heap; Dan. bug, the belly, 
bulge; Icel. bolga, a swelling, — allied to bulk; \V. bog, 

I a swelling ] Great in bulk; large. 

“ When the idea under consideration becomes very big, or very 
small, its precise bulk becomes obscure and confused.”— Locke. 

■—Teeming; pregnant; great with young. 

"A bear big with young hath seldom been seen."— Bacon. 
—Full of something, and desirous, or about, to give it vent; 
generally used before with. 

•* The great, th* important day, 

Big with the fate of Cato and of Rome."— Addison. 
—Distended; swollen; ready to burst; —used often of the 
effects of passion, as grief, rage, Ac. 

*• Thy heart is big; get thee apart, and weep."— Shaks. 
(Jreat in air and mien; proud; swelling; tumid; 
Aaughty; surly. 


“ How else, said he, bnt with a good bold face, 

And with big words, aud with a stately grace?"— Spenser. 

—Great in spirit; lofty; brave. 

,fc What art thou ? have not I 
An arm as big as thine ? a heart as big 1" — Shaks. 

Bi ’ga, ». [Lat.] (Antiq.) A chariot or car drawn by two 
horses; called by Suetonius (Calig. c. 19) Bijuge cur¬ 
riculum. The biga was the most common chariot in use 
among the Romans. They also had their quadriga;, and 



sometimes their sejuges, septim-juges, Ac., and Suetonius 
assures us that Nero, when he was a performer in the 
Olympic games, made use of a decem-jugis, a chariot 
drawn by ten horses coupled together. (Suet, in Ner. 
c. 24.)—Pliny attributes the invention of the biga to the 
Phrygians. (Hist. Nat. lib. vii., c. 56.) Isidorus says 
the inventor was Chiristines the Sicyonian. (Origines 
lib. xvii. c. 35.) 

Big'amist, n. One who has committed bigamy,or has 
two wives or husbands at once. 

Bigamy, n. [Fr. bigamie; from Lat. bis, and Gr. games, 
marriage.] (Law.) The wilfully contracting a second 
marriage when the contracting party knows that the 
first is still existing. The state of a man who has two 
wives, or of a woman who has two husbands, living at 
the same time. In England, this crime is punishable by 
the stat. 1 Jac. I. c. 11, which makes the offence felony; 
but it exempts from punishment the party whose hus¬ 
band or wife shall continue to remain absent for seven 
years before the second marriage, without being heard 
from. The statutory provisions in the U. States against 
B., are in general similar to, and copied from the Eng¬ 
lish statute, excepting as to the punishment, which is 
different in many of the States. — When the man has 
more than two wives, or the woman more than two 
husbands, living at the same time, the party is said to 
have committed polygamy ; but the name of B. is more 
frequently given to this offence in legal proceedings. 

Bigaroon', n. [Fr. bigarreau.] The large white-heart 
cherry. 

Big Bar, in California, a township of Eldorado coun¬ 
ty. 

—A post-village of Trinity co., 20 m. W. of Weaverville. 

Big Bay Creek, in IUinois, near the S.E. corner of 
the State, falls into the Ohio River. 

Big Bea ver, in Michigan, a post-office of Oakland co. 

Big Bea'ver, in Pennsylvania, a township of Beaver 
county. 

—A township of Lawrence co. 

Big'-bellietl, a. Having a large belly; advanced in 
pregnancy. 

Big Bend, in Arkansas, a post-office of Polk co. 

Big Bend, in Louisiana,a P. O. of Avoyelles parish. 

Big Bend, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Venaugo 
county. 

Big Bend, in W. Virginia, a post-office of Calhoun co. 

Big Bend, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Waukesha 
co., on Fox River, about 20 m. of Milwaukee. 

Big Beth'el, in Virginia, a village of York co., about 
10 m. N.W. of Fortress Monroe. During the Civil War, 
two divisions of Union troops, dispatched by General 
Butler to surprise the Confederate camp at this place, 
9th June, 1861, meeting in the darkness, commenced a 
fight, in which several were killed before the error was 
discovered. On the next day, they, about 2,500 strong, 
attacked the Confederates, (about 1,800 men,) by whom 
they were defeated with a loss of 16 killed, 34 wounded, 
and 5 missing. 

Big Black River, in Mississippi, rising in Choctaw 
co., and flowing S.W.. embouches into the Mississippi at 
Great Gulf. Its estimated length is about 200 m. On 
7th May, 1863, the Confederate works commanding this 
river were taken by Gen. McClernand, after a sanguinary 
action. The garrison, (about 1,500 men,) 17 guns, several 
thousand stand of arms, and a large quantity of com¬ 
missary stores, were captured. 

Big Blue, in Missouri, a village of Jackson co., 8 m. W. 
of Independence. 

Big Blue Creek, (Battle of.) See Little Blue 
Creek. 

Big Blue River, in Missouri, Jackson co., flowing N. 
into Missouri River. — Little Blue River flows through 
the same county, and enters the Missouri below theabove. 

Big'-boned, a. Having large bones. 

Big Bottom, in Arkansas, a village of Independence 
co. 

Big Buffalo, in IF. Virginia, a P. 0. of Harrison co. 

Big'by ville, in Tennessee, a village of Maury co., 50 m. 
S. by W. from Nashville. 

Big Cellar, in Missouri, avillage of Jackson co., 14m. 
S. of Independence. 


Big Cedar Creek, in Iowa, falls into Skunk Rivet; 

in Henry co. 

Big Cedar Creek, in South Carolina, enters the 
Broad River, near the N.W. part of Richland district. 

Big Cedar drove, in Indiana, a creek which enters 
the \\ bite Water 6 in. below Brookville. 

Big Clear Creek, in W. Virginia, a post-office of 
Green Brier co. 

Big dirty, in Kentucky, a post-office of Grayson co. 

Big''Corned, a. Having large grains. 

Big Cottonwood, in Utah, an unimportant village 
of Salt Lake co. 

Big Cove Tannery, in Pennsylvania, a post-office 
of Fulton co. 

Big Creek, in Alabama, Greene co., flows into Black 
Warrior river. 

—A post-office of Geneva co. 

Big Creek, in Arkansas, rising in the E. part of the 
State, and flows S. into ihe White river, in Monroe co. 

—A township of Crawford co. 

—A township in Philip's co. 

Big Creek, in Georgia, a post-village of Forsyth co., 
10 m. S.W. of Cumming. 

Big Creek, in Indiana, rising in Ripley co., and falling 
into Graham’s Fork of White River, in Jefferson co. 

—A township of White co. 

Big Creek, in Iowa, a township of Black Hav.k 
county. 

Big Creek, in Louisiana, a P. O. of Rapides parish. 

Big Creek, in Michigan, a post-office of Mecosta co. 

Big Creek, in Missouri, in the W. part of the State, 
takes a course S.E., and enters Grand River, in Henry 
county. 

—In the N.W. part of that State, flows through Harrison 
co., and enters Grand River in Daviess co. 

Big Creek, in Missouri, a twp. of Henry co. 

—A village of Johnson co., 40 m. S.E. by S. of Indepen¬ 
dence. 

—A post-office of Texas co. 

Big Creek, in South Carolina, a post-office of Saluda 
county. 

Big Creek, in Wisconsin, a hamlet of Monroe co. 

Big Cyprus Bayou, in Texas, rising in Wood and 
Hopkins counties, and emptying into Caddo Lake, a few 
m. below Jefferson, in Marion co. 

Big Dry Mood Creek, in Missouri, flowing into 
Marmitun river in Vernon co. 

Big Eau Claire, (o-l.lair',) in Wisconsin, a river flow¬ 
ing through the E. part of Marathon co., and emptying 
into the Wisconsin about 6 m. from Wausau. 

Big Eau Plaine, (o-plain’,) in Wisconsin, a river of 
Marathon co., which after a S.E. course enters the Wis¬ 
consin River, near the S. frontier of the county. 

Bigelo'via, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, order Violactce, 
The species are unimportant. 

Big'elow’s Mills, in Indiana, & post-office of Laporte 
co., 15 m. S.W. of Laporte. 

Bigem'iiiate, a. [Lat. bis, and gemino, to double.] 
(Bot.) Twice paired; applied to leaves having two sec¬ 
ondary petioles, each of which bears a pair of leaflets. 

Big'ener, n. [Lat. bis, and gener, a son-in-law.] (Bot.) 
A hybrid between two plants of different genera. 

Big Fishing Creek, in Pennsylvania, entering the 
Bald Eagle Creek, in Clinton co., about 4 m. W. of Lock 
Haven. 

Big Flats, in New York, a post-office of Chemung co, 
293 m. from -Jew York city 

Big Flats, in IFiscoastn, a post-township of Adams co, 
10 m. N. of Friendship. 

Big Foot Prairie, in Illinois, a P.O. of McHenry co. 

Big Fork, in Arkansas, a P. O. of Polk co. 

Bigg, (big,) n. [Sw. and Goth, biugg; Dan. byg.] A 
variety of winter barley having six rows of grains. 

Big'ger, in Indiana, a township of Jennings co. 

Big'gin. n. [Fr. beguin.] A cap of a certain shape, 
called also Biggm, Biggonnet, worn by the Beguines, q. v. 
A child’s cap. 

—A contrivance for holding coffee-grounds (being a small 
bag or a metallic vessel minutely perforated at the bot¬ 
tom) through which boiling water is poured. 

Big Blades, in Virginia, a township of Russell co. 

Biggleswade, (big’glz-waid,) a town of England, in 
Bedfordshire, 41 m. N.N.W. of London. It is a neat and 
modernized town. Manf. Thread-lace. It has one of 
the largest corn-markets in England Pop. 4,430. 

Big'gon, Big'gouet, n. See Biggin. 

Big Grove, in Tllinois, a flourishing township of Ken¬ 
dall co. 

Big Grove, in Iowa, a flourishing township of Bentos 
county. 

—A township of Johnson co. 

Biggs'ville. in Illinois, a post-village of Henderson 
co., on the Chicago, Buri. Sc Quincy R.R., 15 m. E.N.E. 
of Burlington, Iowa. Pop. (1898) 610. 

Big Hatcb'y River, in Tennessee. Seo Hatchi* 
River. 

Big Hill, in Kentucky, a post-office of Madison co. 

Big Hill, in Texas, a post-office of Gonzales co. 

Big Hollow, in New York, a post-office of Greene co. 

Big Horn River, in Wyoming and Montana, tha 
largest tributary of the Yellowstone river, rising near 
Fremont’s Peak, in Lat. above 42° 20' N., Lon. 110° W. 
It falls into the Yellowstone at Big Horn, Mont. 

Bigkt (bit), n. [0. Ger. bingan, to bend; Du. boyt; 
Icel. built, a bonding, from bmja, to bend; A. S. bugan, 
to bend.] (Naut.) The double part f a rope when it 
is folded, in contradistinction from the ends. 

(Geog.) A small bay ; as, the Bight of Benin. 

(Farriery.) The inward bend of a horse’s chambrel, 
and the bend of the fore-knee. 


21 




















344 


BIGO 


BIGT 


BILE 


Big: Indian Creek., in Indiana, rising in Floyd co., 
aud flowing S.W., enters the Ohio, about 9 miles above 
Leavenworth. 

Big Island, in Ohio, a twp. of Marion co. 

Big Island, in Virginia, a post-office of Bedford co. 

Big Lake, in Minnesota , a post-township of Sherburne 
co. 

Bigland'ular, a. (Bot.) Having two glands. 

Big'ler, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Adams co. 

Big kick, in North Carolina , a post-office of Stanley 
co. 

Big kick, in Ohio , a township of Hancock co., about 
40 m. N.N.W. of Marion. 

Big kick, or Gainsboro, in Virginia, a village of 
Roanoke co., 170 m. W. by S. of Richmond. 

Big'ly, adv. In a tumid, swelling, blustering manner. 

“Biyly to look, and barb’rously to speak.”— Dryden. 

Big Me'to, in Arkansas, a small river rising near Lit¬ 
tle Rock, and flowing S. E. into the Arkansas river, in 
Arkansas co. 

Big Mill Creek, in Pennsylvania, falling into the 
Clarion river. 

Big Mound, in Ioioa, a post-office of Lee co. 

Big Muddy, in Illinois, a village of Franklin co. 

Big Neck, in Illinois, a post-office of Adams co. 

Big'ness, n. Bulk; size; largeness; dimension. 

Bigiton, Loots Pierre Edouarb, (been'yawng,) a French 
statesman, b. at Meilleraye, 1771. He early became a 
diplomatist, and was made intendant of Berlin after the 
battle of Jena. Ambassador in Poland, both before and 
after the retreat from Moscow, he rendered the most im¬ 
portant services to the French army. He subsequently 
held many important offices, was a member of the Cham¬ 
ber of Deputies under the Restoration, and was made a 
peer of France in 1839. He wrote, at the express desire 
®f Napoleon, a History of French Diplomacy. D. 1841. 

fiiguu'iiiii, n. [Namedafter the Abbe Bignon, librarian 
to Louis XIV.] (Bot.) The Trumpet-flower, the typical 
genus of the ord. Bignoniacece, q v. All the species are 
magnificent plants when in blossom, and such is espe- 



Fig. 355. —Chinese trumpet-flower. 

{Bignonia grandifolia., 

eially the case with B. grandifolia, the Chinese Trumpet- 
flower, a climber, native of China and Japan, which has 
splendid scarlet flowers. In temperate countries it only 
grows freely in hot-houses. — The B. radians, found in 
our country from Pennsylvania to Florida, and W. to Illi¬ 
nois. in woods and thickets, along rivers, is a beautiful 
climber, with a stem 20-80 ft. in length, ascending trees. 
One variety has yellow-scarlet flowers, another bright- 
scarlet, blossoming from Juno to August. Some botanists 
give these two species grandifolia and radians to the 
genus Tecomd. 

Bignonia'cese, n. pi. (Bot.) An ord. of plants, alli¬ 
ance Bignoniales. — Diag. Axile placenta;, winged sessile 
seeds without albumen, and large leafy cotyledons. — 
They are trees or shrubs, often twining or climbing, dif¬ 
fering from Figworts ( Scrophulariacece) only in their 
leafy cotyledons and want of albumen. The order ex¬ 
tends northwards in N. America as far as Pennsylvania, 
and southwards into the S provinces of Chili. It Eu¬ 
rope it is unknown in the wild state. The species are 
best known for the great beauty of the flowers, which, 
from their large size, gay color, and great abundance, are 
often among the most striking objects in a tropical for¬ 
est. From the leaves of the species B. chica, the Indians 
of S. America obtain a red dye called chica, or carajura, 
which they us? for painting their bodies. Several kinds 
of Bignonia form large trees in the forests of Brazil, 
where they are felled for the sake of their timber; that 
called Ipe-tahacco furnishes durable ship-timber; the 
Jpeuna, another species, is the hardest wood in Brazil. 
There are 44 genera and 450 species. 

Bignoni'aics, n. pi. (Bot.) The Bignonial alliance, a 
series of plants, including the orders Pedaliacece, Gesnr- 
racece,Crescmtiacece, Bignoniacexe,Acanthacece, Scrophula- 
riacece, and Lentibulariacece. —Diag. Perigynous exogens, 
with dichlamydeous, monopetalous, unsymmetrical flow¬ 
ers, capsular or berried fruit, having its carpels quite 
consolidated; parietal, free central, or axile placentae, 
and an embryo with little or no albumen. 

Big North Fork, of White River. See White River, 
of Arkansas. 

Big Oak, in Mississippi, a post-office of Kemper co. 

Big Oak Flat, in California, a post-village of Tuo¬ 
lumne co., 10 m. S.E. of Sonora. 

Bigorre, (be-goP,) an ancient province of France, now 
included in the dep. of the 11 an tes-Pyrenees. 

Bigot, (big’ot,) n. [ Fr.; Sp. bigote, a moustache, a sym¬ 
bol of firmness and courage among Spanish soldiers of 
the 15th and 16th centuries, who were distinguished by 


a rigid adherence to whatever the Roman See imposed 
and taught.] A person who is obstinately and unreason¬ 
ably weddea to a particular creed, opinion, practice, or 
ritual. 

Big'oted, a. Obstinately and blindly attached to some 
creed, opinion, practice, or ritual. 

Big'otedly, axLv. In the manner of a bigot. 

Bigotry, (big'ot-re,) n. Blind or unreasonable zeal in 
favor of a creed, party, sect, or opinion; excessive preju¬ 
dice. 

Big Patch, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Grant co. 

Big Pigeon River, in North Carolina and Tennes¬ 
see, rising in the Blue Ridge Mountains in the W. of the 
former State, and taking a course N.W. and W., enters 
French Broad River, near Newport, in the latter State. 

Big Pine Creek, in Indiana. See Pine Creek. 

Big Pine Creek, in Texas, enters Neches River at 
the E. end of Trinity co 

Big Pine-Tree Creek, in South Carolina, flows 
through Kershaw district into the Wateree, near Camden. 

Big Piney Fork. See Gasconade River. 

Big Plain, in Ohio, a post-office of Madison co. 

Big Plover River, in Wisconsin, flows from the N. 
Iv part of the State into the Wisconsin river at Portage 
Court-House. 

Big Pond, in Alabama, a village of Lamar co. 

Big Pond, in Arkansas, a village of Marion co. 

Big Raccoon Creek, in Indiana. See Racoon 

Creek. 

Big Rapids, in Michigan, a thriving city, cap. of Me¬ 
costa co., on the Muskegon river, 00 m. N. by E. of 
Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 5,202; (1897) about 7,000. 

Big Reedy, in Kentucky, a P. 0. of Edmonson co. 

Big Renox, in Kentucky, a P. 0. of Cumberland co. 

Rig River, in Alissouri, rising in Washington co., and 
flowing N. through Jefferson, empties into Maramec 
river. 

Rig Ri ver, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Pierce co. 

Rig River Mills, in Missouri, a village of St. Fran¬ 
cois co. 

Rig Rock, in Illinois, a post-township of Kane 

county. 

Rig Rock, in Ioiva, a post-township of Scott co. 

Big' Bock, in Kentucky, a village of Harlan co. 

Big Rock, in Ohio, a village o( Morgan co., on the 
Muskingum River, 85 m. S.E. of Columbus. 

—A post-office of Athens co. 

Rig-round, n. Of large circumference. 

Big Run, in Ohio, a post-office of Athens co. 

Rig Run, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Jefferson 
co. Pop. (1898 ) 800.' 

Big Sandy, in Nebraska, a thriving village of Jeffer¬ 
son co. 

Big Sandy Creek, in Indiana, falling into the 

Ohio, in Spencer co. 

Big Sandy Creek, in Tennessee, rising in the W. of 
the State (Henderson co.) and emptying into the Ten¬ 
nessee river, in Henry co., after a course of about 80 m. 

Rig Savan'na, in Georgia, a post-office of Dawson co. 

Big Sew'ickley Creek, in Pennsylvania, falling 
into the Youghigheny river. 

Big Shanty, in Georgia, a post-office of Cobb co. 

Big Sioux, in South Dakota, a township of Union co. 

Big Skin Creek, in W. Virginia, a P. O. of Lewis co. 

Rig Snibar Creek, in Missouri, falls into the Mis¬ 
souri River at Lafayette co., abt. 5 m. above Lexington. 

Big''-sounding, a. That has a pompous sound; as, 
big-sounding sentences. 

Big Spring, in Alabama, a village of Marshall co., 
145 m. N. of Montgomery. 

Big Spring, in Illinois,a. post-township of Shelby 

county. 

Big Spring, in Indiana, a village of Crawford co., 14 
m. N.of Leavenworth. 

Big Spring, in Kansas, a village of Douglas co., abt. 
12 m. E.S.E. of Topeka. 

Big Spring, in Kentucky, a post-village of Breckin¬ 
ridge co., partly situate in Meade and Hardin counties, 
44 m. S.W. ot Louisville. 

Big Spring, in Michigan a village of Ottawa co. 

Big Spring, in Minnesota, a village of Fillmore co. 

Big Spring, in Missouri, a post-village of Montgom¬ 
ery co., 50 m. N.E. of Jefferson City. 

Big Spring, in Ohio, a thriving township of Seneca 
county. 

Big Spring, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Cumber¬ 
land eo. 

Big Spring, in Tennes^e, a post-office of Howard co. 

Bjg Spring, in Wiscer.csin, a post-office of Adams co. 

BIS’ Spring Dei; jt, in Virginia, a village of Mont¬ 
gomery co. 

Big Spring Point, in New York, a village of Yates 

co., 190 m. W. of Albany. 

Big Springs, in Iowa, a village of Johnson co. 

*»ig Springs, in Kansas , of Douglas co. 

Big Springs, in Nebraska, of Taylor co. 

Big Springs, in Ohio, of Logan co. 

Big Stone Gap, in Virginia, a post-office of Wise co. 

Big Stream, in New York, a village of Yates co. 

Big Swamp, in N. Carolina, a village of Columbus co. 

Big-swollen, Big-swoln', a. G -eatly swelled; 
turgid; ready to burst. 

“ Might my big-swollen heart 
Vent all its griefs, and give a loose to sorrow.”— Addison. 

Big Sycamore, in West Virginia, a village ot Clay 
county. 

Big Thompson, now Loveland, in Colorado, a post¬ 
village of Larimer co., on the Big Thompson river, 59 
m. N. of Denver, and on the E. slope of the Rocky 
Mountains. Pop. (1898 ) 795. 

Big Timber, in Kansas, a village of Riley co. 


Big Timber Creek, in New Jersey, bounding Glort, 
cester and Camden counties, aud entering the Delaware 
5 m. below Cumden. 

Big Tree Corners, in New York, a P. O. of Erie ce. 

Big Trees, in California, a post-office of Calaveras co. 

Big Tybee Island. See Totjee Island. 

Big'-uddered, a. Having large udders; having dug# 
swelled with milk. 

Big 'Vermilion River. See Vermilion River. 

Rig' Walnut Creek, in Ohio, rises in the central 
part of the State, and falls into the Scioto, 12 m. S. 
of Columbus. 

Big'-w ig, n. A name applied in England to a person 
of consequence, more especially to judges who wear 
large wigs. 

Big Wood River. See Boisf; River. 

Big Woods, in Minnesota, a post-office of Marshall co. 

Bijanagur, (lK-jan-a-goor',) ( Vijayanagura, the “city 
of triumph,”) Annagoondy (Canarese), or Alpatna, an 
ancient and celebrated city of Hindostan, prov. Bejapoor, 
on both hanks of the Toombuddra, that part of it on 
the S.E. bank only being properly called Bijanagur, and 
belonging to the British presidency of Madras; 117 m. 
S.S.E. of Bejapoor,and 27 N.W. of Bellary; Lat. 15° 14’ 
N., Lon. 76° 37' E. It was formerly the metropolis of 
a kingdom, which, in 1515, comprised the two Carnatice, 
above and below the Ghauts. It was taken and sacked 
by the Mohammedans in 1564. 

Bijnee', or Bbunta'gliaut, a territory of British 
India, prov. Bengal. It lies on both sides of the Bram>/> 
pootra, and consists chiefly of a level and fertile country. 
Prod. Rice, sugar, wheat, betel, mulberry-trees, muiv 
tard, &c. 

Bijnee, cap. of the above prov., 23 m. N. of Goalpara; 
Lat. 26° 29' N., Lou. 90° 47' E. 

Bijou, (bc-zhb',) n.; pi. Bijoux, (bc-zho'.) [Fr., from I.sii. 
bix , double, and jocus, a jest, a trifle.] A trinket or % 
little box; a jewel; an elegant ornament. 

Bijoutry, (be-zho'tri,) n. [Fr. bijouterie .] Jewelry; 
gems, or curiosities of value. 

Biju'gate, a. [Lat. bis, and jugune, a yoke.] (Bot.) Ap 
plied to leaves pinnated with two pairs of leaflets, 

Bikh, n. See Aconitum. 

Bila biate, a. [Lat. bis, and labium, a Up.] (Bot.) Ap¬ 
plied to a flower that lias all or any of its parts collected 
into separate parcels or lips. Thus, a calyx having two 
of its sepals collected into one parcel, aDd the others into 
a second parcel, or a corolla with its five petals adhering 
two and three together, is B., as in the plants of th* 
order Lamiacece, q. v. 

Bilam'ellate. Bilam'ellated, a. [Lat. bis, and 
lamella, a plate.] (Bot.) When a part is divided longi¬ 
tudinally into two lamella; or plates; also, bearing two 
vertical plates. 

Bilan, (bc'lon,) n. [Fr.] A book in which bankers, 
merchants, and traders write astatementol all they owe 
and all that is due to them. The term is used in Louisiana. 

Bil'antler, n. (Naut.) A small vessel with two masts, 
formerly used on Dutch canals for the carriage of goods. 

Bilat'eral, a. [Lat. bis, and talus, lateris, side.] Hav¬ 
ing two sides. 

(Law.) A bilateral contract is that in which both the 
contracting parties are bound to fulfil obligations recip¬ 
rocally towards each other. 

Bilbao, (bil'bow,) a seaport-town of Spain, and the 
capital of the prov. of Biscay, in a fine plain, on the 
Ibaizabal, about 6 m. above its confluence with the sea 
at Portugalete, and 45 m. W. of San Sebastian; Lat. 43° 
14' 3" N.; Lon. 2° 56' 5" W. It is a well-built and paved 
town. Four bridges span the river, which divides the old 
town from the new. B. is purely commercial, the harbor 
is difficult to enter. £. is the principal portoftheN. 
of Spain, and possesses an extensive commerce, export¬ 
ing chiefly iron, steel, wool, fish, corn, and fruits. 
Manf. Hardware, anchors leather, tobacco, Ac. Large 
vessels usually anchor at Portugalete, near the mouth 
of the river, or at Olaveaga, about 4 m. below the town. 
Spring tides rise about 13 feet; aud by taking advantage 
of them, vessels of considerable size occasionally reach 
the town. B. was founded in 1300. Pop. 19,886. 

Bil'berry, n. [From Sax. bilig, a bladder, and berry.\ 
(Bot.) See Vaccinium. 

Bilbo, ( bil'bo,) n. ; pi. Bilboes (bil'boz.) [From the Span¬ 
ish town Bilbao, often pronounced bilbnain English.] A 
short rapier or sword, first made at Bilbao. 

“To be compass’d like a good bilbo, in the circumference of a 
peck, hilt to point, heel to head.” — Shaks. 

— pi. Bilboes. (Naut.) A large bar or bolt of iron, with 
shackles on it, formerly used for criminals on board ships. 

“ Methought I lay worse than the mutines in the bilboes.' — Shaks. 

Bilboqnet, (bil'bo-kd,) n. [Fr. Etymol. uncertain.} 
The toy called a cup and ball. 

Bilclertly k, Willem, (beel-dair-dike’,) a Dutch poet, B. 
at Amsterdam, 1756. Though ranking among the chief 
poets of his country, B. has little originality or imagi¬ 
nation. His two best works are, Love of FatherlandL 
and Rural Life. D. 1830. 

Bilti'stein, n. [Ger. bild, an image, and stein, a stone.l 
(Min.) The same as Amalgatolite, q. v. 

Bile, (bit,) n. [Fr., from Lat. bilis; allied, to fel, fellis, 
the gall-bladder.] (Physiol.) One of the most important 
secretions in the body ; a thick unctuous, yellow fluid, 
secreted in the liver, and carried to the gall-bladder ■■ 
having a rank, heavy smell, and an acrid, bitter taste- 
The refuse blood from the lower extremities and great 
organs of the abdomen, on its return to the heart by 
the great ascending vein, vena cava, passes through the 
liver, where it is subjected to the action of certain 
secreting vessels, which, separating from it much of its 
carbon, and other impurities, forms a new substance 






BILG 


BILL 


BILL 


345 


called bile, which is carried by innumerable small yes- 
eels, that afterwards unite to form one tube, called the 
hepatic duct, terminating in the neck of the gall-blad¬ 
der, and conveying to that receptacle all the secretion 
brought from every part of the liver. To be more 
strictly anatomical:—Proceeding from every part of 
the bowels, and membranes that surround them, are 
numerous small veins, which converge, and finally 
form one large trunk, called the portal vein, vena porta. 
This vein, entering the liver, immediately divides and 
subdivides over the substance of that gland, till it is dif¬ 
fused in the most minute ramifications. The blood con¬ 
veyed by the vena porta is the darkest and most impure 
la the system. From the extreme termination of the 



Fig. 356. —THE BILIARY ORGANS. 

A, A, the Liver, raised to show B, the Gall-Bladder, joined be¬ 
yond its neck by the Hepatic Duct. 0. the Stomach and com¬ 
mencement of the small Intestine or Duodenum, in which the 
common Biliary Duct terminates, D E, Colon. 

venous filaments of this vessel arise a system of minute 
tubes — the biliary ducts— which secrete from the im¬ 
pure blood the new fluid of the bile. These small ves¬ 
sels, uniting, finally form one large tube, called the 
hepatic or liver duct, which terminates at the elongated 
neck of the gall-bladder. - Whenever a quantity of di¬ 
gested food is passed out of the stomach into the duode¬ 
num, or beginning of the small intestine, a certain 
amount of bile is emitted from the gall-bladder on the 
digested aliment, at the same time that a peculiar fluid, 
like saliva, is poured into the same organ from the pan¬ 
creas. The effect produced on the digested food by the 
emission of the bile and pancreatic juice is almost im¬ 
mediately to separate the digested matter into two 
parts, the solid and refuse portion, colored with the bile, 
and a white, creamy fluid, the chyle, or nutrient princi¬ 
ple of all the aliment consumed, and which, absorbed 
by the lacteal system of vessels, is carried through the 
glands of the mesentery, and by the thoracic duct, to 
the heart, to restore the waste suffered by the blood 
during its circulation through, and its construction of, 
the body. (See Digestion, Chyle.) Besides acting, in a 
manner, as a renet, to separate the nutritious from the 
refuse matters of the stomach, the bile acts as a natural 
stimulant to the bowels. 

( Client.) Bile consists essentially of a solution of two 
salts, known as glycocliolate and taurochulale of soda. 
Both glycocholic and taurncholic acids are resinous, and 
do not neutralize the alkali, so that the bile has a strong 
alkaline character. Another characteristic feature of 
this secretion is the large proportion of carbon which it 
contains, carbon entering from 67 to 61 per cent., re¬ 
spectively, in the composition of glycocholic and tauro- 
cholic acids. Another characteristic of the bile is cho- 
lesterine, a crystalline substance somewhat resembling 
the fats, and often deposited in large quantities in the 
form of biliary calculi. The peculiar coloring matter 
•f the bile has never been obtained in a pure state. 

(Med.) Any cause that leads to a divergence of the 
bile from its natural course, is certain to result in some 
functional disturbance. When, for instance, the bile 
enters, by regurgitation, as it is called, the stomach, in¬ 
stead of the duodenum, it is taken up by the blood, en¬ 
ters the system, and produces nausea, sickness, head¬ 
ache, giddiness, and many of the symptoms of a nar¬ 
cotic poison; and showing itself in the capillary and 
smaller veins, tinges the eyes, nails, and Bkin of a yel¬ 
lowish color, as in jaundice. Such disturbances are 
called biliary affections, or liver complaints, and, in gen¬ 
eral, proceed from a redundancy or a deficiency of bile. 
See Liver, Jaundice, &c. ; Gall-bladder, &c. 

—Bitterness of humor; ill feeling; as, to stir one’s bile. 

—An obsolete orthography for Boil, q. v. 

Biledul'g'erid. the name given to an extensive ter- 
|! ritory of Africa, embracing the country lying between 
the S. declivity of Atlas and the Sahara or Great Desert; 
and between Kezzan on the E., and Cape Nun. on the 
Atlantic, on the W. It mostly consists of vast deserts, 
differing but little from the Great Desert, with which it 
is connected. In parts, however, where there is water, 
extensive plantations of the date-palm, which here flour¬ 
ishes in great luxuriance, are met with. It is said by 
some that its real name, Biled-el-Jerid, means “country 
of the date-palm; ” while others, among whom is Shaw, 
interpret Biled-el-Jerid, as meaning dry or “parched 
country.” 

Bile'-stone, n. (Med.) See Gall-stone. 

Bilge, (bilj.) [A. S. bmlg, or bylg, a bulge.] (Naut.) 
Of a ship, the bottom of her floor, or the breadth of the 
part she rests on when aground. — Bilge-water is the 
I water which lodges on her floor below the level of the 
well of the pump; and bilge-pumps, or burr-pumps, are 
those that carry it off. 


— [A different orthography of bulged The protuberant 
part of a cask at the middle. 

— v . n. (Naut.) To suffer a fracture in the bilge ; to spring 
a leak. 

Bilged, (bilj-d',) a . (Naut.) Having a fracture in the 
bilge. 

Bilge'-ways, n. (Naut.) Pieces of timber placed un¬ 
der a vessel’s bilge to support her when beiug launched. 

Bil'hah, the handmaid of Rachel, given by her to her 
husband Jacob when herself childless, that she might 
become a mother through her handmaid. B. was the 
mother of Dan and Naphtali, (Gen. xxx. 1-8.) 

Bil'iary, a. Belonging to the bile. 

B. Ducts. (Physiol.) By this term is understood the 
hepatic, or liver duct; the cystic, or biliary duct; and a 
continuation from the union of these two, called the 
common duct of the bile, which carries the secretion 
into the duodenum. The hepatic duct carries the secre¬ 
tion to the neck of the gall-bladder, or the cystic duct; 
the last, or common excretory duct, being merely a con¬ 
tinuation of the other. 

Bililul'vin, n . The yellow coloring-matter of the 
bile, q. v. 

B. Formations or Calculi. (Med.) See Gall-stone. 

Bilim'bi, n. (Bot.) See Averrhoa. 

Bilin, ( be'leen,) a town of Bohemia, on the Bila, 17 m. 
from Leitweritz, famous for its mineral springs, the 
waters of which it exports to the extent of 500,000 jars 
annually; pop. abt. 3,000. 

Bilingual, (bi-lin'gwal,) a. [Lat. bis, and lingua, 
tongue.] In two languages. 

Bilin'guist, n. One who speaks two languages. 

Bilin guous, a. Having, or speaking two languages. 

Bilious, (bil' e-tts,) a. [Fr. bilieux ; Lat. biliosus, from 
bills, bile.] Pertaining to bile; affected or produced by 
bile. An epithet given to certain constitutions and dis¬ 
eases, which are believed to be the effect of supera¬ 
bundance of the biliary secretion; as B. temperament, 
B. symptoms, B. fever; but often used without any defi¬ 
nite ideas, as regards the bile, being attached to it. 

Bili'phein, n. (Chem.) The brown coloring-matter of 
bile, to which the color of excrement is due. 

Bilit'eral, a. [Lat. bis, and litera, a letter.] Consist¬ 
ing of two letters. 

Bilk, v. a. [Probably a corrupt form of balk.] To frus¬ 
trate or disappoint; to deceive or defraud; as, “your 
bilk’d hopes.” — Drydtn. 

— n. A cheat; a trick, (r.) 

Bill, n. [A. S. bile; probably related to Lat. pilum, I 
a dart or pointed instrument.] (Zool.) The beak or 
hard horny mouth of a bird, consisting of two man¬ 
dibles. There is no appearanceof lips eitherin the upper 
or lower jaw; and, except in the case of parrots in the 
foetal state, and some varieties of water-fowl, they are 
not furnished with proper teeth. In the two excep¬ 
tions mentioned, the rudiments of teeth have been ob¬ 
served. A portion of the bill at the base of the upper 
mandible is covered with a membrane, which is called 
the cere, from the waxy appearance which it presents in 
some species of birds. It is sometimes covered with 
feathers, and sometimes it is naked; but it is often found 
protected by hairs or bristles. The nostrils of a bird are 
usually situated in the cere, but in some cases they are 
placed so far forward as hardly to be observable. The 
bills of birds vary in shape according to their habits and 
the different substances upon which they feed. The bills 
of birds of prey are very strong, the upper part being 
hooked and very sharp, so as to be able to tear and cut 



Fig. 357. — the yellow vulture. 


to pieces the flesh of the animals upon which they seize. 
A strong short bill, with the edges sharp and notched, 
is the usual indication of courage in a bird, and a sign 
that it preys upon living animals. The great variety in 
the modification of the forms of bills is very interest¬ 
ing, and is treated of under the names of the different 
species of birds; such as crop-bills, spoon-bills, horn- 
bills, parrots, &c. In the case of those birds which live 
upon insects, the bill is very seldom found hooked, but 
usually short and slender. The bills of those birds which 
catch insects flying, are remarkable for their deep di¬ 
vision, which enables them to gape widely. Birds which 
live upon seeds have short but strong bills, with which 
they can crush their food. Aquatic birds have, as a gen¬ 
eral rule, broad sensitive bills, which are provided with 


laminae on the inner edgq_ for the purpose of stiaining 
the muddy water, from which they take the principal 
part of their food. The bills of every species of bird 
which extracts its food from mud, are modified accord¬ 
ing to the nature of the food it seeks. Besides the gen¬ 
eral use of tearing or crushing food, the birds make use of 
their bills when fighting with each other, and also for the 
purpose of dressing; their plumage, building their nests, 
and for other functions Many fishes and reptiles have 
mouths resembling bills, and the Omit)un-hynchuspara¬ 
doxus is a singular specimen of a quadruped with a bill. 
(See fig. 244.) 

—Anything resembling a bird’s bill or beak; — a cutting 
instrument with a hook for pulling ; an axe; a hatchet; 
a mattock; the point at the extremity of the fluke of an 
anchor. 

— v. n. To caress, as doves by joining bills; to fondle; as, 
to bill and coo. 

Bill, n. [Norm, bille,, from Lat. bulla, a bubble in water, 
anything of a round swelling shape, or boss. Melted 
wax dropped on paper assumes this shape. In th® 
Middle Ages, bulla signified aeeal.] A term originally 
applied to any sealed letter or document, but now em¬ 
ployed to denote any formal written statement of any 
kind.— A label or note; an account of money due, or 
goods purchased, an advertisement posted up; a phy¬ 
sician’s prescription, &c. 

(Law.) B. in Chancery or Equity. A complaint in 
writing, addressed to the chancellor, containing th® 
names of the parties to the suit, both complainant and 
defendant; a statement of the facts on which the com. 
plainant relies, and the allegations which he makes, 
with an averment that the acts complained of are con¬ 
trary to equity, and a prayer for relief and proper pro¬ 
cess.— On this matter consult Story, Equity Pleading, 

B. of Adventure. See Adventure. 

B. of Costs. See Costs. 

B. of Credit. Paper issued by the authority of a State, 
and designed to circulate as money. 

B. of Exceptiim. In the trial of civil causes, where- 
ever the court, in making a decision, is supposed by th® 
counsel against whom the decision is made, to hav® 
mistaken the law, such counsel may tender exceptions 
to the ruling, and require the judge to authenticate th® 
bill, stating the point wherein he is supposed to err; 
and this be is obliged to seal by the statute of West¬ 
minster the 2d (13 Edw. I. c. 31), the principles of which 
have been adopted in all the States of the Union, though 
the statute has been held to be superseded in some by 
their own statutes. This bill is in the nature of an ap¬ 
peal, examinable, not in the court out of which th® 
record issues tor the trial at Nisi Prius; but in the next 
immediate superior court, upon a writ of error, after 
judgment given in the court below. 

B. of Exchange. See Exchange. 

B. of Health. A certificate or instrument granted by 
a consul, or other competent authority, to the master 
of a ship at the time of her clearing out from any port 
or place suspected of being liable to infectious disor¬ 
ders, declaring the state of health in the place at that 
time. A clean bill imports that at the time the ship 
sailed no infectious disorder was known to exist; a sus¬ 
pected, or touched bill, denotes that there were rumors 
of an infectious disorder; a foul bill, or the absence of 
clean bills, imports that the place was infected when th® 
vessel sailed. If the ship brings a clean bill of health, 
the passengers and goods are not subject to any quaran¬ 
tine; but if a foul or suspected bill, they are subject to 
a quarantine of qualified duration, according as the in¬ 
fection is known, or only suspected, to have existed in 
the country at the ship’s departure. — See Quarantine. 

B. of Indictment. See Indictment. 

B. of Lading. An acknowledgment signed by th® 
master of a ship, and given to a merchant or consignor, 
containing an account of the goods which the master 
has received on board from him, with a promise to de¬ 
liver them at an intended place, on payment of freight. 
Each bill of lading must be treble,— one for the mer¬ 
chant who loads the goods, another to be sent to th® 
consignee, and the third to remain with the master of 
the ship. A bill of lading is only used when the goods 
sent are only part of the cargo; for, when a merchant 
loads the whole of the vessel on his own personal ac¬ 
count, the instrument passed between him and the mas¬ 
ter of the ship is called a charter-party, q. v. 

B. in Legislature. See Statute. 

B. Obligatory. A bond absolute for the payment of 
money. It is called, also, a single bill, and differs from 
a promissory note only in having a seal. 

B. of Parcels. An account containing in detail th® 
names of the items which compose a parcel or package 
of goods. It is usually transmitted with the goods to 
the purchaser, in order that if any mistakes have been 
made, they may be corrected. It is now but seldom used, 
the term invoice beiug substituted for it. — See Invoice. 

B. Payable. A bill of exchange accepted, or a prom¬ 
issory note made by a merchant, whereby he has en¬ 
gaged to pay money at a specified date. It is so called 
from being made payable by him. An account is usu¬ 
ally kept of such bills in a book tinder that title, and 
also in the ledger.—-See Bill-Book. 

B. Receivable. A promissory note, bill of exchange 
or other written security for money payable at a future 
day, which a merchant holds; so called because th* 
amounts for which they are given are receivable by th® 
merchant at the time stated. They are entered in a 
book so called, and are charged to an account in th® 
ledger, under the same title, to which account the cash, 
when received, is credited. 

B. of Rights. The declaration delivered by the two 
Houses of the English Parliament to the Prince of 








34G 


BILL 


BILL 


BIND 


Orange, Feb. 13, 1688, at the period of his election to 
the British throne; in which, after a full specification 
of various acts of James II., which were alleged to be 
illegal, the rights and privileges of the people were as¬ 
serted. 

B. of Sale. A written agreement under seal, by which 
one person transfers his right to, or interest in, goods 
and personal chattels, to another. It is of frequent use 
in the transfer of personal property, especially that of 
which immediate possession is not, or cannot be given. 
By the maritime law, the transfer of a ship must gen¬ 
erally be evidenced by a bill of sale; and by Act of Con¬ 
gress, every sale or transfer of a registered ship to a 
citizen of the U. States, must be accompanied by a bill 
of sale, setting forth, at length, the certificate of registry. 

Bill, v. a. To advertise by bills; to cover (as a wall) 
with bills.—To enter (as goods) in a bill; to charge. 

“ His masterpiece was a composition that he billed about under 
the name of a sovereign antidote. — L Estrange. 

Bil’lage, n. ( Naut .) The breadth of a ship’s floor when 
aground. 

Bitlar'dicra, re. [From the French botanist Labillar- 
di^re.j ( Bot .) A genus of plants, order Pittosporacexe. 
The species are climbing shrubs, natives of Australia 
and Tasmania, where they are commonly known as apple- 
berries. They have simple alternate evergreen leaves, 
and axillary pendulous flowers. The fruits are soft berries, 
which, when ripe, are of a bluish color, and have a pleas¬ 
ant sub-acid taste. A few species are cultivated in the 
conservatories of this country, for the sake of their hand¬ 
some flowers. 

Billaud-Varennes, ( bcl-yo-vah'rain ,) Jacques Ni¬ 
colas, the son of a French advocate at Rochelle, was 
educated at the same college as Fouehe, and proved him¬ 
self one of the most violent and sanguinary characters 
of the French revolution. He bore a principal part in the 
murders and massacres which followed the destruction 
of the Bastile; voted immediate death to Louis XVI.; 
and officiated as president of the convention on 18th of 
Oct., 1793. lie was afterwards deported to Cayenne, and 
subsisted on a small pension allowed him by Petion. 
B. 1766. D. in Hayti, 1819. 

Billbcrgia. ( bil-ber'jt-a,)n. [From the Swedish botanist 
Billberg.] (Bot.) A genus of plants, order Bromeliacece. 
The species are natives of S. America. From the root 
of B. tinctoria a yellow color is extracted in Brazil. 

Hill'-boards, re. pi. ( Naut .) Iron-shod stools fixed in 
the fore channels of a ship, on which the flukes of the 
anchor are stowed. 

Bill'-book, re. (Com.) A book in which a person keeps 
an account, of all bills issued by, or becoming due to him. 
See Bill, (Receivable and Payable.) 

Bill'-broker, re. (Com.) One whose business it is to 
negotiate the discounting or purchase of bills. 

Billed, (bild,) a. (Zool.) Furnished with a bill, as a bird. 

Bii'lerica. in Massachusetts, a thriving manufacturing 
town of Middlesex co., 18 m. N. by W. of Boston. Pop. 
of township, 2,300 in 1890. 

Bil'let, re. [Fr. billet, diminutive of bille.] A small paper 
or note in writing; a little bill. 

" When he found this little billet .... he was exceedingly con¬ 
founded." — Clarendon. 

—A ticket given to a soldier on entering a strange town 
or place of stay, to direct him at what house to lodge. 

(Her.) A bearing of which the origin is very uncer¬ 
tain; represented on an oblong square form, sometimes 
showing the thickness, and always with a flat surface.— 
Billety, or sem€e of billets , signifies that the escutcheon 
or charge is strewed over with these bearings, without 
regard to particular number or station. 

(Arch.) See Billet and Zigzag. 

— v. a. To direct a soldier by a billet or ticket where to 
lodge; to quarter, as soldiers. 

Bil'let, re. [Fr. billot, a large trunk of a tree; probably 
allied to bole, the trunk of a tree.] A small log of wood 
for firing purposes. 

" Their billet at the fire was found."— Prior. 

Bil'let and Zig'zag, re. (Arch.) The term given to 
a moulding frequently introduced in mediaeval architec¬ 
ture, consisting of a torus ornamented by alternate 
chequers, like a staff cut into short lengths and disposed 
■horizontally or around a moulding, and of another mould¬ 
ing, composed of a series of small projections, arranged 
round a curve in alternate directions, but in a consecutive 
manner. 

Billet-doux, (biUa-dS,) [Fr. billet, a small note, and 
dnux, sweet, pleasant.] A love note or letter; a tender 
billet. 

** 'Twas then, Belinda! if report say true, 

Thy eyes first opeu'd on a billet-doux." — Pope. 

Bil'let-head, re. A piece of timber at the bow of a 
whale-boat, around which the harpoon-line is run out 
when the whale darts off. 

Bil'let-mould'ing, re. (Arch.) See Billet and Zigzag. 

Bill'fisli, re. (Zool.) See Scomber. 

Bill'book, re. [bill and hook.] A small hatchet or 
cleaver with an edge curved inwards towards the point 
used for cutting billets or stakes of wood. 

Billiard, ( bil'yurd,) a. Relating or pertaining to the 
game of billiards; as, a billiard-table. 

Billiards (bil’yardz), n. pi. [Fr. billard, from bille; 
Lat. pilum, a ball.] (Games.) A game played on a 
rectangular table, bordered by elastic cushions, with 
ivory balls, which, being struck with the end of a mace 
or stick, called a cue (Fr. queue), are caused to strike 
each other. The standard size of table in America to¬ 
day is 5 by 10 feet, though more commonly the size 
used is 9 by 4 feet 6 inches. In England the table is 
12 by 6 feet and has six pocket-holes, at the corners I 
and sides, to receive the balls. Pockets are no longer' 


used here, except in playing pool, a special form of the | 
game. Billiards was known in the Middle ages, and 
began in an outdoor game having some resemblance 
to the game of croquet. It was afterward brought 
indoors and a table used, the balls being at first two, 
then three and four iu the original American game, in 
which a table with pockets was used, though these are 
now discarded. The development of the cue kept pace 
with that of the table, the flat eud of the wooden stick | 
becoming rounded, then covered with leather, and the 
practice of chalking introduced. The introduction of 
the third ball (a red one) took place about 1775. It I 
was called caram by the French; when brought to 
England it was named cannon. In America the word 
carom was adopted. The various terms applied to this 
phase of the game mean all one thing, viz., striking j 
both balls with the cue ball. In the three-ball game, 
as now alone played by experts in this country, the 
game is played with two white and one red ball, wdiile 
the table has three spots on a line down the center, 
known as the white spot, red spot and centre spot, the 
last only used when a ball, forced off the table, finds 
both other spots occupied. When the game is begun, 
the red and one white ball are placed on their respec¬ 
tive spots, the other white remaining in hand. The 
player of the first stroke may take any position within 
a six-inch radius of the spot at the head of the table. 
He must strike the red ball first before a count can be 
made. A carom consists in hitting both object balls 
with the cue ball in a fair manner, each carom count¬ 
ing one for the player. In the four-ball game it is 
much more easy to make points, the larger number of 
balls offering better opportunities for successful caroms, 
while where pocketing is a feature of the game the 
chances for success are still higher. In the American 
game it is the custom to count one point for a single 
carom and two for a double. There are many rules 
connected with the game, which may be omitted here. A 
cushion carom, in the three-ball game, is effected by the 
cue ball striking one or more cushions before making 
a carom, or by its first making a carom, then striking 
one or more of the cushions, and finally striking either 
of the object balls. It is varied into the two-cushion 
and the three-cushion carom, whose names indicate 
their characters. Great runs at billiards by experts have 
become common. As many as 2,400 points have been 
made in the old game, by pocketing the spot ball with¬ 
out a carom and counting three points for each pocket. 
Then a carom w r as required, and finally the pockets 
were discarded. Great runs, however, were still made, 
by dint of nursing the balls near the cushion, to prevent 
which mode of play the balk-line was introduced. An 
8 -inch balk-line was first employed, which has now 
been increased to a 14-inch. The balk lines are drawn 
lengthwise and crosswise the table, forming spaces 

i within which only three strokes are permitted without 
driving at least one ball out. Of noted American 
players Michael Phelan, the “ father of American 
billiards,” stands first. After him came in succession 
Maurice Daly, Dion, Shaefer, Slosson, Wallace, Sexton, 
Carter and Ives, the champion of to-day. England and 
France have had similarly their famous players. 

Billing, re. Act of joining bills, or caressing. , 

— a. Caressing by joining bills. 

Bil'lingsg-ate, re. [From a market of this name in the 
city of Loudon, famous for fine fish and foul language.] 
Ribaldry; foul language; blackguardism. 

j * There stript, fair rhetoric languish d on the ground. 

And shameful billingsgate her robes adorn.” — Pope. 

Bil'ling’s Grove, in Illinois, a P. O. of Livingston co. 

Bil'lingsly, in Arkansas, a P. O. of Washington co. 

Bii'lings-port, in New Jersey, a village of Gloucester 
co., on the Delaware, 12 m. from Camden. 

Bil'lingsville, in Indiana, a post-village of Union; 
co., 70 in. E.S.E. of Indianapolis. 

Billion, (bil’yun.) [Fr., contracted from Lat. bis, double, 
and million.] In numeration, a term used to denote a 
thousand millions, or 1 , 000 , 000 , 000 , according to the 
French method used on the continent of Europe and in 
the United States. The English use the same word to 
denote a million of millions, expressed by the figures 
1 , 000 , 000 , 000 , 000 . 

Billiton, ( beel'e-ton,) an island of the E. Archipelago, 
between Sumatra and Borneo. Lat. 3° 13' S., Lou 108°. 
7' E. The Dutch maintain a garrison here, and some' 
cruisers on the surrounding seas, to check the piracy tol 
which the natives are prone. Pop. about 8,000. 

Bill'nian, re. One who uses a bill or billhook. Applied! 
in former times to soldiers armed with bills. 

Bil'loin. a town of France, dep. Puy de Dome, 14 m. E. 
S.E. of Clermont; pop. 5,166. 

Billon, (be'lon,) re. [Fr.] (Coinage.) An alloy of copper 
with gold or silver, in which the copper predominates, 
and which is used in some countries for the smaller de¬ 
nominations of money, thus avoiding the extreme weight 
and bulkiness of coin formed entirely of copper. 

Billot, (bil'lo,) re. [Fr.; Port, bilbo.] Same as Bullion, q.v. 

Billow, (bil’lo,) re. [0. Ger .belgan, to swell, to rage; Dan. 
bblge ; Swed. bolja; allied to bilge or bulge.] A great 
wave of the sea swelling, heaving, and raging. 

" To die is landing on some distant shore. 

Where billows never break, nor tempests roar."— Garth. 

— v . i . To swell; to rise and roll as a wave or surge. 

“The billowing snow, and violence of the show’r.’ — Prior. 

Bil'lo w-beat'en, a. Lashed, or tossed about by billows. 

Billowy, (bil’lo-e,) a. Full of billows, swelling or swelled 
into large waves. 

“ And whitening down the mossytinctnr'd stream, 
Descends the billowy foam." — Thomson. 

Bills, re. pi. (Shipbuilding.) The ends of a compass or 
knee-timbers. 


Billy, re. A cant term for a watchman’s staff 

Billy, a parish of Ireland, co. Antrim. 

Billyboy, re. (Naut.) A name given in some parts ef 
Great Britain to a fishing-boat, somewhat resembling a 
lugger. 

Bilo'bate, Bi'lobed, a. [Lat. bis, and Gr. lobos, a 
lobe.] (Bot.) Divided into two lobes, or obtuse processes. 

Biloc'ular, a. [Fr. biloculaire; Lat. bis, and loculus, a 
shell.] (Bot. J Having two cells. 

Bilox'i, in Mississippi, a city and bathing resort of 
Harrison co., on a bay of the same name, about 90 m. 
E. N. E. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890 ) 3,234. 

Bil'sa, a town of Hiudostan, prov. Malwa, belonging to 
Scindia, on the E. side of the Betwa, 32 m. N.E. of Bho- 
paul. 

Bil'sen, a town of Belgium, prov. Limburg, on the De¬ 
nier, 7 m. W. of Maestricht: pop. 4,276. 

Bils'ton, a market-town of England, co. of Stafford, 11 
m. N.W. of Birmingham, and 107 N.W. of London. On 
account of the numerous iron-smelting furnaces and 
collieries round about, which give it a sombre appear¬ 
ance, B. is often called the capital of the “ Black Coun¬ 
try.” Manf. Besides iron-smelting, the manufacture of 
japanned and enamelled goods is most extensively car¬ 
ried on. Pop. 27,251. 

Bimac'ulate, Bimac'ulated, a. [Lat. bis, and 

macula, a spot.] Having two spots. 

Binia'na, re. [Fr. bimane; Lat. bis, and rei anus, a hand.] 
( Zool.) The term applied by Cuvier to the first or high¬ 
est order of mammilerous animals. It contains only one 
genus, and one species— Man, the sole created being 
that can be termed truly bimanous and biped. The 
whole body of man is adapted for the vertical position : 
be walks erect, and thus preserves the entire use of bis 
hands for the arts, Ac., while his organs of sense are more 
favorably situated for observation and the great mental 
purposes assigned to them by the Great Author of Na¬ 
ture. — See Mammalia, Man. 

Bimane', Biman ous, a. (Zool.) Two-handed, as 
mankind. 

Bimar'g-inate, a. (Conch.) Having two margins, as 

certain shells. 

Bime’dial, a. [Lat. bis, and medius, middle.] (Grom.) 
When two lines, commensurable only in power, (for ex¬ 
ample, the diagonal and side of a square,) are joined to¬ 
gether, the sum is irrational with respect to either of 
the two lines, and is called a bimedial. 

Biinoni bral. a. [Lat. bis, and membrum, a member.] 
(Gram.) Possessing two members, as a sentence. 

Bimen'sal, Bimestrial, Bimonth'ly, o. 
[Lat. bis, and mensis, a month.] Two-monthly; oc¬ 
curring once in two months. 

Biin'ini, a small group of islands hemmed in by reefs, 
E. of Cape Florida, in the Bahamas. 

Bimus'cular, a. [Lat. bis, and muscular.] (Comp. 
Anat.) Having two attaching muscles, and two muscu¬ 
lar impressions, as a bivalve mollusk. 

Bin, re. [A. S. bin, a manger, a crib; Frisian, bin.] A re¬ 
ceptacle for corn ; a wooden box or chest, used as a re¬ 
pository for grain or other commodities; as, a corn-bin. 

44 As when, from rooting in a bin. 

All powder’d o'er from tail to chin.”— Swift. 

f?in, an old spelling of Been. 

Bi’nab, a town of Persia, 55 m. from Tabriz. 

Binabo'la, or Twelve Pins, a group of mountains in 
Ireland, co. Galway, 5 m. N.E. of Ballinahinch. They 
are 12 in number, and form a succession of isolated 
peaks, the highest of which attains an altitude of 2,400 
feet above sea-level. 

Binarse'niate, re. (Chem.) A salt having two equiva¬ 
lents of arsenic acid to one of the base. 

Bi'nary, a. [Lat. binus, from bis, two.] Compounded 
of two; twofold; double. 

(Math.) B. Arithmetic, a species of arithmetic, proposed 
by Leibnitz, and founded on the shortest and simplest 
progression ; viz., that which terminates with the second 
cipher. In the binary notation, therefore, only two 
characters are required, 1 and 0 , the zero having the 
power of multiplying the number it follows by two, as 
iu the common notation it multiplies by ten. The num¬ 
ber one is represented by 1; two, by 10; three, by 11; 
four, by 100 ; five, by 101 ; six, by 110; seven, by 111; 
eight, by 1,000; nine, by 1.001 ; ten, by 1,010, Ac. This 
method of notation, though it may be applied with ad¬ 
vantage in the investigation of some properties of num¬ 
bers, would be inconvenient for common purposes, on 
account of the great uumber of characters required, 
even when the numbers to be expressed are small. 

B. Logarithms, a system of logarithms devised by Euler 
for facilitating musical calculations, in which 1 is the 
logarithm of 2 , instead of 10 , as in the common log, 
and the modulus 1,442695 instead of -43429448. 

B. Scale. See B. Arithmetic. 

( Astron.) A B. star is a double star whose member* 
revolve about their common centre of gravity. 

( Mus.) A B. measure is that in which there are two 
even beats in a bar, usually called common time. 

(Chem.) B. Compound. See Chemical Nomenclature. 

B. Theory. See Salts. 

Bi'nary, re. The constitution of two compounds. 

Bi'nate, a. [Lat. bis, and natus, born.] (Bot.) Growing 
in pairs; when bodies of the same nature spring from 
the same point, as often happens in the segments of 
leaves. 

Binctie, (beensh,) a town of Belgium, prov. Ilainault, 
on the Haine, 9 m. E.S.E. of Mons; pop. 5,S82. 

Bind, v. a. (imp. bound; pp. bound, formerly bounden.) 
[A. S. bindan; 0. Ger. bindan; allied to bunch, bundle, 
and bend.] To tie or fasten, to confine, or gird together; 
as, to bind prisoners together; to bind a cord of wood, A a, 
Sometimes followed by up ; as, to bind up a wound. 








BIND 


BINO 


BIOT 


347 


.--Generally, to confine, gird, restrain, or hold in subjec¬ 
tion by physical power of any kind; as, frost binds the 
earth. “Who hath bound the waters in a garment.” Prov. 

—To render costive; to make constipated; to hinder or 
restrain from customary action; us, to be bound in one’s 
bowels. 

•• Parts that purge, and parts that hind the body."—Bacon. 

—Tc form a border round; as, to bind the edge of a gar¬ 
ment. 

—To sew, fasten, or hold together; to invest with a cover¬ 
ing ; as, to bind a book. 

•* Was ever book containing such vile matter. 

So fairly bound 1' — Shaks. 

—To oblige, constrain, or hold by authority, power, pre¬ 
dilection. attachment, promise, or any other moral tie. 
Used in a figurative sense; as, to be bound by ties of 
affection. 

“ So the loud torrent, and the whirlwind's roar, 

But bind him to his native mountains more.’ — Goldsmith. 

—To compel to serve by express obligation, or legal com¬ 
pact ; as, to bind an apprentice. 

" Though I am bound by every act of duty, 

1 am not bound to all that slaves are free to.”— Shaks, 

To bind over. To oblige one by bond, and under pen¬ 
alty to appear at a court of law, to make answer to an 
alleged charge. 

” Sir Roger was staggered with the reports concerning this wo¬ 
man, and would have her bound over to the county sessions." 

Addison. 

To bind to. To contract with any body or thing, as, to 
bind a boy to a master. 

'• Now 1 am cabin d, crabb d, confin’d, bound in 
To saucy doubts and fears.” — Shaks. 

To bind up in. To be absorbed in ; to cause to be entire¬ 
ly engrossed with; as, they are bound up in each other. 

Bind, v. i. To be bound: to grow stiff and hard; to con¬ 
tract in parts; as, “ It is a binding land.”— Mortimer. 

—To be restrained from motion or natural action; as, to 
be bound in port. 

—To be obligatory. 

The promises and bargains for truck, between a Swiss and an 
Indian, in the woods of America, are binding to them, though 
they are perfectly in a state of nature in reference to one another." 

Locks. 

Bind, rt. That which binds or is bound. 

( Bot .) A stalk of hops which is bound to a pole by 
winding round it. 

( Gent .) A technical name given in some parts of Eng¬ 
land to the shales alternating with the coal in the coal 
measures. — See Shale. 

( Mas.) A ligature or tie for the purpose of grouping 
notes together. 

Bind'er, n. He who binds; especially one whose trade 
is to bind books. 

—Anything which binds; as a rope, ligature, wrapper, 
fillet, bandage, &c. 

“ A double cloth, ... I cat from each end into the middle, into 
three binders ." — Wiseman. 

(Arch.) The name generally given to a beam intended 
to tie or bind together any building. It is applied com¬ 
monly to the principal piece of timber in a double floor, 
in which it performs the part of a girder to carry the 
intermediate parts of the bearing of the ceiling and of the 
floor joists. They are sometimes called binding joists. 

(Mining.) One who undertakes to keep a mine open. 

Bind'ery, n. A place where books are bound. 

Bind'in$;,p. a. Making fast with a band; obliging; 
obligatory, Ac. 

44 And binding nature fast as fate. 

Let free the human will.” — Pope . 

—n. Anything that binds; a bandage; the cover, sewing, 
Ac. of a book; the hemmed edge of a garment, Ac. 

(Fencing.) A method of securing or crossing an ad¬ 
versary’s sword with a pressure, accompanied with a 
spring of the wrist. 

—pi. (Naut.) The iron wrought round the dead-eyes of 
a ship. 

Bind'ing'ly, adv. So as to oblige. 

Bindrabund', a town of Hindostan, prov. Agra, on 
the Jumna, 35 m. N.N.W. of Agra. The place is famous 



Fig. 358. — pagodas at bindrabund. 

in the history of Krishna, to whom many temples are 
dedicated. The principal pagoda is one of the most ela¬ 


borate and massive works of Brahminical architecture. 
There are also uumerous sacred pools, where pilgrims 
perform ablution. 

Binding- out. (Law.) A term applied to the contract 
of apprenticeship. The contract must be by deed, to 
which the iulant, as well as the parent or guardiau, 
must he a party, or the infant will not be bound. 

Binding over. (Law.) The act by which a magis¬ 
trate or court holds to hail a party accused of a crime or 
misdemeanor. 

Bind weed, n. (Bot.) See Convolvulus. 

Bine, n. [From bind.] (Bot.) The climbing stem of a 
plant; as. the woodbine. 

Biner'vate, a. [Lat. bis, and nervus, a nerve.j (Bot.) 
Two-nerved. 

(Zoiil.) A term used to denote the wing of an insect 
when supported by only two nerves. 

Bing, n. i Dan. and Swed. binge.; Icel. bingr.] (Man/.) A 
heap of alum thrown together in order to drain. 

Bing'en, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of 
Hesse Darmstadt, at the confluence of the Nahe with the 
Rhine, It m. IT. of Mentz (Fig. 2259). Near it is the 
Binger Loch, a dangerous rapid in the Rhine. Pop. 6,622. 

Bing'ham, in Maine, a. post-township of Somerset co., 
on the Kennebec River, about 70 m. N. of the city of 
Augusta. 

Biug'liam, in Michigan, a township of Clinton co., 
about 22 m. E. of Lyons. 

—A township of Huron county, 110. miles north of De¬ 
troit. 

Bing'ham, in Ohio, a post-office of Monroe co. 

Bing'liain, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of Potter 
county, 18 m. N.E. of Coudersport, on the Genesee 
River. 

Bing'ham ton, in California, aP.O. of Solano co. 

Biug'hanitou, in Illinois, a village of Lee co., 100 m. 
IT. of Chicago. 

Bing'ham ton, in New York, a township and flourish¬ 
ing city. cap. of Broome co., situated at the junction of 
the Susquehanna and Chenango rivers, 225 m. from 
New York city, and 80 from Syracuse. It is a hand¬ 
some and prosperous place, doing an extensive trade in 
cigars, grain and lumber. Pop. in 1890,35,000. 

Binghamton, in TFiscsnsfn, a P.O. of Outagamie co. 

Bing'hamstow'n, or Saleen, a small seaport of Ire¬ 
land, co. Mayo, on Biacksod Bay, 3 m. S.S.W. of Belmul- 
let. 

Bing'ley, a town of England, in Yorkshire (West 
Riding), 178 m. N.W. by N. of London, and 32 W. by S. 
of York. 

Binkley's Bridge, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Lancaster co. 

Binnacle, t bin'na-kl ,) (sometimes called Bittacle,) n. 
[A supposed corruption of binocle, q. v.; Fr. habitude, 
from L. Lat. habitaculum, a place lor the steersman and 
pilot.] (Naut.) The case or stand on board a vessel in 
which the steering compass is placed. It is fixed in 
front of the tiller or wheel. At night the compass is 
illuminated by a lamp placed over it. 

Binocle, (bin'o-kl,) n. [Lat. binus, double, and oculus, 
the eye.] ( Optics.) A dioptric telescope for viewing ob¬ 
jects with both eyes at once. 

Binoc ular, a. [Ft. bmoculaire .] Having two eyes. 

" Most animals are binocular, spiders for the most part octon- 
ocular, and some seuocular.” — Dtrham. 

—Relating or belonging to both eyes; as, binocular sight. 

—Adapted for use by both eyes at one time, as a binocular 
telescope. 

Binocular Perspective, n. See Perspective. 

Binoc'ulate, a. Possessing two eyes. 

Bino mial, n. [Lat. bis, and Gr. nomos, law.] (Alge¬ 
bra.) A quantity composed of two terms connected 
together by thesigns -j- or—; thus, a b and c—5 are 
binomial quantities. 

— a. Consisting of, or relating to, two terms; as, a bino¬ 
mial root. 

Bino'mial Equation, n. (Math.) In algebra, ?.o 
equation wiiich consists of two terms, and is, therefore, 
reducible to the form x n —A, or x n — A = 0. It has, of 
course, n roots, all of which are unequal. If a be any 
one of them, then, putting x — ay, the equation is re¬ 
duced to y n — 1 rr 0 ; so that the n roots in equation may 
be found by multiplying any one of them by the several 
n th roots of unity. 

Bino'mial Theorem, n. (Math.) In algebra, a 
formula discovered by Newton, forexpressing any power 
of a binomial quantity. It is usually written thus: 

n (n — 1 ) 

(l+a:) n =l-i-na:-(-r 2 -[- 

1 . 2. 

n (n — 1 ) (»— 2 ) 

-x 3 +, Ac. 

1. 2. 3. 

from which four terms the law of the whole series will be 
sufficiently appareut. The method of obtaining the for¬ 
mula, and of proving its validity for all values of rt, will 
be found in auy good algebra. When n is a positive 
integer, the series is finite, and consists of «-)-1 terms; in 
all other cases it is infinite, but convergent whenever x 
is numerically less than 1, no matter what n may be. It 
would be useless to attempt to describe the applications 
of this formula in mathematics; it is beyond question 
the most important one of elementary algebra. 

Binom'inal. Binoin'inous, a. [Lat. bis, double, 
and nomen. name.] Having two names; double-named. 

Bilior'nial, n. [Lat. bis, and norma, a rule.] (Geom.) A 
term employed by Saint-Venant (Jour, de VEcolt Poly- 
technique, cap. 30) to denote the line through a point 
of a non-plane curve which is perpendicular to two con¬ 
secutive elements. It lies of course in the normal plane, 
and is perpendicular to the osculating-plane. The locus 


of binormals to a given curve is a skew surface, the 
generators of which are cut orthogonally by the curve. 

Binot, (be'no 1 .) [Fr. binoter .] (Ayric.) A kiud of plough 
having a double mould-board. 

Binot'onous, a. [Lat. fas, and nota, a note.] Having 
two notes. 

Bi lious, a. [Lat. bini, two by two, from Wntts.] (Bot.) 
Binary; double ; in a pair, as leaves. 

Binox'ide, Binox'yd, n. [Lat. bis, and Eng. oxide.] 
(Chem.) A neutral combination of two equivalents of 
oxygen and one equivalent of some other body, as binox- 
ide of hydrogen, formerly called deutoxide. 

Bins, n. pi. [See Bin.] Open subdivisions in a cellar for 
the reception of bottled wine; as, bring me a bottle out 
of the best bin. 

Bintang, (been’tang,) an island of the Dutch East In¬ 
dies, about 40 m. S.E. of Singapore, Lat. 1° 5' N.. Lon. 
104° 29' E.; area. 600 sq. m.; prod, gum, pepper, and rice; 
pop. about 13,000. 

Binu clear, a. [Lat. bis, and nucleus, kernel.] Pos¬ 
sessing two nuclei, or kernels. ' 

Biobio, (bee’o-bee'o,) the largest river of Chili, running 
W.N.W. from the Andes to Concepcion, on the Pacific, 
where its mouth is 2 ni. wide. It is navigable for boats 
from the sea to the mountains. Length, 200 m. 

Biocellale, (bi-os'se-late,) a. [Lat. bis, and ocellus, an 
eyelet.] (Zoiil j A term applied to an insect’s wing when 
marked with two eye-like spots. 

Biodynamics, n. [Gr. bios, life, and dynamis, force.] 
(Med.) The doctrine of the vital activity or forces. 

Biogen esis, n. [Gr. bios, life, and genesis, birth.] 
(Zoiil.) A term used to define the science which specu¬ 
lates upon the mode by which new species have been 
introduced on this planet. 

Biographer, (bl-og'ra-fer.) n. [See Biography.] A 
writer of biography, or of other people’s lives. 

Biograph'io, Biog raph ical, a. Pertaining, or 

relating, to biography. 

Biographically, adv. In the manner of abiography. 

Biog raphize, v. a. To write a history of auy one’s 
lile. 

Biography, n. [Gr. bios, life, and grapho, to write, to 
delineate.j A delineation or history of the life and char¬ 
acter of a particular person. — Biographical writings 
generally. — B., in the progress of literature, appears to 
be nearly coeval with history itself. It has been ingen¬ 
iously described as “ history teaching by example;” and 
this mode of instruction was. perhaps, peculiarly appro¬ 
priate to early and simple times, in which the relative 
importance of individual men to the society in which 
they lived was greater than it can ordinarily be in peri¬ 
ods of more advanced civilization. It is to a compara¬ 
tively late age that we owe all the more interesting 
works of this description, some of which are among the 
most popular relics of the classical ages: — the Lives of 
Illustrious Men, by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos; the 
Lives of the Otesars, by Suetonius; and the Lives of the. 
Philosophers, by Diogenes Laertius. B. may be said in 
strictness to differ from history not merely in the extent 
of the subject, but also, and perhaps more characteristi¬ 
cally, in the mode in which that subject is treated. It is 
file object of history to make us acquainted wit h the influ- 
»®ce, which the actions, the characters, and the thoughts 
of individual men have produced on the course of events 
uff string society in general: conversely, it appears to be 
the province of the biographer to detail the effects which 
have been produced by external occurrences and eir- 
< umstances on the character and conduct of individuals. 
Modern biography dates from about the 17tli century, 
arid has since developed itself to such an extent that it 
would be an interminable task to attempt to enumerate 
them. Among the best individual biographies in the 
English language must he mentioned Boswell’s Life of 
Jc h i, son, G. H. Lewes’s Life of Gathe. and Washington 
Irvine’s Life of Columbus. Of collective biography we 
have, in French, the Biogruphie Universelle, 52 vols., 
(1811-li?28,) and continued by supplements; and the 
Neuvclle Biographie Ciuverselle, beguu in 1853. In Eng¬ 
lish we have the Dictionary of National Biography, begun 
in 1885, and still under process of publication, about 
50 vols. having been issued. Collections of American 
biography include the National Cyclopedia of American 
Biography and Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biog¬ 
raphy. A work of great value iu this connection is 
AUibone's Dictionary of Authors. 

Biolog'ieal, a. Pertaining to biology. 

Biology, (bi-ol’o-je )n. [Gr. bios, life, and logos, discourse, 
treatise.] The science of life; a discourse of, or concern¬ 
ing, life; physiology, treatiug of life iu general.—See 
Physiology. 

Biolyt'ic, a. [Gr. bios, life, and luexn, to destroy.] That 
which relates to the destruction of life; as, a biolytic 
agent. 

Biot. Jean Baptiste, (be'o,) a very eminent French 
mathematician and chemist. B. at Paris, 1774. Alter a 
brilliant course of study, he was called to the chair of 
Mathematics at the Central School of Beauvais, whence 
he removed, in 1800, to the College of France, to hold the 
professorship of Natural Philosophy. He was chosen by 
the Board of Longitudes to make observations along the 
English arc of the meridian, and for that purpose visited 
England in 1817. It was during that visit that Hum¬ 
boldt, Arago, and B. met at Greenwich Observatory. B. 
had previously assisted in measuring the arc of tiie me¬ 
ridian extended through Spain. He was a member of 
the French Academy of Sciences, of the Institute, and a 
foreign member of the Royal Societies of Loiu.on anA 
Edinburgh, and of cany >thei scientific societies. Ho 
is especially celebrated as tic disccverei of the ch-culaa 



























34S 


BIRC 


BIRD 


BIRD 


polarization of light. Besides numerous memoirs con¬ 
tributed to the Academy and to scientific journals, B. 
wrote Traiti Elimentaire d' Astronomic Physique ; Traiti 
de Physique Expe.rimenf.ale et Mathimatique; Becueil 
d’ Observations geodisiques, Ac., Ac. D. 1862. 

Biotina, Biotine, ( be-o-te'na .) [Named from M. 
Biot, q. t>.] (Min.) A volcanic product, found on Mount 
Vesuvius, chiefly compounded of silica, alumina, and 
lime. 

Bipal'mate, a. [Lat. bis, and palmate, q. v.] (But) 
Having a palmate arrangement on secondary petioles 
which are palmately arranged on the primary petiole. 

Bipari'etal, a. [Lat. biparietalis.] (Anat .) An epithet 
for the diameter of the cranium from one parietal fossa 
to the other. 

Iii'parotis, a. [Lat. bis, and pario , to bring forth.] 
Bringing forth two at a birth. 

Bipar'tible, Bipar'tile, a. [Lat. bis, and partibi- 
lis.) That which is susceptible of division into two parts. 

Bipar'tient, a. [Lat. bis, twice, and partire, to divide.] 
Dividing into two parts. 

Bi'partite, a. [Lat. bis, and partitus, divided, from 
partio, to divide.] (But.) Having two correspondent parts. 

(Law.) Of two parts; —a term used in conveyancing; 
as, this indenture is bipartite between A, of the one part, 
and B, of the other part. 

Bipartition, (bi-part-tish'un,) n. The act of making 
two correspondent parts. 

Bipec'tiuate, a. [Lat. bis, anipecten, a comb.] (But.) 
When a part has two margins toothed like a comb. 

Bi'ped, n. [Lat. bipes — bis, and pes, pedis, a foot.] An 
animal having two feet; man. — See Bimana. 

Bip'etlal, Biped, a. [Fr. bipedal.) Having two feet, 
•r being of the length of two feet. 

*• Became a helpless, naked, biped beast." — Byron. 

Bipelta'ta, n. [I.at. bis, and pelta,a. buckler.] (Zool.) 
A name given to those Crustacea which have the cara¬ 
pace divided into two shields, the anterior of which is 
very large, more or less oval, composing the head ; and 
the second, corresponding with the thorax, is transverse 
and angulated in the outline, and bears the foot-jaws 
and the ordinary feet. 

Bipel'tate, a. Defended by a double shield. 

Bipen'nate, Bipeii'nated, a. [Lat. bis, twice, 
and pennate, q. v.] Having two wings. 

Bipes, ( bi’pees,) n. [Lat. bis, twice, and pes, a foot.] 
(Zool.) A genus of reptiles in which the hind-feet alone 
are visible, there being externally a total absence of the 
anterior extremities, though the rudiments of these mem¬ 
bers are perceptible under the skin. This genus affords 
an example of one of those beautiful gradations by which 
nature glides from one type of form into another, being 
intermediate between the Saurians (lizards), and the 
Ophidians (serpents). 

Bipet'alous, a. [Lat. bis, and petalous.] (Bot.) Hav¬ 
ing two petals or flower-leaves. 

Bipin'nate, Bipin'naterf, a. [Lat. bis, and pin¬ 
nate.] (Bot.) Twice pinnate; as in Fumaria officinalis. 

Bipinnat'ifid, a. [Lat. bis, and pinnatijid , q. v.] 
(Bot.) Doubly or twice pinnatifid. 

Bi'plicate, a. [Lat. bis, and plicare, to fold.] (Bot.) 
Twice folded together. 

Bipli'city, n. [See Supra.] Reduplication; state of 
being twofold, (r.) 

Bipolar, a. [ Lat. bis, and polar, q. v.J Doubly polar; 
having two poles. 

Bipolar'ity, n. Double polarity. 

Bi'pont, Bipon'tine, a. (Bibliog.) Pertaining to 
books published at Deux Ponts, (anc. Bipontium.) 

Bipiiiict'ual, a. [Lat. bis, and punctual .] Two- 
pointed. 

Bipu'pillate, a. [Lat. bis, and pupilla, the pupil of 
the eye.] (Zool.) A term applied when an eye-like 
spot on the wing of a butterfly has two dots or pupils 
within it of a different color. 

Biquadrate, (bi-kwod'rdt.) [Lat. bis, and quadratus, 
squared.] The same as Biquadratic. 

Biquadratic, n. (Alg .) The power immediately 
succeeding the cube : that is the square of the square, 
or fourth power; as, 16 is the B. or B. power of 2; for 
2 X2 is 4, and 4 X4 is equal to 16. 

—a. Belonging to the fourth or biquadratic power. — B. 
Boot of a number is the square root of its square root; 
thus the biquadratic root of 81 is 3; for the square root 
«f 81 is 9; and the square root of 9 is 3. — Biquaslratic 
Equation, an equation where the unknown quantity of 
one of the terms has four dimensions. Any biquadratic 
equation may be generated by the multiplication of four 
simple equations: or by that of two quadratic equations. 

(Geom.) B. Parabola. A curve line of the third order, 
having two infinite legs tending the same way 

Biquin'tile, n. [ Lat. Ws, and quintile, q. v.] ( Astron.) 
An aspect of the planets when they are distant from 
each other by twice the fifth part of a great circle, or 
144°. 

Bir, or Beer, (bir,) (anc. Birtha,) a town of Asiatic 
Turkey, on the Euphrates, 75 m. N.E. of Aleppo, and 
38 W.S.W. of Orfa; Lat. 36° 59' N., Lon. 38° 7' 15" E. 
B. is the point at which travellers and caravans between 
Aleppo, on the one side, and Orfa, Diarbekr, &c., on 
the other, cross the Euphrates. It is also the nearest 
point on the Euphrates to Iskanderoon, and has latterly 
become celebrated from its being the point at which Col. 
Chesney has proposed to begin and terminate the navi¬ 
gation of the Euphrates. — See Euphrates. 

Bira'diate, Bira'diated, a. [Lat. bis, and radius, 
a ray.] When a part has two rays. 

Birch, n. [A.S. birce; Ger. birke; 0. Ger. bircha; Dan. 
birke..] (Bot.) See Betula. 


Birch, Bircli'en, a. [A. S. btorcen.) Made of birch; 

consisting of birch. 

“ His beaver'd brow a birchen garland bears." — Pope. 

Bir'cliardville, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Susquehanna co. 

Birch Cooly, in Minnesota, a village of Renville 
county. 

Bircli River, in W. Virginia,a post-office of Nicholas 
co., 284 m. W. by N. of Richmond. 

Bircli Run, in Michigan, a post-'ullage of Saginaw 
co., 15 m. N. by W. of Flint. 

—A post-township of Saginaw co., about 15 m. S.E. of 
Saginaw. 

Birch'vilie, in Michigan, a township of St. Clair co., 
on Lake Huron. 

Birch'wood, in Tennessee, a post-office of James 
county. 

Birch'-wine, n. Wine made from the sap of the 
birch; formerly held in great repute. 

Bird, n. [A. S.] (Zool.) The class “birds” is one of 
the best defined and most distinct, whether viewed with 
reference to the exterior or interior. Birds are ovipa¬ 
rous vertebrate animals, with a double and complete cir¬ 
culation; to which may be added, that the respiration 
is aerien and double; which means, that, instead of 
being confined to the lungs, as in mammals, the air 
penetrates throughout the body, and even into the in¬ 
terior of the bones; their blood is hot, as in mammals. 
Finally, they are covered with feathers, and their pec¬ 
toral extremities have the form and character of wings. 
The symmetry and elegance discoverable in the outward 
appearance of B., although highly pleasing to the sight, 
are yet of much greater importance when considered 
with respect to their peculiar habits and modes of living, 
to whicli they are eminently subservient. Every part 
of their frame is formed for lightness and buoyancy; 
their bodies are covered with a soft and delicate plu¬ 
mage, so disposed as to protect them from the intense cold 
of the atmosphere through which they pass; their wings 
are made of the lightest materials, and yet the force 
with which they strike the air is so great as to impel 
their bodies forward with astonishing rapidity, while 
the tail serves the purpose of a rudder to direct them to 
the different objects of their pursuit. The internal struc¬ 
ture of B. is no less wisely adapted to the same pur¬ 
poses; all the bones are light and thin, and all the mus¬ 
cles, except those which are appropriated to the pur¬ 
pose of moving the wings, are extremely delicate and 
light; the lungs are placed close to the backbone and 
ribs; the air entering into them by a communication 
from the wind-pipe, passes through, and is conveyed into 
a number of membranous cells which lie upon the sides 
of the pericardium, and communicate with those of the 
sternum. In some B. these cells are continued down 
the wings, and extended even to the pinions, thigh¬ 
bones, and other parts of the body, which can be filled 
and distended with air at the pleasure of the animal. 
The skeleton is composed of nearly the same elements 
as in mammals, but the form and disposition of many 



Fig. 359.— skeleton of the vulture. 

1. Scapula. 5. Vertebra of the tail. 9. Sternum. 

2. Femur. 6. Corocoid bone. 10. Tibia. 

S. Sacrum. 7. Carpus. 11. Tarsus. 

4. Pelvis. 8. Humerus. 

of the bones are different. The pectoral muscles, which 
give motion to their wings, are amazingly strong, 
while those of their thighs are weak and slender. By 
means of these, a B. can move its wings with a degree 
of strength which is almost incredible; the flap of 
a swan’s wing would break the leg of a man; and 
a similar blow from an eagle has been known to 
cause instant death. Such, consequently, is the force 
of the wing, and such its lightness, as to be inimitable 
by human art. The eyes of B. are admirably adapted 
to vision, by a particular expansion of their optic 
nerves, which renders the impression of external ob¬ 
jects more vivid and distinct. From this peculiar con¬ 
formation, it appears that the faculty of sight in B. is 


infinitely superior to that of other animals, and, indeed 
is indispensably necessary to their support and security 
Were the eye less perfect, the B., from the rapidity ot 
its motion, would probably strike against almost everj 
object in its way, as well as be totally incapable of dis¬ 
cerning its proper food when soaring in its own element. 
In mental capacity, B. fully equal quadrupeds, and in 
some respects surpass them. Parrots, starlings, Ac., re¬ 
tain in memory many words and phrases which they 
have been taught, and many singing-birds whole melo¬ 
dies. Their powers of memory seem also to be evinced 
by the fact that birds of passage, after an absence of six 
months, or even a longer time, and after travelling 
thousands of miles, return to their former home: the 
swallow to her beam, the finch to the tree where last 
year she reared her young, or where she herself was 
hatched. The difference between such B. as love to 
dwell in uninhabited places, secure from persecution, 
and such as are found in the neighborhood of man, sur¬ 
rounded by dangers, is a proof thattheir prudence, cun¬ 
ning, and docility can be awakened and improved. The 
voice is a peculiar gift of Nature, by which the greater 
part of B. are distinguished from all the rest ol the ani¬ 
mal world. The wind-pipe of B. is composed of entire 
rings of cartilage, with an exception in the case of the 
ostrich. At its bifurcation is a glottis supplied with 
appropriate muscles, called the lower or inferior larynx. 
It is here that the voice of birds.is formed; the vast 
body of air contained in the air-cells contributes to the 
force, and the wind-pipe, by its form and movements, to 
the modification, of the voice. The superior larynx is 
very simple and unimportant. The gift of song is given 
to the male birds only, and their notes are mostly an 
expression of love. They 6ing only when they are 
cheerful; in sadness, during rough weather, and in bodily 
disorders, they are silent. To no other animal have 
such various tones been granted for giving utterance to 
different feelings: hunger, fear, the dread of imminent 
danger, desire for society, or longing for his mate, love, 
melancholy, Ac., are expressed by a variety of notes, 
which make a language intelligible not only to B. of 
the same species, but often to the other tribes. — B. may 
be distinguished, like quadrupeds, into two kinds or 
classes — granivurous and carnivorous; like quadrupeds, 
too, there are some that hold a middle nature, and par¬ 
take of both. Granivorous B. are furnished with larger 
intestines, and proportionally longer, than those of the 
carnivorous kind. Their food, which consists of grain of 
various sorts, is conveyed whole and entire into the first 
stomach or craw, where it undergoes a partial dilution 
by a liquor secreted from the glands and spread over its 
surface; it is then received into another species of 
stomach, where it is further diluted ; after which it is 
transmitted into the gizzard or true stomach, consist¬ 
ing of two very strong muscles, covered externally 
with a tendinous substance, and lined with a thick 
membrane of prodigious power and strength; in this 
place the food is completely triturated and rendered 
fit for the operation of the gastric juices. Carnivo¬ 
rous 3. are distinguished by those endowments and 
powers with which they are furnished by Nature for 
the purpose of procuring their food; they are pro¬ 
vided with wings of great length, the muscles which 
move them being proportionally large and strong, 
whereby they are enabled to keep long upon the wing 
in search of their prey; they are armed with strong, 
hooked bills, and sharp and formidable claws; they have 
also large heads, short necks, strong and brawny thighs, 
and a sight so acute and piercing, as to enable them to 
view their prey from the greatest heights in the air, 
upon which they dart with inconceivable swiftness and 
undeviating aim. The analogy between the structure 
of rapacious birds and carnivorous quadrupeds is obvi¬ 
ous; both of them are provided with weapons which in¬ 
dicate destruction and rapine; their manners are fierce 
and unsocial; and they seldom live together in flocks, 
like the inoffensive granivorous tribes. When not on 
the wing, rapacious birds retire to the tops of seques¬ 
tered rocks, or to the depths of extensive forests, where 
they conceal themselves in sullen and gloomy solitude. 
—Every form which the most lively fancy could create, 
and every hue that the imagination could conceive, are 
to be found in the feathers of birds. Two changes occur 
in the feathers,— one in the spring and another in the 
autumn. In the former case the change occurs just be¬ 
fore the breeding-time, and the B. gains a number of 
new feathers without losing the old ones. In the latter, 
or moulting season, the old feathers fall off and new 
ones appear. The feathers of the wings are larger and 
stronger than those on other parts of the body. They 
are called wing-feathers, quill-feathers, or quills. At 
the base of each quill are small feathers called wing- 
coverts. The tail-feathers are also provided with coverts 
above and below. Many B. have very ornamental plu¬ 
mage in their tails; and the feathers often take other 
remarkable forms in different parts of the body; such 
as shoulder-tufts, ruffs, crests, Ac. When spring ap¬ 
proaches, wild birds begin to pair and to make arrange¬ 
ments for their young. The notes of the male bird at 
this time are very loud; and the marriage contract then 
entered into is for the season faithfully adhered to. In 
case one of the pair dies, its mate does not survive it 
long. The reproduction of the species among B. is car¬ 
ried on by means of eggs, which pass from the body of 
the female and are afterwards hatched. The warmth 
necessary for incubation is usually derived from the 
body of the B., which sits upon the eggs. This duty is 
generally performed by the female; but in some cases 
it is undertaken by the male. Many sea-fowl make no 
nests, but deposit their eggs on the bare rock, or iD 
rough holes scratched out of the earth or sand. Thi 















BIRDS 


1 BLUE-AND-RED MACAW. 

2 INCOMPARABLE BIRD OF PARADISE. 
8 GOLDEN BIRD OF PARADISE. 

4 RESPLENDENT TROGON. 

5 KING BIRD OF PARADISE. 

« FIRE WEAVER. 

T PARADISE FLYCATCHER. 

8 BROAD-SHAFTED WHIDAH BIRD 
8 MARSH HAWK. 

10 BALD EAGLE. 

11 BARRED OWL. 

12 GOLDEN PHEASANT. 




COPYRIGHT 1896 BY F. E WRIGHT 









BIRD 


BIRD 


BIRM 


349 


ostrich allows her eggs to be hatched by the Leat of the 
tun in warm climates; but she sits and broods over 
them when the temperature is colder. B. generally 
brood once in the year, but some brood twice; and the 
number of eggs they lay varies from one to twenty. The 
cuckoo and a small number of other B. lay their eggs in 
the nests of other birds, in order to be hatched by them; 
and several birds are able to run about and find food as 
soon as they leave the nest, while others remain in the 
nest for days and weeks before they can venture out. 
During this period the parent birds find food for them. 
At the breeding-season, birds are often gregarious, and 
sometimes live together in one large nest. Birds’-nests 
are constructed with such delicate and exquisite art and 
ingenuity, as to call forth the admiration of every ob¬ 
server. Birds of the same species, wherever they may 
be found, build their nests with the same kind of mate¬ 
rials and in the same manner. The situations they se¬ 
lect, the materials they use, and the form in which they 
build, are wonderfully adapted to the particular nature 
and necessities of the bird. They are generally lined 
with moss, wool, fine hair, or down, and have an exte¬ 
rior composed of straws, twigs or roots, and dry grass, 
mixed with clay. Birds that build early in the spring, 
such as the blackbird and thrush, line their nests with 
loam, in order to keep out the cold air. The common 
sparrow, who builds four or five nests in the year, is not 
particular as to the situation he chooses. Sometimes he 
locates himself in ivy, sometimes in trees and hedges, 
and often under the eaves of houses. Some birds care¬ 
fully conceal their nests, and some leave them open and 
apparent; some, like the Jay, build them so loosely that 
the eggs can be seen through the twigs; and others very 
compactly, such as the golden-crested Wren, which con¬ 
structs its nest with small pieces of moss and spiders’ 
web interweaved. It is nearly an inch in thickness, and 
is lined with a profusion of soft downy feathers. A very 
curious nest is that of the Tailor-bird. (Sylvia sutoria.) 
It is for the most part composed of two leaves, one of 
them being dead; the latter is fixed by the ingenious 
bird to the living leaf as it hangs from the tree, by sew¬ 
ing both together, like a pouch or purse; this is open at 
the top, the cavity being filled with fine down; it is 



Fig. 360. — nest of the tailor-bird. 


suspended from the branch, so as almost to secure 
it from the attacks of reptiles and monkeys. While 
hatching, all birds, as a general rule, resort to those 
places where their particular food is plentiful, and where 
there is an abundance of the proper material with which 
to construct their nests. Some water-fowls pluck the 
down from their own breasts, in order to line their 
dwellings; but they usually build in out-of-the-way 
places, since their food is not that which is gathered by 
ordinary birds. While hatching, the female bird is re¬ 
markably patient. She is usually plump when she be¬ 
gins to sit; but before the eggs are hatched she is al¬ 
most reduced to a skeleton. Neither hunger nor danger 
will make her leave her post of duty; but if, after being 
absent, the male and female birds perceive that their 
nest has been meddled with, they will often leave, and 
build in a securer place. After the young are fledged 
and flown, the nest is generally deserted. Many small 
birds live upon worms, caterpillars, Ac.; and it has been 
remarked, “ that a single pair of sparrows, during the 
time they are feeding their young, will destroy about 
4,000 caterpillars weekly; they likewise feed their young 
with butterflies and other winged insects, each of which, 
if not destroyed in this manner, would be productive of 
many thousands of caterpillars.” The sparrow is usu¬ 
ally believed to be the gardener's enemy; but this would 
seem to show the reverse. While moulting or changing 
their feathers, many birds turn sickly, and often die. 
Every country and climate have birds, which are pecu¬ 
liar to them; but many migrate to distant lands when 
the season becomes too’ severe for them. Near the equa¬ 
tor the birds are remarkable for their brilliant and va¬ 
ried plumage; but their voices are usually harsh and 
discordant. In the frigid zone, where fish are plentiful, 


they are mostly aquatic, and their plumage consists of 

soft, warm, downy feathers. In all countries, birds live 
longer, comparatively, than either men or quadrupeds in 
the same place. Many kinds of birds are important in 
an economical sense. A large profit is derived from the 
rearing of domestic fowls; and the flesh and eggs of 
most birds can be eaten. The flesh of fish-eating birds 
and birds of prey is considered unpleasant. Feathers 
are employed in many useful and ornamental ways, and 
the dung of birds is useful for manure. — The longevity 
of birds is regarded as about ten times as great as the 
period which they require to come to maturity or full 
growth. Domestic fowls live to the age of twenty years; 
parrots, thirty years; geese, fifty: while swans, ravens, 
and eagles are said to live a century. — The class of B. 
comprises ten to twelve thousand species, and their 
classification is difficult by reason of the great uniform¬ 
ity of their structure. Their distinguishing characters, 
as being in relation with their regime, have been taken 
chiefly from the conformation of the bill and legs. Cu¬ 
vier divided them into six orders, — namely, Rapacious 
B., Passerines, Climbers, Gallinaceous B., Waders, and 
Palmipedes. We follow generally, in this work, the writ¬ 
ings of Baird, Audubon, and Wilson, who divide the class 
B. into 7 orders: Raptores or Ravenous, (corresponding 
to the ord. Accipitres of Linuteus,) Scans/ires or Climb¬ 
ers, lnsessores or Perchers, Rasores or Scratchers, Curso- 
res or Runners, Gralatores or Waders. — See Bill, Wing, 
Egg, Hatching, Migratory Birds, &c. 

Bird, v. i. To catch or snare birds. 

•• I do invite you to-morrow morning to my house, to breakfast; 
after, we'll a birding together." — Shaks. 

Bird'-bolt, n. An arrow, broad at the end, used for 
shooting birds. 

” To be generous .... is to take those things for bird-bolts that 
you deem common bullets." — Shaks. 

Bird'-eage, n. A box or cage of wire strengthened 
with wood, wherein to keep birds. They are also made 
of wicker-work and other materials, and vary much in 
size, style, Ac. 

Bird'-call, n. A pipe for imitating the notes of birds. 

Bird'-catelier, n. A fowler; one whose employment 
it is to catch or decoy birds. 

“ A poor lark entered into a miserable expostulation with a 
bird-catcher , that had taken her in his net.”— D'Estrange. 

Bird'-catching, n. [bird and catch.] The art of de¬ 
coying, snaring, and taking wild birds. See Net, and 
Trap. 

Bird-catching Spider, n. ( Zodl .) See Mygale. 

Bird'-cherry, n. [bird and cherry.] (Bot .) SeeCERASus. 

Bird'er, n. A bird-catcher. 

Bird'-eye, a. That is seen from above, as by a bird.— 
Worcester .— See Bird’s Eye. 

Bird'-eyed, a. Keen- or quick-sighted. 

Bird'-fancier, n. One whose hobby or pleasure it is 
to collect and rear curious and valuable birds. 

—One who vends birds in cages; one who sells birds. 

Bird Hill, n Maryland, a post-office of Carroll co. 

Bird'ing-piece, n. A fowling-piece; a gun to shoot 
birds with, (o.) 

Bird -like, a. Resembling a bird. 

Bird'-lime, n. A glutinous substance, extracted from 
the inner bark of the holly, and used for catching birds. 
The bark is bruised, boiled with water till very soft, and 
then placed in pits to ferment. After two or three 
weeks, a curious viscid mass is found in the place of the 
soft bark ; this is boiled with a fresh quantity of water, 
and evaporated to a proper consistence. B. may also be 
prepared from the berries of the mistletoe, from the 
young shoots of the elder, and from the cellular portions 
of other plants. When used, it is spread on twigs or 
wire-netting, and the wild birds are often drawn to the 
sticky perches by the treacherous singing of a decoy- 
bird, placed in a cage near to them. 

Bird'-Iimed, a. Smeared or prepared with bird-lime. 

Bird'man, n. A bird-catcher; a fowler. 

Bird-ol-Par'adise, n. (Hoot.) See Paradiseid.®. 

Bird -organ, n. A small hand-organ used in teaching 
birds to sing. 

Bird'-pepper, re. (Bot.) See Capsicum. 

Birds' borough, in Pennsylvania, a thriving manuf. 
town of Berks co., on Schuylkill river and 3 lines of 
R.R., 9 m. S.E. of Reading. Pop. (1898) 2,540. 

Bird’s'-eye, re. (Bot.) See Primula. 

Bird’s'-eye, a. Seen from above, as if by a flying bird. 

Bird's-eye View. (Fine Arts.) A term used to denote 
a view arranged according to the laws of perspec¬ 
tive, in which the point of sight, or situation of the 
eye, is placed at a considerable height above the object 
viewed and delineated. In architectural representations 
it is used chiefly for the purpose of representing the dis¬ 
position of the different courts or quadrangles, or roofs 
of a building. It is a useful method of representing 
battles, as also of conveying a general notion of a small 
district of a country. — See Perspective. 

Bird's Eye. in Indiana, a post-office of Dubois co. 

Bird's-eye Maple, re. A name given to the wood 
of the sugar-maple, Acer saccharinum, on account of its 
knotty spots that have some resemblance to birds’ eyes. 

Bird's-eye Ridg'e, in Missouri, a P.O.of Sullivan co. 

Bird's-foot, re. (Bot.) See Ornithopus. 

Bird’s-foot Trefoil, re. (Bot.) See Lotus. 

Bird's Mouth, re. (Arch.) An interior angle or 
notch, cut across the grain at the extremity of a piece 
of timber for its reception on the edge of another piece; 
as a rafter, for instance, upon a pole plate.— Bird’s 
mouth signifies also the interior angle of a polygon, its 
external angle being called a bull's nose. 

Bird’s'-nest, re. The nest made by a bird, in which it 
lays eggs, and rears its young. — See Bird. 

(Bot.) See Monotropa. 


(Cookery.) A species of nests built by swallows, pecnliat 
to the East Indian islands, and much esteemed m China 
and other parts of the world. These nests resemble in 
form those of other swallows; they are formed of a vis¬ 
cid substance, and in external appearance as well as 
consistence are not unlike fibrate ill-concocted isinglass. 
Esculent nests are principally found in Java, in caverns 
usually situated on the sea-coast. Nothing satisfactory 
is known as to the substance of which these nests are 
composed. They are used for soup. 

Bird's Point, in Missouri, an elevation of ground 
near Birdsville, and opposite to the town of Cairo, on 
which strong works were constructed in 1861, for the 
defence of the town. 

Bird's Bun, in Ohio, a post-office of Guernsey co. 

Birds ton, in Texas, a post-olfice of Navarro co. 

Bird's-tongue, re. (Bot.) bee Ornti hoglossum. 

Birds'ville, in Georgia, a village of Burke co., 70 m, 
E.S.E. of Milledgeville. 

Birds'ville, in Kentucky, a post-office of Livingston co. 

Birds'ville. in Missouri, a post-village of Mississippi 
co., on the Mississippi river, near its confluence with 
the Ohio, 1 m. S.W. of Cairo. 

Birds'ville, in Texas, a post-village, the former cap. 
of Tarrant co., on the West Fork of Trinity river, 250 
m. N. by E. of Austin City. It is situated in a fiue, 
fertile country. 

Bird'-witied, a. Flighty; inattentive. 

Bird Woods, in Kentucky, a post-office of Campbell eo 

BirectaiTgular, a. [Lat. bis, and rectangular, q. v.] 
Containing two right angles. 

Bi'reine, re. [Lat. biremis, from bis, and remits, oar.] 
An ancient vessel or galley with two hanks or tiers or 
oars. 

Bi'ren, Ernest John, Duke op Courland, a Lithu¬ 
anian of mean family, was b. 1690, and repaired 
in 1714 to St. Petersburg. Anna, duebess-dowager of 
Courland, made him her favorite, and when she became 
Empress of Russia, intrusted to him the administration 
of the kingdom. (See Anna.) On the death of the em¬ 
press he assumed the regency, by virtue of her will; but, 
in 1740, a conspiracy was formed against him by Mar¬ 
shal Munich, and he was condemned to death, which 
sentence was changed to banishment. Peter III. re¬ 
called him, and Catherine II. restored him to his former 
dignity. In 1763, B. re-entered Mitau; and, profiting by 
the lessons of misfortune he had experienced, governed 
for the remainder of his life with mildness and justice. 
D. 1772. 

Birgander, re. (Zobl.) See Sheldrake. 

Bir'gus, n. (Zobl.) A genus of long-tailed crustaceous 
animals, of which the Purse-crab, B. latro, is the largest. 
It is a native of Aniboyna and other neighboring islands. 

Birhomboid'al, a. [Lat. bis, and rhomboidal, q. v.j 
(Geom.) Having a surface of 12 rhombic faces, which, 
being taken 6 and 6, and prolonged till they intercept 
each other, would form two different rhombs. 

Birk'en. a. Birchen; belonging to the birch. (R.) 

Birkenfeld, (bir'ken-fdt.) a small principality of Ger¬ 
many, belonging to Oldenburg, but detached from it on 
the W. of the Rhine, and enclosed by Rhenish Prussia 
and Meissenheim; area, 143 sq. m.• pop. 31,816. — Its 
capital has the same name, with a pop of about 3,000. 

Bir'kenliead, a fine seaport of England, in the county 
of Chester, on the Mersey, opposite to Liverpool, of 
which city it may almost be deemed a component part. 
It is 15 m. E. of Chester, and 199 N.W. of London. B. 
is a prosperous place, possessing magnificent docks cov¬ 
ering an area of 160 acres of water space, and erected at 
a cost of $15,000,000. It is also famous for its great iron 
ship-building establishments and engineering works. 
About 1820, B. was hut a mere rural hamlet, with a few 
hundred inhabitants. 

Birk's €ity, in Kentucky, a p ist-otfice of Daviess co. 

Bir'latv, re. [Ger. bauer, a countryman, and law.] (Law.) 
A law made by husbandmen respecting rural affairs. 

Birman Empire. See Burmah. 

Bir'ining, or Berming, in Missouri, a village of Bu¬ 
chanan co., 45 m. N. by W. of Independence. 

Bir'ming'liam, an important town and borough of 
England, co. of Warwick, 17 m. N.W. of Warwick, 69 
S.S.E.of Manchester, and 100 N.W.of London. It is for the 
most part a well-built and ordered town, but the smoke 
of-its countless factories has begrimed its buildings, and 
it presents but a dingy appearance at first sight. Among 
the public edifices may be mentioned the Town Hall, 
modelled on the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome, and 
capable of holding 4,000 persons; the market hall; bar. 
racks, and several fine churches. B. is richly endowed 
with schools, literary institutions, and libraries. B. is 
the metropolis of the hardware trade; here are manu¬ 
factured cannon, fire-arms, shot, plated brass and enam¬ 
elled goods, and cutlery; bronze wares, lamps, buttons, 
and metallic wares; steel pens, (500,000,000 annually), pa¬ 
pier-mache goods, jewelry, toys, trinkets, and, in short 
almost every conceivable article that can be fashioned 
out of metals. 

Bir'ming'liam, in Ala., a flourishing city and R. R. 
centre of Jefferson co. Great beds of iron ore, coal, lime¬ 
stone and fire-clay are found in the neighborhood. Here 
are the machine-shops of the South and North Alabama 
R. R., rolling mills, steel and iron works, and a number 
of elegant public buildings, including a $60,000 court¬ 
house. Pop., 1880, 3,100; 1890, 26,180.—In Iowa, a post¬ 
village of Van Buren co., 12 m. N. of Keosauqua.—In 
Kentucky, a township and village of Marshall co.—lo 
Michigan, a flourishing post-village in Bloomfield town¬ 
ship, Oakland co., 18 in. N.W. of Detroit.—In Missouri, 
a village of Cape Girardeau co., on the Mississippi, 11 m. 
N. E. of Jackson; a village of Ferry co. 









350 


Bmr 


BISH 


BISH 


Bsr'mingham, in New Jersey, a post-village of Bur¬ 
lington co., 4 m. E.of Mount Holly, on Rancocus Creek. 

—A village of Mercer co., 5 m. N.N.YV. of Trenton. 

Birmingham, in New York, a thriving village of Au 
Sable township, Clinton co., on Au Sable River, about 
100 m. N. of Albany. 

Birmingham, in Ohio, a post-village of Erie co., on 
Vermillion River, 115 m. N. by E. of Columbus. 

—-A village of Mahoning co., T2 m. W.S.W. of Canfield. 

Birmingham, in 1 ’ennsylvania, a township of Chester 
co. 

—A township of Delaware co. 

»-A former borough of Alleghany co., on the Mononga- 
hela river, 2 m. S. of Pittsburgh, of which it is now' a 
part. Glass and iron-ware are largely manufactured 
here. 

“•A flourishing post-borough of Huntingdon co., on Little 
Juniata River, 105 m. YY'.N.YV. of Harrisburg, and pos¬ 
sessing large iron-works. 

Bir'nain, a hill of Scotland, 1,580 feet high, 12 m. E. 
from Perth, and 12 m. YV.N.YV. of Dunsinane Hill. It is 
immortalized by Shakspeare in his tragedy of Macbeth. 
“Macbeth shall never vanquish'd be, until 
Great Birnara wood to high Dunsinane hill 
Shall come against him.” 

Biroii, Arma.no de Contact, Baron de, ( bt-rawng',) Mar¬ 
shal of France, b. about 1524. He served as page to the 
Queen of Navarre, and was early admitted to the service 
of the King of France. He took a prominent part in 
the civil wars of Huguenot and Catholic, and served at 
the battles of Dreux, St. Denis, and Moncontour. He 
negotiated the peace of St. Germain, and narrowly es¬ 
caped at the massacre of St. Bartholomew. He recovered 
Guienne and Languedoc from the Protestants, served in 
the Netherlands against the Duke of Parma, and was 
one of the first to recognize Henry IV. as king. He dis¬ 
tinguished himself at the battle of Arques, the first siege 
of Paris, and the battle of Ivry, and was killed at the 
siege of Epernay in 1592. 

Biron, Charles de Gontaut, Due de, son of the preceding, 
B. 1562, was admiral and marshal of France, and is noted 
for the friendship which Henry IV. entertained for him, 
and for his treason towards that monarch. He made his 
first essays in war under his father, and covered himself 
with glory at the battles of Arques and Ivry, and at the 
sieges of Paris and Rouen. The king loaded him with 
honors, saved his life at the fight of Fontaine Fran- 
gaise, and sent him ambassador to England. Notwith¬ 
standing, however, all these favors, Biron, swollen with 
pride, ambition, and avarice, entered into a conspiracy 
with Spain and Savoy against his sovereign; and the 
plot being revealed by Latin, who had been its instigator, 
he was beheaded. Henry endeavored to make him avow 
his crime, with the view of pardoning him, but was un¬ 
successful in his magnanimous attempt. B. was be¬ 
headed, 1602. 

Bi'ron, Duke of Courland. See Biren. 

Biros'trate. Hi rostrated, a. [Lat. bis, and ros¬ 
trate, q. v.J Having a double beak, or something re¬ 
sembling a beak. 

Biron'sa, n. (Min.) The Persian name of the tur¬ 
quoise stone. 

Birr, v. i. To make a whirring noise, as of wheels in 

motion. 

Birr, in Ireland, a town, cap. of King’s co., 34 m. from 
Limerick; sometimes called Parsons Town;pop. 6 128. 

Birt, n. [0. Eng. byrte.] A species of turbot. 

Birtli, n. [A.S. byrd, beorth, from beran, to bear.J A 
bearing, or a being born; act of coming into life; as, his 
wife gave birth to a daughter. 

“ But thou art fair, and at thy birth, dear boy, 

Nature and fortune joined lo make thee great.” — Shaks. 

—Extraction; lineage; rank by descent: as, he is a man 
of noble birth. — Natural state, or condition of life into 
which a person is born. 

“ High in bi8 chariot then Halesus came, 

A foe by birth to Troy’s unhappy name."— Dryden. 

—Act of bringing forth; as, she had twins at a birth. 

” And at her next birth, much like thee, 

Through pangs fled to felicity. ’— Milton. 

—That which is born, or produced, whether animal or 
vegetable. 

“ The people fear me; for they do observe 
Unfather'd heirs, and loathly births of nature." — Shaks. 

—Origin; commencement; beginning; as, the birth of a 
State. 

Birth, n. (Naut., See Berth. 

Bi r tti'day, n. l’he day on which a person is born; day 
•f origin or beginning. 

“ Orient light. 

Exhaling first from darkness, they beheld 
Birthday of heaven and earth.”— Milton. 

—Anniversary of one’s birth. 

” Your country dames, 

Whose clothes returning birthday claims."— Prior. 

Birth'ing’, n. (Naut.) The working a topside, bulk¬ 
heads, &c. 

Birt h less, a. Without birth. 

Birth'mark, n. Any peculiar mark, spot, or blemish, 
found on the body at time of birth. 

Birtli'nig’ht, n. The night in which a person is boru. 

" Til’ angelic song in Bethlehem field. 

On thy birthnight, that sung the Saviour born."— Milton. 

—The night annually kept in memory of a person’s birth. 

" A youth more glitt'ring than a birthnight beau."— Bops. 

Birth place, n. The place where a person is born; as. 
Stratford-on-Avon is the birthplace of Shakspeare. 

“ My birthplace hate I, and my love’s upon 
This enemy’s town.”— Shaks. 

Birth'rig’ht, n. [birth and right.] Any right or priv¬ 


ilege to which a person is entitled by birth; the right 
of the first-born. —See Inheritance; Primogeniture. 

Birth'root, n. (But.) See Trillium. 

Birt li'-sin, n. The original sin. 

Birtli'-song’, n. A song sung at a person’s birth. 

Birth'-strsingied, a. Strangled or suffocated in pro¬ 
cess of birth. 

** Finger of birth-etrangltd babe. 

Ditch deliver'd by a drab.” —Shahs. 

Birth'wort, n. ( Bot .) See Aristolochia. 

Bis. [Lat., twice, double.] It is the root of the prefix bi 
or bin. 

(Music.) A word placed over passages which have dots 
po8tfixed to one bar, and prefixed to a subsequent bar, 
signifying that the passage between the dots is to be 
played twice over. 

Bi 'sa, Bi'za, n. A weight; a coin. 

Bisac'cia, a town of S. Italy, prov. Avellino, 12 m. N.E. 
of St. Angelo de Lombardi. It is supposed to occupy 
the site of the ancient Romulea, mentioned by Livy, 
(lib. x. cap. 7.) Pop. 7,194. 

Bisan'nual, a. (Bot.) The same as Biennial. 

Biscay, ( bis'kai ,) a mountainous province in the N. of 
Spain, comprising one of the three divisions of the Basque 
Provinces, having on the N. the Atlantic; E. Guipuzcoa; 
S. Alava and Old Castile, and on the YY r . the latter prov¬ 
ince. The city and territory of Orduna, which are 
insulated by Alava and Old Castile, belong to it. 
Principal town, Bilbao. Pop. 176,636. — See Basque 
Provinces. 

Biscay, Bay of, the name given to that part of the At¬ 
lantic Ocean which lies between the island of Ushant 
in France and Cape Ortegal in Spain, having the Spanish 
province of Biscay to the south. It washes the whole 
west coast of France and the north coast of Spain. It 
receives the waters of the Adour, Charente, Gironde, 
and Loire, and contains the islands Belleisle, which is 
used as a convict station, Re, and Oleron on the coast 
of France. Depth. Varying from 20 fathoms on the YY\ 
of France, to 200 on the N. of Spain. 

Biscay'tin, n. A native of Biscay, Spain. 

— a. Belonging, or relating, to Biscay. 

Bisceg’lia, (be-sail'yah,) a seaport of S. Italy, prov. Bari, 
on the Adriatic. 12 m. E.S.E. of Barletta. It is a place 
of but little trade. Pop. 21,686. 

Biscti'willer,a town of Prussia, prov. Alsace-Lorraine, 
on the Moder, 15 m. N. of Strasburg. Manf. Coarse 
cloths, pottery, tiles, madder, Ac. Pop. 9,658. 

Biscotin, ( bis'ko-teen,) n. [Fr.] A kind of confection 
made with flour, sugar, eggs, marmalade, Ac. 

Biscuit, (bis'kit,) n. [Fr., from Lat. bis, twice, and cult, 
from cuiro, to bake ; Lat. coquo, coclus.] A kind of hard, 
dry, unfermented bread made into cakes, and used on 
board ships. — See Navy Bread. 

—A kind of small, baked cake, made of flour, sugar, 
almonds, eggs, Ac. 

(Sculpture.) A species of porcelain, of which groups 
and figures in miniature are formed, which are twice 
passed through the furnace or oven. It is executed with¬ 
out glaze upon it. 

(Pottery.) A term applied to earthenware and porce¬ 
lain, after it has been hardened in the fire, and before it 
receives the glaze: in this state it is permeable to water. 

Biscu'tate, a. [Lat. bis, and scutum, a shield.] (Bot.) 
Resembling two bucklers placed side by side. 

Bise, (bekz,) n. [Fr.] A cold north wind. 

Bisect', v. a. [Lat. bis, and seco, seclus, to cut.] To cut 
or divide into two equal parts. 

(Geom.) To divide equally into two parts. 

Bisection, n. [Fr. bissection.] Act of bisecting; divi¬ 
sion of any line or quantity into two equal parts. 

Bisec'trix, n. [From bisect .] In bi-axial polarization, 
the line bisecting the angle between the two axes of 
polarization. 

Riseg'nient, n. [Lat. bis, and segment, q. u.] One of 
the parts of a bisected line. 

Bise'rial, Bise'riate, a. (Bot.) That is arranged in 

two rows; bifarious. 

Biser'rate, a. [Lat. bis, and serrate, q. ».] (Bot.) Doubly 
serrate; i. e., when the teeth of a leaf, Ac. are themselves 
serrate. 

Bise'tose, Bise'tous, a. [Lat. bis, and seta, a bristle.] 
(Zool.) YVhen an animal or part is furnished with two 
bristle-like appendages. 

Bisex'ous, a. [Lat. bis, and sexus, sex.] Consisting of 

two sexes. 

Bisex'ual, a. (Bot.) A term applied to flowers which 
contain both stamens and pistil within the same en¬ 
velope. Same as Hermaphrodite, q. v. 

Bish op, n. [Gr. episkopos; Lat. episcopus: A. S. biscop; 
Ger. bischof; Sp. obispo; Fr. eveque.] (Keel. Hist.) The 
name of that superior order of pastors or ministers in 
the Christian church who exercise superintendency over 
the ordinary priests or pastors within a certain district 
called their see or diocese, and to whom also belongs the 
performance of those higherduties of Christian pastors, as 
ordination, consecration (or dedication to religious pur¬ 
poses) ot persons or places, and excommunication. The 
word episcopus literally signifies an inspector or super¬ 
intendent; and the etymological sense expresses even 
now much ot the actual sense of the word. The pecu¬ 
liar character ot the Bi s office might he expressed in 
one word — superintendenev. The B. is the overseer 
overlooker, superintendent in the Christian Church, and 
an exalted station is allotted to him corresponding to 
the important duties whicli belong to his office It was 
not, however, a term which was invented purposely to 
describe the new offices which Christianity introduced 
into the social system. The term existed before, both 
among the Greeks and Latins, to designate certain civil 
officers to whom belonged some species of superinten¬ 


dency. It has long been a great question in the Chris¬ 
tian Church, what kind of superiutendency it was that 
originally belonged to the B. This question, as to whethef 
it was originally a superiutendency of pastors or of peo¬ 
ple, may be briefly stated thus: — Those who maintain 
that it was a superiutendency of pastors challenge for 
bishops that they are an order of ministers in the Chris¬ 
tian Church distinct from the order of presbyters, and 
standing in the same high relation to them that the 
apostles did to the ordinary ministers in the Church; 
that, in short, they are the successors and representa¬ 
tives of the apostles, and receive at their consecration 
certain spiritual graces by devolution and transmission 
from them, which belong not to the common presbyters. 
This is the view taken of the original institution and 
character of the B. in the Catholic Church, in the Eng¬ 
lish Protestant Church, and we believe in all churches- 
which are framed on an episcopal constitution. Epis¬ 
copacy is thus regarded as of divine institution, inas¬ 
much as it is the appointment of Jesus Christ and the 
apostles, acting in affairs of the Church under a divins 
direction. There are, on the other iiand, many persons 
who contend that the superintendency of the B. was 
originally in no respect different front the superinten¬ 
dency exercised by presbyters as pastors of particular 
churches. They maintain that, if the question is re¬ 
ferred to Scripture, we there find that bishop and pres¬ 
byter are used indifferently to indicate the same persons 
or class of persons: and that there is no trace in ths 
Scriptures of two distinct orders of pastors; and that, if 
the reference is made to Christian antiquity, we find no 
trace of such a distinction till about 200 years after the 
time of the apostles. The mode of appointment to bish¬ 
oprics varies in the different churches. In early times 
the B. was generally elected by his clergy and laity. 
After the establishment of Christianity, the Eastern 
emperors assumed the right of nominating to some of 
the principal sees, and exercised great influence over 
the elections generally. In the YV. of Europe the kings 
of the barbarians, after the conversion of their subjects, 
arrogated to themselves similar authority, which was 
jealously counteracted by the See of Rome. In the 
Middle Ages the Pope assumed in most cases the abso¬ 
lute nomination, which claim has been given up in later 
times in many Catholic countries, where the king or 
clergy recommend, and the Pope only ratifies the ap¬ 
pointment. Figure 361, taken from a manuscript of ths 



(From a manuscript of the 14th century.) 

14th century, represents a number of ladies, unceremo¬ 
niously seated on the ground, and apparently in the ope*- 
air, listening to the admonition of a B. It is a curious 
illustration of the almost unchanged costume of the Cath¬ 
olic B., and also of costumes and customs of the time. 

—A beverage composed of hot or cold burgundy, claret, or 
other red wine, poured upon ripe bitter oranges, and 
then adding sugar and spices according to taste. It is 
drunk either hot or cold, and its quality depends entirely 
upon the excellence of the wine employed. In order to 
make bishop properly, the oranges ought to be well se¬ 
lected, and the white part between the peel and the pulp 
rejected. It is called cardinal when made with white 
wine; and pope, when made with tokay. Its present 
name was bestowed upon it in the 17tli century: but it 
was known under other names in Germany, during the 
Middle Ages. It was imported into Germany from 
France. 

—An article of female attire, worn to give protuberance 
to the dress behind the waist; a bustle; a tournure. 

Bish op, v.a. To confirm: to admit solemnly into the 
Church 

“ They are profane, imperfect, oh ! too bad, 

Except cou firmed and bishoped by thee.”— Donne. 

(Farriery.) To practise means to give an old horse e 
good appearance; to rejuvenate a worn-out horse. 

Bisll'op, Sir Hexry Rowley, an English musical com¬ 
poser, B. in London, 1780. During a course of nearly 28 
years, he produced upwards of 70 operas, ballets, and 
musical entertainments. Many of bis songs and glees are 
among the most beautiful effusions of English melody, 

• His best works are: Guy Manwring; TheStare; The I'ii- 
ffin of the Sun ; Miller and his Men; and Maid Marian. 
D. 1855. His widow, Anna, Lady Bishop, a celebrated 
singer, afterwards married Mr. Schulz, of New York. 


































' 













































































BISM 


BISM 


BIT 


353 


Bishop Hill, in Illinois, a post-office of Henry eo. 

Bishiop-like, a. Resembling, or belonging to, a 
bishop. 

Bishopric, n. Jurisdiction or charge of a bishop. 

—A diocese; a district over which episcopai authority ex¬ 
tends. 

Bishop's Auckland, a market-town of England, 
co. Durham, 10 m. W.S.1V. of Durham, on the Wear. 
Here is the magnificent castle or episcopal palace of the 
bishops of Durham. Pop. 7,128. 

Bishop's Cap. n. (Bot .) See Mitella. 

Bishop’s Head, in Maryland, a P. 0. of Dorchester co. 

Bish'op’s Store, in Missouri, a P.0, of Dent co. 

Bishop’s Stort'ford, a town of England, co. Hert¬ 
ford, 20 m. N.N.E. of London. It is a flourishing and well- 
built place. Malting is the principal trade. Pop. 5,140. 

Bish'ops viile, in Maryland, a P. 0. of Worcester co. 

Bisji'oi)ville, in Ohio, a post-village of Morgan co. 

Bish'opville, in S. Carolina, a post-office of Sumter 
district. 

Bishop Weannouth, in England. See Sunderland. 

Bish op-weed, n. (Bot.) See D-.soopleura. 

Bisk, n. (Cookery.) See Bisque. 

( Games .) In tennis, a stroke which is allowed to the 
weaker party to equalize the play. 

Bis'niarck-Schoenhausen, Karl Otto, Prince 
von. Prime Minister of Prussia, and one of the ablest 
statesmen in Europe, b. at Brandenburg, 1st April, 1813. 
studied at Gottingen, Berlin, and Greifswalde; entered 
the Prussian army, and was afterwards a lieutenant in 
the Landwehr. lie became a member of the Diet of the 
prov. of Saxony in 1846, and of the United Diet, 1847, 
where he made himself remarkable by the boldness of 
his speeches On one occasion he argued that all great 
cities should be swept from the face of the earth, because 
they were the centres of democracy and constitutional¬ 
ism. Nor did the events of 1848 modify his opinions: 
but, on the contrary, he even censured and denounced 
the king for affiliating with the national party and fol¬ 
lowing the tri-colored flag. The German parliament, 
assembled at Frankfort, unfurled the black, red, and 
gold ensign, and sent a deputation to Berlin with the 
offer of the imperial dignity to Frederick William IV. 
B. opposed this movement, because it recognized the 
sovereignty of the people. He declared that democratic, 
representative ideas, and the principles upon which the 
Prussian monarchy rests, were mutually exclusive, and 
could never be made to amalgamate; the former deriv¬ 
ing their authority from the will of the people, — which is 
only a euphemism for the club-laws of the barricades,— 
while the latter are of divine installation. They can 
never be reconciled by parliamentary debates; sooner 
or later, indeed, the God of battles must decide between 
them by a throw of the iron dice. He then added that 
“ the crown offered by the Frankfort Assembly may be 
very brilliant, hut the gold of which it is to be formed 
must be first obtained by putting the Prussian crown 
into the melting-pot, and I have no confidence that, 
when mingled with the alloy of constitutionalism, the 
re-casting will succeed.” In 1851, B. entered the diplo¬ 
matic service, and was intrusted with the legation at 
Frankfort. Regarding Austria as the antagonist of 
Prussia, he was sent, in 1852, to Vienna, where he proved 
a constant adversary to Count Rechberg. In 1858, a 
tjamphlet, entitled La Prusse et La Question Italienne, 
appeared, the authorship of which was generally attri¬ 
buted to B. In this publication reference was made to 
the antagoniam existing between Austria and Prussia, 
and a triple alliance between France, Russia, and Prus¬ 
sia was advocated. In March, 1859, B. was sent as am¬ 
bassador to St. Petersburg, which post he held until 
1862, and having conciliated the Czar, was decorated 
with the order of St. Alexander Newski. In May, 1862, 
he was appointed ambassador to Paris, where he received 
the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor from Napoleon 
III., and on 22d Sept., in the same year, he was made Min¬ 
ister of the King’s House and of Foreign Affairs. The 



Fig. 362. — prince bjsmabck. 

budgethaving been rejected by the Deputies, hut adopted 
; by the Upper Chamber, B., in the name of the king, dis- 
I solved the former after a series of angry altercations. 

I The newspapers which protested against this despotic 
i act were proceeded against with great severity, as were 
numerous public officials, magistrates, and others, who 


openly expressed views hostile to the ro'ernnient. 
In Jan.. 1863, B. protested against an address which, 
the Deputies presented to the king, in which he w-as 
accused of having violated the constliutlon. Shortly 
afterward the affairs of Poland caused fresh diffi¬ 
culties. The Chamber of Deputies, by a majority 
of five to one, censured the ministry for having 
concluded (Feb. 8) a secret treaty with Russia. 
After the close of the aggressive war waged 
by Prussia and Austria against Denmark. (1864,) 
and in which Austria had reluctantly taken part. 
B. thought that the time had arrived for carry¬ 
ing out his long-cherished project of making 
Prussia the real head of Germany. His piepara- 
tlons for another aggressive war were com¬ 
pleted, and, aided by an alliance with Italy, In 
a campaign of a few weeks’ duration, Austria and he* 
Hanoverian and Saxon allies were defeated; (see SAD 0 * 
wa.) It is probable that dread of a still more formidable 
alliance induced B. to stop short in his career of victory 
as the Emperor Napoleon, in his speech to the French 
Chambers, declared that he had arrested the conqueror 
at the gates of Vienna. A preliminary treaty of peace 
with Austria was concluded at Nikolsburg, in August 
1866, and as Austria consented to retire from the Ger¬ 
man Confederation, the terms of a general pacification 
were arranged. B. was created a count, Sept. 16,1865, aq 
honor soon followed by that of the Chancellorship of the 
North German Bund and the Presidency of the Federal 
Council. In 1870 B. accepted the challenge rashly offered 
by Napoleon III., and engaged the whole of Germany in 
a successful war against France, after the termination 
of which, 1871, he was created a prince by his sovereign, 
whom the issue of the war had made Emperor of Ger¬ 
many, and continued at the helm of shite under Frederick 
III., and his son, Enq jror William II., until 1890, when 
divergencies of opinion between the veteran statesman 
and the young Kaiser led to his retirement. This was 
followed by a period of estrangement, the more painful 
as B.'s unparalleled claims to the universal gratitude of 
Prussia eclipsed all other collateral considerations. A 
serious illness of B. in 1893, however, brought about a 
welcome rapprochement which soon culminated in an 
open reconciliation. Died July 30, 1898. 

Bismil'lah, interj. [Ar., “In the name of God.”] 
An adjuration to the Almighty in common use among 
Mohammedans. It is written at the beginning of all 
their books, &c. 

“ They look’d upon the Muscovite flotilla, 

And only shouted, “Allah I ” and ,l Bismillah t" — Byron. 

Bis'mutll, n. [Fr. bismuth ; N. Lat. bismidlium ; O. Ger. 
wissmuth — weiss, white, and muth, mettle.] (Chem.) 
A metal (symbol Bi) readily distinguished by its pe¬ 
culiar reddish lustre and its ighly crystalline struc¬ 
ture, which is very perceptible upon a freshly broken 
surface; large cubical crystals o IB. are easily obtained 
by melting a few ounces in a crucible, allowing it to 
cool till a crust has formed upon the surface, and 
pouring out the portion which has not yet solidified, 
when the crystals are found lining the interior of the 
crucible; atomic weight 213; sp. grav. 9-8. It is hard, 
brittle, and but slightly malleable. It fuses at 507°, 
and is obtained in fine cubical crystals b> slow cooling. 
The peculiar property it possesses of exp, tiding as it 
cools, renders its alloys of great use to the type-founder 
and die-sinker. It also increases the fusibility of other 
metals with which it is united. The remarkable alloy 
known as fusible metal contains one equivalent of B., one 
of lead, and two of tin; fuses below 212°, and, by a cer¬ 
tain admixture of cadmium, can be melted at a still 
lower temperature. It is also occasionally employe^ in 
cupellation, and some of its compounds are used as p, v 
ments, the hydrated oxychloride being used as a cty 
metic under the name of pearl-white. B. occurs in na¬ 
ture principally in the metallic form in the clay-slate 
and gneiss formations, its principal source being Schnee- 
berg, in Saxony. B. is extracted from the ore by heat¬ 
ing it in inclined cast-iron tubes with cups attached. 
The tubes are brought to a white heat, and the B. flows 
into the cups, which are at the lowest part of the in¬ 
cline. B. forms two oxides, — the teroxide, Bi0 3 , and 
an acid oxide, Bi0 6 , or bismuthic acid. Teroxide of B. 
may be obtained by heating the nitrate to low redness; 
it is a yellow insoluble powder. The hydrated teroxide, 
which is white, may be obtained from a salt of B. by 
precipitation with ammonia. — Bismuthic acid, or per¬ 
oxide of bismuth, is formed when hydrated teroxide of 
bismuth is digested with a concentrated solution of 
potash, through which chlorine is passed. A red solu¬ 
tion of bismuthate of potash is formed, and a red pre¬ 
cipitate falls to the bottom, which, on being well washed 
and digested in cold nitric acid, leaves behind a red 
powder, which is the hydrated acid. — Nitrate of B. is 
prepared by dissolving the metal in dilute nitric acid 
with the aid of heat, which gives rise to four-sided 
prisms, which are decomposed by water into an acid 
nitrate, which remains in solution; and a basic nitrate, 
the trisnitrale of B., falls as a precipitate. It is used as 
a pigment, and also as a cosmetic. This 6alt was Tor-, 
merly called magistery of B. The other compounds 
of B are too unimportant to be described. B occurs! 
in nature associated with cobalt, silver, tin, and 
arsenic; also as an oxide, in B.-ochre; as a sulphide, ! 
tn Bismuthine or B. glance; as an arsenide, or car¬ 
bonate, and a silicate, in B. blende, and Bismvtite. 

(Med.) Metallic B. has no effect on the system, 
and the subnitrate of B. itself, from Its almost 
insoluble nature, exercises but a limited action 
on the bodv. SiDce 186 k, a soluble citrate of 
B. and ammonia has been obtained, of which 
much good is said, but we abstain from giving 
any opinion upon Its therapeutic action or cura- 
tive merits. Its form, is Bi0 3 ,N H O.CioHjOn -f- 6H0 
= BiC l jNII u O a) = 473. — As an externaf application, 


the white oxide was at one time very largely uset' 

t Cither as a dusting-powder, or combined with whift 
ointment to dry up ill-conditioned sores, and as an ap¬ 
plication to cutaneous diseases. In a large dose it acts 
as an irritant poison; and as it not untrequently con¬ 
tains arsenic, its use is by no means free from danger. 
It enters largely into the preparation known as Pearl 
Powder, used so extensively by ladies both on and off 
the stage; and very serious consequences often arise 
from its constant employment as a cosmetic, as is shown 
by paralysis of the mouth or eyelids, and other serious 
effects resulting from its use. 

Bis'muthal, a. Consisting or containing bismuth. 

Bismuthic Acid. (Chem.) See Bismuth. 

Bis'mutbiiie, and Bismiitite, n. (Min.) See Bis¬ 
muth. 

Bi son, n. [Lat., said to be derived from Bistonia in 
Thrace.] (Zoiil.) See Buffalo. 

Bispi'nose, Bispi'nous, a. [Lat. bis, and spina, 
a spine.] (Zobl.) Applied to an animal which has 
two spines. <■ 

Bisque, (bisk,) n. [Fr.] (Stat.) A kind of unglazed 
white porcelain used for statuettes. 

(Cookery.) A soup made of several descriptions of 
meat boiled together. 

Bissac, n. [Fr.] (Mil.) A double sac or wallet. 

Bisstigos, (bees-sa'goes,) a group of small volcanic 
islands on the W. coast of Africa, opposite the embou¬ 
chure of the Rio Grande, between 10° and 12° N. Lat., 
arid 15]4° and 16%° W. Lon. The largest is about 15 
m. long, and some of them are uninhabited. 

Bis'sell’s, in Ohio, a post-office of Geauga co. 

Bissextile, (bis-seks'til,) n. [Fr., from Lat. bissextilus 
— bis, and sextus, sixth, from sex, six.] (Calendar.) 
The name given to the year which contains 366 days. 
The calendar used both in European and American 
countries is that of the Romans, as reformed by Julius 
Caesar. In the calendarol Oassar the length of the year 
was fixed at 365)4 days; and in order that the year shall 
always begin with the beginning of the day, it was di¬ 
rected that every 4 years should contain 366 days, the 
other years having each 365. The additional day, which 
thus occurred every 4 years, was given to February, the 
shortest month, and was inserted in the calendar be¬ 
tween the 24th and 25th days. In the peculiar Roman 
method of reckoning the days of the months backward 
from the 1st of the preceding month, it would have 
been very inconvenient to interrupt the order of nu¬ 
meration ; accordingly, the 24th, which was called Sexto 
Calendas Martii, was reckoned twice, and the supernu- 
merary day called bis Sexto Calendas. Hence the term 
bissextile. In English, leap-year has the same significa¬ 
tion. In the Julian calendar, every year was B.; but 
this supposes the year to be 365)4 days, which errs in 
excess by 11 minutes 10 - 35 seconds. Accordingly, in 
the course of a few centuries, the error would amount to 
days, and cause the commencement of the year to change 
its place with respect to the seasons. So, when the 
calendar was reformed by Pope Gregory XIII., the 
equinox had fallen from the 25th to the 11th of March. 
The Gregorian rule of intercalation is as follows: every 
year of which the number is divisible by 4 is a leap- 
year, excepting the centesimal year, which are only 
leap-years when divisible by 4 after suppressing the 
two zeros. Thus 16U0 was a leap-year; but 1700,1800, 
and 1900 are common years. This regularity, though 
it would for a long time preserve the commencement 
of the year at the same time, is not yet quite correct. 
It supposes the length of the year to be 365 days, 5 h. 
48 min. 12 seconds, which is too great by 22’38 seconds; 
an error which amounts to a day in 3,866 years.—See 
Calendar. 

— a. Relating, or belonging, to a leap-year. 

Bistip'uled, a. [Lat. bis, and stipuled, q. v.] Having 
two stipules. 

Bistort, n. [Lat. bis, and torqueo, tortus, to twist.] (Bot.) 
See Polygonum. 

Bistoury, (bis'tu-ri,)n. [Fr. bistouri, from Pistoria, now 
Pistej, ’, a city in Tuscany where it was first manufac¬ 
tured.) (Surg.) A small curved knife for making-inci¬ 
sions. 

Bis'tre, (bis'ter,) n. [Fr. bistre, from bis, fern, bise, 
brown.] (Painting.) A brown pigment extracted by 
watery solution from the soot of wood-fires, when it re¬ 
tains a strong pyroligneous scent. It is of a wax-like 
texture, and of a citrine-brown color, perfectly durable. 
It was much used as a water-color, particularly by 
the Old Masters.’, in tinting drawings and shading 
sketches, previously to Indian Ink coming into use for 
such purposes. In oil it dries with the greatest difficulty. 

Bisturres, n.pi. (Fort.) Small towers placed at inter¬ 
vals in the walls of a fortress, forming a barbican. 

Bisul'cate, Bisul'cous, a. [Lat. bisulcus, two-fur¬ 
rowed.] (Zobl.) A term applied to cloven-footed mam¬ 
malia, i. e., resting upon two hoofed digits. 

Bisulcous, (bi-suTkus,) a. [Lat. bisulcus — bis, and sul¬ 
cus. a furrow, trench.] Clov t tv footed, as swine or oxen, 

Bisul phate, n. [Lat. bis, a,\t sulphate, q. v.] (Chem.) 
A sulphate having two equivalents of sulphuric acid to 
one of the base. 

Bisztritz, (bees-treetz,) a fortified town of Austria, in 
Transylvania, on a river of the same name; Lat. 47° 5' 
46" N.; Lou. 24° 32' 18" E. Pop. 7,481. 

Bit, n. [A. S. bita, bate, bitol, allied to bitan, to bite.] 
That which curbs, bites, or holds fast. Specifically, the 
iron part of a bridle which is inserted in horse’s mouth, 
and which the animal bites or champs, vnd to which 
and its appurtenances the guiding reins are fastened. 

—A bite; a mouthful or morsel; a small piece; as, a bit of 
bread. 

“Joan was the darling; he had all the good bits."—Arbutlmot. 












354 


BITI 


BITT 


BIVA 


»-A general name for the meta/ part of several tools used 
for boring, and made so as to fit at the upper end in the 
handle of a socket; they are used for boring large 
holes in hard wood, and in all cases where accuracy is 
required. The bit of a key is the part fitted to the 
shank in which the wards are cut; this is called a blank 
until the wards are so cut. The term is also applied to 
the hammer used by masons for rough picking, or dress¬ 
ing granite. 

(Com.) A small silver Spanish coin, more usually called 
real. Its value is about 10 cents. — The term is also 
commonly used in the Southern States, chiefly in Louisi¬ 
ana, to express the Sth part of a dollar. 

flit, v. a. (imp. and pp. bitted.) [A. S. bitol, a bridle.] To 
put a bridle upon a horse; to place the bit in its mouth. 

Bit, imp. and pp. of Bi te, q. v. 

tiitcll, n. [Fr. biche; A. S. bicca, bicce, bice; Qer. betze, 
probably from Slav, bitzn, to run, to be in heat.] The 
female of the canine kind, as the dog, the wolf, the fox, 

I Ac. (Sometimes called siut.) 

44 And at his feet a bitch wolf suck did yield 
To two young babes.'' — Spenser. 

—A name of reproach for a woman. 

44 John had not run a madding so long, had it not been for an 
extravagant bitch of a wife." — Arbuthnot. 

Bitclie, a town and fortress of France, dep. Moselle, at 
the foot of the Vosges, 15 ra. E.S.E. of Sarguemines. The 
fortress or citadel stands on an almost inaccessible rock 
rising from the middle of the town. The interior of the 
rock is vaulted and casemated; the fort mounts 80 pieces 
of cannon, may be garrisoned by 1,000 men, is well sup¬ 
plied with water. It surrendered to the Germans in 
1871, and annexed to the German Empire. 

'Bite,a. a. (imp. bit; pp. bitten.) [A. S. bitan.] To break, 
squeeze, scrunch, bruise, crush, pierce, gripo, or seize 
with the teeth. 

" With angry teeth he bites him " the bone, 

And this dog smarts for win.: that dog has done." — Fielding. 

•—To cause to smart; to hurt or injure in an actual or a 
figurative sense; as, this mustard bites my tongue. 

“ I have endur’d the biting winter's blast, 

And the severer heats of parching summer." — Rowe. 

•—To wouud by reproach or sarcasm; to taunt. 

•* Each poet with a different talent writes; 

One praises, one instructs, another bites." — Lord Roscommon. 

—To cheat; to trick; to defraud. (Colloquial and vulgar.) 

■* The knight had wit, 

So kept the diamoud, and the rogue was bit." — Pope. 

—To hold rast; to take firm hold of; as, the anchor bites. 

—Tocorrode; as, in etching, to bite into metallic plates 
by the application of an acid. — To bite the thumb at a 
person. Anciently a mark of contempt and defiance; a 
tacit challenge to a quarrel; as, “ Do you bite your 
thumb at us ? ” Shales. — To bite the dust or the ground. 
To fall to the ground in a dying state; to sink in the 
agonies of death. 

“ He falls; his arms upon the body found, 

And with his bloody teeth he bites the ground." — Dryden. 

—v. i. To seize, hold fast, or wound with the teeth. 

—To cause pain; to hurt; to wound; to inflict bodily in¬ 
jury upon. 

“ I've seen the day, with my good biting faulchion 
I would have made them skip.” — Shahs. 

Bite, n. Act of biting or seizing with the teeth; as, the 
bite of a fish. 

“ Does he think he can .. . arm himself against the bites of the 
never-dying worm?" — South. 

—The wound made by the act of biting; as, the bite of a 
mosquito. — A morsel or mouthful; as much as can be 
taken at once by biting; as, neither bite nor sup. — The 
hold which the short end of a lever has upon the thing 
to be lifted.—A cheat, fraud, trick. 

44 For take it in it9 proper light, 

'Tis just what coxcombs call a bite." — Swift. 

—A sharper, trickster, deceiver; one who cheats. 

(Printing.) That part of an impression which is im¬ 
perfectly printed, in consequence of the frisket uot being 
sufficiently cut away. 

Bit'er, n. Anybody who, or anything which, bites. 

“ Great barkers are no biters.’’ — Camden. 

—One who cheats, tricks, or defrauds; as, the Inter bitten. 

A biter is one . . . who thinks you a tool, because you do not 
think him a knave.” — Spectator. 

Biter'nate, a. (Bot .) Applied to a ternate leaf when its 
leaflets become themselves ternate, as in Fumaria lutea. 

Bitet'to.a town of S. Italy, prov. Terra di Bari, in a fer¬ 
tile plain on the Adriatic, 10 in. S.W. of Bari; pop. 6,473. 

Bithynia, ( bi-thin'e-a ,) an ancient division of Asia 
Minor, was separated from Europe by the Propontis 
(Sea of Marmora) and the Thracian Bosphorus (Strait of 
Constantinople), and was bounded N. by the Euxine, 
and S. by Galatia, Phrygia, and Mysia. It extended e! 
as far as Paphlagonia. It contained the famous Greek 
colonies of Chalcedon, Heraclea, Ac.; and at later peri¬ 
ods, the flourishing towns of Nicomedia, Nicsea, and 
Prusa. The inhabitants of B. were supposed to be of 
Thracian origin. The country was subdued, 560 b. c., 
by Croesus of Lydia, and, five years later, fell under the 
Persian dominion. But about 440 or 430 n. c., it became 
an independent kingdom under a dynasty of native 
princes, who made Nicomedia their capital. The last 
prince, Nicoinedes III., made the Romans his heirs, 74 
b. c., and H. became a province of the Empire. In 1298, 
Ottomans broke into the country, and in 1327, the Emir 
Orchan conquered Nicomedia, and established the Otto¬ 
man power in B. 

Bit'ing,». The act of biting or wounding. 

Bit'in", a. Sharp; severe; caustic; as, a biting Affliction. 

Bit'iiiit-in, n. See Etching. 

Bit'ingly, ado. In a jeering, caustic, or sarcastic manner, j 


Bit’Iess, a. Without bit or bridle. 

Bit'-mouth, n. The bit, or that part of a bridle which 
is put in a horse’s mouth. 

Bitou'to, a town of S. Italy, prov. Terra di Bari, 10 m. 
W.S.YV. of Bari. This is a fine town, and its environs 
produce an excellent wine called sagarillo, in which an 
extensive trade is carried on. Fop. 26,643. 

Bitt, or Bit, (bit.) [Fr. bittes.) (Naut.) One of the strong 
but short pieces of timber projecting vertically from the 
deck of a vessel, in the fore-part, close to either side, 
and strongly secured to the beams on which the deck- 
planks are laid. They are placed in pairs, and are 
principally used for fastening the cable when the ship 
is at anchor or moored alongside a quay. There are 
many kinds of liitts used for different purposes in ship¬ 
building, and distinguished by various names. 

— v. a. (Naut.) To put round the bits, as a cable; to bit. 

Bit'ten ,part. from Bite, q. v. 

Bit'ter, a. [A. S. biter, from bitan, to bite; Ger. bitter, 
from beitzen; L. Sax. biten.] Acrid, or sharp and biting 
to the tongue or taste; having a hot, pungent, acrid 
taste, like wormwood; as, bitter as aloes. 

44 The food that now to him is as luscious as locusts, shall be to 
him shortly as bitter as coloquintida.” — Shake. 

—Piercing; painful; inclement; as, titter cold weather. 

44 The fowl the borders fly, 

And shun the bitter blast, aud wheel about the skj.”— Dryden. 

—Calamitous; poignant; susceptible of inflicting pain or 
distress; as, a bitter remembrance. 

44 Of all the griefs that harass the distrest, 

Sure the most bitter is a scornful jest.”— Johnson. 

—Sharp; cruel; severe; harsh; stern; as, a bitter rebuke. 

44 Go with me, 

And, in the breath of bitter words, let’s smother 
My damned son.” — Shaks. 

—Distressing; mournful; afflicting. 

44 Even to-day is my complaint bitter.'* — Job xxiii. 2. 

Bit'ter, n. Any substance that is bitter. — See Bitters. 

44 Still from the fount of Joy’s delicious springs 
Some bitter o’er the flowers its buhhliug venom flings."— Byron. 

Bit'ter, or Bit/ter-eml, n. (Naut.) A turn of a 
cable round the bitts, when a vessel lies at anchor. 
When a ship is stopped by the cable, she is said to be 
brought up by a bitter. — See Bitts. 

Bit'ter-ajiple, Bit'ter-eucumber, Bit'ter- 
gourd, n. (Bot.) A plant of the genus Citrullus, 
called colocynthis, colocynth, coloquintida. The fruit is 
of the gourd kind, having a shell enclosing a bitter pulp, 
which is a very drastic purgative. It is brought from 
the Levant. 

Bit'ter-cress, n. (Bot.) See Cardamine. 

Bit'ter-end, n. (Naut.) See Bitter. 

Bit'terfeld, a flourishing town of N. Germany, in Sax¬ 
ony, 16 m. S. of Dessau. It was founded by a colony of 
Flemings, whose descendants hold their property in com¬ 
mon, and are governed by peculiar laws. Manf. Earthen¬ 
ware and cloth. 

Bit'tering, n. A bitter ingredient used in beer. 

Blt'terisli, a. Somewhat bitter; as, a bitterish taste. 

Bit'terisliness, u. State or quality of being slightly 
bitter. 

Bit'terly, ado. In a bitter manner; sharply; cruelly; 
severely. 

44 Bitterly hast thou paid, and still art paying, 

That rigid score ”— Milton. 

Bit'tern, n. [Du. butusr; Lat. botaurus, bos-laurus .] 
(Zoiil.) The popular name of the birds composing the 
gen. Botaurus, fain. Ardeidse. The common B. (Botaurus 
stellaris) of Europe and Africa, to which closely resembles 
the Stake-driver (B. lentiginosus) of North America, is 



Fig. 363. bittern, or stake-driver, (Botaurus lentiginosus) 

smaller than the heron, and has long legs and neck, 
stalks among reeds and sedges, feeding on fish, and emit¬ 
ting a singular noise, wild and dreary, called its boom¬ 
ing. It seldom appears by day, but stalks from its sedgy 
nest at the stillness of night, to feed on the fish of the 
meres. It was formerly held in great esteem for its 
meat, but chiefly for hawking, as it yielded better and 
more exciting sport than the heron, its long, lance-like 
bill transfixing its antagonist with remarkable ease, 
though the great point at which it aims is the eye. The 
stake-driver is 26 to 27 inches long, the wing 11 inches; 
the color is brownish-yellow, finely varied with dark 
brown and brownish-red; and there is a broad, black 
stripe on each side of the neck. It seldom flies till you 
are close upon it, and then it moves off very sluggishly. 

( Chern .) A name used in salt-works for what is known 
as the mother-water,—the supernatant liquor, after the 


first precipitate has been thrown down. Salt-water hav. 
ing been boiled, aud the salt in it precipitated, the res¬ 
idue is the article known as B. From this liquor, which 
is a solution of an impure sulphate of maguesia, epsorc 
salts and bromine are procured. 

Bit'terness, n. Quality of being bitter. — A bitter 
taste; as,an unpleasant sourness aud bitterness. —Malice; 
hatred; implacability; sharpness of temper; sorrow, 
vexation; affliction. 

Bitter Boot River, in Montana Territory, rising in 
the Rocky Mountains, and after a N. course, entering 
Clark’s River. 

Bit'ters, n. pi. The common name for an infusion 
of bitter herbs, which is consumed in large quantities 
as a stomachic, generally mixed with ardent spirits. 
The plant usually selected for the preparation of B. 
is the garden Angelica, (see Archangelica,) the roots 
and seeds being used; gentian, quassia, aloes, wild 
cherry, Ac., are more commonly used in the United 
States. 

Bit'ter-salt, n. The Epsom Salt, q. v. 
Bit'ter-spar, n. (Min.) The crystallized variety of 
dolomite or magnesian limestone; so called becausp it 
resembles calcareous spar, and contains magnesia, the 
salts of which are bitter. 

Bit'ter-sweet, n. (Bot.) See Solancm. 
Bit'ter-veicli, n. (Bot.) See Okobus. 
Bit'ter-wort, n. (Bot.) See Gentiana. 
Ilil'tei'.\v(>ed, n. (But.) A name of Ambrosia arte- 
misicB-folia. See Ambrosia. 

Bit'ter-wood, n. (Bot.) See Xtlopi > 

Bittor, Bit tom, n. (Zool.) Same as Bittern, q. v. 
Bitts, n. pi. (Naut.) See Bitt. 

Bitumed', a. Smeared or impregnated with bitumen. 
Bitu'nien, Bitume, n. [Fr. bitume; Lat. bitumen.'] A 
mineral pitch, supposed to be formed in the earth by the 
decomposition of animal and vegetable substances. It 
has a strong pungent smell, and is found in all parts of 
the world, and is of different consistencies. In its most 
fluid state it constitutes naphtha; when of the consistence 
of oil or treacle, it constitutes petroleum., or Barbadoes 
tar; when still harder, like cobbler’s wax, or even tougher, 
it is called elastic bitumen ; aud when still further indu¬ 
rated, maltha or mineral caoutchouc; and in its last stage 
of desiccation, it is known as asphaltum. The ancients 
employed heated bitumen in the construction of their 
buildings. In the Bible it is called slime. 
Bitu'ininate, v. a. To impregnate with bitumen. 
BitumiuiFerous, a. Producing bitumen. 

Bi t (i mill iza't ion, ?t. The process of forming bitumen. 
Bit uiiiinize, v. a. To form into, or impregnate with, 
bitumen. 

Bitu'milious, a. [Fr .bitumineux ; Lat. bituminosus.] 
Having tlie qualities of, or containing, bitumen. 
Bitii'iniuous Coal, n. (Min.) A term commonly 
applied to coals which burn with a smoky flame, and 
occupy a place between Lignite on the one hand, and 
Anthracite on the other. 

Bitu'milious Shale, n. (Min.) In many coal-fields 
in various parts of tiie world there are numerous bands 
of tough clayey matter of a gray, brown, or black color, 
sometimes passing into coal, and resembling bad coal in 
appearance. They have more or less of a slaty fracture, 
are often repeated, like other beds of clay, in a vast thick¬ 
ness of strata, and occupy a definite position with regard 
to coal. They are found generally, but not always, near 
true coal of all ages. The posidonia schists of the lias, 
and the paper-coal, so called, of the tertiary period, near 
Bunn, are varieties. Although some of these shales 
yield much gas on exposure to destructive distillation, 
they are even mure valuable as affording oils and paraf¬ 
fine, when distilled at a dull red heat. The percentage 
of oil obtained from bituminous shales varies exceedingly, 
but less than 5 per cent, can hardly he remunerative. 
Some of these, which afford as much as 30 per cent., are 
extremely valuable, such as the so-called Boghead coal 
or Torbane mineral of Scotland. Shales approach coal 
in their appearance, and are used fur burning. — See Gas, 
Paraffine, Ac. 

Bitu'milious Wood, n. See Lignite. 

Biuret, (bi'u-ret,) n. [Lat. bis, and urea, a chemical 
principle of urine.] (Chem.) A compound prepared by 
exposing urea to a temperature of 300°. It has the 
exact composition of bicyanate of ammonia, and bears 
the same relation to that substance that urea does to 
cyanate of ammonia. 

Bivalve, (bi'ralv,) n. [Lat. bis, and valra, valve.] (Zool.) 

A name given in conchology to a class of shells com¬ 
posed of two 
pieces or 
parts, which, 
by means of a 
proper con¬ 
nection by 
hinges, open 
and shut, and 
perform a 11 
other func¬ 
tions neces¬ 
sary to the 
economy o r 
modes of life 
of the ani¬ 
mals enclosed 
in them. The 
mollusca in- 

habitingthem b a 6 *-— bivalve-shell, ( Cythereadione .) 

are chiefly (West Indies.) 

distinguished 

from the other classes by the absence of a visible head or 
neck, aud the consequent deprivation of the organs of 






















BIZA 


BLAC 


BLAC 


355 


Eight and aearing: they possess a mouth, but it is a mere 
opening in the body, without jaws or teeth. The branchial 
are large, placed on each side, between the body and the 
mantle. The lobes of the mantle are fringed round the 
edge with numerous filaments, which are very sensitive, 
and in constant activity. None of the genera are ter¬ 
restrial, their construction not affording them sufficient 
powers of locomotion for finding their food on land, and 
confining them to the water, whether salt or fresh, or 
to the sands on the coasts. As illustrations, we may 
mention the oyster, the mussel, and the beautiful Cythe- 
rea dione (Fig. 364).—The B. are distributed into the 
orders Lamellibranchiata and Brack iopoda, q. v. 

( Bot.) A pericarp in which the. seed-case opens or 
splits into two parts or valves. 

Bi valve, Bi'valved, Bival'vous, Bival'vu- 
lar. a. Having two shells or valves which open and 
shut, as the oyster; or open at maturity, as the seed- 
vessels of certain plants. 

Bivault'etl, a. [bat. bis, twice, and vaulted.] Having 
two vaults or arches. 

Biven'tral, a. [Lat. bis, and venter, a belly.] Having 
two bellies. 

Biv'ing'sville, in N. Carolina, a post-office of Spar- 
tansburg district. 

Bi'vious, a. [Lat. bivius — bis, and via, a way.] Hav¬ 
ing or leading two ways; as, a bivious theorem. 

Bivouac, ( bivtoo-ak,) n. [Fr. bivouac or bivac; from 
Qer. bewachen — bei, near, and waclte, a guard.] (Mil.) 
A term employed to denote the system l>y which soldiers 
on a march, or in expectation of an engagement, remain 
all night in the open air, in contradistinction to the sys¬ 
tems of encampment and cantonment. 

•— v. n. To watch, or to be on guard, as a whole army; to 
encamp during the night, without tent or covering. 

Biweek'ly, a. Occurring once in every two weeks. 

Bi xa, n. (.B « t.) A genus of plants, order Bixacrs:, q. v. 

Bixa'cese, Flaeotirtiacese, (bix-ai'se-e,) an order 
of plants, alliance Violates. — Diag. Scattered apetalous 
or polypetalous flowers, hypogynous petals and stamens, 
and dotless or round-dotted leaves. They’ are shrubs 
or small trees, with alternate leaves, usually entire 
and leathery, and very often dotted. The flowers are 
polypetalous or apetalous. the stamens being hypogy¬ 
nous, and equal in number to the petals, or some mul¬ 
tiple of them. The fruit is one-celled, dehiscent or inde- 
hiscent, having a thin pulp in its centre. The seeds are 
numerous, usually enveloped in a covering formed by 
the withered pulp. The plants of this order are almost 
all confined to the hottest parts of the East and West In¬ 
dies and Africa. There are 34 genera and about 90 spe¬ 
cies. Many are feebly bitter and astringent, and have 
been used as stomachics. The bark of Aphloia is said 
to be emetic. The fruits of Oncnba and of some species 
of Flacourtia are edible and wholesome. The most im- 



Fig. 365.— BIXA ORELLANA. 

1. Flower seeu from beucath. 

2. Ovary with style and stigma. 

3. A seed cut vertically, showing the embryo. 

4. A ripe fruit. 

portant plant of the order is Bira ordlana (Fig. 365), a 
small tree, native of W. Indies, which produces the dye 
called A.vnotto, q. v. The reddish pulp covering the 
seeds i 3 the source of this coloring-matter. 

Bix'in, B-.xine, n. (Chem.) The coloring principle of 
Annotto, q.v. . 

Bizarre, ( bt-zdr ',) a. [Fr., from Lat. bis, twice, and vanus 


different.] Odd; fantastical; whimsical; extravagant; 
capricioas; extraordinary. — A person is said to be 
bizarre, when his character, tastes, or opinions are inces¬ 
santly changing and differing from those of other men, 
and who is characterized by attempting always to say 
and do what is singular. — B. is also applied to something 
that is extraordinary or singular. 

Bizarre', n. (Com.) The term B. is applied by florists 
to a carnation with a white ground, marked with two 
or more colors. 

Bizerta, ( be-zePta ,) the most northern town of Africa, 
a fortified seaport, 38 m. N.W. ot Tunis; Lat. 37° 16' 36" 
N.; Lon. 9° 49' 15" E. Pop. 10,000. 

Blab, v.a. (imp. blabbed ; pp. blabbing, blabbed.) [Ger. 
plappem; Du. babbelen, to prattle, to blab.] To tell 
what ought to be kept secret. 

** Tbe gaudy, blabbing, and remorseful day 
Is crept into the bosom of the sea.” — Shaks. 

— v. n. To tattle; to tell tales. 

'* When my tongue blabs, then let mine eyes not see.” — Shaks. 

—n. A telltale; a thoughtless babbler; a treacherous be¬ 
trayer of secrets. 

“ Who will 

Open himself to a blab, or blabber ?” — Bacon. 

Blab'ber, n. A tattler; a telltale. 

Blab'ber-lipped, a. Having thick lips. — See Blob¬ 
ber-lipped. 

Black, a. [A S. blac; Sw. black, bleak.] Of the color of 
night; of the darkest color. 

‘ 1 The heaven was black with clouds and wind.” —1 Kings. 

—Cloudy of countenance; sullen; frowning. 

“ She hath abated me of half my train; 

Look d black upon me. 1, — Shaks. 

—Horrible; wicked; atrocious. 

" Either my country never must be freed, 

Or I consenting to so black a deed.” — Drydtn. 

—Dismal; mournful. 

“A dire induction am I witness to; 

And will to France, hoping the consequence 
Will prove as bitter, black, and tragical." — Shaks. 


—Obscure; mysterious: as, the black art. 

Black and blue. The color of a bruise; a stripe. 

Black, n. The total absorption of all the rays of light 
constitutes black. Among the mediaeval illuminators, 
black signified evil, error, and woe; and the figures in 
their paintings are represented in black drapery when 
any of these subjects are portrayed. Thus, in the pic¬ 
ture of the Temptation. Christ is represented in black 
robes. In heraldry, black, or sable, is symbolical of 
wisdom or prudence. From very ancient times, black 
has been worn as the emblem of mourning. In some of 
the Oriental countries, black is looked upou as a badge 
of servitude or low birth. The principal black pig¬ 
ments used in the arts are generally composed of car¬ 
bon. They are vegetable blue-black, ivory-black, cork- 
black, and lamp-black. — See Colors ; Light. 

Blackamoor, (blak'a-mbr,) n. A man of dark com¬ 
plexion ; a negro. 

Black'-art, //. The magical art. — See Magic. 

Black'-ash, n. (Chem.) Impure soda, contaminated 
with sulphide of calcium, charcoal, and other impurities, 
formed in the manufacture of soda from sea-salt. By 
lixiviatiou, filtration, and evaporation, the ordinary soda 
of commerce is produced. — See Soda. 

Black Ash, in Pennsylvania, a P. O- of Crawford co. 

Black Ball, n. A composition for blacking shoes, Sic. 
A ball used for negative vote, in balloting. 

Black'-ball, v. a. To cast a negative vote in balloting. 

Black Bayou',in Louisiana, a stream of Terrebonne 
par., connecting through Atcliafalaya Bayou with the 
Gulf of Mexico. 

Black'toerry, n. [A.S. blacberian] (Bot.) See Rubus 

Black'herry, in Illinois, a township of Kane coun¬ 
ty. 

Black'berrying', n. The act of picking blackberries. 

Black'berry Ridge, in Michigan, a post-office of 
Oceana co. 

Black'berry Station, in Illinois, a post-office of 



Kane co. 

Black'-billed, a. That has a black bill. 

Blaek'bird, n. (Zobl.) The Tardus merula, family 
Icteridcv; a well-known song-bird, about 10 inches long, 
whose deep-toned warblings are not to be mistaken for 
those of any other inhabitant of the groves. The plu¬ 
mage of the male bird is altogether black, but that of the 
female is rather of a brown or dark russet color; the 
bill, inside of the month, and edges of the eyelids, are 
yellow, as are also tbe soles of the feet. The B. is a 
solitary bird, frequenting woods and thickets. They 
feed on berries, 
fruit, insects, and 
worms: but never 
fly in flocks like 
thrushes. They 
pair early, and are 
among "the first 
who render the 
groves vocal: the 
note of the B., in¬ 
deed, during the „. 366 .blackbird ATordus merula.) 

spring and sum- w ' 

mer, when heard at a distance, is rich and enlivening; but 
when the bird is confined in the cage, its song is too loud 
and deafening. They build in bushes or low trees, and lay 
4 or 5 eggs, of a bluish-green color, marked irregularly 
with dusky spots. The young birds are easily tamed, 
and may be taught to whistle a variety of tunes. They 
are restless and timorous, easily alarmed, and difficult 
of access. 

_The bird above described is the blackbird of Linnceus, 


but, in America, this name is also given to other birds 
having the same habits, as the Agelaius phoeniceus (red- 
winged Blackbird), and the A’anthocephalus icterocepha- 
lus (yellow-headed Blackbird.) — See Crow. 

Black Bird, in Delaware, a P. 0. of New Castle co. 

Blaek'bird, in Missouri, a village of Putnam co.—In 
Nebraska, a hamlet of Holt co.; also a village of Thurs¬ 
ton co., the seat of the Omaha Indian Agency. 

Black'-birding, n. The kidnapping of negroes or 
Polynesians (nicknamed black-birds) for slaves. 

Black'board, n. A board used in schools for drawing 
lines, and various purposes of instruction. 

Black'-boding', a. Betokening evil. 

Black'-bonnet, n. (Zooi.) A name of the bird Reed- 
Bunting.— See Plectrophanes. q. v. 

Black -book, n. The name given in various countries 
and in different times to books in which, for political 
purposes, were recorded the secrets of families. — A book 
kept at a university, containing a register of crimes and 
misdemeanors. — Any book treating of necromancy.— 
Black Book of the Exchequer. The Liber Niger Scaccarii, 
or Liber Niger Parvus, probably compiled in the reign 
of Henry III., and now preserved among the records of 
the English Exchequer. It gives a description of the 
Court of England as it stood in the reign of Henry II.; 
the rank, wages, powers, &c.of the different officers of the 
court, the revenues of the crown, &c. It was printed by 
Hearne, Oxford, 172S.— Black Book of the Admiralty. 
A book compiled in the reign of Edward III., containing 
the laws of Oleron at large; a view of the crimes and 
offences cognizable in the Admiralty, &c. It has always 
been deemed of the highest authority in matters con¬ 
cerning Admiralty matters. 

Black Brook, in New Pork, a post-township of Clin¬ 
ton co., 20 m. S.W. of Plattsburg, and drained by the 
Saranac River. 

Black -browed, a. Having black eyebrows; gloomy. 

Black'burn, a borough of England, co. Lancaster, on 
a branch of the Ribble, 183 m. N.W. by W. of London, 
31 N.E. of Liverpool, and 22 N.N.W. of Manchester. B. 
is one of the great manufacturing centres of England 
which have had an extraordinary development in the 
course of half a century. It is a prosperous and active, 
but irregularly built town. Manf. Cotton goods, aver¬ 
aging $20,000,000 in annual value. 

Black'burn, in Oklahoma, a village of Pawnee co. 
Pop. (1897) abt. 100. 

Black'-cap, n. (Zobl.) The Sylvia alricapilla, a small 
song-bird, of the Sylvicolidm or Warbler family, whose 
notes are so sweet and full that it has obtained the 
name of the mock-nightingale. The crown of the head 
in the male is black; back and wings, olive-gray; throat, 
breast, and belly, more or less silvery white; legs, blu¬ 
ish, and claws black. It is a native of Europe, where 
orchards and gardens are its favorite haunts. 

Black-cap Titmouse, n. (Zobl.) See Titmouse. 

Black'-cattle, n. Cattle of the bovine genus, as bulls, 
oxen, and cows; so named when reared for slaughter, in 
distinction from dairy-cattle. 

Black'-clialk, n. ( Geol.) A kind of black clay, con¬ 
taining a large quantity of carbon, found in England, 
France, Portugal, Spain, and Italy. The finer sorts are 
made into artists' crayons, and used for drawing on paper. 

Blaek'-coal, n. (Geol.) One of the three species into 
which coal was divided by Jameson. It comprises Slate 
coal, Cannel coal, Folcated coal, &c. 

Black -coat, n. A name sometimes familiarly given to 
a clergyman, in the same way that red-coat is to an Eng¬ 
lish soldier. 

Black'-cock. n. (Zooi) See Grouse. 

Black Copper, n. (Min.) An earthy oxide of copper, 
resulting from the decomposition of other ores. — See 
Melaconite. 

Black Currant, n. (Bot.) See Ribes. 

Black Creek, in N. Carolina, a stream of Johnson 
co., flowing into the Neuse a little below Smitlifield. 

—A post-office of Wayne co. 

Black Creek, in New Pork, a small stream of Alle¬ 
ghany co., flowing N.E. into the Genesee River, about » 
m. N. by W. of Angelica. 

—-A post-village of the above co., 275 m. W. by S. of Albany. 

Black Creek, in Mississippi, rises in Marion co., and, 
after a S.E. course, empties into the Pascagoula River. 

Black Creek, in Ohio, a flourishing township of 
Mercer co. 

—a village of Holmes co. 

Black Creek, in Pennsylvania, a village of Luzerne 
county. 

Black Creek, in S. Carolina, a stream taking a S.E. 
course through Darlington dist., and joining the Great 
Pedee River in Marlborough district. 

Black Creek, in Wisconsin, a township of Outagamie 
co., 12 m. N. of Appleton. 

Black Deatli,n. (Hist.) A pestilence which desolated 
the world in the 14th century, so called from the black 
spots which at one of its stages appeared upon the bodies 
of the sufferers. It is said to have broken out in China. 
After having traversed Asia, it appeared in Europe in 
1347, where it prevailed with more or less severity until 
1350. The loss of human life was great, no less than 
25,000,000 persons having perished in Europe alone. The 
terrors it excited gave rise to several sects, who wan¬ 
dered about, lashing themselves, Singing penitential 
psalms, and declaring that the day of judgment was at 
hand. (See Flagellants.) In some places the calamity 
was attributed to the Jews, who were, in consequence, 
persecuted with great severity. 

Black Brauslit, n. (Med.) The common aperient 
mixture kept in the shops, and called by this name, is a 
mere infusion of senna with ginger, in which Epsom 
salts are dissolved. Each practitioner has a formula of 










35G 


BLAG 


BLAC 


BLAC 


his own for making this preparation. The B. D., either 
alone, but, better still, as an adjunct to a blue or com¬ 
pound colocynth pill, proves a safe, efficacious, and reli¬ 
able purgative for an adult male; and one ounce, or two 
table-spoonfuls, an effective dose for a female, when it is 
advisable to give females Epsom salts; while to children 
it is always a doubtful, if not improper, medicine. 

Black Drop, n. (Med.) A preparation of opium, once 
in great favor; also known under the name of Lancaster, 
or Quaker's Black Drops. It is supposed to be a con¬ 
centrated tincture of opium or laudanum. 

Black Bye, n. (Chem.) In dyeing blacks or browns, 
the stuffs are steeped first in a bath containing some 
form of tannin, such as infusion of galls, sumach, or 
catechu, aud afterwards in a solution of a salt of iron; 
different shades being produced by the addition of in¬ 
digo, of sulphate of copper, &c. 

Black Eartk, n. Mould; earth of a black color.— 
Woodward. 

Black Earth, in Wisconsin, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Dane co., 19 m. W. by N. of Madison, 

Black Earth River, in Wisconsin, rising in Dane 
co., and falling into the Wisconsin in Iowa co. 

Blacken, ( blak'n ,) v. a. [A. S. blcecan. ] To make black; 
to darken. 

“While the long fun'rals blacken all the way."— Pope. 

—To soil; to sully; to defame. 

“ The moraU blacken'd, when the writings 'scape, 

The libell'd person and the pictur'd shape." — Pope. 

— v. n. To grow black or dark. 

“ Air blacken'd, roll’d the thunder, groaned the ground." Dryden. 

Black'ener, n. One who blackens. 

BJack'ey, «• One of dark complexion; a negro. 

Illack'-faeed, «. Having a black face. 

Black'feet Indians, »■ pi. A powerful and warlike 
tribe located between the Missouri Kiver and the Rocky 
Mountains. 

Black'iish, n. ( Zobl .) See Labrus. 

Black'tish, in Arkansas, a small river of Crittenden 
co., flowing into St. Francis River. 

Black'-fliix, n. (Chem.) A mixture of carbonate of 
pobtsh and charcoal, much used in the laboratory as a 
reducing or deodorizing agent. It is prepared by heat¬ 
ing tartrate of potash (cream of tartar) in a covered 
vessel, until a charred mass remains. 

Black'foot City, in Montana, a post-office of Deer 
Lodge co. 

Black'ford, in Indiana, an E.N.E. co. Area, 180 sq. m. 
It is watered by the Salamonie river. Surface, diversi¬ 
fied; soil, fertile. Cap, Hartford. Pop. (1890), 10,500. 

Black'ford, in Kentucky, a post-office of Webster co. 

Black Forest, (Ger. Schwarzwald,) a range of moun¬ 
tains in Germany; Lat. bet. 47° 30' and 49° 30' N.; Lon. 7° 
40' and 9° E. They are covered from base to crown 
with vast dense woods, rising in the grand-duchy of 
Baden, like a woody rampart between the valleys formed 
by the Neckar and the Rhine. They attain in several 
parts an elevation of 4,000 feet above the sea; and the 
Feldberg, 4,675 feet, is the highest mountain in W. Ger¬ 
many. No part of Germany is more associated with 
goblin stories, or supernatural horrors, than the Black 
Forest and its neighborhood. 

Black Fork, in Ohio, Richland co., flowing into the 
Mohican River. 

BlackFork, in IF. Virginia, a P.O. of Tucker co. 

Black Friars, n. pi. See Dominican Friars. 

Black'gang' t’liine, in the Isle of Wight, one of 
the most highly picturesque parts of the Undercliff, q. v., 
but chiefly interesting for its geological formation. The 
cascade (fig 367) falls in a perpendicular column from 



Fig. 367. — blackgang chine, from the sea-shore. 


a ledge 70 feet high, down the midst of a deep chasm 
formed in dark ferruginous clays and sands, and sur¬ 
mounted by broken cliffs 400 feet high, and towering 
above all is the majestic escarpment of St. Catherine’s 
Hill, rising to an altitude of 800 to 900 feet. The bands 
of greenish-gray sand, and sandstone, which alternate 
with ferruginous clays in this division of the greensand 
system, appear very promiscuous, owing to the wearing 
away of the soft and friable intermediate beds. 


Blackguard, n. [Black and guard.] A name origi¬ 
nally given to the scullions and coal-carriers in great 
houses and palaces. In the journeys of the families to 
which they belonged, they usually rode in the carts with 
the pots and kettles; aud people in derision gave them 
the name of B. The term is now usually applied to a 
coarse, mean, vile, scurrilous fellow. 

— a. Scurrilous; low; vile. 

— v. a. To revile in scurrilous language. 

Black'-g'uni, n. (Bot .) SeeNvss.A. 

Black'-haired, a. Having black hair. 

Black Hall, in Georgia, a dist. of De Kalb co. 

Black Hammer, in Minnesota, a township of Hous¬ 
ton co. 

Black Hawk, in Iowa, a co. in the N.E. central part 
of the State. Area, 576 sq. m. Cedar River divides it 
into nearly equal parts. Surface. Mostly prairie. Cap. 
Waterloo. 

—A township of the above co. 

Black Hawk, in Mississippi, a post-village of Carroll 
co., 80 m. N. of Jackson. 

Black Hawk, in Missouri, a village of Clark co., on 
the Des Moines River. 

Black Hawk, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Bea¬ 
ver co. 

Black Hawk, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Sauk co. 

Black Hawk Creek, in Iowa, flows into the Red 
Cedar River in Black Hawk co. 

Black Hawk Mills, in Indiana, a village of 

Posey co. 

Black Hawk, in Colorado, once one of the principal 
mining towns of the State, located on the Union Pacific 
Railroad. Very extensive smelting works were located 
here. 

Black Hawk Point, in Louisiana, a village of 
Concordia par. 

Black Head, a cape of Ireland, co. Antrim; Lat. 54° 
46' N., Lon. 5° 42' W. 

—Another in co. Clare, on the S. side of Galway Bay; Lat. 
53° 9' N., Lon. 9° 16'W. 

Black'-liearted, a. Having a black or malignant 
heart; full of rancor. 

Black'lieath, in England, an elevated, moory tract 
of country, 5 m. S. E. of London. It lies in the co. of 
Kent, and is studded with the mansions and country- 
boxes of wealthy Londoners. Here, in 1497, the Cor¬ 
nish rebels, under Lord Audley, were defeated with 
great slaughter by Henry VII. 

Black Hills, in South Dakota and Wyoming, a range 
of mountains rising near the Missouri River, in about 
47° N. Lat,, aud 103° W. Lon., and extending to about 
43° N. Lat., where it diverges to the W. and becomes 
lost among the spurs of the Rocky Mountains. Harney’s 
Peak, one of the highest summits, is 7,440 feet above 
sea-level. They are so called from the black, scrubby 
character of their timber, and have proved to be rich in 
mineral wealth, especially in gold. See Section II. 

Black Hole, «. The name given in England to 
the place of confinement in which soldiers undergo 
short terms of imprisonment for minor offences 
against military discipline, and hence applied to the 
old village lock-up or cage, the cells of a police-sta¬ 
tion, or any place in which persons are temporarily 
lodged in durance. 

Black'ing, n. A paste or liquid for blacking shoes. 
The manulacture of this familiar article is of compara¬ 
tively recent date. The Romans, however, appear to 
have had a composition similar to that known at the 
present day as dubbing. B. consists principally of bone- 
black, sugar or treacle, sperm oil, oil of vitriol, and 
strong vinegar. 

Black'inton, in Massachusetts, a post-office of Berk¬ 
shire co. 

Black Iron, tt. ( Metall.) Malleable iron, in contradis¬ 
tinction to that which is tinned, called white iron. 

Black'istl, a. Somewhat black. 

Blark -Jark, n. (Mining.) A name usually given by 
Cornish miners to blende or sulphide of zinc. In some 
localities the occurrence of this ore is looked upon as a 
favorable indication, and there is a common saying that 
Black Jack rides a good horse; in other districts, on the 
contrary, Black Jack is said to cut out the ore. 

(Bot.) The barren oak, Quercus nigra. 

—A vulgar term for a drinking-cup of tin-ware japanned 
over, formerly much used in England. 

—A weapon consisting generally of a flexible handle car¬ 
rying a ball of lead at one end. 

— v. a. To strike with such a weapon. 

Black Jack, in Arkansas, a post-office of Scott co. 

Black Jack, in Kansas, a post-township of Douglas 
co., 17 m. S.S.E.of Lawrence. 

Black Jack, in Ohio, a post-office of Hocking co. 

Black Jack Grove, in Texas, a post-village of Hop¬ 
kins co. 

Black, Joseph, a distinguished chemist of Scottish par¬ 
entage, though b. in France, 1728. He was the discov¬ 
erer of latent heat. D. at Edinburgh, 1799. 

Black Eake. in Louisiana, Natchitoches parish, emp¬ 
ties its waters through Saline Bayou. 

Black Eake Bayou, in Louisiana, Claiborne par., 
empties into Black Lake, in Natchitoches parish. 

Black'-lead, w. (Min.) A name commonly applied to 
plumbago or graphite, in consequence of the mark it 
leaves when drawn across paper, like that produced by 
lead. It is, however, nearly pure carbon, and contains 
no lead.—See Graphite, Plumbago. Carbon, Pencils. 

Black'leg, n. A notorious gambler and cheat. 

—A disease among calves and sheep. It is a sort of jelly 
which settles in the lees, and sometimes in the neck. 

Black'-letter. n. (Printing.) A name given to the old 
English or modern Gothic letter. What are called 


Roman letters were employed in the writings of western 
Europe from the 5th to about the close of the 12th cen¬ 
tury, when the Gothic characters came to be adopted. 
When printing was first introduced, the object was to 
imitate writing; and the first printed books were dis¬ 
posed of as manuscripts, the imitation being so perfect 
that it required great discrimination to distinguish th* 
printed from the written. Books, printed before the- 
year 1500, are generally in the black-letter characters, 
when, in most European countries, they came to be 
superseded by the Roman. The old Gothic is still in 
general use in Gertnany, but now many books are 
printed there also in Roman characters. Books in the 
old black-letter are highly prized by antiquaries and bib¬ 
liomaniacs, as being the earliest. 

— a. Written or printed in black-letter, and styled 
Black-letter books. 

Blaclt'leysville, in Ohio, a post-village of Wayne 

co., 8 m. S.W. of Wooster. 

Black Eick, in Ohio, a post-office of Franklin co. 

Black Eick, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of In¬ 
diana co., 12 in. S. by W. of Indiana, 

—A township of Cambria co. 

Black Eick Creek, in Pennsylvania, joins the 
Conemaugh River, in Indiana co. 

Black Eick Station, in Pennsylvania, a, post-office 

of Indiana co. 

Black'-list, n. (Com.) A name popularly given in Eng¬ 
land, and the U. States, to printed lists privately circu¬ 
lated among subscribers, giving lists of insolvents and 
bankrupts, protested bills, judgments for debt, and other 
matters affecting the credit of firms and individuals, aud 
intended for the guidance of merchants, and others, in 
trade. 

Black Eo^ Mountain, in Pennsylvania , stretches- 
from the Juniata River S.W., and divides Mifflin co. 
from Juniata co. 

Black'ly, adv. Darkly. — Atrociously. 

Black'-mail, ft. [Black, denoting the illegality of the- 
tribute, or the low coin in which it was paid, and A.S, 
mal; Goth, r naala ; Ger. mahl, tribute; Gael, rnal, rent. 
N. Fr. mael, &c.] (Hist.) A tax, in kind or money, 
that was levied by the borderers of England and Scot¬ 
land, under the pretence of affording protection from 
robbers, with whom those demanding the tribute were 
generally allied. These illegal exactions were carried 
to such an extent that they became the subject of leg¬ 
islation just before the union in 1707. The practice 
was, in spite of every effort for its suppression, con¬ 
tinued in Scotland until the rebellion of 1745. 

—Money extorted from persons under the threat of ex¬ 
posure of an alleged offence; hush-money. 

— v. To extort by the methods of blackmail. 

Black'man, in Michigan, a township of Jackson 
county. 

Blackmail's Mills, in N. Carolina, a post-office of 

Sampson co. 

Black'-martin, «. (Zobl.) See Swijt. 

Black Mingo, in South Carolina, a village of Wil- 

liamsburgh county. 

Black Monday, n. Easter Monday, so called from the 
severity of the weather once on that day. Stow, under 
the year 1360, says, “ And here is to be noted that the 
14th day of April (6, new calendar) and the morrow after 
Easter-day, King Edward, with his host, lay before the 
city of l’aris, which day was full dark of mist and hail, 
and so bitter cold that many men died on their horse¬ 
backs with the cold; wherefore, unto this day it hath 
been called the Black Monday.” Lancelot, in the Mer¬ 
chant of Venice, remarks, “Then it was not for nothing 
that my nose fell a-bleeding on Black-Monday last.” — 
In England, this name is also given by school-boys to the 
first Monday after the holidays. 

Black'-monks, n. pi. The Benedictines, q. v. 

Black Mountain, in N. Carolina, a range extending 
about 20 m., aud connecting with the Blue Mountains 
by an outlying ridge. Its highest elevation is Mitchell’e 
Peak. 6,732 feet above the sea, being the most elevated 
land E. of the Mississippi. 

Black -inoutlied, a. Using foul or scurrilous lan¬ 
guage. 

Black'ness, n. Quality ofbeing black; black color.— 
Darkness—Enormity in wickedness 

Black Oak, in Texas, a post-office of Hopkins co. 

Black Oak, in Iowa, a flourishing township of Ma¬ 
haska co. 

Black Oak Point, in Missouri, a vill. of Hickory co. 

Black Oak Ridge, in Indiana, a vill. of Daviess co. 

Black Ochre, n. (Min.) A variety of plumbago com¬ 
bined with iron and alluvial clay 

Black Prince. See Edward, Prince of Wales. 

Black -pudding', n. A kind of sausage, common in 
Scotland, where it is called also black-pot. It is mad© 
of hog’s blood, suet, groats, &c. 

Black Quarter, n. (Farriery.) See Quarter-Evil. 

Black River, in Arkansas, a township of Indepen¬ 
dence co. 

—A township Of Lawrence co. 

Black River, in Louisiana. See Washita. 

Black River, or Delude, in Michigan, rising in Sani¬ 
lac co.. and after a S. course of 80 m., entering St. Clair 
River at Port Huron. 

Rlaek River, or North Black River, in Michigan, 
rising in the W. part of the State, and enters Lake 
Michigan on the boundary' line between Alleghany and 
Ottawa counties. 

Rlaek River, or South Black River, in Michigan, a 
small stream entering Lake Michigan in Van Bureti co. 

Rlaek River, in Missouri, rising in Johnson co., which 
after flowing N.E. falls into Lamine River, in Cooper co. 

Black River, or Big Black River, in Missouri and 
























BLAC 


BLAC 


BLAD 


357 


Arkansas, the largest tributary of White River, rises in 
the S.E. part of Missouri, and after a flow of nearly 400 
m. enters White River in Arkansas, about 40 m. from 
Batesville. 

Black River, in Missouri, falling into the N. Fork of 
Flatte River, about 150 m. below Fort Laramie. 

Black River, in New Jersey. See Lamington River. 
Black River, in New Yrk, a stream rising in Herki¬ 
mer co., and flowing N.W. and W. till it enters Lake 
Ontario, after a course of 125 m. 

—A post-office of Jefferson co. 

Black River, in Ohio, rises in the N. part of Ashland 
co., and empties into Lake Erie. 

Black River, in Ohio, a thriving post-village and 
township of Lorain co., on Lake Erie, at the mouth of 
Black River, 124 in. N.N.E. of Columbus. 

Black River, in South Carolina, rising in Sumter 
district, and taking a course S E., falls into the Pedee 
River a little above Georgetown. 

Black River, in Vermont, a stream of Windsor co., 
flowing into the Connecticut at a little distance from 
Springfield. 

—A small river or creek of Orleans co., falling into Lake 
Mem ph remagog. 

Black River, in Washington, a P. 0. of King co. 
Black River, in Wisconsin, rising in Marathon co., 
and after a S.W. course, emptying into the Mississippi. 
Rlack'-rod, n. See Usher of the Black-rod 
Rlack River Chapel, in N. Carolina, a village of 
New Hanover co 

Black River Falls, in Wisconsin, a thriving city, 
cap. of Jackson co., on Black river, 45 m. N. N. E. of 
La Crosse. Pop. (1890) 2.7G1; (1807) abt. 3,400. 
Black'rock, a town and sea-bathing resort of Ireland, 
co. Dublin, 4 m. S.E. of Dublin City, and on the S. side 
of Dublin Bay; pop. 2,609. 

Black'rock, a village of Ireland, co. Louth, at the 
head of a bay of the same name, about 3 m. S.E. of Dun¬ 
dalk; pop. 559. 

Black'rock, a village of Ireland, co. Cork, on the Lee, 
3 m. E. of Cork; pop. about 500. 

Black Rock, in Connecticut, a P. 0. of Fairfield co. 
Black Rock, in Maryland, a P. 0. of Baltimore co. 
Black Rock, in New York, a thriving post-town of 
Erie co., at the opening of Niagara River, 2 m. from 
Buffalo, with which it is now incorporated. 

Black Rock, in W. Virginia, a P. 0. of Grant co. 
Black'rust, n. A disease of wheat, in which a black, 
moist matter is deposited in the fissure of the grain.— 
See Wheat. 

Blacks, n. pi. The name given to a kind of ink used 
in copper-plate printing, prepared from thecharred husks 
of the grape, and residue of the wine-press. 

Blacks and. Whites, in Virginia, a post-office of 
Nottoway co. 

Blacks'burg’h, in Virginia, a post-village of Mont¬ 
gomery co., 200 in. W. by S. of Richmond. 

Black’s Corners, in Michigan, a P. O. of Lapeer co. 
Black Sea, (the Euxine, or Pontos Euxienos of the 
Greeks, and Pontus Euxinus of the Romans; Turk. Caca 
Denisi; Russ. Czorno More,) a large internal sea lying 
between the S.W. provinces of Russia in Europe and 
Asia Minor: extending from 40° 50' to 46° 45' N. Lat.. and 
from 27° 30' to 41° 50' E. Lon. It is bounded on the N 
and N.W. by the Russian provinces of Taurida, Kherson, 
and Bessarabia; on the N.N.E. by the Caucasian coun¬ 
tries,—Circassia, Mingrelia, and Imeritia; on the S.E. 
and S. by Armenia and Asia Minor; and on the W. by 
the Turkish governments of Roumelia and Bulgaria. Its 
extreme length from E. to W. is upwards of 700 m.; its 
greatest width, on the 31st meridian, 380 m. Its sur¬ 
face is estimated at about 160,000 sq. m.; and its coast¬ 
line, including its sinuosities, considerably exceeds 2,000 
m. The B. S. is connected with the Sea of Azof by the 
Strait of Yenikale (anc. Bosphorus Cimmerius), and 
with (lie Sea of Marmora by the Channel of Constanti¬ 
nople (anc. Bosphorus Thracius). With these excep¬ 
tions, it is wholly isolated. It is also much more com¬ 
pact in form than most other large bodies of water, 
having few large limbs, unless, indeed, the Sea of Azof 
and that of Marmora may be reckoned as gulfs. The 
straits of the B. S. are very remarkable, that of Yeni¬ 
kale being not more than 2 m. across, and that of Con¬ 
stantinople less than Y%. The depth of water of this 
sea is very variable, deepening from 4 to 160 fathoms. 
There are no tides in this close sea, but the currents are 
very marked, powerful, and regular. The prevailing 
wind blows from the N.E. The B. S. teems with fish, 
although few fisheries exist on its shores. It receives 
the waters of more than 40 rivers, among which are the 
Danube, the Dniester, the Dnieper, the Bug, the Don, 
and the Kuban. Notwithstanding the horror enter¬ 
tained by the Greeks, or rather the Greek poets, of this 
sea, its shores are famous in their true and fabulous 
history. Colchis, the Temple of the Sun, and scene of 
the Argonautic expedition, were on its E. coast; the 
Cimmerian land of everlasting darkness was originally 
fixed upon its N. shore; and in more historical times, 
the Lydian. Persian, and Byzantine powers, and the ex¬ 
ploits of Mithridates, illustrated its S. and S.W. borders. 
At an early period many Greek colonies were planted on 
its shores. Its commerce was also reckoned of first-rate 
importance. Athens drew from it her principal supplies 
of corn and naval stores; and it furnished the favorite 
slaves for the markets of Greece and Rome. From the 
time of Constantine till the 15th century, it formed 
the centre of the Roman world, and during this period, 
a part at least of the Indian trade was carried on 
through it. The Venetians and Genoese were the con¬ 
ductors of this traffic. Soon after the fall of Constanti¬ 
nople, in 1453, ail but Turkish vessels were excluded 


from the Euxine; and it was not till after the treaty of 
Kainardji, in 1774, that the Russian eagle was displayed 
on its waters. Ever since that time there has been a 
powerful Russian fleet stationed in the B. S. But after 
the war between Turkey and Russia, in 1854-6, when 
the former power was assisted by France and England, 
the Czar bound himself, by the treaty of peace coucluded 
in the last-mentioned year, to limit his fleet of war on 
this sea to six “ steam-vessels, measuring 150 metres at 
their water-line, and four other light sailing-vessels, not 
above 200 tons each.” In 1871, a conference of the con¬ 
tracting powers held in London, put an end to a restric¬ 
tion so obnoxious to Russia. 

Black shear, in Georgia, a post-village, cap. of Pierce 
co., 86 in. S.W. of Savannah. 

Black’s Bills, n New Jersey, a post-office of Mon¬ 
mouth co. 

Black'sinitll, n. A smith who works in iron, as dis¬ 
tinguished from one who works in gold, silver, copper, 
tin, &c. 

Black'-snake, n. ( Zoiil.) See Coluber. 

Black sod Bay, an extensive bay on the N.W. coast 
of Ireland, co. Mayo; Lat. 54° 5' N.; Lon. 10° W. 

Black Spring, in Georgia, a village of Baldwin co., 
158 m. N.W. of Savannah. 

Black'stairs, a mountain-chain of Ireland, partly 
dividing the counties Carlow and Wexford. Its highest 
summit is Mount Leinster, 2,610 feet above sea-level. 

Black Stock, in S. Carolina, a post-village of Chester 
district. 

Black'stone, Sir William, author of the well-known 
Commentaries on the Laws of England, waB b. in London, 
1723 After gaining great distinction as lecturer on law 
at Oxford, he was raised to the bench, and sat as judge 
in the Court of Common Pleas from 1770 till his death. 

D. 1780. 

Black'stone, in Massachusetts, a flourishing post-town¬ 
ship of Worcester co., on the Blackstone River, 35 m. 
S.W. of Boston. It possesses a considerable trade in 
cotton cloths. 

Black'stone River, in Massachusetts, rising in Wor¬ 
cester co., and flowing S.E. till it empties into Provi¬ 
dence River. 

Black'strap, n. A drink prepared with spirituous 
liquors and molasses. Hence, the English sailors give 
the name B. to the common wines of S. Europe that are 
strong and sweet. 

Blacks'ville, in W. Virginia, a post-village of Monon¬ 
galia co., 20 m. N.W. of Morgantown. 

Rlack Swamp, in Ohio, a village of Sandusky co. 

Black’s Well, in Mississippi, a village of Choctaw co. 

Rlack'tail, n. \Zool .) See PERCH. 

Black thorn, n. (Bot .) See Prunus. 

Black'-tliroated, a. That has a black throat. 

Black'-tin, n. A name applied by miners to tin ore 
ready for the smelter. — See Tin. 

Black'-toed, a. Having black toes. 

Black'-tressed, a. Having black tresses. 

Black'ville, in S. Carolina, a post-village of Barnwell 
dist., 90 m W.N.W. of Charleston. 

Black'-visaged, a. Having a dark visage or counte¬ 
nance. 

Black'-vomit, n. (Med.) A name given to a discharge 
of dark-colored bile from the stomach in certain diseases 
of the liver and biliary organs, and not unfrequently to 
the dark grumous blood emitted from the stomach in 
the disease known as hcematemesis, or vomiting of blood; 
in both cases, however, it is only a symptom more prop¬ 
erly appertaining to Yellow Fever, q. v. 

Black'wall, ( bldck-wawl,) a suburb of London, on the 

E. side of the Thames. 4 m.E. of St. Paul s. Pop. 30,507. 
Here are the East and West India docks, and shipbuild¬ 
ing-yards. This suburb is connected with London by a 
railway, raised abcve the streets to almost a level with 
the roofs of the houses, on a brick viaduct. It is noted 
for its whitebait, a small and delicate fish, caught off 
here in the Thames. 

Black W'al'nut, in Illinois, a village of Ogle co. 

Black W'al'nut, in Virginia, a post-village of Halifax 
co., 138 m. S. W. of Richmond. 

Black War'rior River, in Alabama, formed by the 
junction of the Mulberry and Locust forks in Walker 
co.. and taking a S. course, empties into the Tombigbee, 
above Demopolis. Steamboats can pass to 150 m. from 
its mouth. It is sometimes called by its Indian name 
Tuscaloosa. 

Black'wash, n. Anything that blackens; specially 
applied to a lotion composed of calomel and lime-water. 

Black'water, a township of Ireland, co. Armagh, and 
5 m. N.W. of Armagh city. 

Black'water, a township of Ireland, co. Wexford, and 
9 m. N.E. of the town of Wexford. 

Black'water, a river of Ireland, co. Cork, rises abt. 
16 m. N.E. of Killarney, co. Kerry, and after taking a 
S. and S.E. course of about 100 m., empties into the sea 
at Youghal. Its chief branches are the Funcheon, Aw- 
lieg, and Bride. 

Black'water, a river of Ireland, counties of Tyrone 
and Armagh, falling into the S W. part of Lough Neagh. 
B. is the name of several other rivers in Ireland, of 
minor importance. 

Black Water, in Kentucky, a township of Morgan 
county. 

Black'water Creek, in Alabama, Walker co., emp¬ 
ties into Mulberry fork of Black Warrior River. 

Black'water River, in New Hampshire, Merrimack 
co., falling into the Contocook River, 8 m. N.W. of Con¬ 
cord. 

Black'water River, in Virginia. S. part of the 
State, rises at the base of the Blue Ridge, and takes an 
E. course through Franklin co. into Staunton River. 


Black'water River, in Virginia, S.E. part of the 

State, rising in Prince George co., and flowing S.E. into 
Nottoway River, near the frontier of Virginia and N. 
Carolina. 

Black'watertow’n, a village of Ireland, co. Armagh, 

2 m. S.S.W. of Moy; pop. 420. 

Blackwell, Elizabeth, m.d., was born in England, 
1821, but educated in the U. States, where her father 
died, 1838, leaving his widow and numerous family de¬ 
pendent upon the exertions of the elder daughters. Ex¬ 
perience having convinced her of the necessity of a more 
extended sphere of employment for women, she endea¬ 
vored, as a teacher of music, at Charleston, from 1S44 
to 1847. to accumulate the funds necessary to enable her 
to qualify herself for the practice of medicine, as phy¬ 
sician to women and children, hoping thus to open the 
medical career to her sex. For this purpose, she em¬ 
ployed in preliminary medical reading, under the direc¬ 
tion of Dr. Dickson, every moment not occupied by 
teaching. In 1847 she went through a private course 
of dissection and midwifery, under Drs. Allen and War¬ 
rington, of Philadelphia, while applying for admission 
to the various medical colleges. Refused admission by 
12 of these, she was admitted, in 1847. to the Medical 
College of the University of Geneva, N.Y., where she 
followed the course of medical study, and received, in 
1849, the first medical degree ever conferred upon a wo¬ 
man. Having completed her medical studies in the hos¬ 
pitals of Philadelphia, Paris, and London, she estab¬ 
lished herself in New York in 1851, as physician for wo¬ 
men and children, and published, in 1853, a work enti¬ 
tled The Laws of Life, considered in reference to the 
Physical Education of Girls. She established a dispen¬ 
sary for indigent women and children, and opened, ir 
1857, a hospital for women, over which she presides. 
Her younger sister, Dr. Emily B., also adopted the medi¬ 
cal profession ; and having completed her studies in the 
hospitals of New York, Edinburgh, Paris, and London, is 
associated with her sister in the management of the 
hospital, and iu a large private practice, confined ex¬ 
clusively to the treatment of women and children. 
Black'well, in Oklahoma, a village of Kav co. 
Black'well’s, in A'ew Jersey, a village of Somerset co, 
on Millstone River, 7 m. S. of Somerville. 
Black'well’s Island, an island in East River, New 
York harbor, on which is seated the penitentiary of that 
city. 

Black'wolf, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Winnebago 
co., 73 m. N.N.E. ? Madison. 

Black'wood. Si. Henry, a British admiral, b. 1770. 
Having entered the naval service at the age of 11 years, 
he was present at the action off the Dogger Bank ; and 
on the commencement of hostilities with the French, in 
1793, he became first lieutenant of the Invincible man- 
of-war, in which capacity he acted with such distinguished 
bravery, that he was promoted to the rank of comman¬ 
der, 1774. In 1798, when captain of the Brilliant, of 28 
guns, he gallantly maintained a combat, off the island 
of Teneriffe, with two French frigates each of which was 
nearly double his own force, and beat them off. At Tra¬ 
falgar he was captain of the Euryalus, and witnessed the 
death of his lriend and heroic commander. Nelson, whose 
last words to him were, ‘‘God bless you, Blackwood — I 
shall never see you more.” In 1806 he was appointed to 
the command of the Ajax, of 80 guns, and joined Lord Col- 
lingwood’s fleet on the anniversary of the battle of Tra¬ 
falgar. During the night of the 14 th of February, 1807, 
the Ajax was found to be on fire, and in a short time 
went down with half her crew; Sir Henry, like many 
others, being saved with the greatest difficulty. After 
this he commanded the War spite, and was present at 
the blockades of Brest and Rochefort. In 1814, the Duke 
of Clarence made him captain of the fleet, and he was 
appointed to bring over the allied sovereigns from France 
to England, on which occasion he was created a baronet, 
and promoted to the rank of rear-admiral. In 1819, Sir 
Henry was appointed commander-in-chief of the naval 
forces in the East Indies, from which station he speedily 
returned; and in 1827, the lord-high-admiral raised him 
to the command at Chatham. D. 1832. 

Black'wood to tv II, in New Jersey, a flourishing post¬ 
village of Camden co., on Big Timber Creek, 12 m. S.S.E. 
of Camden. 

Black'-work, n. Iron wrought by blacksmiths. 
Blad'der, n. [A. S. bleedr, bladra, bleddra; Icel. bladra, 
a bubble, a blister; 0. Ger. bldtara. from blasun. to blow.] 

( Anal.) The B., or vesicula urinaria, so called to dis¬ 
tinguish it from the gall-bladder, is a musculo-mem- 
branous bag or pouch, which serves as a temporary re¬ 
servoir for the urine ; it communicates with the kidneys 
by means ot the ureters, and opens externally by means 
of the urethra. — The urinary apparatus is confined 
to the red-blooded classes of animals, all of which have 
kidneys, while some orders and genera have no urinary 
B. In quadrupeds, the B. is of a pyriform shape, and is 
completely surrounded by the peritona'um or serous 
lining of the abdomen; and it may be taken as a general 
rule, that it is smaller, stronger, and more muscular in 
carnivorous than in graminivorous animals; in the lat¬ 
ter it is almost membranous, and in some of them is 
particularly large. — In the whole class of birds there 
is no urinary B., and the ureters open into the cloaca, 
a musculo-membranou3 bag, which takes the place of 
the rectum, B., and uterus, and serves as a reservoir 
for the solid excrements, the urine, and eggs. The 
urine in these animals dilutes the faeces and forms the 
carbonate of lime, which constitutes the basis of the 
shell. The urinary B. exists in several genera and species 
of fishes. In the human subject, the B. is placed in the 
pelvis, or basin, immediately behind the symphysis pu¬ 
bis and before the rectum, or terminal portion of the in- 









358 


BLAD 


BLAI 


BLAK 


testines, in the male; but it is separated from it in the 
female by the uterus and vagina. Its form and relations 
vary according to the age of the individual. In infancy 
it is of a pyriform shape, and is contained almost entirely 
in the abdomen, thus resembling its permanent condition 
in quadrupeds. At 
this period it may 
be considered as 
consisting of three 
portions, the nar¬ 
row tapering part, 
or neck, the upper 
rounded portion, or 
fundus (sometimes 
cal 1 »d s ummit).and 
the intermediate 
portion, or body; 
but as the pelvis 
expands, the B. 
gradually subsides 
into it and under¬ 
goes a remarkable 
change of form. 

Tlius, in the adult 
its figure is that of 
a short oval, com¬ 
pressed at the fore 
and back part; its 
lower surface sub¬ 
sides on the rec- Fiff- 368. 

turn, and expand- The Ureters, running from the Kidneys 
ino- forms what is t0 ttle Judder. — a Aorta 6 Bifurcation. 
Wmoit 1.V nnotr. « Abdominal muscles turned down, d The 
termed by anato- Rectum cul , md tied . e Bladder. // Ure- 
mists the OCIS J'flici ters. gg Kidneys, 
of the B. This 



change of form is dependent not only upon the enlarge¬ 
ment of the cavity in which the B. is contained, but also 
upon the weight of the fluid whiclt it habitually sustains, 
and thus in advanced age it is more deeply sunk in the 
pelvis than in the middle periods of life. In the female its 
transverse diameter is greater than in the male, in con¬ 
sequence of the antero-posterior diameter of the pelvis 
being encroached upon by the uterus. Its capacity varies 
in the different periods of life; and, as a general rule, it 
may be said to increase in proportion as the individual 
advances in years, and to be greater in females than in 
males. Its capacity is modified in different individuals 
by their habits and the natural exercise of its functions. 
It is more particularly changed by disease; thus, from 
the effects of long-continued irritation, it may be re¬ 
duced to such a state that it will not contain more than 
a few drops of urine; and on the contrary when, from 
any cause, its contents cannot be duly evacuated, it may 
be distended so as to contain many quarts of urine, and 
occupy a large proportion of the abdomen. Its ordinary 
capacity may be estimated at 1 ]/, pints.—The direction 
of the B. is oblique, being inclined somewhat forward 
and upward. It is retained in its position by two lateral 
ligaments, one on each side, and an anterior ligament; 
the lateral ligaments are prolongations of the fascia 
iliaca, which, passing down into the pelvis, assumes the 
name of fascia pelvica, and becomes identified with the 
prostate gland and side of the B. ; the anterior ligament 
is double, and it is formed by the fascia transversalis, 
which passing down behind the symphysis pubis, is re¬ 
flected upon the upper surface of the prostate gland; 
from the point of reflection two strong fasciculi of fibres 
pass to the anterior surface of the B. These ligaments 
are sometimes called the proper ligaments of the B., to 
distinguish them from certain folds of the peritonaeum 
sometimes called ligaments. The B. is composed of 
three (by some anatomists regarded as four) coats—the 
serous or peritoneal coat, the muscular, the areolar, and 
the internal mucous or lining membrane ; and is divided 
by anatomists into four parts—the base, the most pos¬ 
terior part, which rests against the rectum; the body, 
the centre of the organ; the fundus, the upper portion 
of the B ; and the neck, the continuation of the latter, 
and the constricted portion which is connected with the 
urethra. In a work like this, intended for general readers, 
it is quite unnecessary to be more minute in the anat¬ 
omy of this organ. The principal diseases and accidents 
to which it is subject will be examined under Urinary 
Organs (Diseases of the). — See also Lithotrity, Li¬ 
thotomy, Worms, &c. 

—Any thing resembling the animal bladder; as the air- 
bladder, q. v.; — or a pustule, or vesicle, filled as the 
B. with a watery liquor. 

—Figuratively, any thing inflated, empty, or unsounded. 


" To swim with bladders of philosophy. ' —Rochester. 


(Bot .) A pericarp or seed-vessel which appears as if 
inflated. 

>— v. a. To fill Avith wind; to puff up. — To put up in 
bladders. 

Blad’deretl, a. Swelled like a bladder. 

Blad'der-nut, Bladder-tree, n. (Bot.) See 
Staphilea. 

Blad der-sen na, n. (Bot.) See Coldtea. 

Blad'der-wort, n (Bot.) See Utricularia. 

Blad'dery, a. Resembling a bladder. 

(Bot.) Thin and inflated, like a bladder. 

Blade, n. [A. S. bleed, bled, a leaf, a shoot, a branch, 
fruit; Dan. Mad; 0. Ger. Wat; probably allied to Or. 
platys, broad.] The cutting part of an instrument, dis¬ 
tinct from the handle; as the blade of a sword, a knife, 
a scythe, an axe, a chisel, a square &c. The blade of a 
saw is more frequently called the plate.. — Damascus 
was famous for the manufacture of sword-blades, which 
are even now, in consequence of their celebrity, of great 
value. 


(Bot.) The expanded portion of a leaf. It is the 
part which is usually the most developed, and which is 
popularly known as the leaf. The terms lamina and 
limb are also applied to this part.— See Leaf. 

(Naut.) The flat part of an oar. 

—A brisk, gay, dashing fellow ; — so styled in contempt. 

— v. a. To furnish with a blade. 

Blttde'-bone, n. The shoulder-bone, or Scapula, q. v. 

Bind 'ed, p. a. Having a blade or blades; furnished 
with a blade or spie ; as, a bladed grass. 

Bla'den, in N. Carolina, a S.E. county. Area, 800 sq. 
m. It is drained by Gape Fear River, and bounded on 
the N.E. by South River. Surface, diversified, with 
lakes here and there. Soil, sandy. Prod., tar and tur¬ 
pentine. Cap. Elizabeth. 

Bla'denboro, in N. Ca., a P.O. of Bladen co 

Bla den 4’reek, in Georgia, a P.O. of Stewart co. 

Bla'«lenstnirg;, in Maryland, a township and post¬ 
village of Prince George co., on the E. arm of the Poto¬ 
mac, 6 m. N.E. of Washington. Pop of the township 
3,006. Here, in August 24,1S14, a battle was fought be¬ 
tween the Americans commanded by Gen. Winder, and 
the English under Gen. Ross. The Americans, being 
too few to oppose Ross, were obliged to retreat. 

Iilatlenslkii r£', in Ohio, a post-village of Knox co., 
43 m. N.E. of Columbus. 

Bla'don's Landing;, in Alabama, a village of Choc¬ 
taw co., on the Tombigbee River, 4 m. from Coffeeville. 

Bladen's Springs, in Alabama, a post-village and 
watering-place of Choctaw co. 

Blain, (bldn.) n. [A. S. blegen ; perhaps from blawan ; 
O. Ger. bldhan, to blow ; Du. blein ; Icel. blina, a boil.] 
An inflation or tumor of the skin; a pustule; a blister. 

(Farriery.) An inflammation or eruption on the 
rootof the tongue of animals, which causes the windpipe 
to swell and stop the breath. 

Blain, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Perry co., 
about 40 m. W. by N. of Harrisburg. 

Blain, a town of France, dep. Loire Inferieure, on the 
Isac, 22 m. N.N.W. of Nantes. Calvinism was early intro¬ 
duced here, a synod having been held in 1505. Pop. 7,450. 

Blaine, in Oklahoma, a W. central co., watered by the 
N. fork of the Canadian river. Cap. Watonga. Pop. 
(1897) abt. 6,800. 

Blains'ville, in Indiana, a post-village of Posey co., 
13 m. N. W. of Evansville. 

Blain'ville, Henri Marie Ditcrotay de, a distin¬ 
guished French anatomist and zoologist, b. at Arques, 
1777. After leading a desultory life till 1805, his career 
was then decided by his interest in Cuvier’s lectures, and 
he applied himself to the study of medicine. Ho as¬ 
sisted Cuvier both in his experiments and lectures, was 
chosen Professor of Zoology and Physiology in 1812. and 
in 1S32 succeeded his master as Professor of Comparative 
Anatomy at the Jardin des Plantes. He visited Eng¬ 
land in 1816, was a member of the Academy of Sciences 
of Paris, of the Royal and Geological Societies of Lon¬ 
don, and of many other scientific bodies. He contri¬ 
buted largely to scientific journals, and wrote a large 
number of separate works, among which are his Osteo- 
graphie, Manuel de Malacologie, Principes d'Anatome 
Comparce, Cours de Pliysiologie, &c. D. 1S50. 

Blair, Hugh, an eminent Scottish divine and author, b. 
1718. In 1741 lie was licensed to preach, and was soon 
after appointed to the living of Colessie in Fifeshire, 
and in 1743 and 1754 he was presented to the ministry 
of Lady Yester’s church, Edinburgh; and in 1758 he was 
removed from Lady Yester’s to be one of the ministers 
of the High Church. In 1757, the university of St. 
Andrews conferred upon him the degree of D.D., and in 
1759 he began a course of lectures on rhetoric and 
belles-lettres, which were so much applauded, that in 
1762 George III. endowed a professorship for him. In 
1763, lie wrote a dissertation on the poems of Ossian. 
In 1777 a volume of his sermons appeared, which at¬ 
tained so rapid a sale as to induce the author to pub¬ 
lish another volume in 1779, subsequently followed 
by three volumes more. In 1780 he obtained a pension 
from the crown, and three years afterwards lie quitted 
his professorship through infirmities. His Lectures on 
Rhe.toric and Belles-Lettres were published at that time, 
and were received with an extraordinary degree of 
favor. Time has not impaired their well deserved 
popularity, and they are still now considered as a text¬ 
book for the student. They have been translated into all 
the European languages The best American edition is 
that published by T. Ellwood Zell, Philadelphia.D. 1800. 

Blair, Robert, an ingenious Scotch poet, and the min¬ 
ister of Athelstaneford, in E. Lothian, Scotland, b. 1699. 
Author of The Grave, in which is the oft-quoted senti¬ 
ment of “Angels’ visits, few and far between.” D. 1747. 

Blair, Francis Prbston, an Am. journalist, b. in Va., 
1791. From 1830-45, edited the “Globe,” at Washing¬ 
ton. D. 1876. Montgomery B., his son, b. in Ky., 1813, 
graduated at West Point in 1835; served in the Seminole 
war, left the army, and practised law in St. Louis; Post¬ 
master-General under Pres. Lincoln, 1861-64. Francis 
Preston, Jr., brother of the preceding, B. 1821; practised 
law in St. Louis; Member of the Legislature, 1852-4, 
and republican member of Congress, 1856-60-62; became 
Maj.-Gen Vols., 1862. In 1868, was defeated as the demo¬ 
cratic candidate for the Vice-Presidency. U. S. Senator 
from Missouri, 1871-3. D. 1875. 

Blair, in III., a P.O. of Randolph co.— In Mich., a P.O. , 
of Barry co. —In Penna., a S.S.W. cent, county. Area, 
650 sq. m.; drained by the Juniata R. and Clover Creek. 
Surf, mountainous; the Allegheny chain bounding it 
on the W., and Tassey’s Mountain on the E. Soil, partly 
fertile; iron and coal are extensively found and worked. 
Cap. Hollidaysburg. P. in 1890, 70,713.—A twp. of the. 
above co.—In W. Va., a P. 0. of Hancock co. 


Blairs'hnrg, in Iowa, a P.O. of Hamilton ce. 

Blairs'town, in Iowa, a P.V. of Benton co.—In N.J^ 
on Paulinskill Creek, 85 m. N. by W. from Trenton. 

Blairs'ville, in Geo., a P.V., cap of Union co.—In Illy, 
a vil of Williamson co.—In hid., a P.V. of Posey co.— 
In Missouri, a P.O. of St. Francois co.—In Pennsylvania, 
a post-borough of Indiana co., on Conemaugh River, 75 
m. E. of Pittsburg.— In S. Carolina, a P.O. of York dis¬ 
trict. 

Blaisois, ( blai-zwai’,) an ancient district of France, ia 
the Orleanais; cap. Blois. It now forms a part of the 
dep. of Loire-et-Cher. 

Blake, Robert, (blaik,) a celebrated English admiral, 
B. at Bridgewater, 1598. He was educated at Oxford, 
took part witli the Parliamentarians at the beginning 
of the civil war, and served under Colonel Fiennes at 
Bristol, when that town was taken by Prince Rupert. 
He afterwards assisted in taking Taunton by surprise, 
and of this place he was made governor, and, in 1645, 
defended it against Goring with such bravery for two 
successive sieges, that he was publicly thanked and re¬ 
warded by Parliament. In 164;. he was appointed com¬ 
mander of the fleet in conjunction with Deane and Pop- 
ham; and soon afterwards sailed in search of Prince 
Rupert, whose fleet lie blockaded in Kinsale harbor. 
The prince afterwards escaping to Lisbon, he was there 
followed by B., who demanded leave of the king of Por¬ 
tugal to attack him, and. being refused, lie took several 
of the Portuguese ships coming home from Brazil laden 
with treasure. During his absence. Prince Rupert made 

- sail to the Mediterranean, whither lie was followed by B., 
who attacked him in the harbor of Malaga, and destroyed 
nearly the whole of his fleet. Alter this, he returned 
to England with several prizes, again receiving the 
thanks of Parliament, by whom he was also made War¬ 
den of the Cinque Ports. Soon after this, he reduced 
the Scilly Isles, Guernsey, and Jersey, for which he was 
again thanked by the House, and appointed one of the 
Council of State. On the prospect of a war witli the 
Dutch in 1652, he was appointed sole admiral of the 
fleet, and was attacked in the Downs by Van Tromp, 
who had 45 sail, while B. had only 23. He fought, 
however, with such determination, that the Dutch admi¬ 
ral was glad to retreat. In the November following. 
Van Tromp sailed into the Downs, with above 80 men-of- 
war, and off the Goodwin Sands, on the 29tli of that 
month, an obstinate battle was fought between him and 
Blake, wiio had only half his force, and who was com¬ 
pelled to run with his shattered ships into the Thames. 
It was on this occasion that Van Tromp passed through 
the English Channel with a broom at bis main-top, sig¬ 
nifying that he had swept the sea of the English ships. 
In February, 1653, B. was enabled to put to sea with 80 
men-of-war, and off Cape La Hogue fell in with the 
Dutch, who had an equal number and 3. 0 merchantmen 
under convoy. A most bloody engagement ensued, 
which lasted three days, and in which the Dutch lost 11 
men-of-war and 30 merchant-vessels, while the English 
lost only 1 ship. In June following, the fleets of the 
belligerent admirals fought again off the Foreland; and 
the Dutch sustaining a severe defeat, barely saved them¬ 
selves in the shallow waters of Calais. In 1654, B. 
sailed into the Mediterranean, where lie demolished the 
castle of Tunis because the Dey refused to deliver up 
the English whom he held as captives. A squadron of 
his ships, also, under the command of Captain Stuyner, 
intercepted a Spanish Plate fleet, and took the admiral, 
vice-admiral, and two galleons. B. having received in¬ 
formation that another Plate fleet lay at Santa Cruz, 
in Teneriffe, sailed thither, and notwithstanding the 
strength of the place, boldly went in, burnt the ships, 
and came out with comparatively little loss, while the 
slaughter of the Spaniards was immense. For this, he 
again received the thanks of Parliament, and was pre¬ 
sented with a diamond ring worth £500. He soon after¬ 
wards returned to his station at Cadiz, blit his ill 
health inspired him with a strong desire to return to 
England ; and accordingly he set sail for his native land, 
but died as his ship was entering Plymouth harbor, 
August 27, 1657. 

Blake'ly Gun. See Gun. 

Blake'ly, in Ala., a village, the former cap. of Baldwin 
co., on the Tensaw river, 12 m. E. by N. tiorn Mobile. 
Its harbor is accessible to steamboats. Here the Con¬ 
federates had constructed a series of redoubts and lu¬ 
nettes armed with 40 guns; the garrison, consisting of 
about 3,000 men, was commanded by Gen. St. John Lidell. 
On the 9th of April, I 860 , the assault was made on these 
fortifications by the National troops under Gen. Steel. 
After a severe struggle, possession was taken of all the 
works, witli Gen. Lidell and ttie whole garrison as pri¬ 
soners of war. The Confederates lost, in killed and 
wounded, abt. 500 men ; the National loss was abt. 100. 

Blake'ly. in Georgia, a post-village, cap. of Early co., 
170 in. S.W. of Milledgeville, 

Blake'ly, in N. Carolina, a village of Stokes co. 

Blake'ly. in Pennsylvania, a township of Luzerne co., 
25 m. N. E. of Wilkesbarre. It toutaius rich mines of 
anthracite coal. 

Blake'ly, in Washington, a village of Kitsap co. 

Blakes'btirg, in Indiana, a village of Putnam co., 11 
m. N. E. of Greencastle. 

Blakes'burg;, in Iowa, a P. 0. of Wapello co. 

Blake’s Ferry, in Alabama, a village of Randolph 
county. 

Blakes'ville, in Indiana, a village of Harrison co., on 
the Ohio river, abt. 20 m. S. S. E. of Corydon. 

Blake'vllle, in Iowa, a post-village of Black Hawk 
co., abt. 8 ni. N. E. of Waterloo. 

Blake'ville, in New Hampshire, a village of Cbeshir® 
county. 










BLAN 


BLAN 


BLAN 


35 £ 


Bla key, Robert, ph.d., an English author; b. at Mor¬ 
peth, Northumberland, 1795. Devoting himself early in 
life to literature and philosophy, he published in 1S29 
his first regular werk on The Freedom of the Divine and 
Human Wills, which was favorably received, and 
brought him into notice among abstract thinkers. It 
Wiis followed in 1833 by his History of Moral Science. 
This work has since become a text-book in many of the 
colleges in the U. States In 1834 he wrote his Essay on 
Logic, chiefly with a view to popularize this branch of 
knowledge. Dr. B. published several other volumes, 
among which may be mentioned The Lives of the Prim i¬ 
tive Fathers of the Church, and The History of the Phi¬ 
losophy of Mind. For the last the author received com¬ 
mendations from MM. Victor Cousin, Gioberti, Grayer, 
and numerous German savans, and a gold medal from 
the King of the Belgians. In 1835 he was appointed 
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in Queen's Col¬ 
lege, Belfast, which he relinquished on account of ill 
health. His Temporal Benefits of Christianity, and his 
Historical Sketch of Logic, appeared in rapid succession, 
followed by the History of Political Literature. Dr. B. 
is the author of several volumes on angling and sport¬ 
ing topics, and a contributor to the Encyclopedia Bri- 
tannica, etc. The University of Jena conferred upon 
him the honorary degree of Ph.D. in recognition of the 
merits of his.philosoohical writings. D. Oct. 6,1878. 
Blamable, a. Deserving of blame or censure. 

“ Two extremes are equally blamable.'' —Dryden. 

Blam'ableness, n. The state of being liable to 

blame; culpableness. 

Blam'ably, adv. Culpably; in a manner deserving of 
censure. 

Blaine, (bldm,) v. a. [Fr. bldmer; Gr blasphemed, from 
blapsis — hlaoto, to damage, to hurt, and phemi, to speak.] 
To speak disparagingly or reproachfully of; to censure ; 
to find fault with; to disparage; to condemn; to up¬ 
braid; to reprimand; to pass an unfavorable judgment 
upon. 

— n. Imputation of a fault; expression of disapprobation; 

censure; reprehension; fault; crime; sin. 
Blame'ful, a. Culpable; blamable. 

Blame'fully, adv. In a culpable manner: blamably. 
Blameless, n. Free from blame; guiltless; innocent. 
Blame'lessly, adv. Innocently ; without fault. 
Blame'lessness, n. Quality of being blameless; in¬ 
nocence; a state of being not worthy of censure. 
Blam'er, a. One who blames; a censurer. 

Blame worthiness, n. The quality of deserving 
blame. 

Blame worthy, a. That is worthy of blame. 
Blanc, Jean Joseph Louis, a French historian and po¬ 
litical writer, B. at Madrid, Oct. 28, 1813, is of Corsican 
extraction, his mother, nee Estelle Pozzo di Borgo, be¬ 
longing to the same family as the celebrated diplomatist 
of that name. When 19 years old, he went to Paris, and 
wrote for several daily journals Afterwards, at Arras, 
he contributed to one of the most important republican 
papers of the Department—the Progres du Pus de Ca¬ 
lais. In 1839 he founded the Revue du Progres, in which 
he first published “The Organization of Labor.” As he 
was returning home, one evening in Oct.. 1839, he was 
suddenly assailed from behind by some ruffian, who in¬ 
flicted a violent blow with a stick on his right eye. The 
author of this cowardly assault, which was made the 
day after L. B. had published a review of Louis Bona¬ 
parte's work, Les I tees NapoUoniennes, was never dis¬ 
covered. L. B. had a brother younger one year than 
himself, who was at that time at Rodez, in the depart¬ 
ment of F Aveyron, and who entertained so strong a 
conviction that his brother was being assaulted at the 
preci e moment when it really occurred, that he was in¬ 
duced to write at once for information to Paris. This 
incident was the origin of Dumas’s “ Corsican Brothers,” 
the main subject of which is the preternatural sympa¬ 
thy between two brothers. L. B having become a clerk 
in a notary’s office, soon found more cougenial occupa¬ 
tion as tutor in a private family, and shortly afterwards 
made his way to eminence among the journalists of 
Paris. The important part that he played in the stormy 
days of 1848 has become a matter of history. He was 
elected a member of the Provisional Government, and it 
has been erroneously asserted that, while serving his 
country in that capacity, he created and organized the 
famous National Workshops, a scheme that he strenu¬ 
ously deprecated and opposed, and which, to use the 
words of Lamartine, “ was the device of his adversa¬ 
ries.” This calumny was so ingeniously and industri¬ 
ously disseminated, to serve the purpose of political in¬ 
trigues, that it was long credited, in spite of many un¬ 
questionable proofs of its fallacy. M Louis Blanc, when 
a member of the Provisional Government, prevailed upon 
his colleagues to abolish capital punishment for politi¬ 
cal offences; and on being returned one of the represen¬ 
tatives of Paris by 120,000 votes, after the Provisional 
Government had surrendered its power into the hands of 
the National Assembly, he brought forward and carried 
the motion for a repeal of the law by which the family 
of the Bonapartes was doomed to perpetual exile. To 
the abrogation of this law. Louis Napoleon was indebted 
for permission to return to France, and consequently for 
nis subsequent wonderful good fortune. The circum¬ 
stances that led to L. B.'s quitting France, and taking up 
his abode in England, may be briefly stated. A violent 
demonstration was made, May 15, 1848, in favor of Po¬ 
land, by numbers of people, who invaded the hall of the 
National Assembly. L. B. exerted himself to check this 
unwarrantable attempt at popular dictation. Although 
the workingmen who took part in the demonstration did 
not follow his advice, they showed him sympathy and 
respec t, which his enemies turned against him, making 


them the pretext for an attempt to proscribe him. This 
unfounded charge fell to the ground, and it was not un¬ 
til amid the excitement that prevailed after the saugui- 
nary insurrection of June in the same year, when the 
minds of many were under the influence of a frantic re¬ 
actionary movement, that the charge already disproved 
was revived, and his proscription resolved upon, and voted 
by the very men, indeed, who had but a short time before 
proclaimed his innocence. One of the most prominent of 
L. B.'s literary undertakings was his Hist/are de Dix 
Ans, (1830-1840,) which passed through several editions 
and exercised great influence on political events in 
France, during the latter portion of the reign of Louis 
Philippe. His larger and more important production, 
the History of the French Revolution, written during his 
residence in England, has recently been completed, and 
consists of 12 vols. Historical Revelations, intended to 
expose the misrepresentations in Lord Normanby's nar¬ 
rative of events that occurred in Paris after the fall of 
Louis Philippe's govt., was published in 1859. B., who 
while in England had acted as correspondent to several 
French journals, published Letters on England, 1866. In 
1871, after the fall of the 2d empire, B. returned to 
Paris, and was elected to the Nat. Assembly. D. 1882. 
Blanc, (Mont,) (‘ White Mountain,’) the highest sum¬ 
mit in Europe, belonging to the Alps of Savoy; extending 
from S.W. to N.E. bet. 45° 46'and 45° 57' N. Lat. In this 
direction it may have a length of abt. 13 m.; its breadth 
varies from five to six miles. This enormous mass of 
primitive rock rises far above the line of perpetual con¬ 
gelation, and descends with great steepness and to a 
vast depth on the N.W. and S.E ; the valleys, which 
bound the mountain on these sides, being only between 
3,000 and 4.000 feet above the level of the sea. The val¬ 
ley to the north-west consists properly of two valleys, 
those of Montjoie and of Chamouni, which are sepa¬ 
rated by a lateral branch of the mountain for some dis¬ 
tance, but afterwards join one another. The valley of 
Chamouni is the larger, and the place to which travel¬ 
lers commonly resort to have a view of Mont Blanc, 
or to ascend it; the village of Chamouni, or the Prie- 
ure, which is nearly in the centre of the valley, is 3,403 
feet above the level ol the sea. The valley to the south¬ 
east of the mountain mass, called the Valley of Entreves, 
consists properly of two valleys, which lie in the same 
direction, and open one into the other, which takes 
place nearly at. equal distances from the extremities of 
the mountain-mass. The lowest point of this valley is 
Cormaggiore, situated 3,900 feet above the level of the 
sea. The southern extremity of the mountain is both 
united to and separated from the high mountain-range 
which extends in a southern direction to the very shores 
of the Mediterranean Sea, by the Col de Seigne. This 
mountain-pass, the highest part of which is below the 
point of eternal snow, rising only to 8,083 ft, unites the 
Valley of Bonneval in Savoy with the Valley of Entreves 
in Piedmont, and presents one of the grandest views of 
Mont Blanc. The northern extremity of the moun¬ 
tain is connected with the high range which, running to 
the east, separates the Valais (or Wallis) from Pied¬ 
mont ; and with another, which, extending in a north¬ 
western direction, divides Savoy from the Valais, and ter¬ 
minates at no great distance from the Lake of Geneva. 
From the former range it is separated by the Col de Fer¬ 
ret, or Ferrex, a mountain-pass, 7,764 feet above the sea, 
which connects the Valley of Ferret, or Ferrex, with that 
of Entreves. From the range of mountains extending 
to the Lake of Geneva, Mont Blanc is divided by the 
Col de Balme. which unites the Valley of Chamouni 
with that of Trent in the Valais, and rises to 7,552 ft. 
The whole mountain mass enclosed between the valleys 
and these three mountain-passes probably rises to up¬ 
wards of 10,000 feet: and, as in this parallel thesnow-line 
does not extend beyond 9,000 or 9,300 feet, it probably 
is about 1,000 feet above it. It is consequently all 
covered with snow, except in a few places where the 
steepness of the rock does not allow the snow to lie. 
The upper surface is extremely irregular, and a con¬ 
siderable number of rocks rise from it, which, from their 
resemblance to pyramids or steeples, are called aiguilles, 
or needles. Towards its southern extremity this ex¬ 
tensive mass of rocks rises to its greatest elevation in 
that mountain pinnacle properly called Mont Blanc, 
whose summit attains the height of about 15,777 feet 
above the sea, in 45° 41' 52" N. Lat., and 6° 44' 22''E. 
Lon. When seen from the north or south, it presents the 
form of a pyramid, descending nearly perpendicularly to 
thesouth. When seenfrom theN.E.orthe Valley of Cha¬ 
mouni, it resembles the back of a dromedary, and is called 
by the inhabitants of that valley Bosse de Dromaduire. 
Near it rises the Aiguille de Goute to the height of 
12.204 feet. Farther to the N.E. the Aiguille du Midi 
attains 12,854 feet, and its neighbor, the Aiguille de 
Geaut. 13,902 feet Still farther to the N.W. stands the 
Aiguille d'Argentier, 13,400 feet high, and to the west 
of it the Aiguille de Dru, 12,460 feet. The most north¬ 
ern and lowest is the Aiguille de Tour, whose summit 
is only 11,036 feet above the level of the sea. There are 
still more of these peaks, but they have not been no¬ 
ticed by travellers. Mont Blanc exhibits all the gran¬ 
deur of the Alps on a large scale. High tapering pyra¬ 
mids covered with eternal snow: extensive fields of ice, 
split to a great depth by wide cracks; glaciers of green 
color descending from its sides between bare dark-color¬ 
ed perpendicular rocks, and skirted by forests of fir; 
and grottos formed in the masses of eternal ice, — in addi¬ 
tion to all the other varieties of mountain scenery, — at¬ 
tract great numbers of curious and scientific travellers. 
The waterfalls are numerous, and some of them magnifi¬ 
cent, particularly the Cascade des Pelerins, of which we 
give an illustration, situated near Chamouni, and which is 


one of the most curious and beautiful scenes in the Alps. 
A torrent issues from the Glacier des Pelerins, high up the 
mountain, above the Glacier des Bossons, and descends, 
by a succession of leaps, into a deep gorge, from precipice 
to precipice, almost in one continual cataract; but it is 
all the while merely gathering force, and preparing for 
its last magnificent deep plunge and recoil of beauty. 
Springing in one round condensed column out of the 
gorge, over a perpendicular cliff, it strikes, at its fall, 
with its whole body of water, into a sort of vertical rock 
basin, which one would suppose its prodigious velocity 
and wx-ight would split into a thousand pieces; but the 
whole cataract, thus arrested, at once suddenlv re¬ 
bounds in a parabolic arch, at least 60 feet into the air; 
and then, having made this splendid airy curvature, fall* 
with great noise and beauty into the natural channel 
below. It is beyond measure beautiful. The first meir 



tionmadeof Mont Blanc does not go back a century. If 
we are not mistaken, this mountain was first noticed by 
Richard Pococke. who. in his travels to the East, being 
struck by its extraordinary height and appearance, de¬ 
scribed it in his account of the glaciers ol Switzerland. 
Nearly fifty years elapsed after Pococke’s description, be¬ 
fore it was ascended, for the first time, by Dr. Paccard 
and James Balmat, with great difficulty and danger, in 
August. 1786. A year afterwards, Saussure succeeded 
in reaching the summit, where he remained for five 
hours, and made a great number of observations. The 
pulse of the whole company, which was composed of 12 
persons, beat with extreme quickness, and all of them 
felt great thirst and exhaustion, without any desire to 
take food. The color of the sky was dark blue; the stars 
were visible in the shade: the barometer sank to 16 
inch 1 line, while at Geneva it stood at 27 inch. 1 line; 
the thermometer indicated in the shade -f 26]^°, and in 
the sun + 29°. while at Geneva it -was -|- 87°of Fahren¬ 
heit. Water consequently froze even when exposed to 
the sun. Since Saussure’s ascent, Mont Blanc has been 
often ascended, but no very important observations have 
been made since that date. 

Blanc, (Be,) a town of France, dep. Indre, on the 
Creuse, 33 m. W.S.W. of Chateaurnux. It is an ill-built 
end precipitously situated town, is very ancient, and w as 
olten frequented by the Roman legions. 

Blan'card, » [Fr. blanchard. from blanc. white. [ A 
kind of linen cloth manufactured in Normandy. 

Blanc d’Argent,!!. [Fr.,silver-white.] (Paint.) This 
is a false appellation for a white lead, called also French 
white. It is first produced in the form of dross, is ex¬ 
quisitely white, and has all the properties of the best 
white leads: but, being liable to the same changes as 
the flake-white, it is unfit for general use as a water 
color, though good in oils or varnish. 

Blanctl, ( blansh ,) v. a [Fr. blanchir .] To make to shine; 
to whiten; to make white by taking out the color; to 
change to white. • 

And sin’s black dye seems blanch d by age to virtue. —Dryden, 

—To strip or peel such things as have husks. 

“Their suppers may be bisket, raisins, and a few blanched 
almonds.”— Wiseman. 

— v. n. To grow white; as, v his cheeks blanched with fear. 

Blanchard. (blnn'shahr,) Francois, a French aeronaut, 
b. in 1738, was distinguished from his youth by his me¬ 
chanical inventions. After making his first aerostatic 
voyage in 1784, he crossed the Channel from Dover to 
Calais, in 1785; for which exploit he was rewarded by tlio 
king of France with 12,000 francs, and a pension of 1.200 f. 
He first made use of a parachute in London, in 1785 ; 
went through various countries on the Continent, ex¬ 
hibiting Ids aeronautic skill: visited America with the 
same object; and, returning in 1798, ascended at Rouen 
























360 


BLAN 


BLAN 


BLAB 


with 16 persons in a large balloon, and descended at a 
place 15 m. distant. He d. in 1809. — His wife, Madame 
Blanchard, continued to make aerial voyages; but in 
June. 1819, having ascended from Tivoli, in Paris, her 
balloon took tire, at a considerable height, owing to 
some fireworks which she carried with her, the car fell, 
and the hapless aeronaut was dashed to pieces. 
Blanchard. in Maine, a post-township of Piscataquis 
co., 120 m. N.E. of Augusta. 

Blanchard, in Ohio, a thriving townshi) a Hancock 
co. 

—A township of Hardin co. 

--A township of Putnam co. 

Blanchard’s Bridge, in Ohio, a post-village of 
Hancock co., Hancock township. 

Blanchard's Fork, in Ohio, takes its rise in the 
central part of the State, and falls in the Auglaize River 
in Putnam co. 

Blanch'ardsville, in Wisconsin, a post-office of La¬ 
fayette co. 

Blanche, in Missouri, a post-office of Douglas co. 
Blanche Furnace, in Pennsylvania, a village of 
Mercer co. 

Blanche of Castile, Queen of Louis YITI. of 
France, was daughter of Alfonzo IX., King of Castille, 
and was lorn in 1187. She was married to Louis in 
1200, was crowned with him in 1223, and on his death 3 
years later, became regent during the minority of her 
son, Louis IX., displaying great energy and address as 
a ruler. She opposed the departure of Louis for the 
crusade, but accompanied him to Cluni, and carried on 
the government in his stead. His long absence, and the 
rumor of his intention to settle in the Holy Land, caused 
her great sorrow, and she d. in 1252. 

Blanch'er, n. One who blanches or whitens. 
Blan'chester, in Ohio, a post-village of Clinton co., 
15 m. S.S.W. of Wilmington. 

Blanchiui'eter, n. [Eng. blanch, and Gr. metron, a 
measure.] (Chem.) An instrument used in ascertaining 
the bleaching-powers of chloride of lime and potash. 
Blanch'ing, n. The act or art of whitening or mak¬ 
ing anything white. — (Coin.) An operation performed 
by annealing, washing, and cleansing the money. 

•—The process of covering irou plates with a thin coat of 
tin is also called blanching. 

(Cookery.) The peeling and whitening of almonds, &c. 
(Hnrt.) The whitening of the stems, stalks, or leaves 
of plants by tying them together, or by earthing them 
up, so as to exclude the light. Its object is generally 
to diminish the intensity of their native properties, and 
to render them more crisp and agreeable to the palate. 
Blanc-mangcr, Bla.nomange, (bla-monj',) n. [Fr., 
white food.] (Cookery.) A preparation of milk, cream, 
sugar, and isinglass, which are boiled together. After 
being flavored with lemon-peel, brandy, &e., the fluid is 
run into a mould and allowed to congeal. It is sometimes 
prescribed as a nutriment during convalescence, and in 
chronic diseases. 

Blan'co, in Texas, a central co., watered by Guadalupe, 
Pederuales, and Rio Blanco rivers; area, about 710 sq. 
m. Pop. (1890) 4,635. Cap. Johnson City. 

—A village of the above co., situated about 50 m. W. S. W. 
of Austin. 

Blan'co, Cape, a celebrated cape on the \Y. coast of 
Africa; Lat. 20° 46'26" N., Lon. 17° 4' 10" W. This 
cape, which was discovered by the Portuguese in 1441, 
forms the extremity of a rocky ridge, called the Geb-el- 
reid, or White Mountain, projecting into the sea in a S. 
direction. Inside the cape is a spacious bay, which has 
on its S.E. side the bank and town of Arguin. 

Bland, a. [Lat. blandus; probably from the root of 
Unis, with a prefix; 0. Ger. lind; Dan. lind, soft, mild, 
and gentle.] Soft; smooth; soothing; gentle; mild. 

“ And even calm 

Perpetual reign'd, save what the zephyrs bland 
Breath'd o’er the blue expanse.’ — Thomson. 

Bland, in Virginia, a S.W. co., bounded on the S.E. by a 
range called Walker’s Mountain; area, abt. 350 sq. m. It 
is drained by Walker’s and Wolf creeks. 

Bland'ensvillc, or Kland'insville, in Illinois, a. 
village of McDonough co. 

Bland'ford, a borough of England, co. Dorset, 98 m. 
S.W. of London. It is a neat little town, situated 
amid a fine tract of sheep pastures. 

Bland'ford, in Virginia, a village of Dinwiddie co., 
about 1% m. E. Petersburg, 

Bland'insville, in Illinois, a post-township of Mc¬ 
Donough co., 33 m. E.N.E. of Keokuk. 

Blan'dish, v. a. [0. Fr. brandir; Lat. brandior, bran- 
ditus, from Wandas, bland; O. Eng. blandise.] To soften; 
to soothe; to caress; to flatter. 

—r. n. To act or speak courteously; to be soft in words or 
manners. 

Blan'dishment, Blandishing;, n. Act of blan¬ 
dishing; soft words; kind speeches; caresses; flattery. 
Bland'ness, n. State of being bland. 

Bl&n'don, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Berks co., 
8 m. N.N.E. of Reading. 

Bland'vllle, in Kentucky, a township and village, cap. 

of Ballard co., on Mayfield Creek. 

Bla'nes, a town of Spain, prov. of Gerona, 22 m. S. of 
the city of that name, with a port on the Mediterra¬ 
nean ; pop. 5,726. 

Bland'ford. in Massachusetts, a post-township of Hamp¬ 
den co., 15 m. W. by N. of Springfield. 

Blank, (blangk), a. [Fr. blanc, from the same root zs 
blanch.] White; shining. 

•• To the blank moon — her office they prescribed.”— Milton. 
—Void; empty; void of writing or letters. 

•* Upon the debtor side I find innumerable articles; but, upon 
the creditor side, little more than blank paper."— Addison. 


—Pale from fear, terror, Ac.; confused. 

* % But now uo face diviue couteutiuent wears; 

'Tis all blank sadness, or coDtiaual fears.”— Pope. 

—Without rhyme; when the rhyme is blanched or omitted. 

•* Our blank verse, wheu there is no rhyme to support the ex¬ 
pression, is extremely difficult to such as are not masters in the 
tongue.” 

Blank, n. [From the adjective.] A void space on paper. 

1 cannot write a paper full as I used to do : and yet I will not 
forgive a blank of half au inch from you."— Swift . 

—A lot by which nothing is gained. 

*• In fortune's lottery lies 

*• A heap of blanks like this, for one small prize."— Dryden. 

—A paper unwritten; anything without marks or char¬ 
acters. 

“Life may be one great blank, which, though not blotted with 
sin, is yet without any characters of grace or virtue.”— Boyers . 

—The white spot or mark which a shot is to hit. 

(Law.) A space left in writing to be filled up with 
one or more words to complete the sense. When a blank 
is left in a written agreement which need not have been 
reduced to writing, and would have been equally bind¬ 
ing whether written or unwritten, it is presumed, in an 
action for the non-performance of the contract, parol 
evidence might be admitted to explain the blank. And 
when a written instrument, which was made professedly 
to record a fact, is produced as evidence of that fact 
which it purports to record, and a blank appears in a 
material part, the omission may be supplied by other 
proof. 

B. Indorsement. See Indorsement. 

—1>. a. To deprive of color; to damp; to confuse. 

” If the atheist, when he dies, should find that his soul remains, 
how will this man be amazed and blanked l "—Tillotson. 

Blank'-bar, n. (Law.) See Common Bar. 

Blank'-cartridg;e, n. (Mil.) A charge of powder for 
a rifle or other gun, containing no ball or shot. It is 
usually used for firing salutes, and in exercising troops. 

Blank'-door, n. (Arch.) A blank door is that which 
is either shut to prevent passage, or placed in the back of 
a recess where there is no entrance, so as to appear like 
a real door. — A B. window is that which is made to ap¬ 
pear like a real window; but is only formed in the recess 
of a wall. 

Blank'enbnrg, a walled town of N. Germany, in the 
duchy of Brunswick, formerly cap. of a principality of 
the same name, 37 m. S.S.E. of Brunswick city. Here 
is a palace of the Dukes of Brunswick. On the summit 
of the Regenstein, close by, are the remains of a large 
castle, constructed by Henry the Fowler, in 919, con¬ 
sisting of chambers cut out of the rock. Pop. 4,377. 

Blan'ket, n. [Fr. blanchet, the blanket of a printing- 
press.] (Com.) A soft, loosely-woven woollen stuff, prin¬ 
cipally used for bed-coverings and wrappers ; also, as a 
covering for horses, Ac. 

(Printing.) A woollen cloth or fine baize, which is 
laid between the tympans of a press. 

(Hort.) A delicious variety of pear. It is sometimes 
written blanquet, and in French, blanquette. 

(Hist.) To toss in a blanket, [which happened to the 
unfortunate esquire of Don Quixote, as every one knows,] 
is a very ancient custom, and was applied by way of 
punishment. The Emperor Otlio used to go forth upon 
dark nights, and if he found a drunken man, he would 
order the discipline of the blanket to be administered.— 
Formerly, B. were used in theatres instead of curtains. 
(See Macbeth i. 5.) 

— v. a. To cover with a blanket. 

*• My face I'll grime with filth ; 

Blanket my loins; tie all my hair in knots.” — Shake. 

—To toss in a blanket, by way of penalty or contempt. 

Ah I oh ! he cry'd, what street, what lane, but knows 

Our purgings, pumpings, blaitketings, and blows." — Pope 

Blanket Hill, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Arm¬ 
strong co. 

Blan'keting, n. The act of tossing in a blanket. 
See Blanket. — Cloth or material for blankets. 

Blank'ly, adv. In a blank manner; with paleness or 
confusion. 

Blank'ness, n. State of being blank. 

Blank-verse',n. (Pros.) Verse which is void of rhyme; 
any kind of verse in which there is not rhyme, blanched 
or omitted. The verse of the Greeks and Romans — at 
least such of it as has come down to us — is without 
rhyme. The Goths are said to have introduced rhyme 
from the East into the languages of modern Europe, 
and in the Middle Ages it came to be commonly em¬ 
ployed in poetical composition, both in the Latin and 
vernacular tongues, by most of the nations of Europe. 
About the 15th century, when the passion for imitating 
classical models became general, attempts were made in 
Italy, France, and other countries, to reject rhyme as a 
barbarous innovation. The first attempt at blank-verse 
in English appears to have been a translation of the first 
and fourth books of the iEneid by the Earl of Surrey, 
who was executed in 1547. Its suitability for the drama 
was at once felt, and it was in general use in dramatic 
composition before Shakspeare began to write, which is 
supposed to have been about 1591. It was, however, 
almost entirely confined to the drama down to the ap¬ 
pearance of “ Paradise Lost,” by Milton, in 1667. In an 
advertisement to the second edition of this work, the 
author, in answering objections to the want of rhyme, 
says: “This neglect of rhyme is so little to be taken for 
a defect, though it may seem so, perhaps, to vulgar read¬ 
ers, that it is rather to be esteemed an example, set the 
first in English, of anc?°ot liberty recovered to heroic 
poem from the troubles*,^ - and modern bondage of 
rhyming.” Since Milton s tn_ blank-verse has come 
into use in various kinds of poetry besides the dramatic; 


but it is principally in the heroic metre of ton syllables 
that blank-verse is used, and, indeed, by some the term 
is restricted to that kind of metre. As an example of 
blank verse: 

Of man s | first dis | obe | dience, and I the fruit 
Of that | forbid | den tree | whose mor ] tal taste 
Brought sin | into | the world, | and all | our woo. 
Frequently, in dramatic blank-verse, a supernumerary 
syllable occurs at the end of the line, as — 

To be, | or not | to be, | that is | the ques I lion. 

In blank-verse, the poet is less encumbered than in anj 
other species of versification; and hence it is particu¬ 
larly adapted for subjects calling fortli sublime and no¬ 
ble emotions. “The constrained elegance of this kind 
of versification (rhyme), and the studied smoothness of 
the sounds, answering regularly to each other at the end 
of the line, though they be quite consistent witli gentle 
emotions, yet weaken the native force of sublimity; be¬ 
sides that, the superfluous words which the poet is often 
obliged to introduce, in order to fill up the rhyme, tend 
further to enfeeble it.” (Blair.) —It is also free from the 
full close which rhyme forces upon the ear at the end of 
each couplet, and allows the lines to run into each other 
without constraint. The German, probably, of all the 
languages of modern Europe, admits the greatest vari¬ 
ety of blank-verse measures. From the practice of mod¬ 
ern German poets it would appear that any specieB of 
verse which may be used in that language with rhyme, 
may also be used without it. In the German transla¬ 
tions from Greek and Roman poets we find every spe¬ 
cies of ancient metre successfully imitated, and of course 
without rhyme. That which approaches nearest to, or 
rather is identical with, our ten-syllable blank-verse, U 
also much used, as in the following example: 

Der blinde Greis erhub sich alsobald, 

Wlhlt einen Text, erklirt ihn, wandt' ihn an, 

Ermahnte, warnte, strafte, trbslete 

So herziich. dass die Tbrknen mildiglich 

Ihm niederliossen in den grauen Bart. — Koskgabtsk. 

Blank/-window, n. (Arch.) See Blank-door. 

Blanqtii, ( blang'ke ,) Jerome Adolphe, a political 
French economist, was b. at Nice, 1798, and educated at 
the Lyceum there. In 1814, his family quitted Nice, 
and young B. went to complete his studies at Paris, 
where he became acquainted with J. B. Say, who induced 
him to turn his attention to the study of political econ¬ 
omy. In 1825, by Say’s recommendation, he was ap¬ 
pointed Professor of History and of Industrial Economy 
in the Commercial School at Paris. On the death of 
Say, he was appointed Professor of Industrial Economy 
in the “Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers,” and was one 
of the editors of the Didionnaire de VIndustrie. Manufac- 
turiere, Commerciale, et Agricole. In June, 1838, he be¬ 
came a member of the Academy of Moral and Political 
Sciences. The Academy sent him to Corsica to study the 
condition of that country, and in 1839 to Algiers, for the 
same purpose. In 1841 he visited Turkey. In 1851 the 
Academy, which highly valued his abilities, requested 
him to furnish a complete account of London in its finan¬ 
cial and other aspects. This task he executed to the 
satisfaction of the savans who employed him. He died 
at Paris on the 28th of January, 1854. B., as a national 
economist, was somewhat inclined to Socialism. Like 
his master, Say, he was in favor of free trade. In method, 
he was ingenious; in style, transparent; and even the 
Uryest discussions become interesting, from bis lively 
mode of treating them. His principal works are:- 
Voyagt d'un jeune Frangais en AngUUrre et en Ecosse, 
(Paris, 1824;) Resume de VHistoire du Commerce et de 
VIndustrie, (Paris, 1826;) Precis Elementaire d'Economic 
Politique, precede d'une Introduction I/istorique, et suvvi 
d'une. Biographic des Economistes, Ac., (Paris. 1826;) 
and, most important of all, the Histoire de VEcanomit 
Politique en Europe., depuis les Ancient jusqu'd not 
jours, suivie d'une Bibliographic raisonnee des Princi - 
paux Ouvrages d’Eamomie Politique. 

Blanqui, Louis Auguste, the brother of the economist, 
was b. at Nice in 1805. He has made himself conspicu¬ 
ous chiefly by his rapid advocacy of the most extreme 
political opinions. From an early age he dabbled in con¬ 
spiracy, and submitted to its penalties with the pride of 
a martyr. After the revolution of February, he formed 
the Central Republican Society, which menaced the very 
existence of the Provisional Government. He it was 
also who organized the popular outbreak on the loth 
May, the aim of which was to overthrow the Constitu¬ 
ent Assembly, although it has been alleged that he was 
driven to this step by the impatience and violence of his 
party, or, more properly, his club. At the head of an 
excited mass, he made his appearance before the na¬ 
tional representatives, and demanded the“ Resuscitation 
of the Polish Nationality!” and the dissolution of the 
Assembly. B. was arrested, tried, and condemned to 
ten years imprisonment in Belleisle. In 1871, B. was 
an active member of the- too celebrated Commune of 
Paris. Arrested in 1872, he was again tried, and con¬ 
demned to deportation for life in a fortress. Released 
and returned to Paris, where he D. in 1880. 

Blanquil'la, an island in the Caribbean Sea, 74 m. 
N.N.E. of Portugal. It belongs to Venezuela. 

Blaps.n. (Zool.) A genus of coleopterous insects, family 
Blapsidce. The type of genus and family is the species 
Blaps mnrtisnga, a very common insect, found in dark, 
damp, and dirty places about houses. It is black, but 
little shining: the tip of the elytra forms a short ob¬ 
tuse point, and is about inch in length. 

Blap'siitlfe.ra./)!. (Zoiil.) See Blaps. 

Blare, v. n. [Du. blaren ; Ger. bliirren, pldrren, tc blea^ 
to weep.] To hallow; to roar. (R.) 

— n. Noise; roar: sound. (R.) 

(Cbm.) A small coin of Berue, value about 2 cent*. 








BLAS 


BLAS 


BLAZ 


361 


Blar'ney. in Ireland, a village in co. Cork. It has a 
fine old castle, and is remarkable for having in its neigh¬ 
borhood the famous Blarney Stone, the kissing of which 
is said to confer upon the Irish an eloquent power in 
the language of courtship, called blarney. 

Blas'ket Islands, a group of rocky islands, at the 
entrance of Dingle Bay, S.W. coast of Ireland. One of 
these, called Tiraght, forms the westernmost land in 
Europe. 

Blaspheme', v. a. [Fr. blaspheme ; Gr. blasphemed. See 
Blame.J To speak injuriously, reproachfully, and irrev¬ 
erently of the Supreme Being; to revile, speak, or 
write reproachfully or impiously of God or of sacred 
things. — To speak evil of; to utter abuse or calumny 
against; to speak reproachfully of. 

“ Those who from our labours heap their board. 

Blaspheme their feeder, and forget their lord.”— Pope. 

— v. n. To utter blasphemy. 

Blasphem'er, n. One who blasphemes. 

Blasphem'eress, n. A female who blasphemes. 

Blasphem'inji', n. The act of blasphemy. 

filas'phemoiis.a. Uttering or containing blasphemy; 
impiously, irreverent in regard to God or sacred things. 

Blas'ptiemously, adv. In a blasphemous manner. 

Bias'pliemy, n. A crime marked for public punish¬ 
ment in the laws of most civili/.ed nations, and which 
has been regarded as of such enormity by many nations 
as to be punished with death. The word is Greek, but it 
has found its way into the English and several other 
modern languages, owing, it is supposed, to the want of 
native terms to express with precision and brevity the 
idea of which it is the representative. Etymologically, 
it denotes speaking so as to strike or hurt; the using to 
a person's face reproachful and insulting expressions. 
In this general way it is used by Greek writers, and even 
In the New Testament; as in 1 Tim. vi. 4, “Whereof 
■cometh envy, strife, railings, evil summings,” where the 
word rendered “railings” is, in the original, “ blasphe¬ 
mies.” Thus, also, in Mark vii. 22, our Saviour himself, 
in enumerating various evil dispositions or practices, 
mentions, an “evil eye, blasphemy, pride, foolishness,'’ 
not meaning, as it seems, more than the ordinary case 
of insulting speech. B. in this sense, however much to be 
avoided as immoral and mischievous, is not marked as 
a crime, and its suppression is left to the ordinary in¬ 
fluences of morals and religion, and not provided for by 
law. In this seuse, indeed, the word can hardly be 
said to be naturalized among us. though it may occasion¬ 
ally be found in the poets, and in those prose-writers 
who exercise an inordinate curiosity in the selection of 
their terms. But, besides being used to denote insulting 
and opprobrious speech in general, it was used to denote 
iSpeech of that kind of a peculiar nature, namely, when 
the object against which it was directed ? person 
esteemed sacred, but especially when agaiuoi, God.— 
Among the canonists, the definition of B. is made to 
include the denying God, or the asserting anything 
to be God, which is not God: and this extended appli¬ 
cation of the term has been received in most Christian 
countries, and punishments more or less severe have 
been denounced against the crime. — In England, by 
the conimou law, open blasphemy was punishable by 
fine and imprisonment, or other infamous corporeal pun¬ 
ishment. The kind of B. which was thus cognizable is 
described by Blackstone to be “denying the being or 
providence of God, contumelious reproaches of our Sa¬ 
viour Christ, profane scoffing at the Holy Scriptures, or 
■exposing it to contempt and ridicule.” ( Commentaries, 
b. iv. c. iv.) All these heads, except the first, seem to 
spring immediately from the root-sense of the word B.. 
as theyareof that hurtful and insulting speech which the 
word denotes. And we suspect, that, whenever the com¬ 
mon law was called into operation to punish persons 
guilty of the first of these forms of B.,ix. was only when 
the denial was accompanied with opprobrious words or 
.gestures, which seem to be essential to complete the 
true crime of B . Errors in opinion, even on points 
which are of the very essence and being of religion, were 
referred in England in early times to the ecclesiastics, 
as falling under the denomination of heretical opinions 
(see HERiisr), to be dealt with by them as other heresies 
were. There is nothing in the statute book under the 
word B. till we come to the reign of King William III. In 
that reign an Act was passed, the title of which is “An Act 
for the more effectual suppression ot'B. and Profaueness.” 
It states that “ many persons have of late years openly 
avowed and published many blasphemous and infamous 
opinions, contrary to the doctrines and principles of the 
•Christian religion, greatly tending to the dishonor of 
Almighty God, and may prove destructive to the peace 
ami welfare of this kingdom;” and enacts that if any per¬ 
son or persons having been educated in, or having made 
a profession of the Christian religion within this realm, 
“shall by writing, printing, teaching, or advised speak¬ 
ing, deny any one of the persons of the Holy Trinity to 
be God, or shall assert or maintain that there are more 
gods than one, or shall deny the Christian religion to 
be true, or the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Tes¬ 
tament to be of divine authority, shall, for the fiist 
offence, be adjudged incapable of holding any office or 
| employment, ecclesiastical, civil, or military; and, on a 
second conviction, shall be disabled to sue, prosecute, 
plead, or use any action in any court of law or equity, 
and shall also suffer imprisonment for three years.” The 
' main provisions of this Act remain still in force; but by 
53 Geo. III. c. 160, those who deny the doctrine of the 
Trinity are exempted from its penalties. In 1841, the 
law against blasphemy was enforced upon Mr. Moxon 
for publishing an edition of Shelley’s “Queen Mab; 
but the sentence was merely nominal. In Scotland, 
blasphemy was, by Acts of the Scottish parliament 
22 


passed in 1661 and 1695, punishable by death; and the 
last who suffered capital punishment for this crime in 
Scotland, was Thomas Aikenhead, a student of divinity, 
who was executed, 1696. These severe statutes were, 
however, repealed by 53 Geo. III. c. 160, which made 
the punishment arbitrary. By Act 6 Geo. IV. c. 47, the 
publication of blasphemy was punishable by fine and 
imprisonment, and by banishment for a second offence; 
but this last was repealed by 7 Will. IV. c. 5, which 
rendered the punishment only fine and imprisonment. 
In 1843, a person was tried before the High Court of 
Justiciary at Edinburgh, for publishing books denying 
the truth and authority of the Holy Scriptures, and tend¬ 
ing to bring contempt upon the Christian religion, and, 
being found guilty, was sentenced to 15 months’ im¬ 
prisonment. In France, before the great Revolution, 
it was a B. also to speak against the Holy Virgin and 
the saints, to deny one’s faith, to speak with impiety 
of holy things, and to swear by things sacred. The 
law relating to B. was totally repealed in 1791; and the 
present French penal code, art. 262, enacts that any 
person who, by words or gestures, shall commit any 
outrage upon objects of public worship in the places 
designed for the performance of its rites, shall be fined 
from §2 to $100, and be imprisoned for a period not less 
than 15 days nor more than 6 months. In most of the 
U. States, statutes have been enacted against B.; but 
these statutes are not understood in all cases to have 
abrogated the common law; and it has been decided 
that neither these statutes nor the common-law doc¬ 
trine is repugnant to the constitution of those States in 
which the question has arisen. 

Blast, n. [A. S. blast; O. Ger. bldst, from bldsan, to 
blow.] A gust or puff of wind. 

“ They that stand high have many blasts to shake them.”— Shake. 

—The sound made by blowing any wind-instrument. 

“ The Veline fountains and sulphurous Nar. 

Shake at the baleful blast, the signal of the war.” — Dryden. 

—Violent explosion made by gunpowder when splitting 
rocks, or by inflammable gases in mines. — A gaie; a 
rush; a storm. 

—Pernicious or pestilential influence, as of wind; blight. 
“ By the blast of God they perish." — Job iv. 9. 

( Metallurgy .) The current of air forced into furnaces 
by bellows, or air-engines, for the purpose of reducing 
the ores to a merchantable form. There are two kinds 
of blasts in use in the iron manufacture, the hot and 
the cold blast. The hot blast is obtained by forcing the 
air through a series of hot pipes, and its effect is to 
lacilitate the fusion of the metal, at the same time that 
the quality of the latter is deteriorated ; the cold blast 
requires a greater quantity of fuel to reduce the same 
quantity of ore, and it yields a firmer and more even 
quality of metal than the hot blast. — See Iron. 

(Farriery.) A disease in the stomach of cattle. 

Blast, v. a. To strike a3 with a blast, or with a sudden 
gust or destructive wind. 

“ Oh ! Portius, is there not some chosen curse, 

Some hidden thuuder in the store of heaven. 

Red with uncommon wrath, to blast the man 

Who owes his greatness to his country’s ruin.”— Addison. 

—To make to wither by some pernicious influence; to 
blight; to strike with some sudden plague, calamity, &c. 

** To his green years your censures you would suit. 

Not blast that blossom, but expect the fruit.” — Dryden. 

—To injure; to destroy ; to make infamous. 

“ He is malicious, if he knows I deserve credit, and yet goes 
about to blast it.” — Stilling fleet. 

—To confound; to strike with terror. 

“ Trumpeters, 

With brazen din blast you the city's ears.” — Shake. 

—To blow up or split by gunpowder. 

— v. n. To be struck as with a blast; to wither; to be 
blighted. 

Blast'ed, p. a. Affected by some pernicious or destruc¬ 
tive influence, as of wind; blighted; injured; destroyed; 
split by gunpowder. 

Blaste'ma, n. [Gr., a bud, a sprout.] ( Bot.) Applied 
to the part of the embryo comprising the radicle, plu¬ 
mule, and caulicule. 

Blast'er. n. One who blasts. 

Blast'-fur ii ace. [A. S. blast, blast; Fr. foumaise, 
furnace.J (Metal.) A furnace in which the combustion 
of the fuel is increased to an enormous extent by a 
blast blown from a bellows, or by means of fans. A 
smith’s-forge is a blast-furnace on a small scale. B.-F.'s 
are used principally for smelting iron ores, and con¬ 
sist essentially of a long narrow funnel inverted upon 
another shorter funnel, the whole being built of solid 
masonry. They are usually 50 feet high by 15 feet in 
diameter at the largest part. At the bottom of the 
lower cone is a cylindrical hole, from which lead the 
tuyeres, or blast-pipes, and the channel for the passage 
of the melted slag, which rises on the top of the metal 
and overflows. At the lowest part is the tap-hole for 
drawing off the melted metal. At the top is a gallery 
for the conveyance of fuel and ore. The B.-F. being 
lighted with coal, the roasted ore, combined with a flux 
of limestone, is thrown in; upon this is thrown another 
layer of coal, and so on; as the fuel burns away, the 
mass sinks, and is replenished with fuel, flux, and ore 
from the fop. — See Hot Blast, and Iron. 

Blast'ing, ». A blast. — Destruction by a pernicious 
cause. 

(Mining and Quarrying.) An operation by which 
large masses of rock are separated by means of the ex¬ 
plosion of gunpowder or gun-cotton. A small opening 
is bored in the rock or stone, and filled with gunpowder, 
nitro-glicerine, gun-cotton, Ac., and isfired by meansofa 
fuse or train. In engineering operations of large magni¬ 


tude, chambers, and even galleries, are formed in the 
rock, dynamite, or other explosive being inserted, and 
fired by the galvanic curient. Thus enormous masses of 
rock, weighing thousands of tons, are removed. The old 
implements used have given way to the diamond drills, 
and othertools. 

— p. a. Blighting: withering; injuring; frustrating. 

Blastocar'pous, a. [Gr. blastos, a germ, and karpos, 
fruit.] (But.) That germinates inside of the pericarp. 

Blas'toderni, n. (Anat.) [Gr. blastos, a germ, and 
karpos, fruit.] The germinal skin or membrane, or that 
granular membrane or stratum which lies immediately 
beneath the membrane vit dli of the ovum, and which is 
the seat of development of all parts of the body of birds. 

Blast'-pipe, n. (Mech.) The waste steam-pipe of an en¬ 
gine, but more particularly applied to locomotive en¬ 
gines ; in the latter it leads from the exhaust passages 
of the cylinders into the chimney, and is of great use 
for forming the draught through the fire-tubes, as each 
jet of steam emitted creates a partial vacuum in the 
chimney, which is immediately filled by a curient of ail 
rushing through the fire-gate. 

Bla'tant, a. [Fr.; from Lat. halo, to bleat; A.S. bice- 
tan, to bleat.] Bellowing as a calf. 

“ You learn this language from the blatant beast ."—Dryden. 

Blat'ta. n. (Zool.) See Blattii)/E. 

Blat'ter, v. n. [Lat. blatero.] To roar; to makeasense- 
less noise, (o.) 

Hiatt ida-. Blattarle, n. pi. (Zool.) The Cockroach 
family, order Orthoptera. This family contains orthop¬ 
terous insects which have the body oval, flattened, the 
hind extremity of the abdomen lurnislied with conical 
articulated appendages,and the antennae longandmany- 
jointed. B. are nocturnal, and are found not only in 
forests, but some species also infest kitchens, store-rooms, 
and closets, devouring all kinds of provisions, and even 
fabrics. The genus Blatta contains several species, which 
are indigenous, and one, B. Orientalis, or black beetle^ 
which is a native of Asia. 

Blau'veltville, in New York, a post-village of Rock¬ 
land co., 29 m. N. of New York city. 

Blatv'enburg, in New Jersey, a post-village of Somer¬ 
set co., 15 m. N. by E. of Trenton. 

Blay, n. (Zool.) A small river-fish; the Bleak, q. v. 

Blaye. a fortified seaport of France, dep. Gironde, cap. 
arrond. on the right bank of theGaronne, 34 m. N.N.W. 
of Bordeaux. The river here is about 2]^ m. wide, and 
defended by a fort on each side. All vessels inward- 
bound are required to anchor at B. and deliver a mani¬ 
fest of their cargo, and many of the outward-bound 
ships call here to take on board provisions and complete 
their cargoes. Exp., wine, brandy, corn, oil, Ac. B. is 
very ancient. In 1568, it was taken by the Protestants, 
and, later, by the Leaguers. The extensive marshes 
which surround it, having been drained by Henry IV., 
have become very fruitful. In 1832, the Duchess de 
Berry (q. v.), while a prisoner in the castle here, was 
delivered of a daughter. Pop. 4,764. 

Blaze, n. [A.S. blase, blase, a torch; 0. Ger. blechazan, 
to shine forth, to glitter.] A shining forth ; a glitter¬ 
ing; glare; expanded light; flame; the stream of light 
and heat from any body when burning. 

“ The main blaze of it is past; but a small thing would make 
it flame again." — Shaks. 

—Wide diffusion of a report; that which shines and 
spreads widely. 

’• For what is glory but the blaze of fame ?*' — Milton. 

—A white mark on a horse’s forehead ;—also a mark mads 
on trees in a forest, for identification of a route. 

— v. n. To shine forth ; to flame; to send forth or show 
a bright and expanded light. — To be conspicuous. 

— v. a. To cause to shine forth; to spread, as news; to mak* 
public far and wide. — To set a white mark on a tree. 

Blaz'er, n. One who blazes. 

Blaz'ing', p. a. Flaming; emitting bright flame or 
light. — Publishing far and wide. 

Blaz'ing'-stai*, n. A comet. 

Bla'zon, v. a. [Fr. blasonner.] To blaze abroad; to 
spread, proclaim, or publish far and wide. — To display 
or set forth conspicuously. — To adorn; to embellish. — 
To explain the figures on armorial ensigns. 

— v. n. To blaze; to make a brilliant figure; to shine. 

— n. (Her.) The act of drawing, describing, or explaining 
coats-of-arms; Blazonry, q. v. 

—Publication ; show ; celebration. 

• Men con over their pedigrees, and obtrude the blazon of their 
exploits upon the company.” - Collier. 

Bla'zoner, n. One who blazons; a herald. 

Blazonry, (blai’zona-e,) n. [A.S. blasan; Ger. blasen, to 
blow a horn: Fr. blasonnir, to blaze about, to make pub¬ 
lic.] (Her.) The art of deciphering coats-of-arms; also, 
that of expressing or describing a coat-of-arms in ap¬ 
propriate language. The word is supposed to be de¬ 
rived from the German blasen, to blow, and to have 
originated in the ceremonial of tournaments, from which 
so many other terms and usages in heraldry are derived; 
it having been customary on these solemn occasions for 
the herald to blow a trumpet when he called out the 
arms of a knight on ushering him into the lists. The 
principal rules for blazoning coats-of-arms, according to 
English usage, are as follows; (but on the Continent they 
are not all observed with strict adherence:) 1. In mar¬ 
shalling coats-of-arms it is false heraldry to place metal 
upon metal, or color upon color. 2. Begin with men- 
tioning the metal or color of which the field is com. 
posed, stating the direction of the lines by which it may 
happen to be divided; as, per bend, per fess, quarterly, 
Ac., and if they assume other forms than the siinpis 
straight lines, (see Engrailed, Wavy, Raguly, Ac.,) and 
then proceed to the principal and secondary charges ia 










302 


BLEA 


BLEE 


BLEM 


order. 3. Shorten the description as much as possible, 
and avoid all repetition of the names of metals and 
colors, mentioning a charge of any color or metal that 
has been named before, as of the first, of the second, &c. 
Thus the coat-of-arms in fig. 370 
would be described as argent, on 
a bend engrailed gules, between 
two hurts, a mullet or, pierced of 
the second between two crescents 
of the first; in which the field is 
firs- mentioned; then the princi¬ 
pal. charger on the field; and 
thirdly, th-i charges on the ordi¬ 
nary, in their proper metals and 
tinctures, without repetition. 4. 

In describing charges in a field or 
on an ordinary, between others 
of a different nature, always name 



Fig. 370. 


the tail forked. Bleaks generally keep together in large 
shoals; and at certain seasons they are observed to 
tumble about near the surface of the water as if in¬ 
capable of swimming to any considerable distance but 
in a short time they recover, and presentlj disappear. 
It is from the scales of this fish that the beautiful sil¬ 
very matter used in the preparation of artificial pearls 
is chiefly taken; other bright-scaled fishes may, how¬ 
ever, be used for the same purpose. By contraction it is 

Bieak^'wefc,) a. [A. S. blac, blac. See Black.] Pale; 
bleached, blighted, or blackened by piercing cold. 

•* Intreat the North 

To make his bleak winds kiss my parched Ups, 

And comfort me with cold.” — Shake. 


" —Pope. 


oi a inueiBLi 

that charge first which is nearest to the centre of the 
shield. Thus, in the above example, it is correct to say, 
a mullet between two crescents, not two crescents with 
a mullet between them. 5. When animals, plants, &c. 
are represented in their natural colors, they must be 
described as proper only, without naming any metal or 
color; thus we must say, a swan proper, not a swan ar¬ 
gent. _See Points: Tincture; Charge; Ordinary. 

Slea, n. [Scottish bice, pale, livid.] The wood that is 

just under the bark of a tree. 

Bleach, (blech,) v.a. [A. S. blascan, from blac, blac, pale. 

See Black] To make white or whiter; oommonly, to 
whiten by exposure to the open air. 

—v. n. To grow white in any manner. 

Bleach'er, n. One who bleaches. 

Bleachery, n. A place for bleaching. 

Bleach'intr, ». The act or art of whitening, especially 
cloth. — ( Ghent, and Man/.) This process consists in a se¬ 
ries of operations, by which the natural colors of various 
substances are discharged so as to whiten them. It is 
effected either by the action of various solvents, aided 
bv exposure to light, air, and moisture, upon the bleach- 
ing-gvound; or by the aid of chlorine. Cotton is more 
easily bleached than linen, in consequence of its being 
originally whiter, and having a less powerful attraction 
for the coloring-matter. In bleaching these goods upon 
the old principle, warm water is first liberally applied 
to remove the weaver's paste or dressing; they are then 
bucked, or boiled in a weak alkaline lye; and alter hav¬ 
ing been well washed, are spread out upon the grass, so 
as to be freely exposed to the joint agencies of light, air, 
and moisture; the bucking and exposure are alternately 
repeated as often as necessary; the goods are then soured, 
that is, immersed in water slightly acidulated by sul¬ 
phuric acid; lastly, they are very thoroughly washed 
and dried. By these operations the texture of the goods 
is to a certain extent impaired, and much time is re- 
auired to complete the process, which cannot be car¬ 
ried on in the winter mouths. But the exposure upon 
the bleaching-ground is now to a great extent discon¬ 
tinued; and the same effect is obtained, after the pro¬ 
cess of bucking, by the action of weak solutions of chlo¬ 
rine or of chloride of lime, which, if skilfully used can 
scarcely be said to injure the goods more than the long 
continued exposure. The theory of bleaching has not 
been satisfactorily developed; but, from such experi¬ 
ments as have been made in reference to it, it appears 
to be a process of oxidizement, and to depend upon some 
peculiar influence of nascent oxygen, or perhaps ot 
ozone, upon the coloring-matter. — The color of manu¬ 
factured wool depends partly upon its own oil and 
partly upon the applications made to it in the loom. 
These are got rid of in the fulling-mill by the joint ac¬ 
tion of fuller’s earth and soap; the cloth is then well 
washed and dried, and is tolerably white. If the slight 
yellow tint which it retains is objectionable, it is im¬ 
proved by adding a little stone-blue to the washing-water, 
or by exposure to the fumes of burning sulphur; this 
latter method, however, renders it more harsh, and if af¬ 
terwards soaped, its yellowishness returns The color 
of raw silk depends upon a natural yellow varnish, 
which is got rid of by boiling it in white soap and water, 
and by repeated rinsings. Certain articles of woven cot¬ 
ton, such as stockings, are bleached as usual, and fin¬ 
ished by the action of sulphurous acid, or the fumes ot 
burning sulphur. Straw is also wmtened by a similar 
operation, and hence bleached straw hats are apt to 
have a disagreeable sulphurous smell. 

Bleach'insr-Powder, n. The most important is the 
chloride of lime. It is prepared by exposing slaked 
lime to the action of chlorine gas. Slaked lime may be 
made to combine with half its weight of chlorine. 
Chemists are divided as to the true composition of this 
valuable compound, some looking on it as a hypochlo¬ 
rite of lime, CaO,CIO, united with chloride of calcium, 
CaCl, while others regard it as a combination of chlorine 
with oxide of calcium, in the form ot an oxychloride, 
CaOCl. Chloride of lime is a white, moist powder, con¬ 
tinually giving off hypochlorous acid. Its principal use 
is as a bleaching agent; but it is also employed as a dis¬ 
infectant with great success.—See Calcium, 

jr (ZnSl.) The Leuciscus alburnus, a little Mala- 
copterygious fish, belongs to the family of ^Prmida, 
very common in the rivers of Europe; length about 
5 or 6 inches; 

6hape slender, 
with the body 
much compress¬ 
ed ; color bright 
sil very.the back 
olive-green; fins 

Deciduous; and Fig. 371.— bleak, ( Leuciscus alburnus .) 


—Chill; cold; dreary; desolate. 

.* Say, will he bless the bleak Atlantic shore ? 

Blcakdsll, a. Moderately bleak. 

Rlpab/lv. adv. In a bleak manner. ... 

lileakdiess, n. State or quality of being bleak; open¬ 
ness of situation; exposure to the wind; hence, coldness. 

. i . - . r a A • ldn 111 ft fllP * I 111 11 • 


. a. 


Dimmed by soreness, or by a watery 


Blear, (bier,) a'. [0. Ger. bl&tara; Du. blaar; 
blare,a blister, bladder, or bubble.] Sore, as with pus¬ 
tules or blisters; dimmed or impaired, as the eyes. 

—v. a. To make sore; to dim or impair with soreness, as 
the eyes. 

Bleared, p 

Blear'edness, n. The state of being bleared. 

Illr'.eve. 'll. (Med.) The Lippitude, q. v. _ 
Blear'-eyed, p. a. Having sore eyes.—Wanting dis- 

BleaMWa,) v. n. [A. L. blcetan, formed from the sound.] 
To make the noise of a sheep. 

— n. The cry of a sheep. 

7 i. The same as Bleat. 

Bleb, n. A Blister, q. v. 

Bleb'by, a. Full of blebs. 

Bled, imp. and part, of Bleed, q.v. _, . 

Bled soe, in Tennessee, a S.E. central county, washed 
by Sequatchie River; surface, generally mountainous; 
area, about 330 sq. m.; cap. Pikeville. 

Bled'soe, in Missouri, a post-office of Hickory co. 

— —, vv, in 4«TmMa/i* q post-oliice oi 


IJlcll SUcj *1-1 Jaf-oouw *. 

Bled'soe’s ^Landing, in Arkansas , a 

Bleed," (bled,) v. n. (imp. and pp. bp®®-) [ a - s * bledan. 
See Blood.] To emit blood; to lose blood. 

•• Bleed, bleed, poor country I 
Great tyranny, lay thou thy basis sure. 

For goodness dare not check theel — bhakt. 

—To feel pain or agony, as from bleeding. 

—To die by slaughter. 

•• The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day ; 

Had he thy reason, would he skip and play? —Pop*. 

—To issue forth or drop, as blood. 

“ For me the balm shall bleed, and amber flow. 

The coral redden, and the ruby glow . 1 —Pope. 

—v. a. To let blood; to take blood from. 

“ That from a patriot of distinguished note, 

Have bled and purg'd me to a single vote. — Pope. 
Bleed'inir. n. A discharge of blood.—See Hemorrhage 
Bleeding, of Blood-letting. (Surg.) Any artificial dis 
charge of blood from the bodj% P"J'. 


cnaree oi mwu - -- . 

pose of affording relief, or benefit, to an invalid, 
ing is divided into general or topical, or constitutional 
and local. Bleeding from a vein or artery is an example 
of the first; leeches, scarifications, and cupping are in¬ 
stances of the latter. Venesection, or phlebotomy, as 
bleeding from a vein is usual’v called, is performed in dif¬ 
ferent parts of the body .though the localities generally 
selected are the neck, 


arm, leg, and foot; the 
part by common con¬ 
sent adopted as the 
most convenient, both 
for the patient and 
surgeon, is the arm.— 
The person may be 
bled either lying, sit¬ 
ting, or standing; but 
when at all likely to 
faint during the opera¬ 
tion, the sitting post¬ 
ure should be adopted. 
It is sometimes desira¬ 
ble to produce sickness 
or fainting, so as to re¬ 
lax the muscles of the 
body, as in cases of dis¬ 
location of the hip-joint 
and rupture, when the 
person should be bled 
standing, and from a 
large opening. The 
arm has been selected 
for bleeding, from the 
fact that the veins are 
more prominent there, 
and more easily reach¬ 
ed at the bend of the 
arm than elsewhere. 
At this spot there are 
four veins, from any 




Fig. 372. — veins op the arm. 

one of which the surgeon may bleed. Running up the 
outside of the arm is the basilic vein, A; a corresponding 
vein ascends on the inner side, called the cephalic vein, B. 
The median vein of the fore-arm splits into two branches, 
one running obliquely outward to join the basilic, and 
called the median basilic, C; and the other crossing ob¬ 
liquely inwards to join me cephalic, and called the median 
cephalic, D. Of these four the median cephalic and me¬ 


dian basilic are the two most generally selected for th* 
operation. In fleshy and robust persons, the median 
basilic is the most convenient vein to open, because it 18 
the most prominent, and the largest; but in thin or 
emaciated individuals the median cephalic should be 
selected. And for these reasons: that under the first 
runs the brachial artery, separated from the vein, in 
stout people, by some depth of cellular tissue, but in 
emaciated subjects only divided by the thin fascia or 
aponeurosis of the adjacent tendon ; while crossing the. 
median cephalic are the nerves of the surrounding cuti¬ 
cle. The danger of bleeding in the former is the tear of 
transfixing the vein, and wounding the artery beneath, 
causing an aneurism; while in the latter the thing to 
be apprehended is pricking the nervous 
thereby causing neuralgia. But as every part of the body 
is beset by risks of a similar character, the operator — 
bearing in mind the caution given as respects the median 
basilic in persons of spare habits, and observing the tot- 
lowing instructions—must take the hazard, and, as a gen- 
eral rule, select the median basilic vein for his operation. 
Mode of Proceeding. Before commencing his operation, 
the person about to bleed must prepare his pledgets and 
bandage: the first consists of two slips of lint or linen 
rag, each slip folded up and doubled, one into a flat pad 
or compress about an inch square, the other a. litt.e 
larger and thicker; the bandage or fillet should be a 
piece of broad tape or ribbon 1 yards long. Having 
arranged these necessary articles, he must provide him¬ 
self with a basin and the handle of a broom, or any 
stick of similar proportions. The next duty is to select a 
fitting lancet, choosing one with rather broad shoulders, 
and bending the blade to nearly right angles with the 
handle. Having selected the vein by grasping the arm 
for a moment with his hand, to make the vessels dis- 
tend, the operator should place his finger on the vein 
he purposes to open; and if he feels an evident pul¬ 
sation beneath, he must select another, unless he is 
a practical operator and can open it without danger. 
The fillet is next to be doubled, and passed twice round 
the arm some few inches above the elbow-jomt, and 
drawing it moderately tight, the operator should place 
the finger on the vein, to feel if any pulsation exists be¬ 
low; if satisfactory, the thumb of the left hand is to be 
pressed on the vein a little below where he intends to 
open it. The lancet is now to be grasped by the blade, 
lightly but firmly, between the l ight thumb and finger, 
only the point and half of the shoulder of the mstru- 
ment protruding, and, resting the hand on the other 
fingers, he is to insert the lancet in an oblique direction 
into the vessel, till the blood mounts to the skin; he then 
brings up the instrument on as straight a line as pos¬ 
sible_ making the wound in the skin the same size as that 

in the vein. He then puts down the lancet, and, taking 
the basin, lifts his thumb from the vein and allows the 
stream to fall into the vessel in his hand; the broom- 
handle, or any long stick, is next placed into the patient 8 
hand both as a rest for the arm and to assist the flow 
of blood, which it effects by the contraction of the mus¬ 
cles as he opens and shuts his fingers on the stall, llie 
amount of blood to be extracted depends upon circum¬ 
stances and the nature of the disease; the ordinary 
quantity is from 12 to 16 ounces. When sufficient has 
been taken, the bandage is to be untied, when the blood 
in general ceases to flow ; whether so or not, when the 
tape is untied, the thumb is again to be placed on the 
vein below the opening, and the arm supported in the 
operator’s hand. Taking up the smallest pledget he 
places it round the incision, and, pressing the two edges 
together, lays the compress on the top of the cut, secur¬ 
ing it with the thumb, while the thicker and larger 
pledget is being placed above it. lie then shakes out 
the fillet, and, placing the centre of it on the compress, 
passes first one end and then the other obliquely o\er 
and under the elbow, tying the two ends on the top of 
the compress ; the cut in the vein heals very quickly, 
and after a day the bandage may be left off entirely. 
Sometimes, though the opening is sufficiently large, the. 
blood will not flow, this often arises from the fillet 
being tied too tightly. All that is necessary, in that 
case, is to slacken the bandage so as not to impede the 
current in the arteries, and alter a few minutes the 
blood will flow steadily. Sometimes, in languid consti¬ 
tutions, it is necessary to plunge the hand and part °* 
the fore-arm in hot water to induce the blood to flow. 
When a vein is opened in the foot or instep, the process 
is nearly the same. As opening the external jugular 
vein is an operation of extreme delicacy, and could never 
be undertaken with safety by a non-professional person, 
we deem it unnecessary to describe the mode of pro¬ 
cedure.— We have already spoken ot the opening of 
arteries under the word Arteriothmy. — The only ar¬ 
tery that a non-medical person would be justified is 
opening is one of the branches of the temporal artery, 
which, in cases of apoplexy, or urgent affections of ths 
head, might be rendered necessary. To effect this, all 
that is requisite is to stretch the skin tightly across th* 
temple with the thumb and finger of the left hand; 
then, with a bistoury, make a small incision through 
the cuticle on the top of the artery, which, in turn, 
is to be opened with the point ot the lancet, and the 
blood, as much as necessary, allowed to spring forth is 
leaps; three or four compresses being placed over it, 
and a firm and steady pressure established by means of 
the pledget. 

Bleecker. in New York, a post-township ot Fulton co, 
50 m. N.W. of Albany. 

Bleni islt. v. a. [Fr. blemir; Icel. blami, the imd color 
of a bruise.] To make pale, wan, or livid; to injure or 
impair. — To mark with any deformity; to mar; to tar¬ 
nish ; to taint; to sully. 










































BLES 


BLIG 


BLIN 


363 


*-». A livid spot. a mark of deformity; a scar or defect; 
speck, spot, or flaw. — Reproach; fault; stain; taiut; 
dishonor 

It I finish loss. a. That is without blemish or spot. 

iilench. r. n. To shrink ; to start back; to flinch, (o.) 

Blend, v. a. [A. S. blemlun ; Icel. and Sw. blanda ; 
Goth, blandan.] To mix or mingle together; to con¬ 
found. 

'* He had his calmer influence, and his mien 
Did love and majesty together blend.” — Dryden. 

Blemle, n. (Min.) \ sulphide of zinc. See Zinc. 

Blend' er, n. One who blends. 

Blend'iny, n. Act of mingling or blending. 

(Paint.) A term synonymous with Melting. They im¬ 
ply the method of laying different tints on buildings, 
trees, Ac., so that they may mingle together while wet, 
and render it impossible to discover where one color 
begins, and another ends. A variety of titjts of nearly 
the same tone, employed on the same object and on the 
same part, gives a richness and mellowness to the effect; 
while the outline, insensibly melting into the back¬ 
ground, blends the objects together, and preserves them 
in unison. 

Blen'don, in Michigan, a post-township of Ottawa co., 
about Iff in. W.S.W. of Grand Rapids. 

Blen'don, in Ohio, a post-township of Franklin coun¬ 
ty. 

Blen'don Institute, in Ohio, a. village of Blendon 
township, Franklin co. 

Blen'dous. a Pertaining to blende 

Blend -water, n. A di.-itomper incident to cattle, af¬ 
fecting the liver. 

Blen'iieini, or Blindlieiin, (Battle or.) SeeHocH- 

STADT. 

Blen'iieini, in N. York, a post-township of Schoharie 
co., 42 m. W.S.W. of Albany. 

Blen'nerville, in Ireland, a small seaport town, co. 
Kerry, on Tralee Bay, 

Blen'ning, n. ( Zool.) Same as Blennius, q v. 

Blen'nius, n. [Gv.b/enrta, mucus.] (Zobl.) A genus of 
fishes of the family Gobidw, distinguished by having a 
single dorsal fin, smooth skin, and ventrals under the 
throat. The species are found in small communities 
among the rocks near the shore, and are capable of liv¬ 
ing without water for some time. They are all small, 
some of them only one or two inches long, and covered 
with a slimy mucus. 

Blennog'enous, a. Forming or producing mucus. 

Blennorrlioe'a, n. [Gr. litenna, mucus, and re.o, I flow.] 
(Med.) An inordinate discharge or secretion of mucus, 
arising from weakness. — See Gonorrhcea. 

Blent, pp. of Blend, q. v 

Bleos'taning’, n. Mosaic pavement 

Bleph'aris, n. (Zobl.) A genus of acanthopterygious 
fishes, distinguished by their having long filaments to 
their second dorsal, and to their anal fin rays. One spe¬ 
cies, inhabiting the W. India seas, is known under the 
appellation of the cobbler-fish, probably on account of 
the long thread-like appendages, for which it is so con¬ 
spicuous. 

Blepharopto'sis, n. [Gr. blepharon, an eyelid, and 
ptesis, fall.] (Med) A falling down of the upper eyelid 
over the eye, caused by a paralysis of the Levator palpe- 
brre superius muscle. This paralysis is an unfavorable 
symptom, and it is generally connected with a state of 
the brain favoring apoplexy or palsy. 

Blephi'lia, n. (Bot.) A genus of unimportant plants, 

■ order Lamiacece 

Blere, a town of France, dep. Indre ej Loire, cap. of 
cant, on the Cher, 17 m E.S.E. of Tours. The castle 
of Chenonceaux, once the property and residence of the 
celebrated Diana of Poitiers (q. v.), is situated in the im¬ 
mediate vicinity. Diana, having been dispossessed of 
the castle by her rival, Queen Catherine de Medicis, the 
latter surrounded it withasuperb park After many vicis¬ 
situdes, it was acquired, in 1733, by M. Dupin, a gentle¬ 
man distinguished by his wealth and learning, but more 
1 by the wit and beauty of his wife. Under its new master, 
Chenonceaux became the resort of some of the most il¬ 
lustrious personages of the 18th century, including, 
among others, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Buffon, Fonte- 
nelle, and Bolingbroke. Rousseau wrote several pieces 
for the theatre at Chenonceaux, and it was here that the 
Devin de Village first appeared. Chenonceaux escaped 
the revolutionary frenzy, and continues to be one of the 
most interesting objects in this part of France. Pop. 
3,721. 

Bless, v. a. (imp. and pp. blessed, or blest.) [A. S. 
bledsian. bletsian, from blithe, blithe, joyful, merry ; 
Swed. and Goth, blszan, or blizt, blessing: Goth, bleiths, 
merciful.] To make blithe, joyous, or glad; to make 
happy or prosperous: to render successful 
*' It is twice bless'd. 

It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes. 1 '- Shakt. 

_To invoke a blessing upon: to wish happiness to- 

“ Blesses nis stars, and thinks it luxury." — Addison 
, —To consecrate and set apart by prayer 

"He blessed and brake, and gave the loaves.”— Matthew. 

—To praise. to extol, to glorify. 

The Creator and worker of ail in all. alone to be blessed. 
adored and honored by all forever. — Hooker. 

—To esteem or account happy 

—To wave, brandish, or flourish about, 'R ) 

“His sparkling blade about his head he blest - Spenser. 

To bless from. To preserve, keep, or secure from. 

“ The bellman's drowsy charm 
To bless the doors from nightly har m."—Milton. 

Bless'boU , n. A fleet antelope of S. Africa, Gazella 
albifrous. 


Blessed, a. Happy; joyous; glad; prosperous. 

" All generations shall call me blessed." — Luke i. 48. 

—Pertaining co, or fraught with, happiness. 

* 4 Oh 1 blessed with temper whose unclouded ray 
Can make to-morrow cheerful as to-day.' — Pope. 

—Enjoying supreme felicity ; holy and happy; happy in 
heaven. 

” For all we know 
Of what the blessed do above. 

Is that they sing and that they love.” — Waller. 

—Heavenly; sanctified by holy associations. 

“ And lay it lowly at His blessed feet.” — Milton. 

Bless'edly, adv. Happily; fortunately. 

“ This accident of Clitophon s taking, had so blessedly procured 
their meeting."— Sidney. 

Bless'edness, n. State of being happy or blessed; 
beatitude; sanctity, happiness; bliss; joy; heavenly 
felicity. 

“ Many times have I... admired the blessedness of it.”— Sidney. 

Single-blessedness. Being happy in the unmarried 8tate; 
self-centred or single happiness. 

“ Earthlier happy is the rose distill’d, 

Than that, which withering on the virgin thorn, 

Grows, lives, and dies in single-blessedness."—Shake. 

Bless'ed Thistle, n. (Bot.) The Cenlaurea benedicta. 

Bless'er, n. One who blesses, or confers a blessing; 
one who gives prosperity to anything. 

" The giver of the gift or blesser of the action.” — Taylor. 

Bless'ing, n. Any of the means of happiness; a gift, 
benefit, or advantage. 

” A just and wise magistrate Is a blessing as extensive as the 
community to which he belongs.” — Atterbury. 

—Benediction; a wish of happiness pronounced; a prayer 
imploring happiness upon. 

“And the father layeth his hand upon her head and giveth the 
blessing .” — Bacon. 

(Script.) A gift or present, attended with the benedic¬ 
tion or good wishes of the giver 

“ And Jacob said, receive my present at my band; take. I pray 
thee my blessing that is brought to thee.” — Gen. xxxm. 11. 

Bles'sington, Marguerite Power, Countess of, an 
Irish lady, celebrated lor her beauty, accomplishments, 
and literary productions, B. 1789.. At the early age of 15 
she contracted an ill-fated marriage with Captain Far¬ 
mer, and after his death the liarl of B. obtained her 
hand, in 1818. After her marriage she passed several 
years abroad, and formed an acquaintance with Lord 
Byron, which enabled her to publish one of her most 
interesting works, her Conversations with Lord Byron. 
8 oon after lier husband's death, in 1829, she fixed her 
residence in London, and there were few literary celeb¬ 
rities, native or foreign, who did not share in the “feast 
of reason and the flow of soul ” for which Gore House 
Avill be long remembered. Over and above the “Con¬ 
versations” above mentioned. Lady Blessington pub¬ 
lished many novels, besides several works full of per¬ 
sonal anecdote, epigram, sentiment and description, such 
as The Idler in Italy, The Idler in France, &c. For many 
years she edited the Book of Beauty, and the Keepsake. 
D. at Paris, 1849. 

Bles'sington, in Ireland , a market-town, co. Wick¬ 
low, near the Liffey, 18 m. S.W. 01 Dublin. 

Blest, pp. of Bless, q. v. 

Blest, a. Made happy. 

“ I die — but first I have possess'd. 

And come what may I have been blest." — Byron. 

—Cheering, making happy; as, “ Blest paper credit!” 

Pope. 

Blet, n. [Fr. blette. 1 A decayed mark, or excrescence, on 
fruit. 

Blet'ting', n. Marked or spotted surface of decompos¬ 
ing fruit. 

Blea de Paris. [Fr.] (Dyeing.) A fine blue dye, ob¬ 
tained by the action of bichloride of tin on aniline. 

Blew, pret. of Blow. q. v. 

Bleyme, (bleem,) n. [See Blain.J (Farriery.) An in¬ 
flammation in the foot of a horse, between the sole and 
the bone. 

Bligh'ia. n.(Bot.) A genus of plants, order Sapindacece, 
Its only species is B. sa/rida, the Akee, an eatable fruit 
of the W. Indies and S. America. The edible portion is 
the aril, a white spongy substance in which the seeds 
are partially imbedded ; and this,in tropical countries, is 
found to possess grateful subacid qualities. This genus 
is also known under the name of Cupania, q. v. 

Bligllt, (blit,) n. [O Ger. bleik, pale; pleihhil, he, she. or 
it is pale, from bleichen, to whiten; A S. blcecun, to 
bleach ] That which renders pale or white; that which 
destroys or withers up. mildew ; anything nipping or 
blasting, — a term in common use for supposed injuries 
rereived by plants from atmospheric influences. Before 
effects were traced to their cause with the same care 
that they are at present, the sudden discoloration of 
the leaves of plants, their death, or their being covered 
with minute insects or small excrescences, was called 
by the general name of blight, and this blight was at¬ 
tributed to some mysterious influence in the air, to the 
east wind or to thunder, because these states of the at¬ 
mosphere commonly accompanied the phenomena. It 
is now found that what is called blight is in some cases 
the effect of insects, to the progress of which the dry state 
of the atmosphere produced by east winds is peculiarly 
favorable; while in other cases it is caused by parasiti¬ 
cal fungi. The appearance of these fungi on corn crops 
is frequently designated by farmers as the fire-blast; 
while on peach and other trees in gardens it is called 
mildew. — The sudden death of plants without apparent 
cause, and also the withering and drying up of part of 
their leaves and branches, to which appearance the term 
blight should perhaps berestricted, are produced by the 


transpiration of water from the leaves taking place with 
greater rapidity than it can be supplied by the absorp¬ 
tion of the roots, and also by the roots becoming attacked 
by fungous spawn. In very hot weather in summer, 
branches of fruit-trees trained against walls, or of goose¬ 
berry bushes ou espaliers, are sometimes withered 
up in a few minutes from this cause. What country¬ 
men call the blight on standard apple- or other fruit- 
trees in orchards is commonly nothing more than the 
injuries done to the leaves and buds by the caterpillars 
of certain moths; that on thorn hedges, by the cater¬ 
pillar of the saw-fly, or of the ermine, or of some other 
moths; and that on roses, by the aphides or green fly. 

—In a figurative sense, anything which destroys one’s 
hopes, or frustrates one’s aims: as. blighted hopes. 

(Med.) A variety of the nettle lichen, (L. urticosus,) 
consisting of an eruption on the human skin, of minute 
reddish principles, appearing in spots, or, more generally, 
diffused. 

Blight, v. a. To affect with blight; to wither up; to 
blast; to destroy; to corrupt with mildew; to frustrate. 

“ And roughly blight the tender buds of joy. 

Let reason teach."— Lyttelton. 

— v. i. To corrupt or wither, as by blight. 

Blight'ed, p. a. Blasted; disappointed, or frustrated. 

Blighting, ppr. or a. Blasting: withering. 

Blight'ingly, adv By blasting, as if with mildew. 

Blind, n. a. [A.S. blind ; O. Ger. Mint, from blinten, to 
make blind; allied to blink, or probably to blend.) To 
make blind; to deprive of sight. 

“ You nimble lightnings, dart your blinding flames 
Into her scornful eyes —Shake. 

—To darken, to obscure; to eclipse; as, his eyes are 
blinaed to her faults. 

“So whirl the seas, such darkness blinds the sky, 

That the black night receives a darker dye.” — Dryden. 

—Destitute of sight, wanting the faculty ot vision, unable 
to see; as, blind as a bat. 

“ The blind oid man of Scio’s rocky isle.” — Byron. 

—Intellectually dark, unable to judge or discern; igno¬ 
rant ; as, a man is blind to bis own interests. 

“ Re to her virtues very kind ; 

Be to her faults a little blind."— Prior. 

—Depraved; used in a moral sense. 

—Not discernible; unseen; out of public view; private. 

" How have we wander d a long dismal night 
Led through blind paths by each deludiug light.” — Roscommon. 

—Without opening for light, closed; as, a blind alley 

—Undiscerning; undiscrimiuating; as, blind with preju¬ 
dice. 

(Arch.) A screen or shade attached to eilher the inside 
or outside of a window, as a protection against the sun. 
The most common form of inside window-blind consists 
of a plain hanging of union holland, or linen The wire- 
blind, another kind of inside window-blind, consists of a 
frame of woven wire-gauge, or of perforated zinc, and is 
frequently painted, and sometimes also lettered and fig¬ 
ured. Outside window-blinds are called Florentine, Ve¬ 
netian, Spanish, and shutter-blinds. There are also other 
blinds for shop-fronts, skylights, Ac., known by various 
names; as, common roller, spring patent, Ac. 

—Something to mislead the eye or the understanding; 
as, t t is only intended as a blind. 

“ kinking the one a blind for the execution of the other.’ 

Decoy of Piety. 

— n. (Fort.) See Blindage. 

Blind, (The,) is a term applied to those who are de¬ 
prived of the use of sight. There is none of the senses 
that affords such an endless variety of perceptions, such 
a fund of materials for the mind — the imagination, to 
work upon, as that of sight. When one considers the 
infinitely greater amount of information that is received 
by the eye than by the ear. he is naturally led to the 
conclusion that the blind must be in a much more help¬ 
less and pitiable condition than the deaf. In reality, 
however, this is found not to be the case: and various 
attempts have been made to account for it. The blind, 
as a class, are lively and cheerful, the deal, shy and 
melancholy, often morose and suspicious. “ Take,” says 
Dr. Watson, “a boy, it may be, of 9 or 10 years of age, 
who has never seen the light, and you will find him con- 
versible, and ready to give long narratives of past occur¬ 
rences, Ac. Place by his side a boy of the same age, who 
has bad the misfortune to be born deaf, and observe the 
contrast. The latter is insensible to all you say. he 
smiles, perhaps, and his countenance is brightened by 
the beams of holy light, he enjoys the face of na¬ 
ture, nay, reads with attention your features, and, tiy 
sympathy, reflects your smile or frown. But he remains 
mute; he gives no account of past experience or of future 
hope, if you attempt to draw something of this sort from 
him; he tries to understand and to make himself under¬ 
stood. but he can not. He becomes embarrassed; yotf 
feel for him. and turn away from a scene too trying, 
under the impression that, of these two children ol mis¬ 
fortune. the comparison is greatly in favor of the blind, 
who appears by his language to enter into all your feel 
ings and conceptions, while the unfortunate deaf-muts 
can hardly be regarded as a rational being, yet he pos¬ 
sesses all the advantages of visual information as direct 
sensation.” The cause is not. that the blind possess a 
greater, or anything like an equal stock of materials for 
mental operations, but that “ they possess an invaluable 
engine for forwarding these operations, however scanty 
the materials to operate upon artificial language,” winch 
is the medium of thinking: and “its value to a man is 
nearly equivalent to that of his reasoning faculties.” 
The truth is, that the deaf are far more isolated ail tlK,» 
lives from those that hear than the blind are from those 
that see. “ Our interest in each other,” says Dr. Wilson, 
“ far exceeds, and ought to exceed, our interest in the 














BLIN 


BLIN 


BLIS 


3G-t 


world ; and from all this human sympathy the deaf are 
almost totally cut off: while the blind, excused from 
many duties, which the seeing can only discharge, are 
peculiarly free to indulge in gossip with their more 
favored neighbors, and can largely exchange opinions 
with them. Moreover, the blind can scarcely fail to find 
their own tastes suited in some portion of the talk of 
their neighbors; ”—“ whilst the deaf, unless they have a 
great aptitude for such occupations as employ the eye 
and the hand, are far more narrowed in their circle of 
studies and much more solitary than the blind.” There 
have been blind travellers, like Holman; blind poets, 
like Hoinei Milton, and Blacklock , blind divines, like 
Lucas and Troughton; blind mathematicians, like Saun- 
derson and Moyes; blind naturalists, like Huber; blind 
historians, like Prescott; blind musicians, blind sculp¬ 
tors. blind mechanicians; indeed, Dr. lteid asserts that 
“ sight discovers almost nothing which the blind may 
not comprehend.” But their conceptions of many things 
must, at least, be very imperfect; light, color, and space, 
must ever be words which they cannot fully realize. The 
blind are able to make up, in great measure, for their 
want of sight by the greater development of their other 
senses. By assiduous application and attention, the senses 
of touch and hearing become much more delicate and 
acute. It has even been said that some have been able 
to distinguish colors by means of touch ; but this seems 
very doubtful. By accurately distinguishing the various 
kinds and modifications of sound, they are able to form 
correct ideas on many subjects. Much, too, depends 
upon the memory, which, from exercise, becomes much 
more retentive than in men not deprived of sight. The 
B. institutions of the U. S. are not mere asylums, but 
educational establishments, in which the blind receive 
a thorough education. “They are socially far above 
those of any other country; large numbers of them 
become eminent scholars and musicians.” 

I lin'd, Education of the. It was not till towards theclose 
of the last century that any effort was made for the edu¬ 
cation of the blind. The first school established for that 
purpose was that of Paris, founded in 1784. It was fol¬ 
lowed by those of Liverpool, Edinburgh, and London, 
established in 1790, 1791, and 1800 respectively. Since 
that time schools have been established in most of the 
large cities and towns of Great Britain. One great ob¬ 
stacle in the way of the education of the blind, are the 
numerous systems that at present are in use for teach¬ 
ing them to read. M. Haiiy was the inventor of the art 
of printing in relief; but various attempts had been 
made before his time to give them a knowledge of let¬ 
ters. The French system of M. Iluiiy was subsequently 
much improved upon by Mr. James Gall, of Edinburgh, 
who employed only one alphabet in place of two (capi¬ 
tal and small letters), and excluded curves and circles, 
substituting angles and straight lines. He published 
several preparatory books in this style for the use of the 
blind. A few years later, in 1832, the Society of Arts in 
Scotland offered their gold medal fur the best alphabet 
and method of printing for the use of the blind, which 
was awarded to Dr. Fry. Mr. Alston, of Glasgow, sub¬ 
sequently made various improvements upon Dr. Fry’s sys¬ 
tem, so as to render the letters sharper and more tangible. 
The systems at present in use may be divided into two 
classes — the alphabetical and the arbitrary. The alpha¬ 
betical comprise: 1. Alston's system of Roman capitals; 

2. the American system of smaller capitals, with serrated 
edges; 3. the Fronch alphabetical; and 4. Alston’s modi¬ 
fied. The arbitrary systems are: 1. Lucas’s; 2. Frere’s; 

3. Moon’s; 4. Le Systems Braille; and 5. Le Systdme Car¬ 
ton. Each of these systems has its advocates and adhe¬ 
rents. Books are printed in them; and, as few blind per¬ 
sons ever master more than one system, the books of 
every other are unintelligible to them. Mr. E C. Johnson, 
in his “ Tangible Typography,” thus lays down the condi¬ 
tions to be satisfied in any system employed in the teach¬ 
ing of the blind: “The system of embossed printing for 
their use should embrace at least the following features : 
1. It must resemble as nearly as possible the type in ordi¬ 
nary use among those who have eyesight; (a) that the 
blind scholar learning to read may have every possible 
heip from words which he may have formerly seen, but 
which now his fingers must decipher; ( b) that he may 
derive help in learning from any one who can read an 
ordinary book, or, if needful, that his friend may be able 
to read to him. 2. It must present the words correctly 
•pelt in full, that, when he learns to write, he may doso 
in a correct manner, which others can read. 3. The 
raised characters must be clear, sharp, and well-defined, 
which the finger hardened by long work and the keen 
touch of the little child may be able alike to discern.” 
The system of Mr. Alston is that which seems to meet 
with most favor, as being that which is most easily 
learned and most nearly allied to ordinary letters. He 
has simply adopted the ordinary Roman letters in such 
a form as to be mos't easily felt. The American books 
are printed on a modification of Alston's plan. They 
are smaller in bulk, and cheaper in cost than those pub¬ 
lished in England. In what are called the arbitrary sys¬ 
tems, in place of the ordinary letters of the alphabet, 
arbitrary characters are adopted. One of the principal 
of these is the system of Mr. M. T. Lucas, which pro¬ 
fesses to be to a blind person what stenography is to a 
eeeiug person. His alphabet is composed of thirty-six 
characters, ten of which represent double letters. Not 
only are all letters omitted that are not necessary to the 
sound, but in many cases single letters stand for words; 
as t for the; y , yet; in, me; b , by, Ac. The advantage 
claimed for this system is the saving of types, paper, and 
labor in the printing of books; but this is found not to 
be the case, for the characters occupy more space than 
if the words were all written at full length in Roman 


capitals: while it must be much more difficult to mas¬ 
ter, and must give rise to frequent confusion. The New 
Testament in Alston’s system is comprised within 623 
pages; whereas,in Lucas’s it occupies 841. The system 
of Frere is al§o stenographic, founded on Gurney’s short¬ 
hand, as that of Lucas was on Byrom’s. Its distinctive 
feature, as compared with Lucas’s, is, that it is phonetic, 
the characters being intended to represent the simple 
sounds of the English language,rather than the letters; 
and each word is represented according to its pronun¬ 
ciation. The alphabet is composed of thirty-two char¬ 
acters, to each of which is attached a short description 
intended to fix more strongly in the memory of the 
learner the force of the character. The vowels are re¬ 
presented by simple dots, which, in different positions, 
represent the different vowels, and are divided into five 
long and five short. There are also twelve rules in verse 
for teaching the learner how to supply the omitted vow¬ 
els correctly. Mr. Moon’s system is certainly the best of 
the arbitrary systems. His alphabet consists of “ the 
common letters simplified; ” in other words, six of the 
Roman letters remain unaltered; twelve others have 
parts left out, so as to be open to the touch; the rest are 
new and simple forms. It will be found, however, on 
examination, that the resemblance between Mr. Moon’s 
letters and the Roman capitals is by no means so great 
as one might expect from his statement. “ A letter,” he 
says, “ must consist of only one or two lines, to be felt 
by the thick finger of an adult.” The words are all spelt 
at full length. Mr. Moon’s system is, however, the most 
cumbrous and expensive that has yet been devised—cir¬ 
cumstances which are much against its popularity. An 
ingenious “ string alphabet,” for enabling the blind to 
read and write or correspond with each other, was in¬ 
vented some time ago by David Macbeath and Robert 
Milne, two inmates of the Edinburgh Asylum, and has 
been found to answer its purpose remarkably well. The 
different letters of the alphabet are represented by dif¬ 
ferent kinds and combinations of knots on a cord. They 
are distributed into seven classes, each class compre¬ 
hending four letters, except the last, which has only 
two. The first, or A class, is distinguished by a large 
round knot; the second, or E class, by a knot project¬ 
ing from the line; the third, or I class, by a series of 
links, vulgarly called “ the drummer’s plait; ” the fourth, 
or M class, by a simple noose; the fifth, or Q class, by a 
noose with a net-knot cast on it; and the seventh, or Y 
class, by a twisted noose. The first letter of each class 
is denoted by the simple characteristic of that class: the 
second, by the characteristic and a common knot close 
to it; the third by the characteristic and a common 
knot half an inch from it. The mode of teaching 
the blind by means of raised music is now little prac¬ 
tised, it being found, from their great strength of mem¬ 
ory, that they are able to learn very long pieces by 
means of the ear alone. Embossed maps and globes are 
employed for teaching them geography; and in addition 
to raised maps of the heavens, various ingenious con¬ 
trivances have been resorted to for making them ac¬ 
quainted with different branches of astronomical knowl¬ 
edge. They are instructed in arithmetic by means of 
a board containing a series of pentagonal holes, which 
receive pentagonal pins, representing the ten digits. By 
the use of such boards they may be carried to any ex¬ 
tent in arithmetical knowledge. They may be taught 
mathematics by means of a board full of small holes, 
with a few pins fitted to them, soas to represent certain 
letters; while with a cord extended from the different 
points, are formed the lines of the figure or diagram. 
The success of Saunderson, Moyes, and others, sufficiently 
proves that blindness is no great impediment to a 
knowledge of mathematics; indeed, according to some, 
the blind possess great advantages. In the various edu¬ 
cational establishments for the blind, they are instruct¬ 
ed in suudry manual occupations, as in the making of 
baskets, mats, rugs, shoes, and such like; for. in the 
words of Dr. Lettsom, “ He who enables a blind person, 
without any excess of labor, to earn his own livelihood, 
does him more real service than if he had pensioned 
him for life.” 

Blindage, Blind, n. (Fort.) A term applied to a screen 
temporarily constructed to shield soldiers from an 
enemy’s fire or reconnoissance. It is usually formed of 
timber encircled with fascines, and covered with earth, 
turf, brushwood, hides, &c. 

Blind All-Fours, n. (Games.) A game of All-fours 
generally played by two persons. Each player has six 
cards, the first one played by the non-dealer being the 
trump. There is no begging, and the points are usually 
seven or nine. At Blind All-fours, some reject the sixes 
and sevens, and count all the pips on all the cards for 
game. The score is usually taken on a cribbage-board, 
or by means of two cards taken from the pack. — See 
All-fours. 

Blind'-beetle, n. (Zobl.) A name of the Cock¬ 
chafer. q. v. 

Blind' -coal, n. (Min.) A name given in Scotland to 
anthracite, or flameless coal. 

Blind'ed, pp. or a. Made dark or obscure; deprived of 
sight; deprived of moral or intellectual discernment. 

Blind 'er, n. A person who blinds another. — n. pi. I 
Same as Bunkers, q. v. 

Blind'iislt, n. ( Zoiil .) See Htps^id^. I 

Blind'fold, a. Having something folded over the eyes 
so as to blind; having the mental vision darkened. 

Who blindfold walks upon a river’s brim, 

When he should see, has he deserved to swim?"— Dryden. 

— v. a. To fold something over the eyes so as to blind; to 
cover the eyes; to hinder from seeing. 

“ And when they had blindfolded him, they struck him on the 
face." — Luke xxii. 64. 


Blindbelm, (bllnd'hime.) See Hochstadt. 

Blind Hook'ey, n. (Games.) A game at cards, which 
is played thus: when the cards are shuffled and cut, 
they are divided by the youngest hand into as many 
portions, faces downwards, as there are players. The 
eldest hand then gives the dealer any one of the packs, 
and the other players take each a portion, upon which 
the stakes are placed. The dealer then turns up his lot, 
and according as the card at bottom is higher or lower 
than those of his adversaries, he wins or loses. The 
cards rank as at Whist, and all ties are won by the dealer 
Each party has the right to shuffle, and the left-hand 
player cuts. 

Bliml'ing’, ppr. or a. Depriving of sight or of under¬ 
standing; obscuring: as, blinding tears. 

Blind ly, adv. Without sight or understanding.— 
Heedlessly; implicitly; inconsiderately. 

“Those who will not without examining submit, and blindly 
follow their nor^en*«." — Locke 

Blind man, n. A man who is blind: a sightless man. 

—A phrase employed in the English post-offices, to de¬ 
nominate a person who has charge of deciphering or 
elucidating bad, indistinct, or mysterious addresses of 
letters. 

Blind'man's-bufr, n. (Pastimes.) A play or pastime 
indulged in by a company of persons assembled together, 
in which one person is blindfolded, and in this way ha# 
to hunt out the others 

“ At blindman’s buff to grope his way." - Budibras. 

Blind' nests, n. State of being blind; want of bodily 
sight; want of intellectual or moral discernment; igno¬ 
rance. 

Blind -side, n. The side most vulnerable to assault 
weakness; foible; weak part; as, “ This is one of hi# 
blind-sides.” — Swift. 

Blind'-story, n. (Arch.) A term sometimes employed 
in mediaeval architecture to denote the trifonum of a 
church, iii contradistinction to the clerestory. 

Blind' -worm, n. (Zoiil.) The common name of the 
genus Anguis, family Chalcida or Glass-snakes, which 
may be said to form the connecting link between the 
lizards and the true serpents. The name Is more espe¬ 
cially applied to the slow-worm. Though somewhat 
formidable in appearance, the B. is perfectly innocuous. 
Its usual length is about eleven inches; the head is 
small; the eyes are also small, and the irides red; the 
neck is slender, and thence the body enlarges, continu¬ 
ing of equal bulk to the tip of the tail, which ends 
bluntly, and is as long as the body. The general color 
of the back is cinereous, marked with very small lines 
of minute black specks, the scales are small, smooth, 
and shining, of a silvery-yellow on the upper parts and 
dusky beneath; the tongue is broad and forked, and the 
teeth are very small and numerous. The B. feeds on 
earth-worms, insects, &c., and among the uninformed 
has the character of possessing the most deadly venom. 
The motion of this reptile is slow, from which circum¬ 
stance, as well as from the smallness of its eyes, its 
names are derived. Like all the rest of the kind, they 
lie torpid during the winter, being sometimes louud in 
vast numbers twisted together. 

Blink, v. t. [A.S. blican, to shine, to twinkle; Ger. 
blicken; O.Ger. blichan; Svved. blickai] To twinkle; to 
wink; to see obscurely or with the eyes partially closed. 

11 That, to trepan the one to think 
The other, both strove to blink." — Budibras. 

—To gleam or glimmer. to shine intermittingly, as a 
lamp. 

— v. a. To shut the eyes upon; to shut out of sight; to 
avoid, or purposifly evade; as, to blink the subject. 

— n. A glimpse, glance, or partial observation of anything; 
as, a blink of light. — Fugitive or intermittent light or 
luminousness; a term used in Scotland aud some purt» 
of England. 

A thief sae paukie is my Jean 
To steal a blink by a unseen. ’—Bums. 

— (Naut.) See Ice-blink. 

—pi. (Sporting.) A term used in some parts of England to 
denominate boughs or brushwood employed to turn th« 
course of deer or cattle. 

Blink'itrd, n. [blink, and ard, kind.] A person who 
blinks, or has bad or weak eyes. — Anything that twin¬ 
kles or momentarily glimmers, as a star shining inter¬ 
mittently. 

Blink'-beer, n. Beer kept unbroached until it it 
sharp. 

Blink' er, n. One who blinks. — (Saddlery.) An expan. 
sion of the side of a horse’s bridle to prevent him Iron? 
seeing on either side, but at the same time not to 
obstruct his vision in front; sometimes called blinder. 
(Almost invariably used in the plural.) 

Blink'-eyed, a. Blear-eyed: as, a blink-eyed crone. 

Blink'intr, pp. and a. Winking; twinkling; avoid¬ 
ing; as, ixblinking lamp. 

Bliss, n. [A.S. bliss. See Bless.] Blessedness: suprem# 
felicity; full of complete happiness or enjoyment; hea¬ 
venly joys; as, an abode of bliss. 

" Thou source of all my bliss and all my woe.”— Goldsmith. 

Bliss, in Missouri, a post-office of Miller co. 

Bliss'field, in Michigan, a post-village aud township 
of Lenawee co., on Raisin River, 22 m. N.W of Toledo, 
and 10 from Adrian. 

Bliss'ful, a. Full of bliss; full of joy and felicity; aa 

blissful days. 

Bliss'fully, adv. In a blissful manner. 

Blissfulness, n. Exalted happiness; felicity; ful¬ 
ness of joy. 

Bliss'less, a. Wanting, or without, bliss, (r.) 

Blis'soin, t>. f. [A.S. blithe, sprightly.] To be ready ij 
receive the ram, as when a sheep is in heat. 

— v. a. To tup like a ram. 








BLOB 


BLOC 


BLON 


365 


Blis'ter, n. [Ger. blase, and blatter, a vesicle pustule; 
blasen; 0. Ger. blahan, to blow.] A pustule or thin wa¬ 
tery bladder on the skin, containing serum. It may be 
occasioned by a burn or other injury, or by a vesicatory. 
— Any swelling made by the separation of a film from 
the other parts, as that of iron caused by bubbles of air. 

( Med.) Any substance which, applied to the skin, raises 
tlie outer cuticle, or scarf-skin, in blisters or pustules, 
and fills the space between that and the true skin with 
a watery fluid, called serum, separated from the blood 
by the stimulating potency of the article employed. B. 
are either of the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom. 
The following are the chief articles used for that pur¬ 
pose: Spanish flies, or cantharides; mustard, euphor- 
bium, mozereon, savin, croton oil, common nettle, and 
steam; tartrate of antimony, nitrate of silver, ammonia, 
nitric acid, acetic acid, and caustic potash.— B. are ap¬ 
plied either in the form of a plaster, or in the liquid 
state, as may suit the convenience of the operator. 
Their object is to draw away, by counter-irritation, any 
inflammatory action from a part to which direct reme¬ 
dies cannot be applied. Latterly they have been greatly 
used for the purpose of dispersing glandular tumors, and 
also for indoleut ulcers. B. made from cantharides, 
when applied for too great length of time, produce dis¬ 
tressing affections of the urinary bladder. A piece of 
sil ver paper, or gauze wet with vinegar, is often laid be¬ 
tween the B. and the skiu when it is applied to children 
and thin-skinned people. Mustard B. are seldom kept 
on long enough to produce B. In every case a B. should 
not be kept long applied, and great cleanliness is neces¬ 
sary in dressing the part. Sores which have taken an 
unhealthy action have often been produced by keeping 
B. too long upon children. 

—V. i. To rise in blisters. 

“ Embrace thy knees with loathing hands, 

Which blister when they touch thee ”— Dryden. 

—v. a. To raise a blister or blisters; to apply a blistering 
plaster to the skin. — To injure or cause paiu to, as if 
by a blister. 

' A gentlewoman of mine, who .... hath blister'd her report." 

Shaks. 

Blister-beetle, Blister-fly, n. ( Zobl .) See Can- 

T HARIS. 

Blistered Copper-ore', n. (Mia.) The name ap¬ 
plied in the mines of Cornwall, England, to reniform 
and botryoidal copper pyrites. 

Blistered Steel, n. (Metal.) See Steel. 

Blis'ter-fly, n. (. Zool.) See Canthariix®. 

Blis'ter-plaster, n. (Med.) See Blister. 

Blis'tery, a. Full of blisters. 

Blite, n. (Bot.) See Blitum. 

Blithe, a. (Sometimes spelt Blythe.) [A.S. blithe; 0. 
Ger. blidi, joyful, from blithan, to rejoice; Goth, bleith- 
jan, to be merciful.] Happy; gay; merry; joyous; 
sprightly; mirthful. 

“ He work’d and sung from morn till night: 

No lark more blithe than he.” — Bickerstaff. 

Blithe'ful, a. Joyous; full of mirth or gayety. 

Blithely, adv. In a guy, joyous manner. 

Blithe'ness, n. Quality of being blithe; gayety; 
sprightliness. 

Blithe'some, a. Gay; sprightly; joyous; cheerful; 
pleasant. 

" Frosty blasts deface 

The blithesome year." — Philips. , 

BUthe'someness, n. Quality or condition of being 
blithesome; gayety ; sprightliness. 

Biilum. n. [Gr. bleton, insipid; in allusion to its fair 
but insipid berries.] (Bot.) A genus of plants, ord. Che- 
nopodiacece. — Diag. Calyx 3-cleft, segments ovate, equal; 
stam. 1, exserted; sty. 2; ova., ovoid, acuminate: seed 
1, contained in the calyx which becomes a berry. —They 
are herbaceous weeds, with flowers and fruits in capi¬ 
tate clusters terminal and axillary. — The Strawberry 
Blite, B. capitanuin, is a weed-like plant, about 1 foot in 
height, branching, growing in fields, and sometimes cul¬ 
tivated for borders in the flower-garden; heads of flow¬ 
ers sessile, near together, on the branches and summit 
of the stem; fruit consisting of the reddened flowers, ap¬ 
pearing like strawberries, full of a purple juice, taste 
insipid. It blossoms in June, and is found from Virginia 
to the Arctic Circle. 

Bloat, (blot,) v. a. [A.S. bleed. 0. Ger. blat, from blajan, 
to blow; allied to Lat. flatus, from flare, to blow.] To 
blow, swell, or puff out or up; to swell up or make tur¬ 
gid; as, a bloated stomach. 

•—To inflate or puff up with vanity or self-adulation. 

“ His rude essays 

Encourage him, and bloat him up with praise.” — Dryden. 

— v. i. To £row turgid; to dilate. 

•• If a person of a firm constitution begins to bloat , ... his fibres 
grow weak.” — Arbuthnot. 

Bloat'ed, pp. or a. Swelled: grown turgid; inflated; 
as. “ a bloated mass.” — Goldsmith. 

Bloat'edness, «. State of being bloated; turgidity. 

“ Bloatedness and scorbutica! spots are symptoms of weak fibres.” 

Arbuthnot. 

Bloat'er, Bloat-herring-, n. A smoke-dried her¬ 
ring; as, a Yarmouth bloater. 

Bloat'ing, n. Condition of being swelled or bloated. 

Blob. n. [See Bleb.] A drop; a viscid bubble. 

Blob'ber, n. A vulgarism signifying a Bubble, q. v. 
o found filmy substance called a blobber." — Carew. 

Blob'ber-lip, n. [blobber and lip.] A thick or heavy lip. 
They make a wit of their insipid friend. 

His blobber-lips and beetle-brow; commend.” — Dryden. 

Blob'ber-lipped, a. Having thick lips. 

“His person deformed ... flat-nosed, and blobber-lipped.'' 

L' Estrange. 


Bloch, Mark Eleazar, ( block',) a German naturalist, b. 
at Auspach, 1723. His Natural History of Fishes, with 
432 plates, which has been translated into French, and 
forms 12 vols. folio, is one of the finest works of its kind. 
I). 1799. 

Block, ( blok ,) n. [I)u. blok; Ger. block ; 0. Ger. block ; 
Gael, bloc, round or bicular.] A solid log of timber, mass 
of stone, metal, &c.; a lump or mass of solid matter, 
generally presenting two plane faces; as, a block of 
marble. 

-‘For want of a block he will stumble at a straw.” — Swift. 

—A block of wood used for decapitating criminals. 

“ I’ll drag him thence, 

Even from the holy altar to the block.” — Dryden. 

—A wooden mould, or that on which anything is formed 
or framed; as, a hat-block. 

" He wears his faith but as the fashion of his hat; it ever 
changes with the next block.” — Shaks. 

—In the U. States, a square or connected mass of build¬ 
ings. — Any obstruction, or cause of obstruction; a stop; 
a hindrance; an obstacle. 

“ No crime is block enough in our way to stop our flight." 

Decay of Piety. 

—A blockhead; an obtuse fellow, (o.) 

“ What tongueless blocks were they, would they not speak ? ” 

Shaks. 

(Falconry .) A perch for a faleon or other bird of prey 

(Arch.) [Fr. bloc.] A term applied to large, unworked 
masses of marbie or stone; it is also used to denote a 
modillion in a cornice, or the small projections left on 
the stones of some buildings, which are supposed to 
have been indications of the unfinished state of the 
work, though they are discovered upon some elaborately 
finished buildings, such as the choragic monument of 
Ttirasyllus. The introduction of the blocks on the arch¬ 
stones of the Pont-du-Gard (Fig. 163) is a striking illus¬ 
tration of their use. 

(Naut.) The shell or case that contains the wheel or 
sheave of a pulley, (which last term is never used at sea.) 
Two or more blocks, with the rope, constitute what is 
technically called a tackle. B. are of various kinds, 
being called sin¬ 
gle, double, triple, 

&c., according to 
the number of 
sheaves they con¬ 
tain. They also 
bear different 
names from some 
peculiarity o f 
shape, such as 
the long-tackle 
block, clue-line 
block, snatch- 
block, &c., or from 
the position of the 
rigging in which 
they happen to 
be placed. Thero 
is a great differ¬ 
ence in the size 
and capability of 
blocks used on board ship, and for the various purposes 
in which such mechanical appliances are required. The 
component parts of a B. are the shell, the sheave, the 
pin, and the strap. By means of blocks, sailors are en¬ 
abled to raise Wie sails, and tighten or loosen ropes in 
different parts of the vessel with greater facility. See 
Dead-eye. — Blocks are also the pieces of wood and iron 
on which a ship’s keel is supported when undergoing 
repairs in a dry or graving dock. 

Block, v. a. To enclose or shut up as with a block or 
blocks, or some solid mass; to stop up; to obstruct, 

‘■Recommend it to the Governor of Abingdon, to send some 
troops to block it up.’ — Lord Clarendon. 



Fig. 373. — blocks. 

1. Double • block. — 2. Triple - block.— 
3. Clue-line block.—4. Long-tackle block. 
5. Suatch-block. 


—To fasten or secure by means of blocks. 

To block out. To lay out; to bring into shape or form. 

Blockade', to. [It. bloccato, blocked up; from bloc- 
care, to block up.] The blocking up, or shutting up, of 
a port by surrounding or guarding it with hostile sliips, 
with a view to prevent egress or ingress of supplies or 
reinforcements. — In International Law, the right to 
blockade the ports of an enemy in war, and to exclude 
neutrals, is limited by the following recognized princi¬ 
ples; 1. The blockade must be substantial, by means 
of a sufficient force to prevent the entry or exit of ves¬ 
sels; otherwise a neutral is not bound to respect it. 2. 
It is essential that the neutral should have notice of the 
blockade; otherwise his ship cannot be justly con¬ 
demned. A counter-notice should also he given by the 
blockading Dower when the blockade has ceased. 

(Mil) A sort of circuinvallation round a place, by 
which all foreign connection and correspondence is, as 
far as human power can effect it, to be entirely cut off. 
Towns and forts that are difficult of investment and 
regular approach by trenches, through being situate in 
a commanding position on a hill or eminence, are block¬ 
aded by being surrounded with a cordon of works, or re¬ 
doubts, established on the surrounding heights, at the 
distance of half a mile or more of each other, according 
to circumstances and the nature of the country. Some¬ 
times B. must be carried on by sea and land at the same 
time, to render it complete and efficient; but the term 
is more particularly applicable to the investment or 
watching of a port by ships of war. 

To raise a blockade. To remove or withdraw from the 
blockade of a port or place. — To run a blockade,. To 
succeed in passing into a blockaded port by eluding the 
vessels of the blockading squadron. 


— v. a. To block up or close up a town or fortress by ships 
of war or troops; to besiege or beleaguer closely. 

Bloekad'er, ra. One who, or that which, blockades. 

Blockade'-runner, to. (Naut.) The name generally 
given to a class of vessels built for the special object of 
running into a blockaded port. 

Block-cor'nice, Block-entablature, n. 
(Arch.) Ornamentation frequently used to finish plain 
buildings where none of the regular orders have been 
employed. Of this kind there is a very beautiful exam¬ 
ple composed by Vignola, much used in Italy, and em¬ 
ployed by Sir Christopher Wren to finish the second de¬ 
sign of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. 

Block 'ers, in N. Carolina, a P. 0. of Cumberland co. 

Block head, to. A stupid, obtuse fellow; a dolt. 

*- The bookful blockhead ignorantly read, 

With loads of learned lumber in his head." — Pope. 

Block'headed, a. Stupid; obtuse; dull of compre¬ 
hension. 

“ Says a blockheaded boy, these are villainous creatures." 

V Estrange. 

Block'tieadism, n. State or character of being a 

blockhead. 

Block'lieadly, a. Resemblingablockhead; as, “Some 
blockheadly hero.”— Dryden. 

Block house, to. (Mil.) A work of defence, formed 
principally, as the name implies, of logs of timber. It 
may be built by itself, in which case it may be looked 
on as a small independent fort; or it may be situated in 
the interior of field-works, when it becomes a retrench¬ 
ment, used for the same purposes as erections of a some¬ 
what similar nature, called blindages. 

Block house, in Pennsylvania, a village of Liberty 
township, Tioga co., 30 m. N. of Williamsport. 

Block'iug--course, to. (Arch.) A course of masonry 
or brick-work, laid on the top of a cornice crowning a 
wall. 

Block'ing-s, n. pi. ( Carpentry.) Small pieces of wood 
fitted in or glued, or fixed to the interior angle of two 
boards or other pieces, in order to give strength to th« 
joint. 

Block'ish,TO. Like a block; stupid; dull; inane- 
“And by decree let blockish Ajax draw." — Shaks. 

Block'ishly, adv. In a stupid manner. 

Block'ishness, to. Stupidity; dulness. 

Block Island, belonging to Bhode Island, and lying 
in the Atlantic Ocean near Montauk Point, the E. ex¬ 
tremity of Long Island ; Lat. 41° 13' N., Lon. 71° 35' W. 
It is 8 m. long by about 4 broad, and forms the township 
of New Shoreham. On the N.W. part of the island there 
are two fixed lights. 

Block'lesliam, n. (Geol.) See Bkacklesham. 

Block'Iey, in Pennsylvania, Philadelphia co., on the 
Schuylkill River, and now included within the bounds 
of the city of Philadelphia. 

Block'-like, a. Stupid; dull; like a block. 

Block-machine', Block-iuacliiii'cry, to. The 
machinery for manufacturing ships’ blocks, invented by 
Mr. Brunei, an Englishman, in 1801. 

Block -plan, to. (Arch.) A plan of,a groand or dwell¬ 
ing, representing its general arrangement, without en¬ 
tering upon any of the details. It is customary to com¬ 
mence a series of plans by such a drawing, which is 
usually made upon a very small scale. 

Block-ship, ra. (Naut.) A large vessel of war, em¬ 
ployed on coast-duty for the protection of a specified dis¬ 
trict. These ships are generally old ones, and are rarely 
fit for operations in the open sea. 

Block'-tin, n. (Metal.) Tin cast into blocks or ingots. 
The tin which is sold in commerce under this name, is 
less pure than the grain-tin, being made from the com¬ 
mon ore of the veins. The best qualities of this metal 
are the Banca, the Cornish, and the Spanish tin— The 
term is also applied to articles of inferior value, which 
are made of iron-plate, covered with a coating cf tin of 
variable thickness, according to their qualities. 

Bloek'ville, in New York, a P. 0. of Chautauqua co. 

Blod'get Mills, in New York, a P. 0. ai Cortland co. 

Blois, ( blwa ,) a town of France, cap. dep. Loire ef Caer, 
on the Loire, 35 m. S. W. of Orleans S. is an ,id town, 
only remarkable for the beauty ef its .ituation, its 
antiquity, its monuments, and the hP .urical events of 
which it has been the theatre. At ae extremity of the 
town is the castle, and at the otb-r the cathedral. The 
former is an immense pile, bin"., at different periods and 
in different styles of arc bite' -ure. Louis XII. was born 
in this castle; and in it aho Margaret d’Anjou was mar¬ 
ried to the Due d’Ale’ i;on, and Margaret of Valois to 
Henry IV. But it d .rives its principal interest from 
events of a very dift v rent character. Here, in Dec., 1588, 
the Due de Guise aud his brother the Cardinal, were 
basely murdered oy the order, and almost in the pres¬ 
ence, of Henry \II. Queen Catherine de Medicis died 
here, and Mat" i Louisa held her court in it after the 
capitulation o Paris. It was since occupied as a barrack, 
but in ISSO-f/, was restored at great cost. 

Blomary, (blnnm'ary,) n. [See Bloom.] (Metal.) The 
first forge in iron-smelting, through which the metal 
passes aftei it has been smelted from the ore. 

Blond, Blonde, a. [Fr.j Fair-complexioned; light- 
colored; flrxen. 

Blonde, (I land,) ra. [Fr. blond, blonde, fair, light-col¬ 
ored, (applii d to hair and complexion).] A fair-complex- 
ioned person, with light hair and blue eyes. This term 
is generally applied to a woman possessing fair hair and 
complexion, anu is used in contradistinction from bru¬ 
nette (q. v.): as, th. t lady is a blonde. 

Blonde, Blond-lac**', n. A fine description of lace. 

Blon'del, the minstrel anu 5-vorite of Richard I.(“Cceur- 
de-Lion ”), whom B. is said to Lcve discovered in hij 


















3GG 


BLOO 


BLOO 


BLOO 


Austrian dungeon by singing beneath its walls the first 
part of a song of their joint composition, called “0 
Richard ! mon bon roi. ” 

Blond Mct'al, n. (Min.) A peculiar kind of coal- 
measure clay-ironstone, which, after being smelted, is 
made into a variety of tools. It is found at Wednesbury, 
England. 

Blood, (bliid,) n. (A. S., Swed., and Dan. blod; Goth. 
bloth; 0. Ger. bluot; Ger. blut; Fr. sang.] The red, vital¬ 
izing fluid which circulates through the arteries and 
veins of men and animals. (See below, § Physiol.) 

•*= Family; progeny; kindred; consanguinity; relation by 
descent from a common ancestor. 

“ 01 what a happiness is it to find 
A friend of our own blood, a brother kind! ” — Waller. 

—High, or honorable birth; royal lineage; aristocratic 
descent; as, a prince of the blood. 

“ What can ennoble aots, or slaves, or cowards ? 

Alas 1 not all the blood of all the Howards.” — Pope. 

—Murder, or blood shedding; violent taking away of life. 

“ They say blood will have blood.’’ — Shake. 

—A sanguinary or murderous temperament or disposi¬ 
tion. (R.) 

“ He was a thing of blood." — Shake. 

—Temper of the mind; state of the passions. 

“ At your age, 

The hey-day in the blood is tame, it’s humble.” — Shake. 

—A man of fire or spirit; a spark; a rake. 

** Rome, thou bast lost the breed of noble bloods ." — Shake. 

—The juice of anything; as, the blood of the grape. 

Cold blood. State of temperament in which any act is 
committed premeditatedly, and without sudden impulse. 
— Warm blood. Applied to one of strong passions or im¬ 
pulsive temper.— To heat the blood. To stir up or inflame 
the passions. 

(Physiol.) In animals of the simplest structure, all the 
liquids of the animal economy resemble each other. It 
seems, indeed, to be only water charged with a certain 
amount of organic particles; but in animals higher in 
the scale of being, the humors cease to be of the same 
nature, and there is one, distinct from all the others, 
destined to nourish the body; this fluid is the blood. It 
not only nourishes the body, but is the source whence 
are drawn all the secretions, such as the saliva, urine, 
bile, and tears. — In mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, 
and in most animals of the class Annelides, the blood is 
red. But in the greater number of the lower animals 
the blood presents various hues and density, being often 
thin or watery, and slightly yellow or green, rose-colored 
or lilac. It is difficult, therefore, to be seen, and for a 
long time these animals were called bloodless or exsan- 
guineous. Those animals with white blood are very 
numerous; all insects, for example. The Crustacea of 
all sorts have only white or pale-colored blood; and 
in this category may be placed all the mollusca, zoo- 
phites, and intestinal worms. — By the use of the mi¬ 
croscope we discover that the blood of a red-blooded 
animal is composed of a yellowish transparent liquid, 
called serum, and of a number of small solid corpuscles, 
which float in yie serum, called blood-globules, discov¬ 
ered by Deuwenhoeck and Malpighi, whose researches 
were made soon after the microscope was invented.— 
Globules or Corpuscles of the Blood. Before birth, the 
globules have dimensions, and even a form different from 
what they afterwards ac¬ 
quire. Thus, in the chick 
the globules are at first 
circular; and it is only at 
a more advanced period of 
incubation that the glob¬ 
ules assume an elliptic 
form. After birth, they 
never vary. — In all ani¬ 
mals of the same species, 
the globules have the 
same dimensions and re¬ 
semble each other in this 
respect. It is not so with 
different species. Thus, in 
man, (Fig. 374,) and in 
most mammals, the glob¬ 
ules are circular. In the 
camel and llama, how¬ 
ever, they are elliptic. In 
birds, reptiles, batrachia, 
and fishes, they are ellip¬ 
tic.— The corpuscles are 
always microscopic; and 
in man, and mammals in 
general,they are extreme¬ 
ly small. High powers of 
the microscope have re¬ 
vealed, of late, that in the 
human blood scarcely any two corpuscles are of precisely 
the same size; some of them being from 5 to 6 times the 
size of others. Their average length is about 
of an inch. It would be possible, if they were closely 
acked together, for 8,126,464 to lie in a space occupied 
y a pin’s head; and the tiny red drop which issues from 
the puncture of living flesh by the prick of a needle, con¬ 
sists of about 5,000,000 of these bodies. — In birds, the 
globules are larger than in mammals; in the reptiles 
and batrachia they are still larger; in the proteus they 
attain their maximum. Finally, in fishes, the globules 
are intermediate between those of birds and the batra¬ 
chia.— Moreover, the blood-globules are always flat¬ 
tened, and present a central spot surrounded with a rim 
or border. They seem to be composed of a central 
nucleus and an envelope, resembling a bladder This 
envelope being depressed, gives to the fdobule the ap¬ 




1. Human blood. 

2. Domestic fowl. 

3. Frog. 

4. A fish of the shark kind. 
(Magnified nearly 400 times.) 


pearance of a disc, swollen in the middle. It is of a red¬ 
dish color, and seems formed of a substance resembling 
jelly, but very elastic. The central nucleus is of a 
spheroidal form, and is not colored. In mammals, the 
nucleus is not distinct, and the central portion is de¬ 
pressed ; but analogy induces us to suppose that, as in 
other animals, it is also present in man. The wonderful 
Spectral Analysis (see Spectrum) has already been ap¬ 
plied with marvellous success to the study of the chang¬ 
ing and transforming substances of our flesh and blood. 
No doubt that in a time not far distant the composition 
and functions of the corpuscles of the blood will be pos¬ 
itively ascertained. For the present, confident as we are 
that Science has not said its last word, we will proceed 
to relate the discoveries already accomplished, without 
assuming any personal opinion, and availing ourselves 
of the able study in spectral analysis by Dr. R. King 
Browne. — The coloring-matter of blood (of its red 
corpuscles) is capable of existing in two states of oxida¬ 
tion, distinguishable by a difference of color and a 
fundamental difference in the action on the spectrum. 
It may be made to pass from the more to the less oxi¬ 
dized state by the action of reducing agents, and recovers 
its oxygen from the air. It seems perfectly demon¬ 
strated, that this coloring-matter, constituting the dis¬ 
tinctive matter of the red corpuscles, named cruorine, 
could easily pass from one state to the other, and the re¬ 
verse In the more oxidized, the scarlet state, that in 
which it is found giving, by the corpuscles, to the arte¬ 
rial blood its scarlet hue, it is distinguished as scarlet 
cruorine; and in its reduced or less oxidized state, that 
in which the red blood-corpuscles give to venous B. its 
purple hue, it is known as purple cruorine. It is hardly 
necessary to designate what a consummate explanation 
these facts afford, of the oxygen appropriating and car¬ 
rying capacity of the red blood-corpuscles, nor what a 
soul-inspiring exemplification it is of the achievements 
of spectral analysis. In the lungs, the purple cruorine 
of the red corpuscles of venous B. appropriates the oxy¬ 
gen from the atmosphere, and becomes scarlet or arterial 
cruorine; and in the whole of the general circulation, 
in the minute blood-channels, this cruorine of the red 
globules having passed through the arterial part of the 
circuit, loses a part of its oxygen, and passes back to the 
purple or venous state.—Dr. R. K. Browne has calcu¬ 
lated that the blood-red corpuscles move 400 times their 
own length in a second. They are not, as is generally 
believed, carried by the fluid, as impelled by successive 
contractions, from the heart, but move through the 
liquid blood at a much faster rate than the liquid itself. 
Each globule may, therefore, move at a rate different 
from time to time, and different from its fellows, al¬ 
though, in general terms, they concur or move together 
at a certain rate. Upon the perception of this fact, no 
doubt, will turn many future discoveries of the condition 
of varying states of health and disease. Mankind have 
always had a dim instinct, hitherto uncorrected and 
unsupported by science, that many states of disease 
are dependent on the blood. These results, high though 
they may be, have been exceeded, in direct practical 
consequence to the world at large, by those achieved with 
the Micro-spectroscope, q. v. An eminent London optician, 
Mr. Lorby, has,in inventing and using it, supplied Medi¬ 
cal jurisprudence with a new and certain means of iden¬ 
tifying the character and variety of dried blood-stains. 
By it a scrap of blood-stained fabric l-10th of an inch 
square, containing, possibly, not more than l-1000th of 
a grain of red corpuscle coloring-matter, may be ascer¬ 
tained to have received the blood from one or another 
source. — But the at present crowning result of these 
observations is, that the cruorine itself is a surer test for 
a far smaller quantity of substance by itself than either 
the spectroscope or micro-spectroscope can take account 
of, except by means of it. — If a weak solution of B. be 
inverted in a test-tube over mercury, it reduces itself to 
the state of oxidation of venous cruorine, and a small 
prism will then show the one-line spectrum, characteris¬ 
tic of purple cruorine; but if asingledropof distilled wa¬ 
ter be added, the oxygen in solution (notin combination) 
in that drop will restore the cruorine to its scarlet state. 
This change of state in the oxidized substance, the cru¬ 
orine, will be at once shown in the spectroscope; but the 
amount of oxygen by itself which the cruorine thus ap¬ 
propriates, and by which it changes its state, would never 
be revealed by itself, or in any other way known to us, 
even by the spectroscope, q. v. — Other globules, spherical 
and colorless, exist in the blood, resembling greatly those 
observed in the chyle; from being mingled with the red 
globules they are not readily observed. — In the white 
blood of the invertebrate kingdom, globules are also 
found, but different from those described; the size varies 
more in the same individual, and their surface has a rasp¬ 
berry appearance; their form is generally spherical, but 
neither a central nucleus nor external envelope is to be 
seen.— Composition of the B. The composition of the B. 
is very complex. In the higher animals we find water, 
albumen, fibrin, a coloring-matter containing iron, a 
yellow coloring-matter; several fatty substances, as cho- 
lesterine,cerebrine (asubstance containing phosphorus); 
many salts, as chloride of sodium or sea-salt, sulphate of 
potash, carbonate of soda, hydrochlorate of potash, hydro¬ 
chlorate of ammonia, the carbonates of lime and mag¬ 
nesia, with phosphates of soda, lime,and magnesia; the 
lactates of soda, the alkaline salts formed by the fatty 
acids; finally, free carbonic acid, nitrogen, and oxygen. 
But this complexity, great though it be, is yet below the 
reality, for there certainly exist other substances in the 
B. which chemistry cannot demonstrate, by reason, prob¬ 
ably, of our imperfect means of analysis. By arresting, 
for example, the secretion of the urine from the B., 
various matters will then be found mixed with the blood 


which could not be previously detected, but which ara 
presumed to have been present under the same, or other 
unknown, forms. — The substances enumerated as enter¬ 
ing into the composition of the B., compose nearly all 
the parts of the animal economy: the albumen forms 
the basis of many tissues, the fibrin is the constituent 
part of the muscles, and the salts enter into the com¬ 
position of the bones and of many humors; and from 
the whole of the facts known, it may be safely concluded, 
that the materials destined to become flesh, bile, urine, 
&c., already exist in the blood, the organs which are to 
appropriate them merely drawing them from the B., but 
not forming them; and thus there exists some reason 
for calling t lie B. liquid flesh. — The proportions in which 
these constituent parts of the B. exist, vary much in 
different animals; and as regards the solid and liquid 
elements, they may differ in the same individual at dif¬ 
ferent times. — In man the globules are more numerous, 
and the watery part less than in woman; temperament 
also exercises some influence in this respect. In 100 
parts of the B. in man, we find 79 parts of water, 19 of 
albumen, 1 part of salts, with some traces only of fibrin 
and coloring-matter. In birds, the proportion of water 
in the B. is less; but in the batrachia and in fishes the 
amount is greater. In the frog, for example, there are 
88 parts of water in 100 of the B. — Analogous differ¬ 
ences are observed, in comparing the relative qualities 
of the serum and globules of the blood in different ani¬ 
mals; while — as we shall subsequently see— there ex 
ists a remarkable relation between the amount of the 
globules and the animal heat. Birds, of all animals, have 
the B. richest in red globules; and in them the animal 
heat is greatest. Mammals, less warm than birds, have 
from 7 to 12 per cent., while in reptiles and fishes, the 
proportion does not exceed 5 or 6 per cent, of the whole 
weight of the B. — Sp. grav. of B. corpuscles, 1-0885; of 
serum or liquor sanguinis, 1-028.— Temperature of the B. 
of various animals, according to the researches of Iiu- 
dolphi and Tiedemann: 


Deg. Fahr. Deg. Fahr. 

Great Titmouse.111-25 Squirrel.105 

Swallow.111-25 Ox.104 

Ducks & Geese,106 to 111 Ape.103 

Common Hen 102 to 109 Dog.101 

Eagles, Hawks, Cat.98 to 103 

&c.104 to 109 Elephant.99 

Pigeon.106 to 109 Horse.98-24 

Gull.100 Man.98 

Bat .106 

Coagulation of the B. In its ordinary condition the B. is 
always fluid ; withdrawn from the vessels of the living 
animal, and left for a time to itself, it separates into two 
portions, a semi-solid mass and a liquid portion in which 
the mass floats; the solid part is called the clot. — This 
phenomenon (the formation of the clot) is due to the 
presence of fibrin in the B. ; it is held in solution in the 
serum during life; but when this loses its influence over 
it, it solidifies, enclosing with it the red globules, and 
thus forming the red gelatinous mass called the clot. 
The simple experiment of beating up the B. with little 
rods as it flows from the veins, and thus removing the 
fibrin, which adheres to the rods, proves that the coag¬ 
ulability of the B. depends on the presence of this sub¬ 
stance. — Another experiment equally simple shows that 
the fibrin is contained in the serum, and not in the red 
globules, as was long supposed. Throw in a filter the B. 
of a frog; all the serum may be made to pass, and the 
globules retained ; in the serum thus separated from the 
globules, a clot is formed, which, however, is colorless.—• 
Use of the B. The B. is the special agent of nutrition, 
and the general restorer of what is lost. But in addition, 
it is proved, by the simple experiments of blood-letting 
and of transfusion, to form an essential stimulus for the 
performance of the functions of life. By severe blood¬ 
letting or loss of B., we become enfeebled and seemingly 
dead; but if, before this happens, the B. of another ani¬ 
mal be transferred into the veins of the suffering indi¬ 
vidual, the vitality is restored. The importance of the 
globules is also proved by the same experiment, for if 
simple serum be so transfused, death takes place. — The 
fibrin of the B. also plays an important part, for Mr. 
Magendie has shown, that when B. deprived of its fibrin 
is injected into the veins of a dog, the animal dies with 
symptoms resembling those of putrid fever. — The in¬ 
fluence of the B. over nutrition may also be readily dem¬ 
onstrated. Withdraw the B. more or less from any organ, 
and it gradually wastes away in proportion to the quan¬ 
tity withdrawn; while on the contrary, the greater size 
of the muscles in those who employ them actively, and 
hence draw to them a larger amount of B., is well known. 
— To those already enumerated important functions and 
uses of the blood, some physiologists — chiefly since the 
discoveries which we owe to the Spectrum Analysis—go 
so far as to assert that “the life is the blood i. e., 
that the entire principle of life exists in the blood. It 
is not within our domain, however, to discuss this prob¬ 
lem, which properly belongs to the province of physio¬ 
logical speculation. That animal life is impossible with¬ 
out the action of the blood, is a fact generally known, 
and as such, accepted; but to try to find in the animated 
corpuscle the germ that originates intellectual life is a 
theory that materialists may put forth, but whose actual 
solution remains yet to be given and demonstrated.— 
See Arterialization: Artery; Circulation; Heart; 
Respiration; Transfusion; Vein, &c. 

(Med.) See Bleeding; Hemorrhage; II.f.matemesis; 
Hamoptysif • Apoplexy; <fec. 

(Manuf.) The chief use of blood is as a manure made 
into a compost of 50 gallons of blood with a quarter of 
peat-ashes and charcoal-powder; on light soils, 48 bush¬ 
els have been laid on each acre, or half a hundredweight 






















BLOO 


BLOO 


BLOO 


367 


with tvmlve tons of farm-dung. It is now rarely used 
in sugar-refining. It is used to make animal charcoal 
in Prussian-blue works, and also in sume Turkey-red dye- 
works. 

(Law.) Relationship; stock: family. — Brothers and 
sisters are said to be of the whole-blood if they have the 
same father and mother, and of the half-blood if they 
Lave only one parent in common. 

(Eccl. Hist.) Under the Old Testament dispensation, the 
life of all animals was regarded as especially existing in 
the blood, which was a sacred aud essential part of the 
eacrifices offered to God. It was solemnly sprinkled upon 
the altar and the mercy-seat, “ for it is the blood that 
maketh atonement for the soul.” It was therefore most 
sacredly associated w ith the B. of the Lamb of God, which 
“cleanseth us from all sin.” Hence, the strict prohibition 
of the Israelites to eat B., or any meat iu which B. re¬ 
mained,— a prohibition renewed in Acts xv. 29. The 
Christian Church continued for some centuries to abstain 
from B.; and when it was alleged against them that 
they were in the way of drinking human B., they re¬ 
plied that it was not lawful for them to drink even the 
B. of animals. After the 4th century, however, the in¬ 
junction came to be considered as merely of a temporary 
character, and ceased to be binding. 

Blood, v. a. To bleed; to let blood from. — To stain or 
smear with blood. 

•• He was blooded up to the elbows by a couple of Moors.'' Addison. 

“■To inure or accustom to blood, as a hound. 

H Fairer than fairest, let none ever say. 

That ye were blooded in a yielded prey.”— Spenser. 

— i. To bleed; to be bled. 

—a. Pertaining to blood; of the color of blood; of a su¬ 
perior or particular blood; as, a blood-horse. 

Blood, (Avenger of,) (d-vrn'jer.) (Hist.) In the early 
ages, the penalty of death for the crime of murder was 
not inflicted by any legal tribunal or public authority, 
but it was considered the duty of the most immediate 
relative of the victim to hunt and slay the murderer. 
The Hebrew word Goel signified the avenger of blood; 
it had also a wider signification. The Mosaic law placed 
this recognized institution of the rude social condition 
of the times under certain regulations, prohibited the 
murderer from purchasing by money a ransom for his 
life, and appointed cities of refuge for the man-slayer not 
guilty of positive murder. The doctrines of the Koran 
permit the avenging of blood by the nearest kinsman, 
but allow him to receive money as a commutation for 
the murder. The Arabs follow the primitive custom to 
this day. Hereditary feuds of clans, families, and tribes 
have always originated in the avenging of blood, of 
which the Vendetta of Corsica is the most modern and 
familiar example in Europe. 

Bloofl-bap'tism, *. (Eccl. Hist.) In the early Chris¬ 
tian Church, when any one suffered martyrdom without 
having been baptized, he was considered to have been 
blood-baptized; and hence martyrdom was termed blood- 
baptism. — See Baptism. 

Blood'-bespotted, a. Spotted with blood. 

Blood'-bought, a. Bought at the cost of life, or the 
shedding of blood. 

Blood -brother, n. See Blood, (g Law.) 

Blood, (Corruption of.) (Law.) See Attainder. 

Blood, (Coun'cil of.) (Hist.) This name was popu¬ 
larly given to the Council of Tumults, organized by the 
Duke of Alva in 1567, to try criminals against the Spanish 
throne aud the Roman Catholic religion in the Nether¬ 
lands. By its order, 500 citizens were arrested on Ash- 
Wednesday, 1568, and condemned to death. It also 
had Counts Egmont and Horn executed, June 2, 1568. 

Blood'-dyed, a. Dyed or stained with blood. 

Blood'-flower, n. (Bot.) See H-emanthus. 

Blood -frozen, a. Chilled in blood. 

Blood -full, a. Full of blood or spirit, (o. and R.) 

Blood-guiltiness, n. The guilt of murder. 

“ Then with blood guiltiness to heap offence.' — Shake. 

Blood-guilty, (blud'gil-te,) a. Guilty of shedding 
blood. 

Blood'-heat, n. A degree of heat equal to that of 
human blood, which is about 9S° Fahr. 

Blood -horse, n. A horse of the purest breed, or best 
stock. 

Blood-hot, a. Having the same temperature as human 
blood. 

Blood'-honnd. n. (Zofil.) A variety of dog, Cants 
sanguinarius, celebrated for its exquisite scent aud un¬ 
wearied perseverance, and trained not only to the pur¬ 
suit of game, but to the chase of man. A true B. (and 
the pure blood is rare) stands about 28 inches in height, 
and is muscular, compact, and strong; the forehead is 
broad, and the face narrow towards the muzzle; the 
nostrils are wide and well developed; the ears, large, 
pendulous, and broad at the base; the aspect is serene 
and sagacious; the tail long, with an upward curve 
when in pursuit, at which time the hound opens with a 
voice deep and sonorous, that may be heard down the 
wind for a very long distance. The color of the true 
breed is said to be invariably a reddish tan, darkening 
gradually towards the upper parts till it becomes mixed 
with black on the back, the lower parts being of a 
lighter shade, and the muzzle tawny. Our ancestors 
soon discovered the infallibility of the bloodhound in 
tracing any animal, living or dead, to its resting-place. 
To train it, the young dog, accompanied by a staunch 
old hound, was led to the spot whence a deer or other 
animal had been taken on fora mile or two; the hounds 
were then led on and encouraged, and after hunting this 
“drag” successfully, were rewarded with a portion of 
the venison which composed it. The next step was to 
take the youDg dog with his seasoned tutor, to a spot 


whence a man whose shoes had been rubbed with the 
blood of a deer had started on a circuit of two or three 
miles; during his progress the man was instructed to 
renew the blood from time to time to keep the scent 
well alive. His circuit was gradually enlarged at each 
succeeding lesson, and the young hound, thus entered 
and trained, became, at last, fully equal to htint by itself, 
either for the purposes of woodcraft or war. 

"Aud hark ! aud hark I the deep-mouthed bark 
Comes nigher still and nigher ; 

Bursts on the path a dark blood-hound , 

His tawny muzzle tracked the ground. 

And his red eye shot fire. — Sir Walter Scott. 

The B. was formerly employed in the tracking of crimi¬ 
nals, and we believe, it is to a certain extent used, even at 



Fig.Z’b .— CUBAN BLOOD-HOUND. 


the present time, in Australia, for the pursuit of sheep- 
stealers and bushrangers. In Cuba, aDd the Southern 
States of America, the practice of chasing runaway ne¬ 
groes with hounds of this species was almost invariably 
adopted, and generally with success. The Cuban B. 
has been described as being of the size of the largest 
hound, with erect ears, which are usually cropped at the 
points, with the nose rather pointed, but widening much 
towards the hinder part of the jaw. 

Blood'ily, adv. In a bloody manner; cruelly. 
Blood'iness, n. State of being bloody.—Disposition 
or propensity to shed blood. 

Bloodless, a. Without blood; destitute of life. 

“ He cheered my sorrows, and, for sums of gold. 

The bloodless' carcass cf my Hector sold.” — Dryden. 

—Without slaughter or effusion of blood; as, a bloodless 
encounter. 

—Without spirit, activity, or energy. 

“Thou bloodless remnant of that royal blood." — Shake. 

Bloodlessly, adv. Without bloodshed. 

Blood'let, v. a. To bleed; to open a vein; as, “ experi¬ 
ments in bloodletting .” — Arbuthnot. 

Blood'letter, n. A phlebotomist; one whose voca¬ 
tion is to let blood in cases of disease. 
Bloodletting-, n. (Med.) Venesection; the act of 
bleeding. 

Blood'-mar Iced, a. Marked or stained with blood. 
Blood of St. Janua'rius, n. (Eccl. Hist.) See 

Januarius, (St.) 

Blood'-pudding, n. Same as Black-pudding, q. v. 
Klood rain, n. A vegetable growth, which sometimes 
appears in the form of blood-red spots on cooked pro¬ 
visions, and which is referred to the algals, under the 
name of Palmella prodigiosa ; but which seems rather 
to be one of those conditions of mould, which, under 
various colors, are common on paste and other culinary 
articles. The spots consist of myriads of extremely 
minute granules. 

Blood'-red, a. Red as blood. — Blood-red heat is the 
term applied to that degree of heat which is only ne¬ 
cessary to reduce the protuberances on coarse iron by 
the hammer, in order to prepare it for the file, the iron 
being previously brought to its shape. This heat is also 
used in punching small pieces of iron. 
Blood'-relation,n. One related by blood or descent. 
Blood'root, n. (Bot.) See Sanguinaria. 
Blood-shaken, a. Having the blood in feverish cir¬ 
culation. 

Bloodshed, n. The shedding or spilling of blood; 
slaughter. 

•• Abhorred bloodshed, and tumultuous strife.” — Spenser. 
Blood'-sliedder, n. A murderer; one'who sheds 

blood. 

Blood'-shedding, n. The shedding of blood; the 

crime of shedding blood. 

“ These hands are free from guiltless blood-shedding." — Shake. 

Blood'-shot, Blood-shot ton, a. Red and in¬ 
flamed by a turgid state of the blood-vessels. 

“ When redd’ning clouds reflect his bloodshot eye.” — Garth. 
Blood'-spavin, n (Farriery.') An enlargement of 
that vein that extends along the inside of a horse’s hock. I 


Blood'-spilling, n. The act of spilling or Shedding 

blood. 

Blood'-stained, a. Guilty of taking human blood; 

stained with blood 

Blood stone, n. (Min.) A jaspery variety of quartz, 
of a dark-green color, variegated with red spots, like 
drops of blood, (whence the name.) It is frequently 
made into seal and ring stones, and other small orna¬ 
mental articles. — Certain kinds of nematitic iron ore 
were called B. by the ancients, because (as Theophrastus 
says) they seemed “as if formed out of concreted blood.” 
At the present day the term is more especially restricted 
to the hard and compact hematite, which is made into 
burnishers, and which possesses the valuable property 
of laying on gold or silver leaf without fraying or tear¬ 
ing it; it should be of a deep red color, free from flaws, 
close-grained, and susceptible of a fine polish. Galicia, 
in Spain, is the country from which the finer descrip¬ 
tions of this variety of hematite are almost exclusively 
obtained. 

Blood'-stroke, n. Loss of sensation and power of 
motion from hemorrhage of the brain. 

Blood'-sueker, n. Anything that sucks blood; morn 
especially applied to a leech. 

—A cruel man; a murderer. 

“ The nobility cried out upon him, that he was a blood-sucker, * 
murderer, and a parricide.” — Hayward. 

Blood'-sucking, a. That which sucks blood. 

Blood'-swelled, a. Swollen with blood. 

Blood'tkirstiness, n. A thirst for shedding blood, 
a sanguinary, murderous disposition. 

Blood'thirsty, a. Eager to shed blood. 

Blood-vessel, n. An artery, vein, or any other ves¬ 
sel in which the blood of the animal body circulates. 

Blood'-warill, a. Lukewarm; of the temperature of 
blood. 

Blood'-won, a. Won by bloodshed. 

Blood'wood. n. (Bot.) ~ See Logwood. 

Blood'wort, n. (Bot.) Same as Bloodroot. See San¬ 
guinaria. 

Blood'y, a. Stained with blood; containing, or consist¬ 
ing of, blood.— Cruel; murderous; given to bloodshed; 
having a sanguinary disposition. 

• False of heart, light of ear. bloody of hand." — Shake. 

—Marked by cruelty; attended with slaughter; as, a bloody 
engagement. 

—u. a. To stain or smear with blood. 

Blood'y Assizes, n. pi. (Hist.) The term popularly 
given, in England, to the special commission appointed, 
after the suppression of the Duke of Monmouth’s rebel¬ 
lion, 24th August, 1685, for the trial of offenders con¬ 
cerned therein. They set out for the W. of England 
under a military escort, commanded by the infamous 
Judge Jeffreys, (with the rank of lieut.-general,) and con¬ 
demned about 300 persons to death, almost without 
trial. Nearly 1,000 were shipped as slaves to the West 
India plantations. James II. termed this expedition. 
Jeffreys' campaign, and rewarded him with the Lord- 
Chancellorship of England. 

Bloody Bridge, in S. Carolina, 3 m. N.W. of Legar6- 
ville. Here, in the early part of July, 1864, a severe ac¬ 
tion took place between a body of Union colored troops, 
600 strong, and the defenders of a Confederate battery, 
when the former were repulsed with the loss of their 
commander and 97 men killed and wounded. 

Blood'y-eyed, a. Possessing bloody or murderous 
eyes. 

Blood'y-fared, a. Having a bloody face. 

Blood'y Far'land, a headland of Ireland, on the N. 
W. coast of co. Donegal, 5 m. W.S.W. of the Isle of Iunis- 
boffin. 

Blood'y-llux, n. (Med.) The dysentery. 

4 * Pains in the bowels looseness, bloody flux**.” — Arbuthnot. 

Blood'y-fluxed, a. Suffering from the bloody-flux. 

Blood'y-liand, n. (Her.) The distinguishing feature 
on the escutcheon of a baronet of Great Britain, pre¬ 
senting an open hand gules ; hence its common appella¬ 
tion of bloody-hand. 

Blood'y-h unting, a. Hunting forblood;as, “ bloody- 
hunting slaughtermen.” — Shahs. 

Blood y-minded, a Cruel; inclined to bloodshed; 
of sanguinary disposition. 

“ I have not the power to briDg It out, for fear of this bloody- 
minded colonel.” — Dryden. 

Blood'y-red, a. Crimson-colored; of the color of blood. 

Blood'y Run, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Bed¬ 
ford co., on a branch of the J uniata River, 8 m. E. of 
Bedford. 

Blood'y-scep'tred, a. Wielding a sceptre gained by 
blood. 

Blood'y-sweat, n. (Med.) A sweat attended by a dis¬ 
charge of blood; the sweating sickness. 

Bloom, n. [Goth, bloma; Ger. blume, from bluhen, t* 
flower; Gr. phlob's; Lat .Jins; Stnisk.phull, to flower, to 
bloom.] State of blooming, blossoming, or opening oi 
flowers and leaves; as, the trees are covered with bloom. 

“ But not to me return* 

Day;. • . or sight of vernal bloom.*’ — Milton. 

—A blossom; an expanded bud; a flower. 

“ The turf with rural dainties shall be crown'd. 

While opening blooms diffuse their sweets around." — Pupa. 

—State of youth or prime of life; a shining or glowing 
with freshness, youth, growth, and color; as, in the 
bloom of life. 

“ Were I no queen, did you my beauty weigh. 

My youth in bloom, your age in its decay.” — Dryden. 

—Native flush or tint on the cheek; delicacy of color- 

“ O’er her young cheek and rising bosom, move 
The bloom of young desire and purple light af love." — Onif. 














368 


BLOO 


BLOO 


BLOT 


—The purplish-blue color seen on certain freshly gathered 
fruits; as, the bloom of grapes. 

(Metal.) [A.S. bldma.] The lump of wrought iron in pud¬ 
dling-mills, which leaves the furnace in a rough state, 
to be subsequently rolled into the bars or other material 
into which it may be desired to convert the metal; the 
blooms are already partially converted into wrought iron 
by passing under the shingling-hammer. 

(Painting.) A term denoting that appearance on pic¬ 
tures which resembles the bloom upon a peach or other 
fruit; whence the name. It is probably ascribable to 
moisture in the varnish used in the painting, and may 
be expunged by hot camphine being wiped over the 
surface of the picture, afterwards placing it in the sun¬ 
light to dry. 

Bloom, v.i. To shine; to glow; to show the beauty 
and freshness of youth. 

*' Beauty, frail fiow'r, that every season fears, 

Blooms in thy colors for a thousand years ! ” Pope. 

—To put forth blossoms; to come into flower; to blow. 

“ It is a common experience, that if you do not pull off some 
blossoms the first time a tree bloometh, it will blossom itself to 
death." — Bacon. 

Bloom, in Illinois , a post-village and township of Cook 
co., 27 m. S. of Chicago. 

Bloom, in Pennsylvania, a township of Columbia coun¬ 
ty. Within its limits is Bloomsburg, the county- 
seat. 

—A township of Clearfield co. 

Bloom, in Ohio, a flourishing township of Fairfield 
county. 

—A township of Morgan co. 

—A township of Scioto co. 

—A township of Seneca co. 

—A post-township of Wood county, 20 m. W. of Maumee 
City. 

Bloom, in Wisconsin, a township of Richland coun¬ 
ty- 

Bloom'ary, n. (Metal.) See Blomary. 

Bloom Centre, in Ohio, a post-office of Logan co. 

Bloom'er, n. A costume advocated more or less openly 
by many ladies. Its name is derived from a Mrs. Anne 
Bloomer, of New York, who had been an active pro¬ 
moter of the “Woman’s Rights Movement,” and who, 
inj 1849, inaugurated this particular style of dress. It 
partly resembles men’s attire, consisting generally of a 
jacket with short sleeves, a skirt descending a little 
below the knee, and a pair of Turkish trousers; also a 
large, low hat, intended to be worn with this costume. 

—A woman who wears the Bloomer costume. 

Bloom'er, in Arfamsas.a post-office of Sebastian co. 

Bloomer, in Michigan, a township of Montcalm co., 
40 m. N.N.W. of Lansing. 

Bloom'erism, n. Advocacy or adoption of the Bloom¬ 
er costume, and “Strong-Minded-Womanism” generally. 

Bloom'er’s Prairie, in Wisconsin, a township of 
Chippewa co., 60 m. E. by N. of Hudson. 

Bloom'ery, in IP! Virginia, a P. O. of Hampshire co. 

Bloom'fleltl, Robert, an English poet, b. 1766, was the 
son of a poor tailor at Ilonington, Suffolk, and was him¬ 
self a shoemaker. His principal work is a poem, en¬ 
titled The Farmer's Boy, which pleasantly depicts the 
scenes of his own early life, and displays considerable 
genius. He wrote several other effusions, but his first 
was the best. “ The Farmer’s Boy ” obtained very great 
popularity, and was translated into French and Italian. 
Although patronized by Capel Lofft and the Duke of 
Grafton, the latter > ears of the modest poet were em¬ 
bittered by want, ill-health, and consequent dejection. 

D. 1823. 

Bloom'field, in California, a township of Nevada co., 
about 11 m. N.E. of Nevada City. 

—A post-village of Sonoma county, 16 m. of Santa 
Rosa. 

Bloomfield, in Connecticut, a post-tow r nship of Hart¬ 
ford co.,7 m. N.W. of Hartford. 

Bloomfield, in Illinois, a village of Adams co., 6 m. 

E. of the Mississippi river. 

—A post-village of Johnson co. 

—A village of McDonough co., abt. 4 m. S.E. of Macomb. 

Bloomfield, in Indiana, a village of Jay co’., 7 m. N. 
of Portland. 

—A township of La Grange county, 20 m. N. by E. of 
Albion. 

—A prosperous post-village, cap. of Greene co., 80 m. S.W. 
of Indianapolis, on a fork of White River. 

—A village of Spencer co., 30 m. E. by N. of Evansville. 

Bloomfield, in Iowa, a thriving city, cap. of Davis 
co., on C., B. & Q. and Wabash R.Rs., 85 m. W. by S. of 
Burlington. Seat of Southern Iowa Normal School, 
and has a large general trade. Pop. (1898) 2,250. 

—A township of Clinton co. 

—A township of Polk co. 

—A township of Winneshiek co. 

Bloomfield, in Kentucky, a thriving post-village of 
Nelson co., 39 m.S.W. of Frankfort. 

Bloomfield, in Maine, a flourishing post-village and 
township of Somerset co., on the Kennebec River, oppo¬ 
site Skowhegan, 35 m. N. by E. of Augusta. The town¬ 
ship merged in that of Skowhegan in 1861. 

Bloomfield, in Michigan, a village and township of 
Oakland co., 5 m. S.E. of Pontiac. 

Bloomfield, in Minnesota, a township of Fillmore co.; 
pop. 888. 

Bloomfield, in Missouri, a post-village and cap. of 
Stoddard co., on Lick Creek, 280 m. S.E. of Jefferson City. 

Bloomfield, in New Jersey, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Essex co., 33^ m. N W. of Newark, and 54 N.E. 
of Trenton. 

Bloomfield, in Ohio, a township of Jackson co. 


—A village of Jefferson co., 12 m. W. by S. of Steubenville. 

—A township of Logan co. 

— A post-tap. of Morrow co., 31 m. N.N.E. of Columbus ; 
called South B.. in opposition to North B. (q.v.). 

—A village of Pickaway co. 

— A village of Scioto co., 18 m. from Portsmouth, and abt. 
100 m. S. of Columbus. 

—A township of Trumbull co. 

—A village of Muskingum co. 

Bloomfield, in Pennsylvania, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Crawford co., 20 m. N.E. of Meadville. 

—Or New Bloomfield, a borough of Centre township, 
and cap. of Perry co., 24 m. N.W. of Harrisburg. Pop. 
(1898) 750. 

Bloomfield, in Virginia, a post-village of Loudoun 
co., 158 m. N. of Richmond. 

Bloomfield, in Wisconsin , a post-village and township 
of Walworth county, 45 miles S.S.W. of the city of Mil¬ 
waukee. 

—A township of Waushara co. 

Bloomfield, in Vermont, a post-township of Essex co., 
on the Connecticut River, 60 m. N.E. of the city of 
Montpelier. 

Bloomfield, in Upper Canada, a post-village of Prince 
Edward co., on Great Sandy Bay, 42 m. N.W. of Kings¬ 
ton. 

—A post-village of Durham county, 100 m. W. of Kings- 1 
ton. 

Bloomfield Centre, in Michigan, a village of Bloom¬ 
field township, Oakland co., 20 m. N.N.W. of Detroit. 

Bloom'ing', a. Opening in blossoms; flowering; flour¬ 
ishing; as, “ as blooming as a rose.” — Showing the fresh¬ 
ness and beauty of youth; thriving in early vigor; as, 
“ his blooming face.” — Shenstone. 

Bloom ing, n. (Metal.) See Shingling. 

(Painting.) Same as Bloom, q. v. 

Bloom'ingburgh, in New Tork, a post-village of 
Sullivan co., 100 m. S.S.W. of Albany. 

Bloom'ingburgh, in Ohio, a post-village of Fayette 
co., on the E. branch of Point Creek, 32 m. S.W. of Co¬ 
lumbus. 

Bloom'ingdale, in Illinois, a village of Logan co., 35 
ui. S.S.E. of Peoria. 

—A post-township of Du Page co., 25 m. W. by N. of Chi¬ 
cago. 

Bloom'ingdale, in Indiana, a P. 0. of Parke co. 

Bloom'ingdale, in Michigan, a post-township of Van 
Buren co., 45 m. S by W. of Grand Rapids. 

Bloom'ingdale, in New Jersey, a post-village of Pas¬ 
saic co., on Pequannock Creek, 25 m. N.W. of Newark. 

Bloom'ingdale, in New York, a P. O. of Essex co. 

Bloom'ingdale, in Ohio, a post-office of Jefferson co., 
124 m. E. of Columbus. 

Bloom'ingdale, in Wisconsin, a village of Winne¬ 
bago co. 

—A post-village of Vernon co., 27 m. E.S.E. of La Crosse. 

Bloom'ing Grove, in Indiana, a post-village and 
township of Franklin county, 5 m. N. of Brook- 
ville. 

Bloom'ing Grove, in Kansas, a post-office of Linn 
co., on the Usage River, 66 m. S.S.E. of Lawrence. 

Bloom'ing Grove, in Illinois, a village of Blooming- 
dale township, Du Page co. 

Bloom'ing Grove, in Michigan, a village of Berrien 
co., on the shore of Lake Michigan, 5 m. S. by W. of St. 
Joseph. 

Bloom'ing Grove, in Minnesota, a post-township of 

Waseca co. 

Bloom'ing Grove, in New York, a post-township of 

Orange co. 

Bloom'ing Grove, in Ohio, a township and village 
of Richland co. 

Bloom'ing Grove, in Wisconsin, a post-township of 

Dana co. 

Bloom'ingly, adv. In a blooming manner. 

Bloom'ing'ness, n. State or condition of being 

blooming. 

Bloom'ingport, in Indiana, a post-village of Ran¬ 
dolph co., 12 m. S. of Winchester. 

Illoom ingsburg, in Indiana, a post-village of Ful¬ 
ton co., 35 m. N.N.E. of Logansport. 

Bloom ington, in Arkansas, a P. 0. of Benton co. - 

Bloom'ington, in Illinois, a city and cap. of McLean 
co., 60 m. N.N.E. of Springfield, and 126 S.S.W. of Chi¬ 
cago. B has large manufacturing interests and numer- 

* ous nurseries, and is the seat of the Illinois Wesleyan 
University and of a Roman Catholic college. The State 
Normal University and the Soldiers’ Orphans’ Home are 
at Normal, 2 m. distant. Pop. in 1890, 20,484; in 1897, 
abt. 26,400. 

Bloom'ington, in Indiana, a city, cap. of Monroe co., 
51 m. S. W. of Indianapolis. The State University is 
located here. It has large tanneries, hard-wood manu¬ 
factories. to. Pop. in 1890, 4,018; in 1897, abt. 6,500. 

Bloom'ington, in Iowa, a. township of Decatur co. 

—A township of Muscatine co.—A post-office of Polk co. 

Bloom'ington, in Kansas, a village of Douglas co., 
on Rock Creek, 9 m. S.W. of Lawrence. 

Bloom'ington, in Kentucky, a P. 0. of Magoffin co. 

Bloom'ington, in Minnesota, apost-vi llage and town¬ 
ship of Hennepin co., on the Minnesota River, 16 m. 
S. S. W. of.Minneapolis. 

Bloom'ington, in Maryland, a P. O. of Garrett co. 

Bloom'ington, in Missouri, a prosperous village and 
township of Buchanan co., 12 m. from St. Joseph. 

—A post-village, former cap. of Macon co., 100 m. N. by 
W. of Jefferson City. 

Bloom'ington, in Ohio, a post-village of Clinton co., 
33 m. E.S.E. of Dayton. 

Bloom'ington, in Oregon, a village of Polk co., on 
the Luckamute river, 14 m. S.E of Dallas. 


Bloom'ington, in Pennsylvania, a village of Clean 

field co. 

Bloom'ington, in Tennessee, a post-vill. of Putnam co. 

Bloom'ington, in Utah, a village of Rich co. 

Bloom'ington, in Wisconsin, a township and village 
oi Grant co. 

Bloom'ing Valley, in Pennsylvania, a post-village 
of Crawford co., 6 m. N. E. of Meadville. 

Bloom'ingville, in Ohio, a post-village of Erie co., 
6 m. S. of Sandusky city. 

Bloom'less, n. Destitute of bloom. 

Bloom Rose, in Ohio, a village of Brown co. 

Blooms'burg, in Pennsylvania, a flourishing post¬ 
borough of Bloom township, cap. of Columbia co., on 
Fishing Creek, 78 m. N.N.E. of Harrisburg. It is a fine 
and pleasant city, and possesses an extensive and in¬ 
creasing trade. Pop. in 1890, 4,635; in 1897 (est.) 5,500. 

Blooms'burg. in Virginia, a village of Halifax co., 
116 m. W. S. W. of Norfolk. 

Blooms'bury, in New Jersey, a post-village situate in- 
Warren and Hunterdon counties, on the Musconetcong 
River, 7 m. E.S.E. of Easton, and 40 N.W. of Trenton. 

Bloom'vllle, in Illinois, a village of Will co., 50 m. 
S.W. of Chicago. 

—A post-village of Kankakee co. 

Bloom'ville, in New York, a post-village of Delaware 
co., on Delaware River, 74 m. S.W. of Albany. 

Bloom'ville. in Ohio, a post-village of Bloom town¬ 
ship, Seneca co., 36 m. S.W. of Sandusky city. 

Bloom'y, a. Full of bloom or blossoms; flowery; 
flourishing. 

“ Hear how the birds on ev'ry bloomy Bpray, 

With joyous music wake the dawning day.” — Pope. 

Blore Heath, (Hist.) a place in the parish of Blore, 
co. of Stafford, England, where a battle was fought dur¬ 
ing the wars of the Roses, Sep. 23, 1459, w hen the York¬ 
ists, commanded by the Earl of Salisbury, defeated a 
superior force of the Lancastrians, led by Lord Audley. 
Henry VI. and Queen Margaret were in the neighbor¬ 
hood at the time of the encounter. 

Blos'erville, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Cum¬ 
berland co. 

Bloss'bnrg. in Penn'a, a post-vill. and twp. of Tioga 
co., on the Tioga River, 133 m. W. by N. of Harrisburg, 
B. isathriviug town and valuable coal and iron mincsare 
worked in the neighborhood. Here are mineral springs, 
containing free sulphuric acid, and sulphates of iron, 
alumina, and magnesia. They are astringent and tonic. 

Blos'som, n. [A. S. blosma, from the same root as 
Bloom.] Bloom; state of blooming; — specifically, the 
flower or corolla of a plant. 

" To his green years your censure you would suit, 

Not blast the blossom , but expect the fruit. ' — Dryden. 

(Farriery.) A term sometimes used to indicate a peach- 
colored horse; i. e., a horse whose hairs are intermixed 
of bay and white colors. 

Blos'som, ti. i. To yield or put forth blossoms or flow¬ 
ers; to bloom; to blow; to flower. 

41 Warms in the sun ; refreshes in the breeze. 

Glows in the stars and blossoms in the trees.” — Pope. 

—To flourish; to mature; to prosper; to progress. 

“Only the actions of the just 
Smell sweet and blossom in the dust.” — Shirley. 

Blos'somed, a. That has, or is covered with, blossoms. 

Blos som Hill, in Louisiana, a post-office of Caddo 
parish. 

Blos'som Hill, in Virginia, a post-office of Princess 
Anne co. 

Blos'somiiig, a. Putting forth flowers; blowing. 

Blos'somy, a. Full of, or replete with, blossoms; as, 
“ The blossomy tree.” — Chaucer: 

Bloss'vale, in New York, a post-office of Oneida co. 

Blot, v. a. [Goth, blanthjan, to remove; Swed. and Goth. 
blotta, to make naked or bare; Frisian, 6/at; Ger. bloss, 
bare; Dan .plet.~\ To stain, spot, or smear, as with ink. 

•* O sweet Portia ! 

Here are a few of the unpleasant st words 
That ever blotted paper." — Sflaks. 

—To stain with opprobrium; to tarnish; to disgrace. 

" My guilt thy growing virtues did defame. 

My blackness blotted thy uublemish d name.” — Dryden. 

—To obliterate; to expunge ; as, to blot out a sentence. 

“ One line which, dying, he could wish to blot." — Lyttelton. 

—To efface; to erase; to destroy. (Generally followed by 
out.) 

“ One act like this blots out a thousand Crimea." — Dryden. 

— n. A spot, stain, or blur upon paper; as, a blot of ink. 

—An obliteration of printed or written matter. 

“ Let flames on your unlucky papers prey,. . .. 

And make of ali an universal blot. ’ — Dryden. 

—A blemish in reputation; a stigma, disgrace, reproach. 

1 Make known 

It is no vicious blot, murder, or foulness, 

That hath deprived me." — Shake. 

(Games.) In backgammon, when a single man is left 
on a point, and is liable to be taken up. 

Blotch, (block,) n. [Probably from the root of Bloat, 
q. t>.] A pustule upon the skin; a tumor; a spot; an 
eruption. 

*' Spots and blotches, ... straggling over the body.”— Barvey. 

Blotched, (blocht,) a. Marked with blotches. 

(Bot.) Color distributed in blotches or patches. 

Blotch'y, a. Possessing blotches; spotted. 

Blote, v. a. To smoke-dry ; to cure with smoke; as a 
herring. — See Bloater. 

Blot'ter, n. One who, or that which, blots or effaces. 

(Com.) A waste-book employed in commercial busi¬ 
ness, in which are entered all transactions in Conseco* 
tive order. 








BLOW 


BLOW 


BLUC 


369 


Blot'tingly, adv. With blotting. 

Blot'ting-paper, n. Unsized paper, serving to im¬ 
bibe ink, and thus prevent blots. Though no account 
of its first use is known to exist, it was probably intro¬ 
duced soon after the invention of paper. Puller (about 
1655) says: “Paper participates in some sort of the 
characters of the countrymen which make it: the Vene¬ 
tian being neat, subtile, and court-like; the French, 
light, slight, and slender; the butch, thick, corpulent, 
and gross; not to say sometimes also charta bibuUi, suck 
ing up the ink with the sponginess thereof.” 

Blount, (blunt,) Charles, Lord Mocntjoy and Earl of 
Devonshire, second son of James, Lord Mountjoy, b. 1563. 
His person and accomplishments attracted the notice of 
Queen Elizabeth, who conferred on him the honor of 
knighthood; and some of our readers will remember 
the manner in which he is introduced among the cour¬ 
tiers of that queen in Sir Walter Scott's Kenilworth. In 
1594 he was made Governor of Portsmouth, and suc¬ 
ceeded his brother in the peerage, assembling some 
troops, with which he served in the Netherlands and in 
Brittany; but the Queen was displeased at his absence, 
and ordered him to return to court. She made him 
Knight of the Garter in 1597, and gave him a military 
appointment in Ireland, where he suppressed a rebellion. 
In 1603 he returned to England, bringing with him 
Tyrone, the rebel chieftain. Subsequently James I. cre¬ 
ated him Earl of Devonshire, and made him Master of 
the Ordnance. Towards the close of his life he fell into 
disgrace by marrying the divorced Lady Rich, sister of 
the unfortunate Essex. D. 1606. 

Blount, Sir IIexrt, an English traveller through Tur¬ 
key, Syria, and Egypt; author of a Voyage to the Levant. 
B.1602; d. 1682. 

Blount, in Alabama, a northern county. Area, 955 sq. 
m. Watered by the Locust and Mulberry forks of Black 
Warrior River. It is well timbered, affords excellent 
pasture, and has a partly hilly suriace. Cap. Oneonto. 
Pop. (1890) 21,930. 

Blount, in Tennessee, an E.S.E. county, bordering on N. 
Carolina. Arest, about 450 sq. m. The Holston River 
forms its N.W. boundary, while on the W. it is skirted 
by the Tennessee, and intersected and drained by Little 
River and other streams. Surface, mountainous, and soil 
very fertile; limestone, iron ore, and marble are found. 
Cap. Marysville. 

Blount’s Creek, in North Carolina, a post-office of 
Beaufort co. 

Blount’s Ferry, in Florida, a P. O. of Columbia co. 

Blount’s Spring's, in Alabama, a much resorted-to 
6pa of Blount co., on the Mulberry fork of Black War¬ 
rior River, 80 m. N.E. of Tuscaloosa. There are chaly¬ 
beate and sulphurous springs here. 

Blounts'town, in Florida, a post-village, cap. of 
Calhoun co. 

Blounts' ville, in Alabama, the former cap. of Blount 
co., on the Locust Fork of Black Warrior river. 

Blounts'ville, in Georgia, a village of Jones co., 16 m. 
W. of Milledgeville. 

Blounts'ville, in Indiana, a village of Delaware co., 
24 m. N.W. of Centreville. 

—A post-village of Henry co., 13 m. N.E. of Newcastle. 

Blounts'ville. in Tennessee, a township and post-vil¬ 
lage, cap. of Sullivan co., near the Holston River, and 
about 100 m. N.E. of Knoxville. 

I Blouse, ( blowse,) n. [Fr.] A light, loose garment, like a 
long frock, worn as an over-covering by the French pea¬ 
santry and workmen. In other countries it is princi¬ 
pally in nse among waggoners, draymen, and farm-labor¬ 
ers. The garment called in England a smock-frock 
strongly resembles it. It is worn in France of different 
colors, but in other countries blue appears to be the pre¬ 
vailing hue. A variety of the B. of a light material, as 
linen, &c., is also much worn by tourists, pedestrians, 
artists, &c. 

Blow, (bio.) n. [0. Ger. bliuwan, to strike; blow, livid; 

[ Goth, bliggvan, to strike, from the blue or livid color 
produced on the skin by a. stroke.] A stroke; a hit; a 
knock; stroke of death, or one that kills. 

*» And every hand that dealt the blow. 

Ah me I it was a brother s 1" — Campbel’ 


“■While the battle rages long and lond, 

And the stormy tempests blow." — Campbell . 

—To pant or puff; to breathe hard and quick. 

" Here ‘s Mrs. Page at the door, sweating and blowing, and look¬ 
ing wildly."— Shake. 

—To sound by being blown; to sound, as a horn. 

“ Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying. 

Blow, bugle; answer echoes, dying, dying, dying."— Tennyson. 

To blow over. To pass away without anticipated effect; 
as, the storm has blown over. — To blow out. To talk ir¬ 
rationally or scurrilously. (Vulgar.)— To blow up. To 
raise into the air by sudden force; as, to be blown up by 
an explosion. 

Blow, v. a. To throw or drive wind upon; as, to blow 
with a bellows. 

—To d>\ ; v ,i impel by wind; as, a ship was blown ashore. 

Though loaded corn be lodg’d, and trees blown down."— Shake. 

—To sound a wind-instrument; as, to blow a flute. 

Where the bright seraphim, in burning row. 

Their loud uplifted angel-trumpets blow."—Milton. 

—To spread by report; to circulate; as, the news has been 
blown. 

“ So gentle of condition was he known. 

That through the court his courtesy was blown." — Dryden. 

—To infect with the eggs of flies; as, the meat is fly-blown. 

—To swell up, or inflate with wind; to puff iuto size; to 
enlarge by injecting air. 

No blown ambition doth our arms incite."— Shake. 

—A vulgarism used in the U. States, in the sense of to 
vaunt, to boast, to brag. 

—To form into shape by the breath. 

“ Boy, blow the pipe until the bubble rise."—Parnell. 

—To warm with the breath; to infuse heat by breathing 
upon. 

“ When icicles hang by the wall, 

And Dick the shepherd blows his nail."— Shake. 

To blow out. To extinguish by wind or the breath; as, 
to blow out a light. — To blow hot and cold. To look fa¬ 
vorably on a thing at one moment, and view it unfavor¬ 
ably at another.— To blow off. To emit; to allow to es¬ 
cape; as, to blow off steam.— To blow upon. To taint or 
compromise by injurious reports; to bringinto discredit; 
as, her reputation is blown upon. 

" He will whisper an intrigue that is not yet blotvn upon by 
common fame."— Addison. 

To blow up. To inflate; to puff out with pride. 

“ Blown up with the conceit of his merit."— Bacon. 

—To fill with air; to raise or swell, as with the breath.— 
To kindle; to inflame. 

“ His presence soon blows up th' unkindly sight."— Dryden. 

—To burst; to hurl into the air by gunpowder or other 
projectile force; as, to blow up a ship. —To render abor¬ 
tive; to frustrate suddenly; as, to blow up a plot.— 
Vulgarly, to scold, abuse, or rebuke orally; as, “he 
blew mo up sky-high.” 

Blow-ball, n. The floccose head of the dandelion. 

Bl»w'en,n. A slang term for a paramour; a prostitute. 

Blow'er, n. One who blows: a smelter of metals. 

(Mech.) See Blowing-machine. 

—A steam-jet to create a draft of air through a chimney. 

—A plate of sheet-iron, zinc, or tin, placed in the upper 
part of a fireplace, and beneath the orifice of a chim¬ 
ney, to circumscribe the surface of the air, aud hence 
occasion an increased current. 

—A blowing out, or excessive discharge of gas, from a bole 
or fissure in a mine. 

(Mining.) The name given, in coal mines, to the fis¬ 
sures made in hewing the coal, and from which the 
marsh-gas exhales with considerable force, when accu¬ 
mulated under pressure, as is often the case. 

( Naut.) A name usually given by seamen to the whale, 
from its spoutiug forth an immense quantity of water. 

Blow'-fiy, n. (Zobl.) See Sakcophaga. 

Blow -bole, n. A cavernous aperture at the base of 
a cliff, on a plane with the sea, and into which the 
surges dash themselves violently. — That nostril on the 
upper part of the head of a whale, which serves for 
breathing or blowing. — An orifice in the ice, where 
whales, seals, &c. inhale the air. 

Blow'ing, 72 . (Metal.) The projecting of air into a 
furnace, in a strong and rapid current, for the purpose 
of increasing the combustion. 

Blow ing Cave, in Georgia, a post-village of Decatur 
county. 

Blow'ins-niacliine, n. (Metal.) An instrument for 
producing a current or blast of air, chiefly for the pur¬ 
pose of exciting the combustion of fuel, and producing 
a great heat. The common bellows is an instrument 
of this kind ; but for certain processes in metallurgy, as 
in smelting and refining ores, the intermittent blast 
produced by the single bellows is prejudicial, aud even 
in the double form of the machine, as used generally 
by blacksmiths, the defect is not altogether remedied. 
Various contrivances have been employed for the pur¬ 
pose of producing a continuous and equable blast, 
though depending generally on the principle of forcing 
air into large cylinders or air-chests by means of a force 
air-pump, and allowing it to escape by eduction pipes 
under a regular pressure. For the regulation of the 
pressure, the air may be forced into a vessel inverted in 
a reservoir of water; but as the air is chilled by its con¬ 
tact with the water, the water regulator is found to be 
objectionable for large blast-furnaces, and a weight is 
employed. Machines on this principle are in use at 
every foundry and great engine-manufactory; and they 
have this advantage, that a number of forges may be 
supplied from the same air-chest. 

Blown, p.a. Swelled : inflated; expanded, as a blossom. 
— Useless: stale; unprofitable. — Panting for breath; 
exhausted; spent; as, a blown horse. 


(Farriery.) Suffering from disease of the intestines, 
caused by the exhalation of gases evolved by a repletion 
of green food. 

Blow'-ofF Cock, 72. (Steam-Engineering.) The stop¬ 
cock in the blow-off pipe. 

Blow'-ofF Pipe, 72. (Steam-Engineering.) The pipe 
fixed to the bottom of a boiler, fur discharging the sedi¬ 
ment, which is effected by blowing through a portion of 
the water from the boiler. 

Blow'- pipe, 72. An instrument by which a 6mall jet 
of air is directed laterally into the flame of a lamp or 
candle, so as to divert it in a long slender cone upon a 
piece of charcoal or other substance, so placed as to re¬ 
ceive it. When a flame is thus urged by the B., the ex¬ 
treme heat is just at the tip of the outer white flame, 
where the combustion is most perfect, and where sub¬ 
stances are rapidly burned or oxidized; while the in¬ 
terior blue flame, in consequence of its excess of com¬ 
bustible matter, abstracts oxygen from, or reduces, sub¬ 
stances; so that several metals, when thus heated be¬ 
fore the B., are alternately oxidized and deoxidized by 
being placed in the outer and inner flame. The blow¬ 
pipe is of important service to the chemist, in enabling 
him to ascertain easily and quickly the effects of intense 
heat upon a variety of substances; and he frequently 
has recourse to it in order to distinguish metallic and 
earthy minerals from each other, and to ascertain, in a 
general way, the nature of their component parts. It is, 
in fact, a most important auxiliary in all cases of quali¬ 
tative analysis, and an invaluable instrument for the 
mining-engineer, the mineralogist, and the geologist. 
By holding the substance to be tested in platinum-pointed 
forceps, its fusibility cau lie determined, or some char¬ 
acteristic color may be communicated to the flame. 
Important facts may also be learned if the substance is 
placed upon charcoal, from the color of the deposit 
foimed, the odor emitted, &c. By the employment of 
carbonate of soda, borax, or a salt of phosphorus, other 
important results may be attained. The art of keeping 
up a continuous current of air through the blow-pipe 
may be readily acquired. See Eldeshort’e Manual of 
Blow-pipe Analysis aud I’lattner’s Manual of Qualitative 
and Quantitative Analysis with the Blow-pipe. 

Blow'-poillt, 72. A child’s play, resembling push-pin. 

•• Shortly boys shall not play 
At span-coiiuter or blow-point." — Donne. 

Blow'-valvc. 72. (Steam-Engineering.) The snifting- 
valve of a condensing engine. 

Blow'y, u. Windy; blowing. 

Blowze, (blouzp n. A ruddy, fat-faced woman. 

Blow/.etl, i blouzd,) a. Having a high color: blowzy. 

Blowzy, (bloudi,) a. Ruddy-faced; fat and ruddy; 
coarse-featured. 

Blui)'l>er, n. [Probably from Du. bdbbel, bubble.] (Phys¬ 
iol.) The cellular membrane of the whale iu which the 
oil, or fat, is included. 

Zobl.) The Medusa, or sea-nettle. 

Com.) The fat or oil of whales, seals, walruses, &c. 
In application to the whale, it is, properly speaking, 
the adeps of the animal, and lies immediately beneath 
the skin, aud over the muscular flesh.— In the porpoise 
it is a firm and fibrous mass, usually about an inch 
thick; in thewhaleits thickness is generally six inches; 
about the under lip it is two or three feet thick. The 
quantity of B. obtained from one of these animals is 
generally from 20 to 30 tons, from which 15 to 22 tons 
of oil may usually be extracted. The use of the B. to 
the animal seems to be partly to poise the body, and 
reader it equiponderant to the water,partly to keep the 
water at some distance from the blood, aud so prevent 
chill, and partly to reflect the hot steams of the body, 
and so redouble the heat; since all fat bodies are less 
susceptible of cold than lean ones. — It is generally 
brought home from the fishing-ground stored in casks. 
The oil is drained out of the blubber by placing the lat¬ 
ter, cut up, on racks, through which the oil drips down 
into casks. It is then heated up to 225°, to deprive it 
of its rancid smell, and also to make the grosser parts 
settle. The oil is then pumped over with cold water, 
left to cool, and finally stored in casks.—See Ral.en’id.e. 

Blub'ber, v. i. To weep in a noisy manner, so as to 
swell the cheeks 

1 ■ Even so lies she. 

Blubb'ring and weeping, weeping aud blubb'ring." — Shake. 

— 1 >. a. To swell the cheeks with weeping. 

“ Tir d with the search, not finding what she seeks, 

With cruel blows she pounds her blubber'd cheeks."— Dryden. 

Blubbered, (blub'berd,) p. a. Swelled; turgid;—com¬ 
monly applied to the lips. 

“ Thou sing with him, thou booby ! never pipe 
Was so profan'd, to touch that blubbered lip." — Dryden. 

Blub'bering;, n. The act of weeping noisily and vio¬ 
lently. 

Bliiciier, ( bloo'kr ,) Gebhard Lebrecht von, (Field Mar¬ 
shal.) a distinguished Prussian general, whose impetu¬ 
ous intrepidity gained him the appellation of “Marshal 
Forward” (Vorwdrts), was born at Rostock, 1742. He 
entered the Swedish service when quite a youth, and in 
his first campaign was made prisoner by the Prussians, 
whom he afterwards joined, and rose to the rank of 
captain; but being discontented with the promotion of 
other officers over his head, he obtained his discharge 
from the great Frederick, who dismissed him with the 
pithy remark that “he might go to the devil if he 
pleased; ” and he afterwards lived many years in retire¬ 
ment. Being recalled by King Frederick William, he was 
made major-general after the battle of Leystadt, in 1794, 
and commanded the cavalry at the battle of Jena, which 
decided, for a time, the fate of the Prussian monarchy. 
When Prussia entered into the coalition agaiust Napo¬ 
leon, in 1813, our hero, then seventy years old, wa* 


—A sudden calamity; an unexpected evil. 

«• We bear it calmly, though a ponderous woe. 

And still adore the hand that gives the blow," — Pomfret. 

—The act of a fly when lodging eggs in flesh; also, the 
egg itself. 

* I much fear, lest with the blows of flies 
His brass-inflicted wounds are fill'd.” — Chapman. 

(Naut.) A sudden and violent gale of wind; as, it came 
on a heavy blow after clearing the land. 

A blow-out. A vulgarism to denote a jollification, or 
rood entertainment; as, we had a first-rate blow-out. 

To come to blows. To fight; to engage in personal 
encounter. 

At a blow. Instantaneously; at one attempt; by a 
single action. 

•• Every year they gain a victory, and a town; but if they are 
once defeated, they lose a province at a blow." — Dryden. 

—[Ger. bluthe, a blossom.] A flower; a blossom. — A plot 
or bed of flowers. 

Blow, bt- [A.S. blowan; Ger. bluhen. See Bloom.] To 
put forth buds or flowers; to bloom; to blossom. 

** Fair is the kingcup that in meadow blows. 

Fair is the daisy that beside her grows.”— Gay. 

—To fructify, or cause to blossom. 

—(imp. blew; pp. blown.) [A.S. blawan; 0. Ger. blahan, 
or bliljan, to blow; probably allied ta Lat. flo. and the 
Gr. root ad (with a prefix), to blow, to breathe.] To 
breathe; to send forth or produce wind or a current of 
air; to be in motion, as air;—as, the wind blows. 










BLUE 


BLUE 


BLUE 


370 


mail: general of the centre of the allied army; distin¬ 
guished himself at Liitzen and Leipzig, pursued the 
flying French across the Rhine, and after a year of ob¬ 
stinate conflict in France, headed the right wing of the 
allied army under the walls of Paris, at tire time of Na¬ 
poleon’s abdication, in 1814. In England, which he vis¬ 
ited with the allied sovereigns, he was received with en¬ 
thusiasm. Being re-invested with the command of the 
Prussian army during the Hundred Days, tie was de¬ 
feated by Napoleon at Liguy, on June 16,1S15, on which 
occasion he was unhorsed and charged over by both the 
French and Prussian cavalry. Marshal Grouchy was 
commissioned by Napoleon to push S.'s retreat, and 
check his junction with the British army, which Wel¬ 
lington required. But having deceived Grouchy by 
leaving a body of his troops to mask the operation, lie 
retrograded unmolested, by a skilful and dangerous flank 
movement; and his advanced division, under Billow, ar¬ 
rived at Waterloo at five o’clock, just as the whole re¬ 
served elite of the French army was advancing in dense 
column to make their last desperate effort to break 
through the British squares. This fresh flank attack on 
the advancing column contributed greatly to decide the 
victory, and Bliicher arrived in time to participate in 
the pursuit. He was a rough and fearless soldier; brave, 
honest, and free; beloved by his comrades, and a sworn 
foe to the enemies of his country. D. at his estate in 
Silesia, 1819, aged 77. 

Pinchers, (blno'churz ,) n. pi. The name given, in Eng¬ 
land, to a pair of men’s strong ankle-boots ;—sometimes 
called ankle-jacks. 

Bludgeon, ( bluj'un ,) n. [Probably from Goth, blig- 
gran, to strike: perhaps allied to Gr. plego, plesso, to 
strike.] A short stick or cudgel, with one end heavier 
than the other, and used to strike blows with, as a 
weapon of offence. 

Blue, ( bloo ,) n. [Fr. bleu; A.S. bleo, bleoh, bleow; 0. Ger. 
bldw, livid, sky-blue.] The color which thesky exhibits; 
a cerulean hue; one of the seven primary colors of the 
rays of light when refracted through a glass prism. 

( fainting.) A great variety of blue pigments are used 
in the arts; they are obtained from both mineral and 
vegetable sources. Prussian blue, one of the most gen¬ 
erally used, is made from a mixture of prussiate of potash 
and a salt of iron. Indigo is also much used when dis¬ 
solved in sulphuric acid. — See Colors ; Blue Carmine ; 
Blue Ochre, Prussian Blue; Litmus; Blue Verditer; 
indigo Blue. 

{Dyeing.) Blues are gener ily dyed with indigo, or 
with Prussian blue - in tl~> latter case, the stuff is 
steeped successively i.. solutions of a salt of peroxide 
of iron and of ferrocyanide of potassium. Aniline blue 
is also much employed for silk and woollen fabrics. 

—A learned woman. — See Blue-Stocking. 

—Straitlaced in morals; austere in temper; extreme; as, 
“ Presbyterian true blue.-’ — Butler. 

—-In tne plural, a vulgarism and contraction for the blue- 
devils; i. e. dejection of mind; low spirits; delirium- 
tremeas. 

Blue, a. Of a blue color; sky-colored. 

“Why does one limate and one soil endue 
The blushing poppy with a crimson hue, 

Yet leave the lily pale, and tinge the violet blue t Prior. 

—Depressed in spirits; dejected; as, to feel quite blue. 

Blue, v. a. To make blue ; to dye or tint of a blue color. 

Blue Ball, in New Jersey, a village of Monmouth co., 
about 4 m. S. of Freehold. 

Blue Ball, in Ohio, a post-office of Butler co. 

B1 ue Ball, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Lan¬ 
caster co., now called East Earl, q. v. 

Blue Bayou, in Louisiana, flowing S.E. between 
Terrebonne and La Fourclie Interior parishes, into the 
Gulf of Mexico. 

Blue'bell, n. (Bnt.) See Scilla. 

Blue Bell, in IVnnsylvania, a post-village of Mont¬ 
gomery co. 

Blue'berry. n. ( Bot.) See Vaccinium. 

Blue bird, n. ( Zool .) The Sialia sialis, an American 
bird of the family Turtulce. This is a bird well known to 
every child, and whose habits of familiarity with man 
in summer are on a par with those of the European Red¬ 
breast in winter. — As early as the middle of February, 
if the weather be open, he usually makes his appearance 
about his old haunts, the barn, orchard, and fence-posts. 
Storms and deep snows sometimes succeeding, he dis¬ 
appears for a time; but about the middle of March he is 
again seen accompanied by his mate, visiting the box in 
the garden, or the hole in the old apple-tree, the cradle 

of some generations of his ancestors. “When he 

first begins his amours,” says a curious and correct ob¬ 
server, “ it is pleasing to behold his courtship, his solici¬ 
tude to please and to secure the favor of his beloved 
female. He uses the tenderest expression, sits close by 
her, caresses and sings to her his most endearing warb- 
lings. When seated together, if he espies an insect de¬ 
licious to her taste, he takes it up, flies with it to her, 
spreads his wing over her, and puts it in her mouth.” — 
The food of the bluebird consists principally of insects, 
particularly large beetles and other coleoptera, frequently 
of spiders, and sometimes of fruits and seeds. The nest 
is built in holes in trees, and similar situations. The 
bird is very prolific, for though the eggs, which are of 
a pale-blue color, seldom exceed six, and are more fre¬ 
quently five in number, two and sometimes three broods 
are produced in a season. Its song is cheerful, continu¬ 
ing with little interruption from March to October, but 
is most frequently heard in the serene days of the spring. 
The B. are common in most parts of North America, 
having been seen in Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and 
the Bermuda Islands. Wilson gives the United States, 
the Bahamas, Mexico, Brazil, and Guiana,as its localities. 


About November it takes its departure from the United 
States. The whole upper part of the bird, which is 
about seven inches and a half long, is ot a rich sky-blue, 
shot with purple. The bill and legs are black. Shafts of 
the wing- and tail-feathers black. Throat, neck, breast, 
and sides, partially under the wings, reddish chestnut. 
Wings, dusky black at the tips. Belly and vent white. 
The female is duller in its colors. 

Blue'-black, n. (Painting.) A well-burnt and levi¬ 
gated charcoal, of a cool, neutral color, and not differing 
from the common Frankfort black. B. was formerly 
much employed in painting. 

Blue'-blood, n. [Sp. sangre azul.] A phrase common 
in Spain, where it is applied to the blood of the old no¬ 
bility by way of euphuism; and to define its supposed 
distinction from the red blood of plebeians; as, he is a 
grandee of the bluest blood. 

Blue’-bonnet, v. ( Zool .) See Titmouse. 

(Bot.) Same as Blue-bottle.—See Centaurea. 

— pi. A term sometimes applied to the Scottish High¬ 
landers, from their wearing a blue bonnet, or what is 
commonly called a Glengarry. 

“ All the blue-bonnets are crossing the Border." — Sir IT. Scott. 

Blne'-book, n. In England, a term given to the reports 
that are to be printed and published by order of the par¬ 
liament ; so called from the blue color of their bindings. 
Also, in America and in England, a book containing the 
names of all persons holding public offices, with other 
particulars of general interest. 

Blue'-bottle, n. (Bot.) See Centaurea. 

(Zool.) A name of the Flesh-fly, Musca vomitoria, 
belonging to the order Diptera. This insect is termed 
blue-fly from its color, and flesh-fly from the fact of its 
depositing its eggs in fleshy viands, in which the larvae 



Fig. 376. — blue-bottle, or flesh-fly. 


(Magnified.) 

are hatched. It is generally larger than the common 
house-fly, and its wings indeed are sometimes nearly 
three-quarters ofan inch in expanse. It is distinguished 
by a proboscis, always very apparent, membranous, and 
bibliate, generally bearing two palpi, and capable of 
being withdrawn entirely within the oral cavity; it also 
has a sucker of two pieces; the antennae in a plate with 
lateral setae. 

Blue Branch, in Texas, a vill. of Burleson co. 

Blue'breast, n. (Zool.) The Cyanecula suecica, an 
elegant little bird of the family Sylvicolida, much re¬ 
sembling our Redstart. It inhabits different parts of 
Europe, and is mostly found on the borders of forests. 
It is five inches and a half in length, of which the tail 
occupies two and a quarter. The head, back, and wing- 
coverts are ashy-brown, mottled with a darker tint; a 
reddish-white line passes above the eyes; a brilliant sky- 
blue covers the throat and half-way down the breast; 
this is set off by a spot of the most dazzling white, the 
size of a pea, placed precisely over the larynx, which, 
enlarging and diminishing successively by the move¬ 
ment of this part when the bird sings, produces the most 
beautiful effect. The blue passes into a black band, 
and the latter into a fine orange; the belly is dusky 
white; the thighs and sides are reddish ; and the quill- 
feathers dark brown. Some males have two little white 
spots on the throat, and some even three: but some have 
none. The food of the Bluebreast consists of flies, the 
larva: of insects, and worms. The nest is built in bushes 
and in the holes of trees; and the eggs are of a greenish 
hue. The females, when young, are of a celestial-blue 
tint on the sides of the throat; and when very old, they 
have the throat sometimes of a very bright blue. 

Blue ( aii'yon, in California, a P. O. of Placer co. 

Blue'-cap, n. (Zool.) Same as Blue-fish, q. v. 

Blue (lar'mine, n. (Painting.) A blue oxide of mo- 
lybdena, of which little is known as a substance or as a 
pigment. It is said to bo of a beautiful blue color, and 
durable in a strong light, but is subject to change in 
hue by other substances, and blackened by foul air; we 
may conjecture, therefore, that it is not of much value 
in painting. 

Blue Cop'per, n. (Chem.) A fine blue mineral con¬ 
sisting of sulphide of copper. It is also known as Indigo 
copper. 

Blue Cop'peras, n. (Chem.) Sulphate of copper; so 
called to distinguish it from green copperas, which is 
sulphate of iron. It is also called blue vitriol, and blue- 
stone. — See Copper, (Sulphate of.) 

Blue Creek, in Florida, a village of Liberty co. 

Blue Creek, in Indiana, a post-office of Franklin co. 

—A township of Adams co. 

Blue Creek, in Ohio, Paulding co., empties into the 
Auglaize river. 

—A post-office of Adams co. 

Blue Creek, in W. Virginia, a village of Eanawha co. 


Blue-curls, n. (Bot) See Prunf.i.la, and Trichostema. 

Blue'-dev'ils, n.pl. Depression of spirits; hypochon¬ 
dria; sometimes used, in a vulgar sense, to denote the 
malady of Delirium-tremens. 

Blue'-disease, «. (Med.) See Cyanosis. 

Blue Eagle, in Missouri, a post-office of Clay co. 

Blue Earth, in Minnesota , a S. county, bounded par¬ 
tially ou the N. by the Minnesota River, divided by the 
Blue Earth, or Mankato River, and also watered by the 
Maple and Watonwan rivers. Area, about 760 sq. m. 
Surface. Undulating. Soil. Fertile. Min. Limestone. 
Cap. Mankato. 

Blue Earth City, in Minnesota, a post-village, cap, 
of Faribault co., on Blue Earth River, is 42 m. S. by W. 
of Mankato, and 100 S.S.W. of St. Paul. 

Blue Earth River, in Minnesota. See Mankato. 

Blue'-eye<l, a. Having blue eyes. 

“ Nor to the temple was 6he gone, to more 
With prayers the blue-eyed, progeny of Jove.” — Dryden. 

Blue'-eyed Grass, n. (Bot.) See Sisyrinchium. 

Blue-fields, or Blew'fields, a river of Central Amer¬ 
ica, Mosquito Territory, falling into nn inlet of the Ca¬ 
ribbean Sea. after a course of several hundred miles, in 
Lat. 12° N.. Lon. 83° W. At its mouth is a town of the 
same name, with a good harbor, and built on a com¬ 
manding height. 

Blue'-fish, n. (Zool.) The Tennodon salvator, a fish 
of the Mackerel family, about 18 inches long, found in 
almost all seas. It has the first dorsal in a furrow, teeth 



Fig. 377. —blue-fish, (T. salvator.) 


on the outer row separate,flat, and lancet-shaped; inner 
series crowded, and the teeth dense upon the vomer, 
palatines, and tongue. It is prized as an article of food. 

Blue'-grass, n. (Bot.) See Poa. 

Blue Grass, in Illinois, a post-office of Vermilion co. 

Blue Grass, in Indiana, a post-office of Fulton co. 

Blue Grass, in Iowa, a post-village and township of 
Scott county, situated 44 miles east by south of Iowa 
City. 

Blue'-haired, a. Having blue-colored hair. 

“ This place, 

The greatest and the best of all the main, 

He quarters to his blue-haired deities."— Milton. 

Blue Hill, in Maine, a post-township of Hancock co., 
on Frenchman’s Bay, 80 m. E. of Augusta. It has a 
trade in shipbuilding. 

Blue Hill Falls, in Maine, a P. 0. of Hancock co. 

Blue Hills, in New Hampshire, a chain of hills, of 
which Saddleback Mountain is the most elevated summit. 

Blue Iron-ore, n. (Min.) See Vivianite. 

Blue Island, in Illinois, a suburban part of Chicago. 

Blue'-jacket, n. (Naut.) A name popularly given in 
England to a man-o’-war’s man; — derived from the blue 
color of bis clothing. 

Blue'-john, n. (Mm.) The name commonly given by 
the miners of Derbyshire, England, to the beautiful va¬ 
riety of compact fluor-spar, which is made into vases 
and other ornamental articles. 

Blue'-lead, n. (Min.) A term applied by miners to 

galena, in contradistinction to white lead-ore, anglesite, &c. 
The name is also given to a pseudo-morphous variety of 
galena accompanying the carbonates of lead and copper. 

Blue Eick. in Indiana, a post-office of Clarke co., 9 in, 
W.N.W. of Charleston. 

Blue Eick Spring's, in Kentucky, a post-village and 
spa of Nicholas co., 70 m. N.E of Frankfort. The min¬ 
eral waters here bear a high celebrity, and are much 
sought after. 

Blue -light, n. ( Pyrotechny.) A composition consist¬ 
ing of saltpetre 4 parts, sublimed sulphur 2 parts, and 
red orpiment 1 part. It is used for signal-purposes, and 
puts forth a vivid blue flame. 

Blue'ly, adv. With a blue color; as, “While as the 
light burnt bluely." — Swift, 

Bine Hill, in Missouri, a post-office of Jackson co. 

Blue Mould, n. See Aspergillus. 

Blue Hound, in HTsconsire, a township of Dane co, 
22 m. S.W. of Madison. 

—A village of Iowa co. 

Blue Mountain, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Northampton co. 

Blue Mountain, in Arkansas, a post-township of 
Izard co. 

Blue Mountains, in Australia, a range nearly paral¬ 
lel to the coast in New South Wales. 

Blue Mountains, in Jamaica, a range traversing the 
whole length of the island from E. to W., and attaining 
in some places an altitude of 6,000 feet. 

Blue Mountains, in the U. States. See Appalachian 
Mountains. 

Blue Mountains, in Oregon, a ridge stretching from 
N. Lat. 46° S. to the northern frontier of Utah. It runs 
almost parallel with the Coast Range, from which it is 
distant E. about 200 m. The B. M. sometimes rise to the 
snow region, but are generally from 3.000 to 4,000 ft. high. 

Blue'ness. n. Quality of being blue; a blue color. 

Bllie-OChre, (blu’o-kr,) n. ( Point,.) A mineral colot 
of rare occurrence, found with iron pyrites in Cornwall, 

| Eng., and also iu N. America; it is a sub-phospbaie of 









BLUE 


BLUN 


BLUS 


371 


iron. What Indian-red is to the color red, and the Ox¬ 
ford ochre to yellow, this is to other blue colors. They 
class in likeness ef character; hence it is admirable 
rather for the modesty and solidity, than for the bril¬ 
liancy of its color. 

Blue-oint'ment, n. {Med.) An ointment containing 
mercury. 

Blne-pe'ter, n. (Naut.) A small square flag of blue 
color with a white square in the centre; used in the mer¬ 
cantile marine service as a signal for immediate sailing. 

Blue'-pill. n. {Med.) A small bolus (pilula hydrargyri) 
consisting of mercury triturated with conserve of roses 
and the powder of liquorice-root till the globules disap¬ 
pear andahomogeneous bluish-gray pill-massis obtained; 
it contains one-third of its weight of mercury. — See 
Salivation. 

Blue Point, in New York, a post-office of Suffolk co. 

Blue Pond, in Alabama, a post-office of Cherokee co. 

Blue Prussian, n. See Prussian Blue. 

Blue Rap r ids, in Kansas, a post-village and township 
of Marshall co., on Big Blue River, 15 m. S. of Marys¬ 
ville. 

Blue Ridge, or Blue Mountains, in the U. States. See 
Appalachian Mountains. 

Blue Ridge, in Illinois, a flourishing township of 
Platt county. 

Blue Ridge, in Indiana, a post-office of Shelby co. 

Blue Ridge, in Missouri, a P. 0. of Harrison co. 

Blue Ridge, in North Carolina, a post-office of Hen¬ 
derson co. 

B1 lie Ridge, in Virginia, a post-office of Botetourt co. 

Blue River, in Wisconsin, a small stream of Grant co., 
that empties into the Wisconsin River. 

—A post-township of Grant co. 

Blue River, in Indiana, takes rise in Henry co., and 
after a S.W. course to the mouth of Sugar Creek, John¬ 
son co., assumes the name of Driftwood Creek, or East 
Fork of White River. — A stream rising in Washington 
co., and falling into the Ohio at Leavenworth.—A stream 
of Whitley co., emptying into Eel River, a little below 
Columbia. 

—A township of Harrison co. 

—A township of Johnson co. 

—A township of Hancock co. 

—A township of Henry co. 

—A township of Harrison co. 

Blue River, in Abyssinia. See Azrek. 

Blue Rock, in Kentucky, a post-office of Carter co. 

Blue Rock, in Pennsylvania, a village of Iowa co. 

—A post-office of Chester co. 

Blue Rock, in Ohio, a post-township of Muskingum 
co., 15 m. S.S.E. of Zanesville. 

Blue Skin, n. (Med.) A condition of the body only 
witnessed in the collapse stage of the Asiatic cholera.— 
See Cholera. 

Blue Spring, in Georgia, a village of Baker co., 20 m. 
N.E. of Newton. 

Blue Spring, in Virginia, a post-office of Gordon co. 

Blue Spring Grove, in Kentucky, a village of Bar¬ 
ren co. 

Blue Springs, in Florida, a village of Volusia co. 

Blue Springs, in Missouri, a post-village of Jackson 
co., 9 m. S.E. of Independence. 

Blue Springs, in Nebraska, a post-vill.of Gage co., on 
Big Blue River, 65 m. S.W. of Nebraska city. 

Blue Springs, in the E. part of Tennessee. At this 
spot, Oct. 10-11, 1863, a smart engagement took place 
between a detachment of Union troops, and a body of 
Confederates under Gen. Jones, in which, after 24 hours’ 
fighting, the latter were defeated; the National loss being 
about 100 men, and that of the Confederates a little 
greater. 

Blue Stack Mountain, in Ireland, co. Donegal, 
attains an elevation of 2,213 feet above sea-water level. 

Blue'stocking. n. (Lit.) A learned or literary lady; a 
blue; originally, the designation of certain literary clubs 
in England, during the last century, consisting of ladies as 
well as literary men, and which received the name from 
one of the leading members (Mr. Stillingfleet) always 
appearing at the meetings in blue stockings. Hence the 
name was transferred to literary ladies in general. 

(Zdol.) An American bird, gen. Avoset, q. v. 

Bllie’stock'ingisui, n. (Lit.) Feminine pedantry; 
learning or manner of a blue-stocking, (r.) 

Blue'-stone, n. (Min.) See Copper, Sulphate op. 

Blue'stone, in Virginia, a river, rising in Tazewell co., 
in the N.W. portion of the State, and taking a N.E. 
course, falls into the New River. 

—A post-office of Tazewell co. 

Blue Sulphur Springs, in West Virginia, a post¬ 
village of Greenbrier co. 

Blue'-tint, n. (Painting.) In coloring, this tint is made 
of ultramarine and white, mixed to a lightish azure. 
It is a pleasant working color, and with it should be 
blended the gradations in a picture. It follows the yel¬ 
lows, and with them it makes the greens; and with the 
red it produces the purples. No color is so proper for 
blending down or softening the lights into keeping. In 
pictures of less value, Antwerp blue may be substituted 
for ultramarine. 

Bluets, ( bloo'etz ,) n. (Bot.) A name applied to plants of 
different species, from the color of their flowers; as, Cen- 
taurea cyanus, Oldentendria ccerulea, Vaccinium augus- 
tifolium, Ac. 

Blue'-veined, a. Having blue veins. 

Blue-ver'diter, n. (Painting.) A blue oxide of cop¬ 
per, or precipitate of the nitrate of copper by lime, of a 
beautiful light-blue color. It is little affected by light; 
but time, damp, and impure air turn it green, and ulti¬ 


mately blacken it, — changes which ensue even more 
rapidly in oil than in water; it is, therefore, by no 
means an eligible pigment in oil, and is principally con¬ 
fined to distemper painting, and the uses of the paper- 
stainer, though it has been found to stand well many 
years in water-color drawings and crayon paintings, 
when kept dry. 

Blue'ville, in Illinois, a post-office of Christian co. 

Blue'-vit'riol, n. ( Chem.) Blue-stone; sulphate of 
copper. 

Blue Wing, in N. Carolina, a P. 0. of Granville co. 

Blue'y, a. Rather blue; bluish, (r.) 

Bluff, a. [Probably from 0. Eng. bloughty, swelled, 
puffed, which may be from bloat, bloated; W. bloffi, to 
mingle.] Swollen out; blustering; big; burly. 

” Like those whom stature did to crowns prefer, 

Black-brow'd and bluff, like Homer's Jupiter."— Dryden. 

—Sometimes used for outspoken; rudely frank in manner 
or language; brusque; unceremonious; “ as, Bluff King 
Hal.” 

—Abrupt; bold; of a steep ascent; like a bluff. 

Bluff, n. A high steep bank projecting into the sea, or 
into the river; as the bluffs of the Mississippi. (This 
term is also applied, in the U. States, to any eminence 
presenting an abrupt front, even when at a distance 
from water; as, Council Bluffs .)—A game of cards. 

Bluff, v. a. To bluster; to repulse gruffly; to act in an 
overbearing manner. 

Bluff, in Missouri, a village of Holt co., 90 m. N.W. of 
Independence. 

—A post-office of Taney co. 

Bluff, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Sauk co. 

Bluff-bowed. Bluff-headed, a. [bluff and low.] 
(Naut.) A vessel with full and square bows. 

Bluff Bridge, in Virginia, a village of Washington co. 

Bluff City, in Illinois, a post-village of Schuyler co., 
51 m. W. of Springfield. 

Bluff City, in Nebraska, a village of Gage co., 65 m. 
S.W. of Nebraska City. 

Bluff Creek, in Iowa, a thriving township of Monroe 
county. 

Bluff Dale, in Illinois, a post-village of Greene co., 65 
m. W.S.W. of Springfield. 

Bluff'ness, n. Bluntness; brusqueness of aspect or 
manner; as. bluffness of face. 

Bluff Point, in Tennessee, a P. 0. of Hickman co. 

Bluff'port, in Missouri, a village of Howard co., on 
the Missouri River. 

Bluff Spring, in Alabama, a post-office of Clay co. 

Bluff Spring, in Illinois, a post-office of Cass co. 

Bluff Spring, in Georgia, a post-village of Talbot co., 
30 m. N.E. of Columbus City. 

Bluff Springs, in Tennessee, a village of Jackson co. 

Bluffton, in Indiana, a city, the capital of Wells co., 
on the Wabash river, 25 m. S. of Fort Wayne and 100 
m. N. E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890), 3,589. 

Bluffton, in Iowa, a village and township of Win¬ 
neshiek co., on the Upper Iowa River, 12 m. N.N.W. of 
Decorah. 

Bluffton, in Michigan, a post-office of Muskegon co. 

Bluffton, in Missouri, a post-office of Montgomery co. 

Bluffton. in Ohio, a post-village of Allen co., 16 miles 
N.E. of Lima. Pop. (1898) 1,500. 

Bluffton, in South Car., a post-village of Beaufort co. 

Bluffton, in Wisconsin, a village of Marquette co., 60 
m. N. by E. of Madison. 

Bluff'ville, in Illinois, a post-office of Carroll co. 

Bluffy, n. Presenting a bluff appearance. 

Blu'ing, n. A making blue; as, the bluing of steel. 

—A preparation used in laundries, to impart a bluish 
tinge to hot water. 

Blu'i.sh, a. Blue in a minor degree. 

“ Here, in full light, the russet plains extend ; 

There, wrapt in clouds, the bluish hills ascend." — Pope. 

Blu'ishly, adv. In a bluish manner. 

Blu'ishness, n. A small degree of blue color. 

Blu'menbacb, Johann Friedrich, a distinguished 
German physiologist and comparative anatomist, B. at 
Gotha, 1752. He studied at Jena and Gottingen, and 
became Professor of Medicine, librarian, and keeper of 
the museum at the University of Gottingen in 1778. 
His principal works are, Institutiones Physiologiccc, which 
was translated into English by Dr. Elliotson; Handbuch 
der vergleichenden Anatomic; an Essay on the Natural 
Variety of the Human Race; and works on Embryology 
and the Bones of the Human Body. He also published 
a description of the large collection he had formed of 
skulls of different races. B. was a master in his field, 
and the sterling character of his writings is confirmed 
by recent researches. His Anthropological Treatise, and 
the Memoirs of his Life, by Marx and Flourens, were 
translated into English and edited by B. T. Bendyshe, 
M.A., and published for the Anthropological Society of 
London in 1865. D. 1840. 

Blum'fielll, in Michigan, a post-townahip of Saginaw 
co., 8 m. E. of Saginaw City. 

Bluni'field Junction, in Michigan, a post-office 
of Saginaw co. 

Blun'der, v.i. [Allied to A.S. blenda; Icel. blanda. 
See Blend.] To be confused; to mistake grossly; to 
err widely or stupidly; to flounder; to stumble. 

“ Id this men blunder still you find, 

All think their little set mankind.’' — Hannah More. 

—n. A gross mistake; a stupid error; inadvertence. 

*' O wad some power the giftie gie’ us, 

To see oursel’s as ithers see us ! 

It wad frae mony a blunder free us. 

And foolish notion." — Bums. 

Rlun'derbuss, n. [Eng. blunder, and Du. bus, tube.] A 
short hand-gun of heavy calibre, widening towards the 


muzzle, and adapted for discharging several bullets at a 
time, so that, without any exact aim, one or more of the 
bullets may blunderingly hit the mark. 

44 There are blunderbusses in every loop-hole, that go off of their 
own accord at the squeaking of a fiddle." — Drydten. 

Blun'derer, n. One who makes a blunder, or is apt 
to make gross mistakes. 

“ Another sort of judges will decide...him a mere blunderer." Watt*. 

Blun derhead, n. A stupid person; one who fre¬ 
quently makes blunders; as, a “thick-skulled blunder¬ 
head.” — L’ Estrange. 

Blun'dering, p. a. Moving or acting with blind pre¬ 
cipitance ; mistaking grossly; stumbling. 

Bluu'deriii{f ly,ahi’ In a blundering or stupid manner, 

Blun'derville, in Kentucky, a village of Ballard co.z 
pov. 385. 

Blunging, (blunj'ing,) n. (Pottery.) See Plunging. 

Blunt, a. [Swed. and Goth. plump, dull, blockish; prob¬ 
ably allied to the root of Gr. amblyno, to blunt, to make 
dull.] Dull on the edge or point; not sharp; as, a blunt 
knife. 

“ Thanks to that beauty, which can give an edge to the bluntest 
swords." — Sir P. Sidney. 

—Dull in understanding; obtuse; not quick. 

“ I ll quickly cross, 

By some sly trick, blunt Thurio’s doll proceeding." — Shake. 

—Unpolished; brusque; unceremonious; abrupt in speech; 
rude; plain. 

** To nse too many circumstances, ere one can come to the mat. 
ter, is wearisome; to nse none at all, is blunt." — Bacon. 

—Hard to penetrate; almost impenetrable, (r.) 

44 I find my heart hardened and blunt to new impressions.”— Pope. 

Blunt, v. a. (pp. blunted; ppr. blunting.) To dull the 
edge or point of anything; as, to blunt a pencil. 

41 So sicken waning moons too near the sun, 

And 6iunt their crescents on the edge of day." — Dryden. 

—To repress, weaken, or impair. 

“ Blunt not his love; 

.... By seeming cold.” — Shake. 

Blunt, n. A cant term for money; hard cash; as, down 
with the blunt. 

Blunt, in Illinois, a flourishing township of Vermillion 
county. 

Blunt'ing, n. Act of making blunt. 

Blunt'isb, a. Blunt in a certain degree. 

Blunt'isbness, n. State of being blunt in speech or 
manner. 

Blunt'ly, adv. In a blunt manner; unceremoniously; 
plainly; abruptly; without delicacy or courteousness. 

" A man of honest blood, 

Who to his wife, before the time assign'd, 

.... thus bluntly spoke his mind." — Dryden. 

Blunt'ness, n. Dulness of edge or point; want of 
sharpness; obtuseness. 

“ The crafty boy, that had full oft essay'd, 

But still the bluntness of his darts betray’d.” — Suckling. 

—Want of polish; rude sincerity or plainness. 

“ Some readers will be assisted to discern a difference between 
bluntness of speech and strength of reason." — Boyle. 

Blunt'-witted, a. Dull; stupid; obtuse. 

“ Blunt-wilted lord, ignoble in demeanour.” — Shake. 

Blur, n. [Probably from Du. blaar, blister; from the 
root of bladder .] A pustule; a blain; a stain; a blot; 
as a smudge of ink upon paper. 

—Indistinctness of vision; confused perception; as, every¬ 
thing appeared a blur. 

—A blot, stain, or stigma; used in a moral sense. 

“ Man, once fallen, was nothing but a great blur." — South. 

Blur, v. a. To obscure; to spot; to smear, as with ink; 
as, a blurred manuscript. 

“ But time hath nothing blurred those lines of favour." — Shake. 

—To dim; to see darkly; to cause indistinct vision; as, 
her eyes were blurred with tears. 

—To soil; to sully; to blemish. 

“ Sarcasms may eclipse thine own, 

But cannot blur my just renowu.” — Hudibra*. 

Blurt, v. a. [Probably from Icel. blaer, a blast, from 
bldsa, to blow.] To throw out, as a sudden blast of wind; 
to utter suddenly, inadvertently, unadvisedly, or rudely. 
(Generally preceding out.) 

“ And yet the truth may lose its grace, 

If blurted to a person s face." — Lloyd. 

Blush, v. i. [A. S. mblisian; Du. bloozen, from bios, a 
blush, redness; from the root of blow.] To grow ro4 
or rosy in the face; to bear a blooming red color. 

44 But here the roses blush so rare. 

Here the mornings smile so fair.” — Crashaw. 

—To redden with shame or confusion. 

44 The man that blushes is not quite a brnte." — Toting. 

— 1 >. a. To make red; to indicate by blushing. 

‘‘And ne'er returneth 

To blush and beautify the cheek again."— Shahs. 

— n. A bright rosy or reddish color. 

44 Bear away those blushes." — Shaks. 

—A red glow on the cheeks or face, caused by shame, con¬ 
fusion, or diffidence. 

44 Nor mark,.. her blush of maiden shame.”— Bryant. 

—Sudden appearance or glance. 

44 All purely identical compositions ... at first blush, appear 
to contain no certain instructions in them."—Locke. 

BlushTnl,a. Full of blushes; as, “averts her blush¬ 
ful face.” — Thomson. 

Blush fully, adv. In a blushful or blushing manner. 

Blustl'ing,' n. A sudden suffusing or reddening of the 
face, excited by a sense of shame, confusion, or surprise. 
It is produced by an increased flow of blood into the 
capillary vessels of the face and neck; and besides red¬ 
dening, it creates a sensation of heat in those parts. It 
is occasioned by the mental shock acting upon the brain. 








372 


BOAR 


BOAS 


BOAT 


and withdrawing the nervous energy which ordinarily 
contracts the muscular coats of the blood-vessels of these 
parts, whence the blood is permitted to flow with greater 
violence through the vessels. 

Blusli'ing;, p. a. Reddening in the cheeks or face; 
bearing a bright rosy color. 

“And bears his blushing honors thick upon him."— Shaks. 

Blush'ingly, adv. In a blushing manner. 

Blush'less, a. Unblushing; without blushes. 

Blush'y, a. Like a blush ; having the color of a blush. 

“ Blossoms ... of apples, crabs, peaches, are blushy, and smell 
sweet."— Bacon. 

Blus'ter, v. i. [A. S. blcestan, from blast, a blast.] To 
be boisterous; to blow with noise and violence, as a gale 
of wind. 

“ So now he storms with many a sturdy stour, 

So now his blust'ring blast each coast doth scour.”— Spenser. 

—To bully ; to boast; to swagger; to talk in a hectoring 
manner. 

“ With hoarse commands his breathing subjects call. 

And boast and bluster in his empty hall.”— Dryden. 

Blus'ter, v. a. To utter, or give action to, with noisy 
vehemence. 

“ My heart's too big to bear this, says a blustering fellow ; I'll 
destroy myself. Sir, says the gentleman, here's a dagger at your 
service ; so the humor went off."— L'Estrange. 

Blus'ter, n. Roar or noise like that of a tempest; 
boisterousness. 

“ The skies look grimly, 

And threaten present blusters." — Shake. 

—Boastful talk; swaggering manner; turbulent behavior. 
“ A coward makes a deal more bluster than a man of honor." 

L' Estrange. 

—Loud, tumultuous noise. 

“ So by the brazen trumpet's bluster, 

Troops of all tougues and nations muster.'*— Swift. 

Blustera l ion, n. Blustering; braggadocio; empty, 
noisy talk. (A vulgar term used in some parts of Eng¬ 
land, and in the U. States.) 

Blus'terer, n. One who blusters; aswaggerer; abrag- 
gadocio. 

Blus'ter I US', n. A loud noise, like that of a tempest; 
swaggering; noisy boasting, or assumption. 

—a. Making a loud, windy noise; tempestuous; as, a 
blustering fellow. 

Blus'teringly, adv. In a blustering, noisy manner. 

Blus'terous, Blus'trous, a. Tumultuous; noisy; 
boastful, (o.) 

Blyth, or Blythe, a seaport of England, co. North¬ 
umberland, on the Blyth, 12 m. N.E. by N.of Newcastle- 
on-Tvne; pop. 2.148. 

Blyth, the name of four rivers of England, one of which 
falls into the German Ocean, near Southwold; another 
into the river Tame. Warwickshire; another into the 
North Sea, at Blyth, Northumberland; another into the 
Trent, about 5 m. from Rugeley. 

Blythe, in Arkansas, a twp. of Marion co. 

Blythe. in Pennsylvania, a township of Schuylkill co., 
pop. 1,924. 

Blythe'ville, in Missouri, a post-village of Jasper co. 

Bo ! interj. [W. bw.] A word used to frighten children. 

Bo, n. The name given in Ceylon to the Ficus religiosa, 
a tree held sacred by the Buddhists, and called Peepul in 
India. 

Bo a, n. [Lat. boa, bova, from bos, bovis.J ( Zool .) A ge¬ 
nus of large serpents, natives of the warm parts of 
America, which with the similar large serpents of Asia 
and Africa forming the genus Python, constitute the 
family Boiim, q. v. 

—A long, serpent-like piece of fur, or similar material, 
worn round the neck by ladies. 

Bo'a-constric'tor, n. (Zool.) See Boida. 

Boadicea, or Boudicea, (6o'a dts'e-a,) a British heroine, 
the widow of Prasntagus, and queen of the Iceni. Hav¬ 
ing been ignominiously treated by the Romans, she 
headed an insurrection against them, attacked their 
settlements, and reduced London to ashes; but being at 
length utterly defeated by Suetonius I’aulinus, she is 
said by Tacitus to have put an end to her life by poison, 
a. d. 61. 

Boa Island, in Ireland, co. Fermanagh, being the 
chief island on Lough Erne, and containing 1,400 acres. 

Boals lmrg, in Pennsylvania , a post-village of Harris 
township, Centre co., 85 m. N.W. of Harrisburg, and 10 
S. of Bellefonte. It is a neat but quiet place, containing | 
several fine churches and an academy. 

Boaner'ges, n. pi. [Heb. bne hargem. “sons of thun¬ 
der.”] (Script.) A name given by our Saviour to James 
and John, the sons of Zebedee (Mark iii. 17), perhaps on 
account of their power as preachers. Some suppose it 
was given on the occasion of their request that Christ 
would call for fire from heaven, and destroy a village of 
the Samaritans, which had refused to entertain them. 
(Luke ix. 53-54.) 

Boar, (bor,) n. [A.S. bar. See Bear.] The male of swine, 
whether wild or tame. — See Hog. 

Boar, v. i. (Manege.) To toss or uplift the nose in the 
air; — said of the horse. 

Board, (bord,) n. [A.S. hard, breed, breadth, a table.] A 
substance of wood contained between two parallel planes, 
as when the bulk is divided into several pieces by the 
saw; the pieces are called boards. There is this dis¬ 
tinction, however, that, though in the case of elm and 
fir, such pieces are called boards, they become planks 
when cut of oak and mahogany. The term board is 
very often applied to a piece of 9 inches wide and 
3 inches thick; but, strictly speaking, it ought not to be 
applied to a greater thickness than 1 Vfj inch. It is also 
used as a compound word; as, barge-board, floor -board, 
&c. 

“With the saw they sundered trees in boards and planks." Raleigh. 


—A table; dining-table, Ac.; as, a well-spread board. 

" I'll follow thee in fuu'ral flames ; when dead, 

My ghost shall thee attend at board and bed."— Sir J. Denham. 

—Food; entertainment; victuals; generally as supplied for 
payment at hotels, Ac.; as, to owe for a month's board. 

—A table at which a council, court, or committee is held; 
as, to be elected to a seat at the board. —Applied also to 
the collective body of individuals who are convened to 
deliberate on, and control, the operations of some public 
or private department of business, or who form a court 
of jurisdiction over certain official matters; as, a Board 
of Guardians, the Board of Trade, Ac. 

“ I wish the king would be pleased sometimes to be present at 
that board; it adds a majesty to it.” — Bacon. 

—A table whereon a game is played; as, a bagatelle-board. 

—A thick mass of compressed paper, used for book-covers, 
and various other purposes; as, paste-board, card -board, 
mill -board, Ac. 

— (pi.) The stage in a theatre is technically called the 
boards. — To go upon the boards. To enter upon a theat¬ 
rical career.— To leave the boards. To abandon the stage 
as a profession. 

(Naut.) The deck of a ship; also, the interior of a 
vessel; as, on board, to go on board, Ac. — The side of 
a ship. — Board and board, or board, to board ; side by 
side, i. e., one vessel alongside of another. 

To make short boards. To tack about often. — To board 
a ship. To go on board. See Boarding. — By the board. 
To bo wrecked or shattered so as to fall over the side; 
as, the main-mast went by the board. — Overboard. 
Over the vessel’s side; as, a man is overboard. — To make 
a good board. To sail close-hauled, avoiding lee-way. 

Board, v. a. To lay, spread, or cover with boards ; as, 
to board a floor. — To go on board a ship; to enter a 
ship, whether as friend or enemy; as, the pilot boarded 
us off Sandy Hook. 

44 He, not inclined the English ship to board, 

More on his guns relies than on his sword.”— Waller. 

—To supply with food for pecuniary recompense; as, to 
board one’s mother-in-law. 

—To place at board for payment; as, to board a ship’s 
company. 

Board, v. i. To live in a house at a certain rate for 
meals; to be furnished with food for a money considera¬ 
tion; as, he boards at the Astor House. 

“ That we might not part, 

As we, at first, did board with thee, 

Now thou wouldst taste our misery.” — Herbert. 

Board'able, a. Liable to be boarded, as a ship. 

Board'er, n. One who receives board at the table of 
another, at a certain rate of compensation. 

(Naut.) One who boards a ship in action. (Generally 
in the plural.) 

Board’ing, a. Covering with boards; also the cover¬ 
ing itself.—Board; food; diet. 

(Naut.) In naval tactics, the art of attacking a hostile 
ship by the introduction of armed men upon its decks. 
The operation is always attended with risk, from the 
confined nature of the theatre of action, ignorance of the 
enemy's dispositions, Ac. Unless the B. is in the shape 
of a surprise, and therefore conducted by boats, it is es¬ 
sential as a preliminary that the ships should be laid 
alongside or athwart each other. 

Board'ing’-floors, n.pl. (Building-.) Those floors that 
are covered with boards. The operation of boarding 
floors should commence as soon as the windows are in, 
and the plaster dry. 

Board'ing-house, n. A house in which boarders are 
kept. 

Board'lng-joists, n. pi. (Building.) Joists in naked 
flooring, to which the boards are fixed. 

Board'ing'.nettings, n.pl. (Naut.) Strong nettings 
placed over the sides of a ship, when in action, to repel 
a boarding-party. 

Board'ing'-pike,n. (Naut.) A pike formed of an iron 
spike, sharpened and fixed on an ashen pole, used by 
sailors in boarding an enemy’s ship. It is sometimes 
called a half-pike, from its having a much shorter staff 
than the whole pike. 

Board ing-school, n. A school where the scholars 
receive board and lodging, in addition to education. 

“ A blockhead, with melodious voice. 

In boar ding schools can have his choice.’* — Swift . 

Board'less, a. Without a board or table. 

Board'man, in Iowa, a township of Clayton co., con¬ 
taining El Rader, the county seat. 

Board'man, in Ohio, a post-township of Mahoning 
co., 6 m. E. of Canfield. 

Board'man, in Wisconsin, a post-village of St. Croix co. 

Board'-rule, n. A kind of figured scale with which 
the number of square feet contained in a board may be 
found without calculation. 

Board'ville, in New Jersey, a village of Passaic co., 
on Ringwood River, 21 m. N.W. of Hackensack. 

Board'-wages, n.pl. Wages allowed to servants to 
keep themselves in victuals; as, they are placed on 
board-wages. 

“ And not enough is left him to supply 
Board-wages, or a footman s livery." — Dryden. 

Boar'ish, a. Like a boar; swinish; brutal; cruel. 

* Nor thy fierce sister 

In his anointed flesh stick boarish fangs." — Shaks. 

Boar'-spear, n. A spear or javelin used in the chase 
of boars. 

Boas t, (host,) v. i. [W. bostian, to brag; Gael. bosd, a boast, 
vainglory.] To vaunt; to glory; to brag; to talk osten¬ 
tatiously; to enlarge or magnify. (Generally with of.) 

“ The spirits beneath 
Whom I seduc'd, boasting I could subdue 
Th' Omnipotent ." — Milton. 


— v. a. To vaunt or brag of; to speak ostentatiously o£ 

“ Neither do the spirits damn'd 
Lose all their virtue, lest bad men sh ,ld boast 
Their specious deeds." — Milton. 

—To exalt; to magnify; to indulge in self-exultation. 

“ They that trust in their wealth, and boast themselves in th# 
multitude of their riches.” — Psalms xlix. 6. 

(Masonry.) To pare or dress a stone with a broad 
chisel. 

(Sculp.) To cut out with a chisel, Ac., the rough out¬ 
line of a statue or ornament. 

— n. Expression or exhibition of ostentation; a vaunt; a 
vainglorious speech. 

“ The boast will probably be censured, when the great actioa 
that occasioned it is forgotten." — Spectator. 

—The cause of boasting; the thing or person boasted. 

•' The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power." — Gray. 

Boast er, n. A braggart; one who boasts or vaunts in 
an ostentatious manner. 

“ No more delays, vain boaster I but begin; 

I prophesy beforehand I shall win."— Dryden. 

Boast'ful, a. Given to boasting; inclined to brag. 

“ Boastful and rough, your first son is a squire; 

The next a tradesman, meek, and much a liar." — Pope. 

Boast'fully, adv. In a boastful, vaunting manner. 

Boast'ful ness, n. Ostentation; state of being boastfuL 

Boast ing', n. Act of boasting, or making boasts. 

“When boasting ends, then dignity begins." — Milton. 

(Masonry.) The paring of a stone with a broad chisel 
and mallet. 

(Sculp.) The rough cutting of a stone to form the 
outline of a statue, Ac. 

Boast'ingly, adv. In an ostentatious manner; with 

boasting. 

Boast/less, a. Without boasting. 

Boast'on, n. (Games.) See Boston. 

Boat, (bot,)v. (Naut.) [A.S. bat; Swed. and Goth, boot; 
Icel. bdtr ; W. bad; Sansk. pot. Etymology uncertain.] 
A small open vessel, or water-craft, usually impelled by 
oars, or a sail: in a generic sense, any vessel of whatso¬ 
ever size, class, or description ;—as, she is a good son-boat. 
Boats proper are of various different forms of construc¬ 
tion, according to the different purposes they are in¬ 
tended to serve. — See Advice-boat; Barge; Boss; 
Cotter; Gig; Joi.lt-boat; Long-boat; Packet-boat; 
Pinnace: Qoarter-Boat; Steam-boat; Whale-boat^ 
Wherry; Yawl, Ac. 

*• Vessels lan?e may venture more, 

But little boats should keep near shore.” — B. Franklin. 

— v. a. To transport in a boat; as, to boat passenger® 
across a river. 

— v. i. To go in a boat; to take a boat; as, “ I boated 
over.” — Tennyson. 

Boat'able, a. Navigable for boats or small craft ; a® 
that stream is bootable. 

Boat'- bill, n. (ZoSl., 
of the Ardeidce family, 
very remarkable bill, 
the form of which by 
some is likened to a 
boat with its keel up¬ 
wards, and by others 
to the bowls of two 
spoons, the concave 
sides of which are 
placed in contact. 

The mandibles are 
very stout and sharp- 
edged, and the upper 
one has a projecting 
point at the extrem- J 
ity. The feet have 
four toes, all of them 
long, and without a Fig. 378. — boat-bill. 
connecting mem- (C. cochlearia.) 

brane; for which reason these birds perch on the bran¬ 
ches of trees by the sides of rivers, so that they may 
pounce upon the fish as they swim beneath. The specie® 
Cancroma cochlearia is the size of a domestic fowl. In 
the male, the forehead, and upper parts of the neck and 
breast, are dirty white; and from the head depends a 
long crest of black feathers. The female has the top of 
the head black, without the elongated crest. It inha¬ 
bits Guiana, Brazil, and other parts of South America. 

Boa I'-fly. n. (Zool.) See (Estrida;. 

Boat'-book, n. (Naut.) An iron hook with a sharp 
point, fixed on the extremity of a short pole, and used 
for impelling boats, or hauling them to. 

Boat'-liouse, n. A house or structure used for the 
shelter and safe-keeping of boats. — The house or tavern 
from which a ferry-boat starts with passengers. 

Boat'ing, n. The act of transportingin a boat or boats. 

(Aquatics.) The pastime of sailing boats; as, a. boat- 
ing- club, to go n-boating. 

—A kind of capital punishment practised in Persia, by 
fastening offenders in a covered boat, and leaving them 
to perish. 

Boat'land, in Tennessee, a post-office of Fentress co. 

Boat man, Boatr man, n. (Naut.) A man who 
works or manages a boat. 

“ That booby Phaon only was unkind, 

An ill-bred boatman, rough as waves and wind." — Prior. 

Boat'-rope, n. (Naut.) A rope used to secure a boat 
to anything; technically called a. painter. 

Boatswain, (colloquially, bo'sun,) [A.S. batswan — bat, 
boat, and sivan, a servant.] (Naut.) A warrant officer 
in a ship, who has charge of the boats, sails, rigging, 
colors, anchors, cables, and cordage. It is the business 
of this officer to summon the crew to their duty, and 
to assist with hi* mates in the working of the ship.— 



























































BOBO 


BOCC 


BODE 


375 




The B. s mate is an assistant to the B.. in all the above- 
mentioned duties, with the disagreeable addition of hav¬ 
ing to inflict all punishments awarded to the men. 

B.’s Call. The whistle suspended by a cord from the 
neck of the B., by w.iich he issues his calls and com¬ 
mands. 

Eoavis'ta, the most easterly of the Cape de Yerd 
Islands, q . v . 

Bo'az, a wealthy citizen of Bethlehem, and descendant 
of Judah, through whom is traced the regular succes¬ 
sion of Jewish kings, (Matt. i. 5.) His conduct in the 
case of Ruth proves him to have been a man of fine 
spirit and of strict integrity. He admitted the claim 
which Ruth had upon him as a near kinsman : under the 
obligations of the Levitical law, he married the poor 
gleaner, and thus became one of the ancestors of David, 
and also of David’s Son and Lord. He was the father of 
Obed, who was the father of Jesse, and Jesse of David. 
The whole narrative is a beautiful picture of the sim¬ 
plicity of the age, and one of the most charming idyllic 
passages in the Bible. 

Bo 'az, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Richland co., 8 
m. W. of Richland Centre. 

Bob, n. [Icel. bobbi, a knot; Gael, bah, a tuft, a tassel.] 
Any little round thing that plays loosely at the end of a 
string, &c ; an ornament hanging from the ear; a pen¬ 
dant. 


•• The gaudy gossip when she’s set agog." 

In jewels drest, and at each ear a bob.” — Dryden. 

—The ball of a short pendulum, being the metallic weight 
which is attached to the lower extremity of a pendu¬ 
lum-rod. — Also, the weight at the end of a plumb-line. 

—A bait of worms, &c., fastened on a hook to entice fish: 
as, “yellow bobs.” Lawson. — A short, jerking mo¬ 
tion; as, a bob of the head. — The refrain, or repeated 
words at the end of a song; a stanza. (R.) 

" To bed, to bed, will be the bob of the song."— L'Estrange. 

— A slight blow ; a jog, or push; as, to give one a bob on 
the mouth. 

“ I am sharply taunted, yea, sometimes with pinches, nips, and 
bobs.' - Ascham. 

—A bob-wig or peruke; as, “ A plain brown bob he wore.” 

Sbenstane. 

—In Campanology, a peculiar method of ringing bells; as, 
a 6o6-major; bob-minor, Ac. 

(Mining.) A miner’s engine-beam. 

— v. a. (imp. bobbed ; ppr. bobbing.) To move with a 
short, jerking motion; as, “ seeing a blow coming, he 
bobbed his head a little aside.” —To beat with a quick 
blow; to bang. 

•• Those bastard Britons, whom our fathers 
Have in their own land beaten, bobb d and thump'd."— Shake. 

—To cheat; to fraudulently obtain. 

•' Of gold and jewels that I bobb'd from him. 

As gifts to Desdemona." — Shaks. 

—To mock; to make sport of. 

— v. i. To play backward and forward, or up and down ; 
to oscillate loosely. 

“ They comb, and then they order ev’ry hair, 

A birthday jewel bobbing at their ear." - Dryden. 

—To angle or fish for eels, Ac., as with a bob for bait. 

•* He ne'er had learned the art to bob 
For anything but eels.’’ — Saxe. 


Bob'bery, n A vulgarism to express a row, wrangle, 
squablile, or tumult. 

Bobbin, (bob'bin.) [Fr. bobine, from Gr. and Lat. bom- 
byx , a silk-worm.] A small wooden pin, with a notch, 
to wind the thread about in weaving lace. — The spool 
upon which sewing-thread is wound. — A quill for a 
spinning-wheel. — A round lace. 

Bob'binet, n. (Manf.) See Lace Minufacture. 

Bob'bin-work, n. Work woven with bobbins. 


“ Not netted nor woven with warp and woof, but after the man¬ 
ner of bobbin-work." — Grow. 

Bob'bio, a walled town of N. Italy, prov. Genoa, on the 
Trebbia, 34 m. N.E. of Genoa; pop. 4,983. 

Bob'by, n. A cant term for a policeman. (Used in 
England.) 

Bob'-cherry, n. (Pastimes.) A children’s play, in 
which a cherry is suspended at the end of a string, when 
they attempt to seize it with their teeth, having their 
hands secured behind them. 

•• Bob-cherry teaches at once two noble virtues, patience and 
constancy." Arbuthnot. 


Bob’-o-IinU, Bob-Lincoln, Rice-Bcnting, or Rice- 
Bird, n. ( Zoiil.) An American bird, genus Dolichonyx, 
family Icteridas. The specific characters of this bird are, 
tail-feathers very acute; adult male, in spring dress, 
black, the hind head yellowish-white; scapulars, rump, 
and tail - coverts, white, 
tinged with ash. The Rice¬ 
bunting migrates over the 
continent of America from 
Labrador to Mexico, and over 
the Great Antilles, appearing 
in the southern extremity of 
the United States about the 
end of March. Their food 
is insects and worms, and 
the seeds of the grassy mea¬ 
dows. In the autumn they 
sometimes attack the crops 
of oats and barley. The song 
of the male continues, with 
little interruption, as long 
as the female is sitting, and 
is singular and pleasant; it consists of a jingling med¬ 
ley of short, variable notes, confused, rapid, and con¬ 
tinuous. The relish for song and merriment is con¬ 
fined to the male; but he generally loses his musical 



Fig. 379. — bob-o-link. 

(Dolichonyx orizyvorus.) 


talent about the end of the first week in July, from 
which time, or somewhat earlier, his plumage begins to 
lose its gay colors, and to assume the humble hue of 
that of the female. About the middle of August they 
enter New York and Pennsylvania, on their way to the 
south. There, along the shores of the large rivers lined 
with floating fields of wild rice, they find abundant sub¬ 
sistence, grow fat, and their flesh becomes little inferior 
in flavor to that of the European ortolan; on which 
account the B. are shot in great numbers, and sold in 
the markets. 

Bo brov, a town of Russia in Europe, govt. Yoroneje, 
on the Bitioug, 52 m. S.E. of Voronetz; Lat. 50° 5' N., 
Lon. 40° l<y E. This place derives its name from the 
number of beavers (bobry) formerly found in its vicinity. 
Pop. about 4,000. 

Bobru isk, a town of European Russia, govt. Minsk, 
on the Bobruia, where it tails into the Berezina, 90 m. 
S.E. of Minsk. This town effectually resisted the French 
in 1812. 

Bob'stay, n. (Navi) A rope used to confine the bow¬ 
sprit downwards to the stem or cutwater, and to coun¬ 
teract the force of the stays of the foremast, which it 
draws upwards. It is fixed by passing one of its ends 
through a hole bored in the fore part of the cutwater, 
both ends being spliced together, so as to make it two¬ 
fold, or like the link of a chain. A dead-eye is then 
fixed in it, and a lanyard passed through, which com¬ 
municates with another dead-eye upon the bowsprit. 
This is then drawn extremely tight by the help of me¬ 
chanical power. 

Bob tail, n. A short, or docked tail; as, a bobtail nag. 

—A vulgarism, used in speaking contemptuously of the 
rabble; as, “ tag, rag, and bobtail.” 

Bob'tailed, a. Having the tail docked, or cut short. 

“ There was a bobtailed our cried in a gazette." — L Estrange. 

Bob'tovvn, in Massachusetts, a thriving village of Pitts¬ 
field township, Berkshire co., 30 m. W.N.W. of North¬ 
ampton. 

Bob-white, n. (ZoSl.) See Perdisida:. 

Bob'-wig;, Bob'tail-wig, n. A short wig. 

“ A young fellow ... with a bob-wig ... stopt short at the coach, 
to ask us how far the judges were behind." — Spectator. 

Boca, (bo'ka) [Sp., mouth.] A term often applied to the 
mouths of rivers, &c.. as Boca (or Bocca) Tigris. 

Bo'ca C’hi'ca, in New Granada, the channel leading 
up to the port of Carthagena. 

Bo'ca del To'ro, (“mouth of the bull,”) in Costa Rica, 
Central America; Lat. 9° 20' N.. Lon. 82° \V. 

Bo'ca de Na'vios, (“passage for ships,”) in S. Amer¬ 
ica, the principal mouth of the Orinoco River. 

Bo'ca Cirande, (“chief entrance,”) a bay of Central 
America, in Costa Rica, at the mouth of the Zucar River, 
on the Caribbean Sea. 

Bocai'na, in Brazil, a mountain-chain of the prov. of 
Rio de Janeiro, being a spur of the Organ Mountains. 

Bo'cal, n. [Fr.] A cylindrical glass vessel with a large 
aud short neck, used for preserving solid substances. 

Bocar'do, n. (Logic.) A syllogism in which the first 
and last propositions are particular negatives, and the 
middle is a universal affirmative. 

Bocasine, (bok'a-seen,) a sort of linen cloth ; a fine kind 
of buckram. 

Bocato'riura, n. [Lat.] The ancient name for a 
slaughter-house. 

Boc'ca, n. [It., mouth.] In glass-manufacture, a term 
signifying the round aperture of the furnace, through 
which the glass, in a state of fusion, exudes. 

Boccaccio, Giovanni, (bok-kat’cho) a celebrated Ital¬ 
ian novelist, was the son of a Florentine merchant, but 
b. in Paris, 1313. Ilia passion for literature led him 
to abandon, first, commerce, and next the study of law. 
He spent some years at Naples, and while there, in 1341, 
fell in love with a beautiful girl, a natural daughter of 
the King of Naples, for whom he wrote several of his 
works, and whom he named “ Fiammetta.” He was af¬ 
terwards patronized by Queen Joanna, and for her, as 
much as for his “ Fiammetta,” is said to have written 
his chief work, the Decamerone. On his father's death 
he returned to Florence, where he was greatly honored, 
and was sent on several public embassies. Among 
others, he was sent to Padua to communicate to Pe¬ 
trarch the tidings of his recall to Florence. He gained 
the friendship of the illustrious poet, and enjoyed it 
through life. Boccaccio, like Petrarch, contributed 
greatly to the revival of the stsdy of classical literature, 
spent much time and money in collecting manuscripts, 
and was the first to bring into Italy,from Greece, copies 
of the Iliad and the Odyssey. A solemn message from a 
dying monk, about 1361, deeply impressed Boccaccio, 
and led to a remarkable reformation in his manner of 
life. He was chosen by the Florentines to occupy the 
chair which was established in 1373 for the exposition 
of the “ Divina Commedia.” In the following year he 
had to mourn the loss of his master and friend, Petrarch; 
and, after some months of broken health, he d. at Cer- 
taldo, in Dec., 1375. The Decamerone, on which his fame 
rests, is a collection of a hundred tales, full of liveliness 
and humor, but often licentious and indecent. The book 
was published about 1352, and, after two centuries, was 
condemned by two popes and by the Council of Trent. 
B. wrote La Teseide, imitated by Chaucer, and other 
poems and romances, besides many works in Latin. 
See Life and Works of B-, by Dr. Si. Landau, 3 vols. 
(Stuttgart, 1869-75-77). 

Boccanera, ( bok-ka-nair'a ,) the name of a noble Ital¬ 
ian family, who figured in Italian history during the 
13th and 14th centuries. One of them, Simon B., was 
the first doge or duke of Genoa, being elected in 1339. 
D. of poison, 1362. 


Bocehetta, (bok-ket'ta,) a celebrated pass of the Apen¬ 
nines, the key of the route from Novi to Genoa, and 
from which a magnificent view may be had of the sur¬ 
rounding scenery. Redoubts were raised here by the 
Imperialists in 1746, and the French passed the defile in 
1796. 

Boc'eius Bight, n. A form of gas-burner invented 
by Boccius, in which two concentric metal cylinders are 
so placed over the flame, and within the usual lamp 
glass, as to modify the combustion and increase the pro¬ 
portion of light. 

Boc'cold, John. See Leyden, (John op.) 

Boce, n. (Zobl.) See Spares. 

Bodlim, (bo'kim,) (Anc. Geog.) a place near Gilg.4, 
where the angel of God reproved Israel for their remiss,- 
ness. (Judg. ii. 1-5.) 

Boch'nia, a town belonging to Austria, in Galicia, near 
the Raba, 25 m. E.S.E. oi Cracow. Extensive salt mines 
are in the vicinity. Pop. about 6,000. 

Bochold, or Bock'holt, a town of Prussia, prov. 
Westphalia, on the Ahe, 15 m. E N.E. of Cleves. Manf. 
Cotton and silk. Rich iron mines are adjacent. 

Bftch'uni. a town of Prussia, prov. Westphalia, 25 m. 
N.E. of Diisseldorf. Manf. Carpets, iron and steel, ar¬ 
mor plating for ships, machinery, &c. 

Boek'elet, Bock'erel, Bock'eret,n. (Zobl.) See 
Hawk. 

Book 'ey, n. A term used in New York, for a bowl or 
vessel made from a gourd. 

Bock'ing, n. A coarse description of drugget. Named 
from the village of Booking, in England, where it was 
first made. 

Boc'land, Book'land. [A S.] (Feudal Law) A term 
to denote land held by book or charter. Lands so held 
were estates of perpetual inheritance, as distinguished 
from folcland, which, as being the property of the com¬ 
munity, might be granted to persons in the “folc- 
gemote,” but which, at the expiration of a given term, 
reverted to the community. Folcland was subject to 
many burdens from which B. was exempt. The latter 
obliged the owner to contribute only to military expe¬ 
ditions, and the repair of castles and bridges — an obli¬ 
gation expressed by the term Trinoda necessitas. The 
word “ folcland,” falling into disuse, was replaced by the 
term terra regis, or “ crown land.” 

Bod'can Bayou, in A rkansas and Louisiana, a stream 
rising in the S.W. part of the first-named State, and 
passing S. into Louisiana, falls into Red River in Bossier 
parish. 

Bode, Johann Elert, a German astronomer, was born 
at Hamburg, in 1747. At an early age he became assist¬ 
ant to Bush, aud in 1772 was called to Berlin by Fred¬ 
erick II. One of his best works is the Anleitung zur 
Kenntniss des gestirntcn Himmels, which appeared in 
1768, and has passed through more than twenty editions. 
He published also a Celestial Atlas, Astronomical Annals, 
&.C., and was a member of the principal scientific socie¬ 
ties of Europe. The so-called law of the planetary 
distances, usually called “Bode's Law,” was first sug¬ 
gested by Professor Titius, of Wittenberg. D. 1826. 

Bode, v. a. [A.S. bodian. bodigean, geboclian, from bod, 
a command, message, or edict; radically the same as bid; 
Ger. gebot, a command, from bieten, to offer.] To utter: 
to tell; to announce; toporteud; to foreshow; to pre¬ 
sage; to be the omen of. 

“ This bodes some strange eruption to our state.”— Shaks. 

— v. i. To foreshow; to presage. 

“ Sir, give me leave to say, whatever now 
The omen prove, it boded well to you.”— Dryden. 

Bode ga, in California, a post-village and towuship of 
Sonoma co., on Bodega Bay, 62 m. N.W. by N. of San 
Francisco.; pop. 1,407. 

Bodeful, a. Ominous; foreshadowing; portending. 

Bode'ment, n. Portent; omen; prognostic, (o.) 

“ This foolish, dreaming, superstitious girl. 

Makes all these bodemenls. '—Shake. 

Bo'denham, in Tennessee, a post-village of Giles co., 
about 70 m. S.S.W. of Nashville. 

Bode’s Law of the Distances. (Astron.) This 
law, as it is termed, expresses a very curious relation 
among the distances of the several planets of our solar 
system from the sun; and of the satellites from their 
primaries, it is wholly empirical, i. e., we know no 
physical origin or cause for it; nevertheless, and notwith¬ 
standing the existence of exceptions or irregularities, it 
assuredly does point to some conditioned arrangement 
in our system. — I. With regard to the planets and the 
sun, the law may be presented as follows: Write the 
names of the planets in a line aud under each place the 
number 4. Beneath the 4 under Mercury place 0; be¬ 
neath the 4 under Venus write 3; beneath the 4 under 
the Earth write twice 3; beneath the 4 under Mars four 
times 3; then eight times 3, aud so on. Add their sev¬ 
eral columns as below: 

Mer. Yen. Earth. Mare. Ast. Jup. Sat. Uran. .Yep. 

444444444 
0 3 6 12 24 48 96 192 384 

4 7 10 16 28 52 100 196 388 

3-9 7-3 10 15-2 27-4 52 95-4 192 300 

The numbers in the lower line are the actual distances 
of the planets from the sun,on the scale that theearth’s 
distance is 10. The general conformity is too great to 
result from accident. The existence of the Asteroids at 
distance' 27 - 4 was predicted by Olbers, through con¬ 
sideration of Bode’s Law, because of the gap between 
Mars and Jupiter. The grand breach of the Law is in 
the case of Neptune, a breach which might be explained 
if we knew the cause or physical origin of the Law it¬ 
self. II. A principle of order quite corresponding, al¬ 
though in its indices somewhat different, may be traced 












S7G 


BODY 


BGEOT 


BOGE 


In the only two groups of satellites with which we are 
yet tully acquainted. First, with regard to the satellites 
of Jupiter. The constant number here is 7; the num¬ 
ber to he multiplied, 4; and the multiplier, 2%. Notice 
the-correspondence as below; the Roman letters indicate 
the satellites: 

I II III IV 

7 7 7 7 

0 4 10 25 

1 11 17 32~ 

Truedist. 6.9 11 17-5 31 

Secondly, as to the satellites of Saturn. The constant 
number in this case is 4, and the other parts of the series 
Tery simple, viz.: — 

I II III IV V VI VII VIII 

444 444 4 4 

0 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 

i 5 6 8 12 20 36 68 

Truedist. 4 5-1 62 7-9 11*1 25-7 33 74 

There is considerable irregularity in case of the last 
three satellites; but is it not some compensation, 
that the lately discovered satellite, Hyperion or the 
Seventh, might have been suspected to exist as well as 
the Asteroids, because of the gap between the sixth and 
eighth as indicated by this Law ?—Of the satellites of 
Uranus it would be premature at present to conclude 
anything. 

Bodice, Boddice, (bod'dis,)n. Something worn round 
the body or waist; specifically, a woman’s corset or stays. 

“ Her bodice half-way she unlac'd."—Prior. 

— v. a. To lace or fasten a bodice, or stays. 

" Bound her little waist was, 

Comfortably boddiced."—Thackeray. 

Bo'die, or Bo'die’s BlufT, in California, a mining 
village of Mono co., 9 m. W. of Aurora, Nevada. 
Bodied, ( bod’id ,) a. Having a body; as, a full-bodied 
wine. 

Bod'iless. a. Having no body ; incorporeal. 

44 They bodiless and immaterial are.”— Davies. 
Bod'iliness, n. State of having a body; corporeality. 
Bod'ily, a. Corporeal; real; actual; containing a body. 
14 A spirit void of all sensible qualities and bodily dimensions." 

South. 

—Relating, or pertaining to the body, as apart from the 
mind. 

44 Virtuo atones for bodily defects. ’— L"Estrange. 

— adv. In tho form of a body; corporeally; entirely. 

44 It is his human nature, in which tho godhead dwells bodily." 

Watts. 

Bo'dinesville, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Ly¬ 
coming co. 

Boding, p. a. Foreshowing; presaging. 

44 Well had the boding tremblers learned to trace 

ThcAlay's Jisasters in his morning face." — Goldsmith. 
Bod'ing, n. An omen; prognostic; prevision. 
Bod'ingly, adv. In a boding, or ominous manner. 
Bod'kin,«. [ Scot, brod, prov. Eng. brode, a sharp-pointed 
instrument, and term.Am; Icel. brodde, from bryddi, to 
sharpen; Dan. brod.] Originally’, a dagger; whence, a 
small, sharp-pointed instrument of steel, bone, Sic., used 
for piercing holes. 

44 Each of them had bodkins in their hands, wherewith con¬ 
tinually they pricked him.” — Sir P. Sidney. 

•—A kind of needle used to draw a ribbon, cord, Sic. through 
a loop. 

44 Or plung’d in lakes of hitter washes lie, 

Or wedg'd whole ages in a bodkin's eye." — Pope. 

>—A rich kind of cloth. See Baudkin. 

(Printing.) A sharp instrument employed for picking 
out letters when making corrections in typo. 

Bo'die, n. A Scotticism for a penny Scots; a coin worth 
about an English farthing. 

Bodlei'an (or Bodleyan) Library, the celebrated 
library of the University of Oxford, was founded by Sir 
Thomas Bodley, an eminent diplomatist of the days of 
Queen Elizabeth, in 1G10. It was completed in 1613, and 
enlarged in 1G34. It contains upwards of 400,000 vols. 
of printed books, and 22,000 vols. of MSS. 

Bod'min, a borough of England, co. Cornwall, 25 m. 
W. by N. of Plymouth. It is an ancient.town and has 
been partially rebuilt. Manf. Shoes. 

Bod'y, n. [A. S. hr dig; 0. Ger. botah; Gael, bodhaig, the 
body.] The frame or material substance of an animal, 
dead or living; as contradistinguished from the spirit. 

“ And her soul saw a glimpse of happiness through the chinks 
of her sickness-broken body." — Puller. 

—The trunk of an animal; main stem of a tree; principal 
part of any matter or collective mass, in distinction 
from the members, branches, and connecting parts; as, 
the body of a speech; the body of an army; the body of 

a coach, &c. 

“‘Rivers that run up into the body d Italy. i * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 44 — Addison. 

—A person; a human being; whence somebody and nobody. 

44 A demd, damp, moist, unpleasant body." — Dickens. 

—Any collective mass; joint power; general system; as, 
a body of laws. 

A corporation; an organized company of individuals 
united for some common purpose; as, a legislative body. 

‘Nothing was more common, than to hear that reverend body 

charged with what is inconsistent.” — Swift . 

( Geom .) A term synonymous with solid: thus we say, 
the five regular bodies, or five regular solids. A body 
has three dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness; 
and it is either hard, soft, or elastic. 

( Phy.) A term applied to any portion of matter of 
which the existence can he perceived by any of our senses. 

According to the Peripatetics, body is composed of mat¬ 


ter, form, and privation. In modern physics, body is re¬ 
garded as an agglomeration of material particles. Ac¬ 
cording to the different forms in which matter exists, 
bodies may be solid, liquid, or gaseous. 

(Painting.) A thick consistency of color; body-color. 
—Strength; substance; reality; governing quality; as, 
port-wine of a good body. 

— v.a. To give a body to; to produce in some form; to in¬ 
carnate; to embody; (followed by forth.) 

44 As imagination bodies forth 
The form of things unknown, the poet's pen 
Turns them to shape. * — Shaks. 

Bo«ly Camp, in Virginia, a post-office of Bedford co. 
Bod'y-clotlies, n. pi. Clothing for man or horse. 
(Specifically applied in tho latter sense.) 

“ I am informed that several asses are kept in body-clothes, and 
sweated every morning upon the heath.” — Addison. 
Bod'y-coat, n. A gentleman’s dress-coat. 

Body Colors, n.pl. (Paint.) Pigments employed in- 
executing heraldic paintings and illuminated work, in 
which the color is required to he laid on in such a man¬ 
ner that it may form a thick uniform coating over the 
paper or vellum on which the outline is traced, utterly 
devoid of transparency. * Body-colors for these purposes 
are generally sold in the form of powder, and require to 
be mixed witli a little gum-water. They can be made, 
however, by the mixture of any simple water-color with 
flake-white or Chinese white; thus, ttie hera4dic azure 
is obtained by mixing ultramarine or cobalt-blue with 
either of these pigments. Body-colors prepared in this 
manner are used by painters to produce brilliant effects 
in water-color drawings, and form high lights, such as 
thosiPreflected from armor, which cannot be obtained so 
clearly by putting on the coloring shade by shade, or by 
wiping out with rag or chamois-leather. 
Bod'y-guard, n. Tho guard that protects or defends 
the person; as, the king’s body-guard. 

I Body of the Place, n. (Fortif.) See Enceinte. 
Body-plan, n. (Naval Arch.) A drawing in sectional 
parts, showing the fore and after parts of a vessel. 
Bod'y-pol'itic, n. The collective body of a people un¬ 
der a civil government. 

Bod'y -snatcher, n. One who surreptitiously disin¬ 
ters a human body in a church-yard, for tho purpose of 
dissection; sometimeslcalled a resurrectionist. 
Bod'y-ssiatching, n. The act of despoiling a grave 
1 of its tenant for the purpose of dissection. 

Boeee, Hector, (or Boethius,) (bo-e’the-us,) a Scottish 
historian, u. at Dundee, about 14G5. Ho was educated at 
Aberdeen and tho University of Paris, held the chair of 
Philosophy at the latter, and was afterwards principal 
of King’s College, Aberdeen. Ho was a correspondent 
of Erasmus. Ho wrote a History of Scotland, in Latin, 
which appeared in 1526, and obtained him a pension 
from the king; and Lives of the Bishops of Aberdeen. 
The history is praised more for its style than for its mat¬ 
ter, the author sharing in the credulity of his ago. D. 
about 1536. 

Boehmeria, (be(r)-mee,r'i-a,) n. (Bot ) A genus of plants, 
i order Urticucecc. From several species valuable fibres 
> are obtained. B. frute.scens, or puya, a plant growing 

t wild in Nepaul and Sikkim, is the source of the cele- 

1 brated Pooah fibre, which rivals the best European flax 
for tenacity. This species attains the height of six or 
eight feet; but the stem is usually very slender. It is 
rut down for use when tho seed is formed; the bark is 
i then peeled off, dried, boiled with wood-ashes, and beaten 
with tinallets, to separate its component fibres. B. 
speciosa, tho wild rhea, also yields a very strong fibre, 
which is much used in the East. B. nivea, the Tchou 
Ma of tho Chinese, is now known to yield the fibre used 
. in the manufacture of the beautiful fabric calledChinese- 
3 grasscloth. The most important species. B. nivea or 
! tenacissima, will be examined under its common name, 
Ramie. 

i Boeotia, (be-o'shah,)a. region of anc. Greece, now form- 
r ing the N. part of the nomarchie of Attica and Boeotia, 
7 between Lat. 38° 9' and 35° 44' N., Lon. 22° 53' and 23° 
1 49' E.; shape triangular, having N.W. Phocis, N. the 

Opuntian Locris, N.E. the channels of Talanda and 
Egripo, and S. Attica and tho Corinthian Gulf; length, 
E. to W. about 42 m.; greatest breadth 27 m. Its 
3 mountains, the most celebrated of which is Zagora (anc. 

Helicon), mostly surround or divide it into two principal 
3 basins, those of the Cephisus and Thebes. Its chief 
rivers are the Gayrios (Cephisus) and theAsopo (Asopus). 
It contains three lakes, one of which, Topolias, is the 
g largest in Greece. It is a high but well-watered region; 

and as many of the streams find their way, and the lakes 
1 their outlets, to the 6ea only by means of subterraneous 
j courses, marshes abound; and the atmosphere is damp, 
foggy, oppressive, and unhealthy in some places, as at 
f Livadia, where intermittent fevers are prevalent. B. is, 
however, fertile, and well cultivated, especially with 
wheat, rice, madder, cotton, maize, hemp, and tobacco. 
The lake Topolias still produces the reeds anciently so 
'• celebrated for the construction of rustic flutes, and 
Boeotian pipers are still in high repute. Most of the 
i, cottages are built of these reeds. Many spots in B. 

present striking scenery. It forms two governments or 
s eparchies, those of Thebes (Thiva), and Livadia, which 
'• are its two principal towns. — In antiquity, the inhabi- 
y tants of B. were noted for their natural dulness and 
stupidity, even to a proverb (Boiotiaus); yet it will be 
•, found that no single province in Greece, save Attica, 
y could furnish a list of poets and other writers in which 
; are included sucii names as Hesiod, Corinna, I’indar, and 
Plutarch. 

f Boeotian, (he-o'shan.) n. A nativo of, or one who in- 
i. habits, Boeotia. 

!- — a. Pertaining, or relating to Boeotia, or to its inhabi¬ 


tants ; hence the proverbial deduction, — stupid, obtuse, 
rude. — See Bceotia. 

Boerhaave, Hermann, (boor’hav,) the great physician,, 
was b. near Leyden, 1668. He was educated at the Uni¬ 
versity of Leyden, and was destined by his father for the- 
church; but at the age of 22 he applied himself to the- 
study of medicine under Drelincourt. He began lectur¬ 
ing in 1701. and was, eight years later, appointed Profes¬ 
sor of Medicine and Botany. The chairs of Practical 
Medicine and Chemistry were afterwards assigned to 
him, and he filled them with the greatest distinction. 
He became rector of tho University, and was admitted 
to the French Academy of Sciences, and, in 1730, to tho 
Royal Society of London. He enjoyed a reputation 
almost unparalleled ; his system was generally adopted, 
and patients went, or wrote, to him from ail ports of Eu¬ 
rope. Ills character was without a stain, and tho es¬ 
teem of his fellow-townsmen was strikingly shown on 
his recovery from a 6erious illness, in 1723, by a general 
illumination. His fame rests principally on his Jnstitu- 
tiones Medicce, published in 1708. translated into ail Eu¬ 
ropean languages and into Arabic, and commented on by 
Haller; and his Aphorismi de Cognoscendii el Curand.il 
Morbis, also translated by Vanlwwieten. D. 1738. 

Boers, [Dut. boer, a countryman.] The descendants of 
the Dutch colonists of S. Africa. In 1880-81 they made 
themselves conspicuous by their successful resistance to 
British domination. In 1899-1902 they conducted a vig¬ 
orous war against Great Britain, in a desperate effort 
to preserve their independence, which the British 
government threatened to overthrow. At first they 
were successful in the field, but being attacked by 
overwhelming forces their armies dispersed, and a. 
guerilla warfare succeeded. They surrendered May 30, 
1902, under favorable terms of peace, agreeing to be¬ 
come subjects of Great Britain. See South African 
Republic. 

Boethius, Anicius Manlius Torquatcs Severinus,(6*- 
e'the-us.) a Roman philosopher, whose virtues, services, 
honors, and.tragical end, all combine to render his name 
memorable, was born a. d. 470; he studied at Rome and 
Athens; was profoundly learned, and filled the highest 
offices under the government of Theodoric the Goth. 
He was three times consul, and was long the oracle of 
his sovereign and the idol of the people; but his strict 
integrity and inflexible justice raised him up enemies in 
those who loved extortion and oppression, and he at 
last fell a victim to their machinations. He was falsely 
accused of a treasonable correspondence with the court 
of Constantinople, and after a long and rigorous confine¬ 
ment at Pavia, was executed in 524. His Consolations 
of Philosophy, written in prison, abounds in the loftiest 
sentiments, clothed in the most fascinating language. 
This treatise was one of the most widely-read books in 
the Middle Ages, and has been translated into many 
languages. Alfred the Great translated it into English. 

Boettcher, or Bottger, (but'ker,) Adolph, a German 
poet, b. at Leipzig, 1815, was educated there, and, in 1836, 
entered its university, where he devoted himself to philo¬ 
logical pursuits, particularly in the modern languages, 
and to the study of the German and English poets. Among 
his numerous poetical productions, his translations of 
the English poets occupy a conspicuous place. In addi¬ 
tion to the works of Shakspeare and Byron, he has 
translated the poems of Goldsmith (1843), of Pope (1842), 
of Milton (1846), and of Ossian (1847). Among this 
author’s general works are, Agnes Bemautr, a drama 
(1845); Songs of Midsummer (1847); On the Watch- 
Tower (1847); A Tale of Spring (1849); Till Eulen- 
spiegel (1850); The Pilgrimage of the Flower-Spirits 
(1851); and Shadows (1856). He also published a col¬ 
lection of smaller lyrics. Died in 1870. 

Bcettiger, Karl Wilhelm, (bnot'e-zher,) Professor of 
Literature and History in the University of Erlangen, 
born at Bautzen, Aug. 15, 1790, studied successfully at 
Weimar, Gotha, and Leipzig, where he applied himself 
particularly to history, in order to attend Heeren’s 
lectures, and have tho benefit of tho library there, ha 
resided a year (1815-16) in Gottingen, and, in 1817, qual¬ 
ified himself for a professorship in the University of 
Leipzig, to which ho was appointed in 1S19. In 1821 ho 
accepted a call to Erlangen, where, in 1822, ho was ap¬ 
pointed to tho second place in the library of the Univer¬ 
sity. His mostimportant historical works are, Universal 
History (1849); German History ( 1838); History of Ba¬ 
varia under its Old aml New Constitution (1837) \ History 
of Germany and the Germans (1845); Abridged History 
of the Electoral State and Kingdom of Saxony, for Hee- 
ren and'Ukerts’s European History; and Universal History 
in Biography. Died Nov. 26,1862. 

Boeuf Bayou, in Arkansas and Louisiana, takes rise 
in the former State, and traversing Louisiana, falls into 
the Washita River,10 m. from Harrisonburg. 

Bog, n. [Gael., W.,and Ir. bog, soft, penetrable; A. S. 
bugan, to bend, to givoway; 0. Ger. bingan, to bend; 
Ar. bawgha, soft earth.] Soft ground which bends or 
yields to pressure; a quagmire; a marsh; a morass; as, 
tho Bog of Allen. 

44 He walks upon boys and whirlpools ; wheresoever he treads 
he sinks." — Shaks. 

—A term confined to the U. States, specifying an elevated 
hillock of earth found here and there in swamps, &c. 

— 1 >. a. To plunge or flounder, as in mud or mire. 

Bog'-earth, n. (Min.) The name given to a collection 
of peat earth and vegetation, or to an accumulation of 
peaty soil under the influence of rain or of running 
waters. The soil thus collected is composed principally 
of silica and vegetable fibre. On the continent of 
Europe, B. is worked for peat under the names of lager 
vem and hoog veen, the lower or the higher peat, accord¬ 
ing as the mass may occur with reepect to the water-line 










BOGU 


BOHE 


BOID 


377 


of the country; the hoog veen is usually considered to 
be the more valuable of the two, on account of the 
smaller quantity of water it contains. Many human 
remains and relics of animals have been discovered in 
bogs, which possess a strange antiseptic power. 

Bo'gey, Bogy, Bo's le, Boggle, n. [Scot, bogle, 
spectre; W . bwgan, a hobgoblin.] A spectre; a hob¬ 
goblin ; i ghost; an apparition; a bugbear. 

•* biles glow’ring round wi’ prudent cares. 

Lest bogles catch him unawares.” — Burns , 

4 *I am Bogey , and I frighten everybody away.” — Thackeray . 

Bog'gle, (bog'l,) v. i. [From Boc,.] To stop or stick like 
one in a bog ; to stop, as if afraid, unable, or unwilling 
to proceed; to hesitate, waver, doubt, or dissemble. 

••Nature, that rude, and in her first essay. 

Stood boggling at the roughness of the way,** — Dry den, 

— v. a. Used in the U. States in the sense of to confound 
or confuse with embarrassments, trials, or difficulties. 

Bog'gler, n. One who boggles, or makes a difficulty. 

** You have been a boggier ever.” — Shake. 

Bog: drove, in Illinois, a township of Kendall co. 

Boggs, in Pennsylvania , a flourishing township of 
Centre co. 

—A towuship of Clearfield co. 

Boggs'town, in Indiana, a post-office of Shelby co. 

Boggs'viile, in W. Virginia, a post-office of Roane co. 

Bog'gy, a. Containing bogs; full of bogs. 

Rog'gy Depot, in Indian Territory, a post-office of 
the Choctaw Nation. 

Bog'liead-coal, n. (Min.) A highly bituminous 
variety of the Parrot or Canuel coal of Scotland, from 
the higher part of the Scotch coal-field worked at Bog¬ 
head, in Lanarkshire. — The bituminous varieties of 
cannel pass into bituminous shale by insensible grada¬ 
tions, so that it is impossible to draw a line of separa¬ 
tion which shall properly limit the use of the term coal. 
The B. is one of those substances much more valuable 
for gas-making and for the oils and paraffin obtained 
from it on slow distillation, than for fuel in the ordinary 
sense of the word. Dr. Andrew Fife found a picked 
specimen to yield in analysis, 70 per cent, of volatile 
matter and 30 per cent, of ash.— See Bituminous Shale ; 
Cannel Coal. 

Bog: Iron-ore, ft. (Min.) A hydrous oxide of iron, 
common in flat marshy localities. It is of variable com¬ 
position, containing from 20 to 70 per cent, of peroxide 
of iron ; the protoxides of iron and manganese are often 
present, and sometimes as much as 10 per cent, of phos¬ 
phoric acid and organic matter. Large quantities of the 
skeletons of Infusoria (Gaillonella ferruginea) have been 
found by Ehrenberg, in the B.- ores of Prussia, the Ural 
mountains, and New York State. The infusoria of this 
ore are stated by the same authority to be only one- 
thousandth of an inch in diameter, or half that of a 
human hair; consequently, a cubic line would contain 

l, 000,000,000 of ' hese minute organisms —See Lake Ore. 

Bog'land, a. Belonging to a boggy country; as, 

“ bogland captive.” — Dryden. 

Bo'gle, Bog'gle, n. See Bogey. 

Boglipoor, in Hindostan. See Bhaugulpore. 

Bog-nianganeH(‘, n. (Min.) See Wad. 

Bog'nor, a maritime town and sea-bathing resold: of 
England, co. Sussex, 56 m. S.W. by W. of London; pop. 
about 3,000. 

Bogod'oukliof, or Bogoduchow, a town of European 
Russia, govt. Kharkov, on the Meric, 60 m. N.E. of Pul- 
towa; Lat. 50° 2' N., Lon. 35° 50' E. Man/. Leather 
and shoes. Pop. 11,660. 

Bo g'-ores, n. pi. (Min.) See Limonite. 

Bogorotlitsk', a town of Russia in Europe, govt. Tula, 
at the confluence of the Lesnoi-Oupert and the Viarkova, 
40 m. S.S.E. of Tula. There is an imperial castle here. 
Agricultural produce forms the chief trade. Pop. 4.954. 

Bogota', (formerly Santa Fi de Bogota,) acity and cap. 
of the republic of Colombia, on an elevated plateau at 
the foot of Mt. Cliingasa, 8,958 feet above sea level, 225 

m. E. ot the Pacific Ocean, and 50 E. of the river Magda¬ 
lena; Lat. 4° 35' N., Lon. 74° 10' W. The first appear¬ 
ance of the town from the N.W. is very imposing; being 
built on rising ground, it forms a sort of amphitheatre, 
and the white towers of the cathedral and the monas¬ 
teries of Montserrat and Guadalupe are seen seated on 
lofty peaks behind it. Nearly half the city is occupied 
by religious structures, which, however, are unattrac¬ 
tive in appearance. The streets are narrow, but regular, 
and the houses are built low, on account of the frequency 
of earthquakes. B. contains the palace of the former 
Spanish viceroys of New Granada, and a university, col¬ 
leges, schools, and a public library. The market is well 
and cheaply supplied with provisions, but all European 
and American goods are extravagantly dear. The city 
is badly lighted and undrained, and there are no vehicles 
of any description to be seen. B. was founded by the 
Spaniards, in 1538, and in 1548 created a city and the 
seat of a royal audiencia. Pop., in 1897, about 100,000. 

Bogota , (Rio De,) a large river ot S. America, rising 
near the city of Santa F6, and running through a nar¬ 
row glen of 40 m. long, forms the cataract of Tequen- 
dama, 900 feet high. 

Bog'-rush, n. (Bot.) See Scikenus. 

Sog’'-spaviu, n. (Farriery.) An encysted tumor in 
the inside of a horse’s hough. 

Bog'-trottei - n. A dweller among bogs. (Formerly 
applied, as a n.-me of contempt, to the Irish turf-cutters.) 

Bog'-trotting, a. Living among bogs. 

Bogue, in N. Carolina, a vill. of Columbus co. 

Bogue Cliit'to, in Mississippi, a P. 0. of Lincoln co. _ 

Bogue Homo (bog ho'mo) Creek, in Mississippi, 
emptying into Loat river, in Perry co. 


Bo'gUS, a. Anything counterfeit; spurious; not genu¬ 
ine. (American.) 

Bogwango'la, an inland town of Hindostan, pres. 
Bengal, 8 m. N.E. of Moorsliedabad; Lat. 24° 21' N., 
Lon. 88° 29' E. It is built entirely of bamboo, mats, and 
thatch, but possesses a considerable trade in grain. 

Bog - wort, n. (Bot.) See Vaccinium. 

Boliain. (bo-ang',) a town of France, dep. Aisne, 16 m. 
N.N.E. of St. Quentin. Man/. German clocks, shawls, 
and gauzes. Pop. 5,556. 

Bohea, (bo-he 1 ,) n. [From a mountain in China called 
Vou-y or Voo-y. ] (Com.) A sort of coarse or low-priced 
black tea from China, including Souchong, Pekoe, and 
Congou. 

Bohe mia, (Kingdom of,) [Ger. Bohmen; Boh. Czech,] 
an inland country, occupying the centre of Europe, and 
forming an important division of the Austrian empire, 
between Lat. 48° 33' and 51° 3' N., and Lon. 12° 5' and 
16° 46'E.; having N.E. Prussian Silesia, N. and N.W. 
Saxony, S.W. Bavaria, and S. and S.E. the arch-duchy of 
Austria and Moravia. In shape it is an irregular rnom- 
boid; its greatest length E. and W. 200 m.; and breadth, 
N. to S., 170 m. Area. 20,285 sq. m.—Desc. B. is a basin 
surrounded on every side by mountain ranges, which in 
some parts rise to upwards of 5,000 ft. in height. The 
principal of these chains are the Fiehtelgebirge, Erz¬ 
gebirge, (highest point, the Schwarzwald, about 4,000 
ft.,) Mittelgebirge, Riesengebirge, and Sudetengebirge, 
the loftiest elevation of which, the Snow Cap, is from 
5,200 to 5,400 feet high. The S.W. border is formed by 
the Bblimerwald, or Bohemian Forest mountains, which 
are wild and precipitous, and contrast remarkably with 
the Moravian chain in the S.E., which is of gentle as¬ 
cent, and separates the affluents of the Elbe from those 
of the Danube. B. is drained by the Elbe, and its afflu¬ 
ents the Moldau, Adler, Iser, Eger, Ac.— Min. Coal, iron, 
and occasionally silver, are found. The mineral springs of 
Toplitz, Carlsbad, and Seidlitz, have a European reputa¬ 
tion.— Clim. Healthy, and, generally, inclining to cold. 
Soil and Agric. Very fertile, producing the cereals, hops, 
and flax and hemp, which latter articles form the staple 
industry of the country. Agriculture is, however, gen¬ 
erally in a backward state. The forests are extensive, 
and yield annually above 2,000,000 cubic fathoms of 
wood.— Man/. Linens, yarns, lace, woollens, paper, glass, 
beet-root sugar, metals, &c. Owing to the want of capi¬ 
tal, many of the great landed proprietors were obliged to 
engage in manufactures. Thus, Prince Kinsky, and 
Counts Ilarrach and Boucquoy, were the greatest glass 
manufacturers; Prince Auersperg manufactured sulphur, 
vitriol, and colors; Count Urbna and Prince Windisch- 
gratz, tin-plates; Count Thun, porcelain; Prince Lob- 
kowitz, earthenware; Prince Wallenstein, beet-root su¬ 
gar, Sic. — lnhab. About % of the inhabitants are Czechs 
of Slavonic origin; the remainder are Germans and 
Jews. The German population is more industrious, en¬ 
terprising, and intelligent, than the Slavonic. Both 
German and Bohemian are spoken by all classes of so¬ 
ciety. The people are handsome, gay, fond of music 
and dancing, and generally of more attractive manners 
than their Saxon neighbors. There is absolutely no 
middle class, and with the exception of Prague, there 
are no great towns, as foci, whence intelligence and 
civilization are diffused over a country. The Bohemian 
character is, for morality, quite on a par with other 
countries. — Religion. Roman Catholic, but entire tolera¬ 
tion prevails. Education is well diffused, and a native 
literature is springing up. — Govt. B. is governed by an 
Austrian viceroy, and the country has its own repre¬ 
sentative dietB. Pop., 1900,6,318,000. Cap., Prague. B. is 
more densely populated than any other part of the Aus¬ 
trian empire.— Hist. After innumerable mutations, B., 
with Hungary and Transylvania, fell, in 1526, under the 
dominion of Ferdinand of Austria, brother of Charles 
V., who had married the sister and heiress of Louis, King 
of Bohemia and Hungary, killed at the battle of Mohacz. 
B. was at this period in the enjoyment of a comparatively 
free constitution, and three-fourths of the people were 
attached to the reformed faith. The attempts of the 
Austrian sovereigns to undermine the free institutions of 
the country, provoked a desperate contest, which contin¬ 
ued till 1620, when the Austrian troops totally defeated 
the Bohemians at the battle of Weissenberg, near Prague. 
The persecution which followed has seldom or never 
been surpassed for atrocity. Many of the best and no¬ 
blest Bohemian citizens lost their lives on the scaffold, 
and thousands were exiled, and had their estates confis¬ 
cated. The free constitution of the country was anni¬ 
hilated; the Protestant religion all but extirpated; and 
such was the combined influence of massacre and exile, 
that in 1637, the pop. did not exceed 780,000. Subse¬ 
quently, German emigration into this country received 
the sanction of the government, and in the reigns of 
Maria Theresa and Joseph II. a new era began: and the 
milder and more liberal system of government which 
they introduced has since been followed up. B. was, in 
1867, the theatre of the brief but decisive war between 
Austria and Prussia. See Bon. 

Bolie'mia, in I Visconsin, a village of La Crosse co. 

Bolie'niia Creek, in Maryland, emptying into Elk 
river. 

Bolie'mia Mills, in Maryland, a village of Cecil co. 

Bolie'mian, a. Belonging, or relating to, Bohemia. 

Bohe'mian, n. A native or inhabitant of Bohemia. 

— (pi.) The name generally given in France to the Zingari, 
or Gipsies, from their supposed advent into that country 
from Bohemia. 

—A term often applied to a struggling and obscure lite¬ 
rary man, artist, Ac.— Also, (in a lower sense,) to one 
who wanders about without any ostensible means of 
livelihood; analogous to the American loafer. 


Bohemian Brethren. See Moravian Brethren. 

Bohemond, or Boenioml, (bo'he-mond,) first sov¬ 
ereign of Antioch, was son of Robert Guiscard, and 
distinguished himself in the first crusade, in 1096. He 
besieged and took Antioch, of which he was made Prince 
by tlie Crusaders, and established there a little kingdom, 
which existed nearly 200 years. Besieged by the Sara¬ 
cens, he completely defeated them; but was soon after 
captured, and remained their prisoner two years. He 
subsequently visited Europe, married a daughter of the 
King of France, and got the emperor to acknowledge 
his title. Died in Italy, 1111. — Six princes of his name 
succeeded him in the sovereignty of Antioch, the last, 
B. VII., being dethroned in 1288. 

Boliermeen', a village of Ireland, co. Meath, 5 m. 
AV.N.W. of Navan. 

Bo'tioe, a parish of Ireland, co. Fermanagh. 

Boho'la, a parish of Ireland, co. Mayo. 

Bo'lioii, in Kentucky, a post-office of Mercer co. 

Bo'llun Upas, n. (Bot.) A variety of the Upas. 

Boi'ar, n. [Russ, bbjarin ] A title of distinction in 
Russia, &c. —See Boyar. 

Boiardo, Matteo Maria, (bo-yar'do,) Count of Scan- 
diano, and Governor of Reggio; author of Orlando In- 
namorato, one of the most celebrated poems in Italian 
literature, the first of a new class,—the romantic epic,— 
and the model of Ariosto’s greater sequel, “ Orlando 
Furioso.” The poem was recast by Berni. Boiardo waa 
author of several other poems in Italian and Latin, and 
made some translations from the Greek and Latin clas¬ 
sics. B. 1430; D. 1494. 

Boi'arin, n. [Russ.] A person of mark and distinction. 
See Boiar. 

Bo'idte, n. pi. (Zobl.) A family of large serpents, in¬ 
cluding the genera Boa and Python. Of all the reptiles 
that exist, none equal the B. in size and power: some 
of them being occasionally met with from 30 to 35 feet 
in length, and of a strength 60 prodigious as to be able 
to destroy deer, oxen, and other large and powerful ani¬ 
mals, by enveloping them in their ample folds, crushing 
them to death, lubricating their bodies with their saliva, 
and swallowing them at their leisure. In this tribe 
the branches of the upper and lower jaw, throughout the 
whole length, as well as the palate bones, are armed 
with pointed, recurved, solid,and permanent teeth, form¬ 
ing four nearly equal rows above, and two below. They 
have the tympanic bone or pedicle of the lower jaw 
movable, which is itself almost wholly suspended to 
another bone, analogous to the mastoid, and attached to 
the skull by muscles and ligaments, which contribute to 
its mobility. The branches of this jaw are not united, and 
those of the upper jaw are attached to the intermax¬ 
illary bone only by ligament#, so that these animals 
can dilate the mouth sufficiently to swallow bodies much 
larger than themselves. They are further distinguished 
by having the scuta on the other part of the tail, single; 
a hook on each side of the vent; the tail prehensile ; the 
body compressed, and largest in the middle, and with 
small scales, at least on the posterior part of the head. 
Enormous as the size and power of such animals must 
be, according to the latest and best authenticated state¬ 
ments of eye-witnesses, yet, if we may rely on the ac¬ 
counts of ancient writers, there was a time when ser¬ 
pents far more terrific committed their hideous ravages 
and kept whole armies in dismay. One of this kind is 
described as having had its lair on the banks of the 
Bagradas, near Utica, and to have swallowed many of 
the Roman soldiers in the army of Regulus, to have 
killed others in its folds, and to have kept the army from 
the river; till at length, being invulnerable by ordi¬ 
nary weapons, it was destroyed by heavy 6tones slung 
from the military engines used in sieges; but, according 
to the historian Livy (quoted by Valerius Maximus), 
the waters were polluted with its gore, and the air with 
the steams from its corrupted carcass, to such a degree 
that the Romans were obliged to remove their camp, 
taking with them, however, the 6kin, 120 feet in length, 
which was sent to Rome. That none of such frightful 
dimensions now infest the inhabited parts of the earth 
we have abundant evidence; and there is good reason to 
believe, that, as cultivation and population have increas¬ 
ed, the larger species of noxious animals have been ex¬ 
pelled from the haunts of mankind, and driven into 
more distant and uncultivated regions. Some species of 
the genus Boa are found in the vast marshes and swamps 
of Guiana, and other hot parts of the American conti¬ 
nent; others are natives of India, Africa, and the larger 
Indian islands. They are at once pre-eminent from their 
superior size and their beautiful colors; and though des¬ 
titute of fangs and venom, nature has endowed them 
with a degree of muscular power which seems to defy 
resistance. The ground-color of the whole animal, in 
the younger specimens, is a yellowish gray, and some¬ 
times even a bright yellow, on which is disposed along 
the whole length of the back a series of large chain¬ 
like reddish-brown variegations, leaving large open oval 
spaces of the ground-color at regular intervals; the 
largest or principal marks composing the chain-like pat¬ 
tern above mentioned are of a squarish form, accom¬ 
panied by large triangular and other shaped spots, the 
exterior of the larger ones being generally of a much 
darker cast, and the ground-color immediately next to 
them considerably lighter than on other parts, thus con¬ 
stituting a general richness not easily described. We 
cannot reflect upon the history of these great reptiles 
without being struck with their peculiar adaptation to 
the situations in which they are commonly most abun¬ 
dant. In regions bordering on great rivers, which annu¬ 
ally inundate vast tracks of country, these serpents live, 
securely among the trees with which the soil is covered, 
and are capable of enduring very protracted hunger. 







STS 


BOIL 


BOIL 


BOIL 


without muchapparent suffering, or diminution of vigor.] 
Noxious as such districts are to human life, they teem 
with a gigantic aud luxuriant vegetation, and are the 
favorite hauuts of numerous animals, preyed upon, 
and, to a certain degree, restricted in their increase, by 
the box. In such situations the lloa Constrictor lurks, 
or winds itself round the trunk or brandies of a tree, 
until some luckless animal approaches; then, suddenly 
relinquishing his position, swift as lightning, he seizes 
the victim, aud coils his body spirally around his throat 
and chest, until, after a few ineffectual cries and strug¬ 
gles, the animal is suffocated and expires. The prey is 
then prepared for being swallowed, which the creature 
i accomplishes by pushing the limbs into the most con- 
j venient position, and then covering the surface with a 
glutinous saliva. The reptile commences the act of deglu¬ 
tition by taking the muzzle of the prey into its mouth, 
which is capable of vast extension; and, by a succession 
i of wonderful muscular contractions, the rest of the body 
is gradually drawn in, with a steady and regular motion. 
The Boa canina is a beautiful snake, about 4 feet in 
length, with a large head shaped like that of a dog. Its 
general color is a bright Saxon green, with transverse 
white bars down the back, the edges of which are of a 
deeper green than the ground-color of the body; the 
belly is white. This species belongs to S. America, 



mm 


Fig. 380. — HEAD OF BOA CANINA. 

Boieldieu, Franjois Adrien, ( bu>nild'yu(r ,> a French 
musical composer, b. 1775; author of numerous well- 
known operas: Le Calife de Bagdad, Jeande Paris, &c.; 
La Dame Blanche is, however, esteemed his chef d’aeuvre. 
His style is characterized by a sweet and natural melody, 
much imaginative gayety, and simple but pleasing accom¬ 
paniments. B. was a member of the Institute. D. 1835. 

Boi'i, (Hist.) a nation of ancient Gaul, which made 
various emigrations into Italy and Germany. The dis¬ 
trict whence they originally came is not ascertained, but 
it would appear that they were near the Lingones and 
theHelvetii. They are mentioned as forming part of the 
first Gaulish emigration recorded by Livy, Justinus, and 
others, which set off in quest of new lands, and under 
two chiefs, Bellovesus and Segovesus, both nephews of 
Amb'igatus, king of the Bituriges. Bellovesus went 
over the Alps into Italy, while Segovesus crossed the 
Khine into Germany, and penetrated to the skirts of the 
great Hercynian Forest. The Boii would appear to have 
followed Segovesus, and to have settled in the heart of 
Germany, in the country called after them Bniohemum 
(Bohemia), from which they were afterwards driven 
away by the Marcomanni, a German nation, and with¬ 
drew south of the Danubius, to the banks of the CEnus 
(Inn). The Boii are mentioned also as having emi¬ 
grated into Italy, together with the Lingones and other 
tribes, by passing over the Pennine or Helvetic Alps. 
The Boii were often engaged in war with Home, and they 
•obtained at times advantages over the Roman arms, but 
they were finally subjugated by Scipio Nasica, and part 
of their lands was taken from them. As they still con¬ 
tinued restless, they were altogether removed by the 
Romans and sent across the Noric Alps, when they set¬ 
tled on the banks of the Dravus, near the Scordisci. 
Having afterwards engaged in wars with the Get®, they 
were almost entirely destroyed; and we find in Pliny 
(in. 24) a vast tract between the Dravus and the Danu¬ 
bius called “Deserta Boiorum.” We find the Boii en¬ 
gaged in the Helvetian emigration into Gaul in the 
time of Csesar. Whether these were from some part of 
their tribe which had remained in Gaul, or whether they 
•came back from Germany into Helvetia, is not known. 
The Boii, from Bohemia, who had settled on the banks 
of the CEnus, became subject to the Roman empire, and 
formed part of the province of Vindelicia. During the 
decline of the empire they were exposed to the irrup¬ 
tions of the Marcomanni, the Thuringii, and othertribes 
who occupied their country, which afterwards took the 
name of Boioaria, or Boiaria. 

Boil, v. i. [Fr. bouillir ; I,at. bullio, from bulla, a bubble.] 
To swell, heave, or be agitated by the action of heat, as 
a liquid; to bubble; to rise in bubbles from the surface; 
as, the water boil :. 

“ He saw there boil the fiery whirlpools.” — Chapman. 

—To be disturbed or agitated by other causes than heat; 
to effervesce; to move like boiling water. 
u Then headlong shoots beneath the dashing tide, 

The trembling fins the boiling waves divide." — Gay. 

—To be hot, ardent, or fervid; as, it makes my blood boil. 

" That strength with which my boiling youth was fraught, 
When in the vale of Balafor I fought.” — Drydcn. 

—To be cooked by boiling; to suffer boiling heat in a liquid. 

11 Fillet of a fenny snake. 

In the cauldron boil and bake.” — Shaks. 

To boil over. To bnblileover the edge of a vessel by vio¬ 
lent effervescence of heat. 

To boil away. To cause to evaporate by continued 
boiling. 

•—v. a. (imp. B0H.ED, ppr. boiling.) To heat to a boiling 
state ; as, to boil water. 

But if you boil them in water, the new seeds will sprout sooner.” 

Bacon. 


| —To prepare or form by boiling and evaporation; as, to 

boil preserves. 

—To dress or cook in boiling water; to seethe; as, to boil 
a piece of beef. 

” In eggs boiled and roasted,. ,. there is scarce any difference 
to be discerned.” — Bacon. 

Boil, n. [Ger. beule; A. S. bile, byl; Icel. bnla, a bubble, 
a pustule.] (Med.) A tumor of the skin and the adjacent 
cellular tissue, professionally called Purunculus. This 
painful disease is a circumscribed, hard, inflammatory 
swelling, of a deep red color from the beginning, exceed¬ 
ingly painful, and almost always terminating, after a 
tedious process, in suppuration. A boil generally com¬ 
mences with a small red pimple, uncommonly tender and 
angry-looking, which, after a time, enlarges, having a 
white point, and a broad, hard, well-defined base spread¬ 
ing under the skin. As the swelling advances, the point 
or apex sinks, till the whole assumes the form of a flat, 
elevated cake, with a puckered centre. The suppura¬ 
tion is always slow, and never perfect, for the discharge, 
or pus, is tinged or mixed with blood and fibres of the 
cellular tissue. — Causes. Boils nearly always arise from 
constitutional causes, and are, in reality, efforts of na¬ 
ture to throw off, or relieve the body of, some impurity, 
that, retained in the system, would he prejudicial to 
health; hence they have been popularly called healthy, 
as after them the system usually feels lighter and bet¬ 
ter. Boils generally occur in full-bodied, free-living per¬ 
sons, in robust health and the prime of life, though they 
occasionally take place in weak, emaciated individuals. 
The parts most liable to boils are the neck, between the 
shoulders, the fleshy part of the arm and the hip, or 
upper part of the thigh, rendering the sitting posture 
almost impossible.— Treatment. They all take their rise 
in some disordered state of the digestive organs; and 
hence it is necessary that the bowels be at first freely 
opened, and then regulated by gentle unirritating laxa¬ 
tives. The diet should be plain and eimple, and stimu¬ 
lants ought to be avoided. In delicate constitutions, a 
course of sarsaparilla will be found of great use. In 
dealing with the boil itself, suppuration is to be hast¬ 
ened and perfected by means of linseed-meal poultices; 
and as soon as the prominent part oi the swelling be¬ 
comes soft, a free opening should be made into it with a 
lancet, and as much matter as can be pressed out of it by 
tolerably firm pressure should be removed, together 
with the core; or the poultices should be continued 
until the core is drawn out, when the wound will 
speedily heal. 

Roil'ary, n. (Salt Manuf.) A place in salt-works where 
the salt is boiled. 

Boileau-Despr€aux, (bwaw'lo-doupr«-o',) Nicolas, 
a French poet aud satirist, b. 1636. His father was one 
of the registrars of the Parliament of Paris. B. was 
educated at the College d’Harcourt (afterwards College 
Royal de St. Louis), and early showed a talent for verse, 
which his family in every way discouraged. For a while 
he studied law, and became a lawyer; next, he turned 
to theology, and obtained a benefice, which he held 
until his father's death, from which event he derived a 
small independence, and thenceforward gave the reins 
to his poetic fancy. His earliest poetical attempts were 
in satire, by which he nullified a prediction made by his 
father, who, when comparing the genius of each of his 
three sons, used to say, “ that as for Colin, he would 
never speak ill of anybody.” But the seven Satires 
which B. published in 1666, with a preliminary address 
to the king (a formula not to be omitted by any author 
who courted popular notice), were playful and sportive, 
not rabid and virulent; they showed, as he used to ob¬ 
serve of himself, neither fang nor talon. They excited 
considerable attention among the lettered circles of the 
capital, by a terseness of language and a polish of versi¬ 
fication to which the public ear had not heretofore been 
accustomed. Nevertheless, they evince intimate ac¬ 
quaintance with his Roman predecessors, and an accu¬ 
rate estimate of the demerits of his own contemporaries, 
rather than any vein of originality or auy intrinsic 
poetical superiority. The number was increased from 
time to time till they amounted to twelve. Of these, the 
tenth, on Women, perhaps cost most elaboration ; but 
to us it appears to possess neither the deep-marked in¬ 
dignation with which the censor of Aquinum lias lashed 
the vices of the sex, nor the light and airy grace with 
which the bard of Twickenham has touched their foi¬ 
bles. These were followed by the Art of Poetry, and, 
in 1674, his Lutrin appeared, — to our apprehension, 
B.’s best work. The general admiration of his poems 
led to his introduction at court, where he read some 
cantos of the Lutrin to Louis XIV., who granted him 
a pension of 2,000 livres (about $500 per annum), and 
the royal privilege to print his works. He was at the 
same time appointed joint historiographer with his 
friend and fellow-poet Racine. Besides the latter, Mo- 
liere and La Fontaine were among his most intimate 
friends. In the ecclesiastical disputes of his day, B. 
sided with the Jansenists. His latter years were passed 
in retirement. He refused to listen to those who would 
praise his verses. “I prefer,” he said, “being read to 
being praised.” B. was a man of real benevolence. 
Hearing that Corneille’s pension was withdrawn, he in¬ 
stantly tendered the resignation of his own, saying, 
that, were Corneille’s cancelled, he could not receive 
one without a feeling of shame. B. died in 1711. A 
large number of persons attended his funeral. “ What 
a number of friends he had,” said a woman in the crowd 
to Louis Racine, “andyet this is the man said to have 
spoken ill of all the world!” B. is one of that scanty 
number of poets who have left behind them 

“ No line which, dying, they would wish to blot.” 

Pope is sometimes called the English Boileau. 


] Boiled, ( boild ,) p. a. Dressed or cooked by boiling; 
subjected to the action of boiling heat or liquor. 

Boil'er, n. A person who boils. 

*' That notable practice of the boilers of saltpetre." — Boyle. 

(Mech.) A vessel in which water is boiled for the 
purpose of raising steam for the machinery of a factory; 
or a closed vase of wrought iron, or copper, in which 
water is vaporized, and employed in the gaseous form 
to impress movement upon steam-engines or other 
machines. In this case the effect of the machine is de¬ 
pendent upon the conversion of the water into vapor, 
and this power is the only one used. The B . must then 
satisfy certain conditions which are of the highest in¬ 
terest. Thus, as the motive power of the engine de¬ 
pends upon the excess of the pressure of the steam in 
the B., it is necessary that the latter should be of suffi¬ 
cient strength to resist it; and as the heat applied is 
always more or less costly, it is important that the fire¬ 
place should be constructed so as to employ the whole 
of it. The danger of allowing the B. to sink so low as 
to let the metal come in contact with cold water ad¬ 
mitted suddenly, must also be carefully guarded against, 
aud this necessity gives rise to many contrivances of a 
complicated nature. The parts of a B., ordinarily, are : 
the furnace, consisting of th e fire-bars, the ash-pit. and 
the bridge; the if., properly speaking, with its steam- 
chest, nnd pipe, and its safety-valves; the apparatus for 
ascertaining the level of the water and its pressure in 
the B., which consists in the steam-gauges, and the 
pressure-gauge or manometer ; the float and tubes; and 
the chimney. Eacli of these parts has a separate use, 
and it requires a special adaptation to the class of engine 
under consideration ; for the purposes of ordinary com¬ 
merce, some of the parts may bo omitted, but they must 
all be present in steam-engines, and must be modified 
according to whether the B. is intended to work at 
high or low pressure. Many varieties have been pro¬ 
posed in the manner of heating the water contained in 
the B., and as the heat developed in the furnace acts 
more by the extent of the surface to which it is applied 
than by its intensity, every form has been recommended 
for this purpose in its turn ; but, after all, it seems that 
local considerations are of more weight in deciding the 
kind of furnace than any abstract ones, and the style 
which might suit at one place would not suit at another. 
The principal forms of furnaces are referred to in 
other parts of this work, and the same remark may 
be extended to the other details; because there are 
no universal principles regulating their construction, 
which would admit of being laid down authoritatively. 
B. are known by names indicatine shape, as: Cylindri¬ 
cal, Hay-stack, Kettle, Spherical, Wagon; or posh ion as; 
Horizontal, Portable, Stationary, Upright, or Vertical; 
or use, as: Locomotive, Marine; or construction, as; 
Flue, Return-flue, Tubular, Water tube, Drop tube, Set - 
tional, Flathers. Internal fire, Two-slack, Turn over. 
Superheaters. The principal causes of the too frequent 
explosion of B. will be examined under Incrustations. — 
For heating water for the purpose of warming build¬ 
ings, the boilers are very frequently made of copper, or 
of cast-iron, when the quantity of water to be heated 
is small, or of wrought-iron when it is greater; the 
latter material is, however, so generally used that it is 
alone worthy of notice. 

Boil'er-plate, n. (Metal.) The description of wrought- 
iron which is wrought expressly for the purpose of boil¬ 
er-making, though by common error it is made to apply 
to the plates which are used for ship-building, bridges, 
or girders; all of which are now said to be constructed 
in boiler-plates. The average resistance of boiler-plates 
is taken at about 20 tons on the square inch, and the 
safe weight to which it may be loaded is usually taken 
at 5 tons on the square inch; the effect of riveting upon 
the structure is considered to be equivalent to a reduc¬ 
tion of strength corresponding to that of the area occu¬ 
pied by the rivets. The Board of Trade, in England, 
require that the strength of wrought-iron structures 
should be at least equal to the above quantity of 5 tons 
per square inch. 

IloilVry, n. (Salt Manuf.) See Boilary. 

Roil'iiijg, p. a. Bubbling; heaving in bubbles; being 
agitated; as, boiling liquor. — Dressing or preparing for 
some purpose by hot water.—Swelling with heat, ardor, 
or passion; as, to boil witli rage. 

— n. Actor state of boiling or swelling by heat; ebullition. 

Boil'ingly, adv. With boiling. 

Boil'ing'-point, n. (Chem.) A liquid is said to boil 
when it is made to assume a constant state of ebullition 
by the formation of bubbles of its vapor by means of 
heat. The boiling-points of liquids differ according to 
their chemical constitution; in many instances, in di¬ 
rect ratio to the differences in their composition. The 
boiling-point of the same liquid may vary under dif¬ 
ferent circumstances; such as the pressure on its sur¬ 
face, the amount of attraction exerted by the vessel con¬ 
taining it, or by salts held by it in solution. Boiling, or 
the emission of steam in bubbles, consists in the forma¬ 
tion of a vapor of equal elasticity to that of the atmo¬ 
sphere, which exerts its pressure on the surface of the 
liquid. It therefore follows, that any lessening or in¬ 
creasing of the pressure of the air is accompanied by a 
corresponding depression or elevation of the boiling- 
point. This fact is made evident by the familiar experi¬ 
ment of placing warm water under the receiver of an 
air-pump, when, on exhausting the air, ebullition takes 
place, from the diminished pressu-e Liquids, in general, 
boil from 60° to 140° lower than their ordinary boiling- 
point when heated in vacuo. This property is made use 
of in the manufacture of certain medicinal preparations, 
the properties of which would be destroyed by exposure 
to a temperature of 212°. Advantage has been taken of 







BOIS 


BOKH 


BOLA 


379 


this property of fluids in the measurement of heights. 
M. Saussure found that on the summit of Mont Blanc, 
which is nearly 3 miles above the level of the sea, water 
boiled at 185° Fahr.; and M. Wisse observed the boiling- 
point of water to be 185° Fahr. on Mount Pechincha, 
while the barometer stood at 17 inches. From these 
tacts it has been calculated that for every difference in 
height of 596 feet, a variation of 1° Fahr. in the boiling- 
point is produced. It has also been ascertained that a 
variation of one-tenth of an inch in the barometer pro¬ 
duces a difference of more than a twentieth of a degree 
Fahr. in the boiling-point. The contrary property of 
increase of pressure causing elevation of the boiling- 
point, is evident from the above considerations. Pepin's 
digester is an example of this. By confining water in an 
air-tight vessel, it may be heated to a temperature only 
limited by the strength of the vessel. This property is 
taken advantage of in the preparation of gelatine from 
bones, which are heated to a temperature much higher 
than 212° Fahr. By this means the gelatine is easily 
separated from the earthy matter, although the bones 
might be boiled for hours at 212° Fahr. without any such 
effect taking place. The attraction of a fluid for the sur¬ 
face of the vessel in which it is boiled has agreat influence 
on the boiling-point. Water boils at 212° in a metallic ves¬ 
sel, in a glass vessel at 214°, while in a vessel varnished 
inside with shell-lac, the heat may be raised to 220° with¬ 
out ebullition taking place. The influence of salts held in 
solution is very marked. A saturated solution of chlo¬ 
rate of potash, i. e., containing 61'5 per cent, of the salt, 
boils at 220° Fahr.; a saturated solution of chloride of 
calcium, containing 325 per cent, of the salt, boils at 355° 
Fahr.; while a saturated solution of acetate of potash, 
containing 798 per cent, of the salt, boils at 336° Fahr. 
It will be seen from these examples that the quantity 
of salt contained in the liquid does not directly influence 
the boiling-point. From the experiments of Kopp and 
others, it lias been discovered that an exact ratio ex¬ 
ists between the chemical constitution of certain liquids 
and their boiling-points at the same pressure. Thus 
methylic, ethylic, propylic, and butylic alcohols differ 
from each other by an increment of ColI 2 . and their 
boiling-points differ by an increment of 31'4° Fahr. An¬ 
other example of this is shown in the hydrocarbons 
benzole, toluole, xylole, and cumole, the difference in 
their composition being C 2 H 2 , while the difference of 
their boiling-points is 41° Fahr. The same relation runs 
through the acids, ethers, aldehydes, and salts of these 
bodies. — See Ebullition. 

Boiling Spring's, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of 
Cumberland co., 25 m. W. of Harrisburg. 

Boils'ton. in iV. Carolina, a post-office of Henderson co. 

Boipera-Velha. ( bo-e-pa'r a-vail'ya ,) a town of Brazil, 
prov. of Bahia, 65 m. S.W. of Bahia. 

Bois Blanc Island, ( bwa-blong ',) situate on Lake 
Huron, 10 m. S.E. of Mackinaw. It is about 10 m. in 
length, by 3 in breadth, and has a light-house; Lat. 45° 
45' N., Lon. 84° 55' W. 

Bols d‘Arc, (bwa-dark J ,) in Ark. atwp. of Hempstead co. 

Bois d" Arc, Corrupted into Bodock. See Osage Orange. 

Bo is d’Arc, in Missouri, a village of Green co., 130 m. 
S.W of Jefferson City. 

Bois d’Arc Creeli, in Texas, flows through Ellis co., 
E into Trinity River. 

Boise (bivah'sa), in Idaho, a S.W. county, watered by the 
Fayette river and other streams. Surface, mountainous 
and heavily wooded. Gold mining is the leading indus¬ 
try Cap., Idaho City Pop. (1890), 3,350. 

Boise Basin, in Idaho, a mining region, situate 
near the Boise river, contains some of the richest gold 
placet's in the State. Idaho City, Pioneer City and 
Placerville are included within its limits. 

Boise City, a flourishing town, capital of Idaho, and 
the couuty seat of Ada co., on the Boise river, 30 m. W. 
S. W. of Idaho City, and 370 from Carson City, Nevada. 
Lat 43° 34' N., Lon. about 116 W. Boise City now com¬ 
mands much of the trade of the miners on the W slope 
of the Rocky Mountains. Pop. (1890), 2,311. 

BolS-le-Duc, or Hertogenbosch, ( bicaw-la(r)-donk ,) a 
fortified town of Holland, cap. prov. N. Brabant, 28 m. 
S.S.E. of Utrecht. The town is 5 m. in circumference, 
and is defended by a citadel and two forts. It is a well- 
built, handsome place, possessing fine public buildings, 
and manuf. of linen, thread, cutlery, glass, Ac. Pop. 
25,850 B. was founded, in 1184, by Godfrey III.. Duke 
of Brabant. In 1629 it was taken by the Dutch, after a 
lengthened siege. It was held by the French, from 1794 
to 1814, when it surrendered to the Prussians, who re¬ 
stored it to Holland. 

Boissy d'Anglas, Francois Antoine de, (bwois-se- 
dawng'gla,) a French statesman, b. 1756. In 1792, he 
was elected by the department of Ardeche a member of 
the Convention, in which assembly he distinguished him¬ 
self by his moderation, powers of application, and by his 
heroic firmness He was president on the 1st Prairial 
(1795), when the mob, invading the Assembly, wished 
to force the Convention to establish the reign of terror. 
Boissy was insulted and menaced; and to terrify him, 
the head of representative Feraud, who had just been be¬ 
headed before his eyes, was shown to him. He uncovered 
himself, and saluted this relic of his unfortunate col¬ 
league, then, resuming his seat, remained unmoved in 
that scene of disorder and anarchy He took a part in 
all the affairs of his country during the Republic and the 
Empire, and, at the Restoration, was made a peer. D. 1826. 

•Bots'terous, a [Swed. and Goth, baesta, to knock; 
Du. byster ; Dan. bister, furious, raging; W. bwyst, wild, 
savage.] Loud; roaring; raging; turbulent; stormy; 
as, a boisterous sea. 

•‘And with a boist'rou* sound 

flfttcr ills leaves, and strew them on the ground.”— Waller. 

23 


—Violent; noisy; rough ; as, a boisterous iaugh. 

“ Lucia, I like uot that loud boisterous man."— Addison. 

—Excessive; extreme; impetuous; forcible, (r.) 

Bois'terously, adv. In a boisterous manner. 

" A sceptre, suatch’d with an unruly hand. 

Must be as boisterously maintain'd as gain'd."— Shake. 

Bois'terousness, n. State or quality of being bois¬ 
terous or turbulent. 

Boist'fort, in Washington, a post-village of Lewis co, 
10 m. SAV. of Clanuato. 

Bo'jador, (Cape,) a celebrated promontory of the W. 
coast of Africa, Desert of Sahara; Lat. 26° 7' 10" N., 
Lon. 14° 29' 5" W. This headland forms the W. extremity 
of a rocky ridge called the Geb-eL-khal, or Black Moun¬ 
tains. It was long the limit of navigation towards the 
S„ and was first passed by the Portuguese in 1433. 

Bojano, (bofa-iio,) a town of S. Italy, 13 m. S.W. of 
Campobasso, on the Biferno, in a deep gorge at the foot 
of the mountain-peak of Matese. The site of B. has 
been identified as that of the famous Samnite city of 
Bovianum, which played so conspicuous a part in the 
Samnite, Puuic, and Social wars. Unsuccessfully be¬ 
sieged by the Homans in 314 B. c., it was taken by them 
in 311, and yielded immense spoils. Passing out of their 
hands, it was retaken by them in 305 B. c.; and once 
more reverting to its original owners, was a third time 
captured by the Romans, in 298 B. c. During the second 
Punic War, it formed the head-quarters of the Roman 
army on more than one occasion; and in the great Social 
War, the confederates, on the fall of Corfinium, made it 
their capital and the seat of their general council. Sur¬ 
prised by Sulla, it was retaken by the Marsic general, 
Pompaedius Silo. Actual pop. 5,773. 

Bo'ker, George Henry, an American poet and dramatic 
writer, B. at Philadelphia, 1824. He graduated at Nas¬ 
sau Hall, Princeton, and, in 1847, published The Lesson 
of Life and other Poems, and, in 1848, Calaynos, a tragedy. 
The latter met with a favorable reception, and in the 
following year was brought out at Sadlers’ Wells Theatre, 
London. He afterwards produced Anne Boleyn, and other 
stage-pieces, all of which proved successful. B. is also 
the author of War Lyrics. In 1871, he was nominated 
U. S. Minister to Turkey, and, in IsTo, succeeded Mr. 
Jewell as American envoy at St. Petersburgh. Francesca 
da Rimini, is considered as his best production. D. 1890. 

Boke’s Creek, in Ohio, a township of Logan co. 

—A post-office of Union co. 

Bokha'ra, or Uzbekistan, a country of Central Asia, 
comprising considerable portions of the anc. Sogdiana 
or IVansoriana, and Bactria, forming the most power¬ 
ful state of what is named by the moderns Independent 
Tartary, or Turkestan. It lies between the 36th and 
41st degrees of N. Lat., and the 63d and 70th degrees of 
E. Lon., having N. the Desert and the Khanat of Kho- 
kan; E. the mountainous regions of Hissar and Koon- 
dooz; S. Cabul; and W. the Khanat of Khiva or Kha- 
rasm. Area, about 235,000 sq. m. Desc. B. is moun¬ 
tainous only on the E., where its mountains are northern 
spurs from the Hindoo Coosh, and on the S. where they 
seem to belong to the Ghoor range. The plain region 
which comprises all the rest of the country is nothing 
but a sandy desert with a few oases stretching for a few 
miles on either side the banks of rivers, in which are 
planted the chief cities and towns; and which constitute 
the only cultivable lands, and are densely peopled. The 
rivers are the Jihon or Amoo ( Oxus), Kohik, Kurshee, 
Zourhab, and Balkh. The lake Denghiz, or “ the sea," 
60 m. S.S.W. of Bokhara, is 25 m. long, salt, and very 
deep. Clim. Very hot in the summer; equally cold in 
winter. Alin. Gold, and sal-ammoniac. Veget. Fruits; 
but little timber, and few important plants. Zool. Wild 
hogs, asses, bears, wolves, and varieties of the smaller 
feline species; eagles and waterfowl are plentiful; other 



Pig. 381. — B0KHARIAN LADIES TRAVELLING. 


game, scarce; fish, abundant. Inhab. Usbecks, Tadjiks, 
Kalmucks, Turcomans, Arabs, Zinguenes (gipsies), Ac. 
Prod. Agriculture forms the staple industryof thecoun- 
try; cereals, as wheat, rye, &c., being extensively culti¬ 
vated, and also rice, maize, moong, melons, beans, Ac.; cat¬ 
tle and horses are found in great numbers. AII the traffic 
is, however, carried on by dromedaries and camels. Manf. 
Silk-stuffs, cutlery, fire-arms, jewelry, Ac. B. is the 


centre of an extensive commerce carried on with India, 
Russia, Ac. Govt. Despotic. Army. A regular force ex¬ 
ists of about 20,000 horse and 4.U00 foot, but without 
discipline; there is, besides, a militia of 50,000 horse. 
Religion and Educ. The people are all Soonite Moham¬ 
medans, intolerant, and believers in magic and astrol¬ 
ogy. Education is at a standstill. Chief tmvns. Bok¬ 
hara, Samarcand. Balkh. Pip. estimated at 2,000,000. 
Hist. This country was conquered by the Saracens about 
710 a. d. It was overrun by Jenghis Khan in 1219; by 
Timour, in 1361; and by tiie Usbeck Tartars in 1505, 
under whose sway it has since remained. Two English 
officers, sent on a mission to the Khan, in 1843, were 
murdered by him; their fate was ascertained by the 
celebrated traveller, Dr. Wolff, who, in 1843, made a 
journey to Bokhara, was imprisoned there, but subse¬ 
quently released, and who has written perhaps the most 
authoritative work extant on this country. In 1865, 
war broke out between B. and Russia, in which the latter 
was victorious. A new war between the Ameer of B. 
and the Russians began in May, 1868. In the early part 
of that month, the Ameer, deceived by the apparent 
weakness of the Russian garrisons on the frontier, 
formed a strong coalition with other and neighboring 
rulers, and declared war. Russia, however, speedily 
massing against the allies a great torce, utterly defeated 
them in a battle near Samarcand, and took possession 
of the latter city. They (the Russians) then advanced 
toward the city of B., but were routed by the enemy, 
who then proceeded to gain re-possession of Samarcand, 
which they succeeded in doing, with the exception of 
the citadel, which held out until reinforced by the Rus¬ 
sians, who finally held the place, and declared it an 
annexation to Russia. In July, a treaty of peace was 
effected, by which the Ameet ceded Samarcand, and au¬ 
thorized the Russians to build cantonments within the 
Khanat. Towards the end of the year, the Russians 
aided the Ameer in putting down a rebellion headed by 
his son and other chiefs, who sought to have the treaty 
rescinded. The Khan of Bokhara, though nominally 
independent, is in reality subject to Russia. 

Bokhara, (“ the treasury of sciences,”) a celebrated city and 
cap. of the above Khanat and seat of the Khan, 130 m. 
IV.S.W. of Samarcand, and 250N.W.of Balkh; Lat. 39° 
48' N., Lon. 64° 26' E. The town is 8 m. in circumfer¬ 
ence, is walled and fortified, and when seen from a dis¬ 
tance, embosomed in trees as it is, it presents a charm 
of appearance that vanishes upon a closer survey. The 
streets are so narrow that a laden camel fills up even the 
widest; the houses are small, clay-built, and one-storied; 
canals intersect it; and everywhere are seen mosques, 
minarets, colleges, bazaars, and fruit-stalls. The in¬ 
habitants are passionately fond of tea, ices and fruits, 
which is almost the only noticeable thing to be said 
about them. Baths are numerous, and the police is an 
efficient institution. Pop. estim. at 160,000.—Interesting 
particulars of B. are found in Burnes’s Travels in Bok¬ 
hara; KhanikofTs Meisen in Bukhara; Vambery’s 
Travels in Asia (1865); Schuyler’s Turkistan (1876) 

Bolabo'la. Bonabo'na. or Borabo'ra, one of the So¬ 
ciety Islands, about 200 m. N.W. of Tahiti; Lat. 16° 32' 
S., Lon. 151° 52' W. It is about 24 m. round, and has a 
pop. of about 2,000. 

Bo'lan Pass, a remarkable and dangerous defile in W 
Asia, traversing the province of Sarawan, in the N.E, 
corner of Beloochistan. The pass gradually ascends 
from the plain a length of 55 m., rising in its progress 
at the rate of 90 feet every mile, till it reaches the sum¬ 
mit, which is 5,793 feet above the level of the sea. It it 



Fig. 382.— the bolan pass. (Doozan defile.) 


in many places walled in by stupendous rocks, where a 
few hundred resolute men might hold the passage 
against an army. A small stream flows down the pass, 
which, after any fall of rain, swells suddenly into a re¬ 
sistless river. The pass was formerly, before its occu¬ 
pancy by the British in 1877, infested by bands of law¬ 
less Belooches. See Beloochistan. 


























380 


BOLE 


BOLI 


BOLI 


Bola'nos. a town of Mexico, prov. Jalisco, 65m. N.N.W. 
of Guadalaxara, remarkable for the rich silver mines in 
its vicinity; pop. about 1,500. 

Bo'lary, a. Belonging, relating to, or consisting of, bole 
or clay. 

“A weak and inanimate kind of loadstone . . • chiefly consisting 
of a bolary and clammy substance.” — Browne. 

Bol'bec, a town of France, dep. Seine Inferieure, on a 
river of the same name, 18 ni. E.N.E. of Havre. This 
is a handsome thriving town, and in it and the neighbor¬ 
ing country are employed about 20,000 people in cotton¬ 
spinning, producing goods of an annual valuation of 
$5,0o0,000. It has also tanneries and dye-works. Pim. 
10,531. 

Boi'dlOW, or Bolk'hov, a town and circ. of Russia in 
Europe, prov. Orel, at the confluence of the Bolchowka 
with the Ntigra. JUanf. Leather, soap, and hosiery. 
Pop. about 20,000. 

Bold, a. [A. S. bald, beald; 0. Ger. bald, strenuous; 
Goth, baltha, bold ; Sansk. bala, strength.] Strenuous; 
daring: courageous; dauntless; intrepid; brave; fear¬ 
less ; as, Charles the Bold. 

11 But a bold peasantry, their country’s pride. 

When once destroyed, cau never be supplied.” — Goldsmith. 

—Planned with courage ; executed with spirit and vigor; 
as, a bold undertaking. 

“ These nervous, bold ; those, languid and remiss. 1 — Roscommon. 

—In a depreciative sense, audacious; over-confident ; im¬ 
pudent; wanting modesty or restraint; as, “This bold, 
bad man.” Shaks. — Exceeding the usual limits, as in 
invention or composition; overstepping the latitude of 
anything: presuming too much on forbearance, Ac.; as, 
a bold handwriting; a bold request. 

44 The figures are bold even to temerity." — Cowley. 

—Striking to the sight; standing out prominently to the 
view; conspicuous; as, a bold outline. 

•' Used . . as shadows in painting, to make the figure bolder, 
and cause it to stand off to sight." — Dryden. 

—Steep and abrupt; prominent; as, a boll headland. 

•* Her dominions have bold, accessible coasts.” — Bowell. 

To make bold. To take a freedom with; to venture to 
use a liberty. 

11 Making so bold , 

My fears forgetting manners." — Shaks. 

Bold'en, V. a. To make bold; to embolden; to give 
confidence. 

41 t am much too vent’rous 
In tempting of jour patience, but am bolden’d 
Uuder your promis’d pardon." — Sliaks. 

Bol'derberg’ Beds, n. (fieol.) A typical group of 
tertiary sands and gravels occurring in the Bolderberg 
hill, about 40 m. from Brussels. 

Bold'-faee, n. Impudence; sauciness; a term used in a 
reprehensory sense; as, “ How now, bold-face ? ” — L’Estr. 

(Printing.) Type having a heavier and broader out¬ 
line than common type. 

Bold'-faced, a. Impudent; over-bold. 

“ I have seen enough to confute all the bold faced atheists of 
this age." — Bramhall. 

Boldly, adv. In a bold or venturesome manner; with 
spirit or confidence. 

"I speak to subjects, and a subject speaks, 

Stirr’dup by heav’n, thus boldly for his ting." — Shaks. 

—Impudently; obtrusively; saucily. 

Bold'ness, n. Quality of being bold; courage; intre¬ 
pidity; bravery; confident trust; assurance; impudence. 

14 Boldness is the power to speak or do what we intend before 
others, without fear or disorder.” — Locke. 

Bold Spring, in Georgia, a post-office of Franklin co. 

Bole, ( ool.) [Swed. and Goth, bol, the trunk of a tree; 
W. bola, the belly, the rotundity of the body.] That 
which is rounded or rises out in a round form; specifi¬ 
cally, the body or stem of a tree. 

44 View well this tree, the queen of all the grove: 

How vast her bole, how wide her arms are spread, 

How high above the rest she shoots her head.” — Dryden. 

—A measure of quantity. See Boli.. 

Bole, n. [Gr. Ijolos, a mass.] (Min) An earthy argilla¬ 
ceous mineral chiefly consisting of hydrated bisilicate of 
alumina, reddened by peroxide of iron; as is the case in 
Armenian bole, which is used in tooth-powder, and as a 
coloring material. It is found in Saxony, Silesia, Bohe¬ 
mia, Sicily, &c. 

Bolecliow, (bo-le'kov,) a town of Austrian Galicia, 14 
m. S. of Stry. Pop. 2,500. 

Bolec'tion-mouldiii-rs, n.pi. (Joinery.) Mouldings 
projecting beyond the surface of the framing. 

Bole of Blois, n. (Min.) A yellow kind of bole, which 
contains carbonate of lime, and effervesces with acids. 

Bolero, (bo-lair'o,) n. [Sp.] (Pastimes.) A national 
dance of Spain and Spanish America, usually accompa¬ 
nied with the castanets, and the cithern (guitar), and 
sometimes with the voice. The dance is intended to 
represent a love story, commencing with coyness and 
diffidence, and gradually rising to the expression of pas¬ 
sionate ecstasy. It is in the time of a minuet, and has a 
marked and singular rhythm. 

44 And when beneath the evening star, 

She miugles in the gay Bolero , 

Or sings to her attuned guitar 

Of Christian knight or Moorish hero." — Byron. 

Boies, in Missouri, a post-office of Franklin co. 

Boleslas, (bo-les’la.) the name of five kings of Poland, 
who reigned at different periods etween 992 and 1279. 

Bole'tic, a. (Chem.) Belonging, or relating, to the Bo¬ 
letus, q. v. 

Boletic Acid, n. (Chem.) An acid contained in the 
juice of the Boletus pseudo-igmarius. 

Bole'tus, n. (Bot.) A gen. of Fungi, of the ord. Hymen- 
omycetes, which may be distinguished from Agaricus 
by the absence of giils, the under-side of the cap or pile- 


us being covered by a porous layer composed of innu¬ 
merable short tubes united together. Some of the spe¬ 
cies are edible, though they are all set down as mere 
toad-stools by the 
mushroom - gather¬ 
ers of this country. 

B. edulis, the Ceps 
ordinaire, of the 
French markets, is 
much used through¬ 
out the European 
continent. It grows 
in woody situations, 
and attains a con¬ 
siderable size, the 
cap being usually 
six or seven inches 
across. The color 
of the cap ranges 
from light brown 
to brownish black, 
while that of the 

layer of tubes be- JYa. 383. — boletus edulis. 
neath is at first 

white, then yellow, and finally yellowish-green. The 
stem is thick, solid, and beautifully reticulated. To 
prepare the fungus for the table, the layer of tubes, the 
skin, and the stem, must be thrown away, for nothing 
but the firm and delicate flesh of the cap is to be eaten. 
This may be either eaten raw with salt and pepper, or 
cooked like a common mushroom. 

Boleyn, Anne, (bool'en.) wife of Henry VIII., king of 
England, and mother of Queen Elizabeth, was the daugh¬ 
ter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, of llever Castle, in Keut, 
where she was born, in 1607. On her return from France, 
where she spent her youth in the service of the French 
queen, she was attached to the household of Catherine 
of Aragon as one of her maids of honor; it was in this 
capacity that she first encountered the notice of the 
voluptuary Henry, who, if ho lmd not before thought 
of the divorce, hastened it on after this interview with 
all the expedition lie was able to command; but, unable 
to wait for all the legal formalities, he married her pri¬ 
vately, publishing the fact some months alter, and when 
the divorce was officially promulgated. About a year 
after her coronation as queen of England, and little more 
than 15 months from the birth of her child — the future 
Queen Elizabeth—she was accused of criminal conver¬ 
sation with some of the gentlemen of her train, brought 
to trial, found guilty, and, that Henry might the sooner 
marry the third object of his sensual passion, beheaded 
a tew days alter in front of the Tower, 1536, her husband 
watching impatiently on the highest turret of Windsor 
Castle for the signal that proclaimed the fall of the axe. 

Bo'li, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in Natolia, cap. of a sand- 
jak, 85 m. N.W. of Angora; Lat. 40° 35' N., Lon. 31° 19' 
E. It stands on the site of the Roman Hadriunopolis. 

Bo'lijree, in Alabama, a village of Greene co. 

Bol I liil O. a seaport of the island of Luzon in tlieEastern 
Archipelago, N. Lat. 16° 20', E. Lon. 119° 50'. 

Beliiias, in California, a post-village and township of 
Marion county, situated 10 miles west of San 
RafaeL 

Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, Viscount, (bol’ing- 
brook,) a celebrated English statesman and political 
writer, b. 1678. He became secretary of war in 1704; re¬ 
signed in 1707; but, in 1710, be was again one of the min¬ 
istry. For the next four years he assisted in governing 
the country, and, by the inglorious treaty of Utrecht, in 
April, 1713, brought the war with France to a close. In 
1712 he was created Viscount Bolingbroke; and, in 1714, 
Queen Anne died. This was a fatal blow to Bolingbroke, 
who had quarrelled with his old friend Harley, the Earl 
of Oxford, and been commissioned to form a new cabi¬ 
net. The death of the queen disarranged all his mea¬ 
sures, and, in the following year, he was compelled to 
make his escape to France, in disguise, to evade the ven¬ 
geance of his euemies. On the accession of George I., 
he was impeached, by Walpole, at the bar of the House 
of Lords, and, not appearing to take bis trial, be was 
attainted by Act of Parliament. Meanwhile he had 
entered the service of Charles Stuart, the Pretender, 
who appointed him his prime minister, but who, after 
liis return from Scotland, dismissed him. In 1723 he 
was permitted to return to England, but he was not re¬ 
admitted to the House of Lords. This excited his ani¬ 
mosity, and he began to write against the ministry with 
considerable effect, and finally succeeded in overthrow¬ 
ing Sir Robert Walpole. In 1736 he once more withdrew 
to France, where he resided until the death of his father, 
which event enabled him to take possession of the fam¬ 
ily estates at Battersea. Here he passed the remainder 
of his days, employing his pen upon other subjects be¬ 
sides such as had political tendencies. His works are 
now little read, notwithstanding the many charms which 
his style possesses. D. 1751. 

Bo'lington, in Virginia, a post-office of Loudoun co. 

Bo'lis, n. [Lat.] (Astron.) A fire-ball, or meteor. 

Bol'ivar, Simon, (named El Libertador, from his having 
rescued Cent. S. America from the Spanish yoke,) was b. 
at Caracas, 1783. He descended from a noble and wealthy 
family, received his university education at Madrid, 
travelled extensively on the European continent, mar¬ 
ried, and returned to S. America, where, shortly after 
bis arrival, his wife died, when he once more visited 
Europe, and did not return till the following year, when 
he dedicated himself to the freedom of tiis country, and, 
at Venezuela, entered upon his military career as a 
colonel in the service of the newly founded republic. 
In June, 1810, we find him in London, endeavoring to 
induce the British cabinet to assist the independent 



party against the Royalists, and in the following yea* 
he was acting as governor of Puerto Cabello, the strong¬ 
est fortress of Venezuela. He was now fairly committed 
to tiie revolutionary cause, serving uuder General Mi¬ 
randa, whom he afterwards accused as a traitor, and who 
subsequently died in a dungeon in Spain. The war 
continued to rage, and after many reverses and changes, 
he gradually won his way to that goal for which he 
had heroically and disinterestedly fought. At length, 
in 1821, the independent troops were successful in the 
battle of Carabobo, where the Royalists lost upwards ot 
6,000 men, and which decided the cause against Spain. 
On the 20th of August of the same year a republican 
constitution was adopted, and decreed to continue, as 
then defined, till 1834. Bolivar was chosen president, 
and he turned his attention to the internal administra¬ 
tion of the country. In 1823 he assisted the Peruvians 
to obtain their independence, and was declared their 
liberator, and invested with supreme authority. On the 
10th of February, 1825, however, he convoked a con¬ 
gress, and resigned his dictatorship in the following 
words : “ I felicitate Peru on being delivered from two 
things which, of all others or. earth, are most dreadful 
—war, by the victory ot Ayacucho, and despotism, by 
this my resignation.” He now visited the upper pro¬ 
vinces of Peru, which, calling a convention at Cliuqui- 
saca, gave the name of Bolivia to their country, in 
honor of their liberator, and appointed him perpetual 
protector, and to draw up a constitution. On the 25th 
of May. 1826, he presented his Bolivian code to the con¬ 
gress of Bolivia, which was afterwards adopted, with 
some dissatisfaction, however, although it was also sub¬ 
sequently adopted by the congress of Lima, where, under 
its provisions, he himself was elected president for life. 
He now set out for Colombia, where disaffection and 
party strife were at their height. Ilis conduct hera 
was misconstrued, and he was supposed to be assuming 
the powers of a dictator. These suspicions seem to 
have deeply affected him, for he wrote to the senate, 
in February, 1827: ‘‘Suspicions of tyrannous usurpa¬ 
tion rest upon my name, and disturb the hearts of 
Colombians. I desire to be made only a private citi¬ 
zen.” In 1829 new disturbances arose, and, in 1830, a 
convention was called for the purpose of framing a new 
constitution for Colombia. The proceedings were begun 
by Bolivar, who once more tendered his resignation. 
He was pressed to retain his position; but his resolu¬ 
tion was already formed, and he bade adieu to public 
life, broken in mind, and body. He retired to Cartha- 
geua, whence be sent an address to the Colombians, 
vindicating bis conduct, and complaining of their in¬ 
gratitude. This was bis last act which had relation to 
public affairs; for by the end of another week be was no 
mure. Died at San Pedro, near Carthugeua, Dec. 17,1830. 

Bol'ivar, in Arkansas, a township of Jeflerson co. 

—A village, the former cap. of Poinsett co., 147 m. N.E. 
of Little Buck. 

Bol'ivar, in Maryland, a post-office of Frederick co. 

Bol'ivar, in Mississippi, a Vi. county, separated from 
Arkansas on the W. by the Mississippi. Area, 860 sq. 
m. Surface, level. Soil, fertile, producing quantitiea 
of cotton. Pop. (1890) 30,000. Cap. Rusedale. 

Bol'ivar, in Missouri, a city, the cap. of Polk co., 110 
m. S. W. of Jefferson City. Pop. (1890) 1,485. 

Boli var, in J\ew York, a post-village and township of 
Alleghany co.. 285 m. W.S.W. of Albany. 

Boli var, in Ohio, a post-village of Tuscarawas co., Ill 
m. N.E. of Columbus. 

Boli var, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Westmore¬ 
land co., 24 m. E.N.E. of Greensburg. 

Bol i var, in Tennessee, a handsome and prosperous twp. 
and post-town, cap. of Hardeman co., near the Hatchee- 
River, and 170 m. S.W. of Nashville. 

Bol'ivar, in Texas. See Point Bolivar. 

Bol'ivar, in West Virginia, a village of Jefferson co., in 
the vicinity of the Shenandoah River, 1 m. S.W. of 
Harper’s Ferry. 

Bolivar City, (Ciudad Bolivar,) in Venezuela. See 

Angostura. 

Bolivar IIciglit s, in West Virginia, lying on the 

S. bank of the Potomac, near Harper’s Ferry. 

Boliv'ia, a reoublic of South America, formed in 1825, 
named in honor of Simon Bolivar, to whom it owed 
its independence. It was previously known as Upper 
Peru, and formed, until 1825, part of the vice-royalty of 
Buenos Ayres. This country, as at present constituted, 
extends between 8° and 23° S. Lat., and 57° 3O' and 73° 
W. Long., and is entirely inland, being surrounded by 
Peru, Brazil, Paraguay, the Argentine Republic and 
Chile. Formerly it had a sea-coast region, a small and 
narrow strip of rainless desert, but lost this in con¬ 
sequence of its war with Chile, its area being reduced 
from 842,730 to 567,240 sq. miles. B. is divided into- 
fourteen provinces, and lias a population of 2,300,000, of 
whom the civilized portion dwell in the highlands, 
three-fourths of them being Aymara and Quichua 
Indians, the latter direct descendants of the Inca race, 
whose language and manners they preserve. The 
Aymara are devout Catholics, mild and apathetic, who 
are mostly engaged as arrieros, or drivers of llama trains,, 
and also in llama and sheep raising and agriculture. In 
the northeastern llanos are some partly civilized tribes,, 
inhabiting mission villages formed by the Jesuits, but 
now in a state of decadence, while on the eastern plains- 
are several nomadic tribes, quite wild in habits. In 
addition there is a considerable half-breed population.— 
pesc. This country consists of two regions differing 
in surface, elevation, and climate—a magnificent stretch 
of mountains and plateau country full of lofty peaks,, 
and a wide plain spreading out for miles to the frontiers, 
of Brazil, Paraguay, and the Argentine Republic. Two 












BOLI 


BOLQ 


BOLT 


381 


lateral ridges of the Andes penetrate into B. and form 
transverse Cordilleras, one ol which, the Bahama chain, 
in the YV , attains a maximum elevation of 22,600 feet, 
while many of the passes across both chains possess an 
altitude of 15,000 and 19,000 ft. The watershed of the 
1’ilcomayo, Madeira, Beni, and Mamore rivers, forms a 
fertile region, almost covered with vast primeval forests. 
The principal valley is that of Desaguadero, between 
the two Cordilleras, having au area (including the Lake 
of Titicaca, in its N part—the largest lake on the S. 
American continent) of 18,500 sq. m. Besides this 
great sheet of water, other lakes are numerous and of 
considerable size, as those of Ubahy and Grande.— Clim. 
In the plains E. of the Andes, the rainy season, which 
is identical with summer, lasts from October to April, 
during which time the rains are almost continuous, and 
the rivers inundate the country to a great extent. In 
the region of the great plains the weather is often ex¬ 
cessively hot and unhealthy, but in the Desaguadero 
valley (13,000 ft. above the sea), the climate is tem¬ 
perate, and snow falls in Nov. and April. Earthquakes 
are frequent.— Min. Gold is largely found; to the pro¬ 
verbially rich silver-mines of Potosi others have been 
added in recent times; indeed, next to the U. S. and 
Mexico, B. ranks as the greatest silver-producing 
country in the world; copper, lead, tin,and sulphur are 
also found.— Vegetation. The might}’forests of B. abound 
in the finest timber for ship-building, carpentry, Ac. 
The cocoa is superior even to that of Guayaquil; while 
the richest fruits, cascarilla, indigo, cotton, rice, coffee, 
cinchona, copaiba, sarsaparilla, gums, dye-woods, to¬ 
bacco, sugar-cane, Ac., are raised in extraordinary 
abundance.— Zool. Jaguars, tapirs, leopards, various de¬ 
scriptions of m inkeys, guanacos, alpacas, singing-birds, 
turkeys, several specimens of Amphibia, and myriads of 
noxious reptiles and insects have their habitat here. 
Vast herds of horned cattle, horses, asses, and mules 
are indigenous.— Industries. Agriculture and stock- 
raising have never received the attention they deserve | 
in Bolivia, but the development of its mineral resources 
has been actively prosecuted, and for centuries its 
great yield of gold, silver, copper, and tin has proved 
Highly profitable, despite the cost of transport. The 
mines of Potosi, above mentioned, since 1545 have 
yielued over $3,000,000,000 worth of silver. Mining 
has gone on actively since the securing of independ¬ 
ence, being fostered by the government, though 
hampered seriously by the lack of good roads and want 
of proper fuel. This latter the discovery of good coal 
in several provinces promises to remove, while the 
building inland of railroads has yielded easy access to 
the sea. Since 1883 mining enterprise has strongly 
revived, many abandoned workings being reopened. 
Potosi still yields about 2,800,000 ounces annually, 
Oruro as much, and Huanehaca more Gian twice as 
much, the value of the total annual yield being over 
$15,o00,000. Silver is the principal product mined, and 
gold mining has been abandoned, except by the Indiaus. 
Manf. Cottons, w’oolens, vicuna hats, glass, fans, ostrich- 
plumes, &c.— Com. The commerce of B. is, as yet, in¬ 
considerable, owing to the undeveloped state ot the 
country. Within the Brazilian dominions, not very 
far from the Bolivian frontier, a short break of 3 m. 
only separates a tributary of the Amazon from one 
of the Plata River; were these streams connected by 
a canal, there would be a continuous water communi¬ 
cation, for the most part navigable, through the heart 
of S. America, from Buenos Ayres, in Lat. 35° S., to the 
mouth of the Orinoco, in nearly 9° N. Lat. The Bolivian 
govt, is endeavoring to promote internal traffic, by offer¬ 
ing grants of land to persons settling, and considerable 
premiums for the establishment of steam navigation on 
the S. affluent of the Amazon.— Chief towns: Chuquisaca 
or Sucre, La Paz, (the cap.), Cochabamba, and Potosi.— 
Hist. and Govt. Bolivar, the liberator of B., drew up 
a constitution, which was adopted in the year 1827. 
This constitution, which was exceedingly complicated, 
vested the executive power in a president for life, 
with the privilege of naming his successor; and the 
legislative function in three bodies, a senate, tribunes, 
and censors. The code and constitution of Bolivar w ere 
soon after abandoned. By the existing constitution the 
executive consists of a president and two vice-presi¬ 
dents, elected every four years, and a ministry, divided 
into five departments, while the legislature is composed 
of two chambers, the Senate and House of Representa¬ 
tives, elected by universal suffrage. But the constitu¬ 
tion has rarely been allowed to assert itself peacefully, 
the history of Bolivia, from the presidency of Gen. 
Santa Cruz (1828-39), being a record of military insur¬ 
rections, the victor for the time being making himself 
supreme. In 1836 a federal republic was formed, con¬ 
sisting of three states, North Peru, South Peru, and 
Bolivia, with Santa Cruz as supreme protector, but the 
protector was overthrown in 1839, and the confederation 
dissolved. In 1841 Peru made war upon Bolivia, but 
the Peruvian president was defeated and killed at the 
Battle of Yugavi, and peace was soon after restored. 
During the succeeding period, up to the war with Chile, 
only two presidents were regularly elected. Dr. Linares, 
In 1858, and Col. Ballivian, in 1873. In 1879 began ths 
disastrous war with Chile, its cause being the disputed 
possession of the rich nitrate region of Atacama, on the 
Pacific coast, Bolivian territory, but which had been 
seized, and its deposits worked, by Chile. In the war 
that followed B. and its ally, Peru, were decisively 
beaten, and as a result of the war the nitrate region 
was annexed to Chile, and B. deprived of her coast terri¬ 
tory. During the war Gen. Hilarion Daza, the Bolivian 
president, was deserted by his own troops on account ol 
bis evident cowardice, and was succeeded by Campero. 


Since the war B. has settled into a quiet stage of its 
existence, the military revolutions with which it was 
formerly distracted seeming to have ceased. Its devel¬ 
opment proceeds very slowly, but must be greatly quick¬ 
ened by the several railroads which now traverse the 
country and connect it with the coast. The common 
roads have also been much improved. 

Boliv' ia. in Miss., former cup. of Bolivar co. 

Boll, (bol,) n. [W. bwl, the husk that encloses the seed 
of flax ; A. S. holla, a bowl.] The round pod, capsule, or 
pericarp of a plant. 

(Cbm.) An old dry measure in Scotland, varying in 
quantity according to locality and the article measured. 
It is enough to say that a B. of oats is equal to 6 bushels, 
or 6-8ths of an imperial quarter. Although legally super¬ 
seded by imperial measure, the B. is still in common use. 

— 1 >. i. To form into a pericarp, or seed-vessel. 

44 For the barley was la the ear, and the flax was boiled." 

Exod. ix. 31. 

Bollandists, n.pl. See Acta Sanctorum. 

Bol lards, n.pi. (Naut.) Large posts set up on either 
side of a dock or basin, for the purpose of having at¬ 
tached to them the blocks through which are received 
the hawsers used in hauling vessels into and out of dock. 

Bol'lard-tim bers, n.pl. (Naut.) Same as K.mght- 
HEADS, q. V. 

Bollene, a town of France, dep. Yaucluse, 24 m. N. of 
Avignon. Manf. Silks and dye-stuffs. Pop. 5.5U7. 

Boll ins, n. A pollard-tree; a tree deprived of its 
branches. 

Bol linger, in Missouri, a S.E. county, area about 500 
sq. m., watered by the YY'hitewater or Little River, and 
Castor Creek. Surface, hilly. Sod, fertile. Iron and 
immense beds of kaoline are found; also extensive de¬ 
posits of pipe- and fire-clay. Cap. Marble Hill. Pop. in 
1890,13,120. 

Boln, v. i. To swell; to puff out; to inflate. 

Boln, Bollen, a. Inflated; bellied out; swelled out; 
as, “ boln out like a sail.” — B- n Jonson. 

Bologna, (bo-lbn'ya.) [Anc. Bononia.] A famous walled 
city of N. Italy, cap. of a prov. of the same name, be¬ 
tween the rivers Reno and Savena, at the foot of the 
hills commencing the Apenuine chain. 24 m. S.E. of Mo¬ 
dena, 27 SAY. of Ferrara, and 399 feet above the level 
of the Adriatic. The city is 4 m. in circuit, and indif¬ 
ferently built in a palace style of architecture with 
arcades. In the middle of the city stand the two cele¬ 
brated leaning towers, inclining in different directions : 
that of Asinelli, 320 leet high, inclines about Z l / 2 feet; 
Garisenda, 145 feet in height. 8 feet. It is said that from 
the top of the former 103 cities may be seen. The ca¬ 
thedral, built a.D. 432, possesses tho Annunciation, the 
last work of Ludovico Caracci. The university, one of 
the oldest and most celebrated in Italy, was founded by 
the Emperor Theodosius, a. d. 425, and has a library of 
200,000 vols. Manuf. Crape, silk, glass, musical instru¬ 
ments, mortadelle sausages (celebrated all over the 
world), &c. — No Italian city, Florence excepted, has 
produced so many celebrated men in science and the 
fine arts. B. always assumed the title of “learned,” 
and had the motto Bononia docet on its money and public 
buildings, as well as the word libertas. It has given birth 
to 8 popes (including Benedict XIV.), nearly 200 cardi¬ 
nals, and to more than 1,000 scientific and literary men, 
and artists. —among them the eminent naturalists Gal- 
vani and Aldini; the anatomists Mondino and Malpighi; 
the astronomer Marsigli; the mathematicians Manfredi 
and Canterzani: the brothers Zanotti, Ghedini, and Guer- 
cino; and the painters Francia, Guido, Albano, Barbi- 
eri, Domenichino, the three Caracci, Aldini, and Zam- 
beccari. — B., as Bononia, received a Roman colony, 
A.u.c. 653. It was besieged fruitlessly by Alaric, and 
escaped the clutch of Attila. Pepin afterwards gave it 
to the Holy See, to which it belonged during the Car- 
lovingian dynasty; next it was governed by its own 
magistrates ; next by feudal nobles; and finally became 
a republic, until the 13th century, when it again fell 
under the Holy See, who finally annexed it in 1506. The 
city and province ( Legation) remained under the Pa¬ 
pal government until 1860, when it was absorbed into 
the new kingdom of Italy. 

Bologna-phials, n. pi. Small phials or flasks of 
unauuealed glass which fly into pieces when their sur¬ 
face is scratched by a hard body, as by dropping into 
them a fragment of flint; whereas, a bullet may be 
dropped into them without injury. 

Bologna-sausage, (bo-lon'ya.) n. [From Bologna, 
in Italy.] (Cookery.) A large description of sausage, 
first made at Bologna, and consisting of various kiuds 
of meat seasoned with herbs, and enclosed in a thin skin 
or membrane. 

Bologna-stone, n. (Min.) See Bolognian-stoxe. 

Bolognese, Bologn'ian, (bo-lon-yeP.) a. (Geog.) 
Relating, or belonging to, Bologna, or its inhabitants. 

— n. A native, or inhabitant, of Bologna. 

Bolognese School, n. (Painting.) There were three 
periods of the B. S.: the Early, the Roman, and the 
Eclectic. The first was founded by Marco Zoppo in the 
15th century, and its great master rvas Francia. The 
second was founded in the 16th by Bagnacavallo, who 
spread the Roman style in Bologna; the masters of this 
period were Primaticcio, Pellegrino Tibaldi, and Niccolo 
dell’ Abate. The third was founded by the Caracci at the 
close of the 16th century; its object was to unite all the 
excellences of the preceding schools: hence it is called 
the Eclectic School. Among the principal painters w’hich 
it numbered were Domenichino. Lanfranco, Guido, Schi- 
done, Guercino, Albani, and the three Caracci. Their 
merits were purely technical, and their style academic. 
— See Painting, and the particular names of the paint¬ 
ers above quoted. 


Bolognian-stone, (bo-ldn'yan,) n. (Min.) A kind of 
sulphate of baryta found near Bologna. After having 
been heated with charcoal, and then exposed to the 
light of the sun, it becomes strongly phosphorescent, 
and remains so for some time. 

Bolor-Tagh, (bo-lor-tah,) a mountain-chain of Cen¬ 
tral Asia, extending from Lat. 35° to 45° N., and from 
Lon. 70° to 75° E., and separating China on the E. from 
Koondooz and Kafiristan on the YV. The highest points, 
between 35° and 40° N., are said to exceed 19,000 feet in 
height. The B. is crossed by 3 passes — one from Ba- 
daksban, leading into Little Thibet, and two W., starting 
respectively from Kashgar and Yarkand. 

Bol'sas, a river ot Mexico, which, after flowing YV., em- 
ters the Pacific Ocean, 225 m. S.YY’. of Mexico city. 

Bolse'na, (anc. Vulsinium.) a walled town of Central 
Italy, prov. Y’iterbo, 11 m. YY'.S.YYL of Orvieto, on a lake 
of the same name. It is only .noticeable for the ruins of 
the Etruscan goddess Nortia, a granite sarcophagus, or¬ 
namented with bas-reliefs, and other remains of antiquity. 
This was anciently a place of great wealth and luxury, 
and Pliny says (Hist. Nat. lib. xxxiv. g 7) that when 
taken by the Romans, 266 b. c., it contained no fewer 
than 7,000 statues. Pop. 2,387. 

Bol ster, (bole'stur,) n. I A. S. bolster ; 0. Ger. bolstar ; 
from the root of boll.] A long pillow or cushion, used to 
support the head of persons lying on a bed; — usually 
placed beneath the pillows. 

44 This arm shall be a bolster for thy head; 

I’ll fetch clean straw to make a soldier's bed . 44 — Gay. 

—A pad or quilt; something in the shape of a bolster 
used as a support, or to hinder pressure. 

44 Up goes her hand, and off she slips 
The bolsters that supply her hips .’ 4 — Swift. 

(Saddlery.) The padded or cushioned part of a saddle. 

(Naut.) A piece of timber adjoining the hawse-hole, 
intended to prevent the chafing of the hawser against 
the cheek of a ship’s bow.— A small pad of painted or 
tarred canvas placed under the rigging to prevent fric¬ 
tion when the spars strain in stormy weather. — A cy¬ 
lindrical iron block, with a hole through the middle, used 
as an anvil when holes are being punched in metal. 

(Mech.) A tool usedin punching holes, andformaking 
bolts. 

(Building.) That part in the construction of a bridge 
between the truss and the masonry. 

( Ordnance.) A block of wood attached to a gun-car¬ 
riage, upon which the breech of the gun rests, when 
being moved from one place to another. 

(Carpentry.) The cross-beam of a railway-car or truck. 

(Arch.) The rolls at the ends of capitals of the Ionic 
order. 

(Cutlery.) That part of the blade of a knife which 
connects with the handle. — The metallic end of a knife- 
handle. 

— v. a. To support with a bolster, pad, or cushion.—To 
hold up; to maintain; to support. (Used in a moral 
sense.) 

44 It was the way of many to bolster up their crazy doating con¬ 
sciences with confidences. 4 ' — South. 

— v. i. To afford a bed to; to lie on the same bolster. 

44 Mortal eyes do see them bolster, 

More than their own."— Shake. 

Bolstered, a. Swelled out. — Supported; maintained. 

, Bol stering, n. A supporting, or holding up. 

Bolster’s Mills, in Maine, a post-office of Cumber¬ 
land co. 

Bolt, n. [Dan. bolt; A.S. bolt; from the root bol, as 
found in Gr. hallo, to throw.] That wliich shoots or darts 
forward: an arrow; a dart; a pointed shaft; that which 
darts like a bolt. 

44 Yet mark'd I where the bolt of Cupid fell; 

It fell upon a little western flower. 

Before milk-white, now purple with love’s wound." — Shake. 

—A thunderbolt; a stroke of lightning. 

“ Stag'd with the flames, and with the bolts transfix'd."— Drydtn. 

—An iron or shackle to fasten the legs of a prisoner. 
44 Away with him to prison ; lay bolts enough upon him."— Shake. 

—That which shuts or fastens a door, as a bar; anything 
which fastens or secures. 

14 4 T is not in thee to oppose the bolt 
Against my coming in." — Shake- 

(Joinery.) An iron fastening for a door moved by the 
hand, and catching in a staple, or notch, to receive it. 
The B of a lock is the iron part by which it is fastened 
into the jamb, in the act of turning it by the key. — In 
Carpentry, B. are those square, or cylindrical, iron pins, 
which pass through two or more pieces of timber, with 
a broad knob at one eud, and a nut screwed to the other, 
for securing them together. 

—pi. (Naut.) Short cylindrical pieces of iron or copper, 
varying in diameter from half an inch to three inches, 
and of'various lengths, used for securing the timbers of 
a ship to the ribs, and for fastening the knees, beams, 
and various parts of the vessel together. These bolts 
differ in form according to the purpose for which they 
are designed, and are distinguished by shipwrights ac¬ 
cording to the form of the head. 

Bolt of canvas. A piece of sail-cloth, measuring 28 
ells in length. 

Bolt, v. a. To fasten or secure with a bolt, pin, or other 
contrivance; as, to bolt a door. 

»* The bolted gates flew open at the blast; 

The storm rush’d in, and Arcite stood aghast. — Dry den . 

—To fasten; to shackle; to confine. 

*• To do that thing that ends all other deeds, 

Which shackles accident, and bolts up change.”— Shake • 

—To blurt out precipitately; to utter at random. 

M I hate when vice can bolt her arguments, 

An d virtue has no tongue to check her pride.”— MiUon* 







38 ^ 


BOLT 


BOMB 


BOMB 


—To swallow anything precipitately, and without proper 
mastication; as, to bolt one’s food. 

Bolt, v. a. [0. Fr. beluter, bluter, from Lat. apludare, from 
apluda, chaff, husks, winnowings of corn.] To husk or 
winnow; to sift or separate bran from flour. 

" I cannot bolt this matter to the bran ."—Dryden. 

—To examine, as if by sifting; (generally preceding out.) 

“ It would be well bolted out, whether great refractions may not 
be made upon reflections, as upon direct beams."— Bacon. 

(Law.) To discuss the points of a case in private. 

(Sport.) To start forth; to cause to leave their holes; 
as rabbits, hares, Ac. 

To bolt to the bran. To give anything a complete and 
perfect examination; as, “The report of the committee 
was examined and sifted and bolted to the bran.” Burke. 

Bolt, v.n. To shoot or start forth suddenly, like a bolt; 
to move abruptly; to spring out precipitately. 

“ The birds to foreign seats repair’d ; 

And beasts, that bolted out, and saw the forest bar'd.”— Dryden . 

—To fall suddenly, like a bolt. 

“ His cloudless thunder bolted on their heads.”— Milton. 

—To make a sudden exit or departure without previous 
announcement; to desert or evade; as, he has bolted with 
the cash. 

Bolt, adv. With abrupt or sudden collision; as, to come 
bolt up against a person. 

Bol t- auger, n. [holt and auger.] An auger of large 
size, used by ship-builders for boring holes for bolts. 

Bolt'-cutter, n. A machine to cut bolts with. 

Bolt'ed, n. (Arch.) See Boult. 

Bolt'er, n. One who bolts, or goes away abruptly; a 
horse which suddenly starts off. —An instrument or ma¬ 
chine for bolting or separating bran from flour. 

“When superciliously he sifts 
Through coarsest bolter others’ gifts.” — Hudibras. 

—A kind of net or fishing apparatus. 

“ These hakes are taken ... with the bolter." — Carew. 

Bol t ’-hotul. n. (Cheni.) A globular flask with a tubular 
neck, used in the laboratory for boiling and subliming. 

Bolt'ing, n. Act of fastening with a bolt or bolts; 
blurting out; starting forth suddenly; sifting or separat¬ 
ing bran from flour. 

{Law.) Discussion of legal cases in private. 

Bolt'ing'-<*loth,«. A cloth of which bolters are made. 

Holt'ing-liiKise, n. The place where flour, meal, Ac. 
are bolted or sifted. 

“ The jade returned as white, and as powdered, as if she had 
been at work in a bolting-house." —- Dennis. 

Boltingwhutch, n. The vat or tub which receives 
flour, Ac., after being bolted. 

Boli ing-ini 11, n. An apparatus for sifting flour, Ac. 

Bolting-tub, n. Same as Bolting-hutch, q. v. 

Bol'ton, or Bolton-le-Moors, a large manufacturing 
town of England, in Lancashire, 175 m. N.W. of London, 
31 E.N.E. of Liverpool, and 12 N.W. of Manchester. This 
is an opulent and important place, well-built, paved, and 
lighted, and possessing many fine public buildings.— 
ilanf. Cotton goods, paper, machinery, steam-engines, 
&c. This town lies in the midst of a great coal-field, and 
carries on an immense traffic. B. was the scene of des¬ 
perate struggles during the civil war, and was taken by 
the Royalists under James Stanley, Earl of Derby, who 
was afterwards betrayed, and by order of Cromwell be¬ 
headed, in the market-place of this town, 1651. Pop. 
103,959. 

Bol'ton, in Connecticid, a post-township of Tolland co., 
15 m. E. of Hartford. 

Bolton, in Illinois , a post-village of Williamson co. 

Bolton, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Worcester 
co., 27 m. W. by N. of Boston. 

Bolton, in Missouri, a post-office of Harrison co. 

Bolton, in Mew York, a post-township of Warren co.,on 
Lake George. 68 m. N of Albany. 

Bolton, iu Upper Canada, a village of York co., 28 m. 
N.N.W. of Toronto. 

Bolton, iu Vermont, a post-township of Chittenden co., 
20 ni. N.W. of Montpelier. 

Bolto'n ia, n. (Bol.) A genus of plants, order Astera- 
cece.. They are glabrous, branching, (unimportant herbs. 

Bol'tonite, n. (Min,.) A kind of chrysolite, which dif¬ 
fers from the other varieties of that mineral in being a 
silicate of magnesia, instead of a silicate of magnesia 
and iron. It is found at Bolton, Massachusetts, iu gran¬ 
ules and irregular masses disseminated through lime¬ 
stone, seldom with any traces of crystalline form, and 
of a color varying from ash-gray to yellowish-white; 
the darker colors change to yellow on exposure to the 
weather. 

Bol ton's Depot, in Mississippi, a post-village of 
Hinds co., 27 m. E. of Vicksburg. 

Bol'tonville, in Georgia, a post-office of Cobb co. 

Boltonville, in Vermont, a post-office of Orange co 

Boltonvillc, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Washing¬ 
ton co., 6 m. N.E. of West Bend. 

Bolt'-rope, n. (Maut.) The rope bordering the sails of 
a ship, to strengthen the canvas and prevent its tearing. 
Up the sides of a sail it is called a leech-rope; along the 
top, a head-rope ; ami at the foot, a foot-rope. 

Bolt'-screwsns’ Machine, n. (Mech.) A machine 
for screwing bolts, by fixing the bolt-nead to a revolving 
chuck, and causing the end which it is required to screw 
to enter a set of dies, which advance as the holt re¬ 
volves. 

Bolt’s Fork, in Kentucky, a P. 0. of Lawrence co. 

Bolt'sprit,n.(iVdii<.) An old spelling of Bowsprit, q.v. 

JBoIt-up'rig’lit, a. Perfectly erect, as a bolt or arrow 
placed on its end. 

“At I stood bolt-upright upon one end, one of the ladies burst oat.” 

Addison. 


Bo'lns.n,; Eng. pi. Bo'lusf.s ; Lat. pi. Boli. [Lat.] (Med.) 
A pharmaceutical preparation, having a pillular shape, 
but larger; it can, however, be swallowed like a pill. 

Bo'nian’s Bluff, in M Carolina, a post-office of Hen¬ 
derson co. 

Bom'arsuml. (Geog.) See Aland. 

Bomb, {bum,) n. [Lat. bnmbus; Gr. bombos; formed 
from the sound.] (Mil.) A shell filled with explosive 
matter. See Shell. 

—A loud humming sound like that made by a bell, (o.) 

" Which . . . would make a little flat noise in the room, but a 
bomb in the chamber beneath."— Bacon. 

—The sound emitted by a bell upon being struck. 

Boill'ba, n. [It., a bomb.] (Hist.) A title popularly 
conferred upon King Ferdinand II. of Naples, (of infa¬ 
mous memory,) and by which he will he recorded in 
history. This appellation he received from the violation 
of his solemn oath to the citizens of Palermo, which 
city he perfidiously bombarded, in 1S49; thus outraging 
bis own plighted word, the laws of humanity, and the 
constitutional policy he had sworn to observe. — See 
F’erdinand II. 

Bombard, (bum-bard',) n. [Fr. bnmharde. See Bomb.] 
A bombardment; an attack with bombs. (R.) 

(Mus.) Soe Bombardon. 

— v. a. To attack with shells or shot thrown from mortars, 
bombs, or pieces of ordnance; as, to bombard a fort. 

*' Whilst Villeroi . . . marches on secure. 

T' bombard the monkd, and scare the ladies."— Prior . 

Bombardier, (bum-bdrd-er',) n. [Fr.] (Mil.) One 
who attends to the loading of shells, bombs, &c. — In 
England, the term applied to the lowest rank of non¬ 
commissioned officers in the Royal Artillery. 

Bombardier>bee'tle, n. (Zobl.) A name applied 
to many coleopterous insects of the tribe Carabidce. 
They are divided into two genera,— the Brachinus, and 
the Aptinus; the latter lias no membranous wings 
under the wing-sheath. Those found near the tropics 
are large and brilliantly colored, but those found in this 
country are generally small. They are called bombar¬ 
dier-beetles on account of a remarkable property they 
possess of violently expelling from the anus a pungent 
acrid fluid, which, if the species be large, lias the power 
of producing discoloration of the skin, similar to that 
produced by nitric acid. It also changes blue vegetable 
colors to red, and then to yellow. 

Bom'bard-man, n. One who supplies and carries 
liquors on board a bomb-vessel, (r.) 

Bombardment, n. (Mil.) An attack with bombs. 
Specifically, the act of throwing shells and shot into a 
town, fort, or ship. Sometimes carcasses, stink-pots, 
rockets, hot-shot, and other incendiary missiles are used 
for this purpose. The B. of a town takes more effect 
upon the civilians than the garrison, as the latter, in any 
well-constructed fortified place, are lodged in bomb-proof 
buildings. Before bombarding a town, it is customary 
to give notice thereof, to allow women, children, and 
ion-combatants to leave it.— See Siege. 

Bombar don. Bombar'do, n. (Mus.) A musical 
wind-instrument resembling the bassoon, and generally 
used as a bass to accompany the hautboy. It is some¬ 
times called bombard. 

Bombasine', n. See Bombazine. 

Bombast, (bum'bast,) n. [It. bambagia, cotton, from 
L. Lat. bombax, the cotton-tree.] Originally, a stuff of 
soft, loose texture, used to stuff garments; specifically, 
and in a figurative sense, high-sounding words; an in¬ 
flated style of speech; fustian. 

“ Are all the flights of heroic poetry to be concluded bombast. 

•.. because they are not affected with their excellences Dryden. 

— a. High-sounding; big without meaning. 

” Re . . . evades them with a bombast circumstance, 
Horribly stuff'd with epithets of war.' — Sl.ahs. 

Bombas'tlc, a. Distinguished by bombast; high- 
sounding: swelled; inflated; turgid; as, “ A bombastic 
phraseology.” — Burke. 

Bombas'tically, adv. With an inflated turgid style. 

Boin'bastry, n. Fustian; bombastic language. 

Bom'bate, n. (Chem.) A salt resulting from the com¬ 
bination of bombic acid with a base. 

Boitl'bax, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, order Sterculi- 
aceae. The species are native of S. America and India. 
Tiioy are usually large trees, with broad deep-green 
leaves, and flowers of considerable size. Technically, 
they differ from Malvaceae, in having two cells to their 
anthers, which are often doubled down upon themselves; 
in their calyx opening in an irregular rather than a val- 
vate manner, and in their Btamens being usually col¬ 
lected into five parcels. Their anthers are often de¬ 
scribed as having only one cell; hut this is an inaccu¬ 
rate mode of speaking of them, inasmuch as they are 
formed upon the common two-cell type, and merely 
have the cells united at the point of the connective. 
This group contains some of the most majestic and 
beautiful trees that are known, but nothing of much 
medical or economical importance is furnished by them. 
Their wood is light and spongy; the long cottony sub¬ 
stance found within their fruit, and which has gained 
for some of them the name of cotton-trees, is too short in 
the staple to be manufactured into cloth; and the 
slightly acid or mucilaginous qualities that occur in the 
group are altogether inferior to those of many Malvaceae. 
Several American species spread enormously near the 
ground, forming huge buttresses with the angles of 
their trunks The American tree, B. ceiba, and the In¬ 
dian tree, B. pentandrum, are remarkable for their pro¬ 
digious height. 

Bombay', formerly a Presidency, now a province, and 
one of the nine great divisions of British India, between 
Lat. 14° 18' and 28° 30' N., and Lon. 67° and 76° 25' E. 


having W. the Indian Ocean and Eeloochistan ; V., Gun- 
dava and the Punjab; E., the Nizam’s dominions; and 
S., Mysore and the pres, of Madras. Area, 142,043 sq.m. 
This presidency is divided into the four great territorial 
divisions of Poonah, Surat (or the N.), Scindc, and the 
S. division, (Belgaum. Ac.) Desc. The N.W. parts are 
more level than the S.E. and E.; Ahmedabad, Kaira, nnd 
Baroach are well watered, and are. in some parts, among 
the best cultivated and peopled lauds in Hindustan ; Su¬ 
rat is more undulating, with its E. part hilly and jungly; 
Candeish is diversified with hills, fertile patches, and jun¬ 
gle; Ahmednuggur abounds iu rocks, hills.and streams; 
Poonah is mountainous and irregular, hut with many 
fertile valleys; Darwar is an elevated table-land, and the 
Khokan a large narrow tract stretching for 225 m. along 
the sea-coast. The principal mountain ranges are a spur 
of the W. Ghauts in the S-; the Syduree and Sautpoora, 
in Candeish, and the Nerbudda iu the N., a branch of 
the Vindhyan chain. Chief Rivers. The Nerbudda, 
Taptee, Mhye, Ac., falling into the Gulf of Cambay, in 
the N.; in the central parts, the head waters of the Go* 
davery and Beemah; and in the S. the Kistna and Toom* 
buddra. Min. Basalt, amygdaloid, yellow porphyry, and 
green clay-stone. A black soil, well suited to the cul¬ 
ture of cotton, is widely diffused throughout the centre 
of this presidency. CHm. The mean temp, at Bombay, 
about the centre of the pres., is between 81° and 83° 
Fahr. The climate of the N. district is reckoned among 
the worst in India; the thermometer in the hot season 
rises, sometimes, to 116° Fahr., and Europeans are af¬ 
fected with fever, ague, and other tropical complaints. 
Zoiil. Wild elephants, tigers, leopards, panthers, hyae¬ 
nas, buffaloes, boars, deer, &c., and many varieties of 
birds. Veg. Prod. Teak of very good quality is plentiful, 
and the dist. of Surat abounds with poon, wild dates, 
and babool. Cocoa palms are equally abundant. In the 
N. parts, a great variety of fruits flourish, and the 
mango is found in great perfection. Agric. Rice and 
cotton are the staple articles of culture, and the latter 
forms an important and yearly increasing object of ex¬ 
port. Sugar, indigo, and the mulberry-tree, are also 
extensively cultivated; and wool is largely shipped to 
foreign countries. The cattle of Gujerat are of a re¬ 
markably large size, and command a good market 
throughout India. Sheep have been of late years im¬ 
ported into the pres., where they are reported to be doing 
well. Jnhab. Besides Hindoos, Mohammedans, Parsees, 
Jews, and Europeans, many distinct tribes (for the 
greater Dart aboriginal) inhabit this country. Among 
these are found Bheels, Coolies, Ramooses, Catties, 
Dhooblas, Ac. Nearly all the Parsees in Hindostan have 
settled within the limits of B. presidency. Rev. The 
revenue is principally derived from three sources, viz.: 
the land-tax, opium, and customs. Com. (See Bombay 
City.) In 1617, B. was oreated a regency, and made 
supreme over all the East India Company’s estab¬ 
lishments in India; but, in 1707, Calcutta was declared 
independent of it. In 1813, Baroach and Ahmednuggur 
districts were acquired by the English, and the latter, 
with Poonah and Ahmedabad, were formally ceded to 
them in 1817. Khokan, Darwar, Candeish. and the resi¬ 
due of the Peishwa’s dominions, fell to the British in 
1818. The seat of govt, was transferred from the city of 
Surat to that of Bombay, 1686. Pop., 1891, 18,826,820. 

Bombay, (Pg. Buon Bahia, “ good harbor,”)a maritime city, 
prov. Aurungabad, and cap. of the above pres., is, after 
Calcutta and Canton, the greatest commercial emporium 
of the East. It is built at the S. extremity of a small 
island of the same name, contiguous to the Khokan 
coast, 650 m. N.W. of Madras, 150 S. of Surat, and 1,050 
S.W. of Calcutta; Lat. 18° 56' N., Lon. 72° 53' E. The 
city consists of two portions, the old town, or fort, and 
the new town, or Dungaree. It bears no external resem¬ 
blance to Calcutta or Madras, and its best streets 
scarcely equal their suburbs. There is no Asiatic mag¬ 
nificence to be seen; everything lias an air of age and 
economy, though the shops and warehouses are built on 
an extensive scale. The government-house, arsenal, 
courts of law, cathedral, Elphinstone institute, college, 
and the town-hall are the leading public buildings. The 
most remarkable structure in the new town is a pagoda, 
the largest in B, dedicated to the worship of Momba 
Devi. Ground iu this city is very valuable, especially 
within the fortress. The Parsees (q. v.) form the most 
numerous, wealthy, and powerful section of the popula¬ 
tion. The harbor of B. is one of the largest, safest, and 
most commodious in India; and the rise of the tides 
here makes it the only port in Ilindostan permitting 
wet-docks to be constructed. The commerce of B. is 
principally with Europe and China. The imports from 
the latter country cousist principally of raw silk, silk 
piece-goods, sugar, treasure, Ac.; on the other hand, the 
exports from B. to China are. raw cotton, opium, pearls, 
6 andal-wood, Ac. The leading exports to Europe com¬ 
prise immense quantities of cotton, raw silk, pepper and 
spices, coffee ami wool, and the total imports for the 
year 1891 were 653,716,000 rupees, or about $235,000,000. 
Exports nearly the same. B. is, next to Madras, the 
oldest of the British possessions in the East, having been 
ceded by the Portuguese in 1661 as a part of the dowry 
of Catherine, queen of Charles II. In 1668 the city and 
island were transferred by the crown to the East India 
Company. At present B. rules the whole N. W. coast 
of India, and its influence is felt along the shores of 
Persia and Arabia. Pop., 1901, 804,670. 

Bombay', in Mew Turk, a post-township of Franklin 
county, on Little Salmon River, 20 miles N.W. of 
Malone. 

Bombazette'. n. A thin woollen stuff. 

Bombazine, Bombasine, (bur vba-zeen’,) n. [Fr 
bombairin; Gr. bombyx, a silk-worm.] ( Manuf.) A fabric 








BONA 


BONA 


BONA 


383 


«f which the warp is silk, and the weft (or shoot) 
worsted. It is chiefly made in black, and is an article 
of mourning for female dress. 

Bomb'-chest, n. (Mil.) A chest filled with detonating 
materials, and buried under-ground, in order to be ex¬ 
ploded with a lighted fuse when necessary. 

Boin'bernickel, or Pum'pernickel, n. A kind of 
German rye bread made of unsifted meal. 

Bom'bic Acid, n. ( Chem.t An acid formed by silk¬ 
worms, analogous to, and most likely identical with, that 
obtained from ants, and called Formic Acid, (q. v.) 

Bom'bilate, t>. i. [From Lat. bombilare .] To make a 
humming noise. (R.) 

Bombila'tion, n. Sound; noise; report, (o.) 

Bombil'ious, a. Having, or creating, a hollow, hum¬ 
ming noise. 

Bom'bite, n. (Min.) A mineral with all the character¬ 
istics of Touchstone, of which it is, probably, a variety. 
It is found in the environs of Bombay (India), whence 
the name. 

Bomb'-ketch, Bomb-vessel, n. (Naut.) A 
strongly built vessel of war, carrying heavy metal for 
bombardment. See Gunboat ; Ketch; Mortar-boat. 

Bomb-proof, a. (Mil.) Capable of resisting the force 
of bombs or shells; as, a bomb-proof casemate in a 
battery. 

Bomb-sliell, n. (Mil.) See Shell. 

Bom'bus, n. [Ur. bombas, the humming of bees.] (Zool.) 
See Apiu.e. 

(Med.) A kind of ringing or buzzing in the ears; — 
characterized by the perception of blows or beating re¬ 
peated at certain intervals. 

Bombyc'idse, n. pi. (Zool.) A family of insects, order 
Lepid'ptera, mainly comprising thick-bodied moth's 
which have the head small and sunken, antennae gener¬ 
ally feathered or pectinated, mouth-parts short, thorax 
woolly, and the fore-legs very hairy. The caterpillars 
have 16 legs, and, with few exceptions, spin cocoons. 
Some genera are small; others are the largest of all the 
Lepidoptera. The members of this family supply the 
world with silk. 

Boinb.ycil litlie, n. pi. (Zool) The Wax-wing family 
of birds, order Incessores, comprising birds with the 
bill shut, broad, much depressed, and the gape opening 
to the eyes; both mandibles notched, the upper with a 
tooth behind the notch, the outer lateral toe the longest, 
and the head generally crested. The Cedar-bird (Ampelis 
cedroruni) of N. America is an example. See Ampeudae. 

Bombycirious, (bum-bWe-nus,) a. [Lat. bombyci- 
nus.) Of the color of the silk-worm. 

Bom'byx, n. (Zool.) See Silk-worm. 

Bom-Fim, (bang-feeng,) a town of Brazil, prov. of Rio 
Janeiro, and 65 m. W. of the city of the same name. 
There are several places of this name in Brazil, which 
are of no importance. 

Bomilcar, (bo-mil'kar,) a Carthagenian general, lived 
about 310 B. c. Not satisfied with enjoying the highest 
dignity the republic could -bestow, he aspired to sover¬ 
eign power; and, taking advantage of the public alarm 
occasioned by the invasion of Agathocles, he entered 
Carthage at the head of 1,000 mercenaries, about 308 b. c. 
After being proclaimed king, his hireling troops turned 
against him, made him prisoner, and put him to death 
by crucifixion. 

Bomil car, a Numidian adventurer, d. about 107 b. c. 
He was a favorite of Jugurtha, and the instrument of 
many of his enmities. Having by his order murdered 
Massina, grandson of Massinissa, he fled to Africa. Here 
he had an interview with Metellus, who promised him 
impunity for his crime if he would either kill or betray 
Jugurtha. To this condition B. consented ; but the plot 
having been discovered by Jugurtha, he caused B. and 
his accomplices to be put to death. 

Bom-Jardim. (bong-jar-deen'’,) a town ofBraz.il, prov. 
and 210 m. S. of Ceara; pop. abt. 6,000, chiefly Indians. 

Bom-Jesus, (bong-zha'soos,) the name of several un¬ 
important places in Brazil. 

Bom-Successo, (bong-soos-sa’so,) or Ibiturcna, a vil¬ 
lage of Brazil, prov. Minas-Geraes, 250 m. N.E. of Villa 
Rica. 

Bon, (bong,) a. [Fr., from Lat. bonus, good.] Good; le¬ 
gitimate; genuine. 

Bon, n. (Bot.) A name applied, in Egypt, to the 
coffee-trec. 

Bo na, (anc. Hippo-Regius,) [called by the French Bone, 
and by the natives Annabah, i. e. “place of jujubes.”] 
A fortified maritime city of N. Africa, in the French 
province of Algiers, dep. of Constantine, near the Gulf 
of Bona, 85 miles N. of Constantine city; Latitude 36° 
53' 58" N., Lon. 7° 46' 5" E. B. has been much im¬ 
proved since its occupation by the French; the streets 
are narrow and crooked, but there are several good 
public buildings. Manf. Burnous, tapestry, and saddles. 
Exp Corn, wool, ox-hides, and wax. B. is the principal 
seat of the coral fishery on this coast. It w r as taken by the 
French in 1832. 

Bouac'ca, or Guanaja, an island of Honduras Bay, 
Caribbean Sea, 30 m. N. of Cape Castilla; Lon. 16° 28' 
N., Lat. abt. 87° 38' W. 

Boil Ac'cortl. in Iowa, a post-office of Johnston co. 

Bo'na De'a, [Lat., good goddess] (Myth.) A name given 
to Ops, Vesta, Cybele. Rhea, by the Greeks; and,by the 
Latins, to Fauna or Fatua. This goddess was so chaste, 
that no man but her husband saw her after her mar¬ 
riage. Her festivals were celebrated only in the night, 
by the Roman matrons in their houses; and all the 
statues of the men were carefully covered with a veil 
where the ceremonies were observed. 

Bo'na Fi'des. [Lat.] (Law.) Good faith; honesty, as 
distinguished from malafides (bad faith). The law re¬ 
quires all persons in their transactions to act with good 


faith; and a contract, when the parties have not acted 
bond fide, is void at the pleasure of the innocent party. 

Bon Air, in Tennessee, a village of White co. 

Boil'aid, Louis Gabriel Ambroise, Vicomte de, a French 
political philosopher, b. 1754. During the revolution he 
joined the royalist army under the Bourbon {winces. 
He returned to France under Napoleon; became co¬ 
editor of the Mercure with Chateaubriand and Fievee, 
and, in 1808, was appointed Miuister of Public Instruc¬ 
tion. After the restoration — as the deputy for his de¬ 
partment— he voted with the Ultramontane or Theo¬ 
cratic party in the Chambre Introuvable, and in his po¬ 
litical career, as in his philosophical works, was the ar¬ 
dent advocate of absolutism, of the infallibility of the 
Pope, and of the Jesuits. In 1830, he refused to take 
the oath of allegiance to the new dynasty. T. 1840. His 
most important writings are: Theorie. du pouvoir Poli¬ 
tique et Religieux, 3 vols., 1796; Legislation Primitive, 3 
vuls., 1802; Recherche* Philosnphiques sur les premiers 
Objets des connuissances Morales, 2 vols., 1818. — His 3d 
son, Louis J acques Maurice de B., b. 1787. archbishop 
of Lyon, 1839, and cardinal in 1842, faithfully adhered 
to his father’s political and religious principles, living, 
notwithstanding, on a footing of good intelligence and 
accord with the government of Napoleon III. D. 1870. 

Bo'naparte, (originally Buonaparte.) the patronymic 
of the most remarkable dynastic family, or reigning 
house, of modern times. Its founder, Carlo Buonaparte, 
a lawyer of honorable descent, and the friend of Gen. 
Paoli, was B. at Ajaccio, Corsica, in 1756, and by Letizia 
(Letitia) Ramolino, his wife, was the father of the illus¬ 
trious subjects of the following notices. He d. 1785. 

B., Joseph, sometime King of Naples and Sicilt, 
afterwards of Spain, and, later, known as the Count de 
Survilliers, b. at Ajaccio, Jan. 7,1768, was the eldest son 
of the above. lie was educated at the college of Autun. 
France, and at Pisa University. He early entered upon 
the study of the law, and, in 1792, was made a member 
of the new administration of Corsica, under Gen. Paoli. 
Next year he emigrated to Marseilles, where he mar¬ 
ried one of the daughters of M. Clary, a rich banker, 
whose younger daughter married Bernadotte, afterwards 
King of Sweden. In 1796, Joseph was appointed com¬ 
missary to the army of Italy, then commanded by his 
brother Napoleon. Next year, he was elected deputy 
from his native dep. in Corsica to the Council of the 
Five Hundred, and sent by the Executive Directory as 
ambassador to the Pope. He made but a short stay at 
Rome, returned to Paris to resume his legislative duties, 
and, in concert with his brother Lucien (q. v.), prepared 
the way for the subsequent elevation of his brother Na¬ 
poleon, then commanding in Egypt. On the latter be¬ 
coming First Consul, he appointed Joseph councillor of 
state, and employed him in Sept., 1800, to negotiate a 
treaty of peace and commerce with the United States. 
Having exhibited some diplomatic skill in this transac¬ 
tion, he was sent the following year to Luneville, where 
he concluded a treaty of peace with the Emperor of Ger¬ 
many, in 1801 ; and next year he was employed at Amiens 
to negotiate the treaty with England. Joseph was now 
made a senator; and on his brother attaining the impe¬ 
rial crown, he was recognized as an imperial prince, and 
created Grand Elector of the Empire. When the em¬ 
peror sent an army to invade Naples, at the beginning 
of 1806, he appointed Joseph to lead the expedition as 
his lieutenant, Marshal Jlassena acting as military com¬ 
mander. Immediately afterwards, the emperor an¬ 
nounced to Joseph, after his usual imperious fashion, 
but in a private letter dated 19th Jan., 1806, his in¬ 
tention to make him Kingof Naples.—“My will is that 
the Bourbons shall have ceased to reign in Naples. I 
intend to seat on that throne a prince of my own house. 
In the first place you, if it suits you; if not, another.” 
But the intimation of his intention to make Joseph a 
king was followed in a few days by a plain announce¬ 
ment that he was to be only a subordinate king. “I 
intend my blood to reign in Naples as long as it does in 
France; the kingdom of Naples is necessary to me.” 
Joseph, after a little hesitation, accepted the post, and in 
the following year he was appointed, by decree, King of 
Naples and Sicily. Joseph reigned in Naples, though 
not in Sicily, little more than two years. Acting as his 
brother’s subordinate, he effected fundamental changes 
in the institutions of the country, the object being to 
assimilate its institutions to those of France. He caused 
many and great reforms, and had the disposition to act 
in the most beneficial manner to the country, but was 
constantly checked and overruled by the suzerain power. 
In 1808, the emperor transferred Joseph from the Nea¬ 
politan throne to that of Spain. In the latter country 
he met with much greater difficulties than at Naples. 
He tried mildness and conciliation, but even these failed 
to move the stern, unbending character of the people. 
During the five years of his Spauish reign, three times 
he was obliged by the success of the allied armies to 
leave his capital; the last time (1813) to return no more. 
More than once lie offered to resign the crown, but he 
was induced by Napoleon to remain. After the battle 
of Vittoria(June,1813). where he narrowly escaped being 
taken prisoner by the English, he returned to France. 
In Jan., 1814, when the emperor set off for the army, 
he appointed Joseph head of the council of regency, and 
lieut.-general of the empire. After the events of 1814, 
he retired to his estate of Prangin, near Lake Leman, 
w-here he remained until the emperor’s return from Elba 
in 1815, when he rejoined him. After Waterloo, and the 
emperor’s second abdication, Joseph retired to the U. 
States, where he purchased an estate on the banks of 
the Delaware, near Philadelphia. Under the title of 
“ Count de Survilliers,” he there lived in a style of afflu¬ 
ence, affording employment to many of the laboring 


population, and hospitality to the French emigrants who 
resorted to America. His wife remained in Europe with 
her two daughters, and resided at Brussels and after¬ 
wards at Florence. When the French Revolution of 
1830 became known in the U. States, Joseph wrote a 
long address to the House of Deputies, in which he put 
forth the claims of his nephew, tlio late Napoleon III. 
The letter, however, was not read to the Chamber. He 
came himself to England soon after, and at last repaired 
to Italy, where he d. at Florence, July, 1844. Joseph 
was a man of considerable intelligence and good intern 
tions, but he w T as too feeble of purpose to resist the im¬ 
perious will of his brother, and was, of course, wholly 
unfitted to act independently in the elevated positions 
to which he was raised. 

B., Napoleon. See Napoleon I., (Emperor of the 
French.) 

B., Lucien, Prince de Canino and Mosignano, the 
third 6on of Charles and Letizia Bonaparte, was B. at 
Ajaccio, in 1775. He emigrated to Marseille with the 
rest of the family, in 1793. He entered warmly into the 
revolutionary notions of the period, made speeches, 
and wrote pamphlets on liberty and equality. Soon 
after he obtained employment in the commissariat at 
St. Maximin, a small town of Provence, where he mar¬ 
ried the daughter of an innkeeper. Being one of the re¬ 
publican municipality of that place, he exerted himself 
laudably, and at his own imminent peril, to save sev¬ 
eral unfortunate individuals accused of royalism, whom 
an agent of Barras and Freron, the terrorist commis¬ 
sioners in the south of France, wanted to remove to the 
prisons of Orange, where the guillotine was in constant 
activity. By showing a bold front to the agent, whom 
Lucien charged with informality in his commission, he 
detained the intended victims under arrest at St. Maxi* 
min, until the fall of Robespierre put a stop to the reign 
of terror. In the reaction, however, which took place 
in the south of France, Lucien was arrested as a Jaco¬ 
bin, on account of his speeches ; and a royalist, whom 
he had saved, proved most hostile against him. He was, 
however, liberated after a time. In 1796, Lucien was ap¬ 
pointed commissary at war, probably through the influ¬ 
ence of his brother, General B. In the following year 
he was elected Deputy to the Council of the Five Hun¬ 
dred, and he went to reside at PariB, where he took a 
house, of which his sister, Eliza Bacchiochi, did the hon¬ 
ors. His drawing-room was resorted to by several men 
of note and literary acquirements. Lucien took the op¬ 
position 6ide in the council,and allied himself to Sieyea 
and his party, who wished to try their hands at a new 
constitution. While Napoleon was in Egypt, Lucien 
wrote to him, complaining of the incapacity and mis- 
government of the Executive Directory, and urging him 
to return to F rance, but the letters are said to have been 
intercepted by the English cruisers. After Napoleon's 
return, in 1799, Lucien, who was the president of the 
council, became the active leader of those who wished 
to overturn the Directory. In the stormy sitting of the 
19th Brumaire (see Napoleon I.) he resisted the motion 
made by several members to outlaw General B., and as 
the confusion and uproar increased in the hall, he hit 
the chair, and addressing his brother’s soldiers outside, 
told them to march in, and drive away the factious 
men who were no longer the representatives of F'rance. 
After the accomplishment of that revolution, in which 
he rendered most material assistance to his brother, he 
was one of the members of the commission which framed 
the new or Consular constitution. Soon after he was 
appointed minister of the interior, but remained in office 
only a short time, having had some disagreement with 
his brother upon matters of administration: and, in 
October, 1800, after the campaign of Marengo, Napoleon 
sent him ambassador to Spain. His mission proved suc¬ 
cessful ; he managed to ingratiate himself with Charles 
IV. and the favorite Godoy, and to re-establish F'rench 
influence in Spain. He induced the weak Spanish gov- 
ernment to join France in an attack upon Portugal, 
which ended by the latter country being obliged to sue 
for peace, for which it paid dearly. He also completed 
the arrangements concerning the new kingdom of Etru¬ 
ria, to be given to the young Infanta, son of the Duke 
of Parma, who had married a Spanish princess, in ex¬ 
change for which Spain ceded to France her rights upon 
Parma and Piacenza. The cession of Louisiana to 
F'rance was likewise confirmed. Having concluded these 
negotiations. Lucien returned to Paris in 1802. Ho was 
made a member of the Tribunate, and as such he sup¬ 
ported with all his eloquence, the concordat with the 
Pope, and also the institution of the Legion of Honor. 
Lucien was made a senator, and his brother gave him 
the Benatorship, or living, of Sopelsdorf, an estate of the 
former elector of Treves. His wife being dead. Lucien 
married, in 1803, Madame Jouberthou, the wife of a 
stockbroker, who had died at St. Domingo. Napoleon 
disapproved of this marriage, as he had disapproved ol 
the marriage of Jerome, because he looked forward to 
royal alliances for his brothers. Lucien. however, sup¬ 
ported the project of making his brother consul for life; 
but he says in his memoirs that he wished to have 
stopped there, and that he opposed from the first the idea 
of establishing an hereditary dynasty. When lie saw 
his brother determined on assuming the imperial crown, 
he left F’rance in the spring of 1S04, and went to Italy. 
The Senates Consultum, which fixed the hereditary suc¬ 
cession in Napoleon's family, named his brothers Joseph 
and Louis as eventual heirs to the throne, but made no 
mention of either Lucien or Jerome. Lucien, after a 
time, fixed his residence at Rome, where he was very 
kindly received by Pope Pius VII. Being fond of litera¬ 
ture and the fine arts, his house was much frequented. 
After the peace of Tilsit, Napoleon repaired to N. Italy 







384 


BONA 


BONA 


BOND 


at the end of 1S07, and sent to his brother Lucien to meet 
him at Mantua. The two brothers had there a confer¬ 
ence, in which it seems that Napoleon offered to give 
Lucien a kingdom in Italy, at the same time telling him 
plainly that in such case he must be prepared to obey 
all his orders concerning the internal as well as the ex¬ 
ternal policy of his administration. Lucien declined 
accepting a crown on these terms, and said that he 
preferred to remain in a private station. “ Be it so,” 
Napoleon replied; “you cannot have henceforth any 
ground of complaint against me.” Lucien returned to 
Rome. Pope Pius VII. created him Prince of Caniuo 
and Musignano in 1808. Soon after, Napoleon began a 
course of vexatious proceedings towards the court of 
Rome, which ended in the arrest of the Pope, and the 
seizure of his dominions. When the French took pos¬ 
session of Rome in 1809, Lucien, who had expressed him¬ 
self very freely against this part of his brother's policy, 
was advised to leave that city, and he retired to his 
country estate. In 1810 he resolved to go to the United 
States. With this view he embarked on board a vessel 
at Civita Vecchia, but was seized by an English cruiser, 
and carried to Malta, where, after a time, he obtained 
permission from the British government to reside in 
England under surveillance. Ludlow Castle was fixed 
upon as his residence. Some time after, he removed to 
a place in the neighborhood, where he remained till the 
end of the war, and employed himself in writing his 
poem of Char U mag ne. After the peace of 1814 he re¬ 
turned to Rome. When Napoleon returned to France 
from Elba, in 1815, Lucien repaired to Paris for the pur¬ 
pose, as is said, of obtaining his brother’s favor towards 
the Pope. It lias been surmised by some that Lucien 
acted from a generous impulse, to tender to his brother 
his advice in the hour of danger, and to keep him also, 
if possible, within constitutional limits. However this 
may be, he went to live at the Palais Royal, assumed 
the style of an Imperial prince, and in the privy councils 
that took place, he advised Napoleon to offer to the 
Emperor of Austria, in order to detach him from the 
allies, to abdicate in favor of his son. His advice, after 
some hesitation, was rejected. Napoleon set off for the 
army, lost the battle of Waterloo, and returned to Paris 
withoutan army. Lucien, being appointed extraordinary 
commissioner of the emperor, to communicate with the 
representatives of the people, strove to revive in the 
Chamber of Deputies a feeling of sympathy for his bro¬ 
ther; he spoke eloquently, he appealed to the gratitude 
of the natiou, but was answered sternly by La Fayette, 
“The nation has followed your brother over fifty fields 
of battle, from the burning sands of Egypt to the frozen 
deserts of Russia, through disasters as well as triumphs, 
and it is for this that we mourn the loss of three millions 
of Frenchmen!” Lucien advised his brother to dissolve 
the chamber, since he could not manage them, and to 
assume the dictatorship. Napoleon hesitated, and at 
last refused; he said that he would not kindle a civil war. 
He most likely perceived what Lucien did not see, that 
the attempt would only lead to a short protracted strug¬ 
gle, attended by additional calamities to France and to 
himself. Lucien says that he was opposed to Napoleon’s 
abdication; but when he saw his brother determined 
upon it. he insisted upon its being made at least in 
favor of young Napoleon. Napoleon smiled and shook his 
head iucredulously, but at length inserted the clause in 
favor of his son. Lucien theu proceeded to address the 
House of Beers, to induce them to proclaim at once 
Napoleon II., but in vain. After the entry of the allied 
armies into Paris, Lucien rejoined his family at Rome, 
where he afterwards spent many years in peaceful re¬ 
tirement. About 1833, he revisited England, where he 
published several of his works; and returning to Italy, 
d. at Viterbo, 1840. Lucien ranks as an author both in 
prose and verse. His published works are, Charlemagne, 
ou l CjlUedelivrae, an epic poem in 24 cantos, which has 
been translated into Bnglish by Dr. Butler, and the Rev. 
F. Hodgson, 2 vols. 4to, London, 1815; La Cyrn&ide, ou 
la Corse sauvee , a poem in 12 cantos; Memoires de Lucien 
Bonaparte , Prince de Canino, ecrits par lui-ineme, 8vo., 
London, 1836, and Re.pnnse de Lucien Bonaparte aux 
Memoires du General Lamarque, Loudon, 1835. 

B., Louis Count de St. Leu, and sometime King op 
Holland, the fourth son of Carl Bonaparte, and the 
father of the Emperor Napoleon III., was b at Ajaccio, 
Sept. 21, 1778. At an early age he entered the French 
army, and accompanied his brother Napoleon to Italy 
and Egypt. He distinguished himself at Areola, braving 
the enemy's fire, and shielding with his own body that 
of his brother and commander. On Napoleon becoming 
first consul, he seut Louis on a special mission to St. 
Petersburg, but, owing to the death of the Emperor 
Paul, he stopped short at Berlin. After remaining there 
for about a year, he returned to Paris, became general 
of brigade, a counsellor of state, and, afterwards, a gen¬ 
eral of division. In 1802, he married Hortense Eugenie 
de Beauharnais, (see Hortense,) the daughter of the 
Empress Josephine. When his brother became emperor, 
Louis was promoted to be governor of Piedmont, and 
afterwards commanded the army of the N. of Holland. 
After the Batavian republic had been converted into a 
kingdom, the States of Holland, in June, 1806, sent an 
embassy to Napoleon, requesting that Louis might be 
their king, which was granted, and he immediately as¬ 
sumed the title. He strenuously exerted himself to im¬ 
prove the condition of his people, and distinguished him¬ 
self on several occasions by his personal humanity. His 
love for his people made him refuse without hesitation 
the offer made to him by his brother of the Spanish 
crown; but his opposition to Napoleon's plans, which he 
thought were prejudicial to the nation’s welfare, gave 
great dissatisfaction at Paris. His wife was a most de¬ 


voted adherent of Napoleon, and her inability to con¬ 
trol her husband, the death of her eldest son in 1807, 
and the state of her health, induced her to return to 
Paris, where a third son was born. She was afterwards 
seut by Napoleon, in 1809, to induce her husband to com¬ 
ply with his wishes, but Louis refused. She then re¬ 
turned to Paris, where she resided in state as Queen of 
Holland, and Napoleon sent Oudinot with 20,000 men 
against Louis, who thereupon abdicated in favor of his 
sou, which abdication the emperor rejected, and, 9th 
July, 1810, Holland was united to France. Louis retired 
to Oiratz in Styria, where he lived under the title of Count 
de St. Leu, and his wife became wholly separated from 
him, though not divorced. In 1813, when the allies ap¬ 
peared about to fall upon France, Louis offered his ser¬ 
vices to the emperor, by whom they were accepted, and he 
proceeded to Switzerland, but he was not employed. On 
the downfall of Napoleon, when the Dutch threw off the 
French yoke, Louis addressed a letter to the provisional 
government, asserting his claims to the throne; but they 
were rejected. Louis ultimately retired to the Papal 
States, where others of his family had assembled, and 
there devoted himself chiefly to literature. He published 
Marie, ou les Hollaiidaises ; Documents Historiques sur la 
Hollande, 5 vols. 8vo., 1820; Memoires sur la Versification, 
&c., Ac. D. at Leghorn, 15th July, 1846, and was buried 
at St. Leu, France. 

B., Jerome, Prince de Mont fort, and King of West¬ 
phalia, the youngest brother of Napoleon I., b. at Ajac¬ 
cio, Dec. 15th, 1784. He was educated at the college of 
Juilly, France. On his brother’s elevation to the first 
consulship, he placed Jerome in the naval service, who 
went as lieutenant, in 1801, to St. Domingo, with the 
expedition commanded by Gen. Leclerc; but he soon re¬ 
turned home as bearer of despatches. He was then ap¬ 
pointed to the command of a frigate, and when, in 1803, 
hostilities broke out between France and England, Je¬ 
rome cruised off the W. Indies, and U. States, but with¬ 
out accomplishing anything. In the latter country, he 
married Miss Elizabeth Patterson, a lady of Baltimore, 
Dec. 24,1803. This union, contracted without his knowl¬ 
edge, gave great offence to Napoleon, who W'as now bent 
on forming high alliances for all the members of his 
family. In spite of Jerome’s entreaties, Napoleon, as 
soon as he became emperor, annulled the marriage by 
a decree of the council of state, on the ground of his 
brother being a minor. The Pope, however, to whom 
Napoleon applied, refused to ratify the divorce. Jerome, 
in returning to Europe with his wife, narrowly escaped 
being captured by British cruisers. Not being allowed 
to enter France, the wife of Jerome proceeded to Eng¬ 
land, where, in July, 1805, she gave birth to a son, Je¬ 
rome Napoleon Bonaparte, afterwards a citizen of the 
U. States. Jerome remained for some time in disgrace 
with his brother, as well on account of his want of suc¬ 
cess at sea as of his marriage; but he was ultimately 
sent as envoy to the Dey of Algiers, to obtain the liberty 
of a number of Genoese slaves. Having succeeded in 
his mission, he was appointed to the command of a squad¬ 
ron, sailed, in 1806, to Martinique, and on his return was 
created a prince of the empire, and promoted to the rank 
of general. In the campaign of 1807, Jerome received 
the command of a body of Bavarian and Wiirtemberg 
troops, with whom he attacked the Prussians and made 
himself master of Silesia; after which he was created 
general of division. On Aug. 12th, 1307, Jerome married 
Frederique Catherine, daughter of the King of Wiirtem- 
berg; and on the 18th of the same month, the emperor 
erected Westphalia into a kingdom, and created Jerome 
King of Westphalia. Jerome directed all his energies 
to the performance of his new duties. He was compelled 
to act in a great measure as the deputy of Napoleon, but 
he did not hesitate to exercise his own judgment. He 
set about the restoration of the national finances, the 
removal of administrative abuses, the reformation of 
various institutions, and the establishment of religious 
freedom; and following the example, perhaps obeying 
the directions of the emperor, he commenced the embel¬ 
lishment of the capital, Cassel. But though he gained 
to a great extent the good will of his subjects, he failed 
to satisfy his brother, who, on several occasions, loaded 
him with reproaches, and more than once summoned 
him to Paris the better to enforce his instructions. In 
the Russian campaign, Napoleon gave Jerome the com¬ 
mand of a German division of 70.000 men, with which 
he rendered good service on more than one occasion. But 
suffering himself to be surprised at Smolensk, he was 
summoned before the emperor, who, after angrily re¬ 
proaching him with disconcerting his plans, dismissed 
him from his command, and sent him back to Germany. 
When in the following year the French were driven out 
of Germany, Jerome was compelled to abandon his king¬ 
dom, (Oct. 26, 1813,) and take refuge in France. On the 
abdication of Napoleon, Jerome and his wife settled in 
Italy. He was watched by the Austrian government, 
but by the aid of Murat (q. v.) succeeded, on his brother's 
return from Elba, in escaping surveillance, and joining 
the emperor at Paris. He afterwards distinguished him¬ 
self by his gallant conduct at the battle of Waterloo, 
where be was wounded. After the emperor’s final ab¬ 
dication. Jerome, proscribed from France, returned to 
Wiirtemberg, where his father-in-law gave him the title 
of Prince de Montfort, with a handsome estate. Later, 
he removed to Vienna, and afterwards to Trieste, where 
he erected a palace. When his nephew, Louis Napoleon, 
had become the ruler of France, Jerome was recalled to 
Paris, and was created Marshal of France, and President 
of the Senate, and (failing direct issue of the emperor) 
heir to the throne. By his second wife he had three 
children. Prince Napoleon Jerome, Princess Mathilde,and 
one who died young. Jerome d. in Paris, 1860. 


B ., Marie Elise, (Grand-Duchess of Tuscany.) Se* 
Bacchiochi. 

B., Marie Pauline. See Borghese, (Princess). 

£., Caroline, (Queen of Naples.) See Caroline. 
B., Napoleon Francois, (Due de Reichstadt!) See 
Napoleon II. 

B., Charles Louis Napoleon. See Napoleon III. 

B., Charles Lucien Jules, Prince de Canino, eldest 
son of Lucien B.. B. at Paris, 1803. He acquired great 
distinction as a naturalist; and in ornithology especially 
was considered one of the first authorities of his day. 
His chief works are, a continuation of W ilson’s Orni¬ 
thology of America, in 4 vols. folio; and Iconugrafia della 
Fauna Italica, a splendidly illustrated work in 3 vols. 
folio. He was always the zealous friend and patron of 
science, and for many years the chief promoter of the 
annual congresses of the scientific men of Italy. D. 1857. 

B., Louis Lucien, (Prince,) brother of the above, b. in 
Englaud, 1813. In 1848, he was returned to the French 
Constituent Assembly by the inhabitants of Corsica. 
In 1849, he was returned to the same body by the dep. 
Seine. On the re-establishment of the empire, in Dec. 
1852, he was appointed senator. Prince Lucien was for 
many years engaged in superintending the translation 
of portions of the English version of the Scriptures into 
the various dialects spoken in England, Wales, and Scot¬ 
land, and had the Parable of the Sower translated into 72 
of the languages and dialects of Europe. Of these 
works the prince had printed only a very limited num¬ 
ber of copies. He is said to have been greatly interested 
in chemical researches, wrote on chemical science, and 
was the author cf several minor works in the Basque 
language. He had the reputation of being one of the 
most accomplished linguists of the day. D. Nov. 3,1891. 

B., Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul, (JLrome.)— See 
Napoleon, (Prince.) 

B., Mathilde, (Princess.) —See Mathilde, (Princess.) 
See Bonaparte et Son Temps, also Lucien B. et Ses Me¬ 
moires, by Jung, Paris, 1882. 

l>oii';t|>nr1 1 ‘. in 111., a v. of Du Page co., 25 m. W. by S. 
of Chicago.—In Iowa, a post-village of Van Buren co. 

Bonapar'tean, a. Treating of, or belonging to, Bona¬ 
parte, or bis dynasty; as, Bnuapartean relics. 

Bo'napartism, n. The policy inaugurated by Napo¬ 
leon Bonaparte, and continued by bis imperial successor. 

Bo'napartist, n. A person attached to the family, 
fortunes, or policy of the Bonaparte dynasty. 

Bo'na Peritu'ra, n. pi. [Lat.] (Law.) Perishable 
goods. An executor, administrator, or trustee is bound to 
use due diligence in disposing of perishable goods, such ac 
fattened cattle, grain, fruit, or any other article which 
may be the worse for keeping. 

Bon A'qua, in Tennessee, a post-office of Hickman co. 

Bona Bo'ba, n. [It. and Sp., “a fine robe.”] A finely 
dressed woman of pleasure; a showy woman of loose 
morals; a courtesan. 

Bonas'sus, n. A kind of Bison or Buffalo, q. v. 

Bona veil t lira. (St.,) an Italian friar of the order of 
St. Francis, b. in Tuscany, 1221. He was sent by his 
superiors to Paris, where he, as well as Thomas Aquinas, 
of the Dominican order, became involved in contentions 
with the university, which denied the academical honors 
to individuals of the mendicant orders. It was not till 
1257 that he received his doctor’s degree. He had al¬ 
ready been elected general of his order, in which capacity 
be enforced a strict discipline, giving himself the first 
example of implicit adherence to the monastic rule. 
He retired to the convent of Mount Alvernia in Tuscany, 
where he wrote Vita Santi Francisci, and also an ascetic 
work, ltinerarium mentis in Deum, for which last he re¬ 
ceived the appellation of the “Seraphic Doctor.” He D. 
July 15,1274, from sheer ascetic exhaustion. Dante, who 
wrote shortly afterwards, places him among the saints 
of his “ Paradiso.” In 1482, ho was formally canonized 
by Sixtus IV., and in 1587 was ranked by Sixtus V.as tne 
6 th of the great doctors of the church. 

Bonaven'ture, in prov. of Quebec, an E. co., con¬ 
taining an area of 3,290 sq. m. Cap. New Carlisle. 
Pop. in 1895, abt 20,000. 

Bonavista, ( bo'na-vees'ta .) One of the Cape de Verb 
Islands, q. v. 

Bonavista. a cape, telegraph station,and bay of New¬ 
foundland, on the S.E. coast. Lat. of bay 48° 42' N., 
and Lon. 53° 8' VY. — Also a district of Newfoundland. 

Bon-bon, ( bong'bong ,) n. [Fr., goody-goody.] A sugar¬ 
plum ; a confection of fruit, chocolate, Ac., in crystal¬ 
lized sugar. 

Bon'brook, in Virginia, a po6t-oflfice of Franklin co. 

Bonctianip, Charles Melchior Artus, Marquis de, 

( bong-shan,) b. at Jouverdeil, France, in 1759, was one of 
the bravest leaders of the Vendean party in the civil 
war consequent upon the French revolution. lie re¬ 
ceived a fatal shot in the breast in the sanguinary en¬ 
counter at Chollet, Oct. 17, 1793, and when his followers 
vowed to avengo his death on 5,000 republican prisoners, 
the dying hero exclaimed: “ Spare your prisoners, I 
command it.” This last command was obeyed. 

Bon-ehretien, (bnng-kret'yen,) n. [Fr., good Chris¬ 
tian.] A species of large French pear. 

Bond. to. [A. S. bond, from bindan, to bind.] Anything 
that binds, fastens, or confines, or which holds thing* 
together; a band; a tie; a cord; a chain; a ligament. 

— (pi.) Chains; imprisonment; captivity; durance. 

“ Whom I perceived to have nothing laid to his charge worthy 
of death, or of bonds." — Acts xxiii, 29. 

—Cementing influence; cause of union; link of connec¬ 
tion ; binding influence; as the. bonds of affection. 

“ Love cools, brothers divide, and the bond is cracked twist 
son and father." — Shalt*. 







BOND 


BONE 


BONE 


385 


v-An obligation Imposing a moral duty as by a pledge, 

promise, and so forth; as, my word is my bond. 

(Masonry.) The connection established among the 
Stones or bricks in a wall, by disposing them so as to 
overlap each other. — See Brick-laying. 

(Law.) A deed whereby the obligor or party binding 
himself, obliges himself, his heirs, executors, and ad¬ 
ministrators, to pay a certain sum of money, called the 
penalty, to another (the obligee), at a day appointed. 
There is a condition added, that if the obligor does some 
particular act, the obligation shall be void, or else re¬ 
main in full force. In case this condition is not per¬ 
formed, the bond becomes forfeited or absolute at law, 
and charges the obligor while living, and after his death 
the obligation descends on the heir, who (in default of 
personal assets in the hands of the executor or adminis¬ 
trator) is bound to discharge it, provided he has real 
assets by descent. The condition is usually (although 
not necessarily) included in the same deed, and at the 
foot of the obligation.—The bond without a condition is 
termed single (or simplex obligatio), and becomes single 
by forfeiture, on non-performance of the condition. At 
law, the whole penalty mentioned in the bond was re¬ 
coverable on such non-performance. But by the inter¬ 
position of equity, the obligee was discharged from 
paying more than the sum to which the obligor was 
reasonably entitled; viz., his principal, interest, and 
expenses, if the bond was for payment of a debt; or the 
damages accruing to him, if it was for the performance of 
a stipulated act. But by 4 and 5 Anne c. 16, it was 
enacted that in case of a bond conditioned for payment of 
money, the payment of the sum due, with interest and 
costs, even though the bond be forfeited and suit com¬ 
menced thereon, shall be a full satisfaction and dis¬ 
charge ; and on this footing the law now stands.— A 
bond on which neither principal nor interest has been 
demanded for twenty years will be presumed to have 
been satisfied; but length of time is not, strictly, a legal 
bar, but only a ground for the jury to presume satisfac¬ 
tion. In a bond where several are bound severally, 
the obligee may, at his election, sue all the obligors 
together, or each of them apart, and have several judg¬ 
ments and executions : but he shall have satisfaction but 
once; for if it be by one only, that is sufficient to dis¬ 
charge the debt. 

Bond, a, (for bound.) Bound ; in a state of servitude or 
captivity. 

“ Whether we be Jews or Gentiles, whether we be bond or free.” 

1 Cor. xii. 13. 

— v. a. To give bond for; to secure payment of by giving a 
bond ; as, to bond goods at the Custom House. 

Bond, William Cranch, m a., an eminent American as¬ 
tronomer, and Director of the Astronomical Observatory 
in Harvard College, b. at Portland, Maine, 1789. At an 
early age he learned the business of watchmaking, and 
made the first chronometer in this country. His at¬ 
tention was first attracted to astronomy by an eclipse 
which occurred in 1806. He was one of the earliest dis¬ 
coverers, in the U. States, of the comet of 1811. In 1838 
he was appointed by the U. S. Navy department to pros¬ 
ecute a series of observations in connection with an 
exploring expedition under command of Capt. Wilkes. 
In 1840 he became Astronomical director to the uni¬ 
versity. He is the author of the parts of the Annals 
of the Observatory of Harvard College, for 1855-56. Ce¬ 
lestial photography was by him first recognized as a 
possible art, and conducted through its earlier stages. 
The connection of the sidereal clock with the galvanic 
circles was first used by Mr. B. in recording astronomi¬ 
cal observations. D. 1859. 

Bond, in Illinois, a S.W. central co. Area, 400 sq.m. 
It is drained by Shoal Creek, East and West forks, and 
the Kaskaskia River. Surface. Undulating prairie. Soil. 
Excellent. Cap. Greenville. 

—A township of Lawrence co. 

Bond'age, n. [See Bond.] State of being bound; state 
of restraint; durance: thraldom; slavery, or involun¬ 
tary servitude; captivity; imprisonment; as, a house of 
bondage. 

** A day, an hour of virtuous liberty 
Is worth a whole eternity in bondage.” — Addison. 

—Tie of duty or obligation; moral restraint or influence; 
binding power. 

“If she has a straggle for honour, she is in a bondage to love." Pope. 

(Old Eng. Law.) Villenage, q. v. 

Bond-creditor, n. (Law.) A creditor whose debt is 
secured by a bond 

Bond-debt, n. (Law.) A debt secured by the protec¬ 
tion of a bond. 

Bond'ed, p. a Secured by bond, as custom duties; that 
which lies under a bond to pay duty, as bonded goods. 

Bond'ed-war cl louse, n. A warehouse for the safe 
custody of bonded goods. 

Bond, ( English.) See Brick-laying. 

Bond'er. n. One who executes a bond on joods. 

Bond'ers, n, pi. (Building.) See Bond-stones. 

Bond, (Flemish.) See Brick-laying. 

Bonding, n. The act of depositing goods, liable to 
duty, in a government bonded-warehouse, in which place 
they remain until the duty is paid. 

Bond'-maid, n. A female slave, or servant whose 
labor is compulsory. 

*• Good sister, wrong me not, nor wrong yourself. 

To make a bond-maid and a slave of me.” — Shake. 

Bond'man, Bondsman, n. One who is in bonds; a 
male slave. 

-* Hereditary bondsmen ! Know ye not. 

Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow." — Byron. 

Bondou (bon'doo), a little known country of West 
Africa, whose position was not until recent times as¬ 


certained. On Rennell’s map to Park's First Journey, 
it is placed between the Lats. of 131^° and 14%° N., and 
between Lon. 11° and 13° W. Though deemed power¬ 
ful by its barbarous neighbors, it is a small state, not 
exceeding in length, from E. to W., 78 m., nor in width, 
from N. to S., 70. It is, however, very compact in form, 
and has an area of about 5,000 sq. m. It is bounded E. 
by Bambouk; S.E. and S. by Tenda and the Simbani 
Wilderness (wooded, not desert): S.W. by the latter 
country and Woolli; W. by F’oota Toria; and on the N. 
by Kujaaga. Surface. Generally mountainous, and 
watered by the rivers Fo-le-me (an affluent of the Sene¬ 
gal), and the Nerico (of the Gambia). Prod. Vegetation 
is vigorous, and the soil is not to be surpassed in the 
world. Corn is the principal article of industry; its 
other productions are the same as those of Bambarra, 
q. v. Climate. Tolerably healthy. Inhab. The natives 
differ essentially in complexion and manners from their 
immediate neighbors. They belong to the great Foulah 
family, next to the Mandingoes the most considerable 
of all the W. African nations. They have a tawny, or 
rather yellow skin, with small features, and soft, silky 
hair. They hold the negroes to be their inferiors, and 
when talking of different races, always class themselves 
among white people. Centrally situated between the 
Senegal and Gambia, B. has become a high-road f r 
traffic. The native exports consist of corn,cotton cloths, 
and aromatic gums. The transit trade consists of slaves, 
salt, iron, Shoa butter, and gold-dust. Gort. and Re¬ 
ligion. The government is monarchical. The Moham¬ 
medan religion is very generally, but not exclusively, pro¬ 
fessed. — Schools are established in the different towns, 
where children of all persuasions are taught to read and 
write. The character used is Arabic; and the instructors 
are Mohammedan priests. Cap. Bulibani. Pop. about 
1,500,000. 

Bond-servant, n. A slave; a servant who has not 
the liberty to quit his master’s service. 

“ T tiou shalt not compel him to serve as a band servant." Lev. xxv.39. 

Bond-service, n. Slavery; the condition of a bond- 
servant. 

"Upon those did Solomon levy a tribute of bond-service." 

1 Kings ix. 21. 

Bond-slave, n. A person in a state of slavery; one 
whose servile condition deprives him of the action of 
free-will. 

" Commonly the bond-slave is fed by his lord, but here the lord 
was fed by his bondslave." — Sir J. Davies. 

Bonds man, n. (Law.) One who is surety by bond 
for another person; one who becomes bail for another. 
See Bondman. 

Bond's Point, in Illinois, a village of Christian co. 

Bond -stone, n. (Arch.) A stone running through 
the whole thickness of a wall, at right angles to its face, 
for the purpose of binding the wall together in the di¬ 
rection of its thickness. 

Bonds'ville. in Mass., c post-village of Hampden co. 

Bond'-timber. n. (Arch.) Timber worked in with a 
wall as it is carried up, for the purpose of tying it to¬ 
gether in a longitudinal direction while the work is set¬ 
ting.— See Bond. 

Bondu'el, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Shawanawco. 

Bond'vi lie, in Vermont, a post-office of Bennington co., 
30 m. N.E. of Bennington. 

Boml'woman, Bonds woman, n. A woman 
slave. 

" My lords, the senators 

Are sold for slaves, and their wives for bondswomen." 

Ben Jonson. 

Bone,n. [A.S. ban; Ger. bein. a bone, the leg, the shank- 
bone; Frisian bon, ban; Du. and Dan. been; Swed. ben ; 
allied to Gr. baind, to go, as the legs are the natural in¬ 
struments of going.] (Anat.) A firm, hard substance, 
composing the skeleton or framework of an animal body. 
(See below, § Anat.) 

“A people who are still, as it were, bat in the gristle, and not 
yet hardened into the bone of manhood.’— Burke. 

—A piece of such substance; an integral portion of the 
skeleton ; as, the thigh-bone. 

"An old man, broken with the storms of state. 

Is come to lay his weary bones among ye."— Shaks. 

—Something made of bone, as dice, tooth-picks, Sic. 

—pi. (Mus.) Castanets; as, to play the bones. 

(Gaining.) Dice; as, to rattle the bones, i. e. throw the 
dice. 

"And watch the box for fear they should convey 
False bones, and put upon me in the play.”— Dryden. 

—A bone with a fragment of flesh adhering to it; as, a 
devilled bone. 

“ Like Alsop’s hounds contending for the bone. 

Each pleaded right, and would be lord alone."— Dryden. 

A bone of contention. Object of contention or wrangling. 

To make no bones. To make no scruple about anything; 
to offer no reluctance or difficulty. (Used vulgarly.) 

A bone to pick. Something puzzling, or causing diver¬ 
sion. 

To be upon the bones. To attack. 

"Puss had a month’s mind to be upon the bones of him, but 
was not willing to pick a quarrel."— L Estrange. 

(Anat.) A hard complex structure, forming the frame¬ 
work or skeleton of the body in man. and the higher 
orders of animals. It is confined to vertebrate animals; 
and even in the lowest order of this class, the cartilagi¬ 
nous fishes, it is entirely wanting. The B. form a frame¬ 
work for the moulding and adequate support of the soft 
parts of the body; cavities for the lodgment and pro¬ 
tection of delicate organs; joints for locomotion, and 
levers for the action of the muscles. The first develop¬ 
ment of B. is commonly — though not always, as in the 
bones of the head — preceded by the formation of a 
cartilaginous structure, occupying the place which the 


B. is afterwards to take. It has commenlv been said 
that the B. is formed by the ossification of the cartilage; 
but this, for various reasons, is thought not to be the 
case. The process of ^.-formation always commences 
in the immediate neighborhood of blood-vessels, which 
pass down into canals excavated in the substance of the 
cartilage, and is lined by a continuation of its investing 
membrane. Hence, the spots where these vascular cat 
nals are especially developed are termed centres of ossi¬ 
fication. Until the B. attains its full dimensions, the 
parts which contain distinct centres are not connected 
by osseous union, but only by cartilage, so as to allow 
an increase in the size of the B. by the growth of 
cartilage between its detached portions, which gives 
place to bony structure when there is no further need 
of increase. There exists a close correspondence 
between the number of ossific centres in the early 
condition of the skeleton of all vertebrate animals. 
The perfect reparation of bone after severe injuries, ef¬ 
fected by the development of new osseous tissue in the 
substance of membrane or cartilage formed in the seat 
of injury, is one of the most remarkable features of its 
character. B. are so constituted that a constant pro¬ 
cess of deposition and absorption is carried on in them, 
as in the softer tissues, modelling the shaft into its re¬ 
quisite proportions during the successive stages of 
growth. It is much more actively carried on in youth 
than in middle life, and is greater in the vigor of man¬ 
hood than in old age. B. are largely supplied with 
blood-vessels. The solid osseous texture, which forms 
the cylindrical shafts of the long B. and the thick ex¬ 
ternal plates of 
the denser flat 
bones, is pene¬ 
trated by a se¬ 
ries of large 
canals, termed 
Haversian (af¬ 
ter their discov¬ 
erer), which 
form a network 
in its interior, 
and serve for 
the transmis¬ 
sion of blood¬ 
vessels into the 
interior. These 
canals, in the 
long B., run for 
the most part 
in a direction Fig. 384.— transverse section of bonx. 
parallel to the (Showing its microscopic structure.) 
central cavity, 

and communicate with this, with the external surface, 
and with each other, by frequent transverse branches. 
In the long B. of man and of most mammalia there is 
a central cavity, which is filled with the fatty substance 
known as marrow ; and the space in which the marrow 
lies is called the medullary canal. This cavity does not 
exist in the B. in its early state, but is formed by the 
removal of the cancellated osseous tissue first developed 
in its interior. Among birds, however, tlie central cav¬ 
ity, instead of being occupied by marrow, is filled with 
air, aud commuuicates with the lungs; so that the mem¬ 
brane lining it becomes an auxiliary organ of respira¬ 
tion; while the lightening of the bones thus produced 
diminishes their specific gravity. B. are covered exter¬ 
nally by a strong fibrous membrane termed the perios¬ 
teum, which serves to protect the blood-vessels entering 
them. The medullary canal is also lined by an extremely 
delicate membrane, termed the medullary membrane , 
which supports the marrow, and provides a stratum for 
the subdivisions of the medullary artery before they 
penetrate the contiguous osseous substance. Though B. 
possess little sensibility in health, yet, when diseased, 
they become highly sensitive, a manifest indication that 
they are supplied with nerves. These may, indeed, be 
traced into some of the minute foramina on the shaft 
of a long bone, but more easily into the articular ends. 
A nerve also enters the medullary canal with the nu¬ 
trient artery of the medulla, and divides, like the artery, 
into an ascending and a descending branch. B. is com¬ 
posed of a basis of animal matter, impregnated with 
“hone-earth,” or phosphate of lime. The first ingre¬ 
dient makes it tenacious and elastic; the second gives 
it the requisite hardness. These may be separated from 
each other: the latter may be entirely dissolved away, 
by soaking the bone in dilute nitric acid, when a sub¬ 
stance of cartilaginous appearance is left; the former, 
by subjecting the B. to a heat sufficient to decompose 
the animal matter, when we obtain the whole calcareous 
substance in situ. The animal portion of a bone forms 
about one-third, the earthy about two-thirds; and the 
relative proportion of the two elements is said to differ 
little in different classes of animals. It is not yet a 
settled point whether the proportions vary at different 
periods of life; but the general opinion is that they do, 
the animal element predominating in early life, the 
earthy in old age. B., when dried at 212° until they 
cease to lose weight, consist of one-third ossein, or organic 
matter, and two-thirds of phosphate and carbonate of 
lime and phosphate of magnesia. Ossein, when boiled 
in water, gradually dissolves, leaving a small quantity 
of fatty and vascular matter floating on the solution, 
which, on cooling, gelatinizes, forming a weak glue or 
size, consisting of nearly pure gelatine. The earthy 
matter may be separated from the ossein, either by 
means of an acid, or else by boiling in water in a Papin's 
digester, at a temperature over 300°, the gelatine being 
only dissolved at that heat. The mineral constituents 
of B. are used as manure, and in the manufacture of 








386 


BONE 


BONI 


BONN 


oapel9. When B. are distilled in close vessels, at a grad¬ 
ually increasing temperature, oily matters, mixed with 
carbouate of ammonia, pass over, leaving behind bone- 
black, or animal charcoal. The analysis of the human 
fore-arm, by Henitz. has given: Animal matter 31-11, 
Phosphate of lime 59-14, Carbonate of lime 6-32, Phos¬ 
phate of magnesia 1-20, Fluoride of calcium 2-23 = 100. 
The great value of ground bones as raauure depends 
upon the quantity of phosphate of lime contained in 
them; hem e, battle-fields are notably fertile. Ground 
bones are now generally prepared for manure by adding 
a certain portion of sulphuric acid to them, by which 
means a superphosphate of lime is formed, which is 
soluble and easily absorbed by the plants to w-hicli it is 
applied. See Skeleton. 

(Man/.) B. are used by turners and cutlers, but their 
oil must be previously extracted by boiling, and they are 
afterwards bleached in the sun or with chloride of lime. 
This, unfortunately, renders them more brittle and less 
easy to turn. The form and nature of most B., with 
their large cavities for marrow, are also unfavorable to 
their being worked into common articles of domestic use, 
such as knife-handles, brushes, Ac. The buttock and 
6hin-bones of the ox and calf are the B. most generally 
used. Common B. articles, such as nail- and tooth¬ 
brushes, are often polished with slaked lime used wet on 
flannel or woollen cloth. B. are also used for making 
animal charcoal; and, when calcined, bone-ash. The 
scrapings, parings, and sawdust of B. are much used in 
making gelatine for the confectioner, and also in case- 
hardening small objects in steel. A very good liquid 
mauure is made by digesting burnt B. in weak sulphuric 
acid. This affords a direct solution, containing super¬ 
phosphate and sulphate of lime, which is useful for 
grass lands or fields of rising corn. If pearl-ash is 
added to this acid solution, and the mixture dried up by 
adding powdered charcoal or mould, an excellent top¬ 
dressing manure is formed. In the Pampas of S. America 
B. are used as fuel; and in Norway and Sweden, in times 
of scarcity, fish-5, are browned in a gridiron till they 
are friable, and, with salt and pepper, form palatable 
food. 

(Med.) B. are subject to diseases like the softer parts 
of the body ; more particularly to inflammation, ulcera¬ 
tion, caries, exfoliation, and death, or Necrosis, q . v . 

Done, v. a. (Cookery.) To take out bones from the flesh; 
as, to bone a turkey. 

—To fit stays with whalebone. 

Done, a town of Algeria. See Bona. 

Done'-ace, n. [ bone and ace.] (Games.) A game at 
cards, in which he who has the highest trump turned up 
to him, wins the bone, i. e., one-half the stake. 

Bone-ache, (bnn'dk,) n. Ache, or pain in the bones. 

Bone-asli, or Bone-earth, n. See Ashes. 

Done-beds, 7i.pl. (Geol.) Several deposits of different 
geological ages have been thus named. The most re¬ 
markable are two: first, a singular mass of scales, fins, 
jaws, teeth, and coprolites of fishes formed the upper 
Ludlow rocks (England); and secondly,a thin but well- 
marked accumulation of reptilian bones between the 
lias and new red sandstone at Aust in Gloucestershire. 
The latter is now recognized as belonging to the Triassic 
period. 

Done-black, n. (Chem.) The black carbonaceous sub¬ 
stance obtained by heating bones to redness in a close 
vessel. When deprived by the action of hydrochloric 
acid of the phosphate of lime with which it is blended, it 
yields one of the most valuable forms of animal char¬ 
coal, as a decoloring and deodorizing material. When 
used for chemical or pharmaceutical purposes, it is di¬ 
gested with hydrochloric acid until nothing remains but 
pure carbon. This property is due to its very firm state 
of division. 

Done Camp, in North Carolina, a post-office of Madi¬ 
son co. 

Done Clave, in Tennessee, a P. 0. of Van Buren co. 

Done Creek, in if. Virginia, a P. O. of Ritohie co. 

Doned, (bond,) a. Having bones; as, strong-fconed. 
(Used generally in composition.) 

Doned, pp. (Cookery.) Deprived of bones. — See Bone. 

Done-dust, n. (Agric.) Ground bones, or bone-dust. 
has long been nseu with the best effect as a manure. It 
is usually applied to light or turnip soils, which it has 
rendered in no ordinary degree productive. B. is now 
used very generally after being subjected to the action 
of sulphuric acid. The superphosphate of lime, as it is 
then called, is more immediate in its fertilizing effect; 
and 3 cwt. of it will produce as great an increase in the 
current crop, as 12 to 20 bushels of the original B. for¬ 
merly applied could do. It is generally applied to the 
turnip crop, to mangold-wurzel, and occasionally to grass 
lands. 

Don'efro, a town of S. Italy, 6 miles S.S.E. of Larino; 
pop. 5,146. 

Done Gap, in Illinois, a post-office of Edwards co. 

Bone'less, a. Wanting, or without bones. 

•• I would...have pluckt my nipplefrom his boneless gums. "• Shake. 

Done'-Iiqtior, n.(Chem.) The aqueous portion of the 
distillate of heated bones. It is a very impure and di¬ 
lute solution of various ammoniacal salts, resembling 
spirits of hartshorn. It is employed in the manufacture 
of the solutions and salts of ammonia. 

Done-set, v. a. To set a dislocated bone; to unite broken 
bones. 

Bone-set, n. (Bot.) See Eupatorium. 

Bone-setter, n. One who sets and restores broken 
and dislocated bones. 

Bone-setting;, n. Art or practice of setting broken 
or dislocated bones. 

“ A fractured leg set in the country by one pretending to bone- 
setting." — Wiseman. 


Bone-spavin, n. [bone and spavin .] (Farriery.) A 
bony spavin, or hard swelling, found on the inside of the 
hock of a horse’s leg. 

Ronet'ta, n. (Zobl.) See Bonito. 

lion til's Station, in Missouri, a P. 0. of St. Louis co. 

Bon'tire, n. [Dan. 6a«n, a beacon, and fire; W. ban, 
conspicuous, high, lofty; banffagl, a bonfire.] Originally, 
a beacon-Jire; a large fire lighted up in the open air, as 
an expression of public joy and exultation. 

Boil'grace, n. (Naut.) A*frame of old ropes or junksof 
cables, laid at the bows, sterns, and sides of ships sailing 
in cold latitudes, to preserve them from damage by 
floating ice. Sometimes written bowgrace, q. v. 

Bon'ham. in Texas, a fine town, cap. of Fannin co., 12 
m. S. of Red river, and 270 N. by E. of Austin city, on 
Bois d’Arc Creek. Pop. (1890 ) 3,361. 

Don liaintown, in New Jersey, a village of Middlesex 
co., 4 m. N.E. of New Brunswick. 

Bon Har'bour, in Kentucky, a village of Daviess co., 
on the Ohio River, 3 m. from Owensboro, and 158 below 
Louisville. 

Bonlieur, Rosalie, (bon-her',) (called Rosa,) an artist 
unrivalled among her own sex for the minute and spir¬ 
ited delineation of the various forms of animal life, was 
b. at Bordeaux, 1822. The daughter of a French artist 
of some distinction, she indulged her own particular 
tastes in the choice of objects for 6tudy, with some dif¬ 
ficulty ; deriving her early instruction from a study of 
such animal life as could be seen by her in the streets 
and abattoirs of Paris. In 1841 she entered upon her 
career by exhibiting two pictures, Cherres el Mnutnns, 
and Les Deux Lapins, which established her reputation. 
These were followed by a succession of highly-finished 
compositions, among which may be cited the celebrated 
Labourage Nivernais, which was completed in 1849, and 
has been added to the collection in the Luxembourg. 
Her Horse Fair formed the chief attraction at the 
French exhibition of pictures in London during the sea¬ 
son of 1855, and almost monopolized for a time the at¬ 
tention of artists and connoisseurs. In 1855 she sent, to 
the Universal Exhibition in Paris a new landscape of 
large dimensions, the Haymaking Season in Auvergne. 
B. has evinced in her works a wonderful power of re¬ 
presenting spirited action, which distinguishes her from 
other eminent animal painters of the day, and which en¬ 
dows her pictures as compositions with extraordinary 
interest. Several of her productions have been engraved, 
and are well known. Since 1849 she has directed the 
gratuitous School of Design for Young Girls at Paris. 
She was decorated with the cross of the Legion of Honor, 
in June, 1865. Died May 25,1899. 

Bon Homme, in South Dakota, a village of Bon 
Homme co., on the Missouri river, 36 m. E. by S. of 
Yankton. 

Bon "Ionline, in Missouri a suburb of St. Louis. 

Bon Homines, or Good Men, n. pi. (Feel. Hist.) An 
order of friars established in England in 1283. They 
followed the rule of St. Augustine, and wore a blue 
habit. — The Paulicians called themselves “GoodMen,” 
or Los Bos Homos. 

Boni, (bo-ne',) an independent State of the island of Ce¬ 
lebes, in the South Pacific Ocean, with a town of the 
same name. This is the most powerful State in the 
island. Fop. Unascertained. Lat. between 4° 20' and 
5° 20' S.; Lon. between 119° 35' and 120° SO 7 E. 

Boni, (Gulf of,) separates the two S. peninsulas of Ce¬ 
lebes, and is 200 m. in length, by from 40 to 75 in breadth. 

Boniface I., (bon'i-face,) was elected pope after the 
death of Zozimus, 418, and was maintained in tlie pon¬ 
tifical chair by the Emperor llouorius, against his rival 
Eulalius. D. 422. 

Boniface II. succeeded Felix IV. in 530. He was born at 
Rome, his father being a Goth, lie compelled the bish¬ 
ops in a council to allow him to nominate his successor, 
and accordingly he named Vigil; but another council 
disavowed the proceedings of the first. D. 532. 

Boniface III. succeeded Sabinianus in 607, and died a few 
months after his election; but he obtained from the 
Emperor Phocas the acknowledgment that the See of 
Rome was supreme over all other churches. 

Boniface IV'. was the son of a physician, and came to the 
tiara in 608. He converted the Pantheon into a church. 
D. 615. 

Boniface V. succeeded Adeodatus in 617, and d. 625. 

Boniface VI. succeeded Formosus in 896, and d. 18 days 
after his election. 

Boniface VII., whose surname was Francone, assumed the 
chair after murdering Benedict VI. and John XIV. He 
was acknowledged sovereign pontiff in 974, and died in 
984. His corpse was exposed in the public streets, and 
trodden under foot. 

Boniface VIII., in 1294, terrified his predecessor Celestine 
into a resignation, by denouncing to him, at midnight, 
eternal damnation if he did not quit the pontifical chair. 
The credulous pope, thinking this a supernatural voice, 
obeyed the command next day, and the crafty cardinal 
was elected. He commenced his pontificate by impris¬ 
oning his predecessor, and laying Denmark under an in¬ 
terdict. He also behaved in a haughty manner toward 
the Colonnas, a distinguished Roman family, who pro¬ 
tested against his election, and called a council to ex¬ 
amine the charge. Boniface excommunicated them as 
heretics, and preached a crusade against them. He in¬ 
cited the princes of Germany to revolt against Albert 
of Austria; and also issued a bull, in which he asserted 
that God had set him over kings and kingdoms. Philip 
the Fair caused this bull to be burnt at Paris ; on which 
Boniface laid France under an interdict. Philip appealed 
to a general council, and sent his army into Italy, which 
took Boniface prisoner. The pontiff's behavior on this 
occasion was bold enough ; for, putting on the tiara, and 


taking the keys and the crosier in his hands,he said, “1 
am a pope, and a pope I will die.” D. at Rome, a few 
months afterwards, in 1303. He wrote several works. 
His persecuting qualities are alluded to by Dante, in the 
27 th chapter of the “ Inferno.” 

Boniface IX. was a Neapolitan by birth, and of a noble 
family. He was made cardinal in 1381, and pope in 1389, 

D. 1404. 

Bon'iface, (St.,) a saint of the Roman calendar, and a 
native of England, who was sent by Gregory II. to con¬ 
vert the Germans. Gregory III. made him an archbishop. 
B. in Devonshire, 680 ; slain by some peasants in Fries¬ 
land, in 755. His letters were printed in 1616. 

Bonifa<*io. (bo-ne-falichn,) a fortified seaport town 
of the island of Corsica, on the strait which bears its 
name, 45 m. S.S.E. of Ajaccio; Lat. 41° 23' 11" N., Lon. 
9° 9* 16" E. — Its port is one of the best in the Mediter¬ 
ranean, but its entrance being not more than from 80 
to 90 yards broad, it is rendered difficult of access. Fop. 
3,798. 

Bonifacio, (Cape,) the S E. point of the island of 

Corsica. 

Bonifacio. (Strait of,) the Fretum Gallicum of the 
Romans, lies between Corsica and Sardinia. At the nar¬ 
rowest part it is only 7 m. wide. The navigation is dif¬ 
ficult, owing to the great number of rocks, which, how¬ 
ever, are favorable to the production of coral. The coral 
and tunny fisheries are actively prosecuted. 

Bonifa'ti, a town of S. Italy, prov. Coseuza, 4 m. S.E. 
of Belvidere; pop. 3,661. 

Bon'iforni, n. [Lat. bonus, good, and forma, shape, 
form.] Of a good form or kind, (o.) 

Bonin, or Arzobispo Islands, (be/nin,) three groups in 
the North Pacific, known individually as the Parry, the 
Baily, and the Peel and Kater Islands. On the Peel 
Islands there are a few English and other Europeans 
settled, engaged in the whale-fishery. Lat. between 26° 
80' and 27° 44' N.; Lon. between 142° and 143° E. 

Bon'ing, n. (Masonry and Carp.) The art of making 
a plane surface by the guidance of the eye; joiners try 
up their work by boning with two straight edges, which 
determine whether it be in or out of winding; that is 
to say, whether the surface be twisted or a plane. 

Bonita, in Minnesota, a village of Otter Tail co., near 
Otter Tail Lake. 

Bonito, (borie-to.) [Sp ] (Zool.) A name applied to sev¬ 
eral fishes belonging to the fam. Scombridse. There are 
three varieties, — the Thynnus pelamys, the 1’damys 
sarda, or Belted Bonito, and the Auxis vulgaris, or Plain 
Bonito. The T. pelamys resembles the tunny, and is not 
unlike a large mackerel. In tropical climates it is found 
in large numbers, and is well known to sailors as one 
of the fishes constantly seen in pursuit of the flying-fish. 
It is a very pretty fish, of a rich blue color, with four 
dark lines stretching from the pectorals to the tail, on 
either side of the belly. Its average length is about two 
feet, and it is generally caught with an imitation flying- 
fish as a bait. The Belted B. is common in the Mediter¬ 
ranean and Black Sea. The plain B. is also found in the 
Mediterranean, where its flesh is salted or pickled and 
used for food; but it is never eaten when fresh. 

Boil-mot, (bdng'mo,) n. [Fr. bon, good, and mot, word, 
saying.] A good saying; a witty repartee; a jest. 

Bonn, a very ancient and handsome town of Prussia, 
in the province of Rhine, on the left bank of that river, 
about 15 m. S. of Cologne. The principal celebrity of B. 
is derived from its university, founded in 1818, and in¬ 
tended to replace that of Cologne, suppressed by the 
French. Niebuhr, the historian of Rome, was one of 
its professors. There are, on the average, some 600 stu¬ 
dents. The university occupies the immense palace of 
the electors of Cologne. The library formerly belonging 
to Cologne University, comprising nearly 260,000 vols., 
is now at B. There are many fine buildings, and itisone 
of the most agreeable towns on the Rhine as a place of 
residence. Beethoven was born here. Pop. 1895,40,000. 

Bonn, in Ohio, a village of Washington co., 10 m. N. by 

E. of Marietta. 

Bonne (bong). [Fr.] A governess; a female who takes 
charge of children. 

Bonneau's Depot, in South Carolina, a post-office 

of Berkeley co. 

Bonne-bonehe, (bon-boosh’,) n. [Fr. bon, bonne, good, 
and mouehe, mouth.] A titbit; a delicious morsel er 
mouthful; a choice thing. 

Bonnechose, (bon'chose,) Francois Paul Emile Bois- 
normand tf,, a French historian and miscellaneous 
writer, B. 1801. His principal works were, A History of 
France, which reached its loth edition in 1855; Sacred 
History; History of England (1858-9). Died in 1875. 

Bonne Femme Creek, in Missouri, traversing 
Howard co., and emptying into the Missouri river,6 m. 
from Boonville. 

Bon'ner, in Louisiana, a post-village of Lincoln parish, 
about 70 m. E. of Shreveport. 

Bon ner's Ferry, in Texas, a P. 0. of Cherokee co. 

Bon'ner’s Mine, in Georgia, a village of Carroll co. 

Bon'net, n. (Fr .bonnet; Gael, boineid — beinn, head, 
top, and eide, dress, clothing.] A head-dress ; a dress or 
covering for the head worn by women. 

—A cap or head-covering, much used before the introduc¬ 
tion of hats, and still worn by the Scots Highlanders. 

“ Up with the bonnets o bonnie Dundee.' — Scott. 

—See Blue-bonnet; Glengarry; Highlanders. 

(Fort.) The elevation of the parapet about the salient 
angle of a bastion or ravelin above the general level of 
the work. The name is also given in permanent defen¬ 
sive works to a little outwork with two faces, forming 
a salient angle, intended to protect the angle of a ravelin, 
the faces of which are defended by tenaillons or lunettes. 
An outwork of a similar kind, used in field fortification, 







BONP 


BOOB 


BOOK 


337 


having three salient angles instead of one, is called 
a bonnet Ue pretre, or priest's bonnet. 

(Much.) A cast-iron plate to cover the opening in the 
valve-chamber of a pump; the opening is made so that 
ready access can be had when the valves need repairing. 

—A frame-work of wire-netting over the smoke-stack, or 
chimney, of a steam locomotive, to prevent the escape of 
sparks 

I Naut .) An additional piece of canvas attached to the 
foot of a,jib, or to a schooner’s foresail, by lacings, and 
taken off in bad weather. 

Bonnet, Charles, ( bnn'nai,) a Sw iss naturalist, n. at 
Geneva, 1720 His studies were chiefly directed to the 
consideration of the conditions of insect life. D 1793. 

Bonnetabie, (bonntab-el,) a town of France, dep. 
Sarthe, on the Dive, 16 m. N.E. of Le Mans. MuhJ. 
Cottons. Pop. 5,451. 

Bonnet Carre, ( bon'na-car-rd',) in Louisiana, a post¬ 
village, cap. of St. John Baptist par., on the Mississippi, 
45 m. above New Orleans. 

Bon'neted, a. Wearing a bonnet. 

(Fort.) Having the protection of a bonnet. 

Bonneval, Claude Alexandre, Comte de. (bm’ne-val,) 
a French military adventurer, who, after serving in the 
army and navy of his own country, transferred his alle¬ 
giance to Austria, and subsequently became a Mussul¬ 
man. In Turkey he attained high distinction; and 
under the title of AchmH Pasha, introduced European 
tactics, and taught the Turks the management of artil¬ 
lery. B. 1675 ; D. in Turkey, 1747 

Bonn^vard, Francois de, (bon'ne-var,) —Byron’s “Pris¬ 
oner of Chillon,”—whose liberal opinions induced him to 
adopt the republic of Geneva as the most agreeable gov¬ 
ernment for him to live under. For his defence of the 
rights of the republic against Charles III., duke of Savoy, 
he was twice imprisoned, the first timeatGrolee, where 
he was immured for two years; and next in the castle 
of Chillon, on Lake Geneva, where he remained six 
years. B. at Seyssel, in the French district of Buge, 
1496 ; D. at Geneva, 1570. — B. wrote a history of Geneva, 
bequeathed his ecclesiastical possessions to the State, 
and to the town his books, which were the foundation 
of its public library. The shuddering picture which 
Byron has drawn of the sufferings of the two brothers of 
B. while chained to the stone columns in the dungeons 
of Chillon, has no foundation in truth. " The eldest of 
the three ” was the only one of his kindred confined 
there. 

Bon'nibel, n. [Fr. bonne et belle, good and beautiful.] 
A sweet, beautiful girl. Used as a term of complimeut 
or endearment. 

Bon'nilass, n. [bonny and lass.] A fine,handsome lass; 
a beautiful girl. 

Bon'nily, ado. [See Bonnv.] Handsomely; gayly; 
plumply. 

Bonniness, n. Gayety; handsomeness; plump¬ 
ness. (R.) 

Bonnot’s, in Missouri, a post-office of Osage co. 

Bon ny, a. i Fr. bon, bonne, from Lat. bonus. \ Handsome; 
beautiful; as, a bonny girl. 

Thus wailed the louts in melancholy strain. 

TUI bonny Susan sped across the plain.' — Gay. 

—Gay; blithe ; merry; frolicsome. 

*• Then sigh not so. but let them go, 

And be you blithe and bonny. — Shahs, 

—Plump; well-shaped. 

Bon'ny, n. (Mining.) A distinct bed of ore, that com¬ 
municates with no vein. 

Bon'ny-elabber, n Sour buttermilk (Used in Ire¬ 
land.) — In the U. States, a term to express milk that 
has become thick in the process of souring. 

‘•We scorn for want of talk to jabber 
Of parties o’er our bonny.clabber " — Swift 

Bon'ny Eagle, in Maine, a P. O of Cumberland co. 

Bon'ny River, one of the arms of the Niger, enters 
the Bight of Biafra at its delta between the Old and New 
Calabar rivers. Near its mouth is the town of Bonny, 
formerly a place of great resort for slaves; this place was 
almost totally destroyed by fire, in April, 1869. 

Bo no, in Indiana, a post-village and township of Law¬ 
rence co., on White River, 15 m. S.E. of the town of* 
Bedford. 

Bono'mi, Joseph, f r.a.s , an English artist, and anti¬ 
quarian author, B. 1796. In 1822 he went to Rome to 
pursue the study of art, and afterwards visited Syria and 
Egypt, remaining in the latter country 15 years. He 
was the first to point out to the learned world the re¬ 
markable monument mentioned by Herodotus as hav¬ 
ing been set up by Sesostris on the coast of Syria, as a 
record of his victories. B. is the author of Nineveh and 
its Palaces. (3d ed 1859,) and of the “descriptions” in 
Egypt, Nubia, and Ethiopia, illustrated by 100 Photo¬ 
graphs, (1862.) He is also the author of several works 
and papers on Egyptian archaeology. D. 1878. 

Bonor'va, a town of the island of Sardinia, prov. Sas- 
sari, 18 m. E.N.E. of Bosa; pop. 5,366. 

Bonpland, Aim®, (bnng r pCon,) a French traveller, b. 
1773, at La Rochelle, lie served as a surgeon during some 
years of the early revolutionary period, on board a French 
frigate. He afterwards went to Paris in order to com¬ 
plete his studies in medicine, and became a pupil of Cor- 
.visart. at whose residence he met with Humboldt, An 
intimate friendship soon grew up between the two young 
men, and they mutually assisted each other in their 
studies. Humboldt, at the same time, was making prepa¬ 
rations for an extensive series of travels for scientific 
purposes, and asked B. to accompany him, a proposal 
which was immediately accepted. They sailed trom 
France in 1799, and landed in America, where they 



travelled for five years, chiefly in Mexico and among the 
Andes. B.. during that period, collected and dried more 
than 6,000 plants previously uuknowu to European bot¬ 
anists. Their travels were published under the title of 
Voyage aux Regions EfjUinoxiales du Nouveau Continent. 
B. presented his collection of dried plants to the Museum I 
d’Histoire Naturelle. Napoleon granted him a pension,! 
and Josephine, in 1804, appointed him superintendent of 
the gardens at her residence of Malmaison. While in 
this situation, B. published Plantes Equinox tales recueil- 
lies uu Mexique, d Vile de Cuba, Ac., 2 vols., folio, with 220 
copper-plates, Paris, 1809-16; and Description des Plantes 
Rares de Navarre et de la Malmaison, folio, with 66 cop¬ 
per-plates, Paris, 1813-17 He also published a Monogra¬ 
phic des Melastoinees, witll 120 plates, 2 vols., folio, Paris, 
1809-16. B. had formed the resolution of returning to 
America, and at the latter end of 1816 sailed from Havre, 
and lauded at Buenos Ayres, with a large collection of 
the useful plants aud fruit-trees of Europe, lie was re¬ 
ceived favorably by the government, was named pro¬ 
fessor of Natural History, and remained at Buenos Ayres 
nearly five years. Ue then resolved to undertake a 
journey across the desert of the Gran Chaco to the Andes, 
but Francia, then dictator of Paraguay, instead of giving 
him permission to cross the country, arrested him, alter 
killing some of his men, and kept him prisoner for about 
nine years. At length he was set at liberty, in 1831. He 
then travelled towards thesouthern boundary of Brazil, 
and settled in the vicinity of the small town of San 
Borja, near the eastern batik of the river Uruguay. He 
subsequently removed to Santa Anna, where he d., 1858 

Bonplaml, (bong'phn',) (Lake,) in California, El 
Dorado co., 14 m. long, by 6 broad. Called after M. 
Bonpland, the traveller. 

Bonsecours, or Boneseconr (bonese-koor'), Bay, 
in Alabama, an inlet on the E. side of Mobile Bay. 

Boil'ten, n. (Manf.) A kiml of woollen stuff. 

Bont'tiain, a town in the S.W. peninsula of Celebes, 
Lat. 5° 32' S., Lon. 121° 52' £.; cap. of a State of the 
Macassar nation, and the residence of a Dutch superin¬ 
tendent. 

Bon Ton, (bong tong.) [Fr., good style.] The highest 
style of fashion; most select society; fashionable manner. 

Bo’niini>niag'num, n. [Lat. bonus.-a.-um, good, and 
magnus, -a, -um. large.] A species of plum. 

Bo'nus, n. [Lat., goodj (Com.) A premium in addition 
to an interest or to a privilege; or, an extra dividend to 
shareholders. 

—A compensation in money paid to an agent or shipmaster, 
in addition to a certain share in the profits of an enter¬ 
prise, or to a stated salary. 

Bo'nus, in Illinois, a post-township of Boone co., 8 m. 
N E of Belvidere. 

Bo'n um Prairie, in Illinois, a village of Boone co., 6 
in. N.E. of Belvidere. 

Bon-vivant, (bdng'vee-vong',) n. [Fr. bon, good, and 
vivant, liver.] One who eats and drinks well; a jovial 
boon-companion; a good fellow. 

Bon'well, in Illinois, a post-office of Edgar co. 

Bo ny, a. Pertaining to, or consisting of, bones. 

“ At the end of this hole is a membrane, fastened to a round. 
bony limb.”—iZay. 

—Full of bones; stout - strong; as, a bony man. 

Bo'ny Pike, n. (7.ool.) See Lepidosteus. 

Bonze, (bom.) [Fr. bonze; a supposed corruption of 
Jap busso, a sage, a learned man.] The name generally 
applied to the priests of Fo, or Buddha, in Japan, without 
regard to the sectarian distinctions existing among them. 
They profess celibacy, practise austerities of various 
kinds, aud dwell together in monasteries. They shave 
the head and beard, never cover the former, preserve a 
profound silence in public, and are supposed to lead a 
life of coutinual prayer and contemplation. Their avarice 
is equal to their iguorance, and no opportunity for ex¬ 
torting money from the people by the selling of charms, 
&c., is ever neglected. The religion of Fo does not ad¬ 
mit priestesses, but there are female devotees called bi- 
conis or bonzies, who live in communities under a supe¬ 
rior of their own sex, and profess the same virtues and 
way of life as the priests. There are some monasteries 
in which the devotees of both sexes reside, and temples 
in which they chant their prayers together, the men on 
one side, and the women on the other. The term B. is 
also frequently applied by Europeans to the priests of 
Buddha in China, Burmah, and other parts of E. Asia. 

Booby, (boo’be,) n. [Sp. bobo; It. babbeo; probably 
from the root of bcebe; Ger. bube, a boy.] A blockhead; 
a dunce; a stupid fellow; a dunderhead; a lubber; as, 
he is a perfect booby. 

" When yet was ever found a mother 
Who’d give her booby for another?”—Gay. 

(Zool.) The name 
given by naviga¬ 
tors to the Sula 
fusca, a species 
of G a n n e t, a 
large bird which 
inhabits the Des¬ 
olate islands, 
and the coasts of 
most warm cli- 
mates. The 
name was natu- 
rally acquired 
from their appa¬ 
rent stupidity, 
in quietly sit- 
ting on the 
shore, or perch¬ 
ing on the yard 
of a ship, till 


Fig. 385 — boobt, (Sula fusca.) 


knocked on the head, or taken away by any one who 
might attempt it. — See Gan.net. 

— a. Having the distinguishing marks of a booby; stupid; 
dull of comprehension. 

Booby-hatch, n. (Naut.) See Hatches. 

Booby-hut, n. A term used in some parts of tha 
U. States for a kind of sleigh with a top-covering. 

Booby-hutch, n. A kind of elumsy-lookiug seat, 
used in some provincial places in England. 

Boo'byish, a. Like a booby: in a booby manner. 

Boo'by Island, a level rock in Torres’ Strait, in Lat 
10° 3b' S., and Lon. 141° 53' E.. 3 feet in height, and 
mile in diameter. Being an island highly dangerous 
to navigators, and destitute of resources of its own, it 
is said to be pretty regularly supplied with provisions 
and water by passing vessels, for the benefit of such as 
may be cast ashore on it. 

Boodh'ism, n. See Buddhism. 

Boodrouni, or Bodrun, (bood’room.) a small sea¬ 
port town of Turkey in Asia, in Natolia. 96 miles 
N. of Smyrna; Lat. 37° N., Lon. 27° 20' E.; supposed to 
be the site of the ancient Halicarnassus. Many ruins 
of antiquity have been found here. 

Book, (biik,) n. [A.S. boc; probably from bugan, to 
bow, to bend; to fold, in reference to the folded or rolled 
leaves of vellum, which was the material used to write 
upon.] A collection of sheets of paper, of printed matter, 
ot manuscript, or in blank, folded and bound together. 
In the latter sense it is usually called a blauk-bo<-k. 

—A printed or written literary composition, or a volume 
or collection of leaves containing intellectual matter; 
as, the Bible is the book of life. 

•* 'Tis pleasant, sure, to see one's name in print; 

A book s a book, although there s nothing lil t.”— Byron. 

—A division, sub-division, or part of a literary work or 
treatise; as. the second bonk of the Iliad. 

“ The first book we divide into sections. ’—Burnet. 

(Com.) A register or volume in which a merchant or 
trader keeps his accounts, and records all his business 
transactions; as, a cash-book. 

In the books of. In kind remembrance. 

" The geDtleman is not in your books.” — Shake. 

(In a modern sense, this phrase is often applied to a 
debtor, or one who owes an account; as, he is still in 
mg books.)—Without book. Trusting to memory ; by rep¬ 
etition: without reading; as, “Sermons without book.” 
(Hooker ) Without authority or proof; as, he argues 
without book. 

(Hist.) B. is the general name of almost every literary 
composition, but in a more limited sense it is applied only 
to such compositions as are large enough to form a vol¬ 
ume. Short and fugitive pieces are denominated pam¬ 
phlets, in contradistinction to books, which are of greater 
length, and embrace more general or permanent topics. 
The dimensions of printed books are regulated by the 
size and form of the sheets of paper of which they are 
composed A sheet, being folded in the middle, forms 
two leaves, or four pages; and a book of this size is 
called a folio. When the sheet is again folded, so as to 
make four leaves, or eight pages, it torms a quarto. The 
quarto, being folded across, so as to make eight leaves, 
or sixteen pages, forms an octavo. By folding the sheet 
into twelve leaves, or twenty-four pages, we make a 
duodecimo; and if into eighteen leaves, or thirty-six 
pages, we form an octodecimo. Below this there are 
small books of different denominations, which are some¬ 
times spoken of as pocket-editions. Booksellers are 
accustomed, in speech, to anglicize the terms for the 
size of books, with little regard to the proper termina¬ 
tions— as 4 to. 8f o, V2mo. 18wo, 24 mo, 32»io, 48 mo, &c. 
For a long period, printing-paper was made chiefly of 
three sizes, respectively called royal, demy, and crou-n ; 
and according as any one of these was employed, the 
size of the book was large or small. As by means of 
the paper-making machine, paper is made in webs, and 
can be cut into every imaginable size of sheet, and as 
printing-machines can print very large surfaces, the 
sizes of books are now comparatively arbitrary; though, 
for convenience, the old names remain, with the differ* 
ence, that in addition to the 12mo, a not very dissimilar 
size, called the post-8vo, has come extensively into use. 
The size of the present work is folio, though printed as 
quarto .— The materials of which B have been composed 
have differed much in different nations, and in different 
stages of civilization. Plates of lead and copper, bricks, 
stone,and wood were anciently employed forthls purpose. 
The most common material on which B. were written by 
the Greeks and Romans, was the tliin coat or rind (liber, 
whence the Latin name for a book) of the papyrus, called 
by the Egyptians Byblos, whence the Greek name for a 
book, biblion. Next to the papyrus, parchment was the 
substance most used for writing upon. The ancients 
wrote usually on only one side of the paper or parch¬ 
ment. The back of the paper, instead of being written 
upon, was usually stained with saffron color or the edrus, 
which produced a yellow color — As paper and parch¬ 
ment were dear, it was frequently the custom to eras* 
or wash out writing of little importance, and to writ6 
upon paper or parchment again, which was then called 
Falimpsestus. — The paper or parchment was joined to¬ 
gether so as to form one sheet, and when the work was 
finished, it was rolled on a staff, whence it was called a 
volumen. (See Fig. 230.) When an author divided a 
work into several books, it was usual to include only 
one book in a volume or roll, so that there was generally 
the same number of volumes as of books. — In the pa¬ 
pyri rolls found at Herculaneum, the stick on which the 
papyrus is rolled does not project from the papyrus, but 
is concealed by it. Usually, however, tlier— w-re balls 
or bosses, ornamented or painted, called umbilici ox 






388 


BOOK 


BOOK 


BOOK 


cornua, which were fastened at each end of the stick, andi 
projected from the papyrus. The ends of the roll were 
carefully cut, polished with pumice-stone, and colored 
black; they were called the yemirue froutes .— To pro¬ 
tect the roll from injury,it was frequently putin a parch¬ 
ment case, which was stained with a purple color, or 
with the yellow of the Lutum. —During the Middle 
Ages, the plan of rolls was discontinued, and the form 
of leaves, sewed or bound together, came into use. The 
manufacture of books was, for the most part, in the 
hands of the different orders of monks, many of whom 
spent a great part of their lives in the transcribing of 
them. In the earliest period of the Middle Ages, the 
scarcity of books was so great, that often in a whole 
town there was not one to be found, and even rich mon¬ 
asteries possessed little more than a missal. To the 
monks, and also to some orders of nuns, belongs the 
unspeakable merit of having not only supplied the 
religious orders with the books which were in daily use. 
but those which replenished the libraries of the learned 
and wealthy, until their ingenious craft was supplanted 
by that of the printer and bookseller. Copies were mul¬ 
tiplied with rapidity and diminishing cost; nevertheless, 
they were long out of the common reach, and their 



early history discloses how much importance was con¬ 
ferred by their possession,and whatsolicitude was awak¬ 
ened for their care. The accompanying figure, taken 
from a MS. of the 15th century, illustrates the mode 
formerly adopted by scholars and monks for carrying 
and securing books; also, a singular heart-shaped kind 
of book, not without a certain utility and portability 
to its reader. In progress of time, as civilization and 
the arts became more developed, paper attained an 
improved quality, both as regards quality and strength; 
types, also, became smaller in form and finer in exe¬ 
cution, and the huge mammoths of folios and quartos 
were deposed in favor of octavos and duodecimos. The 
art of book production has since constantly aimed at 
associating the smallest degree of bulk with a propor¬ 
tionate limit of cost, while paying due regard to the 
convenience and comfort of readers, and also main¬ 
taining that inclination towards the unique and the 
beautiful, which, no doubt, will one day be ultimately 
reached and generally diffused. The first B. issued in 
what were to be the future U. States, and, indeed, on 
the continent of North America, was the Bay Psalm¬ 
book, in 1640, from the press of the “ Pilgrim Fathers,” at 
Cambridge, Mass. William Bradford issued an almanac 
from his press, in Philadelphia, in 1665, which was 
the first book published in the central colonies. 

Book, v. a. To enter, write, or register in a book; to 
record. 

• He caused the Marchers to look their men, for whom they 
should make answer." — Davies, 

Book'-account, n. [book and account ] A debtor and 
creditor account registered in a book or ledger. 

Bookaria, ( book-a're-ah ,) a town of West Africa, 100 
miles N.N.E. of Freetown, Sierra Leone, Lat. 9° 38' N., 
Lon. 12° 31' W. 

Book'-binder, n. One whose avocation is to bind 
books. 

Book'-bindery, n. a place where books are bound. 

Book'-binding, n. The art of connecting together 
the material parts of a book for convenience in use, and 
protection from injury. Books were formerly preserved 
in the form of rolls, consisting simply of the leaves 
pasted or glued together in one long sheet, at each end 
of which was fixed a roller with handles. The roll was 
read {Pig. 230) by unwinding one roller and winding 
the other. This form of binding was afterwards super¬ 
seded by the square form, as we now possess it. This 
was a marked improvement, and was adopted for manu¬ 
scripts long before the invention of printing. The first 
bound books being chiefly copies of the Scriptures, and 
other works of a religious nature, they soon began to 
have their bindings enriched in various ways. Many 
of these rich bindings exist to the present day. They 
were executed principally by jewellers, who incrusted 
precious stones, ivory, and metal-worlc upon covers of 
vellum, wood, or silver. The greatest taste has been 
shown in all ages in the matter of B , and whether we 
examine the gorgeous but clumsy covers of the 11th 
and 12th centuries, the splendidly bound books of the 
Renaissance period, or the wonderful works of the 
modern artists who honor the art of B., there is always 
something to charm the fancy and gratify the taste. 
The art of B. B, exclusive of taped work, may be[ 
divided into two classes: 1. Fine leather work, or extra 
B.. in which manual labor and personal skill are 
chiefly employed; and 2. Cloth-casing,or such work as 
is largely executed by the aid of machinery. We will 


first notice the operations through which a book passes 1 
in ordinary B. These are grouped under two main 
divisions—“forwarding,” which comprehends every-' 
thing necessary to the folding of the sheet, and “ finish-! 
ing,” which concerns chiefly the embellishment.— For- 



Fig. 387. — cover of missal of the 15th century. 

EDamel, ivory, sod precious stones. 

(National Library, Paris.) 

warding. The sheets of a book are first folded in such a 
manner that the pages follow each other in consecutive 
order. In this operation the folder is guided by the 
“signatures” (a. v.), which indicate the part of a sheet 
to be superimposed upon another. The labor is per¬ 
formed by folding-machines or by girls, who acquire in¬ 
credible dexterity by continued practice. The next 
operation has for its object to bring the loose and bulky 
sheets into a compact form, which was formerly accom¬ 
plished by beating them with a broad-faced hammer 
upon a smooth, flat stone, but is now generally made 
by passing the sheets between the cylinders of a 
“smashing” machine. After this, the sheets are divided 
in “ sections” composing a volume. The volumes are 
then adjusted and clamped up in the laying or cutting 
press, for the operation of sawing the buck, preparatory 
to sewing. The sewing is done at a well known appar- i 
atus called the sewing-press or frame, which, however, 
is now, to a great extent, superseded by a book-sewing 
machine of American Invention, which effects an aver¬ 
age saving of one-half the cost of hand sewing, and is 
simple and perfect in its operation. When taken out 
of the sewing-frame or machine, the fly-leaves are 
pasted on, and the back is covered with a coating of 
thin glue. When the glue is dry the back is rounded 
by beating with a hammer, and then the volume is 
placed between two feather edged boards, above which 
the backs slightly project. These are then placed to¬ 
gether in a lying-press, for the backing process; that 
is, the back of the book is well beaten until it projects 
a little over each side of the bevelled board, so as to 
form a groove or place for the mileboard covers to lie 
in. The book is now ready for the boarding. The 
boards are attached by the ends of the bands, left for 
that purpose, being passed through holes in the sides 
of the boards The ends of the bands are then pasted 
down, and hammered flat and smooth. The volume is 
now put into the standing press, where it is submitted 
to a powerful pressure for several hours. Thereafter 
it is again fastened into a lying-press, for cutting or 
ploughing the edges with a knife edged instrument 
called the plough, unless, as is now usually the case, 
the cutting of the edges is previously done by a large 
machine-cutting knife. 

Book'-case, n. An article of furniture; a case con¬ 
taining shelves for holding and preserving books. 

Book-debt. A debt recorded in a trader’s books, as 
against a customer supplied with goods on credit. 

Book'ei'sville, in Georgia, a village of Wilkes co. 

BooU'ery, n. A collection of books: devotion to books. 

JBookTuI, a. Full of notions derived from books; 
crowded with undigested knowledge; as, “ Boolcful 
blockhead ” — Pope. 

Book'-Bolder, n. The prompter in a theatre. 

Book'ish. a. Given to books or reading; fond of study; 
more acquainted with books than with men. 

*• I’ll make him yield the crown, 

Whose bookish rule hath pull’d fair England down.” — Shahs. 

Book'ishly, adv. In the way of being addicted to 
books or much reading. 

Book'isliness, n. Quality of being bookish, or ad¬ 
dicted to books; over-studiousness. 

Book'-keeper, n. (Com.) One who keeps account of 
mercantile or trading transactions; one who has the 
charge of the books of accounts in a commercial coucern. 

Book -keeping, n. (Pom.) The art, or science of 
keeping accounts, or recording monetary transactions 
of merchants, traders, or other persons engaged in 
pursuits connected with money. It has not only the 


authority of experience to recommend it, bnt that of 
some of the wisest observers of human affairs. Dr. 
Johnson remarks, “that the counting-house of an 
accomplished merchant is a school of method, where 
the great science may be learned of ranging particulars 
under generals, of bringing the different parts of a trans¬ 
action together, and of showing at one view a long series 
of dealing and exchange. Let no man (he adds) venture 
into large business while he is ignorant of the method 
of regulating books; never let him imagine that any de¬ 
gree of natural abilities will enable him to supply this 
deficiency, or preserve a multiplicity of affairs from in¬ 
extricable confusion.” There are two modes of keeping 
books of account: the one by what is termed Single, and 
the other by Double Entry. Both are in very general use. 
The system of single entry is chiefly confined to the 
business of retail dealers; it is much the simplest method 
of B.-K., consisting of only a Day-book, and a Ledger. 
In the day-book the dealer enters his sales and purchases, 
and in his ledger he carries the former to the debit of 
his customers, and the latter to the credit of the mer¬ 
chants who supply him with goods. By making at any 
time a list of the sums due to him by his customers and 
of those due by him to wholesale merchants, the retail 
dealer may, after adding to the debts due to him the 
value of his stock on hand, arrive at an approximation 
to the real state of his debts and assets. This, however, 
is but an imperfect and unsatisfactory mode of B.\ and, 
therefore, in the case of wholesale and mercantile busi¬ 
ness, where extensive and multifarious transaclions have 
to be recorded, recourse is had to the system of double¬ 
entry. This system possesses all the advantages of single¬ 
entry, besides being so complete and comprehensive in 
its principles, and so certain in its results, as to admit of 
universal application. It may with equal advantage be 
adopted in the most limited as well as in the most ex¬ 
tensive, in the most plain and simple as well as in the 
most intricate and complicated concerns. No very au¬ 
thentic accounts exist of the origin of B. The double¬ 
entry system appears to have been first practised towards 
the latter part of the 15th century, in Venice and other 
towns of Italy, then the great emporiums of the mercan¬ 
tile world; and from that circumstance it acquired the 
name of the Italian method of Book-keeping. The first 
known work on the subject was by Lucas de Borgo, pub¬ 
lished in 1495: and the first in the English language, a 
treatise by John Gough, a printer, published in London, 
in 1543. The advantages of the system, and the sound¬ 
ness of the principles on which it is based, soon became 
apparent; for we find it was adopted in England and 
France early in the 16th century, and has continued to 
be more and more practised down to the present day.— 
The great objects of a good method of B. are to exhibit 
transactions as they occur, in the most minute detail, 
and ultimately in the most condensed form; advancing 
from the earliest stage to the latest by such clear and 
lucid steps as at all times to admit of every fact being 
traced in its progress, and security being obtained at 
every step against omission or error. For the attain¬ 
ment of such important objects, no mode of B. has hither¬ 
to been devised at all approaching to the perfection of 
the Italian system by double-entry. Every transaction 
in business is twofold: there can be no receipt without 
a payment, and no purchase without a sale, and conse¬ 
quently by presenting the same event or fact on both 
sides of the books, (whence the name of “ double-entry,”) 
the entries being simultaneous, become corroborative of 
each other. The circumstance of every transaction being 
entered on both sides of the ledger affords one of the 
most valuable results derived from the system of double¬ 
entry, namely, a test of accuracy; inasmuch as the en¬ 
tries on the credit side must be equal to the entries on 
the debit side, otherwise the book will not balance The 
three principal books required under the Italian system 
of double-entry are, a Cash-book, Journal, and Ledger. In 
the first of these, every transaction is recorded where 
money forms one of its elements, and in practice these 
transactions are by some book-keepers carried direct 
from the cash-book to the ledger without being passed 
through the journal at all. The journal, however, forma 
a most important part of the system. It exhibits a nar¬ 
rative of every transaction of which an actual transfer 
of money does not form one of the elements, arranging 
the facts in as simple and condensed a form as correct¬ 
ness and intelligibility will admit of, and the results of 
those entries in the journal are afterwards introduced 
into the ledger, which thereby becomes a sort of key to 
the detailed history of every transaction; while at the 
same time it furnishes a luminous compendium of the 
whole. In like manner, when the cash transactions are 
passed through the journal, they are at stated periods 
classed and arranged in a condensed form, and thence 
transferred to the ledger. This plan of introducing the 
cash transactions into the journal is considered much the 
best system, though attended with a little more trouble 
to the book-keeper, as it affords great facilities in bal¬ 
ancing the books and testing the accuracy of the ledger. 
By the plan referred to. the journal is advantageously 
ruled with four cash columns, two upon the left-hand 
side for entries-debtor, and two upon the right for entries- 
creditor; and all the transactions being connected either 
with personal and preperty accounts or nominal accounts, 
—such as charges, profit and loss, and so forth,—they art 
classed accordingly in the columns on the Dr. or Or. 
side of the journal respectively ; and as the debit entries 
are at all times equal to the credit entries, the aggregate 
of the two columns on the Dr. side must tally with the 
aggregate of the two on the Cr. side of the journal. This 
too is found in practice to be a most useful check against 
posting the entries to wrong accounts in the ledger; for 
on balancing the books by taking the amounts Dr. and 




































































































































BOOK 


BOOK 


BOOM 


389 


C?r. posted to personal and property accounts, and the 
amounts Dr. and Cr. posted to nominal accounts into 
the ledger, and comparing them with the total amounts 
in the corresponding columns of the journal, it will be 
seen whether they agree; if they do not, it demonstrates 
that some entries must have been erroneously posted, 
which can then only be discovered by collating the books; 
but if the amounts do agree, then it affords at least 
strong presumptive evidence that the whole of the en¬ 
tries have been carried to the proper accounts. Experi¬ 
ence and practice are occasionally suggesting minor im¬ 
provements upon the forms of the cash-book, journal, 
and ledger, to suit particular cases, as well as upon the 
subsidiary books required for gathering together the 
facts preparatory to their being transferred in a con¬ 
densed form into the journal; and, indeed, an intelligent 
book-keeper may accomplish much by a judicious clas¬ 
sification of the facts in the auxiliary books; but the 
fundamental principles of the double-entry system of 
B., notwithstanding such occasional facilities and im¬ 
proved arrangements in the working of it, remain per¬ 
fect and unchanged; and after the length of time during 
which they have successfully withstood all attempts at 
innovation or change, it may safely be affirmed that the 
system is the best hitherto discovered. We have already 
stated that the double-entry system of B. admits of uni¬ 
versal application; and we may now observe that it is 
not confined to merchants’ accounts, but is equally ap¬ 
plicable to government accounts. One great desideratum 
in a system of B. for government accounts is centraliza¬ 
tion, which can alone be attained by a proper and well- 
organized method of condensing the facts or elements of 
the accounts; and the Italian'system unquestionably 
affords the most efficacious means of collecting and group¬ 
ing the widely scattered elements of government ac¬ 
counts in a concise and intelligible shape, and ultimately 
exhibiting them in the clearest and most perfect state. 

Book-kliowledge, ( book'nol'ej.) n. Knowledge ac¬ 
quired from the reading of books. 

Book'land, Stockland, re. ( Feudal Law.) See 
Bocland. 

Book-learned, re. Versed in books or literature; — 
generally implying a counter-ignorance of men, and of 
the world at large. 

“ Whate er these book-ltarn'd blockheads say, 

Solon's the veriest fool in all the play." — Dryden . 

Book-learning', re. [bonk and learning.] Skilled in 
literature; learning acquired from extensive reading; 
acquaintance with books; used, generally, in contradis¬ 
tinction to practical knowledge of men and things. 

“ Neither does it so much require book-learning and scholarship, 
as good natural sense, to distinguish true and false, and to distin¬ 
guish what is well proved and what is not.” — Burnet. 

Book'less, a. Without books; unread; unlearned. 

Book'-madness, re. Bibliomania; a passion for ac¬ 
quiring books. 

Book'-maker, re. A compiler; one who writes and 
publishes a book, more especially, one who collects his 
materials from other sources. — (Sporting.) A person 
who bets on horse-racing, professionally or otherwise; 
one who makes up a betting-book. 

Book'-makiug, re. The practice of writing and pub¬ 
lishing books; more particularly, the art of compiling 
from works already published. 

(Sport.) Art of keeping a betting-book in such a man¬ 
ner as to, generally, leave a balance of profit. 

Book'nian, re. A person whose chief occupation is the 
reading and study of books. 

** This civil war of wits were much better us’d 
On Navarre aud his bookmen: for here t is abus’d. ‘ — Shake. 

Book-mark. Book-marker, re. Something 
placed between the leaves of a book in order to speedily 
find any particular passage or page. 

Book'mate, re. A school-mate; a school-fellow. 

•• This Armado is a Spaniard. . , . and one that makes sport 
To the prince and his book-mates. — Shake. 

Book'mindedness, re. Love of, or acquaintance 
with, books. 

Book'-monger, re. A dealer in, or vender of, books. 

Book'-muslin, re. A kind of muslin, formerly used 
for book-covers. 

Book'-oath, re. The oath on the Book, or Bible. 

Book'-pc#t, re. That department of a post-office de¬ 
voted to the transmission of books, or printed matter. 

Book'-raCK, re. A frame or contrivance for holding a 
book open while being read.— An article of furniture 
for the temporary deposit of books. 

Book'-seller, re. One who sells books; a book-vender. 
See Book-trade. 

Book'-selling, re. The avocation or business of sell¬ 
ing books. 

Book'-shelf, n. A shelf to hold books. 

Book'-shop, re. A shop, or store, in which books are 
sold; a book-seller’s warehouse. 

Book'-Stall, re. A stand or stall in the public street, 
where books are retailed to buyers. 

Book'-stancI, re. Same as Book-stall, q. v. 

Book'-store, re. In the U. States and Canada, a place 
where books are kept for sale. (In Great Britain, a book¬ 
seller’s shop.) 

Book'-trade, re. The business of wholesale dealing in 
books is of a comparatively recent date. In early times, 
when books were scarce and had all to be transcribed, 
those who copied them usually also disposed of them. 
In the later period of Roman history, however, there 
arose a class of persons termed bibliopolce, who acted as 
a kind of middle-men, employing or purchasing books 
from the transcribers and disposing of them to the pub¬ 
lic. In the reign of Augustus, the brothers Socii were 
celebrated in this way. With the establishment of sev¬ 
eral universities in the 12th century, the trade in books 


was much increased, particularly in such towns as Paris 
and Bologna. In 1323, a statute of the University of 
Paris distinguishes between xtatiunarii, or booksellers 
proper, those w'ho buy from one party and sell or lend 
to another; and librarii, those who merely buy and sell 
books on commission. After 134(5, no one could deal in 
books in Paris without the permission of the university, 
who had special officers to examine the manuscripts and 
fix the price. It was not, however, till after the inven¬ 
tion of printing that the B T. attained any importance. 
At first, the printers were likewise booksellers: and 
John Faust and Peter Schoffer disposed of the produc¬ 
tions of their press in Paris and Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
Some instances of the division of the two branches occur 
in the loth century. The first booksellers were usually 
termed stationers, either from the Latin word station- 
arius, or from having only stalls or stations in the 
streets and market-places of the towns, as is still to be 
6een in the case of dealers in old books. Now, the term 
stationer usually denotes a dealer in paper and other 
writing-materials. At first, the civil magistrates took 
little concern with the book-sellers, leaving them to the 
control of the universities, of which they were supposed 
to be the immediate retainers, and which, accordingly, 
gave them laws and regulations, examining the correct¬ 
ness of their books ami fixing the prices of them. This, 
however, was soon changed, aud the trade of booksell¬ 
ing was put under various restrictions. In 1556, the 
Stationers’ Company of London was incorporated. It 
was composed of printers and book-sellers, who exercised 
a kind of censorship over the press. In 1662 the famous 
Licensing Act was passed, which prohibited the publi¬ 
cation of any book unless entered in the register of the 
Company of Stationers, or licensed by the Lord Chan¬ 
cellor. There are two generally distinct classes engaged 
in the B. T. —the publishers, who prepare and issue the 
books, and the booksellers, who distribute the product 
to wholesale or retail purchasers. A peculiar feature 
of the B. T. in America, for many years, was the holding 
of annual or semi-annual “ trade sales ” in the principal 
eastern cities, especially in New York. At these sales 
the books were sold by auction, the ostensible purpose 
being to introduce new publications into the retail 
channels without spending the time or money required 
to accomplish the same result by advertising or through 
traveling salesmen. The principal annual trade sale 
occurred in the summer or early autumn, and the 
second, generally termed a “parcel sale,” took place 
about the end of November. Both sales were often 
attended by buyers from all over the country, and books 
to the value of from $600,000 to $1,000,000 were disposed 
of annually. In time, however, the trade sale gradu¬ 
ally degenerated, and become little better than a more 
or less satisfactory outlet for unsuccessful publications 
—a sort of pawnbroker's sale of odds and ends on which 
advances had been made during the dull spring season. 
As a natural result trade sales are now practically extinct. 
—The terms between publisher and author are various, 
depending largely upon the reputation of the author; 
10 per cent, of the retail price is a usual royadty.—It is 
now almost the universal habit to electrotype both 
books and periodicals, except those for which a limited 
sale is actually ensured. The old book trade, or the sale 
of second-hand books, is carried on to a very large 
extent in our principal cities, often in direct connec¬ 
tion with the sale of new stock, and especially books 
of low manufacturing cost which have formerly had a 
high list price aud may therefore be sold at a start¬ 
ling “ reduction.” Many second-hand dealers prepare' 
periodically price catalogues of their books, which they 
circulate through the country, and in this way dispose 
of a great many of their books. The price of old books 
is very fluctuating and*capricious, depending in some 
measure upon their condition or intrinsic value; but ( 
frequently equally good copies of the same work may 1 
be had at a half or third of the price in some shops, that! 
they can be obtained for in others. In Germany, the' 
great centre of the book-trade is Leipzig, where two 
great book-fairs are held annually, at Easter and Mi¬ 
chaelmas respectively. These fairs are not so important,! 
or so largely attended now as formerly, a great part of 
the business being effected by means of agents or com¬ 
missioners. Every book-seller in Germany has his com¬ 
missioner at Leipzig, to whom he transmits copies of 
all his new publications, and who distributes them 
among the other commissioners, for transmission to 
their employers. At the end of the year the unsold 
works are sent back by the same means to their several 
publishers. The great advantage of this system is, that 
every new book, within a few weeks of publication, is 
made known throughout Germany and France, without 
having recourse to the expensive system of adver¬ 
tising. The accounts of the various book-sellers are also 
usually settled by means of the commissioners. In Eng¬ 
land and in France, the B. T. is carried on much in the 
same way, centring respectively in London and Paris.— 
The first American book-seller, mentioned by Thomas in 
his History of Printing, was Hezekiah Usher, of Boston, 
known to have been in business as early as 1652. The 
first convention of book-sellers for the regulation of 
trade seems to have beeu held in Boston, 1724. The 
American company of book-sellers was founded in 1801. 
The first book published in America was the Bay Psalm I 
Book, issued by Stephen Daye, of Cambridge, Mass., in i 
1640. In the same year appeared Mrs. Anne Bradstreet’s 
Poems, the first original American book, reprinted in 
England in 1650. John Elliott’s Catechism and Bible 
in the Indian language, appeared in 1659 and 1663 
respectively. Christian Sauer published a Bible in 
German in 1743, at Get mantpwn, now a part of Phila¬ 
delphia. The first American book-seller on record 


was Hezekiah Button, of Boston, 1652. The first boob 
sellers’ convention was held in the same city in 1724, 
There are now more than 600 publishing concerns in 
the U. S., about 200 being located in New York, 60 in 
Philadelphia, 50 in Boston, 50 in Chicago, and 12 in 
San Francisco, the remainder being well distributed 
throughout the smaller places. The number of new 
books and new editions pub. in U. S. was about 3,000 in 
1880,4.000 in 1885, 5,500 in 1896, 6,356 in 1900 and 7,833 
in 1902, showing a steady increase. 

Book-worm, re. (Znol.) A name given to various spe¬ 
cies of insects in the larva state, in which they destroy 
books and papers, by boring into them; such as the 
Ptinidce, Anobium, Ac. 

—A student absorbed in, or closely attached to, books; an 
unappreciative reader, or one without judgment. 

" 1 wanted but a black gowD, and a salary to be as mere a book¬ 
worm as any there." — Pope. 

Boo'lak, or Bou'lac, a town of Egypt, on the right 
bank of the Nile, 3 m. N. of Cairo, of which it forms the 
port. After being destroyed by the French in 1799, it 
was rebuilt by Mehemet Ali. Man/. Cotton, silk, Ac. 
Pop. 14,175. 

Boo'ley, Booly, re. fir. buachail, cowherd.] A term 
sometimes used in Ireland, for a person who has no 
settled place of abode, and who leads a kind of nomad 
life. 

41 The same that the Irish booties are, driving their cattle with 
them."— Spenser. 

Boom, (bom,) re. [A. S. beam ; Du. boom; Ger. fcarent.] A 
beam, tree, or pole — (Naul.) A long pole run out from 
any part of a ship to stretch the foot of any particular 
sail; whence,Jib-boom, main-boom, staddingsail-boom , Ac. 

(Fort.) In marine defences, it strong chain or cable 
stretched across the mouth of a river or harbor, to pre* 
vent the enemy's ships from entering, and having a 
number of poles, bars, Ac., fastened to it;. whence the 
name; as, to cut or burst the boom. 

(A'aut.) A pole set up as a sea-mark to point out the 
channel to seamen, when navigating in shallows. — A 
hollow, roaring sound ; as, the booni of a cannon; the 
reverberating cry of the bittern. 

— pi. A space on a ship's upper deck, between the fore and 
main-masts, where the boats, spare spars, cordage, Ac. 
are stowed. 

— v. i. [A. S. by me, a trumpet; Du. bomme, a drum; from 
the root of bomb.] To make the sound of a trumpet or 
drum. 

—To rush with violence, as a ship under crowded sail; 
or, figuratively, to grow rapidly in value or importance. 

—To make a hollow sound like the bittern. 

•‘At eve the beetle boometh. 

Athwart the thicklet lone.”— Tennyson. 

—To roll and roar, as the waves, or the report of a cannon. 

— v. t. to push with a spar or boom (as a vessel or a sail); 
hence, figuratively, to push forward, to advertise ener¬ 
getically (as a speculation, candidature, Ac.). 

Boom (borne), a town of Belgium, 10 m. S. of Antwerp, 
on the Rupel river. It has very extensive brick and 
tile works. Pop. (1895) 8,926. 

Boom'er, in Iowa, a township of I’ottawhttomie 
county. 

Boomerang (bcom'-e-rang), n. The missile described 
at length here below; hence, figuratively, any act, state¬ 
ment or argument, the results or consequences of which 
recoil with an unfavorable effect upon the originator.— 
The B. is used by the Australian aborigines in war, sport, 
and the chase. It consists of a piece of hard wood of 
a bent form, witli the curve of a parabola, is about 2 ft. 
long, 2(4 inches broad, inch thick, and is rounded at 
the extremities. One side is flat, the other convex, and 
it is brought to a bluntish edge. It is discharged by the 
hand at one end, the convex edge being forward, and 
the flat side upward: and it is thrown as if to hit an ob- 
ject in advance; instead, however, of going forward, it 
ascends into the air with a rapid rotary motion, until it 
reaches a considerable height, when it begins to retro, 
grade, and finally passing over the head of the projector, 
falls to the ground behind him. This singular mo¬ 
tion is produced by the air impinging on the bulged 
side of the in¬ 
strument. The 
B., the inven¬ 
tion of which 

would have 11 ~re¬ 

done honor to 
the most cele¬ 
brated scien¬ 
tist, has long Pig. 388. — boomerang. 

been acommon 

weapon among almost the lowest race of savages upon 
earth. — It has, of late years, been mooted to apply the 
principle of the B. to the propulsion of ships. The savage, 
by practice, knows precisely how to poise as well as pro¬ 
ject his familiar missile; and in this secret of the balanced 
centre consists Sir Thomas Mitchell’s application of the 
principle of the B. to the propulsion of vessels. Great re¬ 
sults are anticipated from the scientific application of this 
simple principle, suggesting, as it does, a means of adapt¬ 
ing a surface revolving round a centre, so that it presents 
to equal pressure a uniformity of resistance, because the 
spaces described by a body in falling are proportional 
to the squares of the times. When the same snrface is 
placed vertically, and set in rotary motion through fluids, 
it is subject to a similar law, and when in the place of 
a screw, it is equally poised obliquely. Thus we have 
in this form equilibrium, and equal resistance and 
equal strength, the propeller being balanced when it is 
first formed on its axis. Hence, under any degree of 
velocity, centrifugal action is converted into concentric 










390 


BOON 


BOOR 


BOOT 


action by the peculiar manner of balancing the surface 
round the centre of rotary motion. 

Boom'ing', p. «. Rushing with violence; roaring like 
waves. See Boom, v. 

14 Forsook by thee, in vain I sought thy aid. 

When booming billows clos'd above my head.*' — Pope . 

Boom'ing', n. A violent rushing accompanied with a 
loud roar, as the booming of the ocean; a deep, hollow, 
reverberating sound, its the booming of a bittern. 

Boo Ill-i roils, n. pi. (Naut.) Flat rings of iron fixed 
on a ship’s yards, and through which the studdiugsail- 
booms run. 

Boom'kin, n. ( Naut.) See Bumkin. 

Boon, re. [A. S. ben ; Dan. bon ; Icel. bon, from beidi, to 
ask. See Bid.J A prayer or petition preferred to a per¬ 
son, or persons. 

From which to God he made so many an idle boon . ‘—Spenser. 

—A gift, grant, favor, or benefaction ; a favor granted, or 
petition answered; as, to crave a boon. 

“ Vouchsafe me for my meed but one fair look ; 

A smaller boon than this I cannot beg 

And less than this, I'm sure you cannot give.' — Shake. 

•—n. [Scot, boon; W. bon.] The refuse matter of dressed 
flax. 

‘—a. [Fr. bon ; Lat. bonus, good.] Gay; merry; pleasant; 
jolly; as, a boon-companion. 

" Satiate at length. 

And heighten'd as with wine, jocund and boon." — Milton. 

a-Kind; bountiful; beneficent. 

41 With as boon a grace, and as bold a front, look the world in 
the face.” — South. 

Boon, in Oregon, a post-office of Clackamas co. 

Boon'dee, or Bundo, a rajahship of Hiudostan, prov. 
Rajpootana, under British protection. Estim. area, 2,291 
sq. m. It was formerly much more extensive, hut Kotah 
and its territory have been separated from it; in 1817, 
more than half the revenues were usurped by Scindia 
and Ilolkar, and the peasantry impoverished by endless 
exactions; but, in 1818, the Rajah received a considera¬ 
ble accession of territory, and the town of Patun, from 
the British. Although small, this State is important, 
as it contains the principal passes from the S. into Upper 
Hiudostan. The natives are of the Hara tribe, which 
has produced many eminent men. 

Boonpee, cap. of the above State, 80 m. S.E. of Ajmeer, and 
200 S.W. of Agra; Lat. 25° 28' N., Lon. 75° 30' E. It is 
divided into New and Old B.; the former is walled, and 
built of stone on a high hill. This city is also rendered 
striking by its numerous temples, magnificent fountains, 
and spacious main street opening to the palace, at the 
lower extremity of which stands a great temple, dedi¬ 
cated to Krishna, with many bas-reliefs and other sculp¬ 
tures. Old B. lies to the W. and is in a state of general 
decay. 

Boone, Daniel, (boon,) the pioneer of Kentucky, b. in 
Bucks co., Peryisylvania, 1735. He was a colonel in the 
U. States service, and signalized himself by his many 
daring exploits against the Indians, and also by his ex¬ 
tensive surveys and explorations of the State of Ken¬ 
tucky. In 1793 he removed to Upper Louisiana, then 
belonging to the Spaniards, and was appointed by them 
commandant of a district there. He was one of the 
most successful of the enterprising American pioneers 
of the 18th century, and may be said to have explored, 
and aided in the settlement of the country from the 
Alleghany Mountains to the frontier of Missouri. Many 
places have been named in his honor. D. abt. 1822. 

Boone, in Illinois, a N. county, with an area of 270 sq. 
m., bordering on Wisconsin. It is drained by the Kish- 
waukee River, and thePickasawand some smaller creeks. 
Surface, undulating, and comprising prairie and heavy 
timber. Soil, highly productive. Cap. Belvidere. Pop. 
in 1890, 12,500. 

■—A township of above county 10 m. N. E. of Belvidere. 

Boone, in Indiana, a central county, comprising 308 
sq. m., and traversed by the Eagle and Sugar cieeks. 
Surface, diversified. Soil, productive. Cap., Lebanon. 
Pop (1890) 26,500. 

*-A thriving township of Harrison county, on the Ohio 
River. 

«-A township of Cass co. 

—A township of Crawford co. 

•—A township of Madison co. 

•—A township of Porter co. 

—A nourishing village and township of Warwick coun¬ 
ty. 

Boone, in Iowa, a W. central county, possessing an 
area of 576sq. m. It is intersected, and formed into two 
portions, by the Des Moines River. Surface, diversified, 
and soil very fertile, containing stone-coal. Cap. Boone. 

—An important city, cap of Boone co., on Chic. & N.W. 
R.R.,43 m. N.N.W. of Des Moines; has extensive manuf. 
interests. Near by are exteusive beds of coal and pot¬ 
ter’s clay. Pop. (1898) 9.950. 

Boone, in Kentucky, a N. county. Area, 300 sq. m. It 
is drained by the Ohio River, its boundary on the N. and 
W., and dividing it from Ohio and Indiana. Surface, 
hilly. Soil, fertile. Cap. Burlington. 

—A post-office of Boone co. 

Boone, in Missouri, a county in thecentreof the State, 
with an area of 618 sq. m. On theS W. it is bounded by 
the Missouri River, and on the E. by Cedar Creek. 
Roche Percee and Petite Bonne Femme rivers flow 
through it S. to the Missouri. Surface, varied, being 
partly prairie, and partly wooded land. Soil, extremely 
rich, and well-cultivated. Stone-coal and lime-stone 
are found. Cap. Columbia. 

—A township of Franklin co. 

Boone, in North Carolina, a post-village, cap. of Wa¬ 
tauga co., 200 m. W. by N. of Raleigh, in a mountainous 


district. Daniel Boone, the Western pioneer, once dwelt 
in the neighborhood. 

Boone, in IV. Virginia, a S.W. county, bounded on the 
N.E. by Coal River, an affluent of the Kanawha, and also 
watered by Little Coal River and Laurel Creek. Area, 
525 sq. m. Surface, mountainous, and heavily wooded. 
Soil, partly fertile. Products, turn, wheat, oats, rye, 
tobacco, etc., but not in large quantities. Coal is ex¬ 
tensively mined in some sections. This county was 
formerly included within those of Logan and Kanawha. 
Cap. Madison. Pop. (1898) 7,750. 

Boone Furnace, in Kentucky, a P. 0. of Carter co. 

Boone River, in Iowa, rising in the N. of the State, 
after a course S., empties into the Des Moines river, in 
Webster co. 

Boones'borousli. in Iowa. See Boone. 

Roones'boroujt'h. in Kentucky, a village of Madison 
co., on the Kentucky River, 18 m. S.E. of Lexington. 
At this place, in 1775, Daniel Boone imilt a fort, the first 
erected in the State; and here, also, the first legislative 
body of the W. States assembled in council 

Boones'borough, in Missouri, a village of Boone 
co.. 30 m N. of Jefferson City. 

Boone’s Grove, in Arkansas, a post-office of Wash¬ 
ington co. 

Boone's Mill, in Virginia, a post-office of Franklin 
co., 184 m. W. by S. of Richmond. 

Boone'ville, in Arkansas, a post-village of Scott co., 
36 m. S.E. of Van Buren. 

Boone'ville, in Colorado, a post-office of Pueblo 
county. 

Boone'ville, in Indiana, a town, cap. of Warrick co., 
11 m. from the Ohio river, and 170 S. S.W. of Indian¬ 
apolis. 

Boon'ville, in Iowa, a village of Boone co., 140 m. 
W. by N. ot Iowa City. 

Boone'ville, in Kentucky, the capital of Owsley co., 
on the south fork of the Kentucky liver, 100 m. S.E. 
of Frankfort. Pop. (1897) about 400. 

Boone'ville, in New York, a flourishing post-village 
and township of Oneida co., 31 m. N. of the city of Utica. 

Boone'ville, in Mississippi, the capital ot Prentiss 
co., 20 m. S. of Corinth. 

Boone'ville. in Texas, the former capital of Brazos 
co., lit) m. E. by N. of Austin, and 10 from the Brazos 
ri vor. 

Boon Grove, in Indiana, a poRt-office of Porter co. 

Roon'bill. in North Carolina, a post-village of John¬ 
ston co., 12 m. N.W. of Goldsborougli. 

Boons'borougli, in Arkansas, a post-villageofWash- 
ington co., 20 in. S.W. of Fayetteville. 

Boons'borough, in Illinois, a village of Ogle co., 
140 m. N. of Peoria. 

Boons'boroug h, in Kentucky. See B ionksborouoh. 

Boons'boroug h, in Maryland, a township and village 
of Washington co. 

Boons'borough, in Missouri, a village of Howard 
co., 14 m. W. of Fayette, and within a short distance of 
tile Missouri River. 

Boon's Creek, in Tennessee, a P. 0. of Washington co. 

Boon Spring, in hwa, a township of Clintou co. 

Booil'ton, in Missouri, a village of Boone co. 

Boon'ton, in New Jersey, a flourishing post-town of 
Hanover township, Morris co.. on the Rockaway River, 
8 m. N.E of Morristown. Extensive iron furnaces and 
rolling mOls a'e at work lm-e. 

Boon'ville, in Idaho, a mining village of Owyhee CO., 
on Jordan creek, 2 ni. below Ruby City. 

Boon'ville, in Indiana, a fine town, cap. of Warrick 
co., on the L.. Ev. & St. L. R.R., 17 m. N.E. of Evans¬ 
ville. Pop. (1898) 2.310. 

Boon'ville, in Missouri, a prosperous city, and the 
cap. of Cooper co.,on the S. bank of the Missouri river, 
48 ni. N.W. of Jefferson City. This is a fine and flourish¬ 
ing place, in the midst of a fertile and highly produc¬ 
tive country. Iron, lead, coal, and other minerals are 
abundantly found in the neighborhood. Named after 
its original settler, Daniel Boone. 

Boon'ville, in N.Carolina, a P.O. of Yadkin co. 

Boops, re ( Zntit.) A genus of small Acanthopterygions 
fishes, found in the Mediterranean and in the seas of 
South America. The species are generally of brilliant 
coloring, and characterized by a small mouth, large 
eyes, and a rounded form. — This name is also given to 
the pike-headed whale, Hal ana boops, found in' the 
Greenland seas. 

Boor, re. [A. S. gebnr, from buan, to till: Du. bner; 
Ger. baiter, from balte.n, to till, to cultivate.] A farmer; 
a countryman ; specifically, a rustic; a rude peasant; a 
clownish fellow; a lout. 

”To one well-born, th affront is worse and more. 

When he's abus d and baffled by a boor. ' — Dryden. 

Boor'ish, a. Clownish; rustic; rude; illiterate; un¬ 
civilized. 

” Therefore, you clown, abandon, which is, in the vuigar, leave 
the society, which, in the boorish , is company of this female ' 

Shake. 

Boor'ishly, adv. In a boorish manner; after a clown¬ 
ish fashion. 

“ Limbs . , , . boorishly robust.” — Fenton. 

Boor'istiiiess. re. Quality of being boorish ; clownish¬ 
ness : rusticity; coarseness of manners. 

Boorlianpoor', or Bakhanpura. a town of Hindustan, 
in the Deccan, prov. Candeish (of which it was formerly 
the capital); built in a plain on the Tuptee, 135 miles 
S.S.E. of Oojein, and 215 E. of Surat. Lat. 21° 19' N., 
Lon. 76° 18' E. This is one of the largest and best built 
cities of the Deccan, though, as a whole, devoid of archi¬ 
tectural beauty. Most of the houses are of brick, many 
three stories high, with neat facades, and universally 
roofed with tiles; but the fort and palace of its ancient 


sovereigns, and many Mohammedan mosttues, &c., are 
heaps of ruins. Some of the streets are wide and regu¬ 
lar, mid the finest building is a mosque called Jumma 
Musjud, a gray-stone pile, with a handsome facade, 



Fig. 389. — boorhanpoor. 

(From Elliotts ‘Views in the East.”) 

and octagonal minarets, hut destitute of the character¬ 
istic Mohammedan cupola. The Bokrahs. a Mohamme¬ 
dan sect, who dress in Arabian costume, (claiming 
Arab descent,) are the principal merchants. B■ was 
captured by the British in 1803. Pop. 30,000. 

Booroo', an island of the Malayan archipelago, be¬ 
tween Lat. 3° and 4° S., and Lon. 126° and 127° E., 50 
m. W. of Ceram: length 75 m.: breadth, 38. Rice, 
sago, aromatic and other woods, tropical fruits, and the 
best cajeput oil, are found here The interior is inha¬ 
bited by Hurafuras. The Dutch have a settlement here, 
and it is frequently visited by the S. Sea whalers. Pop. 
abt. 18,000. 

Rooroogird'. a town of Persia, prov. Irak-Kerman- 
shah, in a fine valley, 190 m. W. of Ispahan. Estim. 
pop. 12,000. 

Boort, or Bort, re. (Min.) A kind of diamond, gen¬ 
erally of a spherical shape, and apparently formed of a 
confused mass of interlaced and twisted parts, like knots 
in wood In consequence of this peculiar structure, it 
cannot be cut like the ordinary diamond, and is only of 
use for polishing other stones, after it lias been broken 
and reduced to powder in a mortar. 

Boose, (boos.) [Dan. baas, a stall.] A stall or enclos¬ 
ure for cattle. (Used in some parts of England.) 

Boose, v. i. See Booze. 

Booseanpra, or Roosnm Prali, ( bno’sem-pra 
a river in tlie country of Asliantee, W. Africa, that dis¬ 
embogues into the Atlantic, in Lat. 4° 52'N., Lon. 9° 
30' W. 

Boost, v. i. [See Boast.] To push a person up from 
behind. (A vulgarism peculiar to some of the New Eng¬ 
land States.) 

Boo'sy, a. See Boozy. 

Boot, re. [Fr. botle, from Celt, botes, bottas. a slice — bot, 
foot, and tech, or tes, to hide; Swed. and Goth, bola ; Sp. 
bota.] A leather case or covering for tiie leg, united 
with a shoe (For history and trade statistics, see Shoe.) 

—An instrument of torture for compressing the legs ; for¬ 
merly used in Scotland in order to extort confession 
from persons accused of urimes. It was of various kinds. 
Sometimes it was composed of parchment applied moist, 
and then brought near the fire, so as by shrinking to 
cause great pain and uneasiness; at others, it consisted 
of four thick strong boards bound tightly round eithei 
one or both legs with cords, and then compressed by 
means of wedges, until, occasionally, the bones of the 
unfortunate sufferer's legs were broken ; it was, some¬ 
times, also made of iron. (Called also bordekin.) 

So he was put to the torture. wbicB in Scotland they cal! the 
boot. — Bishop Burnet. 

—A receptacle or box in a coach, wherein baggage, Ac. is 
6 towed away.—A leathern cover placed over the wheels 
of a carriage to protect from rain, mire, &c. 

— (pi.) A common term for a servant at an hotel, whose 
duty it is to attend to travellers’ hoots, Ac.; a boot- 
black ; as, “The boots at the Holly-Tree Inn.”— Dickens. 

— 1 >. a. To put on boots. 

''Boot, boot master Shallow; . . , let us take any man s horses.'* 

Shake. 

Boot, re. Booty; plunder, (o. and r.) — Profit; gain; 
advantage. 

“ My gravity, .... 

Could I. with boot, change for idle plume, 

Which the air beats for vain. ” — Shake 

To boat. Over andabove; besides; additional; as,here’s 
a dollar to boot. 

Man is God’s image; but a poor man is 
Christ's image to boot. ’— Herbert. 

Boot, re. a. [A S. bot, bole, compensation to an injured 
party, from Goth, bnljan, to profit, to advantage.] To 
make reparation; specifically, to profit, to advantage: 
usually preceding, or following, it ; as, what boots it t 
** For what I have. I need not to repeat; 

And what I want, it boots not to complain.” — Shake. 

Boot, in Illinois, a post-office of Richland co. 

Bootan', or Bhotan'. an independent state of N. Hirnto. 
stan, between Lat 26° 30' and 28° 30' N., and Lon. 88° 
30' and 94° E. : having N. the Himalayas, dividing it 
from Thibet; E. and S. Assam and Bengal, and W. the 















































































































































































































































» 





































































































BOOT 


BOOZ 


BORA 


393 


river Teesta, which separates it from Sikkim; length 
about 350 m., by from 90 to 100 in width. Estim. area, 
61,500 sq. m. Oesc., mountainous and hilly, with fertile 
valleys here and there, and a large patch of jungle 
where itapproaches Bengal. The Tchinchien is the prin¬ 
cipal river, which, after a course of abt. 150 in., empties 
into the Brahmapootra; other smaller rivers of little im¬ 
portance also drain the country. Min. Granite, quartz, 
limestone, iron, and copper; it is conjectured that the 
mountain ranges contain much mineral wealth, but 
they remain almost wholly unexplored. Clini. Every 
variety of climate prevails, according to elevation; heat 
and cold both run equally to extremes in their due sea¬ 
sons. Taken altogether, B. is comparatively healthy. 
Vegetation. All kinds of timber known in the temper¬ 
ate zone flourish, excepting the oak; fruits, the cinna¬ 
mon-tree, and rhubarb are also plentiful. Zobl. The S. 
jungle abounds with the wild animals indigeuous to In¬ 
dia; and the Y&k , or grunting ox, together with the 
Tangun horse (a short-bodied, clean-limbed, active ani¬ 
mal), belong to this country. Inhab. The people, who 
closely resemble, in most points, the Bengalese, are, in 
general, peaceably inclined; polygamous; often afflicted 
with goitre, and worship Buddha. Prod. The natives are 
tolerable agriculturists, but the tillage of the soil is per¬ 
formed almost entirely by the women. Rice, wheat, 
bailey, and vegetables yield the staple crops. Exp. 
Coarse woollens, horses, wax, ivory, gold-dust, silver in¬ 
gots, musk, fruits, rock-salt, Ac. Manuf. I’aper fabri¬ 
cated from bark, idols, swords, arrow-heads, Ac. Govt. 
The government is administered by a deb-Rajah under 
British authority; the latter people having annexed the 
country in 1865. Towns. Passissudon and Tunakka. 
Pop. estimated at 1,500,000. 

Boo t'-Cil teller, n. A servant at an inn, formerly em¬ 
ployed to take off travellers’ boots, (o.) 

'• The ostler and the boot-catcher ought to partake.” — Swift. 

Boot'-crimp, n. A frame used by boot-makers for 
shaping the body of a boot. 

Boot'ee, n. A half-boot, ankle-boot, or short boot. 

Boot'erstown. a parish of Ireland, co. Dublin. 

Bootes, (bo-o'tes.) [Gr., a ploughman.] (Myth.) The son 
of Ceres and of Iasion, who, being plundered of all his 
possessions by his brother Pluto, invented the plough, to 
which he yoked two oxen, and cultivated the soil to 
procure subsistence for himself. As a reward for this 
discovery, he was translated to heaven by his mother, 
with the plough and yoke of oxen, under the name of 
B., i. e. the Ox-driver, which is still borne by one of the 
constellations. According to others, B. was the son of 
Lycaon and Calisto, whom his father slew, and set be¬ 
fore Jupiter for a repast to try his omniscience. Jupiter 
restored him to life, and placed him among the stars. 

(Astron.) A constellation called also Arctopbylax, or 
the Bear-driver. It is situated between Corona Borealis 
on the E., and Cor Caroli, or the Greyhounds, on the W. 
It contains 54 stars, including 1 of the 1st magnitude, 
Arcturus, 7 of the 3d, and 10 of the 4th. Its mean de¬ 
clination is 20° N., and its mean right ascension is 212°; 
its centre is therefore on the meridian the 9th of June. 

Bootll, n. [W. bwth ; Ir. brnth or both; Gael, both, a cot¬ 
tage, hut, tent, bower, or booth; allied to bower, and 
Heb. beth, a house.] A house or shed erected with 
boughs, branches, boards, Ac., for a temporary residence; 
a stall or standing in afair or market. — The word is used 
in this sense in the Bible, (Gen. xxxiii. 17,) and the 
great feast of tabernacles, or booths, had its name from 
the circumstance that the Jews were directed by their 
law to dwell in booths during the seven days of this 
feast (Lev. xxiii. 42.) 

Booth, B \rton, an eminent English actor, b. 1681, was 
a near relation of Henry B., Earl of Warrington. Im¬ 
bibing a passion for a theatrical life, he ran away from 
Trinity College, Cambridge, and joined a company of 
strolling players. In 1701, lie made his first bow at the 
Theatre Royal. Drury Lane, where his reception was en¬ 
thusiastic. In 1712, he performed the principal character 
in Addison’s “Cato,” and soon after became manager of 
the house, where he continued to perform until nearly 
to his death. B.’s best part as an actor is said to have 
been Othello, but his favorite “ role” was the far less im¬ 
portant one of the Ghost in “ Hamlet.” His tone, man¬ 
ner, and gait were so solemn and unearthly, that the 
audience appeared to be under the impression that a 
positive spectre stood before them. D. 1733. 

Booth, Edwin, son of the well-known tragedian who 
forms the subject of the article immediately following, 
was B. at Baltimore, 1833. Early adopting the theatrical 
profession, he filled many minor parts, and afterwards 
made his first regular appearance on the stage as Trus- 
sell in Shakspeare’s “Richard III.” in 1849, and per¬ 
formed the character of Richard in the same play, in 
1849, in place of his father, then incapacitated by illness. 
After a tour through California, Australia, the Sandwich 
Islands, Ac., he re-appeared at New York, in 1857, visited 
England and the Continent of Europe in 1861, and re¬ 
turned to New York, where he commenced a series of 
Shakspearean revivals at the Winter Garden Theatre in 
1863 This establishment was destroyed by fire in 1867. 
B. was esteemed to be the best American tragedian and 
Shakespearan delineator of his day. D. June 7, 1893. 

Booth, Junids Brutus, an English tragedian, b. in Lon¬ 
don, 1796. In 1814, he made his debut at Covent Garden 
Theatre, in the impersonation of Richard III., and 
achieved a decided success. In 1821, he emigrated to 
the U. States, and appeared in most of the principal 
cities of the Union, performing his favorite characters of 
Richard III., Hamlet, Shylock. Sir Giles Overreach, Ac., 
and having placed himself at the head of his profession 
in this opeut t>if be accumulated wealth and reputation. 
D. 1862. 


Boothauk', a fortified pass of Afghanistan, 12 m. E. 
of Cabul. It runs for 5 ni. between cliffs 500 feet high, 
and is in some places only 50 yards wide. 

Booth Bay, in Maine, a post-village and township of 
Lincoln co., lying between the Sheepscot and Dauiaris- 
cotta rivers, and with the Atlantic for its S. boundary, 
40 m. S.E. of Augusta. It has a large fishing commerce, 
and also quite extensive ship-building yards and saw¬ 
mills. 

Booth Corner, in Pennsylvania, a P.0, of Delaware co. 

Boothia Felix, (boo'the-a fe'lix,) an insulated region 
of British N. America, stretching into the Arctic Ocean, 
between Lat. 09° and 75° N., and Lon. 92° and 97° W., 
and so called in honor of Sir Felix Booth, by Sir James 
Ross its discoverer, who here determined the position of 
the magnetic pole. 

Booth'ia Oulf, an inlotof thesea in British N America, 
being a southward extension of Prince Regent’s Sound, 
and separating Boothia Felix from Melville Peninsula 
and Cockburn Island. Its length is about 310 m. from 
N.E. to S.W.; and its breadth varies from 60 to 100 m. 

Bool-hose. n. [boot and Aose.] Spatterdashes used in¬ 
stead of boots; stockings to serve for boots. 

“ His lackey with a linen stock on one leg, and a boot-hose on 
the other.” — Shake. 

Booth's Point, in Tennessee, a post-office of Dyer co. 

Boot'ikin, n. A small boot. — A covering for any limb 
or member of the body, curatively used for the gout. 

“ I desire no more of my bootikins." — Walpole. 

Booting, n. A description of torture. See Boot. 

Boot'-jaek., n. A contrivance used for drawingoff boots. 

Boot'-last, n. See Boot-tree. 

Boot'less, a. Destitute of boot; unavailing; unprofit¬ 
able; useless; as, a bootless errand. 

“ Bootless speed. 

When cowardice pursues and valor flies." — Shake. 

Boot'lessly, adv. Without use or profit. 

Boot'lessness, n. State of being bootless or useless, 
or without avail. 

Boot'lick, n. A toady; a lick-spittle ; one who flatters 
and cringes to another. (Used in the U. States.) 

Boot'on, an island of the Eastern Archipelago, 2d di¬ 
vision, lying off the S.E. extremity of Celebes; length, 
85 m.; average breadth, about 20 m.; between Lat. 4° and 
6° S., Lon. 123° E. It is high, wooded, well cultivated, 
and yields maize, rice, and fruits. The Dutch had for¬ 
merly a settlement here. 

Boot'-topping 1 , n. ( Naut .) A term used to express 
the scraping off the slimy, greasy coating from a ship’s 
bottom, and dubbing it with a preparation of tallow, 
sulphur, and resin. 

Boot'-tree, Boot'-last, n. An instrument used by 
boot-makers to stretch the leg of a boot; consisting of 
two pieces of hard wood fitting into it, and between 
which wedges are driven. 

Boot'y, n. [Swed. and Goth, byte, from byta, to exchange, 
to divide; Ger. beute.\ That which is captured in war, 
and is intended to be divided; anything taken by rob¬ 
bery; spoil; plunder; pillage; as, they made off with 
their booty. 

" And when he reckons that he has gotten a booty, he has only 
caught a Tartar.”— L‘Estrange. 

(Hist.) The Greeks divided their booty among the 
army in common, reserving to the general only a larger 
share. One of the prerogatives of a Grecian general 
was the distribution of the plunder taken from a van¬ 
quished enemy. We read in Homer that the valuable 
armor usually fell to the share of the leaders, while the 
common soldiery were permitted to gather the spoils of 
the dead. Among the Lacedsemouians, however, the 
soldiery were forbidden to plunder the conquered, al¬ 
though, in certain instances, a portion of the spoils was 
dedicated to the gods, while some other parts were re¬ 
served for the highest commanders. After the battle of 
Hatsea, which took place 8l)0 years subsequently to the 
Trojan war, the spoils of the Persians were regulated by 
the generals, who, after setting apart a portion for the 
decoration of the temples, shared the remainder among 
the soldiery. From that time the plunder was sold, (the 
proceeds being applied to the decoration of the temples,) 
to the soldiers, and to the generals and their friends. 
By the military discipline of the Romans, spoils taken 
from the enemy belonged to the republic, particular 
persons having no right to them. The generals, who 
piqued themselves on their probity, carried it iutact to 
the public treasury. Sometimes, indeed, they divided it 
among the soldiery, to animate them, and to serve in lieu 
of reward; but this distribution depended entirely upon 
the generals, who were bound to conduct themselves in 
its distribution with great equity and moderation; 
otherwise it became a crime of peculation to lay hands 
upon the pillage, which was considered as the rightful 
property of the State. The consuls Romulius and Ve- 
turius were condemned for having sold the booty taken 
from the J5qui. Booty among the Jews was divided into 
equal parts between the army and the people, though, 
under the kings, a different mode of distribution ob¬ 
tained. (Num. xxxi. 27.)—According to Calniet, the Mo¬ 
hammedan practice was to allow two-thirds of the B. 
to the army, the other third to God, to Mohammed and 
his descendants, and to orphans, pilgrims, and the poor. 
In modern times the victor’s share is generally termed 
prize-money, (q. v.,) and in the East, loot. 

Booze, Boose, Bouse, v. i. [Du. buysen, to drink 
heavily.] To drink lavishly or excessively; to tope; to 
fuddle’; to ply one’s self with liquor. 

"And in his hand did bear a bousing can, 

Of which he sipp’d .”—Faerie Queene. 

Booz'er, n. A tippler; one who drinks heavily; a 

i fuddler. 


1 Booa'5% Boos'y, Iloil'sy, a. Inebriated; fuddled; 

overcome with liquor. 

** With a long legend of romantic things. 

Which in his cups the boozy poet sings.”— Dryden. 

Bo-peep', 7i. A kind of advancing and retiring, or hiding 
the face, and after looking, crying bo! uc is sometimes 
done with children for their amusement. 

“ That such a king should play bo-pcev. 

And go the fools amoug.”— Shake. 

Bopp, Franz, a German philologist, b. at Mayence, 
1791. His early education was conducted at Aschaflen- 
burg, where he studied under Professor Vindischniann, 
who filled the chair of Philosophy and History in the 
university of that town. By the advice of tnis learned 
man and profound Orientalist, (the disciple of Schelling,) 
Bopp resolved to dedicate himself entirely to Oriental 
literature. Having finished his elementary studies, he 
set out in 1812, to make himself acquainted with Indian 
languages, supported by a small pension allowed him by 
the king of Bavaria. In Paris, he was encouraged by 
M. Sylvestre De Sacyand August Wilhelm bchlegel, and 
completed his studies in London and Gottingen. On his 
return to Prussia, he was appointed professor of San¬ 
skrit in the University of Berlin; in 1842 he was created 
Chevalier of the Order of Merit, and in 1857, the French 
Institute nominated him foreign associate. Professor 
B.’s philological labors have given quite a new character 
to this science. His great work, the Comparative Gram¬ 
mar of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Ancient 
Slavic, Gothic, and German (“ YergleichendeGrammatik 
des Sanskrit,” Ac., Berlin, 1833-49; 2d edition, entirely 
revised, 1857,) contains a complete analysis of the gram¬ 
matical form of the Indo-Germanic languages; and the 
general laws he deduces from them are highly credit¬ 
able to his perspicuity. His writings, which are both 
numerous and voluminous, have greatly facilitated the 
study of the Sanskrit language, and his translations of 
various Indian classics have contributed largely to onr 
knowledge of Oriental poetry, morals, and philosophy, 
as exhibited in the ancient literature of India. D. 1867. 

Bop part, (anc. Bandobrigu,) a town of Prussia, prov. 
Rhine, on the left bank of the latter river, 9 in. S. of 
Coblentz. It is a very ancient place, known to the Ro¬ 
mans, and was, in the Middle Ages, an imperial city, 
several councils having been held in it. It is a narrow- 
streeted, quaint, out-of-the-world town. Pop. 4,842. 

Boq lie's Freeli, in Ohio, falls into the Scioto River in 
Delaware co. 

Boquet, in New York, a river of Essex co., emptying 
into Lake Champlain. 

Bora, Katharina von, the wife of Luther, q . t>. 

Bor'able, a. That may be bored, (r.) 

lioraeliio. (bo-rdt'cho,) n. [Sp. borracho, drunk.] A 
drunkard, (o.) 

“ How you stink of wine I D'ye think my niece will ever endure 
such a borachio f ”— Congreve. 

Boracic Acid, ( bo-rds’ic .) [From Ar. haurac.a species 
of nitre.] ( Chem.) This acid, which may be regarded as 
a teroxide of boron, is the only known compound of ox¬ 
ygen and boron. It is obtained in a free state from the 
volcanic districts in the N. of Italy, where it issues from 
the earth in the form of vapor, accompanied by violent 
jets of steam, which are known in the neighborhood as 
sqffinni or fumerolles. The evaporation is conducted in 
shallow leaden evaporating pans (B, Fig. 390), under 
which the steam from the soffioni is conducted through 
the flues (A) constructed for that purpose. During the 



Fig. 390. — boracic lagoon, and evaporating pans. 


evaporation, great quantities of sulphate of lime are de¬ 
posited, which require removal from time to time. 
About 750 tons of crude B. acid are annually exported 
from Tuscany. The crude acid is contaminated with 25 
per cent, of sulphate of ammonia and alumina, and other 
saline impurities. B. acid is used principally for making 
borax, or biborate of soda. B. acid is formed in the lab¬ 
oratory by dissolving purified borax in four parts of boil¬ 
ing water, and adding to the hot solution a quantity of 
sulphuric acid, equal to one-fourth of the borax used. On 
cooling, B. acid crystallizes out in pearly scales, con¬ 
taining three equivalents of water. These crystals con¬ 
tain a sma" quantity of sulphuric acid, from which thoy 
are freed l>., washing, drying, and fusing them in a pla¬ 
tinum crucible. On re-dissolving the fused acid in four 
parts of water, and re-crystallizing, it is obtained per- 














394 


BORA 


BORD 


BORP 


fectly pure. B. acid, on being strongly heated, becomes 
anhydrous; and at a red heat it fuses into a transparent 
giass, which remains clear as it cools. It soon crumbles 
to pieces by absorbing water from the air. B. acid com¬ 
municates to its compounds the property of fusibility; 
hence the use of many borates, more especially the bi¬ 
borate of soda, as fluxes. It dissolves in three times its 
weight of boiling water, but is very insoluble in cold. 
The solution is remarkable for possessing the properties 
of an alkali when tested with turmeric paper, which it 
changes to a deep brown. Even to litmus it only gives 
a slight reddish-purple tinge. When a solution of B. 
acid is evaporated, a certain quantity of the acid rises 
with the steam; and this is the cause of the fumerolles 
described above as existing in Tuscany. Anhydrous B. 
acid is but slowly volatilized by heat. It enters into 
combination with alkaline bases in several proportions, 
resembling silicic acid in this as well as in other partic¬ 
ulars. A sexborate and triborate of potash have been 
obtained; and although one contains six equivalents of 
acid and the other three, they possess the property of 
restoring the color of reddened litmus like an alkali. B. 
acid dissolves in alcohol, and burns with a characteristic 
green flame, with the exception of biborate of soda. The 
borates are not very important salts, and need not be 
alluded to here, further than to mention that, as a rule, 
alkaline borates are freely soluble, while those of the 
other bases are either insoluble or very sparingly so. 
Form. BO 3 . 

Bo'racite, n. (Min.) Native borate of magnesia. It 
occurs in cubes, inclining to gray, yellow, or green, with 
a vitreous lustre, and opaque, or more or less translu¬ 
cent. Small but perfect crystals are found at Kalkberg 
and Schildstein, near Liineburg, in Hanover, in beds of 
gypsum. 

Bo racons, a. Partaking of borax. 

Bo 'rage, n. (Bot.) The English name of the genus 
Borago, q. v. 

Boraginaceae, (bo-raj'e-nai'se-e) n. pi. (Bot.) The 
Borage-worts , an order of plants, alliance Echiales. Diag. 
Regular symmetrical flowers, 5 stamens, 4 nuts, or two 
pairs, a naked stigma, and circinate inflorescence. — 
They are herbs or shrubs, with alternate leaves usually 
rough with hairs. The flowers are regular and sym¬ 
metrical ; the calyx is persistent, and divided into either 
four or five segments; the corolla has the same number 
of lobes, and, usually, scales in the throat; the stamens 
rise from the corolla, are equal in number to its lobes, 
and alternate with them. The fruit consists of two or 
four distinct achenia, placed at the bottom of the per¬ 
sistent calyx. There are 54 genera, which include 683 



Fig. 391.— PULMONARIA ANGUSTIFOLIA. 

1, a corolla; 2, the same cut open ; 3, the tube of the same ; 4, 
the base of the same, with the ovary and its four lobes; 5. an an¬ 
ther; 6, calyx ; 7, a section of the calyx, showing the four-lobed 
fruit; 8, an achenium. 

species, chiefly natives of the temperate regions in the 
northern hemisphere. Among them we find many well- 
known plants; such as the Forget-me-not, Borage, Com- 
frey, &c. The various species are reme r Vable for their 
mucilaginous properties; some have roots which are 
valuable dyeing agents. — See Anohusa, Borago, Mvo- 
BOTIS, PULMONARIA, & C . 


Bora'go, n. [Lat., from bor, for cor, the heart, and ago, 
to cheer; because it was believed to exhilarate the heart.] 
(Bot.) A’ genus of plants, order Boragmaceve. The spe¬ 
cies B. officinalis, commonly known as Borage, native 
of Asia Minor, but naturalized in many parts of Europe, 
is with us a common inhabitant of the garden. It is 
characterized by a wheel-shaped corolla with a very 
short tube, the mouth of which is closed by scales; by 
five stamens with forked filaments, the inner arms of 
which support the anthers; and by these anthers being 
connivent around the style, in the form of a cone. The 
entire plant is rough with hairs, and has rather a coarse 
appearance; but its flowers are very beautiful, being of 
a fine blue color. The young leaves were formerly al¬ 
ways added to a cool tankard, or draught made of wine 
or cider, with water, lemon, and sugar. The flowers are 
used on the continent of Europe to ornament salads, 
and the tender tops are sometimes boiled in soups. 

Bor'ainetat, n. (Bot.) See Cibotium. 

Boras'sus, n. [Gr. borassos, the skin of the date.] 
(Bot.) A genus of trees, order Palmucece. It consists of 
but one species, which is found in every part of India. 
This has been named B.flabetliformis, and is commonly 
known to the European inhabitants as the Palmyra. Its! 
stem attains a height of from 25 to 40 teet, and bears 
upon its summit a magnificent coronal of fan-shaped 
leaves. The fruit is about the size of a child's head, 
and, when very young, contains a sweet pulp which may 
be eaten. From the juice obtained from this plant, 
large quantities of an intoxicating drink are prepared 
by the natives. The fibres of the leaves are used for 
cordage, and the outer wood of the stem for bows.— 
See Toddy. 

Bo'rate, n. (Cbem.) A salt resulting from the combina¬ 
tion of boracic acid with a base. 

Bo'rax, n. [Lat., from Ar. baurai, baurach, a species of 
nitre.] (G/iem.) A compound containing boracic acid 
and soda. It was formerly imported from the East in 
the crude state, under the name of lineal, which con¬ 
tained borax in combination with various substances of 
a saponaceous nature. It was purified by being heated 
with lime or soda, until the whole of the soapy matter 
and other impurities were separated. B. is now mostly 
prepared by fusing two parts of boracic acid, obtained 
from the Tuscan lagoons, (see Boracic Acid,) with one 
part of soda-ash. The mixture is thrown on the floor 
of a reverberatory furnace, and heated until all efferves¬ 
cence has ceased. The fused mass is lixiviated and boiled 
until the impurities are precipitated; it is then decanted 
and set aside to crystallize slowly. It crystallizes in 
rectangular hexagonal prisms, containing 10 equiva¬ 
lents of water. B. is of great use in the arts as a flux. 
Having the property, when melted, of dissolving metallic 
oxide, it is used in soldering to clean away the film of 
oxide that would otherwise prevent the metals from 
uniting. It is sprinkled on the metallic surface, and 
melts with the solder. It is also used in gold and silver 
refining, and in making enamel, to render the com¬ 
pound more fusible. It is extensively employed in the 
manufacture of certain kinds of glass, and for fixing 
colors on porcelain and stone-ware. To the chemist it 
is very valuable in blow-pipe analysis. In addition to 
the locality named, B. is found as a saline incrustation 
on the shores of lakes in India, Persia, Thibet, Peru, 
Chile, and in this country in California, Nevada, and 
elsewhere. It occurs in the form of crystals imbedded 
in the mud of lakes, while the mud itself is highly 
charged with it. The production on the Pacific coast 
increased from 5,000,000 lbs. in 1876 to over 13,000,000 
lbs. in 1896. B. is used in medicine, as a detergent 
in the laundry, and is also found to possess valuable 
antiseptic properties, in common with Boracic Acid 
(q. v.). 

Bor'ba, a town of Brazil, on the Madeira River. 

Borbore'ma, a mountain-chain of Brazil, bounding 
the prov. of Ceara on the S. 

Borlioryg-m., (bdr'bo-rim ) [Fr. borborygme.] A rum¬ 
bling of wind in the bowels, (r.) 

Bor'cer, n (Quarrying.) An iron instrument, steel- 
pointed, used for boring holes in large rocks, in order to 
charge and blow them up with gunpowder. 

Bord, n. An ancient term for a cottage. 

Bor'da, Jean Charles, a French mathematician and as¬ 
tronomer, b. at Dax, 1733. In 1771 he was associated 
with Verdun and Pingre in proving the accuracy of 
chronometers. He also devoted much attention to the 
subject of ship-building, and suggested great improve¬ 
ments in the form of vessels. In 1787 he took an ac¬ 
tive part in bringing the observatories of Paris and 
Greenwich into closer relation with one another. Along 
with Delambre and Mecbain, lie was a leading member 
of the French commission intrusted with the measure¬ 
ment of a meridian arc. He rendered essential service 
in the commission on the new system of weights and 
measures. He invented a new instrument for measuring 
the inclination of the magnetic needle; and his correc¬ 
tions of the seconds’ pendulum are still in use. But 
his reputation depends most of all on his improvement 
of the reflecting circle, on which instrument he pub¬ 
lished, in 1787, a work in 2 vols. D. 1799. 

Bord'ag'e, Bord'land, n. (Feudal Law) The de¬ 
mesne land kept by the lord of a manor for the support 
of his bnrd or table. 

Bordeaux, (bor'db,) a handsome and important city 
and sea-port of France; cap. dep. Gironde, in the centre 
of an extensive plain, on the W. bank of the Garonne, 
55 m. S E. from its embouchure, 102 N.N.E. of Bayonne, 
and 307 S.W. of Paris. The city is divided into the New 
and Old quarters; the former, or S. portion, which in¬ 
cludes the ancient Roman town, contains only narrow, 
crooked, dirty streets, while the latter, comprising the 


N. part of the city, is handsome, and deservedly cete- 
brated. The squares and promenades are remarkable 
for their beauty and size. The approach to B. by water 
is very striking. The Garonne is skirted along the city 
by a succession of superb quays, which descend, by a 
gentle inclination, to the water’s edge, and, besides theif 
utility, are among the principal ornaments of the town, 
being lined with fine buildings, whose facades have 
an imposing effect. The communication between B. 
and the opposite suburb of La Bastide is maintained by 
one of the finest bridges to be found in Europe, 532 
yards in length, by 48 in breadth, and erected at a cost 
of $1,300,000. The chief public buildings are the churches 
of St. Michael, St. Croix, Ac. Ac.; the Bourse (Exchange), 



Fig. 392. — Bordeaux. 


Custom-House, Hall of Justice, Palais Royal, Ac., and 
among others, the Church of the Feuillants, which con¬ 
tains the tomb of Montaigne.— Manuf. Brandy, sugar, 
bottles, shot, cordage, iron-wares, and textile fabrics; 
gloves, musical instruments, chemicals, liqueurs, Ac. 
Ship-building is an important interest here.— Exp. The 
principal exports comprise the celelnated Claret w ines, 
brandy, fruits, corks, chemicals, drugs, Ac. The inhabi¬ 
tants are generally opulent, and live in a stile superior 
to that common in any oilier French city, Paris excepted. 
Pop. (1895) 247,890.—The period of the foundation of B. 
Is unknown. It was the cap. of the Bituriges Vivisci, a 
Celtic nation of Gaul, was taken by the Romans in the 
time of Augustus, and Hadrian made it the metropolis 
of the second Aquitaine. In 417 the Visigoths, in 609 
Clovis, and in 729 the Saracens successively possessed 
themselves of it; under Charlemagne, it was governed 
by a count of its own; and, in the 9th cent., it was 
ruined by the Normans. It subsequently became (lie 
cap. of Guienne, and belonged to the English, until the;) 
were finally expelled from France in the reign of Henry 
VI. Generally speaking, this city has in later times 
been attached to the Bourbon dynasty, but, in 1830, on 
the publication of the ordonvances of Charles X., the 
standard of revolt was raised here, as in Paris. Of those 
who were natives of B. we may mention Pope Clement 
V., Richard II. of England, Montesquieu, Montaigne, 
the Latin poet Ausonius, Edward the “Black Prince,” 
Ac. In 1871, the Nat. Assembly met here. 

Bor'deanx, Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie Died- 
donn£ D’Artois, Duke de, (better known by bis second 
title of Count de Chambord,) last of the elder branch 
of the royal house of Bourbon, born in Paris, 1820. 
Sou of Prince Charles Ferdinand d’Artois, Duke do 
Berri, who was assassinated in 1820, and of the princess 
of the Two Sicilies, the famous Duchess de Berri, ( q. v.) 
He was baptized with great pomp in water brought 
from the river Jordan by M. de Chateaubriand. “The 
child of miracle,” as he was popularly called, received 
the title of Count de Chambord, from the castle of that 
name which was bought for him by public subscription. 
Although Charles X., soon after the outbreak of the 
revolution of 1830, resolved to abdicate in the duke’s 
favor, and in presence of the troops assembled at Ram* 
bouillet, made a proclamation under the title of Henry 
V., the Duke of Bordeaux was compelled to quit the 
country. Having lived for some time at Ilolyrood Pal¬ 
ace, Edinburgh, he travelled in Germany, Lombardy, 
Rome, and Naples, to complete bis education. In 1843, 
he resided in London, where he made a kind of political 
debut, claiming the crown of France, and receiving, 
with all the etiquette of a court, such Legitimists as 
Berrver and Chateaubriand. In 1853, a compact is said 
to have been concluded between the Count de Cham¬ 
bord and the princes of the House of Orleans, by which 
the claims of the elder and younger branches of the 
House of Bourbon were arranged; but for some reason 
or other no attempt was made to carry out the arrange¬ 
ment, by putting forward a candidate tor the thronesup- 
ported by both parties. In 1846, the Duke married the 
Princess Maria Theresa of Modena, but they had no issue; 
he is therefore the last of the elder branch of the Bour¬ 
bons. The prince resided partly in Venice, where be 
owned a splendid palace, and partly at the magnificent 
castle ofFrohsdorf, near Vienna; and was very wealthy 
both by marriage and by family inheritance. D. at 
Frohsdorf. Aug, 24, 1883. 

Bor den town, in New Jersey, a flourishing city 
of Bordentown township, Burlington county, 6 m. 























BORD 


BORE 


BORG 


395 


C^E. of Trent-n, 30 N.E. of Philadelphia, and 57 S.W. 
Oi New \ork city. It has an active trade, and is much 
resorted to by summer tourists. Near this place is the 
mansion once occupied by Joseph Bonaparte, ex-king 
of Spain .luring bis residence in the United States 
Fop. (I'ldO) 4,110. 

rdidais, ( bor'da-ld,) a district of France, once form¬ 
ing part of the old province of Guienne, and having 
Bor deaux for its capital, but now included in the depart¬ 
ments of Gironde and Landes. 

■—it. A native of Bordeaux. 

Bor (ter, n. [A. S. br/rd ; I cel. hnrrf ; Fr. hard, a border.] 
The outer edge of anything; the surrounding line or 
exterior limit of a country ; boundary; margin; edge, 
rim; as, the border of a State; the burlier of a dress; 
the border of a gardeu-walk, Ac. 

*' All with a border of rich fruit-trees crown'd." — Waller. 

Bor'der, (The.) (Hint.) The name given both histori¬ 
cally and by popular acceptation, to designate the com¬ 
mon frontier of England and Scotland. At the present 
day. the term hears little or no significance, owing to 
the identity of social and political interests of the united 
nations. Formerly, however, and for many centuries, 
the B. was known as the " Debatable land,” i.e.. a re¬ 
gion forming the battle-ground of English and Scots, 
and the constant theatre of bloodshed, rapine, and vio¬ 
lence. Iu 1388, on the English side of the Border, in 
Northumberland, the battle of Otterbourne (or Chevy 
Chase), so celebrated in song and history, was fought be¬ 
tween the then hereditary foes, and which ended as a 
drawn battle: (see Otterbourne.) The B. on each side 
formed one continuous chain of castles and strongholds, 
the abodes of the barons and great chiefs, as well as of 
moss-troopers, (q. v.) Many of these baronial fortresses 
exist even to the present day; some almost unimpaired 
by time, others in picturesque ruins. Of the first we 
may mention the castles of Alnwick, Naworth, Brough¬ 
am, and Bara borough; among the latter. Norham, Her¬ 
mitage, Penrith, Ac. The Scottish borderers of yore were 
a fierce and turbulent race, living by marauding, and 
committing incessant forays on English soil: a state of 
things for which the Southrons did not fail to take am¬ 
ple retaliation on their Scots neighbors. In more re¬ 
cent times, and even until but a few years back, the B. 
was celebrated as the resort of those votaries to Hymen, 
who sought to commit matrimony without the pale of 
the church. Gretna-Green ( q. v.), a spot on the verge of 
the two countries, was long the favorite shrine, and the 
village-blacksmith the high-priest for buckling together 
by the bonds of marriage, romantic and runaway lovers. 
—An interesting account of this region will be found in 
Sir Walter Scott’s Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. 

—n. i. To touch at the edge, side, end, or confines of any¬ 
thing; to be contiguous or adjacent; witli on or upon. 

41 Virtue and honor had their temples bordering on each other." 

Addison. 

—To approach near to. 

"All wit which borders upon profaneness . .., ought to be 
brauded with folly."— TiUotson. 

— v. a. (imp. bordered ; ppr. bordering.) To be near or 
close to; to be close to the edge or confines of; to be 
contiguous to. 

" Shebah and Rahmah are those parts of Arabia, which border 
the sea called the Persian Gulf." — Sir W. Raleigh. 

—To surround or adorn with a border; as, to border a dress. 

Bor'derer, n. One who dwells on the.border of a par¬ 
ticular place or country; or near to any specified region 
or spot; as, a Scottish borderer. 

“ They of those marches, gracious sovereign 1 
Shall be a wall sufficient to defend 
Our island from the pilfering borderers." — Shaks. 

Bordering;, p. a. Being adjacent or near. 

Bor der Bitkins, in loiva, a post-village of Webster co. 

Bord-halfpenny, (bord-hdp'pen-y.) n.(0. Eng. Law ) 
Money paid for the privilege of putting up boards for a 
market-stall. 

Biird ley, in Kentucky , a post-village of Union co. 

Bord'IoVie, Bord'load, n. (Old Eng. Law.) Tenant 
service in carrying felled timber from a wood to the 
house of the lord of a manor. — Provisions paid as bord- 
age by a bordman. 

Bord'inan, n. (Old Eng. Law.) A tenant in bordage, 
who contributes a certain quantity of provisions to the 
lord of a manor’s table. 

Bordoue, Paris, (Cavaliere,) one of the most distin¬ 
guished painters of the Venetian School, especially in 
portraiture, was B. at Treviso, 1500. He studied under 
Titian and Giorgione, and eventually adopted a style of 
his own, based upon the styles of bis masters. B.’ s 
works are eminently characterized by all the beauties 
of the Venetian School. One of his best works is the 
Martyrdom of St. Andrew, in the church of San Giobl.e, 
Venice. The picture of the Fisherman Presenting the 
Bing he had received from St. Mark, to the. Doge, now in 
the Academy at Venice, is regarded as his masterpiece. 
His picture of Paradise, formerly at Treviso, is now also 
in the Venetian Academy. In the Dresden Gallery is a 
beautiful Holy Family by B., who also painted for 
Francois I. of France, and D. in Venice about 1570. 

Bord'-service. n. (Old Eng. Law.) The tenure of 
bordage or bord-land. 

Bordure, (boril’yoor.) (Her.) In French heraldry, an 
honorable ordinary, which should occupy a third part 
of the shield. In English blazonry, it has generally 
been considered as a mark of difference to distinguish 
one branch of a family from another. It surrounds the; 
field, is of equal breadth in every part, and occupies one- 
fifth of the field. When there is a chief on the coat, the 
B. is supposed to run under the chief, hut it passes over 
other ordinaries, as a fess. Ac. 


Bore, v. a. (imp. bored; ppr. boring.) [A.S. borian; 
Ger. bohren; 0. Ger. boron; Lat. foro; Gr. peiro, to 
pierce quite through.] To pierce or penetrate through; 
to make a hole in or through; to pierce or enter by bor¬ 
ing; to penetrate ; as, to bore a rock. 

*• I 'll believe as soon, 

This whole earth may be bor'd; aud that the moon 

May through the centre creep.” — Snaks. 

—To tease by ceaseless repetition; to pester by iteration 
or empty platitudes; to become a nuisance. (Colloquially.) 

" Society is now one polished horde, 

Formed of two mighty tribes, the Borers aud the Bored." Byron. 

— v. i. To pierce, or penetrate by boring; as, that tool 
bores well.—To be pierced, entered, or penetrated by a 
revolving implement; as, a piece of timber difficult to 
bore,. — (Manege,.) Said of a horse, when he carries his 
nose to the ground. 

Bore, n. The hole made by boring; a cavity or hollow; 
the size or diameter of a round hole; as, the boreoi a gun. 

"The strength of big-corn'd powder loves to try. 

And ball and cartridge sorts for every bore. ’ — Dryden. 

—A person or thing that wearies or annoys by ceaseless 
iteration aud dulness; as, that mau is a bore. 

11 It she hath no wild boars, she hath a tame 
Preserve of bores, who ought to be made game." — Byron. 

(Gun.) The internal cavity of a cannon, mortar, how¬ 
itzer, rifle, musket, fowling-piece, pistol, or other kind 
of fire-arm. It is in most cases cylindrical; but in the 
Lancaster gun the B. is oval; in the Whitworth gun, it 
is hexagonal; while in the Armstrong, and many other 
kinds of gun, it is furrowed by spiral grooves. Techni¬ 
cally, the B. of a gun often means simply the diameter 
of the cavity, as when we speak of a gun ‘ - of 8-inch 
bore;” and iu that case its meaning is equivalent to 
“ calibre.” 

Bore, n. [Icel. bylr, a whirlwind; Swed. and Goth, bur, 
the wind; Scot, beir, birr, to roar.] A sound or roar, as 
of a tempest; specifically, a phenomenon which occurs 
iu some rivers, near their mouths, at spring-tides. When 
the tide enters the river, the waters suddenly rise to a 
great height, (iusome rivers many feet above the surface 
of the stream,) aud rush with tremendous noise against 
the current for a considerable distance. Sometimes the 
waters do not subside till they have almost reached the 
limit of tide-water. As this swell does not occur in all 
rivers where there is a tide, it is evident that it must be 
caused by some conformation of the banks or bed of the 
river, or by both combined. It seems to be necessary, 
in order that there be a bore, that the river should 
fall into an actuary, that this aestuary be subject to 
high tides, and that it contract gradually; and lastly, 
that the river also narrow by degrees. The rise of the 
sea at spring-tides pushes a great volume of water into 
the wide entrance of the aestuary, where it accumulates, 
not being able to flow off quick enough iuto the nar¬ 
rower part. The tide therefore enters with the greater 
force the narrower the aestuary becomes, and when it 
reaches the mouth of the river, the swell has already 
obtained a considerable height above the descending 
stream, and rushes on like a torrent. The most cele¬ 
brated bores are those of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and 
Indus; in the Ilooghly branch of the Ganges, the B. 
travels 70 miles in 4 hours, and sometimes appears sud¬ 
denly as a liquid wall. 5 feet in height. It is also ob¬ 
servable in the Amazon, the Colorado, the Petitcondiac, 
the St. John river, in the Bay of Fundy, Ac. 

Bo'real, a. [Lat. borealis, from Gr. and Lat. boreas, the 
north wind, the north.] Northern: pertaining to the 
north, or the north wind; as, a boreal winter. 

“ Before the boreal blasts the vessels fly.” — Pope. 

Boreas, ( bd’re-as,) n. [Gr.; 0. Gr. bor, excess.] A 
bellowing wind; the northern wind; a cold, northerly 
wind. 

" Cease, rude Boreas, blustering railer." — Dibdin. 

(Myth.) The son of Astraeus and Eos, and usually wor¬ 
shipped as the god of the north wind. The assiduity 
with which the worship of B. was cultivated at Athens 
proceeded from gratitude, the north wind having on 
one occasion destroyed the fleet of the Persians when 
meditating the invasion of Attica. A similar cause in¬ 
duced the inhabitants of Megalopolis to consider B. as 
their peculiar divinity, in whose honor they instituted 
an annual festival. B. was usually represented with 
wings dripping with golden dew-drops, and the train of 
his garment sweeping along the ground. 

Bore'oole, n. (Hort.) A kind of cabbage with curly 
leaves, and no disposition to form a heart or head. It 
is chiefly valued for winter use. After the more deli¬ 
cate kinds of vegetables have been rendered unfit for 
cooking by the severity of frost, this form of the cab¬ 
bage tribe is in its state of greatest excellence. The 
interior leaves are thin, tender, and succulent. Several 
sorts are met with in gardens, the best of which, as being 
the hardiest, are the dwarf or Colebronkdale borecole, 
and what is called German grey ns or Scotch kail. These 
plants are raised in all respects like other hardy cab¬ 
bages, and the duration of their crop is prolonged by 
sowing the seed at intervals of about a month, com¬ 
mencing at the end of March, and ceasing with the be¬ 
ginning of August. 

Bo'ree. n. [Fr. bouree.] A kind of old-fashioned dance, 
to a common-time movement. 

“ Dick could neatlj dance a jig. 

But Tom was best at boree — Swift. 

Bor'el, n. A kind of light stuff, of which the warp is 
silk, and the woof is wool. 

Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, (bo-rel'-le.) a distinguished 
Italian professor of mathematics and medicine, B. at 
Naples, 1608; who discovered and translated the lost 
books of Apollonius Pergaeus, wrote the first theory of 


Jupiter’s satellites, and endeavored to apply mathema¬ 
tics to medicine. In 1666 he was called to the professor’s 
chair at Pisa, where he lectured with great success, and 
wrote much in connection with thescieuces he pursued. 
Being supposed to have favored a revolt of the Mes- 
sinians, among whom he had gone to live, lie was in¬ 
vited by Queen Christina of Sweden to Rome, where she 
then was. Thither he immediately went, and livid 
under the favor of her patronage until bis death. 'J he 
work De Motu Animalxum is that upon which the medi¬ 
cal reputation of B. depends. D. It 79. 

Bor er, n. He who, or that which, bores. 

(Zool.) A name commonly applied to many insects, 
mostly of the Ptinidce family, the larvae of which —* 
small, white, soft, worm-like creatures, with six minute 
feet — are furnished with strong cutting jaws ( muxillir ), 
by means of which they eat their way in old wood, and 
similar substances, boring little holes as round as if 
made with a fine drill. — See Boring-worji. 

Borg'Iiese, (bor-gd'sd,) the patronymic of an illustrious 
Italian family possessing immense estates, and number¬ 
ing among its ancestors, popes, cardinals, princes, aud 
viceroys: — of whom we mention: 

B., Camillo, Prince, b. 1775, married, in 1803, Marie 
Pauline, a sister of the Emperor Napoleon I. In 1805, 
he was created a Prince of the French Empire, and 
Duke of Guastalla. He sold to Napoleon bis fine museum 
of the Villa Borghese, at Rome, for 13,000,000 francs, 
and on the fall of the emperor, lived in great splendor 
in Rome, and Florence. The Vitia Borghese is one of the 
most superb palaces in the world, and is "elebrated for 
its pictures, objects of art, and magnificent gardens. 
The prince d. in 1832. 

B.. Marie Pauline. Princess, b. 1780. She was the 
second sister of Napoleon I., and eminent for her 
beauty and accomplishments : of which the former has 
been immortalized by the chisel of Canova, to whom 
she sat as model for his famous Venus. At an early age, 
she married Gen. Leclerc, whom she accompanied to 
his command at St. Domingo, and where she displayed 
the greatest courage. After his death, 6 he married, in 
1803, the subject of the above article, but the union 
proved unhappy. Pauline was faithful to the varying 
fortunes of her imperial brother to the last. She D. 1825. 

Borgia, (birr’jah,) the name of a family lamous in 
Italian history. Originally of Spanii-h origin, one of its 
members, Alfonso, was raised to the pontificate in 1445 
by the name of Calixtus III. One of his sisters married 
Geoffrey Lenzuoli, who assumed the name and arms of 
Borgia. His younger son, Roderigo, became afterwards 
the too notorious Pope Alexander VI. (q. v.) Before 
his exaltation to the papal throne, Alexander had four 
sons and a daughter by Rosa Vanozza, a Roman lady. 
The eldest son was made Duke of Gandia in Spain, by 
King Ferdinand of Aragon; the second son Cesare, and 
the daughter Lucrezia, are mentioned below. 

B., Cesare, (Duke de Valentinuis,) was a student at 
Pisa when his father was elected pope, in 1492. He im¬ 
mediately went to Rome, was made Archbishop ol Va¬ 
lencia, and afterwards cardinal. Cesare was early notori¬ 
ous for his ability, duplicity, and profligacy. The ar¬ 
rival of the French under Charles VIII., at Rome, in 
1495, obliged the Pope to countenance Charles’s inva¬ 
sion of Naples, and the latter even obliged Cesare to 
accompany him thither as a hostage for his father’s 
fidelity. Cesare, however, shortly after managed to es¬ 
cape and return to Rome, where he aud his father both 
declared against the French, after w hose retreat from 
Italy they entered into intimate relations with the 
Aragonese dynasty at Naples. Cesare next joined his 
father in waging a war of extermination against the 
Orsiui, Colouna, Savelli, and other noble Roman fam¬ 
ilies, whose castles and lands they seized and appro¬ 
priated. In 1497, his elder brother, the Duke of Gandia, 
was murdered in the night, and his body thrown into 
the Tiber, by unknown assassins. Cesare was strongly 
suspected of this deed — a suspicion that still survives. 
In 1498, having resigned liis cardiualate, Cesare was 
sent to France with the bull sanctioning the divorce 
between Louis X1L and hi wife, after which Louis 
XII. married Anne of Brittany. On this occasion he 
was created Duke de Valentiuois, a title which is gen¬ 
erally accorded him by Italian historians. In 1499, 
Cesare married a sister of Jean d’Albret, King of Na¬ 
varre, and then proceeded, with French aid, to wage 
war against the nobles of tlie Romagna who refused to 
acknowledge the supremacy of the court of Rome. 
Successful iu this, he returned to Rome, when the Pope 
created him Duke of Romagna and Gonfaloniere of the 
Holy See. He next drove Giovanni Sforza out of Pesaro, 
aud took Rimini from the Malatesta; Faenza also surren¬ 
dered to his arms, which were, however, finally checked 
at Bologna, with whose prince he concluded a truce. 
Next year he marched against Florence, and accom¬ 
panied the French army in its invasion of Naples, where 
great atrocities were committed. In 1502, he took 
Urbino and Camerino, when, shortly after, his army, 
chiefly composed of mercenary condottieri, revolted 
against him, whom he deceived by a specious reconcilia¬ 
tion, and forthwith destroyed. Cesare was at this time 
the terror of all central Italy from the Adriatic to the 
Mediterranean, and he aimed at making for himself an 
independent sovereignty of Romagna, the Marches, and 
Umbria. On the 18th Aug., 1503, Alexander VI. died, 
after a supper at which he drank of some poisoned wine, 
as also did Cesare. The death of his father ruined 
Cesare’s fortunes; his troops were defeated, and himseif 
arrested and sent prisoner to Spain, where he was con¬ 
fined for two years. Finally lie escaped to Navarra, 
joined the king's (his brother-in-law) army as a volunr 
teer, and was killed L, 1507, at the siege of Viaua. 





396 


BORI 


BORN 


BORN 


B., Lucrezia, sister of the above, was betrothed, while 
yet a child, to a Spanish noble, but upon her father be¬ 
coming pope, she married, iu 1493, Giovanni Sforza, 
Duke of Pesaro. Four years afterwards, the marriage 
was dissolved by the Pope, and she married for her 
second husband Alfonso, Duke of Biscaglia, natural son 
of Alfonso II., King of Naples, and on this occasion was 
created Duchess of Spoleto. In 1590, her husband was 
murdered by assassins, prompted, it is believed, by 
Cesare Borgia, her brother. In 1601 she married for 
her third and last husband. Alfonso d'Este, Duke of 
Ferrara. She has been suspected of having shared in 
the crimes of her family, but she also was the patroness 
of art and literature, and on that account is celebrated 
by Ariosto, Bembo, Manuzio, Strozzi, and other writers 
of her time. D. at Ferrara, 1523. Mr. Gilbert’s Lucrezia 
Borgia , Duchess of Ferrara (2 vols., Lond., 1869) refutes 
many of the charges heretofore brought against her 
memory. 

Serbia, a town of S. Italy, prov. Catanzaro, in a plain 
6 m. W. of Catanzaro. It was almost totally destroyed 
by an earthquake in 1783, and afterwards rebuilt by 
Ferdinand IV. King of Naples. Highly esteemed wines 
are grown in the neighborhood. Pop. 5,313. 

Bor'gites, or Circassians. (Hist.) The name of the 
second dynasty of the Mamelukes, in Egypt, who were 
descended from a Circassian captive named Barcok, who, 
in 1381, on the deposition of the Baharites, obtained the 
sovereignty. Twenty-three sultans of this dynasty 
reigned for a period of 135 years. The last was hanged 
at the gate of his capital, in 1517, by order of Selim I.; 
and the Mamelukes were expelled and the authority of 
the Ottoman Turks established. 

Bor' go, or Kor'ft a, a seaport-town of Russia in Europe, 
grand-duchy of Finland, govt. Nyland, at the bottom of 
a bay of the Gulf of Finland, 35 m. E.N.E. of Helsing¬ 
fors ; Lat. 60° 22' N.: Lon. 25° 45' E. The harbor is in¬ 
different, and its trade is but small. Pop. 3,069. 

Bor'go-IIane'ro, a walled town of N. Italy, prov. 
Novara, on the Gogna, 18 m. N N.W. of Novara. It is a 
well built place, with a pop. of 8,684. 

Bor'g'o-San-Domii'aio,atown of N. Italy, prov. of 
Parma, on the Stirone, 22 m. S.E. of Placentia. Man/. 
Silk and linen. 

Bo'ric Jletliite, n. ( Chern .) A colorless gas formed 
by the action of a strong ethereal solution of zinc me¬ 
thyls upon boracic ether. It has an intolerable, pungent, 
tear-exciting odor, and is capable of liquefaction under 
a pressure of 3 atmospheres of 50°. When it issues very 
slowly into the air from a tube, it undergoes partial 
oxidation, and produces a lambent blue flame, invisible 
in daylight, and incapable of burning the fingers: but 
when it comes rapidly in contact with air, it burns 
with a bright green hot flame, remarkable for the im¬ 
mense quantity of large flakes of carbon which it dis¬ 
perses through the air, apparently because the boracic 
acid produced envelops them and prevents their com¬ 
bustion. Water absorbs very little B. M., hut alcohol 
dissolves it readily. 

Bor ing, n. Act or operation of cutting a circular hole 
with a drill, auger, or other instrument. 

•—A hole caused by boring. 

—pi. Fragments of wood, chips, Ac., after a hole has been 
bored. 

( Hydraulics .) The operation of piercing the earth for 
4h‘‘ purpose of ascertaining the nature of the subjacent 
strata, or of bringing to the surface any underground 
springs. A great variety of tools are employed for this 
purpose, such as, augers, junipers, misers, ball and socket 
valves, according to the strata traversed.— B. has been 
well applied for the purposes of fixing the posts of 
electric telegraphs: for the tying down holts of suspension 
bridges, and for the sinking tubes now used for the foun¬ 
dations of buildings to be erected in running water, Ac. 

Bor'ing’-macliine, n. ( Aleck .) A machine for the 
boring of holes in metal 
plates for making attach¬ 
ments. It is effected by 
means of drills driven by 
machinery, as shown in 
Per/. 393. The drill is in¬ 
serted in the end of a ver¬ 
tical spindle, 1’, which re¬ 
volves in a fixed frame, 
and is driven by the bev¬ 
el-wheel G. The metal 
to be bored is placed on 
a table or other support 
below the drill; and the 
up-and-down motion, or 
end-pressure and off-ac- 
tion, of the drill is effected 
by the hand-gear, 0, N, 
turning the screw M; 
which being coupled to 
the top of the spindle at L, 
presses it down or raises 
it, according to the way 
it is turned. The spindle 
elides vertically to the 
collar forming the axis 
of the bevel-wheel, but is 
carried around with it by 
means of the pin I, which 
projects into a groove 
seen at J. 

Bor'ing-bar, n.(Mech.) 

The bar of a small hori¬ 
zontal boring-machine; 
it is used for boring the 
brassesof plummer-blocks, by means of a cutter fixed in it. 



Bor'ing--eollnr, n. (Mech.) In Turning, a machine 

having a plate with conical holes of different diameters; 
the plate is movable upon a centre, which is equi-distant 
from the centres or axes of the conical holes: the axes 
are placed in the circumference of a circle. The use of 
the B. is to support the end of a long body that is to be 
turned hollow, and which would otherwise be too long 
to be supported by a chuck. 

Bor'ing-latlie, n. (Mech.) A lathe used for boring 
wheels or short cylinders. The wheel or cylinder is 
fixed on a large chuck, screwed to the mandril of a lathe. 

Bor'ing-worm (The), n. (ZnSl.) The common name 
of tlie Teredo navalis. This is a worm which enters 
wood in salt water, and there expands until it attains 
the size of a finger; it bores the wood into which it en¬ 
ters, during the whole of the passage between high and 
low water mark, completely riddling it in those parts, 
and causing an infinite amount of damage to ships, or 
to piers, docks, and harbors, wherever wood enters 
the construction in the shape of piles, cills, Ac. It is 
supposed that creosote is the only effective pnservative 
against the ravages of this animal, though a coating 
of copper nails has been strongly recommended; but 
there is danger of the animals finding their way into 
the wood between the small spaces left by the heads of 
the nails, and then the destruction of the wood is in¬ 
evitable. Of course great care and attention is required 
in the application of the creosote (which in the best 
work is injected alter the extraction of the moisture 
from the wood) under a vacuum, to the extent of 4 lbs. 
per foot cube ; it requires a pressure of about 13u lbs. on 
the square inch to insure this quantity entering. — It is 
supposed that the teredo only attacks wood when it is 
exposed on shores able to yield the bicarbonate of lime; 
at any rate, it is far more destructive in them than in 
others. The animal also appears to have a distaste for 
the sewerage waters of towns, perhaps because they are 
not impregnated with the salts of the sea-water 

Bor'issof, a town of European Russia, govt. Minsk, on 
the Berezina, 45 m. N.E. of Minsk. This place has ac¬ 
quired celebrity from the disastrous passage of the Bere¬ 
zina, effected near it, by the remains of the French army 
under Napoleon, on its retreat from Moscow, in Nov., 
1812. Pop. 6,407. 

Bor'issoglebsk, a town of Russia in Europe, govt. 
Jaroslav, on the Volga, opposite to Romanof. It is sur¬ 
rounded by dense forests. 

Bork/hum. a small island in the North Sea, belonging 
to Prussia, off the mouth of the Bins, about 9 m. from 
the mainland. The inhabitants are mostly engaged in 
the Northern whale-fishery. The lantern of the church, 
which serves as a light-house, is 150 feet above sea-level, 
and in Lat. 53° 35' 20" N., 6° 40' 26" E. Lon. 

Bor'lantl, in Arkansas, a post-office of Newton co. 

Born, (pp. of bear, to bring forth.) Brought forth; pro¬ 
duced ; brought into being or existence. 

“1 was born an American ; I live an American; I shall die an 
American.” — D. Webster. 

Born again. ( Theol .) Regenerated; endowed with a 
renewal of spiritual life.— Born days. A vulgarism to de¬ 
note one’s lifetime; as, I never saw anything like it in 
my born days. 

Borne, (bom,) (pp. of bear, to carry.) Carried; con¬ 
veyed; supported; defrayed. 

“ Ocean 1... my joy 

Of youthful sports was on tby breast to he 
Borne , like thy bubbles, onward.” — Byron. 

Born'eene, n. (Chem.) See Borneo Camphor. 

Bor'neo, (called by the natives Tanna Klemantan,) the 
largest island in the world, Australia being reckoned a 
continent; occupying nearly the centre of the E. or 
Malayan archipelago; between Lat.4° 10'S. and 7°4'N., 
and Lon. 108° 60' and 119° 20' E.; having N. and W. the 
China Sea; E. the Sea of Celebes and Straits of Macas¬ 
sar; and S. the Sea ctf Java; form compact; length, 
N.E. to S.W. 800 m., breadth 700 m.; area, 300,000 sq. 
m. — Desc. B. has several fine and spacious harbors; the 
shores consist usually of mud-banks, with numbers of 
minute and rocky islets around them; the land for sev¬ 
eral miles toward the interior continuing marshy and al¬ 
luvial, interspersed with gentle acclivities, covered with 
underwood. There are many isolated hills iu B., and a 
range stretching along the N.W. coast, of about 3,000 
feet in height. There are numerous and extensive 
plains, especially in the N.; but the most important yet 
known to geographers is that of Montradok, near the 
W. coast. There are said to be upwards of 100 rivers, 
many being navigable, and some of considerable size. 
The principal is the Banjarmassin, which takes a S. 
course nearly throughout the whole island, and falls 
into the sea not far from the town of the same name, on 
the S. coast. The Passir, Coti, and many others are met 
with on the E. coast; while on the W., the Sambas, 
Pontiana, and Succadan, are the principal streams. The 
soil of B. in the neighborhood of the European settle¬ 
ments, vies in richness with that of any other island of 
the archipelago. It is also rich in valuable minerals, B. 
being the only island in the archipelagic group where 
diamonds are found; one in the rough state weighing 
367 carats, worth about $1,346,890, and found here, was, 
in 1815. the property of a petty chief. Gold is largely 
found, and inexhaustible mines of antimony of superior 
quality are worked at Sarawak. Tin is plentiful in some 
parts, and a little iron is procured from the interior.— 
dim. On the whole, B. is temperate and healthy; but 
this must be taken with a reservation, the E. parts of 
the island being comparatively unexplored.— Pod. Al¬ 
though blest with a very fertile soil, B. has not, so far, 
cultivated grain enough for home consumption. Timber 
is of a large growth, but unsuitable for ship-building 



purposes. No teak has yet beon found; but iron-woo^ 
ebony, rattans, camphor, dammar, the cocoa-palm, bete^ 
cinnamon, sago, Ac. flourish in luxuriance. Rice of ex¬ 
cellent quality is produced, bu* the Dutch keep the ex¬ 
port of it in their own hands. Maize, the plantain, and 
the sugar-cane, as well as the best class of tropical 
fruits, are extensively cultivated.— Zool. Elephants, rhi¬ 
noceroses, leopards, wild hogs, end oxen are indigenous, 
and endless varieties of the monkey tribe have their habi¬ 
tat on this island. 

The gorilla, 

“ monarch of the 
forest,” and the 
Ungka-putl, are 
also distinguish¬ 
ed inhabitants; 
and the Sooloo 
Sea is a great re¬ 
sort for English 
whalers, it being 
frequented by the 
spermaceti whale. 

The seas abound 
with turtle, and 
plenty of fish, oys¬ 
ters, and other 
teslacea. — Inhab. 

The interior and 
part of the N.W. 
coast are peopled 
by Dyaks, and by 
a woolly - haired 
race like the Pa¬ 
puan negroes; 
the W. coast by 
Malays, Chinese, 
and Dutch colo¬ 
nists; the N.W. 
by half-caste de¬ 
scendants of the 
Moors of W. Hin- 
dostan; the N. by 
Annamese; N.E. 
by Sulults; and 
E. and S. coasts 
by Bngis of Cele¬ 
bes. Besides these, 
three tribes live, 
in small craft, in 
a wandering man¬ 
ner, about the 
shores; viz., the 
Lanuns, from Ma¬ 
gi n dan oa; the 
Orang-badju, and 
Oran g-tidong; 
source unknown. 

Exp. The leading 
exports are gold, 
diamonds, a n t i- 
mony, camphor. Pig. 394. — the ungka-putl. 
bees’-wax, deers’ 

horns, dammar, ebon j, wood-oil, rattans, pepper, be- 
zoar-stones, sago, gutta-percha, and iron. The latter is 
particularly good, or the Dyaks are able to temper it as¬ 
tonishingly well; for their steel scimitars, or kreeses, are 
capable of cutting through an iron nail without difficulty. 
Prin. towns. Sarawak (English settlement),Sambas, and 
Pontiana (Dutch stations), Montradok and Landok (Chi¬ 
nese settlements), Coti (Bugi town), and Banjarmassin. 
Pop. Estimated at 3,000,000.— Hist. This island was first 
visited by Europeans (Lorenzo de Gomez and Pigafetta) 
in 1518 and 1521 respectively. The first Dutchman who 
settled here was Oliver Van Noort, in 1598. In 1769, the 
English having captured Manilla, took possession of Bar- 
lambungan. On the capture of Java by the British, in 
1811, the Dutch power in B. suffered an eclipse until the 
restoration to them of that island, in 1818. In 1839, an 
Englishman, Sir James Brooke, (q. v.,) established a 
British settlement at Sarawak, on the W. coast of the 
island, that is now the most civilized and commer¬ 
cial place in B. — Valuable and interesting accounts of 
this island may be found in Wallace’s The Malay Archi¬ 
pelago (London, 1869); and Bickmore’s Travels in the 
East Indian Archipelago (New York, 1869).—See BROOK* 
(Rajah); Dtaks: Sarawak, Ac. 

Borneo Camphor, n. (diem.) It is obtained from 
the exudation of the Dryohalannps camphora. When 
this exudation is distilled, a hydrocarbon called bnrneene 
(CaiHje), isomeric with oil of turpentine, first passes 
over, and afterwards the camphor, which is neither so 
fusible nor so volatile as ordinary camphor, and emits 
quite a different odor; it also crystallizes in prisms in¬ 
stead of octohedra, and may be converted into ordinary 
camphor by the action of nitric acid, which oxidizes two 
equivalents of hydrogen. 

Bornholm, (born'hawlm,) an island of Denmark, in 
the Baltic, about 100 m. from the outermost point of 
Zealand; Lat. between 54° 59' and 55° 18' N., Lon. be¬ 
tween 14° 42' and 15° 10' E. Area, including 3 small 
neighboring islands, 230 sq. m. It is 30 m. long, by 20 
broad. The surface is mountainous. Prod. Flax, hemp, 
and oats. Min. Potter’s clay, blue marble, and coaL 
Cap. Ronne. 

Bor'non, [Ar. Barr-Nna, “Land of Noah,”] (called by 
the natives Kanhri,) a kingdom of Central Africa, i.- 
from 10° to 15° N. Lat., and from 12° to 18° E. Lon.; it 
is bounded N. by Kanem, and the S.E. corner of tbs 
Great Desert; E. by Begharmi; S. by Mandara; and W, 
by various small States extending to Houssa and the 
Felluta country. Its length is about 400 m. from E. to 





































BORO 


BOER 


BOSA 


39 ? 


W., am the same in extreme width, from N. to S.; 
robabie area, not less than 120,000 sq. m., of which, 
owever, more than 20,000 are covered by the waters 
of Lake Tchad. — Desc. The surface forms one immense 
plain, subject to annual inundation. — Soil. Extremely 
fertile and prolific, but under only partial cultivation, 
owing to the supineness of the people and their con¬ 
stant proneness to internecine and foreign warfare. 
The chief rivers are the Shary and the Yeon, the former 
apparently rising in the mountains of Mandara, the lat¬ 
ter in those of Houssa. These, with other numerous 
but smaller streams, empty into Lake Tchad. — Glim. 
Great but not uniform heat prevails and the seasons, 
as in most tropical countries, are divided between the 
wet and the dry.— Prod., <£c. Arboraceous vegetation is 
extremely scarce, though here and there are found a few 
clumps of woody thickets. The soil, highly alluvial, 
produces, in the main, millet, beans, barley, maize, cotton, 
and indigo. There is no country within the zone of the 
tropics so destitute of fruits and edible roots.— Zoijl. The 
wild animals indigenous to tropical Africa are all com¬ 
mon in B .; of domestic breeds, the number is immense, 
cattle and horses of fii*“ stocks are plentiful, but camels 



•re rare, and the sheep have a hairy instead of a woolly 
covering. Almost all the species of water-fowl are found 
an great numbers; the ostrich scours the plains, and game 
and domestic poultry form the cheapest kind of animal 
food purchasable in the country. Reptile and insect 
life is here found in its most comprehensive aspect, and 
the waters teem with fish of many and peculiar species. 
Jnhab. The natives of B. consist of two classes,—the 
Shoas, descendants of Arab settlers from the N., and 
the Kanowries or Iianuri, (the native race proper,) who 
are true negroes. The former are the dominant people; 
they bear a strong physical resemblance to the Gipsy 
type, speak Arabic, cherish Mohammedanism,are shrewd, 
active, and courageous, and also thoroughly accomplish¬ 
ed dissemblers and thieves. At least 10 different lan¬ 
guages or dialects are spoken in B. Fetichism prevails 
among the great bulk of the negro aborigines, which 
people, in most things, possess the common characteris¬ 
tics of the African race in general.— Prin. towns. Konka, 
the cap., Deegoa, and Engornoo. Pop. No estimate can 
be made of the population of this kingdom; but as 
towns possessing 30,000 inhabitants are frequently met 
with, and markets are said to be sometimes attended by | 
80,000 to 100.000 persons, and the Slioa population alone 
being able to raise an army of 15.000 men, the number 
of inhabitants must be very considerable. 

Bor'nous, n. See Burnous. 

Boro Buddor. See Java. 

Borodi no. See Moskowa. 

Borotli'no, in New York, a post-village of Onondaga 
co., 18 m. S.W. of Syracuse. 

Borolluoric or Flitoboric Acid, n. (Ghem.) It is 
formed in combination with potassium by saturating 
hydrofluoric with boracic acid, and neutralizing by car- 
lonato of potash. The compound is washed, dried, and 
neated with an equal weight of potassium. Borofluoride 

S of potassium is used in the preparation of boron. Form. 
B0 3 .3HF. 

Bo ron, n. (Client.) A combustible element, closely al¬ 
lied to Silicon, and which has at present never been 
found in animal or vegetable bodies, but appears to be 
entirely confined to the mineral kingdom. Symbol B, 
equivalent 10 9. It was first obtained by Davy in 1808, 
by submitting moistened boracic acid, inclosed between 
platinum plates, to the action of the voltaic current. 
A brownish substance appeared at the negative pole, 
which, conceiving it to be a metal, he termed boraciam. 
By further experiment he proved it to be a non-metallic 
body, resembling carbon in its properties, and altered 
its name to boron. It was, however, but imperfectly 
known until Thenard and Gay-Lussac obtained it more 
readily by heating boracic acid with potassium. The 
metal combined with theoxygen of the acid to form pot¬ 
ash. which was washed away with water, leaving the 
boron behind. A still more ready method of preparing 
it if. by heating a mixture of potassium and borofluoride 
of potassium in an iron crucible. Boron and fluoride of 
24 


potassium are formed, the latter substance being washed 
away with a weak solution of chloride of ammonium. 
Boron thus prepared is a brownish-green powder, dis¬ 
solving slightly in water, forming a yellowish-green so¬ 
lution. It is rendered insoluble by being heated in close 
vessels; its specific gravity being at the same time 
changed from 1-183 to 1-844. It suffers no change, being 
neither volatilized nor fused. It may, however, be 
melted by the heat generated by a poweriul galvanic 
battery. Like silicon, it is a nun-conductor of electri¬ 
city. Alkalies and acids (except nitric acid) produce no 
effect on it. Nitric acid converts it into boracic acid. 
It does not decompose water at any temperature, and is 
constant under the action of air or oxygen until the 
temperature reaches 600°, when it burns brilliantly, 
forming boracic acid by the absorption of oxygen. Pre¬ 
pared in the above way, boron is amorphous ; but MM. 
Deville and Wohler have obtained it in garnet-red trans¬ 
parent crystals, by fusing boracic acid with 80 per cent, 
of metallic aluminium in a powerful furnace. The crys¬ 
tals are extremely hard, scratching sapphire and co¬ 
rundum, and yielding only to the diamond, which is 
generally injured by ihe operation. Crystallized boron 
has never been fused, and resists the action of oxygen 
at very high temperatures. Boron is obtained in a gra¬ 
phitic form when borofluoride of potassium is decom¬ 
posed by aluminium. It bears a close relation to the 
graphitic form of carbon, or ordinary graphite. Boron 
combines with several elements, forming borides with 
the metals. The close relation always supposed to exist 
between boron and carbon has been curiously confirmed 
by the fact of both these elements being capable of 
assuming the amorphous, crystalline, and graphitic 
forms. The only important compound of boron is bo¬ 
racic acid, q. v. 

Borough, Kurgli, (buPro,) n. [A. S. burh, beorh , a 
hill, or mountain; O. Ger. berg, a hill, butg, a city; Goth. 
baurgs ; Sansk. piira, a house, a city; allied to Qr.pyr- 
gos, a tower.] Literally, a refuge; a place of defence or 
security; a fortified town. Specifically, a corporate 
town; a town that sends members to parliament, (in 
England). In the U. States, an incorporated town or 
village. 

Bor ough, v. [A. S. borg, boric, pledge, surety.] (O. Eng. 
Law.) An association of citizens or subjects, who gave 
pledges to the king lor their mutual, and general, good 
behavior. 

—The surety or pledge given by them. 
Bor'oug-h-Eng-lish, n. (Eng. Law.) A custom by 
which the younger son inherits the estate in preference 
to bis elder brothers. It prevails in several cities and 
ancient boroughs, in different parts of England, and 
is founded in the fact that the elder children are usu¬ 
ally prodded for during the life of the parent as they 
grew up,* and removed, w hile the younger son usually 
remains. 

Bor ough-head, n. Same as IIeadborough, q. v. 
Eor'ongh-holder, n. See Borsholder. 

Bor ough-master, n. The mayor, or chief municipal 
officer of a borough. 

Bor'ough-monger, n. One who traffics in the pa¬ 
tronage of a borough. 

Bor'ough ofCanibridg'e, in Vermont, a village of 

Cambridge township, Lamoille co. 

Borovsk', or Borofsk', a town of Russia, 49 m. N.N.E. 
of Kalouga. Near it is one of the richest convents in 
the empire, founded in 1444. Pop. 6,870. 
Borrel'lmns. Bor'rellists, n. pi. (Ecd. Hist.) A 
sect of Christians in Holland, so called from their 
founder, Borrell, who was a man of some learning, par¬ 
ticularly in the Greek and Hebrew languages. They re¬ 
ject all public acts of w-orsliip, public prayer, and the 
use of the sacraments. They assert that the Christian 
churches have degenerated, because they have suffered 
the Word of God. which is infallible, to be interpreted 
by fallible men. They are said to lead austere lives, and 
to devote a considerable portion of their goods to charity. 
Bor'ris, or Bur'ris-idrone. a village of Ireland, 
co. Carlow, and 16 m. S. of Carlow- town. 
Bor'ris-in-Os'sory, a market-town of Ireland, 
Queen’s co., 7 m. K.S.E. of Roscrea: pip. about 1,000. 
Bor'risleag-h. a parish of Ireland, co. Tipperary. 
Bor'risokaiie, a town and par. of Ireland, co. Tippe- 
rary, 12 m. S W. of Birr; pop. of town about 1,800. 
Bor'risoleig-li, a small town of Ireland, co. Tipperary, 

6 m. S.S.W. of Tempi’more; pop. about 1,000. 
Borrome'an Islands. See Maggiore, (Lago.) 
Borrome'o, (St. Charles.) nephew of Pope Pius IV., 
was b. in Italy, 1538. He studied at Pavia, and took his 
doctor’s degree when 22 years of age. Shortly after¬ 
ward, his uncle called him to Rome, and made him a car¬ 
dinal, and archbishop of Milan. B. established an acad¬ 
emy in the Vatican for the promotion of learning, and 
published its conferences under the name of Noctes Va¬ 
tican a;. In 1563, on the conclusion of the Council of 
Trent, he was commissioned to draw up an exposition 
of the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, as sanc¬ 
tioned by that council. This exposition is known by 
the name of Chtechismus Tridentinus. After the Pope’s 
death in 1563, B. went to his diocese, and devoted him¬ 
self entirely to bis episcopal duties. He reformed his 
expensive style of living, and employed the major part 
of his revenues in charity. He also enforced a reform in 
the clergy, especially among the rionastic orders. One 
of the latter, having attempted the cardinal’s assassi¬ 
nation. was suppressed by the Pope, and its revenues 
appropriated to good works. When the plague broke 
out at Milan, in 1576, B., at the risk of his life, exerted 
himself to succor and tend his suffering flock. He 
shared in some of the prevailing errors of his time, and 
believed in sorcery, but his conduct was always tolerant. 


charitable, and humane. D. 1584, and was canonized b? 
Pope Paul V. in 1610. 

Borrow, ( bor'ro .) v. a. [A.S. borgian, from borh, a seeur- 
ity, a pledge.] To give or take a pledge or security; 
to take or receive from another fora time os credit; 
to ask or receive as a loan, a promise or security for 
return or repayment being given or implied; as, t« 
borrow an umbrella. 

“ He borrowed a box of the ear of the Englishman, and swore 
he would pay him again when he was able."— Shaks. 

lo take, copy, or use as one’s own that which belongs tc 
another; to plagiarize; to appropriate; to assume a* 
one s own. 

“ Though T ara young, I scorn to flit 
On the wings of borrowed wit."— Wither • 

—Pledge; cost; the thing borrowed, (r.) 

“ Yet of your royal presence I’ll adventure 
The borrow of a week."— Shake. 

Bor row, George, an eminent English philologist and 
literateur, b. 1803. He early devoted himself to the 
study oflanguages, and acquired a thorough knowledge 
ot the Romany or Gipsy tongue. In 1833, entering the 
employ of the “ British and Foreign Bible Society,” he 
was sent to Russia, where, at St. Petersburg, he edited 
the New Testament in the Mantchu, or Chinese-Turtar 
language, and also a work called the Targuw, consist¬ 
ing of metrical translations from 30 languages. He 
next visited Spain, and was twice imprisoned in that 
country for circulating the Holy Scriptures. While 
here, he mixed much with the Zincali, (Spanish gitarwt 
or Gipsies,) acquired their dialect, and translated St 
Luke’s Gospel into it. In 1841, he published, in Eng¬ 
land, tlie Zincali, or An Account of the Gipsies in Spain, 
a work which attained a world-wide celebrity. In 1842, 
appeared from his pen The Bible in Spain; in 1851, La- 
vengro; in 1857, The Romany Rye; and in 1862, Wild 
Wales. D. 1881. 

Borrowdale, ( boPro-dail ,) a romantic English valley 
among Derwentwater Fells, in the S.E. part of Cumber! 
land, 7 m. from Keswick. These fells, or hills, are sums 
of ttie loftiest in England, and it is in one of these that 
the black lead, or plumbago, is found, wherewith nearly 
all the "oi Id was supplied. The min* s were opened only 
once in seven years; ami when a sufficient quantity of 
P. taken out, they were closed again. They were 
finally closed in 1850. 

Bor'rower, n. One who borrows, or takes something 
upon trust. (Opposed to lender.) 

41 Neither a borrower nor a lender be; 

For loan oft loses both itself and friend, 

And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry."— Shahs. 

—He who appropriates to himself that which is another’*, 
and uses it as his own. 

“ Some say I am a great borrower, however, none .... hav* 
challenged me for it." — Pope. 

Borrowing, n. Act of one who borrows. 
Borrotvstoumiess, (ordinarily abbreviated to Bo- 
NE8S,) a seaport town of Scotland, co. of Linlithgow, on 
the river Forth, 18 m. N.W of Edinburgh. There are 
extensive collieries here. J‘op. 5,612. 

Borsella, n. An instrument with which glass-makers 
extend or contract glass. 

Borsehod, ( bor'shod .) a fertile county of Hungary, ot 
the Theiss; pop. 216,500. 

Bors'-holder, n. [0. Eng. borsolder. J (O. Eng. Law.) 
The head-borough, or chief of a tithing, or bury (borough) 
of 10 men. 

Bort, n. The small filings or cuttings of diamonds* 
used to make diamond-powder for lapidaries. 

Borus'si. a people of Sarmatia, who inhabited Prussia 
which takes its name from them. 

Bo'ruret, n. ( Chem.) A combination of boron with » 
simple body. 

Bo'ry de Saint Vin'cent, Jean Baptiste Georg* 
Marie, a French naturalist, is. at Agen, 1780. In 1798, 
he proceeded on a scientific mission to New Holland. 
Among the fruits of his travels were his Essai sur les 
lies Frtunies del'antique Atluntide, nu Precis de VHis• 
tirire Generate de I’Archipel des Canaries (Par. 1803).and 
his Voyage, dans les quatre principal.s lies des Hers d'Af 
rique (3 vols., Par., 1804). Having returned to his native 
country, lie became a captain in the army, served at Him 
and Austerlitz. went to Spain, and became military in- 
tendant on the staff of Marshal Soult. In 1815, he 
served as a colonel, and after the battle of Waterloo 
made an eloquent but fruitless appeal to bis colleagues 
in the Chamber against submitting to the Bourbons, 
and was compelled to go into exile. Ai Brussels he 
edited, along with Ian Mons, the Annates des Sciences 
Physiques (8 vols.). He also produced an admirable 
work on the subterranean quarries in the limestone hills 
near Maastricht (Par., 1821). He returned to France in 
1820, and in 1827 appeared his VHomme, Essai Zoolo- 
gique sur le Genre humain. lie wrote what relates to 
cryptogamic plants in Duperrey’s Voyage autour du 
Memde (Par.. 1828). He rendered an important service to 
science by editing the Dictionnaire Classiquede l’Histair* 
Naturelle. When, in 1829, the Frencli government sent 
a scientific expedition to the Morea and the Cyclades, 
the first place in it was assigned to B. de S. V,; and the 
results of his researches were given to the world in the 
Expedition Siientifique. de Moree (Par., 1832), and in th» 
Nouvelle Flore, du Pelnpimise et des Cyclades (Par., 1836) 

In 1839, he undertook the principal charge of the scien 
tific commission which the French government sent W 
Algeria. D. 1846. 

Borysthenes. See Dnieper. 

Bos, n. [Lat.] See Boviwe. 

Bo'sa, a town of the island of Sardinia, 4 m. from Car 
liari. Lat. 40° 17' N.; Lon. 8° 27' li. It has a coral 
fishery. Pop. 6.568. 

























398 


BOS J 


BOSN 


BOSP 


Co 'sa, Bonza, n. [Pers. and Turk. bSzah.'] A bever¬ 
age drunk in tlie East, and prepared from fermented 
millet-seed, acidulated with various substances. 

Bos cage, n. 10. Fr.; It. bosco; Du. bnsch.] Wood¬ 
land; thicket; underwood; a mass of thick foliage; ar- 
boresceuce 

" It was a land full of boscage, which made it show the more 
dark.' Bacon. 

( Old Eng. Law.) Nutriment for cattle obtained from 
trees or bushes. 

(Painting.) A representation of woodland scenery. 

“ Landscapes, and boscage, and such wild works."— Wotton. 

Boscan-Alnioga ver, Juan, a Spanish poet, b. at 
Barcelona, about 1500. He was the first to make use 
of Italian measures in Spanish verse, and thus became 
the creator of the Spanish sonnet. D. 1514. 

Boscaiven, (bos'quoin.) Edward, an eminent English 
admiral, the second son of Viscount Falmouth, b. 1711. 
He early entered the navy, and was, in 1740, made cap¬ 
tain of the Shoreham. lie particularly distinguished 
himself at the taking of Porto-bello and the siege of 
Carthagena. In 1714 he was made captain of the Dread¬ 
nought, of 60 guns, and soon after took the French ship 
Meilee, commanded by Captain Hoquart. In 1747 he dis¬ 
tinguished himself under Anson, and was in an engage¬ 
ment with the French fleet off Cape Finistere, where he 
was wounded in the shoulder by a musket-ball, and 
where Hoquart again became his prisoner. The same 
year he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and com¬ 
mander of the land and sea forces employed in an ex¬ 
pedition to the East Indies. On his arrival he laid siege 
to Pondicherry, but was obliged to quit it on account of 
the monsoon; and the manner in which he effected his 
retreat added to his fame. He soon afterwards took 
Madras, and peace being concluded, returned to England, 
where he was appointed one of the lords commissioners 
of the Admiralty. In 1755 he sailed to intercept a 
French squadron bound to North America, of which he 
took two ships, and Hoquart became his prisoner a third 
time. In 1758 he took Cape Breton and Louisbourg, in 
conjunction with General Amherst. The year following 
he commanded in the Mediterranean, and while lying at 
Gibraltar, hearing that the French admiral M. De la 
Clue had passed the Straits, he refitted his ships, and 
came up with the French fleet, of which he took three, 
and burnt two others in Lagos Bay. In 1760 he was ap¬ 
pointed general of the marine*. It was of him that Lord 
Chatham said, that when he proposed expeditions to 
other commanders, he heard nothing but difficulties; 
but when he applied to B , these were either set aside, 
or expedients suggested to remove them. D. 1761. 

Boscawen, in New Hampshire, a post-township of 
Merrimack co., 10 m. N. by VV. of Concord, on the Mer¬ 
rimack River. 

Bos'cobel, a small place in the parish of Tong, co. of 
Shropshire, England. Its grove is noted for the oak in 
which Charles II. was hid, and where he saw the par¬ 
liament soldier? pass by in quest of him, after the battle 
of Worcester, in 1651. The “ Royal Oak," and is now 
represented by a tree grown from one of its acorns. See 
Boscobel Tracts, (1660, 81). B. is from the Italian, 
meaning fair woods. 

Bos'cohel, in Wis., a thriving city of Grant co., on the 
Wisconsin liver. Manuf. of furniture, plows, flour, &c. 
Pop. (1890) 1,540; (1897) abt. 2,250. 

Bos'co Tre Ca'se, a town of S. Italy, situate at the 
S. base of Mount Vesuvius; pap. 9,455. 

Bosh, n. [Prov. Eng. bosh, dash, show; It. bozzo, a rough 
stone.) A term colloquially used to denote empty talk, 
nonsense, mere show without substance, &c.; as, it i3 
all bosh. —A figure; an outline. 

Bosh'-bok, n. A species of antelope found in S. Africa. 

Bosll'es, n. pi. [Ger. bbschung, a slope.] (Metal.) In a 
blast-fwnace, the lower part of a shaft sloping down¬ 
ward from the belly, or widest part, to the hearth. 

Bo'sio, Franjois Joseph, Baron, an eminent sculptor, 
B. at Monaco, Italy, 1769. He studied at Paris; and 
when only 19, returned to Italy, where he executed a 
multitude of commissions even at that early age. His 
reputation was greatly increased by the figures which, 
at the request of Napoleon, he executed for the column 
in the Place Vendome. Louis XVIII. and Charles X. 
also patronized B , the former appointing him royal 
sculptor, the latter elevating him to the rank of baron. 
B. s principal works are: the Hercules in the garden of 
the Tuileries; the incomparably beautiful Hyacinth in 
the Luxembourg; the Nymph Salmacis, a figure display¬ 
ing wonderful grace and purity of outline; anallegorical 
figure of France, 7 feet high, surrounded by the Muse 
of History and a group of Oenii; the statue in memory 
of the Due d’Enghien ; the equestrian statue in the Place 
des Victoires, and the monument of Count Demidoff, 30 
feet high, composed of six figures, with bas-reliefs, &c. 
Besides these, B. executed a great multitude of busts of 
distinguished persons, such as the Emperor Napoleon, 
the Empress, Queen Hortense, the King and Queen of 
Westphalia, Louis XVIII., Charles X., Ac. B ’s works 
are all marked by grace of form, harmony of design, 
and elegance of finish. His style generally reminds one 
of Canova. He was director of the Academy of Fine 
Arts in Paris, where he died, 1845. ~~ 

{tosjesiiiAns, (boz-jes'manz,) n. pi. [Du., men of the 
wood, or Bushmen 1 A name given by the Dutch settlers 
of S. Africa to some roaming tribes akin to the Hotten¬ 
tots, in the vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope. The 
description given by Governor Janssens of this people 
represents them as so deeply sunk in barbarism as to be 
unacquainted even with the construction of huts or 
(eats; in fact, they may be placed on a par, as regards 


their distance from a state of even semi-civilization, with 
the Digger Indians of North America. They are of a 
dark copper complexion, small iu stature, and of a sin¬ 
gularly malicious, wild, and intractable disposition. 
Humboldt classed their cerebrgl development as belong¬ 
ing to almost the lowest class of the human species. 



Bosk, n. [See Boscage.) A small growth of brush or 
underwood. 

Bos'ket, n. [Fr. bosquet.] See Bosquet. 

Bos'koi. [Gr., the grazers.] (Eccl. Hist.) The name 
given to a class of ascetic monks who lived in Syria and 
Mesopotamia, and are said to have subsisted solely upon 
roots and herbs. They did not inhabit any house, and 
professed to spend their time in the worship of God, 
in prayers and hymns. 

Bos ky, a. Woody; covered with boscage; as, the bosky 
glade. 

“ And with end of thy blue bow dost crown 
My bosky acres, and my unshrubb’d down." — Shaks. 

Bos'na-Serai, or Serajevo, (anc. Tiberiopolis,) a city 
of Austria-Hungary, cap. province Bosnia, on the N. 
bank of the Migliazza, 122 m. S.W. of Belgrade, and 575 
m. N.W. of Constantinople; Lat. 43° 54' N.; Lon. 18° 26' 
E. The town is well-built, and has an agreeable appear¬ 
ance, owing to the number of minarets, towers, and gar¬ 
dens which it encloses. It contains a serai, or palace, 
built by Mahomet II., to which the city owe* its name, 
about 100 mosques, some of which are elegant struc¬ 
tures; several Greek and Roman Catholic churches, 
with colleges and bazaars. Most of the houses are of 
wood ; the Migliazza is here crossed by a massive stone 
bridge. The city was formerly encompassed with walls, 
but these are now decayed, and its only defence consists 
in a large citadel, built on a rocky height at its E. ex¬ 
tremity, and mounting 80 cannon. The inhabitants are 
industrious, and employed in the manufacture of arms, 
iron, and copper articles, horsehair, bags, morocco, and 
other kinds of leather, and cotton and woollen stuffs. 
Near B. S. are the principal iron-mines in Bosnia. It is 
the chief mart in the prov., the centre of the commer¬ 
cial relations between Turkey and Dalmatia, Croatia, 
and S. Germany, and has considerable trade with the 
cities of Saloniki and Yanina. The most wealthy families 
in Bosnia reside in this city; two-thirds of the pop. are 
said to be Tuiks, but tUe Jews monopolize the chief 
trade. Pop. (1890) 27,000. 

Bos'nia, or Ilas'na. in former times a pashalic or 
eyalet of Turkey iu Europe, but placed in 1878 under 
the administration of Austria. It lies between Lat. 
42° 30' and 45° 15' N., and Lon. 15° 4CF and 21° 2' E., 
having N.W. and N. the Austrian prov. of Croatia and 
Slavonia, E. Servia, and S. and W. Albania and Austrian 
Dalmatia, the latter separating it from the Adriatic. 
In l'JU8 it was annexed to the Austrian Empire. 
Area, 24,247. Pop. 1,212.172. B. is almost entirely oc¬ 
cupied by tne Dinaric aud Julian Alps, which, with their 
offsets, separate it into several well-marked divisions. 
Principal river, the Save, forming the N. boundary of B., 
with its affluents the Unna, which in part separates 
Turkish from Austrian Croatia, — Verbaz, Drin, and 
Ibar forming its E. boundaries. The Bosna traverses 
B. Proper, the Sanna, Croatia, and the Narenta Herze¬ 
govina. It has numerous fertile valleys, but no lakes 
of importance, and only one plain of any size, that of 
Livno in Herzegovina. This country is supposed to be 
rich in minerals, but only the iron-mines, and a few 
lead-mines, are worked. Gold and silver exist in va¬ 
rious places, and mines of the first of these metals were 
worked under the Romans; most of the large affluents 
of the Save bring down gold-dust. Quick-silver is also 
found, and there are qnarries of millstone, freestone, 
alabaster, and marble, coal-mines, and numerous min¬ 
eral springs, some of which furnish salt, though not in 
sufficient quantity for the supply of fhe country. The 
climate is generally cold, but not unhealthy; the win¬ 
ter-snows lie on the ground for a long time, and the 
spring is short. In the S., violent winds prevail in win¬ 
ter, and the summer is extremely hot The mountain- 
chains, especially in the N., are covered with dense for¬ 
ests of pine, oak, beech, linden, chestnut, &c.; but the 
S. branches of the Dinaric Alps present a remarkable 
deficiency of vegetation. The greatest elevations are 
the warn, 8,500 ft., and the Dormitor, 7,980 ft. high. The 


best soil in the valleys is devoted to pasture, and Bosnia 
is generally better adapted for the feeding of cattle than 
for agriculture. The Bosniaks, however, seem to prefer 
the chase to more settled pastoral occupations; and as 
the woods abound with wild animals, as deer, wild boars, 
bears, wolves, and foxes, they have every facility for 
carrying it on. It is only in the valleys that any culti¬ 
vation is carried on. Wheat, barley, maize, and le¬ 
gumes, are grown in sufficient quantity for home con¬ 
sumption, and flax and tobacco near Zvornik aud Novi- 
bazai. A great variety of fruit is met with. A liqueur 
is made from plums, and a sweet drink called pelmet 
from pears. The olive and vine are both cultivated. 
The wines are strong and fiery. B. has a breed of strong 
horses, but it is much neglected, except by the Turks. 
The manufactures of Bosnia are limited to iron articles 
of common use, leather, coarse woollen stuffs, saltpetre 
at Jaieza, cannon-balls at Kamengrad, gun-powder, fire¬ 
arms. and other weapons. The principal exports are 
leather, hides, wool, goat’s-hair, honey, cattle, dried 
fish, timber, and mineral waters; the chief imports, 
linen, woollens, silks, lace, glass, and metallic wares, 
paper, colonial produce, salt, oil, dried fruits, and silver 
coin from Dalmatia. The transit-trade in Levant pro¬ 
duce is not inconsiderable ; the chief seats of commerce 
are the towns of Bosna-Sera'i, Novibazar, Zvornik, Bag- 
na. Souka, Mostar, and Gradiska. The roads are gen¬ 
erally very bad, and impracticable for wheel carriages. 
The total government revenue derived from this pro¬ 
vince under the Turks was about $5,0U0,UU0 a year, B. 
was formerly under the govt, of a pasha, and divided 
into 6 saty'iaks, and again into 48 subdivisions, sub¬ 
ordinate to a military governor, and a cadi, or judicial 
officer. Bosna-Sera'i was the capital, but Travonik the 
residence of the Pasha. The Bosniaks are of Slavonic 
origin, though mostly Mohammedans. They differ from 
the Turks in many usages, and are not addicted to 
polygamy.— B. was anciently included in Lower Pan- 
nonia. In the Middle Ages, it first belonged to the E. 
Empire, but became a separate kingdom, dependent 
upon Hungary. The Turks conquered it iu 1480, after 
a war of seventeen years; and in 1522 Solyman “ the 
Magnificent” annexed it to the Turkish domain. When, 
after three centuries, Bosnia, Croatia, and Herzegovina 
were taken from Turkey by the Treaty of Berlin (q. v.), 
they had an area of over 24,000 sq. m., aud a population 
of above 1,000,000. 

Bo'sont, n. [A. S. bosm, bosum; Ger. busen, from beugen ; 
Sansk. buqan, to bend, to curve.] The breast of a human 
being; the female breast; the hollow space formed be¬ 
tween the breast and the garment that covers it. “You 
must prepare your bosom for his knife.” — Bhaks. 

—The interior of the breast, as enclosing the heart, con¬ 
sidered as the seat of tenderness, or of the passions, or a* 
a close place; consciousness. 

“ Or draw his frailties from their dread abode ; • • . 

The bosom of his father and his God.” — Gray. 

—Embrace; tender or loving enclosure; as, in the bosom 
of religion. 

—Any enclosed spot; the interior; as, the bosom of th* 
earth. 

“ In the deep bosom of the ocean buried.” — Shales. 

—Used in composition to form a compound word ex¬ 
pressive of being familiar; affectionate ; intimate; con¬ 
fidential ; as, a //osom-triend. 

** Those domestic traitors, bosom- thieves, 

Whom custom hath call’d wives." — Ben Jonson. 

— v. a. To enclose in the bosom ; to cherish with care. 

*' Bosom up my counsel, 

You ’ll find it wholesome." — Shake. 

-»To conceal in privacy; to hide from view. 

“ To happy convents, bosom'd deep in vines, 

Where siumber abbots, purple as their wines.”— Pope. 

Bospho'rian, a. Relating, or pertaining, to the Bos¬ 
phorus. 

Bos'idiorus (more properly Bos'porus) ofThracb 
( or Channel of Constantinople), the strait which con¬ 
nects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora, and sep¬ 
arates the E. corner of Thrace from Asia-Minor. The 
length of this remarkable channel is about 17 m., its 
width varying from '/] m. to 2 m.; its course is slightly 
winding; its direction very little W. of S., and its em¬ 
bouchure in the Sea of Marmora is in 41° N. Lat., 29° E. 
Lon. — A current sets constantly from the Black Sea 
through the B., but, though generally very strong, it is 
subject to considerable modifications; a long-continued 
wind from the S.W. renders it sometimes almost imper¬ 
ceptible, while on the other hand, a breeze from the 
N.E. so adds to its force that it is almost impossible for 
a vessel, under such circumstances, to make head against 
it. The inequalities of the coast cause several changes 
of direction in the set, as the water is thrown from side 
to side by the numerous bold promontories that project 
from both shores; but these do not affect the general 
course, except by making it more tortuous; that course 
tending constantly towards the S. and the Sea of Mar¬ 
mora. The depth of water is considerable: there is but 
one bank in the channel; consequently there is no dan¬ 
ger in its navigation, nor any difficulty except in an upt 
ward passage against its current; this is, however, suf¬ 
ficiently baffling to the unskilled Orientals. At its N, 
mouth, on the Black Sea, are two groups of islets, one 
on the European, the other on the Asiatic shore; these 
are the famous Cyanean Isles or Symplegades of tha 
ancients, which it was once believed no vessel ever 
passed in safety, except by miracle. (Apoll. Bhod. ii. v. 
435, Ac.) They are now quite harmless, being, in fact, 
nothing hut low continuations of the respective shores; 
they are in a continual state of decay, and might easily 
be overlooked, did not their ancient celebrity induo* 














BOSS 


BOSS 


BOST 


399 


the modern navigator to search for them In its freedom 
from all danger, its narrow channel, the strength and 
constant set of its current, and, in short, in most of 
its characteristics, the B. resembles a magnificent river 
more than an arm of the sea; and this resemblance is 
by no means impaired by the branch which it gives 
off at its S. end, and which, enclosing Constantinople 
on the N., forms what is called the Golden Horn , one of 
the finest harbors in the world. The country through 
which the B. flows is unrivalled for beauty; animals 
and vegetables of almost every variety abound, and the 
geology is peculiarly interesting from the unequivocal 
evidences it exhibits of igneous action. The cliffs, which 
are stately and abrupt, consist of jasper, agate, cornelian, 
chalcedony, porphyry, trap, and calcareous spath, in 
very great but picturesque confusion. They are all 
more or less in a state of decomposition, and traces of 
metal are seen in the coloring of the various stones. 
Appearances seem to warrant the conclusion that this 
strait was opened by a convulsion of nature, and this 
belief was very generally entertained by the ancients. 
At about half-way between the two seas, or rather nearer 
to that of Marmora, at the narrowest part of the channel, 
stand two castles, one on each bank, named, from two of 
the Turkish provinces, Anadoli and Rumeii, (Asia Minor 
and Thrace.) They form almost the only defence to Con¬ 
stantinople on the N., and, if well manned, would be 
very difficult to pass. They appear to be almost the 
only public buildings, but private houses and gardens 
extend along nearly the whole length of the strait, 
especially on the European side. (Chevalier, Voy.de la 
Prop. pp. 43-19; Olivier, Voy. dans V Empire Oth. 1. 
120-124; Jones's Trav. ii. 444—451.) — The name Bosporus, 
which has been improperly corrupted by modern or¬ 
thography to Bosphorus, is indicative of the narrow¬ 
ness of this channel, and comes from Bos, an ox, and 
poros, a ford. The passage across it of Europa, borne 
by Jupiter in the form of a bull, is a well-known Greek 
legend, and thence the ancients called those channels 
Bospori, which were narrow enough to allow of kine 
swimming across them. Two especially were so dis¬ 
tinguished, namely, the strait now under consideration, 
and the Cimmerian Bosporus (Strait of Yenikale), 
between the Euxine and the Palus Mceotis. Over the 
Thracian Bosporus, Darius Ilystaspes threw a bridge 
of boats when he passed from Asia to his disastrous 
war with the Scythians; and the pillars of marble, 
which he erected to commemorate that event, are sup¬ 
posed, with great reason, to have stood upon the spots 
now occupied by the Turkish castles. 

Bosque, (bosk.) in Texas, a central county, bounded E. 
by the Brazos River, and watered by the Bosque. Area, 
about 950 sq. m. Cap. Meridian. 

Bos'qnet, Bosket, Busket, n. [Fr. bosquet. See Bos¬ 
cage.] (Gardening.) A piece or plot of ground in gar¬ 
dens, enclosed by a palisade or high hedge-row of trees, 
shrubs, &c. 

Bosquet, Marie Joseph, ( Tfos - lcai ',) a French general, 
B. at Pau, 1810. In 1829 he entered the Polytechnic 
School, and in 1833 became a sub-lieutenant in the artil¬ 
lery. In 1835 he went with his regiment to Algeria, 
where he began to distinguish himself. Between 1836 
and 1848 he had passed through the successive ranks of 
captain, chef-de-bataillon, lieutenant-colonel, and colo¬ 
nel, when, in that year, he was appointed by the repub¬ 
lican government, general of brigade. In 1854 the em¬ 
peror Napoleon III. raised him to the rank of general 
of division, and enrolled him in the staff of the army of 
Marshal St. Arnaud. He was with the French army in 
the Crimea, where he greatly distinguished himself, and 
was wounded in the assault on the Malakoff tower at 
the siege of Sebastopol. In 1856, he was made a mar¬ 
shal of France, and a senator. In 1859 he was appoint¬ 
ed to a command in the war against Austria. D. 1862. 

Boss, n. [Fr. bosse, from L. Lot. bossa, a swelling; Ger. 
bausch, anything roundish, from bausen, to swell up; 
perhaps allied to Gr. physad, to puff or swell up.] A 
protuberant ornament; a stud ; a knob; as, the boss of a 
shield. 

“ What sigoifies.... embroidered farniture, or gaudy bosses t " 

1 L’Estrange. 

—A round, protuberant, swelling part; as, a boss of wood. 

I 1 * It by the boss of the tongue to the palate.’ — Holder. 

(Mech .) The enlarged part of a shaft on which a wheel 
is keyed, or at the end where it is coupled to another.— 
A swage or die used for shaping metals. — Webster. 

(Arch.) A term applied in mediaeval architecture to 
the piece of stone, usually carved in a fanciful manner, 
which covers the intersection of a series of arches. It 
is commonly fin¬ 
ished with a flower, 
or a human masque, 
and is one of the 
most characteristic 
specimens of medise- 
val decoration. 

(Build.) A short 
trough for holding 
water when tiling 
a roof: it is hung to 
the laths. 

—In the U. States, a 
term applied to the 
bison or buffalo. 

1 Boss. [Du. baas, 
master.] In the U. 

States, a title given 
to a master-workman, foreman, or superintendent. 

_A master; one who has the upper hand of another. 

v (Jsed in some parts of England.) 

Boss, v.a- Toornament with bosses; to stud with knobs.— 


To have the mastery over; to superintend labor; as, to 
boss the workshop. 

Boss. v. i. To lord it over; to rule with authority; to 
be master. 

Boss'age, n. [Fr.] (Arch ) Any projection left un¬ 
wrought on the surface of a stone, for the purpose of 
afterwards receiving a sculptural decoration, which is 
generally the last, part of the work executed. 

—Rustic work, consisting of stones which advance be¬ 
yond the level of the building, by reason of indentures 
or channels left in the joinings. 

Bos'sardsville, in Pennsylvania, a vill.of Monroe co. 

Bos'set, n. An antler of the buck of the red deer. 

Bossier, (bos'se-d',) in Louisiana, a N.W. parish, on the 
confines of Arkansas, bounded W. by Red river, and E. 
by Lake Bistineau and Dauchite Bayou. Area, 780 sq. 
m. This parish was formerly part of that of Claiborne. 
Soil. Fertile, producing cotton and corn. Cup. Benton. 
Pop. (1898) 21,550. 

Bossuet, Jacques Benigne, ( boz ' swai ,) bishop of Meatix, 
a French prelate, celebrated for his eloquence as a pul¬ 
pit orator, and his strength and acumen as a controver¬ 
sialist. B. at Dijon, 1627. He was placed when very 
young under the care of the Jesuits, who, on the dis¬ 
covery of his abilities, sought to gain him as an acces¬ 
sion to their order, but were frustrated by the care of 
his friends. He was then removed to Paris, and entered 
at the College of Navarre, and in 1652, took his degrees 
in divinity, and was made a canon at Metz. Here he 
applied himself chiefly to the study of the Scriptures, 
and of the writings of the Fathers, especially of St. Au¬ 
gustine; and shortly becoming a celebrated preacher, 
was invited to Paris, and appointed, in 1661, to preach 
before Louis XIV It was about this time that B. ex¬ 
cited so much attention by his funeral orations, which 
are still considered as surpassing every other production 
of the kind in the French language for sublimity and 
pathos, although the admiration of the foreign reader, 
unacquainted with the genius of the French language, 
will not always correspond with native enthusiasm, as 
to all the beauties enumerated. His style of preaching 
was lofty, free, and animated, and he seldom wrote more 
than a few heads, but trusted to his copious and com¬ 
manding eloquence. At court he fully maintained the 
dignity of character his abilities were calculated to es¬ 
tablish, and, without any solicitation on his own part, 
was created bishop of Condom,— a dignity which he re¬ 
signed on being appointed preceptor to the Dauphin, in 
1670. In this situation he wrote for his pupil his cele¬ 
brated Discourse on Universal History, regarded still as 
the most masterly of his performances. When the 
prince’s education was completed, the king raised him 
to the See of Meaux, and appointed him a counsellor of 
state and almoner to the Dauphiness and Duchess of 
Burgundy. He was also equally honored by the learned 
world, being made a member of the French Academy, 
and superior of the Royal College of Navarre. The 
comparative leisure which ho now enjoyed, was devoted 
to the defence of the Catholic Church, both against in¬ 
fidels and Protestants. Some years before his death, 
however, he retired to his diocese, and devoted his lei¬ 
sure to the duties of his episcopal and pastoral functions, 
in the comfort, instruction, and relief of the unlettered, 
the afflicted, and the indigent of his diocese. He D. 
while thus engaged, in 1704, at the age of 77. — As an 
historian, or rather reviewer of history, this eminent 
prelate has displayed considerable genius, but it has 
been justly observed that he dwells with too much com¬ 
placency upon the Israelitish theocracy as a system, and 
lias treated history more like a churchman than either 
a philosopher or a politician. As a controversialist, B. 
is distinguished by great logical acuteness, and infinite 
dexterity in exposing the weak points of an opponent 
and concealing his own. These qualities are particu¬ 
larly exhibited in his celebrated Exposition of the Roman 
Catholic Faith, addressed principally to Protestants, 
which, however, was nine years awaiting the Pope s ap¬ 
probation. The points on which he chiefly lays stress 
are the antiquity and unity of the churches, the accu¬ 
mulated authorities of fathers, councils, and popes, and 
the necessity of a final umpire in affairs of faith and 
discipline. In all these points, however, he was ably 
answered by Claude and other ministers of the French 
Calvinists, its also by Archbishop Wake, who, in his Ex¬ 
position of the Doctrine of the Church of England, ex¬ 
poses much management and artifice in the suppression 
and alteration of B. s first edition. B. was very zealous 
for the reunion of the churches, but nothing was to be 
yielded as a matter of right; but he thought that the 
sacramental cup might be extended to the laity as a 
favor. He was not, however, an advocate for the infal¬ 
libility of the Pope, or for his assumed right of deposing 
kings. On the contrary, he resisted these doctrines with 
energy, and lost a cardinal’s hat by opposing Innocent 
XI. in claims contrary to the independence of the 
crown of France, and to the liberties of the French 
clergy. He also attacked Quietism, and triumphed over 
the amiable Fenelon with some harshness on that ac¬ 
count. He was, however, a professed enemy to persecu¬ 
tion, but does not appear to have remonstrated with 
Louis against his merciless persecution of the Huguenots. 
On the whole, B. was a man of great genius, lofty 
spirit, and extraordinary vigor of mind; which high 
qualities were alloyed by pride, and a deficiency of sim¬ 
plicity and candor, his character forming a moral con¬ 
trast to that of Fenelon. His Works were published in 
1743, in 20 vols. 4to, and many of them have been often 
reprinted in various forms. His discourse on Universal 
History, and his funeral orations, are, however, the only 
productions of his pen which now command much at¬ 
tention. 



Bostan'ji, ». pi. [Turk., from bostan, a garden.1 The 
class ot men who bear this name, who now perform a 
curious variety of functions, and whose head or chief 
(Bostanji-Bashi) is one of the grand dignitaries of tint 
Turkish empire, seem originally to have been nothing 
more than the Sultan's gardeners, attached to the im¬ 
perial residence, or seraglio, of Constantinople. They 
still work as gardeners, in the Sultan’s pleasure-grounds 
at Constantinople and on the Bosphorus, but the more 
conspicuous of their duties are. to mount guard in the 
seraglio, to row the Sultan’s barge, to row the caiques 
of all the officers »f the palace, to follow those great 
men, on foot, when they ride on business through the 
city, and to attend to the execution of the numerous 
orders of the bostanji-bashi. They were aggregated 
with the janissaries, with w hom they formerly did mili¬ 
tary duty in the field, but the bostanjis were not sup¬ 
pressed at the sanguinary dissolution of that turbulent 
militia, although their number lias been considerably de¬ 
creased. When the Ottoman Court was in its splendor, the 
bostauji corps amounted to 2,500 men, who were divided 
into ortas, or companies, like the janissaries. The dis¬ 
tinctive part of their costume was an enormous bonuet, 
or caouk, made of scarlet cloth. The bostanji-bashi, who 
has the rank of a pasha, is governor of the seraglio and 
the other imperial residences. He is inspector-general 
ol the woods and forests in the neighborhood of Constan¬ 
tinople. The shores of the Bosphorus and the Sea of 
Marmora, from the mouth of the Black Sea to the 
Straits of the Dardanelles, are under his jurisdiction, 
and formerly no person whatsoever could build or even 
repair a house on those coasts without his permission. 
For this license fees were exacted, which were generally 
fixed in the most arbitrary manner. Whenever the 
Sultan makes an excursion by water, (and in the fine 
seasons he rarely travels in any other way,) the bos¬ 
tanji-bashi stands or sits behind him, and steers the mag¬ 
nificent barge, wbich is rowed by the bostanjis. This 
brings him into frequent contact and conversation with 
the sovereign, w T ho never appoints any but personal fa¬ 
vorites to the post. At court, the bostanji-bashi is al¬ 
most as great a man as the kislar-aga (chief of the black 
eunuchs), or the selikdar (the Sultan's sword-bearer). 

Bos ton, the chiel city of New England, cap. of the 
State or Commonwealth of Massachusetts, and forming 
with the city of Chelsea and towns of Revere and Win 
throp, the co. of Suffolk; it is one of the first cities of 
the Union in commercial importance: is finely situated 
on a small peninsula at the toot of Massachusetts Bay, 
and connected with the mainland on the South by Bos¬ 
ton Neck, and is distant 267 m. N. E. from New York; 
Lat. 42°21 , 24" N., Lon. 71°3'58" W. Includes the city 
of Roxbury (annexed in 1868), town of Dorchester 
(added in 1870), city of Charlestown, and towns of 
Brighton and West Roxbury (annexed in 1874); by these 
additions 117,000 souls were added to the population. 

B. is divided into twenty-five wards. Several towns in 
its immediate vicinity are so closely connected with it 
as almost to belong to it. These are the cities of Cam¬ 
bridge, Chelsea, Somerville, and Newton, and the towns 
of Brookline, Revere, and Winthrop, and they may be 
considered as forming one community. The bay, which 
is very extensive, is studded with numerous small 
islands, which protect the harbor from the E. winds, 
and afford convenient situations for forts commanding 
the approaches to the city by water. The harbor is ex¬ 
cellent, being of great size, witli sufficient water to 
admit the largest ships, and so completely landlocked 
that the vessels within it are almost as secure as if they 
were in dock. At the outer entrance to the bay is a 
light-house 80 ft. in height, and 90 above the sea, with 
a revolving light. In the harbor are forts Indepen¬ 
dence, Winthrop, and Warren, and a strong battery on 
Long Island Head. The Boston Navy Yard, at Charles¬ 
town, was established in 1800. The bridges, some of 
which are of great length, connecting the city with its 
adjacent suburbs and the continent, are nearly a score 
in number; but the city was joined by a causeway of earth 
to Brookline, and the Cross Dam, as it is called, leading 
across the bay to Roxbury, was also formed of earth, witli 
walls of stone. The avenue served the double purpose 
of a bridge and a dam ; aud with the addition of a cross¬ 
dam of a similar construction, formed two large basins. 
These basins have been filled and 680 acres reclaimed, 
known as the Back Bay improvements, and most of it 
is already built upon. The wharves are very extensive . 
the Long Wharf and Central Wharf are each very com¬ 
modious. The wharves, as well as many other parts of 
the city, have been built on sites formed by filling in 
ground, originally covered by the sea. Many of the 
down-town streets, once narrow' and crooked, have been 
widened and straightened; and the houses, which are, 
for the most part of brick, though many of them are 
of granite and sandstone, are large, well built, and 
elegant. The principal public buildings are very impos¬ 
ing. The State-House, on the crown of Beacon Hill, is 
one of the most conspicuous objects in the city. It 
is a fine brick building, fronting the Common, and 
occupies the most elevated part of Beacon street, 100 ft. 
above the bay, surmounted by a gilded dome 50 ft. in 
diameter. From the cupola, a magnificent view is 
obtained of the city, the harbor, aud the charming 
suburban approaches on every hand. The City Hall 
is a magnificent structure of the modern Renaissance 
style of architecture; the Faneuil Hall Market, a hand¬ 
some granite edifice, two stories high, 590 ft. in length 
aud 50 ft. wide, with a large hall in second story, known 
as Quincy Hall. The Court House is also of granite, 176 
ft. long, 57 ft. high, and 54 ft. wide, adorned with mas¬ 
sive Doric porticos. The General Hospital is another 
handsome granite building, surrounded by open grounds 










400 


BOST 


BOST 


BOSW 


of 4 acres in extent. The City Hospital, City Bureau of 
Charities, Boston Atheuamm, Horticultural Ilall, Music 
Hall, Masonic Temple, < Mil Follows’ Building, Mass. 
Institute of Technology, Building of the Boston Society 
of Natural History, Museum of Fine Arts, are flue ex¬ 
amples of their respective styles. Among the more 
recent edifices we may name the Cathedral (R. C.), 
Trinity Church (P. E.), New Old South Church (Cong.), 
and the magnificent new Library building, opened 1895. 
The old State House, King’s Chapel, and Old South 
Church are among the old landmarks of B., the latter 
built in 1729. Th« Bunker llill Monument at Charles- 


increase in these figures. The net funded debt of the 
city is approximately {00,000,000.— History. The Indian 
name of the peninsula was Shaivmut. The meaning of 
the name is probably “living springs of water.” 2H- 
mountaine was the name given to the peninsula because 
of the bold appearance of certain eminences in it. The 
name of B. was given by the first settlers to their chief 
colony iu compliment to one of the distinguished first 
colonists, who came from Boston, in Lincolnshire. Tho 
original pioneer of the whites in this region was an 
eccentric Englishman, Wm. Blackstone, the date of 
whose arrival is, however, not accurately known. It is 


Great improvements of late years have taken place in 
this city, necessitated in part by the filling-in and re¬ 
claiming of tho Back Bay district, now the handsomest 
residence portion of the city. A subway for electric 
cars is one of Boston’s latest great improvements, 
being rendered necessary by the increasing congestion 
of passenger traffic in the business centre. This sub¬ 
way extends from Boylston st. via Tremout and Brattle 
sts., Cornliill and Washington sts. to the Union Depot. 
There are four tracks under Tremont st. opposite the 
Common, and two tracks elsewhere. The approaches 
axe by incline, and the stations are very commodious. 



•BOSTON SUBWAY—ONE OF THE STATIONS. 


conjectured that he came into the country in 1622-1623. | 
The town records begin about 1634. The first Grand 
Jury of the country met at B., Sept. 1,1635; and iu 1651 
the place is described by an eye-witness as being very | 
flourishing. A list of all the streets, lanes, and alleys 
was made in 17U8, aud they were found to be 110 in 
number. At the first news of the intention of the Eng¬ 
lish govermeut to apply its revenue system comprehen¬ 
sively to the colonies, B. assumed that determined stand 
in behalf of liberty and law which gave it so imposing a 
part in the birth of the nation. Accounts of the im¬ 
portant events of which it was the scene during the 
te.i years that preceded the battle of Lexington, will be 
given under Massachusetts. During the Revolution 
B. maintained the reputation it had acquired in the 
earlier stages of the contest, aud its people energetically 
supported the policy that ended in the adoption of the 
Federal constitution. In 1822 B. was made a city.—The 
first vessel belonging to B of American build, was the 


The cost of construction was from $122 (two tracks) 
to 8182 (4 tracks) per duear foot.—The pop. was 18,038 
in 1790; 33,250 iu 1810 ; 61,392 in 1830; 136,884 in 1850; 
200,1X10 in i860; 250,5z6 in 1870 (including Dorchester 
aud Roxbury). In 1874, by the annexation of Charles¬ 
town, Brighton, and 'Vest Koxburv, the pop. was in 
creased to 292,499. Pop. iu 1890," 448.477; iu 19U0L 
560,892. 

Bos' ton, n. (Games.) A game played by 4 persons 
with two.packs of cards. It L the most complicated of 
all games of cards, and is said to have been intro¬ 
duced into France by Benjamin Franklin, who gave it 
the name of his native city. 

Bos' well, James, a Scottish gentleman b. at Edinburgh, 
1740. He studied for the’bar and, in 1763, when visiting 
London, formed an acquaintance with Dr. Johnson, the 
great lexicographer. On his return from a tour in Italy, 
he published An Account of Corsica, with Memoirs of 
General Paoli, 8vo., a work containing a good deal of 


town is a well-known object of interest. Boston Com- j 
mon, a notable park of 50 acres, contains the Soldiers’ 
Monument and Brewer Fountain. The Public Garden, | 
contiguous to the Common, contains 21 acres, beautifully j 
laid out. In it are an equestrian statue of Washington, ] 
and one of Edward Everett, and also the “ Ether” 
Monument, as it is called, erected to commemorate the j 
discovery of the use of ether as an anaesthetic; Com¬ 
monwealth Avenue, running S.W. from the Garden, con¬ 
tains statues of Alex. Hamilton and of Gen. Glover of i 
Revolutionary fame. To these have been added a chain ! 
of parks extending through parkways from the Back 
Bay Fens to the Marine Park in South Boston. There 
is also a series of parks and boulevards along the Charles | 
river.—The press of B. is the oldest in the U. S. The I 
first journal published in N. America was The News 
Letter, which was commenced April 24, 1704. The sec¬ 
ond paper was the Boston Gazette, commenced 1719, of 
which James Franklin was printer. B. has always been 
favorably distinguished by her attention to education 
and literature. By some the city has been called the 
Athens of America, and in its vicinity is the celebrated 
Harvard College (q. ».). Schools of all denominations 
abound, and education is in a very advanced state. The 
B. Public Library, the largest in the world for free 
circulation, was instituted in 1852, and contains over 
600,000 bound volumes and 200,000 pamphlets. The 
Athenaeum has a library of 100,000 vols., a picture gal¬ 
lery, and a public hall for lectures. The school for the 
instruction of the blind, founded in 1833, is said to be 
extremely well managed. The American Academy of 
Arts and Science, the Historical and Natural History 
Societies, are among its learned associations; it has also 
a Humane Society, orphan asylums, and numerous 
other charitable institutions. A host of excellent daily 
newspapers and other periodical journals are published 
here.—The municipal govt, is vested in a mayor, a board 
of aldermen, and a common council, all of which 
officials are chosen annually by the popular vote. There 
is a police court for the trial of minor offences, and a 
superior court, which holds criminal and civil sessions.— 
The commerce of B. is especially large in wool, shoes, 
and leather, for which it is the principal mart in the 
U. S., while most of the manufactories of New England 
make it their business and financial centre. Nine lines 
of steamships connect it with Europe, and it has several 
important coastwise lines. B. is connected with the 
interior of the U. S. and Canada, by railways and river 
navigation; and has a most extensive trade both with 
■foreign countries and with all the other States of the 
Union. There are more than 60 national banks, with cash 
capital and surplus of $75,000,000, and a clearing-house 
business of about $5,000,000,000 annually. The valuation 
of taxable property has grown from about $15,000,1X10 in 
1800 to considerably over $100,000,000 in 1897. Iu 1890, 
according to the U. S. census reports, B. had 7,915 manu¬ 
facturing establishments, with a capita] of $116,644,490, 
aud 90,198 persons employed. The wages paid aggre¬ 
gated $54,636,695, and the value of products $208,104,683. 
Since that date there has been a steady and considerable 


Pig. 399.— section of the boston 

bark Blessing of the Bay , launched at Mystic, July 4, 
1631. The first ship built at B. was the Ih-ial, in 1644, 
which subsequently made a voyage to Spain.—June, 
1869, a great National Jubilee was held in this city to 
celebrate the restoration of peace throughout the Union. 
This took the form of a musical festival on the largest 
scale, comprising a grand orchestra of 1,094 instruments, 
in conjunction with a chorus of 10,(XX) voices. This 
was repeated in 1872—The fire of November 9, 1872, 
destroyed 776 buildings, mostly stores and warehouses, 
the assessed value of which was $13,500,000, while the 
total value of property destroyed was estimated at 
$60,000,000, covering an area of 65 acres. It has now 
been entirely rebuilt with most substantial structures. 


SUBWAY (UNDER CONSTRUCTION). 

interesting information, but displaying the ardent char¬ 
acter and amusing egotism of the author iu so singular 
a manner as to expose him to the satirical censure of the 
critics. In 1773, he accompanied his friend Johnson on 
a tour to the Scottish Highlands and the Hebrides, of 
which excursion he published A Journal, in 1785. Dr. 
Johnson died in 1784, and B. began to prepare for the 
press memoirs of his “ illustrious friend,” for which he 
had been collecting materials during nearly the whole 
course of their intimacy. This work, entitled The Life 
of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., was published in 2 vols. 4to., 
in 1791, and has been repeatedly reprinted. The stores 
of literary anecdote in this production, the informa¬ 
tion it displays relative to the habits, manners, and 



.y< y. 




CM*m 


































































BOTA 


BOTA 


BOTA 


401 


eonversation of Johnson, and the romantic attachment 

of the author to his subject, render this book one of the 
most entertaining pieces of biography in the English 
language. D. 1795. 

Ros'well, in Ohio, a post-office of Mahoning co. 
BosweH'ia, n. ( Bot.) A genus of plants, order Amy- 
ridacece. The most important species is B. thurifera.\ 
a tree which grows to a large size, in hilly situations, 
from the Coromandel coast to the central parts of India. 
This plant is the source of the valuable gum-resin known 
as Indian olibanum. B. papyrifera , a native of Abys¬ 
sinia, also yields a fragrant gum-resin, and is further re¬ 
markable on account of its inner bark, which peels off 
in thin white layers like paper. — See Olibanum. 
Boswell ian, a. Relating, or pertaining to, Roswell. 
Boswell'ism, n. The style or manner of Boswell. 
Bos'well’s, in Virginia, a post-office of Fluvanna co. 
Bos'worth, Joskph, d.d., f.r.s., F.s.A., a distinguished 
English philologist, b. 1788. He studied at Cambridge, 
and in 1839 took his doctor’s degree, and was elected 
Professor of Anglo-Saxon in Oxford University. Dr. B., 
who was a member of the principal learned societies of 
Europe, was the author of The Elements of Anglo-Saxon 
Grammar (1823); A Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Lan¬ 
guage (1838); The Origin of the Danish Language; Ab¬ 
stract of Scandinavian Literature; Origin of the English, 
Germanic, and Scandinavian Languages and Nations ; The 
Essentials of Anglo Saxon Grammar; A Compendious 
Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (1848), &c. He likewise pub¬ 
lished King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon Version of the Historian 
Orosius, with an English translation (1855) ; and the 
same royal author’s Description of Europe and the Voy¬ 
ages of Ohthere and Wulfstan, in Anglo-Saxon, with an 
English translation (1855); The Gospels in Gothic of 
360, and in Anglo-Saxon of 995, in parallel columns u Uh 
Wycklife's Version of 1380, and Tyndale's of 1526, which 
work appeared in 1865. Died in 1876. 

Bos'worth ( Jlarlcet), a small town of England, co. 
Leicester, memorable for the decisive battle of Bos- 
worth Field, fought close to it, 22d Aug., 1485, between 
Richard III. of England, and the Earl of Richmond 
(afterwards Henry VII.), in which the former lost his 
crown and his life, and which terminated the long-con¬ 
tinued struggle for supremacy between the rival Houses 
of York and Lancaster. 

Hosz'ra, a town of Syria, formerly the cap. of the Au- 
ranites: 50 m. S. of Damascus, and 80N.E. of Jerusalem: 
Lat. 32° 40' N , Lon. 36° 30' E. Though now almost de¬ 
serted, the ruins are extensive and magnificent; the 
principal of these, or at least the most sacred in Moslem 
estimation, is the Deir-Bohaira (" House ofBohaira”), 
so called from being consecrated to a monk of that 
name, who is said to have proclaimed the sacred char¬ 
acter of Mohammed, when the prophet, in his 13thyear, 
visited Syria with his uncle. The ruins are of the finest 
workmanship. B. is very ancient; it is mentioned in 
the Sacred Writings as one of the cities which the half 
tribe of Manasseh, beyond Jordan, gave to the Levites. 
(Josh. xxi. 27.) Its strong castle was built by the Sar¬ 
acens, between whom and the Latin kings of Jerusalem 
it several times changed masters, and under Baldwin 
IV., in 1180, it was entirely ruined and depopulated. 

Sot, n. (Zodl.) See Bots. 

Sotal Fora men-n.[Lnt. foramen, aperture.] (Anat.) 
A large opening which exists in the foetus in the parti¬ 
tion between the two auricles of the heart, and by 
means of which the blood passes from one to the other. 
Its discovery is generally attributed to Leonard Botallus, 
Botal, or Botalli, who wrote in 1562. It was spoken of, 
however, by Vesalius, and even by Galen. 

Botan'ic, Botail'ical, a. Pertaining, or relating, to 
botany; referring to, or containing, plants; as, a botanic 
collection. 

Botanic garden, a garden in which plants are collected 
and cultivated for the purpose of illustrating the science 
of botany. — Botanic physician, a physician whose rem¬ 
edies are obtained from herbs and roots. 
Botan'ically, adv. According to the system of bot¬ 
any ; in a botanical manner. 

Bot anist, n. Une versed in, or a student of, botany; 
as, “ Dr. Asa Gray .... was one of the two or three 
greatest botanists of his age.”— Bruce. 

Botanize, v.i. [Fr. botaniser.] To study botany; to 
search for and collect plants, as a botanist. 

41 One that would peep and botanize 

Upon hirt mother's grave." — Wordsworth. 
Bot'anizing', n. The seeking of plants for botanical 
purposes. 

Bot'any, n. pGr. botane, herb or grass.] That branch 
of natural history which relates to the vegetable king¬ 
dom ; not merely including the nomenclature and classi¬ 
fication of plants, as some have supposed, but embrac¬ 
ing all the phenomena of vegetable life in their widest 
extent.—To facilitate investigation. B. has been divided 
into several departments which may be regarded as 
separate sciences. The objects and scope of each of 
these sub-sciences will now be explained. — 1. Structural 
Botany, Organography, includes everything relating 
to the organization of plants. It describes the differ¬ 
ent kinds of tissue which enter into the composition of 
plants; it explains the structure of every organ; and it 
also teaches the relation that one organ bears to an¬ 
other. That branch of structural B. which has refer¬ 
ence to the elementary tissues is sometimes distin¬ 
guished as Vegetable Histology. The microscope has 
shown that the various tissues are composed of little 
membranous sacs or vesicles, varying in form and size, 
and united in different ways. The study of these ele¬ 
mentary organs cannot be prosecuted without the aid 
of costly instruments, but much may be learned from 
the clear descriptions and excellent illustrations given 


in modern botanical works, particularly those of Lindley. 
Some plants consist of simple cells only, which continue 
throughout life to produce new cells, and to perform all 
the vital functions. A flowering plant, however, al¬ 
though originally cellular, produces organs composed 
of cells and vessels, variously modified and arrauged, 
and covered by an epidermis. These compound organs 
2nay be divided into nutritive, or those concerned in the 
iiourishment of the plant, and reproductive, or those 
which are employed in the production of new individ¬ 
uals. The former are the stem, root, and leaf; the lat¬ 
ter, the fiowers and fruit. Leaves occupy various posi¬ 
tions on the stem and branches, and their arrangement 
forms a subject for special study. The arrangement of 
flowers on the floral axis and its ramifications, has also 
to be considered. The term Morphology has been ap¬ 
plied to that portion of Organography which treats of 
the abnormal modifications of the different organs. The 
researches which have been made in this department 
during the last forty years, have confirmed the doctrine 
advanced by the German poet Gothe, namely, that all 
those parts familiarly known as leaves, flowers, and 
fruit, are constructed on a simple uniform plan, out of 
one kind of organ in different states of modification and 
combination: and that there is no other difference be¬ 
tween the flower of a rose and that of a nettle, than 
what arises from modifications and combinations of this 
typical organ, which is the leaf. In elucidating this 
doctrine of the unity of type, which constitutes the 
basis of the theory of botany, Lindley says : “ We are 
so accustomed to talk of plants bearing leaves, and 
flowers, and fruit, and it is so evident to our senses that 
extremely different organs do exist under such names, 
that it seems inconceivable that parts so very dissimilar 
should be only leaves in different states; that the pure 
white petals of the lily, the rich red flowers of the rose, 
the sweet-smelling blossoms of the jasmine and orange, 
or the li ng trumpet-shaped corollas of the honeysuckle, 
should all be leaves; that the stamens in which the fer¬ 
tilizing powder is locked up, the pistils which are des¬ 
tined to receive the influence of the pollen, the ovula 
that they contain, and, finally, that the fruit, which is 
the result of the action of the two last, are all so many 
parts formed out of one common organ, which in a par¬ 
ticular and very frequent state is what we call a leaf. 
Botanists clo not mean to say that he who eats an apple, or 
an orange, or a peach, is in a state of mental delusion, 
and that while lie fancies himself to be enjoying the 
pleasure of gratifying his palate by the most delicious 
flavors, he is really only chewing the leaves of these 
plants; but they assert that those appendages of a plant 
which are commonly called the leaves have a peculiar 
anatomical structure, and a certain relation to the stem 
on which they are borne, and, being developed accord¬ 
ing to certa'n fixed laws, are always arranged upon a 
certain and uniform plan with respect to each other; 
and that all the other organs, whether calyx, corolla, 
stamens, pistils, or fruit, have an anatomical structure 
essentially the same, bear the same relation to the axis 
that they grow upon, ere developed according to the 
same laws, are arranged upon the same certain and uni¬ 
form plan with respect to each other, and, finally, are 
constantly becoming transformed into leaves of the or¬ 
dinary appearance; thus losing the condition in which 
they are usually found, and reverting to their struc¬ 
tural type.” Morphology is a most attractive subject 
for study, but less important in a practical point of view 
than that part of Organography which has reference to 
the ordinary forms of organs, and the manner in which 
they are arranged. No systematic arrangement can be 
understood without a knowledge of the laws upon which 
the symmetry of plants depends, and a practical ac¬ 
quaintance with the structure of every kind of organ. — 
See Cell, Inflorescence, Ovule, Phyllotaxis, Pistil, 
Seed, Stamen, &n. — 2. Physiological Botany treats of 
plants in a living or active state, and of the manner in 
which their functions are performed; it explains how 
they are influenced by the several agencies of light, heat, 
air, and moisture; and it describes their various secre¬ 
tions and the nutriment afforded by the soil. It need 
scarcely be said that any attempt to investigate the 
laws of vegetable life would be abortive without a per¬ 
fect acquaintance with the more important details of or¬ 
ganization. Plants, not being endowed with voluntary 
motion, derive their food either from the soil in which 
they are fixed, or from the atmosphere by which they 
are surrounded. The nutriment, consisting of water 
generally holding salts in solutiou, is absorbed by the 
aid of endosmose, by the extremities of the root. It then 
passes from cell to cell, and ascends the stem, dissolving 
in its course some of the organic matter stored up in 
the vegetable tissue. Arrived at the green shoots and 
surfaces of the leaves, which are covered with minute 
openings, or stomata, the sap is exposed to the influence 
of light, heat, and air. About two-thirds of the mois¬ 
ture taken up is now evaporated and exhaled; the re¬ 
mainder, which, of course, becomes thickened, under¬ 
goes certain chemical changes, and then begins to de¬ 
scend by the under surface of the leaf, and along the 
bark. It takes either a direct or a circuitous course 
downward, communicating with the centre of the stem 
by the medullary rays, depositing various secretions, 
more especially in the bark, and giving origin to sub¬ 
stances which are destined to nourish and form new tis¬ 
sues. Finally it reaches the extremity of the root, where 
absorption had commenced; a small portion is there ex¬ 
creted, while the remainder mixes with the newly 
absorbed fluids, and again circulates in the sap. The 
circulation of the sap has been adduced as an example 
of the vital processes elucidated by physiology, because 
it is due to the combined action of all the organs of nu¬ 


trition, and may therefore serve instead of several illus¬ 
trations. The study of the special functions of the va¬ 
rious organs necessarily precedes that of the general 
physiological phenomena, such as circulation, assimila' 
tion, respiration, fertilization, and germination. Undei 
the names of the different organs of nutrition and repro¬ 
duction, the reader of this work will find full particulars 
respecting their functions. The physiology of reproduc¬ 
tion is treated of at length under the heads Pollen, and 
Embryo. See also Endosmose, Sap, Secretions, &c. — 3. 
Systematic Botany, or Taxonomy. This department in¬ 
cludes the principles of classification, which are based 
on the observations which have been made on the struc¬ 
ture and physiology of plants. It cannot, therefore, be 
prosecuted successfully until the student has acquired 
a complete knowledge of Organography. The object of 
systematic botany is to name, describe, and arrange 
plants in such a manner that the botanist may readily 
ascertain the name of any specimen, and at the same 
time get an insight into its true nature and general 
properties. When it is considered that there are some 
120,000 known species of plants, it is obvious that there 
must be a definite nomenclature and classification,were 
it only to facilitate reference and communication. Be¬ 
fore plants can be classified, their peculiarities of struc¬ 
ture must be clearly defined; hence the necessity of 
technical language which is employed in descriptive B. 
This language ought not to deter the lover of uatur* 
from studying the principles of classification ; for in ac¬ 
quiring a knowledge of the numerous technical terms, he 
will at the same time fix in his mind the ideas which 
they represent, and thus, in reality, become acquainted 
with important elementary facts. Botanists are blamed 
for using so many hard words; but it should be remem¬ 
bered that they have to explain very minute points of 
structure, and must employ a language more rigorously 
defined than that of ordinary conversation. “ Botany,” 
says Dr. Hoefer, “would be the most lovely of the sci¬ 
ences, if botanists had not made its nomenclature so dry 
and repulsive. All the world would study it, if it was 
addressed less to the memory and more to the intelli¬ 
gence.” The remarks of Mr. Page on the use of techni¬ 
cal terms in geology may be fairly set in opposition 
to the observation of the French writer: — “ Scientific 
terms, when once thoroughly comprehended, are quite 
as easily remembered as those derived from the lan¬ 
guage of every-day life; while, being chiefly compounds 
of Greek and Latin, they constitute a nomenclature in¬ 
telligible to the scholars of every country. There is 
nothing more perplexing than a multiplicity of local 
and provincial terms; and one can easily imagine the 
confusion and obstruction that would arise were every 
country and district adhering to its own vernacular, 
instead of adopting a uniform system of terminology. 
The technicalities of science, often so ignorantly in¬ 
veighed against, are, in fact, the instruments by which it 
effects its progress. New objects require new names, and 
new facts, new phrases to express their relations; and 
the sooner the student can make himself familiar with 
those terms and their applications, the more rapid and 
pleasant will be his onward progress.” That part of 
Systematic Botany which relates to the technical lan¬ 
guage of the science is sometimes called Glossology. 
The principles of classification constitute what is prop¬ 
erly called Taxonomy, though this term is often applied 
to the whole department. There have been two great 
plans proposed for the classification of plants, one de¬ 
nominated artificial and the other natural. The first is 
founded on characters taken from certain parts of plants 
only without reference toothers; while the second takes 
into account all the parts of plants, and involves the 
idea of affinity in essential organs. In both artificial 
and natural systems, the lower divisions, namely the 
genera and species, are the same, the great difference 
between them consisting in the manner in which the 
genera are grouped into orders, and the orders into 
classes. (See Species. Genus, Order, Class.) The plants 
in one of the higher divisions of an artificial system, 
such as that of Linnasus. have no necessary affinity, and 
are connected only by certain characters, more or less 
superficial, which have been selected as the signs of 
that division. Such a system may, therefore, be com¬ 
pared to a dictionary, in which words are arranged, for 
convenience of reference, in alphabetical order, adjacent 
words not necessarily agreeing with each other, fm iher 
than in commencing with the same letter. In a natural 
order, on the contrary, all the genera will be found to 
have a true family likeness; for their association is the 
result of a careful consideration of the structure of every 
organ. The classes in the natural system have been 
formed upon the same principle, by uniting orders which 
possess many important characters in common. The 
Linmean system leads to little more than a knowledge 
of names, and can only be looked upon as an index to 
the genera. Though superior to every artificial scheme 
previously promulgated, its day has gone by and the 
more philosophical system has taken its place. Linnaeus 
himself never intended it to be anything more than a 
provisional arrangement; and distinctly stated that a 
natural method was the great object of scientific in¬ 
quiry. The general principles of the Linnaean or Sex¬ 
ual system may be explained in a few words 24 classes 
are founded on the number, position, relative lengths, 
and connection of the stamens ; while the orders in these 
classes depend on the number of the styles, the nature 
of the fruit, the number of the stamens in the classes 
where this character is not used fordistinguishing them, 
and the perfection of the flowers. The 24tli class includes 
plants having inconspicuous flowers, and in it the oiders 
are formed according to natural affinities. Under these 
classes and orders, all the known genera and species ar^ 













402 


BOTA 


BOTC 


BOTH 


arranged. Even as an artificial method for discovering 
the names of plants, the Linnsean system has many 
imperfections. Being based upon the more obvious 
characters of the reproductive organs, it cannot be of 
the least use when the plants are not in full flower, 
with all the stamens and styles perfect. The different 
flowers on the same plant often vary as regards the 
number of the stamens. Again, if the classification was 
carried out rigidly, it would separate, in many instances, 
the species of the same genus; but so sensible was Lin- 
nams of the importance of maintaining the natural 
character of his genera, that he sacrificed the symmetry 
of scheme for the sake of keeping all the species to¬ 
gether. The natural system of classification is based 
upon the real affinities of plants, and necessarily takes 
into account all the organs. Though it can never be 
perfect until all the plants of the globe have been ex¬ 
amined, it has already reached a very high point of de¬ 
velopment, and a great number of the orders which 
havo been determined are quite as natural as the orders 
in the animal kingdom. For example, those groups of 
plants designated as Ranunculacetx, Gentianacece, and 
Atropacere, are as distinct in their Characters as those 
animal groups named Cetacea, Cheiroptera, and Roden- 
tia. Sucli being the case, it follows tiiat a knowledge 
of one species is to a great extent the knowledge of 
many; for an individual, if well selected, will exhibit 
the most important characters of ail the other plants 
in the same natural group. Thus, by studying the com¬ 
mon radish ( Raphanus), or the mustard (Sinapis), the 
botanist may obtain a general knowledge of about 1,600 
species, which constitute the order Brassicacece, and 
which are all formed, as it were, on the same type. The 
properties of plants accord, in a very remarkable man¬ 
ner, with their structure; and, as a general ride, the 
position of a plant in the natural arrangement indicates 
its properties. For example, if a botanist, on examin¬ 
ing a plant, finds all the structural peculiarities of the 
order just mentioned, he may feel confident that it is 
not poisonous, but most likely antiscorbutic or pungent. 
If, however, he should meet with one of the Atrnpacem, 
he might safely set it down as a plant possessing poison¬ 
ous narcotic properties. Enough has been said to prove 
that the natural system is much more than a mere in¬ 
dex to the names of plants. It reveals, to a certain ex¬ 
tent, the plan of creation, and is at once an aid to re¬ 
search and a record of discovery. Several schemes based 
upon the natural affinities of plants have been devised. 
They may be regarded as so many versions of the one 
true system; for, though they have been worked out by 
different methods, they agree in nearly all their grand 
divisions. The characters by which the primary groups 
have been determined, are furnished by the elementary 
tissues, and the most important organs of vegetation 
and reproduction. Regarding only the elementary 
structure, plants may be arranged under the heads of 
Cellular and Vascular, according to the absence or pres¬ 
ence of regular vessels; (see Tissue, Cell, Vessel.) A 
more satisfactory arrangement results from a considera¬ 
tion of the different modes by which plants are propa¬ 
gated. Some spring from true seeds, containing the 
rudimentary organs called cotyledons; while others are 
developed from Spores, in which no distinct organs can 
be traced. The former are said to be Cotyledonous, and 
the latter Acotyledonous, (i. e. without cotyledons.) As 
the number of cotyledons forms a natural distinctive 
character, the first group of plants is subdivided into 
monocotyledonous, having one cotyledon, and dicotyle¬ 
donous, having two cotyledons. The mode in which the 
root is produced affords characters which confirm this 
arrangement. The young root of an acotyledon is 
heterorhizal, that of a monocotyledon is endorhizal, and 
that of a dicotyledon exorhizal ; (see Embrvo.) The three 
groups are further characterized by the stems; those of 
the first being acrngenous, those of the second endogen¬ 
ous, and those of the third exogenous. Stemless plants 
are said to be lhallogennus, and form a distinct section 
of the acotyledonous group. The venation of the leaves 
establishes the same great natural divisions; and simi¬ 
lar results are obtained from a consideration of the flow¬ 
ers; monocotyledons and dicotyledons being phanero¬ 
gamous, or flowering, and acotyledons, cryptogamous, or 
flowerless.—The arrangement adhered to in the present 
work is that proposed by Lindley, in which the number 
of orders extends to 303. The main divisions consist 
of asexual, or “ Flowerless plants,” which include Thal- 
logens and Acrogens; and sexual, or “ Flowering plants,” 
which include Rhizogens, Endogens, Dictyogens, Gymno¬ 
gens, and Exogens. 

1. Thallogens are Flowerless plants, whose stems and 
leaves are undistinguishable. They include the alliances 
Algales, Fungales, Lichenales, q. v. 

2. Acrogens are Flowerless plants, whose stems and 
leaves are distinguishable. The alliances are, Muscales, 
Lycopndales, and Filicales, q. v. 

3. Rhizogens are Flowering plants, with fructifica¬ 
tion springing from a thallus. The orders are, Bala- 
nophoracece, Cytinacece, and Raffleciacece. 

4. Endogens are Flowering plants, with fructification 
springing from a stem, the wood of the stem youngest 
in tne centre; the cotyledon single, and the leaves par¬ 
allel-veined, permanent. The alliances are, Glumales, 
Arales, Palm ales. Hydrates, JVarcissales, Amomales, Or- 
Mdales, Xyridales, Juncales, Liliales, and Alismales, 

v - 

5. Dictyogens are like Endogens, except that the 
leaves are net-veined, deciduous. The wood of the stem, 
when perennial, is arranged in a circle with a central 
pith. The orders are, Dinscoreacect, Smilacece, Philesi- 
acece, TrilliaceiE, and Roxburghiacece. 

6. Gymnogens are Flowering plants, whose fructifica¬ 


tion springs from a stem the wood of which is youngest 
at the circumference, always concentric; the cotyledons 
2 or more; and the seeds quite naked. The orders are, 
Cycadeacece, Pmacece, Taxacece, and Gnetaceae, q. v. 

7. Exogens are like Gymnogens, except that the seeds 
are enclosed in seed-vessels. They are distributed into 
four sub-classes:—(I.) Diclinous Exogens. — Flowers 
diclinous, without any customary tendency to become 
hermaphrodite. The alliances are, Amentales, Urticales, 
Euphorbiales, Quernales, Garryales, Menispermale.s, Cu- 
curbitales, Papayales, q. v. — (II.) Hypngynous Exogens. 
— Flowers hermaphrodite or polygamous: stamens en¬ 
tirely free from the calyx and corolla. The alliances 
are, Violates, Cistalcs, Malvahs, Sapindales, Guttiferules, 
JVympliales, Ranales, Berberales, Ericales, Rutales, 
Geraniales, Silenales, Chenopodales, Piperales, q. v.— 
(III.) Peryginous Exogens. — Flowers hermaphrodite or 
polygamous; stamens growing to the side of either 
the calyx or the corolla: ovary superior, or nearly so. 
The alliances are, Ficoidales, Daphnales, Rosales, Saxi- 
fragales, Rhamnales, GetUianales, Salanales, Cortusales, 
Echiales, Bignoniales. q. v.—(IV.) Epyginous Exogens. — 
Flowers hermaphrodite or polygamous ; stamens grow¬ 
ing to the side of either the calyx or corolla; ovary in¬ 
ferior, or nearly so. The alliances are, Campanales, 
Myrtales, Cactales, Grossules, Cinchonales, Umbellares, 
q. v., and Asarales. 

A brief notice of the progress of systematic B may 
conclude this attempt to elucidate its leading principles. 
One of the earliest methodical arrangements was that 
of Cmsalpinus, a Roman physician attached to the court 
of Pope Sixtus V. This was entirely artificial; and the 
same may be affirmed of the several systems of Gesuer, 
Morison, Rivinus, and Touruefort. That propounded by 
Tournefort was for a long time adopted by the French 
school, but was ultimately displaced by the attractive 
scheme of Linnaeus, who must be looked upon as the 
great promulgator of the artificial method of classifica¬ 
tion. The first attempt at arranging plants according 
to their natural affinities was made by an English bota¬ 
nist, John Ray, in the year 1682. His scheme was ne¬ 
cessarily very imperfect, for the number of plants then 
known was comparatively small; still it was in its leading 
features correct, and has really formed the foundation of 
every later system. It was long neglected, and did not 
receive the attention it deserved until Jussieu entered 
the field, and developed Ray’s views of the natural af¬ 
finities in the vegetable kingdom. Jussieu's method was 
first made known in the year 1789, just eleven years 
after the death of Linnaeus. Since that time, the natu¬ 
ral method has been advanced by the labors of Do Can¬ 
dolle, Brown, Endlicher, Lindley, and many others.—4. 
Geographical Botany treats of the manner in which 
plants are affected by climate and station, and endeavors 
to determine the conditions under which particular 
families or species of plants are confined to certain zones 
of latitude and altitude. It is a study of great interest, 
and one which cannot be successfully prosecuted with¬ 
out an intimate acquaintance with most of the sciences. 
Of course, so long as there are vast tracts of continents 
unexplored by botanical travellers, the knowledge upon 
which this department is founded must be imperfect. 
(See Distribution ok Plants.) — 5. Fossil Botany investi¬ 
gates the nature of the plants found in a fossil state in 
the various geological formations. It is therefore at once 
a branch of botany'and of geology. (See Palaeontology.) 
The practical bearings of botany are most important, 
aud are sometimes treated separately in manuals of the 
science, under the head of Economic Botany. All the 
principal plants affording food, timber, medicine, fibres, 
dye-stuffs, and other useful products, are noticed in this 
work under the names of the genera which include them. 
For further details of the structure and classification of 
plants, the reader may consult with advantage Lindley’s 
Introduction to Botany, Elements of Botany, and Vege¬ 
table Kingdom, and the works of Balfour, Henfrey, 
Ilenslow, Olivir, and Asa Gray. 

Bot any, in Iowa, a post-office of Shelby co. 

Bot'any Bay, a bay of New South Wales, Australia, 
5 m. S. of Sydney; Lat. 34° S., Lon. 151° 16' E. It was 
discovered by Capt. Cook, on his first voyage, in 1770, 
and named by him from the great lumber of new plants 
found in its vicinity. In 1787 it received England’s first 
penal colony in the East; and though it was supplanted 
the very next year by Port Jackson, yet it long contin¬ 
ued to be the popular designation, not merely of this 
penal settlement, but of the Australian convict settle¬ 
ments generally. 

Bot'any Bay Bum, n. A gum-resin produced by 
the Xanthorrheea hastilis, or re.sinife.ra of Australia. 

Bot'any Bay Oak, n. (Bot.) A wood resembling in 
color full red mahogany, and used for veneering the 
backs of brushes, and for turnery, &c. 

Botar'g'o, n. [Sp. botarga, a sort of loose, baggy 
breeches; contraction of botalarga, a wide leather bag.] 
A kind of sausage-roll, or cake, made of the roe of red 
mullet, and much used in Italy, Spain, &c., as an appetizer. 

Bota'via, in Iowa, a post-office of Jefferson co. 

Botch, (boch,) n. [It. bozza. Of the same origin as boss.} 
A swelling or pustule on the skin; an eruptive discolor¬ 
ation of the epidermis. 

“ Botches and blains must all his flesh emboss." — Milton. 

—That which resembles a botch: a part or patch added 
clumsily or unsuitably. 

‘ Yet, making here a perfect botch. 

Thrusts your poor vowel from his notch/' — Swift. 

—Ill-finished work, so as to appear worse than the rest; a 
clumsy, bungled piece of mending. 

• To leave no rubs or botches in the work.” — Shake. 


“Young Hylan, botch'd with stains too foul to name, 

In cradle here renews his youthful frame.”— Garth. 

—To mend, repair, or patch in a clumsy, awkward manner 
as clothes, or anything that has undergone renovation. 
“Their coats, from botching newly brought, are torn."— Dryden. 

—To put together unsuitably or unskilfully; to express 
or perform bunglingly or awkwardly. 

“ They aim at it, 

And botch the words up fit to their own thoughts." — Shake. 

Botcb'er, n. One who botches ; a bungler; a mender 
of old clothes, whether a tailor or cobbler. 

* Botches left old clothes in the lurch. 

And fell to turn and patch the church.” — Hudibras. 

Botcta'ery,«. Botchiug; clumsy workmanship, bung¬ 
ling. (r.) 

Botch'y, a. Marked with botches; full of botches. 

“ Were not that a botcliy sore? " — Shaks. 

Bote, n. [See Boot.] (Eng. Law.) An allowance of 
wood for fuel, repairs, and the like, and which every 
tenant for life, unless restrained by covenant or agree¬ 
ment, may, of common right, take from the land for 
his reasonable service, wilhout being impeachable for 
committing waste. The word is generally conjoined 
with another to express its nature ; as bridge-bote; which 
is an allowance for making or repairing a bridge; fire - 
bote, or house-bote, for fuel; plough-bole and cart-bote, for 
making and repairing implements of husbandry; hay- 
bote, or hedge-bote, for repairing hedges and fences, &c. 
The term bote and its compounds, however, though 
technically proper, have in modern times somewhat 
fallen out of use. 

Bote'less, a. Same as Bootless, q. v. 

Bote'roll, n. (Her.) The tag of a broadsword's scab¬ 
bard. 

Botetourt, (bot'e-tnort,) in Virginia, a S.W. central co., 
bounded on the S.E. by the Blue Ridge. Area, 650 sq. 
m. Drained by James River, and also by Craig's and 
Catawba creeks. The celebrated Peaks of Otter rise 
near the confines of this co. Surface. Generally hilly. 
Soil. Tolerably good. Cap. Fincastle. Pop., 14,860. 

Bo'tetourt Springs, in Virginia, a post-village of 
Botetourt co. 

Bot-fly, n. (Zolil.) See Gad-fly. 

Both, a. and pron. [A. S. butu. batwa — ba, both, and 
twa, two.] The two taken by themselves; the one and 
the other; two separate persons or things combined to¬ 
gether. 

*• As therefore both are equal in degree, 

The lot of both be left to destiny.”— Dryden. 

— conj. As well; on the one side and on the other side; 
equally the former and the latter. (Followed by and.) 

,J Both the boy was worthy to be praised. 

And Stimichon has often made me long 
To hear, like him, so sweet a song. ’ — Dryden. 

Both, John and Andrew, two eminent painters, were 
natives of Utrecht. To perfect themselves in their art 
they went to Rome, where they remained several years. 
Claude Lorraine became the model of the elder, John, 
and his brother excelled in figures after the manner of 
Baniboccio; and thus qualified, they continued to assist 
each other until the death of Andrew, who was unfor¬ 
tunately drowned in a canal at Venice. John returned 
to Holland, where he continued to paint landscapes; 
but the death of his brother continually preying upon 
his mind, he D. in 1650, five years after him. Their pic¬ 
tures are much admired and sought after, and command 
high prices. 

Both'er, v. a. To tease or perplex. (Vulgar.) Sea 
Pother. 

Both'er, n. State of annoyance, perplexity, or difficulty; 
one who, or that which, bothers; as, it is all a bother, 
(Used colloquially in a vulgar sense.) 

Bothera'tion, n. A vulgarism to express the stata 
of being bothered; perplexity; cause of trouble. 

Bothnia, ( bolh'ne-a,) the name formerly given to a 
country of N. Europe, extending along the eastand west 
shores of the Gulf of Bothnia (q. v.), the eastern portion 
now being comprised iu Finland, and the western form¬ 
ing the Swedish governments of Piteaand Umea. 

Bo til'll ia. (Gulf of.) is that part of the Baltic Sea, which 
separates Sweden from Finland. It begins at the island 
of Aland, and extends 400 miles in length, and 100 in ex¬ 
treme breadth, to Tornea, between Lat. 60°-66° N., Lon. 
17°-25° 35' E. It receives nearly all the great rivers of 
Sweden and Finland; but its depth is not greater than 
that of the Baltic generally. 

Both'nian. Botli'nic, a. Belonging to Bothnia, or 

to the gulf of that name. 

Both rod en'dron, n. [Gr. bot hr os, pit, and dendrem, 
tree.] ( Geo!.) A genus of fossil stems with dotted sur¬ 
faces, occurring in the coal-measures, and distinguished 
from Sigillaria and Stigmaria by two opposite rows of 
deep oval pits, which appear to be the scars left by large 
cones or seed-bracts. 

Both'well, a par. and village of Scotland, co. Lanark, 8 
m. E. of Glasgow. About a mile distant, towards the S.E., 
the road to Hamilton is carried over the river Clyde by 
Bnthwell-bridge, the scene of one of the most memorable 
events in Scottish history. The Covenanters, numbering 
from 4,000 to 5,000 men, having taken possession of the 
bridge, were attacked, on the 22d June, 1679, the bridge 
forced, and their army totally routed by the royal troops 
commanded by the Duke of Monmouth. Near the vil¬ 
lage is the magnificent ruin of Bothwell Castle, once 
an important fortress, and frequently referred to in Scot¬ 
tish history. 

Both'well, James Hepburn, fourth Earl of, a promi¬ 
nent character in Scottish history, was B. 1526. At the 
death of his father, in 1556, he became the most powerful 
noble in the south of Scotland, and opposed at first the 
party of the Reformation, but eventually joined it. In 


— v. a. To mark with botches. 




BOTT 


BOTT 


BOUC 


403 


1561, he was appointed one of the deputation sent to 
France to convey Mary, Queen of Scots, to her kingdom. 
He speedily grew into power, but his arrogant conduct 
made him so obnoxious that he was exiled from the court. 
In 1562, B., in conjunction with James Hamilton, Earl 
of Arran, endeavored to seize the young queen's person, 
for which offence he was compelled to flee the country, 
and was outlawed. In 1565, he returned to Scotland, 
rose into high favor at court, and it has been stated, en¬ 
joyed the queen's most intimate society. After the mur¬ 
der of Mary’s husband, Darnley (q. v.). B. was publicly 
accused of participation in the crime; if, indeed, he was 
not the actual instigator of it; and was indicted and tried 
accordingly, but acquitted. In 1567, B., at the head of 
an armed body of his retainers, carried off Queen Mary to 
his castle of Dunbar; a divorce from his wife followed, 
and he married the queen, at Ilolyrood, in the same year. 
After the deposition of Mary, B. fled to. Denmark, where 
he was lodged in prison, and d. in 1577, His titles and 
estates were forfeited to the crown 

Bottl'wicK, in Virginia , a post-office of Dinwiddie co. 

Botrych ium, n. ( Bot .) A genus of plants, order 
Oph ioglossacete. 

Bot ry la'rite, n. pi. (Zool.) A family of singular com¬ 
pound Tanicarics, or Ascidians, in which several distinct 
individuals are arranged in a circle round a central ap¬ 
erture common to the rectum of each, while the mouths 
are distinct and placed at the circumference. 

Bot'ryogene, n. (Min.) A hydrated sulphate of 
iron, composed of 19 per cent of sulphate of protoxide 
of iron, 46-3 sulphate of peroxide of iron, and 32-7 water. 
It is found in the great copper-mine of Fahlun, in Swe¬ 
den, in small crystals of a deep hyacinth-red color,pass¬ 
ing into ochre-yellow in massive varieties; and is often 
aggregated into reniformand botryoidal shapes, consist¬ 
ing of globules with a crystalline surface like that of a 


for the transport of wine, and by tribes of Africa and 
Asia for carrying water. The ancient Egyptians made 
B. of most elegant form, and exquisite workmanship, of 
alabaster, stone, gold, ivory, and other substances. The 
Italian peasants carry, slung around their necks, B. 
made of the rind of the gourd, which, when dry, is as 



hard as wood. The accompanying engraving shows the 
form and nature of an ancient goat-skin B., out of which 
a water-carrier is offering to sell a draught of water. 

Bot'tle, v. a. To put into or enclose in bottles; as, to 
bottle wine. 

" You may have it a most excellent cider-royal, to drink or to 
bottle.' 1 — Mortimer. 

— v. i. To fasten up or deprive of liberty temporarily; as, 
to he bottled, up. 

Bot tle-Ale, Bot'tled-Ale, n. Ale contained in 
bottles. 

Bottle - companion. Bottle-friend, n. A 

drinking-associate; a companion in a drinking-bout. 


bunch of grapes. 

Bot'ryoid. Botryoi dal, a. [Gr. intros, a cluster 
of grapes, and e.idos , form.] (Bot.) M hen a part (the inflo¬ 
rescence, for example) is clustered like a bunch of grapes. 

(Min.) When the surface of a mineral consists of a 
group of sections of clustered globular prominences. 
When the prominences are larger and less globular, the 
appearance is expressed by the terms mammillated or 
mammillary. The shapes frequently assumed by Chal¬ 
cedony and Haematite, and certain ores of copper and 
manganese, are familiar examples of these modes of 
aggregation. 

Bot'rytis, n. (Bot.) A genus of microscopic Fungi, 
or moulds, chiefly remarkable as containing the para¬ 
sitic species of fungus which plays so important a part 
in the development of potato disease. This species is 
best known as B. infestans, though it is sometimes re¬ 
ferred to the genus Peronospora. The fungous disease in 
silkworms, called muscardine, is attributable to another 
species, B. Bassiana. The nomenclature of these mi¬ 
nute fungi is so fluctuating, owing to incrtased facility 
for studying their organization, that the species above 
referred to may not improbably soon bear other names. 

Bots, Botts, n. pi. (Zool.) The larvae or caterpillar of 
the gad-flv, belonging to the genus (Estrus , of which 
there are numerous species. They infest horses and 
cattle, and are distinguished by passing the larval state 
of their existence within some animal, and feeding on 
the juices or substance of that animal.—See Gad-flt. 

Bot'ta, Carlo Giuseppe, an Italian, who studied medi¬ 
cine at the university of Turin, and in 1786 took a doc¬ 
tor’s degree. He wrote several historical works, and re¬ 
ceived a pension, with the honor of knighthood, from 
Charles Albert, king of Sardinia. He wrote a History 
of Italy, and a continuation of Guicciardini's history 
from 1530 down to 1789; upon the merits of which pub¬ 
lic opinion is divided. He is also the author ot a His¬ 
tory if American Independence, which has been highly 
spoken of in the United States. B. at San Giorgio, 
Piedmont, 1766; D. at Paris, 1837. 

Bot'ta, Paul Emile, a French archaeologist, son of the 
above, B. at Paris, 1805. He became French consul at 
Mosul, and early distinguished himself as a naturalist. 
After spending some years in Egypt, and making a 
journey through a portion of Arabia, he settled at Mo¬ 
sul, and in 1843 disentombed an Assyrian palace in the 
mound of Khorsabad, 14 miles from the seat of his con¬ 
sulship. This was before the discoveries made by Mr. 
Layard; so M. Botta may be considered the first who 
led the wav in the path of Assyrian remains. D. 18(0. 

Botticelli, Alessandro, a Florentine artist, b. 1440. 
He studied painting under Lippi, whose manner he suc¬ 
cessfully imitated, and was one of the earliest engravers, 
having learned the art from Baldini, and applied it to 
the illustration of Dante's works, printed 1488. Two 
pictures of his Venus Rising from the Sea, and Venus 
adorned by the Graces, are highly spoken of. D. 1515. 

Bottle, (boftl,) n. [Fr. bouteille, from L. Lat. buticula, 
dimin. of butt a, a cask or butt; Sp. botella; It. bottiglia. 
See Butt.] Literally, something round, swelling. «r pro¬ 
tuberant; specifically, a hollow round vessel of glass, 
leather, &c., with a narrow mouth, for holding liquors, 
as, a vrater-boltle. 

“ His cold thin drink out of his leather bottle, 

Is far beyond a prince's delicates.” — Shake. 

—The contents of a bottle; as much as a bottle will hold; 
as, a bottle of wine. 

41 He was all for love, and a little for the bottle.” Vibdin. 

A bottle of hay. A bundle of hay or straw. 

"Methinks I have a great desire to a bottle of hay, good hay, 
aweet bay, hath no fellow." — Shake. 

(Hist') B. are now usually made of glass or earthen¬ 
ware; but the first B. were made of the skins of ani¬ 
mals, mostly goatsof this kind were the B. spoken of 
In Scripture. Skin B. are still used in Southern Europe 


“ Sam. who is a very good bottle-companion, has been the di¬ 
version of his friends." — Addieon. 

Bottled, (bot'ld,) p. a. Put into bottles; enclosed in 
bottles; as, bottled porter. — Protuberant; bottle-shaped. 
To hold in durance or restraint for a certain time; as, a 
bottled voter. 

Bot'tle-flower, n. (Bot.) A name of Setaria glauca. 

Bot'tle-glass, n. A composition for manufacturing 
bottles, consisting of sand and lime, clay, and alkaline 
ashes of any kind.—See Glass. 

Bot'tle-jjourd, n. (Bot.) See Calabash. 

Bot'tle-green, n. A dark green tiut, like that of a 
green glass bottle. 

Bot'tlehoad, n. (Zool.) See Delphinid.®. 

Bot tie Hill, in New Jersey. See Madison. 

Bot 'tle-liolder, n. A slang term for a person who 
aids and supports a professional boxer or prize-fighter, 
between the rounds of a fight. 

Bot'tle-nosed, a. Having a bulbous or bottle-shaped 
nose; as, the bottle-nosed whale. 

Bot'tle-screw, n. A cork-screw; a screw for extract¬ 
ing corks out of bottles. 

4 * A good butler always breaks off thepointof his bottle-screw in 
two days, by trying which is hardest, the point of the screw, or 
the neck of "the bottle.” — Swift. 

Bot'tling', n. The act of putting liquid into bottles; 
as, a bottling- store. 

Bot'tom, n. [A. S. hntm; Swed. and Goth, bottn; Ger. 
boden; 0. Ger. bndam; Icel. botn; Dan. bund; allied to 
Gr. bythos, bathos, and byssos; Lat. fundus; W. bon, a 
stem, a base.] The lowest or deepest part of anything; 
as, the bottom of a well, river, or vessel. 

44 Inestimable stoDes, unvalued jewels, 

All scattered in the bottom ot the sea.” — Shake. 

—Base; foundation; groundwork (either literally or figu¬ 
ratively); the ground under the water's surface; as, to 
get to the bottom of a mystery. 

44 His proposals and arguments should with freedom be ex¬ 
amined to the bottom.' — Locke. 

■A dale or valley: low land formed by alluvial deposits 
in the vicinity of a river; as, a well-timbered bottom. 

44 On both the shores of that fruitful bottom.” — Addieon. 

—Stamina; latent strength; power of endurance; as, a 
man of pluck and bottom. 

—pi. Dregs; grounds; lees: sediment; as, the bottoms of 
a cask of beer. — A ball or skein of thread or string. 

44 Each Christmas thy accounts did clear. 

And wound their bottom round the year." — Prior. 

(Naut.) That portion of a vessel which is under water; 
but in a more general sense it stands for the ship itself; 
as, goods carried in foreign bottoms. 

44 He put to sea upon his own bottom.” —Norris. 

—(pi.) (Mining.) The deepest working parts of a mine, 
wrought either by sloping, driving, or otherwise break¬ 
ing the lode. — Bottoms in fork. A term in use among 
the Cornish miners, England. When all the bottoms 
are unwatered, they say, “ the bottoms are in fork ; ” and 
to draw out the water from them, or any dippa, or any 
other particular part of a mine, is said to be “ forking 
the water-,” and, when accomplished, such dippa, <fec. is 
“ in fork.” Likewise when an engine has drawn out all 
the water, they say, “the engine is in fork.” 

Bot'tom, v. a. To furnish with a seat or bottom; as, to 
bottom a kettle. 

44 For Fanny sat there, 

And sacred to me is that can e bottomed chair. Thackeray. 

—To found or build upon; to fix upon as a base or sup¬ 
port; preceding on or upon. 

“ Action is supposed to be bottomed upon principle.■' — Atterbury, 

—To wind upon something; to twist thread around a 
thing. 

44 Therefore, as you unwind your love for him, 

Lest it should ravel, and be good to none, 

You must provide to bottom it on me.” — Shake. 


—t 4 . t". To rest upon, as its ultimate support. 

44 Find out upon what foundation any proposition advanced, 
bottoms.”—Locke. 

Bot'tom-becI, n. (Geol.) A name sometimes given to 
some partially, or doubtfully, fossiliferous strata which 
immediately underlie the Silurian system in Wales. 

Bot'tom Captain, ». {Mining.) A superintendent 
over the miners in the bottoms. 

Bot tom-glade, n. A valley or dale; a low, open 
glade. 

44 The hilly crofts 

That brow this bottom-glade.” — Milton. 

Bot'tom-grass, n. Grass growing on bottom-lands. 

Bot toill-heat, n. (Gardening.) A term applied in hor¬ 
ticulture to the temperature communicated to certain 
soils, either by fermenting or decomposing substances 
placed underneath them, for which purpose leaves, fresh 
dung, and the refuse bark of the tan-yard are often used; 
or by means of flues or hot-water apparatus. The system 
is applied to the cultivation of pine-apples, grapes, cucum¬ 
bers, and other plants grown in liot-houses. pits or frames. 
It is one of the most important agents in the artificial 
cultivation of tender plants, of whatever kind, whether 
flower-bearing or fruit-bearing. 

Bot tom-land, n. See Bottom. 

Bot'tomless, a. Without a bottom; fathomless; as, 
a bottomless abyss. 

44 Him, the Almighty Pow'r 
Hurl'd headlong flaming from th' ethereal sky 
To bottomless perdition.' — Milton. 

Bot'tom-lift, n. (Mining.) The deepest, or bottom tier 
of pumps. 

Bot'tom-rail, n. (Joinery.) The lowest horizontal 
rail of a frame door. 

Bot'tomry. n. {Murit. Law.) It is in effect a mort¬ 
gage of a ship, being an agreement entered into by an 
owner or his agent, whereby, in consideration of a sum 
of money advanced for the use of the ship, the borrower 
undertakes to repay the same, with interest, if the ship 
terminate her voyage successfully; and hinds, or hypoth¬ 
ecates, the ship for the performance of the contract. The 
instrument by which this contract is effected is some¬ 
times in the shape of a deed poll, and sometimes in that 
of a bond. On bottomry contracts the lender runs the 
risk of the voyage, and in consideration of the risk the 
irterest he may take is unlimited. The master lias au¬ 
thority to hypothecate a ship or its freight, at a foreign 
port, in case of necessity, for the purpose of the voyage. 
In such case, if the loan he not repaid within the time 
prescribed, the agent of the lenders applies to the Court 
of Admiralty, with certain affidavits, and procures au¬ 
thority to arrest the ship, which may be sold, if neces¬ 
sary, under the authority of the Court. Where several 
loans of this description have been made on the same 
voyage, the last lender is entitled to priority of pay¬ 
ment out of the proceeds of the sale. 

Bot'tomry-bontl, n. (Mar. Law.) A deed or instru¬ 
ment drawn up for the security of money advanced on 
bottomry. 

Bottomry-premium. n. (Com.) The premium, or 

interest of money, advanced on bottomry. 

Bot'tony, Bot'tonny, n. (Her.) A cross, the end* 
of which terminate in three semicircular projections, 
giving them an appearance resembling the trefoil in form. 

Botts'ford. in Georgia, a village of Sumter co., 1X2 in. 
from Milledgeville. 

Botts'ville. in Missouri , a post-office of Linn co. 

Botu'liform. a. [Lat. botulus, a sausage, and forma, 
form, shape.] (Bot.) Sausage-shaped. 

Botzen, or Bolzano, (anc. Pons Drusi,) a town of Aus¬ 
tria, in the Tvrol, cap. of a circ. in a pleasant valley, at 
the confluence of the Eisaclt and Talfer. and close to 
their embouchure into the Adige, 32 m. N.N.E. of Trent. 
It is a thriving, well-built town, in the Italian style, has 
a castle, several convents, a college, and manufactures 
of silk stockings. Being intersected by high roads lead¬ 
ing to Switzerland. Austria,and Italy, with a station on 
the railroad over the Alps, from Innsbruck to Verona, 
B. has an extensive transit trade. It is also celebrated 
for its fairs, which are attended by a great concourse of 
French. Germans, and Italians. The surrounding country 
produces excellent wine, and fruits in abundance. Pop. 
8,103. 

Bonebain, (boo’shain,) a fortified town of France, dep. 
Nord, cap. cant, on the Scheldt, 12 m. S.E. of Douai, 
The fortifications are of very considerable strength, and 
the adjacent country may be laid under water. The 
English, under the Duke of Marlborough, took it in 1711, 
after a memorable siege; but being retaken by Marshal 
Villars, in the following year, it was finally ceded to 
France at the treaty of Utrecht. Pop. about l,8o0. 

Boiicbardat, (boo-shar-da',) Adolphe, a French phar¬ 
maceutical author, and member of the Academy of Medi¬ 
cine, B. 1810. In 1852 he was appointed to the Chair of 
Hygiene in the above institution. His principal works 
are Elements de Matiere Medicate etde Pharmacie (1838); 
L’Annuaire de Therapeutique (1842); Pormulaire Viti- 
rinaire (1840); and Repertoire de Pharmacie, published 
monthly since 1847. ... 

Bouche, (boosh,) n. [Fr., mouth.] (Gunnery.) A piece of 
copper containing the vent or orifice through which the 
charge of a gun is ignited. 

Boucher, Francis, (boo-sha’,) a French painter, b. at 
Paris, 1703, was appointed painter to Louis XV. alter 
the death of Vanloo. B. was an artist of much ability, 
and equally facile in the production of figure or land¬ 
scape pictures. —a facility, however, which was very 
fatal to the claims his genius might otherwise have had 
ou posteritv. In many of his paintings, picturesque effect 
is the only thing sought after, no matter at what cost 
to truth. He has been called the “ Anacreon ” of paint¬ 
ing on account of the amorous character of many of 














404 


BOUG 


BOUL 


BOUN 


his works; mythological and pastoral subjects were 
also great favorites with him. D. 1770. 

Bou'ches-du-KhSne, a maritime dep. of the S. of 
France, situated, as its name implies, at the mouths of 
the Rhone. It is hounded on the E. by the dep. Var; N. 
and YV. by the Durance, Rhone, and the W. arm of the 
latter which separate it from the depts. of Vaucluse and 
Gard; and S. by the Mediterranean. Area, 2,331 Eng. 
sq. in. Surface and soil, various, but the latter gener¬ 
ally inferior. A great part of the former is occupied by 
lagoons. The herring and anchovy fisheries are exten¬ 
sively carried on. It is divided into three arroud., viz., 
Marseille, Aix, and Arles-sur-Rhone. Princ. towns. 
Marseille (cap.), Arles, Aix, Ac. Pop. 547,903. 

Boucicault, John Le Meingre, (boo'se-ko,) Count de 
Beaufort, and Marshal of France, who flourished in the 
15th century. He was the son of the first marshal of 
this name, and was early inured to arms. At the battle 
of Bosbec, in 1382, B. served as page of honor to Charles 
VI., and was knighted. In 1396, he went with the 
Count de Nevers, (afterwards Duke of Burgundy,) on a 
crusade against the Turkish sultan, ISajazet. At the 
battle of Nicopolis, B. the count, and most of his officers, 
were taken prisoners. The captives in general were 
massacred, but NeversandS. were exempted,and allow¬ 
ed to return home. The latter, in 1400, was sent with 
a small body of French troops to assist in the defence 
of Constantinople against Bajazet, when he distinguished 
himself by his ability and courage; but after a year’s 
service he returned to France. He then became gov¬ 
ernor of Genoa, which post he held for many years, and 
added Pisa to the Frenc'h dominions. In 1409, B. seized 
on the city of Milan, whither he had been invited by the 
Guelph faction, one of the two grand political parties, 
whose quarrels at that period interrupted the peace of 
Italy. Their enemies, the Ghibellines, took advantage 
of B.’ s absence to expel the French from Genoa, and he 
was obliged, after suffering a defeat, to retire to France. 
In 1415, he commanded the van of the French army at 
Agincourt, where he was taken prisoner. He died in 
England, in 1421. This great general was fond of music 
and poetry; and is said to have composed ballads, ron¬ 
dos, and virelays, after the manner of the age in which 
he lived. 

Boucicault, Dion, a celebrated dramatic author and 
actor, b. iu Dublin, 1822. He was educated at the London 
University, and, in 1841, commenced his literary career 
with the production of London Assurance, at Covent Gar¬ 
den Theatre. He visited the U. States in 1853, and did not 
return to England till 1860, when he brought out the 
Colleen Baum, which attained an immense success. This 
was followed by the Octoroon, in 1861. B. then became 
lessee of Astley’s Theatre, London, but was unfortunate 
in the speculation. B. is the author of a large number 
of original and highly successful pieces, as well as of 
adaptations from the French, the best known, in addi¬ 
tion to the above-mentioned, being Old Heads awl Young 
Hearts, Love in a Maze, Used Up, The Willow Copse, 
Janet Pride, Louis XI., The Corsican Brothers, The 
Colleen Bawn, Arrah na Pogue, The Lang Strike, 
Flying Sctid, Ac. As an actor, B. excelled in the delinea¬ 
tion of Irish character. In 1867, in conjunction with 
Charles Reade, he produced the novel entitled Foul Play, 
which became very popular both in England and the 
United States, and which he afterward adapted to the 
stage. In 1874, the Shaughraun, in which Boucicault 
took the leading role, was produced in the United States 
with marked success. B. was equally successful in 
drama, comedy and farce. Died Sept. 18,1890. 

Boudoir, (boo'dwaw,) n. [Fr.] A lady’s small private 
apartment, in which she receives only her most inti¬ 
mate friends. B. became very fashionable in France 
during the reign of Louis XV., and were frequently 
adorned in the most luxurious and fantastic manner. 

lionet-Wi I in u inez, Louis Edouard, Comte de, and 
vice-admiral of the French navy; b. 1808. He joined 
the naval service in early life, was attached to the naval 
station of La Plata, and took part in the bombardment 
of Mogador. In 1838, he was appointed to take a sur-c 
vey of the YV. coast of Africa, the results of which ap¬ 
peared in a volume entitled Description Nautique des 
COtes comprises entre le Senegal et I’Equateur, in 1849. In 
1854, he participated in the bombardment of Sebastopol, 
and was promoted to be vice-admiral in 1860. B. is also 
author of the following works: — Campagne aux Cotes 
Occidentales d’Afrique (1850); La Flotte Francaise etle.s 
Colonies (1852). D. 1871. 

BoutHers, Louis Francois, Duke de, (bouf'flair,) a dis¬ 
tinguished general and Marshal of France, b. 1644. He 
early testified great military talents under Crequi and 
Turenne, and gained signal honor by the defence of 
Lille, in 1708. The siege lasted four months, and when 
obliged to submit, Prince Eugene observed to B.\“l am 
very proud in having taken Lille, but I should still prefer 
the glory of having defended it like you.” B. was as distin¬ 
guished for his generosity of character and munificence, 
as for bravery and military skill. YY'hen YY’illiam III. of 
England took Namur, in 1695, he made B. a prisoner in 
violation of the articles of capitulation. On his remon¬ 
strance against this conduct, he was answered that it 
was in the way of reprisal, the French having detained 
the garrisons of Dixinunde and Denise in the same man¬ 
ner. “ In that case,” replied the marshal, “ my garrison 
ought to be arrested, and not I.” “ Sir,” was the reply, 
“you are valued at more than 10,000 men.” D. 1711. 

Bougainville, ( boo-gan-veel’,) Louis Antoine de, a 
noted French navigator of thelStli cent. In 1766, he com¬ 
manded an expedition of discovery fitted out by the 
French govt., with which he went to the Society Islands, 
She New Hebrides, New Guinea, &c., and after sailing 
round the world returned home. In the course of this 


voyage, he made many important discoveries, and ob¬ 
tained much curious information relative to the coun¬ 
tries he explored, and the manners and customs of their 
inhabitants. His Voyage round the World, translated 
from the French, was published in London, in 1772, 4to. 
D. at Paris, 1811. 

Boujjet, Bon.jet, (bno’zha,) n. [Fr.] (Her.) An olden 
water-bucket, frequently borne in armorial shields. 

Bough, (bou,) n. [A.S. boga, boh, or bogh, kindred with 
buyan, to bow, to bend; Goth. baug. j The large branch or 
arm of a tree that bows or bends outwards from a trunk. 

* Under some favorite myrtle s shady boughs, 

They speak their passions in repeated vows." — Roscommon. 

Bought, (bawt,) pret. andpp. of But. q. v. 

Bought, Bout, (bawt,) n. [Du. bogt. See Bight.] A 
bend; a flexure or curvature; a twist; a link; a knot. 

•* In notes, with many a winding bought , 

Of linked sweetuess. long drawn out." — Milton • 

—That part of a sling which holds the stone. 

Boughten, ( bawt'n,) a. A term locally used in the U. 
Slates, in the sense of purchased; not produced at 
home; bought. 

Boug'ie, (boo'zhe,) n. [Fr. bougie, wax-candle.] (Surg.) 
A slender flexible tube, intended for introduction into 
the urethra, oesophagus, or rectum, when those pas¬ 
sages are obstructed by stricture or other disease. 

Bouie River, (boo'ee,) in Mississippi, a small stream 
embouching into Leaf River, Perry co. 

Bouillauil, (i bool’yoh ,) Jean Baptiste, an eminent 
French physician and author, b. 1796. In 1848, he be¬ 
came Dean of the Faculty of Medicine of Paris. His 
principal works are, Lefons Climques sur les Maladies du 
Cceur et des gros Vaisseaux, (1854;) De VInfluence des 
Doctrines ou des Systemes Puthologiques de la Therapeu- 
tique, 1859, &c. 

Bouilli, n. (Cookery.) Boiled meat; meat stewed with 
vegetables. 

Bouillon, (bbol’yong.) (Cookery.) Soup; broth; a nu¬ 
tritive liquid aliment of boiled meats, Ac. 

(Farriery.) A fleshy excrescence drawing out a horse’s 
frusli, and so obliging him to halt. 

Bouit'lon, Godfrev de. See Godfrey de Bouillon. 

Bou lain villiers, (bdo-lan-ve’yah,) Henri De, 
Count de St. Saire, a French historian, b. 1658. He 
was the author of Historical Memoirs of the Ancient 
Government of France till the Reign of Hugh Capet; 
History of the Peerage of France, Ac. B. was called by 
Voltaire the “most learned gentleman” in F’rance. D. 
1722. 

Boulange'rite, n. (Min.) A sulphuret of lead and 
antimony. 

Boul'der, Bowl'dcr, n. [From Bowl.] A smooth, 
round stone, such as is found ou the sea-shore; a large 
pebble. 

(Geol.) A fragment of rock rounded by attrition, lying 
on or within the surface, and not derived from the rocks 
on which they lie. In many cases these B. have been 
transported hundreds of miles, and sometimes only a few 
yards; but they have always been moved from their 
original position by the action of water or ice. A boul¬ 
der of granite, 42 ft. long. 27 ft. broad, and 21 ft. high, 
has been used as a plinth of the statue of Peter the 
Great at St. Petersburg. Small B. of foreign rocks have 
been found in chalk and other aqueous rocks. 

Boul der, a. Belonging to, or consisting of, boulders. 

Boul der, in Colorado, a Northern county, bounded 
on the W. by the Rocky Mountains, and traversed by 
Boulder Creek. Area, about 600 sq. m. Soil, pro¬ 
ductive, and with many gold and iron mines yielding 
a fair amount of ore Cap. Boulder City. 

Boulder City, a thriving city of Col.; cap. of ab. co., 45 
m from Denver, and the terminus of several R. R 
The State University is at B. 

Boul'der, in Iowa, a twp of Lynn co. 

Boul'der flay, n. (Geol.) A deposit, often very ex¬ 
tensive, consisting of boulders of various size, angular or 
rounded, mixed witli sand and clay, and lying generally 
in an unstratified position unconformably to the other 
rocks on the earth's surface. Although there is no 
reason why such a deposit should not have been made 
at any geological period, B. C. seems to be of definite 
age in the northern hemisphere, or at least is limited to 
a certain geological period. It is one of those deposits 
spoken of collectively, as Drift, and would seem to be 
due to a time not very distant, when glaciers covered 
much of north European land, and icebergs drifted, and 
were stranded over the shoals that have since been 
raised to form the land.—See Glacial Drift. 

Boul'der Creelt, iu Montana, a branch of the Madi¬ 
son fork of the Missouri river, taking a N.W. course. 

Boul'der Valley, in Montana, the capital of Jeffer¬ 
son co. 

Boul'der-wall, n. A wall built up of large stones or 
boulders. 

Bouie. n. [Gr., a council.] (Hist.) The name by which 
the Athenian senate of ancient days was designated, the 
constitution of which was as follows: YY’hen the people 
were divided into four tribes, each of these, according to 
the regulation of Solon, elected 100 representatives, thus 
making in all a deliberative body of 400 members. But 
when Cleisthenes increased the number of tribes to ten, 
the complement of the senate was raised to 500, fifty of 
which were sent by each tribe; when the tribes were 
finally increased to twelve, 100 more senators were 
added. All free-born Athenian citizens above 30 years 
of age were eligible to this office; but according to law 
they were obliged to undergo a strict examination of 
their characters and morals. The senate was origi¬ 
nally instituted by Solon to be a check on the assembly 
of the whole people, (ecclesia,) before which, according 
to the Athenian constitution, no measures were allowed 


to be brought until they had been approved by the sen. 

ate. — See Prvtanes. 

Bouie, (bool,) n. [Fr.] (Sometimes called Boulb-work.) 
( Cabinet-making.) A kind of marqueterie, or inlaid work 
in woods, gilt-metal, or tortoise-shell; so called from the 
name of a French cabinet-maker, (or obeniste,) who was 
greatly distinguished for ornamental work of this kind 
iu the reign of Louis XIV. This name is often written, 
in a corrupted manner, buhl. 

Beiilet, (bOO-let 1 ,) n. [Fr.] (Manege.) A horse with a 
bent or misplaced pastern-joint 

Boulevard, ( bOo'le-viir',) n. | Fr.] In its original mean¬ 
ing, a bulwark or rampart of a fortified place; in its mod¬ 
ern sense, applied to a public promenade or avenue, oc¬ 
cupying the site of an ancient fortification. The Boule¬ 
vards of Paris are the most magnificent of their kind. 

Bouley. (bbo'lai,) Henri, a French surgeon, and profes¬ 
sor of clinical medicine and surgery at the school of Al- 
fort, and a member of the Academy of Medicine, is a vo¬ 
luminous writer on medical subjects. His principal work, 
Nouveau Dictionnaire Pratique de Medecine, de Chirur- 
gie, et d'Hygiene Veterinaires, was published in 1855-7. 

Boulogne, (bob-loyn',) or, as it is sometimes called, Bou- 
Liigne-sur-Mer, a seaport town of France, dep. Pas de 
Calais, cap. arrond., on the Lanne, near its entry into 
the English Channel, 19 miles S.YV. of Calais, and 139 
N.N.W. of Paris. B. is divided into the upper and lower 
towns. Tlie former is pretty well built, but is irregularly 
laid out. It contains the cathedral, the ancient episco¬ 
pal palace, and other public buildings. It also contains 
the bouse where Le Sage, the author of Gil Bias, lived 
and died. The lower, or new town, is situated on the 
bottom of a hill, and is the most populous, most com¬ 
mercial, and best built. A magnificent column, dedicated 
by the grand army collected here in 1805, to Napoleon, 
but not finished till 1821, stands on a hill about a mile 
from the town ; it is crowned by a gallery surmounted 
by a dome, and is 164 feet high. The harbor has been 
vastly improved of late years; ships may anchor at from 
i /2 to % m. off tlie harbor, in from 6 to9 fathoms. A good 
deal of trade is carried on, and the herring, mackerel, 
and cod-fisheries are vigorously prosecuted Man/. Coarse 
woollens, sail-cloth, earthenware, bottle-glass, cordage, 
leather, Ac. B. is much resorted to by English families, 
of whom, too, there is quite a little colony permanently 
established here. B. is very ancient; under the Roman 
sway it was known as Gesoriacum Narale, and B'monia, 
whence its modern name is derived. During the Middle 
Ages, and in more modern times, ttiis town lias been re¬ 
peatedly besieged and taken In the early part of the 
present century, it rose into celebrity from Napoleon I. 
having collected a large armament here, and made it the 
head-quarters of the army avowedly intended to invade 
England. 

Bou loffno', a village of France, dep. Seine, between the 
Seine and tlie wood of the same name (tlie well-known 
Buis de Boulogne ), 4 m. YV. of Paris, and forming a sub- 
tu b of the French metropolis, by means of the “chemin- 
de-fer de ceinture,” or “girdle-railway.” B. is hand¬ 
some; the adjoining “Bois” is, in tlie summer season, 
tlie favorite promenade of tlie Parisian fashionables. The 
Chateau de Madrid , in this wood, built by F’rancis I., 
was demolished in the reign of Louis XVI.; and only a 
small part now remains of tlie Chateau de la Muetle, some 
time occupied by Louis XV. 

Boult, n. See Bolt. 

Boui'tel, Boul t in, n. (Arch.) The name given to 
a moulding whose section is nearly the quadrant of a 
circle, whose diameter being horizontal, the centre is 
convex with respect to a vertical to such diameter. It 
is more usually called the ovolo, or the quarter-round. 

Boul'ton, Matthew, f.r.s.. a celebrated English engi¬ 
neer, B. at Birmingham, in 1728. On the completion of 
his education, he engaged in business as a manufacturer 
of hardware, and as early as 1745 he is said to have in¬ 
vented and brought to great perfection inlaid steel- 
buckles, buttons, watch-chains, Ac.,of which large quan¬ 
tities were exported to France, where they were re-pur¬ 
chased with avidity by the English of that day,as “the 
offspring of French ingenuity.” In 1762, B. finding his 
manufactory at Birmingham too confined for his pur¬ 
poses. purchased a lease of the Folio, about 2 m. distant, 
in the co. of Stafford. This spot, then a barren heath, 
was gradually converted into an extensive manufactory 
and school of the mechanical arts, where ingenious men 
found ample employment for their talents from the liberal 
proprietor. The introduction of that important machine, 
the steam-engine, led to a connection between B. and 
James Watt, of Glasgow, who became trade-partners in 
1769. Among the many great undertakings in which 
the new firm engaged, one of the most useful and im¬ 
portant was the improvement of the coinage. In beauty 
and accuracy of execution, the coins struck at the Soho 
manufactory have rarely been surpassed. About 1793, 
was invented by them, a method of copying, by a me¬ 
chanical process, oil-paintings, so as to produce fac¬ 
similes of the originals, sufficiently accurate to deceive 
a practised connoisseur. The various mechanical inven¬ 
tions and improvements which emanated more or less 
directly from the subject of thisarticle, are too numerous 
to admit of specification. His long life was almost un¬ 
interruptedly devoted to the advancement of the useful 
arts, and the promotion of the commercial interests of 
his country. B. was a member of the principal learned 
societies of Europe, and d. in 1809. 

Bounce, (bourn',) v. i. (imp. bounced, botinst.) [Du. 
bnnzen, from bans, a blow, a thump ] To leap or spring; 
to fly or rush out suddenly; as, she bounced out of tfc» 
room in a rage. 

•* Out bounc’d the mastiff of the triple head ; 

Away the hare with double swiftness sped.'* — Sunft, 







BOUN 


BOUR 


BOUR 


405 


•-To strike against anything so as to produce a dull sound ; 
to thump so as to make a sudden noise. 

“ Just as I was putting out my light, another bounces as hard 
as he cau knock.' — Swift. 

—A vulgarism for to brag, vaunt, boast, bully; as, I 
bounced him out of it. 

•* With thee e'en clumsy wits attempt to bounce." — Byron. 
—To be bold, resolute, or strong. 

“ Forsooth the bouncing Amazon, 

Your buskin'd mistress, and your warrior love. 

To Theseus must be wedded." — Shaks. 

—v. a. To spring or leap agaiust any thing so as to rebound ; 
to run against a thing violently. 

" The fright awaken'd Arcite with a start, 

Against his bosom bounc'd his heaving heart." — Dryden. 
Bounce, n. A strong, sudden blow or thump ; as, give 
him a bounce, on the ear. 

*' The bounce burst ope the door." — Dryden. 

—A sudden spring, leap, or bound ; as, he gave a bounce up 
on his feet; hence (17. S. slang), discharge, expulsion. 

—A boast; a threat, 

—A bold asseveration implying a falsehood; as, give me 
none of your bounce. 

—A sudden crack or noise. 

“ Two hazel-nuts I threw into the flame;... 

This, with the loudest bounce me sore amaz'd, 

That, iu a Same of brightest color blaz’d.” — Gay, 

Bounc'er, n. Oue who bounces; a heavy, unwieldy in¬ 
dividual. 

—A boaster; a bully; an empty threatener.—A person em¬ 
ployed to eject disorderly characters from a public resort. 
—A boast; a bold lie; a liar. 

—Something big, stout, and heavy. 

Boiinc'ing', a. Stout; stroug; large; heavy; buxom; 
as, a bouncing girl. , 

Many tall and bouncing young ladies.” — Thackeray. 
Bounc'ing'ly. adv. Boastingly; iu a bouncing manner. 
Bound, n. |0. Fr. bonne, bound ; Fr. borne. See Bourne.] 
That which limits or confines; a boundary; an extent; 
a limit. 

Illimitable ocean ! without bound, 

Without dimension.'' — Milton. 

—pi. (Mining.) The right to tin ore within a certain 
district. 

Bound, n. A leap; a jump; a spring; a rebound. 

44 Dex’trous he 'scapes the coach with nimble bounds, 

WniUt ev'ry honest tongue * stop thief I ’ resounds." — Gay. 

(Dancing.) A spring from one foot to the other. 
Bound, tt. a. To limit; to restrict; to restrain; to con¬ 
fine; to circumscribe; to border; to terminate. 

44 A lofty tow’r.... which Phlegethon surrounds. 

Whose fiery flood the burning empire bounds." — Dryden. 

—To state the boundaries of a place or country; as, to 
bound a State. 

Bouud, v.i. [Fr. bondir. Etymol. uncertain.] To leap ; 
to jump; to spring; to move forward by leaps; as, to 
bound over a fence. 

“ Warbling to the varied strain, advance 
Two sprightly youths, to form the bounding dance.” — Pope. 
•—To rebound, to fly back by re-percussion, as an elastic 
ball. 

“ Mark then a bounding valour in our English, 

That being dead, like to the bullet s grazing, 

Burst out into a second course of mischief.'' — Shaks. 

•—To cause to bound, spring, or leap. 

44 If I might... bound my horse for her favours, 

I would lay on like a butcher, and sit like a jackanapes, 

Never off. " — Shaks. 

Bound, imp. and p. of Bind, q. v. 

Bound, a. [Icel. boen, boin, pp. from bua, to make ready.] 
Ready: prepared; ready to set out; destined; going, or 
intending to go; as, that ship is bound for London. 

" Willing we sought your shores, and hither bound. 

The port so long desir'd at length we found." — Dryden. 

—Used also in composition as a compound word; as 
homeward-bound, Ac. 

Bound ary, n. [See Bound.] A visible mark desig¬ 
nating a bound or limit; a bound; border; confines; 
frontier; termination; as, the boundary of crime. 

He suffers the confluence and clamours of the people to pass 
all boundaries of law." — King Charles I. 

Bound'ary, in Indiana, a post-office of Jay co. 
Bound -bailiff, n. (Eng. Law.) A sheriffs officer ap¬ 
pointed to serve processes, after giving bond for the 
faithful performance of such duty. 

Bound Brook. in New Jersey, a thriving R. R. town 
of Bridgewater township, Somerset co., on the Raritan 
river, 7 m. N.W. of New Brunswick, and 35 m. W.S.W. 
of New York. Pop. (1897) ab. 2,500. 

Bounden, (bound’n,) a. [From Bind.] Appointed; ob¬ 
ligatory ; indispensable ; as, a bounden duty. 

11 1 rest much bounden to you; fare you well.” — Shaks. 
Bound'er, n. One who, or that which, limits a boundary 
or jurisdiction. 

Bound'ing, p. a. Moving with a bound or elastic 
spring; as, a bounding pulse. 

Bound'iug-stone, Bound-stone, n. A stone 
used in play. 

“ A sceptre’s but a plaything, and a globe 
A bigger bounding-stone." — Dryden. 

Boundless, a. Without bound or limit; unlimited; 
unconfined; illimitable; as, the boundless heavens. 

“ O’er the glad waters of the dark blue sea. 

Our thoughts as boundless, and our souls as free.” — Byron. 

Bound'lessly. adv. Without bound or limit. 
Bound'iesNiiess, n. Quality of being boundless or 
without limits. 

“ God has corrected the boundlessness of his voluptuous desires, 
Wy stinting his capacities." — South. 


Boun'teons, a. [See Bounty] Liberal; kind; bounti¬ 
ful; munificent; generous; beneficent; profuse in be¬ 
stowing gifts ; as, a bounteous hand. 

“ Bounteous ; but almost bounteous to a vice." — Dryden. 

Boun'teously, adv. Liberally; generously ; largely 
“He bounteously bestowed unenvied good on me."- Dryden. 

Boun'teousness, n. Liberality ; the quality of being 
bountilul. 

Bountiful, a. [bounty and full.] Free to give; liberal; 
munificent; generous. 

As bountiful as mines of India.” — Shaks. 

Boun'tiful, in Utah Territory, a village of Davis co., 
10 m. N. of Salt Lake City, 

Boun'tifully, adv. In a bountiful manner. 

41 And now thy alms is given, 

And thy poor starveling bountifully fed." — Donne. 

Boun'tifulness, n. The quality of being bountiful; 
liberality. 

Boun'ty, n. [Fr. bonti; Lat. bonitas, from bonus, good.] 
Munificence; generosity; beneficence; kindness in grant¬ 
ing gifts or favors; liberality 
“Such moderation with thy bounty join. 

That thou'may'st nothing give that is not thine." — Denham. 

—That which is given bountifully; munificence of gifts; 
us, Uer Majesty's bounty 

“ Though I question not but her royal bounty will extend itself 
to them." — Addison. 

(Mil.) The money given to a recruit for the army after 
his attestation and final approval. The amount of B. 
given in this country during the late war. sometimes rose 
as high as $900. In England, the sum has varied very 
much from time to time according to the dilficulty of 
obtaining recruits. At the present time a recruit in 
that country receives a B. of $5, aud a free kit.—The 
system of large B. is a great temptation to soldiers to 
desert after receiving them, and enlist again in other 
regiments (usually called bounty-jumping), and most 
thinking men consider that a higher rate of pay would 
have a better effect than B. 

(Com.) B., in English commerce and the arts, is a pre¬ 
mium paid by the government to the producers, export¬ 
ers, or importers of certain articles, or to those who em¬ 
ploy ships in certain trades, whence the profits resulting 
from these respective branches of industry are alleged 
to be insufficient. Bounties on production are generally 
given with the view of encouraging the establishment 
of some new branch of industry, or of fostering and ex¬ 
tending a branch that is believed to be of paramount 
importance. B. on exportation and importation are 
granted iu England, as iu France, to the exporters of 
certain commodities on their taking oath, or in some 
cases giving bond, not to re-land the same in England or 
in France respectively. Public opinion was formerly 
much divided as to the advantage of granting bounties; 
but, at present, the impolicy of such a practice appears 
to be almost universally admitted. 

Bouquet, (bo-kd',)n. [Fr., from L. Lat. boscum, a wood; 
It. bnsco; Ger. busch, a wood of small growth.] A bunch 
of flowers; a nosegay; as, the lady carried a bouquet.— 
A pleasant perfume; as, “Jockey Club Bouquet.” 

Bouquet of Wine, (bb-kd,) n. [Fr.] The name given to 
the aroma of wine, due to the presence of certain fra¬ 
grant ethers, especially of oenanthic, pelargonic, and 
acetic ether, formed during the fermentation, or subse¬ 
quent storing, of the wine. It is to the increased quantity 
of such fragrant ether that the superior bouquet of many 
old wines is due. 

Bou'quetin, n. (Zool.) See Ibex. 

Bourbeuse, (boor 1 buz’,) in Missouri, a small stream 
rising in Crawford co., in the E. part of the State, and 
flowing N.E. into the Maumee River, in Franklin co., 8 
m. S.E. of Union. 

Bourbon, (bodr'bong.) (Bist.) The name of an illustri¬ 
ous French family, ttiat for centuries formed, perhaps, 
the greatest dynastic power in Europe; derived from the 
seigneurie of Bourbon in the ci-devant prov.of Bourbon- 
nais. Henri IV. of Navarre, who succeeded to the French 
throne on the extinction of the male line of the house 
of Valois, iu 1589, was the first sovereign of France of 
the Bourbon blood. His father, Antoine de B., Due de 
VendOtne by his marriage with Jeanne d’Albret in 1548, 
became King of Navarre iu 1555. He was descended 
through the younger brancli —the elder having become 
extinct on the death of the Constable de Bourbon (q. t>.). 
in 1527 — from Robert de Clermont, youngest son of 
Louis IX. By his marriage in 1272 with Beatrix of 
Burgundy, Robert de Clermont obtained the Bourbon- 
nais, the Charoldis, and the lordship of St. Just. His 
son Louis I. was created Duke of Bourbon by Charles 
IV. of France in 1327. The B. reigned in France from 
the accession of Henri IV. in 1589, till the death of 
Louis XVI. in 1793. They were restored in the person 
of Louis XVIII. in 1814; expelled in 1815, during the 
Hundred Days; and again restored, after the fall of Na¬ 
poleon I., in 1815. The rule of the elder branch ceased 
on the abdication of Charles X. in 1830. Louis Philippe, 
of the Orleans, or younger branch of the B. known as 
Bourbon-Orleans, and which owes its origin to Philippe, 
Duke of Orleans, the brother of Louis XIV., then suc¬ 
ceeded to the throne, and their line ceased to reign in 
France on his abdication in 1848. In 1865, the family 
numbered 73 members, 50 of whom, including the ex¬ 
royal family of Naples, were in exile. The collateral 
branches of the B. family consisted of the Conde branch, 
taking its title from Conde, fn Hainault, which came 
into the possession of the B. by the marriage, in 1487, 
of Francois de B., Comte de Vendome, with Marie de 
Luxembourg, heiress of St. Pol, Enghien, Soissons, and 
Conde. Their son Charles had several children, amt one 
of these, Louis, assumed the title of Prince de Conde. 


(See Cond€.) This line became extinit in 1830. — The 
Spanish B. are descended from Philippe, Duke d’Anjou, 
grandson of Louis XIV., who was made King of Spain 
under the title of Philip V. in 1700 —The Neapolitan 
branch is descended from Charles, third son of Philip V. 
of Spain, made Duke of Parma in 1731, and King of 
Naples in 1735.—The Conti, a branch of the Conde, is de¬ 
scended from Louis, the first Pri nee de Conde. who mar¬ 
ried Eleanore de Roye, Dame de Conty orConti, by whom 
he had two sons, Henri de B., Pri ncede Conde, and Fran¬ 
cois, who took the title of Prince de Conti. —The heir- 
male of the elder branch of the B. ceased with Henri, 
Duke de Bordeaux (Comte de Chambord), q. v .; and t lie 
representative of the younger, or Orleans branch of the 
family, was, until 1894, the Comte de Paris (<j.v.). —Of 
the B. race, there have flourished 8 kings of France, 6 
kings and 1 queen of Spain, 6 kings of Naples, and 1 
king of Sicily, besides sovereign dukes aud princes, as 
those formerly ruling over Parma, Modena, and Lucca. 

Beur'bon, Charles, Duke de, better known in history 
as the Constable de Bourbon, was the son of Gilbert de 
B., Count de Montpensier, and was b. in 1489. His high 
birth and natural qualities endeared him to Francis I., 
who conferred on him, at the age of twenty-six, the great 
dignity of Constable of France. Being appointed viceroy 
of the Milanese, he gained the hearts of all ranks of 
people there by his courteous behavior, and proved his 
courage in the battle of Marignano. As being the head 
of the great house of B, he unfortunately incurred the 
enmity of Louise de Savoy, the king’s mother, who in¬ 
fused a jealousy of the Constable into the mind of her 
son, who recalled him from the government of Milan, 
and suspended his pensions. On the death of his duchess, 
B. endured still greater persecution, tor Louise, suddenly 
changing her hatred into affection, caused a treaty of 
marriage between them to be proposed to the Constable. 
He rejected her advances witli contempt, which caused 
a renewal of her enmity with still greater violence, and, 
in conjunction with the Chancellor Du Prat, she insti¬ 
tuted a process against him for the estates lie possessed 
in right of his wife, and obtained an order for their seques¬ 
tration. This drove B. to despair, and he renewed some 
former negotiations with the Emperor Charles V., and 
on that monarch promising him his sister in marriage, 
with a large dowry, the Constable joined him, and the 
King of England, in a meditated invasion oi France. 
This conspiracy being discovered by Francis, B. made 
his escape to Italy, where he was declared the Emperor's 
lieutenant-general, and in concert witli Pescara (see 
Avalos), defeated the French forces under Bonnivet, in 
1524. In 1525, B. gained the famous battle of Pavia, in 
which Francis was taken prisoner. On his return, Charles 
received him with great distinction, but, notwithstand¬ 
ing, did not perform his promise of giving him his sister; 
but on the death of Pescara, created him general-in-chief 
of his forces in Italy, and gave him a grant of the duchy 
of Milan, of which he forcibly took possession, driving 
out the rightful duke, Sforza. In order to satisfy the 
rapacity of his troops, B. was obliged to make great ex¬ 
actions on the citizens of Milan. This only satisfied 
them for a time, and bent on a mission of plunder, he 
marched with his army to Rome, the possession of which 
place was to repay all their toil. On the 5th May, 1527, 
they came in sight of that capital, and the next morn¬ 
ing commenced the attack. B. was conspicuous by a 
white scarf which he wore over his armor, and com¬ 
menced a furious assault on the walls, whicli was repelled 
with equal valor. Seeing his troops begin to waver, B. 
seized a scaling-ladder from a soldier standing by, and 
was in the act of ascending, when he was pierced by a 
musket-ball, and fell. Feeling that his wound was mor¬ 
tal, the Constable desired that his body might be con¬ 
cealed through a fear of discouraging his men, and then 
instantly expired. Although a traitor to his country, B. 
undoubtedly received great provocation, and it is to be 
lamented that his military skill and daring valor were 
not exercised in a better cause. 

Bour'bon, (Isle of.) also called Isle de La Reunion, 
an island belonging to France, in the Indian Ocean, in 
Lat. 20° 51' 43" S., Lou. 55° SO 7 16' E., 90 m. W.S.W. of 
the island of Mauritius,and440 E. of Madagascar. Shape, 
oval; greatest length, N.W. to S.E.. 38 m.; greatest 
breadth, 28 m. Area, abt. 900 Eng. sq. m. Desc. The island 
is geologically formed by two systems of volcanic moun¬ 
tains, one at either extremity; the central point of the 
most northerly system, the Piton dcsNeiges, the highest 
summit in the island, is 10,355 feet above the level of 
the sea: the highest point of the southerly system is the 
Pitonde Fournaise, an active volcano,7,218 ft. in height. 
These two volcanic centres Are connected by a mountain- 
chain running N. and S., which divides the island into 
two parts — that on the E. side being called the wind¬ 
ward, and that on the W. the leeward division (Parties 
du Vent and Sous le Vent), in consequence of the prevail¬ 
ing winds in B. being from E. to S. There are no plains 
of any size; although the island is watered by many 
small rivers, none of them are navigable; there are sev¬ 
eral lakes, one occupying an extent of about 40 acres. 
This island has no safe roads, nor any harbor—circum¬ 
stances which prove serious drawbacks to its prosperity. 
Clim. Healthy and agreeable; though the ordinary tran¬ 
quillity is sometimes broken by violent hurricanes. From 
Dec. to May is the hot and rainy season, with a mean 
temp, of 80° Fahr.; during the remaining or temperate 
months the mean is 76° Fahr. Soil, very fertile; while 
the surface comprises arable, pasture, and waste lands, 
and wooded bottoms. Proil. Sugar-cane, coffee, cloves, 
grain, tobacco, Ac. Most of the tropical varieties of 
fruits flourish, and the coasts, besides yielding fish and 
turtles, furnish also coral and ambergris. Manf. Bricks, 
leather, tin-ware, palm-leaf bags, Ac. Its commerce it 








406 


BOUR 


BOUR 


BOUR 


nearly absorbed altogether by France. Principal Towns 
St. Denis (the capital), St. Paul and St. Benoit. Pop, 
1895, about 180,000. B. was discovered in 1855, by 
Mascarenhas, a Portuguese navigator, whose name it 
bore till the French took possession of it in the uext 
century. The British captured it in 1810, but it was 
restored to France in 1815. 

Bour'bon ( bur'bon ), in Indiana, a town of Marshall 
county, in a township of the same name, 13 m. E. S. E. 
of Plymouth. Pop. (18971. about 2,000. 

Bour'bon, in Kansas, a S.E. county embracing an area 
of 720 sq. m., and situate on the confines of Missouri. 
It is watered by the Marmaton and Little Osage rivers. 
Surface, for the most part, prairie. Soil, fertile. Cap. 
Fort Scott. 

Bour'bon, in Kentucky, a N. central county, contain¬ 
ing an area of about 300 sq. m. The South Licking 
River bounds it on the N.E., and it is also watered 
by Stonor's, Stroud's, and Hinkston creeks. Surface, 
undulating. Soil, very rich, producing large quantities 
of corn and wool. Sulphur and chalybeate springs are 
found here. Cap. Paris. 

Bour'bon, in Missouri, a post-village of Crawford co., 
77 m. S.YV. of St. Louis. 

Bour'bonisin, n. [Fr.] The political doctrines of 
the adherents of the royal house of Bourbon. 

Bour'bon 1st, n. An adherent of the Bourbon dynasty; 
one who is attached to the cause of Legitimacy, in France. 

Bourbon-rArchainbaud, a town of France, dep. 
Allier, cap. of a cant. 13 m. W. of Moulins. It is sit¬ 
uated at the bottom of a valley, in a rich and finely 
variegated country. The towers are all that now remain 
of the famous Chateau, de Bourbon (the cradle of the 
royal race of Bourbon), rebuilt in the 13th century. The 
“ Holy Chapel,” erected in the 15th century by Anne of 
France, and so much admired, was destroyed at the Revo¬ 
lution. B. is now celebrated only for its mineral springs, 
which are said to be highly efficacious in cases of paraly¬ 
sis, rheumatism, gun-shot wounds, &c. Pop. abt. 4,000. 

Boil rbonnais, ( boor-bon-nay' ,) a ci-devant province 
of France, now forming the dep. of Allier, with a part 
of that of Cher. It was bounded on the N. by Berri and 
the Nivernais; E. by Burgundy; S.E. by the Lyonnais; 
S. by Auvergne; S.W. by La Marche,and on the W. by 
Berri. Its form was very irregular, its greatest length 
92 m., and breadth 56. Moulins was the capital. 

Bourbonnais drove, ( buor’bon-nay,) in Illinois, a 
post-township of Kankakee co., on the river of the latter 
name. 

Bourboniie-les-Bains, a town of France, dep. 
Ilaute-Marne, cap. of a cant., at the confluence of the 
Borne and the Apance, 21 m. E.N.E. of Limoges. The 
town is pleasantly placed on the plateau and declivity 
of a hill, and has some fine promenades and fountains. 
As its name denotes, it owes its celebrity to its hot 
baths, which occupy the site of a thermal establishment 
of the Romans. The modern buildings attached to the 
baths, including the Hotel de Ville, a recent erection, 
most part of which is appropriated to the use of visitors, 
are among the finest of the kind in France. The heat 
of the water varies from 40° to 52° Reaumur, or from 
about 120° to 156° Fahr. They are principally em¬ 
ployed in cases of paralysis and rheumatism. Pop. 4,488. 

Bour'bon ton, in Missouri, a post-village of Boono co., 
25 m. N. of Columbia. 

Bourbon-Vendee, or Napoi.eon-Vend£e, a town of 
F’rance, cap. of dep. Vendee, on the Yon, 40 m. S. of Nan¬ 
tes. After the establishment of the imperial govern¬ 
ment, and the pacification of Vendee, it became neces¬ 
sary to select a place for its capital, and B. (formerly 
called Roche-sur-Yon) was fixed upon. Napoleon gave 
the town, which had to be entirely re-created, his own 
name, which it bore till 1815, when with the Bourbon 
restoration it recovered its old name. But the acces¬ 
sion of Napoleon III. once more brought back the im¬ 
perial prefix, by which the place is still officially known; 
though the people mostly adhere to the original name. 
It is a fine and prosperous town, and the centre of an 
extensive trade in grain. Pop. 9,127. 

B» u rda lo lie, ( boor-ddl-bo', ) Loots, a Jesuit, and one of 
the greatest preachers France ever produced, was B. in 
1632. The extreme popularity of his sermons induced 
his superiors to call him to Paris to take the yearly 
course at their church of St. Louis, where his eloquence 
attracted crowds of all ranks, and he became the favorite 
preacher of Louis XIV'., who on the revocation of the 
Edict of Nantes, sent him into Languedoc to convert the 
Protestants there. His style is represented by D’Alem¬ 
bert as solid, serious, and, above all, strictly logical. 
Towards the latter part of his life he quitted, or rarely 
ascended, the pulpit, and devoted himself to attending 
the sick, visiting the prisons and other works of charity; 
and died in 1704 universally lamented, and long to be 
remembered as the most eloquent and attractive of 

, preachers. His moral character was also excellent, and 
for a Jesuit he was very liberal in his opinions. 

Bourdon, Sebastien, (boor'dong,) an eminent French 
painter, b. at Montpelier, 1616. When only 18 he went 
to Rome, and on his return to France executed his “chef 
d’oeuvre.” The Crucifixion of St. Peter, for the church of 
Notre Dame, Paris. In 1652, he repaired to Sweden, 
where Queen Christina appointed him her painter. He 
was the friend of Claude Lorraine, whose style, as well 
as that of Sacchi and Caravaggio, he occasionally imi¬ 
tated with success. D. 1671. 

Bourdon, ( boor-dong' ,) n. [Fr., a staff.] A pilgrim’s staff. 

( Mus .) The drone, or bass, in some musical instruments, 
and the pipe, or string, that plays it. The bass pipe in 
the bagpipe is so-called. Also an organ stop of deep 
tone, usually one of 16 feet, in the pedal organ and 
sometimes carried throughout the swell-organ. 


Bourdon'll aye, (La). See La Bourdonnaye. 

Bour'gas or Bour'glias, a sea-port of European 
Turkey, in Roumelia, on the Black Sea, at the bottom of 
the gulf of the same name, 70 m. N.E. of Adrianople; 
Lat. 42° 29' 20"N., Lon. 27°28' E. It is neatly built on a 
promontory. The gulf of B. is open to the E.; the an¬ 
chorage is to the S. of the town, and has a depth of from 
5 to 12 fathoms. Manf. Pottery; agricultural produce 
and wine are also largely dealt in. Pop. 6,602. 

Boilrg, (biraiid.) or Marigot, ( gron'bor,) a town of 
the French Antilles, W. Indies, and cap. of the island ot 
Marie-Galante. It is a garrisoned place. Pop. abt. 2,000. 

Bollrg, (Petit,) (pell-tee 1 boor,) a town of the island of 
Guadaloupe, in the French Antilles, W Indies, 5 m. 
W.S.W. of Pointe-k-Pitre. Pop. about 3,500. 

Bourg’-de-Pe'ag'e, a town of France, dep. Drome, 
cap. cant, on the Isere, 10 m. N.E. of Valence. It is a 
neat, well-built place, and has manuf. of hats, coarse silk, 
cordage, leather, &c Pop. 4,690.— See Romans. 

Bourg-en-Bresse, ( boorg'ang-brase,) a town of 
France, cap. of the dep. Ain, on the Reyssousse, about 
20 m. E.N.E. of Macon. ManJ'. Linen, cotton, hosiery, &c. 
Pop. 8,922. — It is the birthplace of Lalaude, the as¬ 
tronomer. 

Bourgeois, (bnnr-ahwaw',)n. [Fr.] In France, a citizen 
of the middle class of society, inhabiting a town. 

Bourgeois, ( bur-jois ',) n. (Printing.) A kind of print¬ 
ing-type, intermediary between Brevier and LongPrimer, 
as in the following line: 

“ Procrastination is the thief of time.” 

Bourgeoisie, ( bonr-zhwaw'ze,) n. [Fr., from bourg, a 
town.] A French term, literally signifying the inhabi¬ 
tants of a town, and employed to denote a class of 
society in France who inhabit the towns, and are inter¬ 
mediate between the nobility and the lowest class of 
the people, including merchants and manufacturers down 
to master tradesmen. Under the ancient monarchy it 
comprised all those who were called upon to partake of 
the duties, or participate in the expenses, of the town in 
which they were domiciled. The B. of the large towns 
have often played an important part in the history of 
the country. They are not to be confounded with the 
citoyens, a general term applied to all who are mem¬ 
bers or citizens of the State. 

Bourgeon, ( bor'jon,) v. i. [Fr. bourgeon, the young 
bud or sprig of a vine, from bourre, cow’s-hair, in Bot. 
the down on a sprout, from L. Lat. burra; 0. Fr. abou- 
rtanner, to bud or sprout forth.] To become downy; 
to sprout; to bud; to shoot forth, as a branch. (R.) 

*• O that I had the fruitful heads of Hydra, 

That one might bourgeon where another fell t" — Dry den. 

Bourges, ( bnorj ',) (anc. Avaricum,) a walled city of 
France, dep. Cher, of which it is the cap., seated in an 
extensive plain, watered by the Auron and the Evre, 

122 m. S. of Paris. The town stands at the foot of an 
eminence, and contains some fine old buildings. At the 
head of these is the cathedral, one of the finest Gothic 
edifices in France, begun in 845, but not finished for 
some subsequent centuries. It is 348 ft. in length, by 

123 in breadth, and has several towers, the highest of 
which has an elevation of 221 ft. The palace of the 
archbishop is also a fine structure, with gardens laid 
out by Le Notre. The Hotel de Ville, built by the cele¬ 
brated Jacques Coeur (q. ».), is a splendid Gothic man¬ 
sion, whose erection cost an immense sum. B. was the 
residence of the ancient Dukes of Berri. It is, on the 
whole, a fine and flourishing city, possessing colleges, 
schools, and institutions of literature and art. Manf. 
Fine and coarse cloths, hosiery, and excellent cutlery. 
B. is one of the most ancient French cities. It was 
taken by Caesar, b. c. 52, and was for 475 years the capi¬ 
tal of Aquitaine. It has suffered much at different 
periods from war, fire, and pestilence. Several councils 
have been held in it; and here, in 1483, the ecclesiasti¬ 
cal constitution, denominated the Pragmatic Sanction, 
was accepted by the French clergy. Louis XI. was born 
in this city, and to mark his respect for his native place, 
not only gave it a university, (suppressed at the Revo¬ 
lution,) but also conferred on its mayors and magis¬ 
trates the privilege of nobility. Bourdaloue was also 
born here. 

Bourgeuil, ( bnorg'ile ,) a town of France, dep. Indre- 
et-Loire, cap. cant., in a fine valley on the Doigt, 9 m. 
N.N.W of Chinon. Pop. abt. 4,000. 

Bourgogne, n. See Burgundy. 

Bour'goin. a town of France, dep. Isere, cap. cant., on 
the Bourbre, 9 m. VV. of La Tour-du-Pin. Manuf. Cali¬ 
coes and paper. Pop. 5,336. 

Bourg-(St.)-Andeol. a town of France, dep. Ar- 
deche, agreeably situated on the Rhone, 9 m. S. of Vi¬ 
viens. It is a spacious and well-built place. Manf. Silk 
and wine. Pop. 5,100. 

Bourignonists, (boo'reen-yon-ists,) n. pi. (Eccl. Hist.) 
The followers of Antoinette Bourignon de la Porte, a 
fanatic, B. at Lille, in Flanders, in 1616. Bayle says she 
was so ugly that it was debated for some days after her 
birth, by her family, whether she should be stifled as a 
monster. She took the habit and order of Augustine, 
in 1658, and travelling in Holland, France, and Scotland, 
taught that religion consists in internal emotions. She 
published a great many works. Driven from place to 
place, she d. in Friesland, in 1680. Her tenets obtained 
a temporary popularity in Scotland, for, in 1701, a minis¬ 
ter at Aberdeen was deposed for holding them. 

Bour'Ios,or Boor'los, a lake or lagoon of Egypt, be¬ 
tween the Damietta and Rosetta branches of the Nile, 
parallel to the Mediterranean, from which it is every¬ 
where separated by a narrow neck of land, except at one 
point where it communicates with the sea by a narrow 
channel, anciently the Sibbenitic mouth of the Nile. 


Its length is about 38 m.: and 17 its maximum breadrh. 
It is connected with the Nile by several canals; and il 
mostly shallow and marshy, being navigable only along 
its N. shore. 

Bourmont, ( boor'mbng ,) Louis Auguste Victor db 
Ghaisne, Comtede. Marshal of France, b. in Anjou, 1773 
He served as an officer under the Prince of Cond6, and 
from 1793 to 1796 was actively engaged in the anti¬ 
revolutionary struggle in La Vendee. Subsequently, he 
obtained the favor of the First Consul, finder the Em¬ 
pire he was soon raised to the rank of brigadier-general. 
In the campaigns of 1813 and 1814, he distinguished him¬ 
self upon a number of occasions, particularly in the bat¬ 
tle of Dresden, and by the defence of Nogent, on ac¬ 
count of which Napoleon promoted him to the rank of 
a general of division. On 31st March, 1814, he declared 
for the Bourbons, and received the command of a mili¬ 
tary division during the first Restoration; yet, on Na¬ 
poleon’s return he went over to him, and was intrusted 
with the command of a division of the army of the Mo¬ 
selle. On the evening before the battle of Ligny, he 
deserted, and betook himself to Louis XVIII. at Ghent. 
There can be no doubt that B. was singularly ungener¬ 
ous in choosing such a moment to resign, nor is there 
anything in his career to make us suppose he was actu¬ 
ated by any high principle in what he did. His evi¬ 
dence went a considerable way in bringing about tbe 
condemnation and execution of Marshal Ney, and this 
double infamy the French never forgave him. He re¬ 
ceived high military employment under Louis XVIIL 
Distinguishing himself in the Chamber of Peers as a 
zealous supporter of the king, he was appointed minis¬ 
ter of war in 1829, and in this office displayed great ac¬ 
tivity. When the expedition against Algiers was under¬ 
taken in April, 1830, he received the chief command of 
the troops, and the rapid success of the expedition was 
ascribed to his prudence and energy. For this he received 
the marshal’s baton on 22d July, but on the revolution 
taking place in that month, he was superseded in hia 
command, and went to England to share the exile of 
Charles X. D. 1846. 

Bourn, Bourne, (horn,) n. [Fr. borne; 0. Fr .bonne, • 
bound; A. S. burna; Goth, brunna .] A bound; a limit; 
a goal. 

“ That undiscover’d country, from whose bourne 
No traveller returns.” — Shaks. 

—A brook; a rivulet; a small stream; a burn. 

“ No swelling Neptune . • • can make me ever mourn : 

Aly little boat can safely pass this perilous bourn." — Spenser, 

Bourne, Hugh, the founder of the sect of Primitiv* 
Methodists, or Ranters, B. in Staffordshire, England, 
1772. In the course of his life he visited Scotland, Ire¬ 
land, Canada, and the U. States, where his ministrations 
were attended with great success. D. 1852. 

Bourne'mouth, a fashionable watering-place of 
England, in Hampshire, 6 m. W. by S. of Christchurch. 
Pop., about 37,800 in 1895. 

Bourne'ville, in Ohio, a post-village of Ro68 co., 11 
m. S. W. of Chillicothe. 

Bourn'less, a. Wanting limits. 

Bour'nonite, n. (Min.) A compound of sulphur, 

lead, antimony, and copper. 

Bournous, IIurnous, (bur’nooz,)n. [Fr.; from Ar. bur- 
nus. a high-crowned hat; Sp. and Port, al bemoz, a hooded 
upper garment of Moorish origin.] A large woollen man¬ 
tle with a hood, which is thrown over the head in rainy 
weather. It is worn by the inhabitants of Algeria and 
N. Africa. The B. is placed over the rest of the attire, 
and is colored according to tbe taste of the wearer. 
White, however, is the principal color. Since the con¬ 
quest of Algeria by France, the term has been applied 
to a lady’s opera-cloak, with a hood attached behind, 
which somewhat resembles the Arabian B. 

liminis liurg. in Missouri, a village of Randolph co., 
55 m. N.N.W. of Jefferson City. 

Bourrelet, n. [Fr., a pad, a border.] (Anat.) A fibro¬ 
cartilaginous border, which surrounds certain articular 
cavities, such as the glenoid cavity of the scapula and 
the acetabulum; by which the depth of these cavities is 
augmented. 

Bourrienne, ( bnor'yane ,) Louis Antoine Fauvelet de, 
Comte, the secretary and early friend of Napoleon I., b. 
at Sens, 1769, received his education in the military 
school at Brienne, where he formed the closest intimacy 
with the future emperor. In 1797, his former school¬ 
fellow appointed him his secretary. He accompanied 
him to Egypt and to Italy, and in 1801 was nominated a 
councillor of state. In 1802 he was dismissed from his 
office, for being implicated in the dishonorable bank¬ 
ruptcy of the house of Coulon, army contractors; but 
in 1805 he was appointed ambassador to tbe States of the 
Circle of Lower Saxony, and in this capacity resided 
long at Hamburg. His tendency to peculation, how¬ 
ever, necessitated his return to France, where he had to 
refund 1,000,000 francs into the public treasury. He now 
decidedly joined the party which sought tbe overthrow 
of the emperor, and the restoration of the Bourbons. As 
deputy in 1815 and 1821, lie showed his weakness of 
character by opposing all liberal measures, and even in¬ 
stitutions for the promotion of science and popular edu¬ 
cation. The revolution of 1830, and the loss of his for¬ 
tune, (occasioned by extravagance,) caused his reason to 
give way, and he died in a lunatic asylum, 1834. Ilis 
Memoirs concerning Napoleon, the Directory, the Con¬ 
sulate, the Empire, and the Restoration, Memoires sur 
Napoleon, &c., (10 vols., Par., 1829,) gave many new ex¬ 
planations of the events of his time, but were declared 
by contemporaries to be in many respects untrustworthy. 

Bourqueney, (boor'ken-ai,) Francois Adolphe, Baron 
de, a French diplomatist, b. 1800. In 1834, he was ap¬ 
pointed secretary of the French embassy at the British 







BOUV 


BOW 


BOWE 


407 


Court, and. afterwards, ambassador to Constantinople, 
remaining there till the revolution of 1S48. He was 
known for his Orleanist predilections until, in 1853, he 
was appointed, by the Emperor Napoleon III., French 
ambassador at Vienna. He conducted the difficult ne¬ 
gotiations which led to the treaty of Dec., 1854, by which 
the Austrian emperor confirmed his alliance with Napo¬ 
leon against the emperor of Russia. At the close of the 
conferences of Paris, in 1855, B. was raised to the dig¬ 
nity of senator. D. 1869. 

Hoarse (boors), n. jr r. bourse, purse, exchange; Sp. and 
Port, bolsa; from L. Lat. bursa, skin, purses being origin¬ 
ally made from skin.] A public edifice, containing offices, 
display rooms and assembly halls, for the use of mer¬ 
chants, manufacturers, bankers, &c.; a general com¬ 
mercial exchange, as in Brussels. Paris, Philadelphia, &c. 
Bonrtange, or Bourtang, ( booPtawng ,) a Dutch town 
and fortress in Groningen, in an extensive morass, 12 
m. from Winschoten. In 1593 it was taken by the Span¬ 
iards, and ill 1795 retaken by the French. 

Bouse, v. i. See Buoze. 

Boussa, a province of Interior Africa, Lat. 10° 14' N., 
Lon. 6° 11' E., extending about 50 m. N. of the River 
Niger. Surface. Level, and wooded. Soil. Very fertile, 
producing corn, rice, cotton, yams, &c. B. abounds with 
the usual wild animals of Africa. It is considered, politi¬ 
cally, a part of the great kingdom of Borgoo, of which 
it forms the largest, most powerful, and populous State. 
Cap. Boussa. 

Boussa, a city, and cap. of the above prov., is situate on 
an island of the same name in the Niger. Lat. 10° 14' N., 
Lon. 5° 20' E. It presents the appearance of several 
small villages, and possesses a melancholy interest from 
its being the spot where the celebrated African traveller 
Mungo Park (q. v.) met his death. Pop. Estimated at 
18 , 000 . 

ftloussing'ault, ( boos'in-go,) Jean Baptiste Joseph 
Dieudonne, an eminent French chemist, ami member of 
the Institute; b. in Paris, 1802. After finishing his edu¬ 
cation in the Mining School of St. Etienne, he accepted 
the offer made to him by an English company, of pro¬ 
ceeding to S. America, to recover and work certain an¬ 
cient mines which had been for many years neglected. 
All went well at first; but when the Spanish colonies 
declared their independence, an eud was put to the en¬ 
terprise. It was at this time that B. made the acquaint¬ 
ance of Humboldt, who was exploring the New World. 
B. having nothing better to do, entered the ranks of the 
insurrectionary army, and was attached to Gen. Boli¬ 
var’s staff, more, however, as a savant than a soldier; 
and passed through Bolivia, Venezuela, and the coun¬ 
tries situated between Carthagena and the mouth of the 
Orinoco. Soon after his return to France, he was ap¬ 
pointed to a professorship of chemistry at Lyons. In 
1839, he was appointed professor of agriculture in the 
Conservatory of Arts and Trades. Chemistry, applied to 
agriculture and the rearing of cattle, owes much to the 
labors of B., especially his indications as to the quality 
of manures, and on the nutritive properties of the ali¬ 
ments destined for herbivorous animals. His principal 
works are, Memoires de Oltimie Agricole el de Physiologie, 
(Paris, 1854); Traiti d' Economic Rurale; and Annales de 
Physique and Chimie. Died May 12,1887. 

Boust roptie'don, n. [Gr., from bous, an ox, and 
strepho, I turn.] (Lit.) A term descriptive of a mode of 
writing common among the early Greeks, until nearly' 
the middle of the 5th century, B. c.; viz., in alternate 
lines from right to left, and from left to right, as fields 
are ploughed in furrows, having an alternate direction, 
whence the derivation. 

Bon'sy, a. See Boozv. 

Bout, n. [A.S. bogeht, crooked, bent, from bugan, to 
bend.] An attempt; a trial at anything; a set-to; aeon- 
test; as, a drinking-bout. 

“ The gentleman will. . . have one bout with you; he cannot 
by the duello avoid it." — Shaks. 

—As much of an action as is performed at one trial; a 
turn; a single part of any action carried on by succes¬ 
sive intervals; as, he beat him in the second bout. 

" Ladies, that have your feet 
Unplagued by corns, we ’ll have a bout 1 " — Shake. 

(Agric.) One turn or course of a plough, when plough¬ 
ing a ridge. 

Boutade, (bdot’ad.) [Fr.] An act of caprice; a whim; a 
fancy. 

Bontant, a. (Arch.) See Arc-boutant. 

Bou'ton ville, in New York, a P. 0. of Westchester co. 
Bouts-rimes, (boo-re-ma’,) n. pi. [Fr., rhymed ends.] 
(Lit.) A kind of verses, the making of which forms a 
social amusement. Some one of the party gives out the 
rhymes, or endings, of a stanza, and the others have to 
fill up the lines as they best may. In fixing the “ bouts,” 
it is usual to choose such as seem the remotest and have 
the least connection. 

Boutte, in Louisiana, a post-office of St. Charles par. 
Bouvier, (boov'yd,) John, an American jurist of French 
descent, b. in the dep. of Gard, 1787. He was of a 
Quaker family who emigrated to this country and set¬ 
tled in Philadelphia. He became a citizen of the U. 
States in 1812. In 1839, he published a Law Dictionary, 
adapted to the Constitution a nd Laws o f the U. States, and 
of the several States of the American Union; a very relia¬ 
ble work, of which the new edition, revised by D. A. 
Gleason, and published in 1858, is frequently quoted in 
the present Encyclopedia. His greatest work, the In¬ 
stitutes of American Law, was published 2 months be¬ 
fore his death, in 1851. 

B<>ll vines, or Bovines, (boo'veen,) a village of France, 
dep. Nord, 12 m. S.E. of Lille, where Philippe-Auguste 
of France, (July 27, 1214,1 with inferior numbers, de¬ 
nted the army of Otho IV., Emperor of Germany, and 


his allies The Counts of Flanders and Boulogne, and 
William Earl of Salisbury, were made prisoners.— 
Philip de Valois defeated here, in 1340, 10,000 English 
troops: and on May 17 and 18,1794, the French defeated 
the Austrians at this place. 

Boux/willer, or Busch'weller. See Bischwiller. 

Bo'va, n. [Lat ] (Arch.) The ancient name lor a wine- 
cellar. 

Bo'vate, n. (O. Eng. Law.) Formerly, an ox-gang of 
land; i. e, as much land as can be ploughed by an ox 
in a year; usually estimated at about 15 acres. 

Bo'vey-coal, n. (Min.) The lignites found at Bovey- 
Tracey, Devonshire, England, are called by this name. 
They are of the tertiary period, and have occasionally 
been used as fuel, chiefly lor burning pottery, and for 
brick and tile making. They burn badly, with much 
smoke and disagreeable odor, and are of little use. 

Bo ve vagll, (bo-te-vah',) a parish of Ireland, co. London¬ 
derry. 

Bo'vill, n. [From Lat. bos — bovis, an ox.] (Zoiil.) Re¬ 
lating to ruminant animals of the Bos genus, as oxen, &e. 

Bo'vidse, n. pi. [Lat. bos, bovis, an ox.] (ZnOl.) A sub¬ 
family of the Cavicornia, or Hollow-horned Ruminant 
family, including those of the Buminantia, which are 
characterized by having horns rounded, muzzle broad, 
usually naked, and without a vertical furrow at the 
end. The principal species are the Musk-ox, Ovibus mos- 
chatus; the common ox. Bos tawus; the American Buf¬ 
falo, Bos A merican us; the Aurochs, Bos bubal us, and the 
Grunting Cow, or Yak, of Tartary, Bos grunniens. 

Bo rina, in Iowa, a post-village of Tama co. 

Bovina, in Mississippi, a post-village of Warren co., 12 
m. E. of Vicksburg, and a considerable depot for the 
cotton of the adjacent country. 

Bovina, in New York, a post-township of Delaware co., 
CO m. W.S.W. of Albany. 

Bovina, in Wisconsin, a township of Outagamie co., abt. 
15 m. N.N.W. of Appleton. 

Bovi'na Valley, in New York, a post-station in Dela¬ 
ware co. 

Bovine, (bo'vin,) a. [L. Lat. bovinus, from bos, bovis, 
an ox.] Pertaining to oxen and cows. 

“ This animal is the strongest and fiercest of the bovine genus.” 

Barrow. 

Bo'vine, in Indiana, a post-office of Gibson co. 

Bovi'no, (anc. Vibinum ,) a fortified town of S. Italy, 
prov. Foggia Capitanata, 19 m. S.S.W. of Foggia. A 
battle took place near this place in 1734, between the 
Spaniards and the Imperialists, in which the former were 
defeated. Pop. 7,469. 

Bow, (bou,) v. a. [A. S. bugan, bygan; 0. Ger. bingan; 
Ger. biegen.] To bend; to curve; to arch ; to inflect; to 
make curved or crooked.—Used in opposition to straight¬ 
ness; as, bowed legs. 

“ Bow, stubborn knees.”— Shaks. 

—To cause to deviate or change from a natural bias, or 
condition; to turn; to incline; to exercise paramount 
sw'ay over; as, to bow to another’s judgment. 

“Not to bow and bias their opinions.’’— Fuller. 

—To bend one’s head or body out of respect or civility; to 
make an act of obeisance by way of homage, courtesy, 
or condescension ; as, to bow to a lady'. 

“ They came to meet him and bowed themselves to the ground 
before him." — 2 Kings ii. 15. 

—To depress; to crush; to prostrate; to cause to bend 
down in a subdued manner; as, bowed with grief. 

“Now wasting years my former strength confound, 

And added woes may how me to the ground.’ — Pope. 

— v. i. (bou.) To bend; to curve; to be inflected; to stoop; 
to make a reverence; to fall upon the knee; to yield; 
to submit; often used with down; as, bowed down with 
age. 

“ Rather let my head 
Stoop to the block, than these knees bow to any, 

Save to the God of heav’n, and to my king.”— Shaks. 

—n. (bou.) [A. S. boga; Ger. beugen.] A bending of the 
body, or an inclination of the head, in token of reverence, 
respect, civility, or submission. 

•• Juan, who found himself, he knew not bow, 

A general object of attention, made 

His answers with a very graceful bow.’ — Byron. 

— pi. (Naut.) The two sides of the fore extremity of a 
vessel, as the starboard and port (larboard) bows. 

On the bmu. Said of that part of the horizon within 45 
degrees on either side of the line ahead. 

Bow, (bo,) n. [Ger. bogen.] (Mil. and Sport.) A curved 
instrument used in archery for the propulsion of arrows; 
an ancieut weapon of offence; made of wood, horn, steel, 
or some other elastic substance. The force with which 
an arrow is propelled is proportioned to that with which 
the how is bent, and to the quickness with which it re¬ 
covers its former position.—See Arbalest, and Archery. 

—Anything bent or in the form of a curve; as, the rain- 
bow; that part of a yoke, &c. fitting round the neck. 

“As the jx hath his bow. Sir, the horse his curb, and the falcon 
his bells, so man hath his desire." — Shaks. 

(Mus.) A stick of hard elastic wood, along which are 
stretched horse-hairs, the tension of which is regulated 
by a screw. It is used for playing upon instruments of 
the violin kind, and varies in size, the double-bass and 
violoncello bow being much stiffer and stronger than 
that of the violin. 

(Arch.) Any part of an edifice that projects from a 
straight wall.—An arched buttress, or gateway.— Among 
draughtsmen, a B. denotes a beam of wood or brass, with 
three large screws that direct a lath of wood or steel to 
an arch, used in drawing flat arches, or in projections of 
the sphere. 

(Saddlery.) (s. or pi.) Two pieces of wood laid arch¬ 
wise to receive the upper part of a horse’s back, to give 


the saddle its due form, and to keep it tight.— Webster. 
See H.AME8. 

Bow, in New Hampshire, a post-township of Merrimack 
co., 5 m. S. of the city of Concord, on the Merrimack 
River. 

Bow and String; Beam, n. (Arch.) A beam so 
trussed that the tendency of the straight part to sag 
when loaded is counteracted to some extent by the ten¬ 
sion upon its two ends, by a bow of wood or metal at¬ 
tached to those extremities. 

Bow and String- Bridge, n. (Archf) Some¬ 
times called boio-stnng or tension-bridge; in which the 
horizontal thrust of the arch, or trussed beam, is resisted 
by means of a horizontal tie attached as nearly as pos¬ 
sible to the chord line of the arch. 

Bow'-bearer, n. An under-ranger of a forest, in Eng¬ 
land, employed to discover trespassers. 

Bow'-bell, n. A cockney; one born within the sound 
of the bells of Bow Church, London. 

Botv' Brils, n.pl. The bells of Bow Church, London, 
in the centre of the city. 

Bow'-bent, a. [bow and bent.] Curved; crooked. 

41 A sibyl old, bow-bent with crooked age, 

That far events full wisely could presage.” — Milton. 

Bow'-chaser, n. (Naut.) A gun placed in the bows 
of a 6hip, and used for firing at a chased vessel. Some¬ 
times, by seamen, called long Tom. 

Bow'-eompass, n. (Arch.) A compass used in draw¬ 
ing arches of very long aisles; it consists of a beam of 
wood or brass with three long screws that bend a lath 
of wood or steel to any arch. — A small compass used in 
describing arcs too small to be accurately drawn by the 
common compass. 

Bow'dich, Thomas Edward, an ingenious and enter¬ 
prising man, who may be numbered among the victims 
of African exploration. He was born at Bristol, in 
June, 1790, and after some previous education at a 
grammar school, be was sent to Oxford, but he stayed 
there only a short time, and was never regularly ma¬ 
triculated. At an early age he married, and engaged 
in trade at Bristol. Finding, however, the details of 
business exceedingly irksome, he determined to seek 
a more congenial occupation, and he accordingly so¬ 
licited and obtained the appointment of writer in 
the service of the African company. In 1816 he 
arrived at Cape Coast Castle, where he was joined 
soon after by his wife. It being thought desirable to 
send an embassy to the negro king of Asbantee, B. was 
chosen to conduct it, and he executed with success the 
arduous duties of his situation. After remaining two 
years in Africa, he returned home, and soon after pub¬ 
lished his Mission to Ashantee, with a statistical account 
of that kingdom, and “Geographical Notices of other 
parts of the Interior of Africa,” 1819. 4to. Having of¬ 
fended the company in whose service he had been en¬ 
gaged, and having therefore no prospect of further em¬ 
ployment. yet wishing ardently to return to Africa, for 
the purpose of visiting its hitherto unexplored regions, 
B. resolved to make the attempt, with such assistance 
as he could obtain from private individuals. He, how¬ 
ever, previously went to Paris, to improve his acquaint¬ 
ance with physical and mathematical science. His re¬ 
ception by the French literati was extremely flattering; 
and an advantageous appointment was offered him by the 
French government. While at Paris he published an 
exposure of the system of the African Committee, which 
induced the British government to take measures for 
the dissolution of the company. To obtain funds for 
the prosecution of his favorite project, B. also published 
a translation of Molier’s Travels to the Sources of the 
Senegal and Gambia, and other works; by the sale of 
which he was enabled, with a little assistance from other 
persons, to make preparations for his second African 
expedition. He sailed from Havre in August, 1822, for 
Lisbon; thence he proceeded to Madeira, where he was 
detained several months, but at length arrived in safety 
in the river Gambia. A disease, occasioned by fatigue 
and anxiety of mind, here put an end to his life, Jan. 
10,1824. B. was a member of several literary societies 
in England and abroad. The able pencil of his widow 
furnished the illustrations for ills literary productions, 

Bowilit'll ia, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, orde/ 
Fabaceie. 

Bowditch, ( bo’dich ,) Nathaniel, an American mathe¬ 
matician. b. at Salem, Mass., 1773, published in 1S02, the 
American Practical Navigator, a work of the highest 
value and utility. In 1814-17, appeared his translation 
of the Mecanique Celeste of Laplace, with an able com¬ 
mentary,—a work which obtained for him admission as 
a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. D. in Boston, 
1838. 

Bowdoin, (bb'din.) in Maine, a flourishing post-town¬ 
ship of Sagadahoc county, 20 miles S.S.W. of Augus¬ 
ta. 

Bow'doin Centre, in Maine, a post-office of Saga¬ 
dahoc co. 

Bow'doin College. See Brunswick. 

Bowdoinliam (bo’den-ham), in Maine, a post-town¬ 
ship of Sagadahoc co., on the Kennebec river, 25 m. S. 
by W. of Augusta. The river up to this place is navig¬ 
able for large vessels, and ship building lias been some¬ 
what extensively carried on here. 

Bow den, in Alabama, a P. O. of Clay co. 

Bow'don, in Georgia, a post-village of Carroll co., 51 
m. W. by S. of Atlanta. 

Bow -drill, n. A drill worked by a bow and spring. 

Bo welled, (bou'eld,)p. a. Having bowels or a belly-, 
hollow. 

Bow'elless, a. Without bowels; destitute of com¬ 
passion. 

Bowels, (bou’dz,) n. pi. [Ger. bauch ; Fr. boyau, from L- 









408 


BOWI 


BOWL 


BOWE 


Lat. botellum, an intestine; 0. Fr. bod; from the root 
of belly.] Specifically, the intestines or entrails of an 
animal, probably so called from their filling the belly; 
the vital parts; the guts. 

“ H« smote him therewith in the fifth rib, and shed out his 
bowels." — 2 Sam. xx. 10. 

—In a figurative sense, the interior part of anything; as, 
the bowels of the earth. 

11 Thus far into the bowels of the land 
Have we march'd on without impediment.” — Shake. 

—The seat of pity or kindness; hence, tenderness; com¬ 
passion. “ Thou thing of no bowels.” — Sliaks. 

— v. a. To disembowel; to eviscerate; to take the bowels 
out. 

Bow'en, in Arkansas , a twp. of Madison co. 

Bow'en ite, n. (Min.) A bright apple-green variety 
of serpentine, found at Smithfield, in Rhode Island. It 
is named after Mr. Bowen, by whom it was first de¬ 
scribed. 

Bow’en§bnrg, in I7ftra<ns,a post-village of Hancock co. 
Bow en’s Mills, in Georgia , a village of Irwin co. 
Bow'en’s Prairie, in Iowa, a post-village of Jones 
co.. 50 m. N.N.E. of Iowa city. 

Bow'enville, in Georgia, a post-village of Carroll co., 
on Snake’s Creek, 130 ni. W.N.W. of Milledgeville. 
Bow'enville, in Virginia#, post-village of Fauquier co. 
Bower, ( bou'er ,) n. [From Bow.] ( Naut .) A name 
given to the two anchors, carried in the bows of a large 
ship, called respectively the best-bower, and the small- 
bower; as, she rode to her best bower. 

—One who bows, or makes an obeisauce. 

(Games.) [Ger. bauer, a peasant, analogous to the 
knave in cards.] One of the two highest cards in the 
game of Euchre.— Right Bower, the knave of the trump 
suit, the highest card in the game. — Left Bower. The 
knave of the other suit of the same color as the trump, 
being the next highest in value. 

Bower, (bou'er,) n. [A. S. bur; Icel. bur. a pantry; 
W. bwr, an enclosure.] Formerly, a chamber or inner 
apartment. 

” Give me my lute in bed as I now lie. 

And lock the doors of mine unlucky bower." — Gascoigne. 

—A shady recess; a sheltered retreat; a cottage. 

*• To the nuptial bower 
1 led her blushing like the moru." — Milton. 

—A covered place in a garden, formed of boughs or 
branches twisted and beut: an arbor. 

*’ There *s a bower of roses by Bendemeer’a stream.” — Moore. 

— 1 >. a. To embower; to shelter with boughs; to enclose. 

“ Thou didst bower the spirit 
In mortal paradise of such sweet Hesh.” — Shake. 

Row'er, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Clearfield co. 
Bow'er Bank, in Maine, a township of Piscataquis 
co., 7 m. N. of Dover. 

Bowser-Bird, n. See Chlamydera. 

Bow'er llill, in Pennsylvania, a. post-village of Wash¬ 
ington co. 

Bow r 'erie, n. In Hindostan, a well descended by steps. 
Bowsers, in Virginia, a post-office of Southampton co. 
Bo w'er’s Mills, in Missouri, a village of Lawrence co. 
Bow'er’s Station, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of 
Berk's co. 

Bow'ersville, in Georgia, a village of Franklin co. 
Bow'ersville, in Ohio, a post-village of Greene co. 
Illiw'ery, n. Containing bowers; covering; shady as a 
bower; as, a bowery glade. 

“ Landscapes how gay the bow’ry grotto yields. 

Which thought creates, and lavish fancy builds.” — Tickell. 

Bow'ess, Bow'et, n. (Falconry.) A newly-flodged 
young hawk. 

Bowge, v. i. See Bouqe. 

Bowge, (bouj',) n. (Naut.) A rope fastened to the mid¬ 
dle of a sail, to make it stand closer to the wind. 
Bow-grace, (bo-,) n. (Naut.) A frame of old rope or 
junk placed round the bows and sides of a vessel to pre¬ 
vent the ice from injuring her. Sometimes written 
Bon-grace. 

Bow'-linncI, (bo-,) n. (Archery.) The hand (left) that 
holds the bow. 

" Surely he shoots wide on the bow-hand, and very far from the 
mark.” — Spenser. 

(Mus.) The hand (right) that draws the bow when 
playing the violin, &c. 

Bow'ides, n. pi. (Hist.) A dynasty established in 
Persia, A. d. 932. There were 17 kings of this line, which 
lasted for 127 years, and becama extinct in 1059. 
Bowie, ( bo'e,) in Texas, a N.E. co., bordering on Arkan¬ 
sas. Area, 900 6q. m. lied River forms its N. boundary, 
ami Sulphur Fork its S. Surface. Well-timbered. Soil. 
Very fertile, producing cotton and cereals, and pasturing 
large numbers of cattle. This county owes its designa¬ 
tion to Col. James Bowie, introducer of the well-known 
bowie-knife. Cap. Boston. 

Bow'ie-knife, n. A sharp-pointed weapon, from 10 
to 15 inches long, and 3 broad, peculiar to the U. States, 
and bearing a close resemblance to the French couteau 
de chasse, or English butcher's knife. It was introduced 
into familiar use by Col. James Bowie, of Texas, who 
acquired an unpleasant notoriety by the skilful manner 
in which he wielded his favorite weapon in his hand-to- 
hand encounters with Mexicans and others. It is usu¬ 
ally carried in a sheath about the person. 

Bowing;, (bo’ing,) n. Managing a bow when playing 
on a violin. 

Bowingly, (bou'ingly,) adv. In a bendiug or bowing 
manner. 

Bow-instrument, (bo-,) n. (Mus.) Any musical in¬ 
strument whose tones are sounded by the application 
of a bow. 


Bow Island, the largest island in the Lower Archi¬ 
pelago, South Pacific. It is of coral formation, shaped 
like a bow, and thinly populated; length about 30 m. 
and 5 m. broad. Lat. of the N.E. point 18° 6' S.; Lon. 
Ii0° 61' W. It was discovered by Bougainville in 1768, 
and named by Cook in 1769. 

Bow-knot, (bo'not.) The doubling of a string in a 
slip-knot. 

Bowl, (bol’,)n. [A.S. holla; Dan. bollc, allied to Lat. 
bulla, a bubble, any small round body; 0. Ger. bnlea.] A 
round, concave vessel to hold liquors, rather wide than 
deep ; as, a bowl of milk. 

Give me a bowl of wine; 

I have not that alacrity of spirit, 

Nor cheer of mind, that I was wont to have.” — Shaks. 

—The hollow part of anything; as, the bowl of the hand. 

“ If vou are allowed a large silver spoon for the kitchen, let half 
the bowl of it be worn out with continual scraping.” — Swift. 

—Tn a figurative and poetical sense, a libation of wine, 
or generous liquor; as, “ to quaff the flowing bowl.” 

“ There St. John mingles with my friendly bowl. 

The feast of reason and the fiow of soul.” — Pope. 

—n. (Pastimes.) A spherical wooden hall, used for play by 
rolling it on a level plat of ground; hence, the game 
called bowls. 

|‘ Men may make a game at bowls in the summer, and a game at 
whisi in the winter.” — Dennis. 

— v. a. To roll, as a bowl. 

11 And howl the round nave down the hill of heaven.” — Shaks. 
—To pelt with anything rolled. 

44 Alas ! I had rather be set quick i’ th' earth, 

And bowl'd, to death with turnips.” — Shaks. 

(Games.) To bowl out. In cricket, to knock down the 
stumps of an adversary’s wicket; as, in the first in¬ 
nings he was bowled out. 

Bowl, (bol,) v.i. (Games.) To play with bowls, or at 
bowling. 

—To roll the hall on a level surface; as, at cricket, or 
skittles. 

—To move rapidly, like a ball ; as, that velocipede bowls 
along. 

Bowl, (The.) See Banias. 

Bowl'der, ti. (Geol.) See Boulder. 

— a. Pertaining to bowlders, or boulders. 

Bow'leg, n. A crooked leg; a leg curved inwards, in 
contradistinction to bandy-leg, i. e., aleg bending out¬ 
ward. 

Bow-legged, a. Having bowed or crooked legs. 
Bowler, (bol'ir,)n. (Pastimes.) One who plays atbovvls ; 
the person who impels the ball at cricket; as, he’s a 
left-handed bowler. 

Bow'less, a. Without a bow. 

Bowline, (bo'lin,)n. [Sp.ami Port, bolina; Fr.bouline; 
from Eng. bow and line..] ( Naut.) A rope from near the 
middle of the weather edge or leech of a sail, leading 
forward. Its use is to keep the leecli forward, that the 
wind may get at the after side of the sail when sailing 
close-hauled. 

On a bowline. A term to denote a ship sailing close to 
the wind. 

Bowline-bridles. The ropes which fasten a bowline to 
the leech of a sail. 

Bowl'ing, n. Act or art of playing bowls; act of pro¬ 
pelling the ball at cricket. 

Bowl'ing, in Illinois, a thriving township of Rock 
Island. 

Bowl'ing-alley, n. A covered place wherein bowls, 
or skittles, are played ; as, a ten-pin bowling-alley. 
Bowling-green, (bol'ing-green,) n. A level piece of 
ground rolled and kept smooth for bowling. 

“A bowl equally poised, and thrown upon a plane bowling- 
green, will run necessarily in a direct line.” — Bently. 

(Gardening.) A parterre in a grove, laid with fine turf, 
with compartments of various figures, dwarf-trees, and 
other decorations. 

Bowl'ing Green, in Georgia, a village of Oglethorpe 
co., 57 m. N. of Milledgeville. 

Bowl'ing Green, in Illinois, a post-village of Fay¬ 
ette co., 50 m. N.E. of Springfield. 

Bowl'ing Green, in Indiana, a post-village, former 
cap. of Clay co., on Eel river. 

Bowl'ing Green, in Kentucky, a flourishing city, cap. 
of Warren co., on Barren river, 145 m. S.W. of Frankfort. 
This place is seated at the head of river navigation, and 
carries on a thriving trade. B. G. was strongly fortified 
and held by the Confederates after the outbreak of the 
Civil War, but after the surrender of Fort Donelson, it 
was considered by them to he untenable and was con¬ 
sequently abandoned, after the destruction of property 
valued at 8500,000. Pop., 1890, 7,803; 1897, abt. 8,400. 
Bow l'ing Green, in Missouri, a town, cap. of Pike 
co., 70 m. E. of Jefferson City. There are extensive stone 
quarries in the vicinity. Pop. .(1897), abt. 2,000. 
Bowling Green, in Tennessee,a village of Stewart co. 
Bowling Green, in Virginia , a twp. and village, cap. 

of Caroline co., 45 m. N. of Richmond. 

Bowls, (bolz.) (Games.) A favorite pastime in the U. 
States, as in Europe generally, but somewhat differing in 
every country. The American B. are played in saloons 
fitted with alleys of from fifty to sixty-five feet in length, 
and about four in width. The alley has a “ gutter,” 
as it is called, on each side, and is lightly convex in 
the centre, regularly bevelled to the sides. At the fur¬ 
ther extremity of the alley are set up, in the form of a 
pyramid, ten pins, usually of ash-wood, about a foot in 
height and 2 lbs. in weight. The apex of the pyramid 
is turned towards the bowler, who rolls wooden balls, 
generally of lignum vitse, with the object of knocking 
down as many of the pins as possible at each roll. The 
pins, when set up, are called a frame, and at each irame 


the bowler rolls three balls, when the number of pins 
rolled down is counted to him, and tlie frame is set up 
again for the next bowler. A game ordinarily'consists of 
ten frames,or thirty balls. If the bowler takes all the pins 
with his first ball, he counts ten; the frame is again set 
up for his second ball, when, if he again takes all, he 
counts ten more, and the frame is again set up for his 
third, when, whatever number he scores with the three 
balls, count to him as if all had been made off one frame. 
If he take all the ten pins with his first two balls, he is 
entitled to a fresh frame for his third or last ball. This 
is technically called getting a spare, or double spare. 

BowIingGreen, in Ohio, the flourishing cap. of Wood 
co., 130 m. N. N.W. of Columbus, and 20 m. S. of Toledo. 
Pop. in 1890, 3,467; in 1897, abt. 4,750. 

—A township of Marion co. 

—A township of Licking co. 

Bow'man, William, F. R. S., an eminent English sur¬ 
geon, born in 1816. lie was Professor of Physiology and 
General and Morbid Anatomy at King's College, Lon¬ 
don, Surgeon to the Royal Ophthalmic Hospital, the au¬ 
thor of Lectures on the Parts Concerned in the Operations 
of the Eyt; Observations on Artificial Pupils; Physio¬ 
logical Anatomy and Physiology of Man, and a member 
of the principal learned societies of Europe. 

Bow'inan, (bo'man,) n.; pi. Bowmen. An archer; he 
that shoots with a how. 

Bow'man, (bou'inan,) n. (Naut.) He who pulls first 
oar in a boat. 

Bow'man’s Creek, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Wyoming co. 

Bow'man’s Mills, in Virginia, a post-office of Rock¬ 
ingham co. 

Bow'man’s Mountain, in Pennsylvania, in the S. 
of Wyoming co., lies E. of Bowmau’s Creek, a tributary 
of the Susquehanna. 

Bow'man’s-reot, n. (Bol.) See Gillenia. 

Bow'mansville, in New York, a post-office of Erieco. 

Bow'mansville, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Lancaster co. 

Bow'inanville, in prov. of Ontario, a flourishing 
town of Durham co., on Lake Ontario, 42 m. N.E. of 
Toronto. 

Bowne, in Michigan, a thriving post-township of Kent 
county. 

Bow’-net, n. A contrivance for catching lobsters and 
crawfish, called also bow-wheel. It is made of two round 
wicker baskets, pointed at the end. one of which is thrust 
into the other, and at the mouth is a little rim bent in¬ 
wards. 

Bow-oat-, (bou’oar,) n. (Naut.) The oar used by the- 
bow-man when rowing a boat.— He wlio rows the first 
oar in a boat; as, ho pulls bow-oar in the University 
Eight. 

Bow'-pen. n. A metallic pen for ruling, bowed out 
towards the middle of the part which holds the ink. 

Bow-picce, (bou'pees,) n. (Naut.) A gun of the car- 
ronade kind, placed in the bow of a ship. See Bow- 
chaser. 

Bow'riug-, Sir John, l.l.d., F.R.s.,a distinguished Eng¬ 
lish diplomatist and author, b. 1792. He became in early 
life the political pupil of Jeremy Bentham (q.v.), main¬ 
taining his master’s principles in the Westminster Re¬ 
view, of which he was for some years the editor, and 
after the death of Bentham (of whom he was the exec¬ 
utor) published a collection of his works, accompanied 
by a biography, in 23 vols. B. subsequently made him¬ 
self famous by his profound knowledge of European 
literature, and published a number of versions of poems 
and other works from the Russian, Servian, Polish, Mag¬ 
yar, Danish, German, Swedish, Frisian, Dutch, Esthonian, 
Spanish, Portuguese, Icelandic, and other languages; be¬ 
sides many original works, as Remunerative Prison La¬ 
bor, On the Restrictive and Prohibitory System, &c. In 
Madrid, he published, in Spanish, a work on African 
Slavery, and has translated into French, Clarkson’s 
Opinions of the Early Christians on War. B.’s Matins 
and Vespers have gone through many editions both in 
England and the U States. For his two volumes of Rus¬ 
sian Anthology he received a diamond ring from the 
Emperor Alexander I., and for his works on Holland, 
some of which have been translated into Dutch, a gold 
medal from the King of the Netherlands. The Univer¬ 
sity of Groningen also conferred upon him the degree of 
LL.D. Having made the economics and literature of 
trade and commerce an especial study, B. has at various 
times acted as England's commercial commissioner to 
France, Belgium, Italy, Switzerland, the States of the 
German Customs Union, and the Levant. Under Lord 
Melbourne’s government he was chairman of the Par¬ 
liamentary Committee on Colonial Accounts, whose 
recommendations led to the most important improve¬ 
ments. While in Parliament, he carried, in opposition 
to the governmeut, a resolution that the gross revenues 
of all taxes should be paid without reduction into the 
Exchequer, — a principle which has become the ground¬ 
work of reform in the British national accountancy. B 
received a handsome service of plate from the Manxmen 
for his services in obtaining an Act of Parliament for 
their emancipation from feudal tyranny, and another 
from the Maltese for his advocacy as their unofficial rep¬ 
resentative in the British House of Commons. Aided 
by the powerful support of Prince Albert, he obtained, 
after a parliamentary discussion, the issue of th e florin, 
which was the first step towards the introduction of the 
decimal division into the currency of England. In 1849, 
B. was appointed British Consul at Canton, and, in 1854, 
Minister-Plenipotentiary in China, and governor of Hong 
Kong. B. is a member of nearly all the learned societies 
of Europe. In 1855, Sir John proceeded on a special 
mission to Siam, and concluded a treaty of commerce 












BOXE 


BOYA 


BOYE 


400 


with the two kings of that country, —a task in which 
several previous negotiators had failed; and published 
his travels, entitled The Kingdom and People of Siam, 

(I/ohd., 1857■) In 1859 appeared from his pen, A Visit to the 
Philippine Islands; and lie is a frequent contributor to 
the review literature of the day. Sir John’s eldest son, 
Mr. John C. Bowring, has presented to the British Mu¬ 
seum, the Bowt'inyian Collection of Coleoptera, consist¬ 
ing of more than 84,000 species. D. 1872. 

Bow-saw. ( bo’saw ,) n. A saw used for cutting the thin 
edges of wood into curves. 

Bowse, v. i. See Booze. 

(Naut.) To pull or haul upon a tackle; as, to bowse 
away, i. e. pull all together. 

Bow-shot, (bo-shot,) n. (Archery.) The space which 
an arrow may cover in its flight from the bow. 

“ Though he were then not a bow shot 0 S.'—Boyle. 

Bow'sliersville, in Ohio, a village of Wyandot co. 

Bowsprit, ( bnu'sprit,) n. [ bow and sprit, a shoot or 
sprit; Du. boegspriet.] (A taut.) A large boom or spar, 
projecting over a ship's bow to carry a sail forward, and 
to which (in large vessels) the forestays are secured. It 
supports the jib and flying jib-booms.—It is sometimes, 
but improperly, written boltsprit. 

Bowstring, ( bo'string,) n. The string of a bow. 

•* He hath twice or thrice cut Cupid’s bow-strings aud the little 
hangman dare not shoot at him.’’ — Shaks. 

—In Turkey, and other Eastern countries, a cord or string 
used for the strangulation of offenders. 

“ And then a threat 

He mutter'd (but the last was given aside) 

About a bow-string. ’ — Byron. 

— 1 >. a. To strangle with a bow-string. 

4t His Highness was a man of solemn port. . . . 

His lately bow-strung brother caused his rise.*' — Byron. 

Bow-stringed, p. a. Fitted with bowstrings. 

—Strangled; put to death by means of a bowstring. 

Bow'tell, n. (Arch.) The shaft of a clustered pillar, or 
a shaft attached to the jambs of a door or window. 

Bow'-window, n. Same as Bay-window, q. v. 

Bowyer, (bo'yer,) n. An archer; one who shoots with 
a bow. (o ) 

“ Call for vengeance from the howyer king. — Dryden. 

—A maker of bows, (o.) 

Box, (boks,) n [Gr. pyxos; hat. buxus, the box-tree; Or. 
and Lat. pyxis, a vessel made of the wood of the box- 
tree; A.S. box; Dan. bus; Icel. box.] A coffer or case of 
wood, metal, &c., made to hold anything; it differs from 
chest, in that the former is a receptacle of a smaller size. 

•* This casket India's glowing gems unlocks. 

And all Arabia breathes from yonder box." — Pope. 

—-Quantity that a box contains; as, a box of dominoes. 

—A compartment in a theatre or other place of public 
amusement; as, the stage-box. (Also, by implication, the 
occupants of such box.) 

“ 'T is left to you; the boxes and the pit 
Are sovereign judges of this sort of wit.” — Dryden. 

■—The enclosed space in a court of justice in which the 
jurors sit; as, a jury-box. 

—A chest or receptacle for the deposit of money; as, a 
money-box. 

•• Yet, since his neighbors give, the churl unlocks. 

Damning the poor, his triple-bolted box ."— Warton . 

—A small country-house; as, a shooting-bog:. 

A neat, little box at Ciaphara.” — Pickens. 

—The driver’s seat on a vehicle; as. the coach-boa:. — A 
seasonable gift or present; as, a Christmas-box.— See 
Boxing-day. 

(Carp..) The box of a rib-saw consists of two thin iron 
plates fixed to a handle, in one of which plates an open¬ 
ing is made for the reception of a wedge, by which it is 
fixed to the saw. — In mitring, a trough for cutting mi¬ 
tres; it has three sides, and is open at the ends, with 
cuts in the vertical sides at angles of 45° with them. 

(Mach.) See Journal-box. —The bucket of a lifting- 
pump. 

In a box. In a position of embarrassment or difficulty. 

Box, n. [Gr pyxos; Lat .buxus.] (Bot.) See Buxus. 

Box, n. [Gr .pygme, a fist, from pyx, with clenched fist: 
allied to pyknos, close, compact.] A blow with the fist 
or hand tightly closed; a blow with the open hand on 
the ear 

For the box o th ear that the prince gave yon, he gave it like 
a rude prince.’* — Shaks. 

—-t:. t. or a. To strike, beat, or fight with the hand or fist; 
as, to box a boy's ears. 

‘A leopard is like a cat; he boxes with his fore-feet as a cat 
doth her kitlins. — Grew 

Box, t>. a. To enclose or keep in a box; as, to box deeds. 

“ Box'd in a chair, the beau impatient sits, 

While spouts run clatt'ring o er the roof by fits.” — Swift. 

—To furnish with boxes, as an engine. 

—To strike with the fist, (see above.) 

—[Sp. boxar .] (Naut.) To sail round; as, boxing about in 
the offing.— To box off. To separate into close compart¬ 
ments.— (Naut.) To back the head sails in order to keep 
the ship’s head rapidly off the wind. — To box the com¬ 
pass. To repeat 32 points of the compass in order. — To 
box a tree. To make an incision in a tree for the purpose 
of obtaining its sap. 

Box'borough, in Massachusetts, a post-township of 
Middlesex co., 24 m. W. by N. of Boston. 

Box-crab, n. (/tool.) See Calappa. 

Box'-tlrain, n. An under-ground drain, regularly 
built, with upright sides and a flat stone or brick cover, 
so that the transverse section resembles a bnx; so called 
to distinguish it from the other forms of drains. 

5 ox-EIder, n. (Bot.) See Negundo. 

ox-Elder, in Utah, a northwestern county, bordering 
on Idaho and Nevada, and watered by Bear river and 


I Holmes creek. Surface, mostly pasture. Cap., Brigham 
City, or Box-Elder. Pop. (1890), 7,642. 

Boxen, (boi.s'n.) a. Made of box-wood. 

As lads and lasses stood arouud 

To hear my boxen hautboy sound." — Gay. 

—Resembling box. 

*• Her faded cheeks are turned to boxen hue, 

And in her eyes the tears are ever new.’ — Dryden. 

Boxer, (boks'er,) n. One who boxes or fights with his 
fists; as that fellow is a good boxer. A member of a 
Chinese order of athletes, whose oppositin to foreign¬ 
ers led to the violent outbreak of 1900, with its sequel 
in the occupation of Peking by foreign troops. 

Box'-girder, n. (Engineering.) A form of girder re¬ 
sembling a box. made out of boiler-plate, and fastened 
together by means of angle irons, which are rivetted re¬ 
spectively to the top and bottom plates. For spans of 
from 30 to 60 feet opening, these girders present great 
advantages, and they are now almost exclusively used 
by English engineers; fora superior elasticity, and the 
power of resisting violeut impact, is far greater in this 
class of girders than in the old form of cast-iron. 
Mr. Faii-bairn, their inventor, has given the following 
formula for calculating their resistance: W = in 
which W = the breaking weight applied in the centre; 
a — the area of the bottom flange, </ = the depth of the 
beam in inches, e — a co-efficient ~ 75 for wrought iron; 
and l — the span in inches. 

Box'haul, v. a. (Naut.) To veer a ship in a particular 
manner, when it is impossible to tack. 

Box'hauliug, n. (Naut.) In seamanship, bringing a 
ship when close-hauled round upon the other tack, when 
she refuses to tack, and there is not room to wear. By 
throwing the head-sails aback she gets stern-way: the 
helm thereupon being put a-lee, the ship’s head fails 
rapidly off from the wind, which she soon brings aft; 
she is then speedily rounded-to with but little loss of 
ground. (This term is now, comparatively, hut little 
used.) 

Box'ing, n. The act or art of fighting, or administer¬ 
ing blows with the fists. (Sometimes called the art of 
self-defence.) — See Pugilism. 

Box'ing-day, Box'ing-night, n. In England, 
the day and night after Christmas-day, when it is cus¬ 
tomary to make presents. — See Box. 

Box ing-off, n. (Naut.) Throwing the head-sails 
aback, to force the ship’s head rapidly off the wind. 

Box'ing the Compass, n. (Naut.) Repeating the 
32 points of the compass in order. 

Boxings, n.pl. (Arch.) The B. of a window are the 
two cases, one on each side of the window, into whicli 
each of the adjacent shutters is folded, when light is re¬ 
quired in the room. The leaves which appear in the 
front of each boxing are denominated front shutters; 
and those in the back are called back-flaps. 

Box'-iron, n. A hollow iron instrument containing a 
heater, and used for smoothing linen. It differs from a 
flat-iron, which is itself heated. 

Box'-lteeper, n. A person who manages the letting of 
boxes at a theatre, or other place of amusement. 

Box'Iey , in Indiana, a post-village of Hamilton co., 30 
m. N. of Indianapolis, 

Box'-lobby, n. The lobby, or corridor, leading to the 
boxes in a theatre. 

Box Spring, in Georgia, a post-office of Talbot co. 

Box'tel, a town of the Netherlands, prov. Brabant, on 
theDommel, 7 m. S. of Bois-le-Duc. In 1794 an obstinate 
battle was fought here between the French and the allied 
English and Dutch forces, commanded by the Duke of 
York, in which the hitter were defeated with considera¬ 
ble loss, and obliged to retire beyond the Maese. Pop. 
4,645. 

Box'-tliorn, n. (Bot.) The English name of the genus 
LyciUM, q. v. 

Box'-tree, n. (Bot.) The English name of the genus 
Buxus, q.v. 

Box'ville, in Georgia, a village of Montgomery co., 
100 m. S. of Milledgevilie. 

Box'-wood, n. The wood of the box-tree. — See Buxus. 

Boy. n. [Lat. puer, ptipus; Dan. pog; Ger. bube.] A male 
child ; a male beyond the period of infancy, aud under 
that of manhood; a lad; a miuor. 

Ah I happy years I once more who would not be a boy t" Byron. 

— v. a. To net as a hoy, alluding to the former practice of 
having boys to represent women’s parts on the English 
stage. 

" And I shall see 

Some squeaking Cleopatra boy my greatness.” — Shaks. 

Boyaca (bo-ya'ka), a town of Colombia (S. A.), near 
which, in 1819, Bolivar, by a victory over the Spaniards, 
secured the independence of his country. It gives name 
to the department, which stretches from the plateau of 
Bogota to the borders of Venezuela, being watered by the 
Magdalena, Sogamozo, Zulia, Cazanare, and Meta. The 
capital, however, is not B. itself, hut the neighboring 
city of Tunja, which is about 70 miles to the N.N.E. of 
Bogota. 

Bnyanagh, (boy'an-agh,) a parish of Ireland, county 
Galway. 

Boy'ar, Boi'ar, Boy'ard, n. A name first used by 
the Bulgarians, Serbs, aud Russians, subsequently 
adopted by the Moldavians and Wallachians, and 
synonymous with bojarin, used by the Bohemians, Poles, 
and other Slavic tribes, to qualify the highest social 
condition; correspondingin certain respects to that of an 
English peer. In ancient Russia the B. were the next 
after the princes of the blood. While Russia was still 
divided into several petty sovereignties, the B. enjoyed 
the right of choosing lor themselves, and fot their de¬ 
pendents, the prince whom they wished to serve, and to 


leave the service at their pleasure, without any previous 
notification. Peter the Great wholly abolished their 
power aud official privileges, aud the name now remains 
only as a historical distinction, and a recollection of the 
past in families which once possessed the dignity. In 
Wallachia and Moldavia the boyards still exist; they 
form the council of the princes or hospndars, and exercise 
a preponderating influence over the people. 

Boyan, n.; pi. Boyaux, (trwoi'yo.) [Fr., bowels.] (Mil.) 
Any covered line of approach made towards the defen¬ 
sive works, during the siege of any place, by the attack¬ 
ing party. B. are termed parallel or zigzag, according 
to their direction, with reference to the front of the 
work against which the attack is directed. 

Boy'-bisliop, n. (Bed. Hist.) During the Middle 
Ages, the custom grew up of allowing the choristers of 
cathedrals to choose yearly one of their number to act 
the part of a bishop. The practice was permitted pro¬ 
bably from the same motives which suffered the mum¬ 
meries of the “ Abbot of Unreason,” (a graphic account 
of which may be found in Sir alter Scott's romance 
of The Monastery.) If the B. died within the short 
period of office, he was buried in his episcopal robes. A 
tomb with the effigy of a boy so clothed may be seen in 
Salisbury Cathedral, England. 

Boy'coft, (Irish Hist.) From one Captain Boycott, a 
land ag’t, who made himself obnoxious during the 
Agrarian troubles in Ireland in 1880. The people re¬ 
fused to work for him or to countenance him, hence the 
term Boycott or Boycotted has siuce been applied to or¬ 
ganized efforts to iefuse support or patronage. 

“ They advise * * * shall be Boycotted. 

Nobody is to work for them, to sell them anything, or to 
buy of them." — The Scotchman. 

Boyd, in Kentucky, a N.E. co., bordering on Ohio and 
West Virginia. Area, 180 sq. in. The Ohio forms its 
N.E. boundary, and the Big Sandy its E. Soil. Toler¬ 
ably fertile. Cap. Catlettsburg. Pop. (1898) 16,100. 

Boyd, in Missouri, a post-office of Dallas co. 

Boydell', John, a liberal patron of art, celebrated for 
the handsomely illustrated edition of Shakespeare, pub¬ 
lished under his patronage (1792-1801), and the magni¬ 
ficent ‘‘Shakespeare Gallery” of engravings by West, 
Reynolds, Opie and Northcote, also the result of his 
energies. Born in England, 1719; died in 1804. 

Boyds'ville, in Tennessee, a village of Weakley co., 
124 m. W. by N. of Nashville. 

Boyds'xille, in Kentucky, a post-office of Graves co. 

Boyds'ville, in Missouri, a pi>6t-office of Callaway co. 

Boyd'ton, in Virginia, a vill., cap. of Mecklenburg co., 
6 m. N. of Roanoke river, and 9o m. S.W. of Richmond. 
Pop., 800. On the road from Petersburg to this place, 
where it crosses the creek called Hatcher's Run, an ob¬ 
stinate engagement took place, 27th Oct., 1864, between 
the Union troops, commanded by Gen. Hancock, and a 
force of Confederates under Gen. Heth, in which each 
side sustained a loss of about 1.500 men, and though the 
latter had gained no ground, the Nationals found it ad¬ 
visable to withdraw to their in trenchments at Petersburg, 

Boy'er, Alexis, Baron de. a French surgeon, b. at 
Uzerche, 1757. He was surgeon to Napoleon, who made 
him a baron. After the Restoration he remained in 
the service of Louis XVIII., Charles X., and Louis Phi¬ 
lippe. In 1825 he was admitted member of the Institute, 
and D. 1833. His principal works are, Traite complet 
d’Anatomic, and Traite des Maladies Cltirurgicales. 

Boy'er, Jean Pierre, president of the Republic of Hayti, 
was a mulatto, B. at Port-au-Prince, 1776 He was edu¬ 
cated in France, and in 1792, entered the military ser¬ 
vice. He very soon became a chef de balaillon, and 
fought against the British on their invasion of his na¬ 
tive isle. After further fighting against the British, un¬ 
der General Rigaud, leader of the mulattoes, and after¬ 
wards under General Leelere, jte entered into a combi¬ 
nation which had for its object the union of the negroes 
and mulattoes, and a complete emancipation of the col¬ 
ony. After the negro Dessalines had seated himself 
upon the throne, B., along with Potion, took the lead 
of the colored people They assisted Christophe to 
overthrow the bloody tyrant in 1806, hut deserted Chris¬ 
tophe when they saw that he wished to make himself 
sovereign. Petion now established an independent re¬ 
public in the western part of the island: and B. made 
himself indispensable to him by his military and ad¬ 
ministrative knowledge, so that lie was invested by the 
new president with the command of the capital, Port- 
au-Prince, and the rank of a major-general. In this ca¬ 
pacity he endeavored to discipline his troops after the 
European manner; drove back, more than once, the 
black hordes of Christophe. thereby preserving l’ort-a®- 
Prince from destruction • was recommended to the peo¬ 
ple by Petion, when dying, as worthy to be his succes 
sor: and was unanimously elected president of the re¬ 
public, 1818. He arranged the financial affairs, collect¬ 
ed funds into the treasury, improved the administration, 
and encouraged arts and sciences. Alter the death of 
Christophe. he united the monarchical part of the island 
with the republic in 1820; and, in 1821, the eastern dis¬ 
trict also, which had hitherto remained under the do¬ 
minion of Spain; and he urgently sought the recogni¬ 
tion of the independence of the youthful state by France, 
which was obtained in 1825, upon payment of an in¬ 
demnity of 150 millions of francs. B. carried on the gov¬ 
ernment of the Republic of Hayti for fifteen years from 
this time, with the most perfect peace; but his policy, 
which was rather arbitrary, and directed to the object 
of depressing the negroes in favor of his own race, re¬ 
sulted in a victorious insurrection in 1843. B. fled to 
Jamaica. In 1848 he went to Paris, where he n. 1850. 

Boy'er, n. |Fr.; Du . boeijer, a vessel for laying down 
buoys.] (Naut.) A kind of Dutch sailing-craft. 







410 


BOYL 


BBAB 


BBAC 


Boy'er, in Iowa , a township of Harrison co. 

Boy'er River, in Iowa, rising in the N.W. of the 
State, after a S.W. course, falls into the Missouri, below 
Kanesville. 

—A township of Crawford co. 

Boy'ertown, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Berks 
co., 18 miles N. of ReaiF'ig. Pop. in 1897 estimated a* 
1,750. 

Boy'flood, n. The state of a boy, or of immature age ; 
as, boyhood's days. 

** Hot face was fair, but was not that which made 
The starlight of his boyhood." — Byron. 

Boy'ish, a. Belonging to a boy; trifling; childish; 
puerile. 

“ I ran it through e'en from my boyish days.” — Shaks. 

Boy'islily, adv. Childishly; in a trifling manner. 

Boy'ishness, n. The manner, or behavior of a boy; 
childishness. 

Boy'lsm, n. Puerility ; childishness. 

*• He had complained ... by a thousand such boyisms." — Dryden. 

—Boyhood: condition of a boy. (r.) 

Bdy'k i us Depot, in Virginia, apost- village of South¬ 
ampton co. 

Boy kins Depot, in S. Carolina,& post-vill. of Ker¬ 
shaw dist., 9 m. S. of Camden. 

Boyle, Richard, “The Great Earl of Cork,” (boil,) a 
celebrated English statesman of the 17th century, n. at 
Canterbury, England, in 1566. After studying at Cam¬ 
bridge he removed to the Middle Temple, which he left 
to become clerk to Sir Richard Manwood, Chief Baron 
of the Exchequer. In 1588 he went to Dublin, with 
strong recommendations to persons in power, whose pa¬ 
tronage he obtained. In 1595 he married a lady of for¬ 
tune, whose death, a few years after, left him the pos¬ 
sessor of property to the amount of £500 a year. The 
state of Ireland at that time having rendered land very 
cheap, he took advantage of the circumstance to make 
some considerable purchases, among which was the 
estate of Sir Walter Raleigh, consisting of 12,000 acres, 
in the counties of Cork and Waterford, which he ob¬ 
tained on easy terms. He was then appointed clerk of 
the Council under Sir George Carew, the Lord-Presi¬ 
dent of Munster, whom he accompanied in various ex¬ 
peditions against the Irish insurgents, then in opposi¬ 
tion to the English government. On these and other 
occasions he distinguished himself by his talents and 
activity, and rapidly augmented his political power and 
influence. King James I. appointed him privy-council 
lor for Munster, and afterward for the kingdom of Ire¬ 
land; in 1616 he was made a peer of that realm by the 
title of Baron Boyle of Youghal, and in 1620 he was 
created Viscount Dungarvan, and Earl of Cork. He was 
now at the height of his prosperity, living in his castle 
of Lismore in a style of grandeur more resembling that 
of a sovereign prince than of a private individual. In 
1629< he was made one of the lord-justices of Ireland, 
and in 1631 Lord-Treasurer of that kingdom. Like 
most of the English rulers of the sister state, Ireland, 
he seems to have employed his power rather for the sub¬ 
jugation than the advantage of the native Irish He 
built and fortified towns and castles, and introd iced 
among the people arts and manufactures; but he also 
put in force the severe laws of Queen Elizabeth agi inst 
the Roman Catholics, and transported multitudes of the 
ancient inhabitants from the fertile province of Leips- 
ter to the bogs and deserts of Kerry, supplying the r 
place with English colonists. Such measures might be 
consistent enough with the views aud principles of a 
military despot like Cromwell, who, on surveying the 
improvements on the estate of this nobleman, is said to 
have declared —“That if there had been an Earl of Cork 
in every province, it would have been impossible for the 
Irish to raise a rebellion.” But few persons will now be 
disposed to bow to the “ipse dixit” of the conqueror of 
Ireland, or to doubt for a moment that the cruel and 
illiberal policy of Lord Cork, and other mistaken but 
perhaps well-meaning statesmen, really contributed to 
cause those popular commotions which desolated Ire¬ 
land during the latter years of his life. In 1641 the 
Earl went to England as a witness against Lord Straf¬ 
ford, then under impeachment, having quarrelled with 
that nobleman during his vice-royalty. Soon after his 
return home the insurrection of the Irish broke out, on 
which event he displayed his accustomed activity, en¬ 
listing his tenantry wider the command of his sons, 
and taking other measures for the defence of the coun¬ 
try. But he lived only to see the commencement of the 
calamities of his adopted country. D. 1643. He was 
the founder of a family, several individuals of which 
highly distinguished themselves as cultivators of litera¬ 
ture, science, and the arts. 

Boyle', Robert, the seventh son of the above, was b. at 
Lismore Castle, Ireland, 1626. He devoted his life to in¬ 
quiries into physical science, and in 1654 went to reside 
at Oxford. It was then that he improved the air-pump, 
made his immortal discoveries in pneumatics, and gave 
the first hint of a theory of colors. His published scien¬ 
tific works are very numerous. D. 1691. 

Boyle, Richard. See Burlington, (Earl of.) 

Boyle, a barony, town, and par. of Ireland, co. Roscom¬ 
mon, on the River Boyle, which intersects it, 8 m. N.W. of 
Carrick-on-Shannon. It is a tolerably well-built place. 
Pop. 3,558. 

Boyle, in Kentucky, a central county, having an area 
of 180 sq. m. It is bounded on the N.E. by Dick’s River, 
a tributary of the Kentucky, and also watered by 
branches of the Salt River. Surface, undulating. Soil, 
rich, with a stratum of limestone. Cap. Danville. Pop. 
(1898) 13,800. 

Boy'ler's mill, in Missouri, a village of Morgan co. 


Boyle's 711111111$; Biquor, (so called from having 

been invented by the Hon. Robert Boyle, q . v.) 

(Chem.) A fetid yellow liquid, obtained by distilling 
sal-ammoniac with sulphur and lime. It is sometimes 
used in medicine under the name of Liquor Fumans 
Boylii. 

Boyls'ton, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Worces¬ 
ter co., 35 m. W. of the city of Boston. Manf. Boots 
and shoes. 

Boy ls'ton, in New York, a township of Oswego co., 140 
m. N.W. of Albany. 

Boyls'toii Centre, in Massachusetts, a post-vill. of 
Worcester co. 

Boyne, (boin,) a river of Ireland, rises in the Bog of 
Allen, co. Kildare, and flows N.E. through Meath to 
Drogheda, below which it enters the Irish Sea. It is 
navigable for barges up to Navan.—The IS. will ever be 
memorable in English history for the important vic¬ 
tory gained on its banks about 3 m. above Drogheda, 1st 
July, 1690, by the forces under the command of William 
III., over those of James II. Though James’s personal 
courage was beyond all question, he on this occasion 
allowed the prudence of the sovereign to outweigh the 
impulses of the soldier. Of his troops 1500 were killed 
and wounded, while William lost barely 600 men. In 
1736 an obelisk, 150 feet high, was erected at Oldbridge, 
on the site of the battle-field, in commemoration of 
this victory. The accompanying engraving represents 



rig . 402. — ruins of the church of donore, (Ireland.) 


the ruins of the little church of Donore, on a commanding 
hill, where James II. was stationed when he beheld the 
overthrow of his army and the ruin of his cause. 

Boys’-play, n. Any childish amusement or trifling. 

Boys'town, or Baltiboys, a parish of Ireland, co. 
Wicklow. 

liozi’ga, n. Anciently, a house or dwelling. 

Boz'inan's Turnout, in S. Carolina,a post-village 
of Newberry dist. 

Boz’ralt. (Anc. Grog.) An ancient Syrian city, identi¬ 
fied with the small modern village of Basrah, 76 m. 
S.S.E. of the ancient city of Damascus. It is mentioned 
in Scripture as a town both of the Moabites and of the 
Edomites, and as the subject of prophetic denunciation, 
both by Jeremiah and Amos. 

Boz'rah. in Connecticut, a post-village and township of 
New London co., 35 m. E.S.E. of Hartford, on the Yan- 
tic River. 

Boz'rativille, in Connecticut, a post-village of New 
London co. 

Bozzaris, Marcos, (boz-za’ris,) a Gredk patriot, b. 1789. 
He was a Suliote, and distinguished himself by his de¬ 
votion to his country, in defending it against the Turks. 
He fell in a night attack upon a body of the Turco-Al- 
banian army, who were advancing with the view of 
taking Missolonghi, which he had successfully defended 
for a considerable time, Aug 20, 1823. He was honored 
with the title of the “ Leonidas of Modern Greece.” 

Boz'zolo.atown of N. Italy, on the Oglio, 16 m. W.S.W. 
of Mantua; pop. 6,148. 

Bra, a town of N Italy, prov. of Cuneo, on the Start!, 
22 m. N. of Mondovi; pop. 13,415. 

Brabantjoime, (brab'an-sun.) The national song of 
the Belgians, composed by the French M. Jenneval, and 
set to music by Campenhout. It was sung by the insur¬ 
gents during the revolution of Sept, 1830. Each verse 
of the B. ends with the refrain: — 

• La raitraille a bris6 l’orange 
Sur 1 arbre de la liberte-" 

Brabantjons, or Brabanqiones. ( bra’ban-sawngs .) n. 
pi. 1 Hist.) B. were, in the Middle Ages, a kind of ir¬ 
regular soldiery of the Netherlands, who were infamous 
for rapine, being little better than commissioned ban¬ 
ditti, and who hired themselves to fight for whoever 
would pay them best. Sometimes they were in the ser¬ 
vice of one prince or baron, and sometimes of another; 
but they often acted in an independent manner, setting 
government at defiance, infesting highways, pillaging 
the open country, and disturbing the public peace. They 
formed a kind of society or government among them¬ 
selves, disregarding every other authority. The greatest 
monarchs were not ashamed, on occasions, to have re¬ 
course to their assistance; and as their manner of life 
gave them experience, hardihood, and courage, they 
generally composed the most formidable part of those 
armies .vhich decided the political quarrels of princes. 
Henry II, of England, enlisted numerous troops of them 


in his service; and the situation of his affairs rendered 
even banditti the only forces on whose fidelity he could 
repose any confidence. (See Hume's History of Eng¬ 
land, vol. i, chap. 9.) The name is variously written, 
but all the historians of the time derive it from the 
country of Brabant, which was the chief nursery of 
these troops. 

Brabant. (Duchy of,) (brd-bawng',) an ancient division 
of the Netherlands, bounded N. by the prove. Holland 
aud Guelderland, E. by the archbishopric of Liege, S. by 
the counties of Namur and llainault, and W. by Flan¬ 
ders and Zealand. It is now divided into N. and S. Bra- 
bant, the first forming part of the kingdom of Holland, 
and the latter of that of Belgium. For history, see Bel¬ 
gium and Holland. 

Brabant. (North,) a province of Holland: area, 1,653 
6q. m. The principal rivers are the Meuse, the Donnnel, 
and the 2 Aa. The canals are numerous; that of Breda 
being the principal The surface is a uniform level, 
without much fertility, bare of wood, and in some parts 
forming large marshes. Manf. Linen, woollen, and cot¬ 
ton fabrics. Lat. between 51° 13' and 51° 50' N, Lon 
between 4° 12' and 5° 58' E. It is divided into the 3 ar- 
rond. of Bois-le-Duc, Breda, and Eindhoven. Pop. 457,709. 

Brabant, (South,) the metropolitan province of Bel¬ 
gium. occupying a central position in that kingdom, be¬ 
tween 5u° 32' and 51° 3' E., Lat. between 4° and 5° 1(F 
E. Area, 1,260 sq. m. The surface is hilly in the south, 
well watered, very fertile, and admirably cultivated; the 
principal products being corn, hemp, flax, hops, and oil¬ 
seed. Cattle and sheep rearing is extensively pursued. 
B. is watered by the Dyle. the Denier, and the Senna 
Min. Iron and stone. Manf. Woollen, cotton, and 
linen goods; lace, soap, leather, and chemicals. One 
part of the inhabitants speak Flemish, and the other 
Walloon; they are mostly Roman Catholic. Pop. 936,062. 

Brabaiit'iiie, a. ( Geog.) Pertaining to Brabant, or to 
its inhabitants. 

Brac’eate, a. [Lat. braccatus, wearing breeches.] ( Zool .) 
A term signifying the state of a bird’s feet when con¬ 
cealed by long leathers descending from the tibiae. 

Bracciano. ( brat-che'ahn-n ,) (anc. Sabate,) a well-built 
town, and lake of Central Italy, 25 m. N. of Rome. 
Manf. Paper. There is a magnificent feudal castle her* 
belonging to the Torlonia family, dukes of Bracciana. 
Pop. 2,800. The lake is nearly circular, its circumfer¬ 
ence being about 20 m. It abounds with fish, and it 
surrounded by fine sylvan scenery. 

Brace, (bras,) n. [Fr. bras; probably from Gael, brae; 
W. braich ; Lat. brachium, the arm, in the sense of pow, 
er, force, strength; Gr. brachion .] That which holds 
tightly or binds; a cincture; a bandage; as, the braces 
of a boiler. 

—That which fastens, tightens, strengthens, or supports. 
(Arch.) An inclined piece of timber used in trussed 
partitions, and roofs, in order to form a triangle by 
which the assemblage of pieces composing the frame is 
stiffened. When braces are used in roofs or partitions, 
they should, as far as possible, be imroduced in pairs, 
and be framed in opposite directions to one another. 

(Ib-inting.) A curved line in a vertical position to con¬ 
nect two or more words or lines, which are brought into 

juxtaposition; thus: j 

—A couple; a pair: as, a brace of snipe. (Sing, and pi.) 

'■ Ten brace, and more of greyhounds, snowy fair. 

And tall as slags, ran loose, and coursed around his chair.”’ 

Dryden. 

—A strap of leather supporting the body of a carriage. 

— (pi.) Suspenders; straps that sustain pantaloons, Ac.; 
as, “ A beautiful pair of braces.”— Thackeray.) 

(Mus.) A double curved line (^-^). which is placed 
vertically at the beginning of the stave of any composi¬ 
tion, and which is used to bind the harmonizing parts 
together, in order to guide the eye with greater facility 
from one set of staves to another, when more than two 
staves are joined together; either for part-singing or 
playing in concert, it is usual to draw a smaller brace 
within the large one, in order to distinguish each part. 
This union of braces is called a score .—The name is also 
applied to cords for holding the heads of a drum tightly 
together. 

(Carpentry ) A bit-stock: the wooden haft in which 
a bit is fixed; as, a brace-bit 

—State of tension or tightness; condition of being braced 

■* The most frequent cause of deafness is the laxness of the tym¬ 
panum when it has tost its brace or tension. ' — Holder. 

—Warlike preparation; harness; armor. 

’• As it more concerns the Turk than Rhodes, . ,. 

For that it stands not in such warlike brace.'* — Shake. 

(Mining.) The mouth of a shaft. 

Braee, v. a. To prop or support; to supply with braces; 
as. to brace a ship’s planks —To tighten ; to draw tight; 
to make tight and firm; to bind or tie close; to make 
tense: to strain; to strengthen, as, the bracing air. 

'■ The women of China by bracing and binding them from their 
infancy have very little feet.” — Locke. 

—To hold or sustain firmly; to put into a position for 
bracing; as, he was braced for the fight. 

(Naut.) A rope fastened to, or driven through, a block 
at the yard-arm, for the purpose of trimming the yards 
horizontally. as, the main-brace. 

Braces of the. rudder Fastenings to secure the rudder 
of a ship, which are fixed to the stern-post, aDd to her 
bottom. 

(Mach.) An instrument into which a vernier is fixed; 
also, part of the press-drill. 

(Naut.) To move around by the braces; as, to brace 
the main-topsail yard. — To brace sharp. To brace the 
yards to a position in which they have the least angle 
















BRAC 


BRAG 


BRAC 


411 


with the keel.— To brace in. To haul in the weather 
braces. — To brace about. To swiug the yards round on 
the contrary tack. — To brace to. To ease off the lee- 
braces, and round in the weather-braces, when tacking 
about.— To brace up. To haul in the lee-braces, so as to 
bring the yard closer to the line of the keel. 

Braced', a. (Her.) Applied to charges, as chevrons, 
when interlacing each other. 

Bracelet, ( brds'let ,) n. [Fr. brasselet; and bracelet, 
from bras, the arm.] An ornament worn by ladies round 
the wrist.— See Armlet. 

44 Tie about our tawny wrists 
Bracelets of the fairy twists." — Ben Jonson . 

r-A piece of defensive armor for the arm. 

Bra'cer, n. That which braces, binds, or supports; a 
band; a cincture; a bandage. 

" When they affect the belly. they may be restrained by a bracer 
without much trouble." — Wiseman. 

—A medicine of astringent or tonic properties. 

—Armor fashioned for the arm. 

Brace'ville, in Illinois, a post-township of Grundy co., 
20 m. S.S.W. of Juliet. 

Brace'ville, in Ohio, a post-township of Trumbull 
county. 

flracll, ( brak,) n. [Fr. braque; probably from braquer, 
to point, to direct.] A dog for tracking game; a bitch 
of the hound kind. 

•• Hound or spaniel, brack, or lym." — Shake. 
Brachely'tra, n. [Gr. brachys, short, elytron, elytra.] 
(Zool.) A family of insects belonging to the order Cole- 
optera, anil synonymous with Staphylinidte. The species 
are characterized by their having short elytra or wing 
cases, though the wings themselves are very long, and 
when at rest easily folded up. They run and fly with 
equal agility, though they do not often use their wings. 
Most of the species have the habit of bending up the 
abdomen while running, and some bend it up so com¬ 
pletely on the hack that they present quite a globular 
form. At the lower extremity of the abdomen are two 
conical vesicles capable of being protruded at will, and 
from which a vapor is emitted, which occasionally is 
very subtle and penetrating. In some of the species 
the smell is that of spices mixed with something in¬ 
describably fetid. They are very voracious, generally 
preying upon dead bodies and decaying vegetable matter, 
such as fungi, &c. Some, however, are only found in 
flowers, on the margins of running streams, or under 
the bark of decaying trees. Others again are found 
parasitic in the nests of the hornet, and a few live in 
society along with the red ant ( Formica rufa). 
Braellial, (brd'ke-al,) a. [Lat. brachiwn, the arm.] 
Belonging to the arm ; as, the brachial nerve. 

—Resembling an arm. 

(Anat.) B. artery, extends from the axilla to the bend 
of the elbow, where it divides into A. cubitalis and A. 
radialis. It passes along the internal edge of the biceps, 
behind the median nerve aud between the accompany¬ 
ing veins. — B. muscle anterior, situate at the anterior 
and inferior part of the arm. and before the elbow-joint. 
It arises, fleshy, from the middle of the os humeri, and is 
inserted into the coronoid process of the ulna. Its use 
is to bend the fore-arm. — B. plexus, is a nervous plexus, 
formed by the interlacing of the anterior branches of the 
last four cervical pairs and the first dorsal.— B. veins, 
are two in number, and accompany the artery, fre¬ 
quently anastomosing with each other; they terminate 
in the axillary. 

Bra'chiate, a. (Bot.) With opposite branches; the suc¬ 
cessive pairs spreading at right angles with each other. 
Brae hi ii'ides, n. pi. [Gr. brachys, short.] (Zool.) A 
sub-family of coleopterous insects belonging to the 
family Carabidee. This group, as at present constituted, 
is one of the most incongruous of ail the tribes of the 
Car 'bid(t. The typical genus is Br ichinus, the bom¬ 
bardier-beetle, many species of which have been de¬ 
scribed. They live under stones, and are found in most 
parts of the globe. — See Bombardier-Beetle. 

Braclii nus. n. (Zool.) See Brachixides. 
Brachio'nic, n. (Zool.) The name given by Muller to 
a genus of Rotiferous Infusorial Animalcules, and since 
subdivided into many distinct genera. 

Brack iop'otfa, n. [Gr. brachion, an arm: podos, a 
foot.] (Zool.) A class of bivalve Mollusca characterized 
by having the mantle organized so as to be serviceable 
for respiration, and by having two long, fleshy, ciliated, 
spiral arms, or labiate processes. The genus T.ingnla 
is remarkable as being the only bivalve shell that is 
pedunculated. 

Brackys'tocbrone, n. [ Gv.brachystos, shortest, chro- 
nos, time.] (Math.) The plane curve down which a material 
particle must fall in order to pass, in the shortest possible 
time, from the upper to the lower of two given points not 
in thesame vertical line. It is the common cycloid. The 
problem of the B. is a celebrated one in the history of 
mathematics. It was proposed by John Bernouilli, 
1696, and solved by Newton. 

Bracli'ium, n. [Lat., arm.] (Annt.) The arm from the 
shoulder to the wrist, or the part between the shoulder 
and elbow. 

Hrach'man, n. See Brahman. 

Bracliycatalec'tic, n. [Gr. brachys, short, and cata- 
lektikns, deficient.] (Pros.) In Greek and Latin poetry, 
a verse wanting two syllables to complete its length. 
Bracliycepli'alous, a. [Gr. brachys, short, and 
cephale, head.] Applied to men whose cerebral lobes do 
not completely cover the cerebellum. 
Brachy«Iiag , 'onal. a. [Gr. brachys, short, and Eng. 
diagonal.] (Geom) The shortest of the diagonals in a 
rhombic prism. 

Brach ydome, n. [Gr. brachys, short, and domos, 


a domed house.] (Orystall.) A dome parallel to the 
shorter diagonal. 

Brachyg’ rapiier, n. A short-hand writer; a steno¬ 
grapher. 

Brat-Iiyg'rapliy, n. [Gr. brachys, short, and grapho, 
I write.] The an of writing by abbreviation; steno¬ 
graphy. 

llracliylogy, (brdk-U'o-jy,) n. [Gr. brachys, short, and 
logos, discourse.] (Rhet.) The art of expressing a thing 
in the most concise manner. 

Braehyp'terae, Bracbyp'teres, n. pi. (Zool.) 
The name given by Cuvier to the birds of the Diver 
family. — See Colymbid^. 

Brachyii'ra, Brachyu'rans, n.pl. [Gr. brachys, 
short, and oura, a tail.] (Zool.) A section of Crustacea, 
order Decapoda. The animals belonging to the B have 
their abdomen or tail very short, generally bent under 
the body, and lodged in a cavity there, so that it is of 
little or no use to them in swimming. The branchiae 
or gills are of a pyramidal iorm, aud consist of a double 



Fig. 403. — crabe TOURTEAU, (Cancer pagurus.) 
series of plates piled one above another. They are 
defended by the lateral edges of the carapace being 
bent down in order to cover them. The water thus 
reaches them only through a special opening left in front 
of the shell. The species are very numerous, and have 
been divided into several large families. In some, Oxy- 
rhyncha, the carapace is narrowest to a point anteriorly, 
as in Maia. In others, Cyclometopa, the carapace is very 
large, regularly arched anteriorly, and narrowed pos¬ 
teriorly, as in Cancer (crabs), and Carcinus. In Portu- 
nus. the last pair of legs have the joints broad and flat, 
and formed for enabling the animal to swim well. They 
are called the swimming crabs — are active and bold, 
and seize hold of objects with great sharpness, pinching 
very severely with their acute claws. A 3a set, Ca- 
tomrtnpa, have the carapace generally quadrilateral 
or ovoid, as Gecarcinas and Grapsus. Whilst a 4th, 
Oxystnma, have it, in general, orbicular or arched in 
front, as in Leucosia, or the Porcellanous crab, found in 
N. Guinea and India: and Pnrystes, or globular crab. 

Braehyu ral, a. Short tailed, as the Brachyura, q. v. 

Bra cing;, n. Act of bracing, or state of being braced. 

— a. Having the quality of giving strength or tone; as, 
bracing weather. 

Brack, n. [Du. hraalc; AS brae, breaking ] A breach; 
a flaw; an opening in any solid body. 

The place was but weak, and the bracks fair." — Hayward. 

Brack en, n. Fern. (A term used in Scotland and the 
N. of England.) See Brake. 

11 Amang the brackens and the brae, 

Between her and the moon."— Burns 

Brack'en, in Kentucky, a N. county on the border of 
Ohio, covering about 200 sq.m. The North Fork of 
Licking river intersects it, Surface, hilly. Soil, gene¬ 
rally fertile. Cap. Brookville. Pop. (1898) 13,650. 

Brack'en, or Brack ett, in Texas, a village of Kin¬ 
ney co., 125 m W. of San Antonio. 

Brack'en ri«lg;e, Hugh Henry, an eminent American 
lawyer and politician, B in Scotland, 1748. He came 
with his family to N. America when only 5 years old, 
and was brought up at their homestead in York co., 
Penn. After encountering many difficulties. B. suc¬ 
ceeded in entering the college at Princeton, where he 
graduated in 1771. He subsequently became a chaplain 
in the Revolutionary army, and in 1787 settled at Pitts¬ 
burg, whence he was returned to the State Legislature. 
In 1796. he published Modem Chivalry, a clever satire, 
imitative of the manner of Butler and Le Sage, Sterne 
and Fielding. In 
1799, he was ap¬ 
pointed Judge of 
the SupremeCourt 
of Pennsylvania, 
still continuing to 
give to the world 
various literary 
works of merit. 

His judicial deci¬ 
sions were cele¬ 
brated for their in¬ 
tegrity aud inde¬ 
pendence. I).1816. 

—llis sou, Henry, 
b. 17»6, was the 
author of several 
works, the princi¬ 
pal of which is a 
Voyage to South Am¬ 
erica. D. 1871. 

Brack'et, a.[Lat. 


brachium, an arm.] (Arch.) A small support fixed 
against the wall to sustain anything. B. are com¬ 
posed of various materials.— wood, stone, metal, &c., 
and may be made susceptible of any kind of ornamen¬ 
tation.— B. for shelves. When the shelves are broad, 
the B. are small trusses, consisting of a vertical piece, 
a horizontal piece, and a strut; but when the shelves 
are small, the B. are solid pieces of boards, most com¬ 
monly with an ogee figure on their outer side. 

(Ship-building.) One of the knees which supports the 
stern-gallery ol a ship. 

(Gunnery.) One of the cheeks of the carriage of a 
mortar. 

— pi. (Printing.) The marks used for enclosing words or 
sentences; thus [ ]. 

Brack'et, v. a. To connect with brackets; to supply 
with brackets. 

Brack'ding;, n. (Arch.) A disposition of small piece* 
ot board, equidistantlv placed in the angles tormed by 
the ceiling and the walls of an apartment, with their 
planes at right angles to the common intersection, so as 
to be partly upon the ceiling and partly upon the walls; 
their faces or edges being so arranged as to touch any 
level line that is everywhere equally distant from the 
wall, or walls, which may form the perimeter, or circum¬ 
ference, of the apartment. 

Brack'et-liglit, n. A gas-light that projects from a 
side-wall. 

Brack etts, in Illinois, a village of Effingham co. 35 
m. E. of Vandalla. 

Brack ish, a. [Probably from Du. braak, breaking, 
wrak, unsound, rotten, broken; Ger. brack, that w hich 
is rejected, refuse, waste, or damaged matter.] Literally, 
damaged or rendered unfit for use; specifically,salt, or 
salt in a moderate degree, as water. 

“ A lake of brackish waters on the ground 
Was all I found." — Herbert. 

Brack'islmess, n. State or quality of being brack¬ 
ish; saltness in a minor degree. 

“ All the artificial strainings hitherto have a brackishness ia 
salt water, that makes it unfit for animal uses." — Cheyne. 

Brack'lesliam Beds, n. pi. (Geol.) The name given 
in England to that part of the Eocene deposits overlying 
the London Clay series. The B. appear to be the equiv¬ 
alent of the Calcaire grassier. They are generally fos- 
siliferous. and are particularly observable at Alum Bay 
in the Isle of Wight. 

Brack'ney, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Susque¬ 
hanna co. 

Bra'con, n. Bracon'id.-e, n. pi. (Zool.) A genus and 
lam. of Hymenopterous insects, allied to, but distin¬ 
guished from the true Ichneumons by the hiatus which 
exists in them between the mandibles and the clypeus. 

Bract, Bracte'a; pi Bracts, or Bracteje. (brdkt.) 
|Gr. bracho, I crepitate.] (Bot.) A floral leaf, or modified 
leaf from the axil of which a flower-bud arises. Strictly 
speaking, the term bract should only be applied to 
the leaf from which the primary floral axis, whether 
simple or branched, springs; while the leaves which are 
produced on the axis between the bract and the outer 
envelope of the flower should be distinguished as bract- 
lets or bractroles. In ordinary descriptions, however, the 
term bract is used to indicate either kind of floral leaf. 
Bracts are sometimes large, and similar to the ordinary 
leaves ot the plants upon which they are placed, as in 
the white dead-nettle. Such bracts are termed leafy, 
and can only be distinguished from the true leaves by 
their position with regard to the flower-stalk or flower. 
In general, however, bracts differ greatly from ordinary 
leaves When the flower is sessile, the bracts are often 
applied closely to the calyx, and may thus be confounded 
with it. Again, when bracts become colored, they may 
be easily mistaken for parts of the corolla. In some in¬ 
stances they form part of the fruit, becoming incorpo¬ 
rated with other organs; thus, the cones of the fir 
and the strobilii of the hop are composed of bracts ar¬ 
ranged spirally, and enclosing fertile flow'ers; and the 



Fig. 405. — bracts. 

1. e, of tilia. — 2. d, ot campanule. — 3. sium; a, involuOTtf 
c, involucel. 

scales on the fruit of the pine-apple are of the same na¬ 
ture. When bracts grow in a whorl or circle round a 
single flower, as in the mallow, or a head of flowers, as 
in the daisy, they are said to form an involucre; and 
when they grow at the base of a partial umbel, they 
are said to form an involucel; when a number grow to¬ 
gether, as in the cup of the acorn, they then constitute 
a cvpule. Though the bract is generally a small and in, 
conspicuous organ, it occasionally acquires a consider®, 
ble size, and may actually surround all the flowers of a 













































412 


BRAD 


BRAG 


BRAH 


plant so as to completely enclose them when in a young 
state. A sheathing bract of this description is called a 
spathe; it is very remarkable in the common arum. In 
the grasses and sedges, little bracts called glumes and 
palece, enclose the essential organs of reproduction. 

Brac'teal, lirac'teate, a. That is furnished with 
bracts. 

Bract'ed, a. The same as Bracteal, q. v. 

Brac'teolate, ct. Furnished with bractlets or brae- 

teoles. 

Brae'teole, Braetlet, n. See Bract. 

Bract'less. a. Destitute of bracts. 

Brad. [A. S.) An initial syllable meaning Broad, as 
Bradford, broad ford. 

Brad, n. (Dan. braad, a goad or sting; Scot, brod.] A 
nail that, instead of a head, has a slight projection on one 
side of the top. 

Brad'-awl, n. A small awl used to pierce holes for the 
reception of brads. 

Brau'dock. Euward, a British general, was born in 
Perthshire, Scotland, about 1695; entered the Gold- 
stream Guards (1710), and rose to the rank of major- 
general in 1754. A few months later he sailed for 
America, as commander against the French. With a 
force of some 2,000 soldiers he reached the Mononga- 
hela river on July 8, 1755, and the next day pushed on 
to invest Fort Duquesne, at the junction of that river 
and the Allegheny. Having disregarded the advice of 
Washington and other skilled frontiersmen, B. was 
completely defeated by a force of some 900 French and 
Indians in a hard fight of two hours’ duration. B. was 
mortally wounded, and died at Great Meadows, about 
60 m. distant, on July 13, 1755. 

Brad'docU, in Pennsylvania, a thriving post-borough 
of Allegheny co., on Monougahela river and Penua. 
R.R., 9 m. E. of Pittsburgh. Here and at Homestead, 
on the opposite side of the river, are the great Carnegie 
steel works. Pop. (1898) 13,200. 

BradTord, a large and important parliamentary bor¬ 
ough of England, W. Biding, co. York, 31 m. W. by S. 
of Yor’ r , 8 W of Leeds, and 183 N.N.W. of London. It 
is a well-built, paved, and lighted town, with some fine 
public buildings and literary institutions, among which 
St. George’s Music Hall is a fine edifice in the Italian 
style, capable of accommodating 3,350 persons. There 
is also a fine park here for the use of the citizens. B. is 
densely populated, and the production of worsted, yarn, 
and stuffs forms the leading industry. Besides this staple, 
the cotton and iron manufactures command an extensive 
trade. Large iron foundries (celebrated for their boiler 
and iron-plates the world over) are established at Bowl¬ 
ing and Low Moor, in the immediate vicinity of this 
town. Pop. (1891), 216,361. 

Brad'ford, in Alabama, a flourishing post-village of 
Coosa co., on Sochapatoy Creek, 50 m. N. by E. of Mont¬ 
gomery Manf. Cottons. 

Brad ford, in Indiana, a post-village of Harrison co., 
12 m. N.N.E. of Corydon. 

Brad ford, in Iowa, a post-village and township of 
Chickasaw co., 30 m. N. of Cedar Falls. 

Brad'ford, in Kentucky, a P. 0. of Bracken co. 

Brad'ford, in Maine, a post-township of Penobscot co., 
85 m. N.E. of Augusta. Manf. Leather. 

Brad'ford. in Mass., a p.-v. and twp. of Essex co., on 
the Merrimack River, 34 m. N. of Boston.—In iV. H., a 
p.-twp. of Merrimack co. Manf. Leather, &c.—In N. K, 
a p.-twp. of Steuben co., 60 m. S.S.E. of Rochester.—In 
Ohio, a p.-v. of Miami co.—A v. of Scioto co., on the Ohio 
River. 

Brad'ford. in Penna., a N.N.E. co., on the confines of 
N. Y. Area, 1,170 sq. m. Watered by the N. branch of 
the Susquehanna, the Tioga River, and Towanda, Sugar, 
and Wyalusing creeks. Sur., generally hilly. Soil, fer¬ 
tile. Prod., lnmbpr. coal ironstone. Cap. Towanda. 

Brad'ford, in Pennsylvania, a thriving city of McKean 
co. Situated amid the oil region, it owes its great 
prosperity to that product. It contains several machine 
shops, boiler works, saw and planing mills, nitro¬ 
glycerine factories, banks and excellent daily and 
weekly newspapers. Numerous natural gas wells exist 
in the vicinity. Pop. (1880), 9,203: (1890), 10,514; 
(1897), about 11,600. 

Brad'ford, in Vl., a thriving p.-twp. of Orange co., on 
the VV. bank of the Connecticut River, 30 m. S. W. of 
Montpelier. 

Brad'ford, in Wisconsin, a township of Rock co. 

Brad'ford, in prov. of Ontario, a post-village of Sim- 
coe county, near Lake Simcoe, 41 miles N.N.W. of 

Toronto. 

Brad'ford Centre, in Vermont, a vill. of Orange co. 

Brad ford Clay, n. ( Geol .) The middle member of 
the upper division of the Lower Oolites as developed in 
the W. of England. It nearly corresponds in age with 
the limestones of the flreat Oolite, but is generally a 
pale grayish clay with little calcareous matter, though 
enclosing bands of impure limestone. 

Brad'ford-on-.4von, a town of England, in Wilt¬ 
shire. on the river Avon, 93 m. W. by S. of London. 
Manf. Woollen cloths and kerseymeres. 

Brad'fordsville, in Kentucky, a post-village of Ma¬ 
rion co., on the Rolling fork of Salt River, 60 m. S. by W. 
of Frankfort. 

Bra'ding, a maritime town of England, in the Isle of 
Wight Hampshire. 73 m. S.W. of London. It is an 
ancient place, whose church was built in 736. 

Brad'iey, James, d.d., frs, a distinguished English 
astron imf, b. 1693 In 1742, he was appointed Astron¬ 
omer Royal, and made a very important discovery rela¬ 
tive to the nutation of the eayth’s axis. He was a mem- 
bar of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, and also 
af the Academy of Sciences. D. 1762. 


Bradley, in Arkansas, a S.S.E. county, containing 958 
sq. m. it is drained by the Saline and Moro Rivers. 
Surface, level. Soil, fertile, producing cotton and indian 
corn. Cap. Warren. 

—A post-office of the above county. 

Brad'iey, in Illinois, a post-village of Jackson co., 14 m. 
S.W. of Pinckneyville. 

Brad'iey, in Maine, a township of Penobscot co., on 
the Penobscot River, 45 m. N. by E. of the city of Ban¬ 
gor. 

Brad'iey, in Michigan, a post-village of Allegan co. 

Brad'iey, in Tennessee, a county in the S.S.E. part of 
the State, touching Georgia. Area, 400 sq. m. Surface, 
hilly. Soil, fertile and well irrigated. Cap., Cleveland. 
Pop. (1890), 13,600. 

Brad'leys vale, in Vermont, a former twp. of Caledo¬ 
nia co., now Concord and Victory twps., Essex co. 

Brad'iey ville, in Iowa, a post-village of Page co. 

Brad'iey ville, in Missouri, a post-village ofTaneyco. 

Brad'ock l>own, n. A place near Liskeard, in Corn¬ 
wall, England, where, about the middle of Jan., 1643, 
Sir Ralph Hopton. with inferior numbers, defeated the 
Parliamentary army, with trifling loss on his part, 
taking 1,250 prisoners, and all the enemy’s guns, &c. 

Brad shaw, John, an eminent Puritan, who was pres¬ 
ident of the High Court of Justice which tried and con¬ 
demned King Charles I. B. in Cheshire, England, in 
1586. In 1649, he was Chief Justice of Chester, and 
when the trial of the king was determined upon, B ’s 
resolute character pointed him out tor president, which 
office, after a slight hesitation, he accepted. His deport¬ 
ment on the trial was lofty and unbending, in conformity 
to the theory which rendered the unhappy monarch a 
criminal and amenable; and everything was done, both 
for and by him, to give weight and dignity to this unex¬ 
ampled tribunal. On Cromwell's accession to the pro¬ 
tectorate, he was deprived of his judgeship, but on the 
restoration of the Long Parliament, was elected pres¬ 
ident of the Council of State. B. died in 1659, and on 
his death-bed asserted, that if the king were to be tried 
and condemned again, he would be the first to agree to 
it. B. was magnificently buried in Westminster Abbey, 
whence, after the Restoration, his body was ejected as 
being that of a regicide, and hanged on a gibbet at Ty¬ 
burn, with those of Cromwell and Ireton. 

Brad'shaw, in Tennessee, a post-village of Giles co., 
70 m S of Nashville. 

Bradtville, ( brat'vil,) in Wisconsin,a post-village of 
Grant co. 

Bra'dy, in Michigan, a post-township of Kalamazoo co., 
70 in. S.W. of Lansing. 

—A township of Saginaw co. 

Brady, in Ohio, a flourishing township of Williams 
county. 

Brady, in Pennsylvania, a township of Clearfield coun¬ 
ty. 

—A township of Huntingdon co. 

—A township of Butler co. 

—A post-office of Indiana co. 

Brady, James T., a distinguished lawyer of the city of 
New York, one of the most fluent, witty, and eloquent 
members of that bar. He was an associate of Daniel 
Webster in the celebrated “India Rubber Case.” B. 
1815, D. 1869. 

Brady ito'da, Brab'ypods, n. pi [Gt. bradys, slow, 
and pous, podos, a foot.] (Zoiil.) The Sloth family, order 
Edentata, the general character of which are described 
under the word, Ai, q. v. —The Megatherium, Megalonyx, 
and Mylodon, huge extinct sloth-like animals, whose 
remains are found in the superficial deposits of South 
America, and also in those of the U. States, specially 
in S. Carolina and Georgia, belong to the Bradypoda. 

Brad'ypus, n. [Lat.] [Zoiil.) The name of the 
genus Sloth, family Bradypoda. 

Bra'dy’s in Wisconsin, a posh village of Richland co. 

Brady’s Bend, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of 
Armstrong co., on the W. bank of the Allegheny river, 
15 m. N.N.W. of Kittanning. Pop. (1898) 1,340. 

Brady’s Creek, in Texas, flows E. into San Saba 
river. San Saba co. 

Brady’s Mill, in Maryland, a vill, of Alleghany co. 

Bra'dy ville in O/iio, a post-village of Adams co., 8 m. 
from the Ohio River. 

Brady ville, in Tennessee, a post-village of Cannon co., 
56 m. E.S.E. of Nashville. 

Brae. (bra,) n. (See Brat.) A declivity; a sloping piece 
of ground. (Almost exclusively confined to Scotland.) 
Except where greenwood echoes rang, 

Amang the braes o’ Ballochruyle.’ - — Burns. 

Bras', t>. i. [Dan, brag, a crack, a crash; Icel. braka, to 
crack, to crash; Swed. and Goth, bragi, a scald, an emi¬ 
nent poet.] Literally, to crack; to make a noise: spe¬ 
cifically, to bluster, to boast; to vaunt: to swagger; to 
talk big. (Often followed by of; and sometimes, but im¬ 
properly, by on.) 

“ Verona brags of him 

To be a virtuous and well-govern’d youth." — Shahs . 

*' Yet lo ' in me what authors have to brag on, 

Reduc'd at last to hiss in my own dragon." — Pops, 

— n. A boast or boasting; a vaunt. 

'* A kind of conquest 

Caesar made here : but made not here his brag 
Of came, and ' saw,’ and ‘ overcame. " — SUaks. 

—The thing, or matter, boasted. 

* Beauty is nature's brag .'* — Milton. 

(Games.) B. is a game at cards, deriving its name 
from the efforts of the players to impose upon the judg¬ 
ment of their opponents by boasting of better cards 
than they possess. As many persons may play as the 
cards will supply, the dealer giving to each player three 


cards, turning up the last card all round. Three stakes 
also are put down by each player. The first stake is 
taken by the best card turned up in the dealing round. 
The peculiarity which gives the game its denomination, 
occurs chiefly in winning the second stake. Here the 
knaves and nines are culled braggers, and all cards fall¬ 
ing into the hands of the players, assimilate to these. 
For example, one knave and two aces, two knaves and 
one ace, and two aces and one knave, all count three 
aces. The nines operate in the same way. The third 
stake is won by the person who first makes tip the cards 
in his hand to thirty-one, with the privilege to draw, or 
not to draw, as he pleases, from the pack. 

Bra'ga, (anc. Augusta Bracara,) a fortified city of Por¬ 
tugal, cap. of the prov. of Entre-Douro-e-Minho, in a 
fertile plain between the rivers Cavado and Dieste, 35 m. 
N.E. of Oporto; Lat. 41° 42' N., Lon. 8° 20' W. This 
town is remarkable for its many fine buildings and 
fountains. Manf. Silver-wares, hats, and harness. — B. 
is a very ancient place, and was founded by the Cartha¬ 
ginians. About 2 m. from the city, on a hill, is the re- 
nuwned sanctuary, Do sentior Jesus do Monte, annually 
resorted to by crowds of pilgrims. Pop. 19,514. 

Bragan'za, a fortified town of Portugal, prov. Tras-os- 
Moutes, cap. of a coiuarca, in a fertile plain, on the Fer- 
renza, 35 ni. N.W. of Mirandella. Manf. Silks and vel¬ 
vets. B. was erected into a duchy in 1442; and, in 1640, 
John II., 8th Duke of Braganza, ascended the Portu¬ 
guese throne, under the title of John IV. His descend¬ 
ants enjoy the crown of Portugal, and also held that 
of Brazil until the deposition of Dom Pedro I. 

Bragan'za, or Braganza. (Hist.) The name of 
the reigning dynasty of Portugal. (See Braganza Town.) 
In 1801 Napoleon I. declared that the line of the B. 
sovereigns had ceased. John, Regent of the kingdom, 
withdrew to Brazil in 1807, but he returned in 1821. At 
his death, in 1826, his son, Don Pedro, resigned the 
throne in favor of his daughter, Maria da Gloria, pre¬ 
ferring to remain emperor ot Brazil, which he had been 
elected by the Brazilians, 18 Nov., 1825. 

Bragg. Braxton, an American Confederate general, b. 
in N. Carolina, in 1817, graduated at West Point in 1837, 
was appointed 2d lieutenant in the 3d artillery, served 
with distinction under Gen. Taylor in the Mexican war, 
and retired into private life in 1856. At the outbreak 
of the civil war, B. became a brigadier-general in the 
Confederate army, and was stationed at Pensacola to act 
against Fort Pickens. In 1862, having been appointed 
a general of division, with orders to act under Gen. A. S. 
Johnston, commanding the army of the Mississippi, he 
took an important part in the two days’ battle of Shiloh, 
On Johnston’s death B. was appointed to his command, 
with the full rank of general, and succeeded Gen. Beau¬ 
regard as commander-in-chief in July of the same year. 
This command he resigned in Dec. 1863, and nominated 
Gen. Joe Johnston as liis successor. B.'s chief success 
was at Chickamauga, in Sept. 1863, when he inflicted a 
defeat on the army of Gen. Rosecrans, but was himself, 
in turn, defeated by Gen. Grant, which led to his tempo¬ 
rary removal from command in Jan., 1864, and he was 
appointed chief of staff to Jefferson Davis. In 1S64, he 
assumed the command of the dept, of N. Carolina, and 
defeated the Union forces at Kingston, and joined Pres¬ 
ident Davis, with whom he remained in South Carolina 
when General Johnston surrendered to Gen. Sherman, 
26th April, 1S65. D. in Texas, September, 1876. 

Braggadocio, ( brag-ga-do’she-o,) n. [From Braggo 
docchio, a character in Spenser's “ Faerie Queene,” emi¬ 
nent for his boastfulness.] A braggart; a boastful per¬ 
son : a blusterer. 

But these braggadocios are easy to be detected.” — L' Estrange 

—Empty boasting; pretension; idle vaunting. 

Brag'gart, n. [O. Fr. bragard, bragging.] A boaster - , 
a vainglorious person; one who brags and talks big. 

' Let him fear this, for it will come to pass, 

That every braggart shall be found an ass — Shake. 

— a . Boastful; vainly ostentatious. 

* Shall I. . . betray thee to th‘ buffing, braggart, puff'd nt 
bility ? ' - Donne. 

Brag'ger, n. A boaster; one who brags or talks big. 

“ Such as have had opportunity to sound these braggers the* 
oughly, . . . have found them, in converse, empty and insipid.'* 

South. 

Bragg'ville, in Massachusetts, a post-village of Mid 
dlesex co., 25 m. S.W. of Boston. 

Bragi, ( brai'ji.) (Scand. Myt.) The son of Odin ant> 
Frigga. and the god of eloquence and poetry. He ij 
represented as an old man with a long flowing beard, 
like Odin : yet with a serene and unwrinkled brow. IIi& 
wife was Idunna. 

Brag'less, a. Without boasting or ostentation, (o.) 

“ If it be so, bragless let it be. 

Great Hector was as good a man as he."— Shaks. 

Brahe, Tycho, (brah,) a celebrated astronomer of a no 
ble Danish family, n. at Knudstorp, 1546. After som* 
previous tuition at Copenhagen, he was sent to Leipzig 
to study the law. Led by inclination, he devoted him¬ 
self to mathematical pursuits, to which his attention is 
said to have been directed by accident. He left Leipzig 
in 1565, and that year be had the misfortune to have a 
part of his nose cut off in a duel, which loss he is said 
so ingeniously to have supplied by an artificial nose, 
that the defect was not perceptible. He made some 
chemical experiments, in hopes of finding the philoso¬ 
pher's stone, a common object of researcti among the 
philosophers of his time, in 1566 he left Denmark and 
improved liis acquaintance with astronomy, in the 
course of his travels in Germany and France. He re¬ 
turned home in 1571, and began to make astronomical 
observations at an observatory which he erected neat 







BRAH 


BRAI 


BRAI 


413 


ixnudstorp Here it was that he signalized himself in 
1572, by the discovery of a new star in the constellation 
Cassiopeia. He soon after violently offended his rela¬ 
tions by marrying a country girl, when the king inter¬ 
posed his authority to produce a reconciliation. In 
1574 he lectured on astronomy at Copenhagen , and soon 
after, having travelled through several parts of Europe, 
he determined to settle with his family at Basle. The 
Banish king, Frederick II.. unwilling to have his coun¬ 
try deprived of a subject who was an honor to it, de¬ 
termined to retain him at home, by providing him with 
every convenience for his studies, and rewarding him 
according to his merits. He therefore presented him 
with the island of Huen, or Ween, in the Sound, for the 
erection of an observatory, gave him an ample pension, 
and a canonry in the Cathedral of Koskilde. He en¬ 
joyed this situation, and these advantages, about twenty 
years, during which period he strenuously applied him¬ 
self to the cultivation of astronomical science. The death 
of Frederick II. interrupted his studies, and being de¬ 
prived of his pension and canonry by the ill offices of 
envious and illiberal courtiers, he left Denmark, and 
ultimately settled at Prague, under the patronage of the 
Emperor Rodolph, who was a lover of science and 
learned men. This prince provided for him most mag¬ 
nificently ; and he began to occupy himself with his 
usual pursuits, and gathered around him a number of 
mathematical students, among whom was the celebrated 
Kepler. He had not long enjoyed these advantages, 
when he was seized with a disease, which terminated in 
death, 1601. B. is known as the inventor of a new hy¬ 
pothesis to explain the motions of the planetary bodies. 
His scheme was a kind of medium between the ancient 
system of Ptolemy and that which had been advanced 
by Copernicus. lie supposed the earth to be fixed mo¬ 
tionless in the centre of the universe, around which he 
imagined the sun to revolve in a year, and the moon in 
a month; the other planets performing their course 
around the sun, and being carried with it in its revolu¬ 
tion around the earth; and the whole of this system, to¬ 
gether with that of the firmament or orb of the fixed 
stars, was supposed to have a diurnal motion also. The 
obvious difficulties in this scheme, and its inferiority to 
the simpler, and now generally received, system of Co¬ 
pernicus, have led some to undervalue the abilities of 
Tycho, who, it ought to be recollected, had for his object 
the formation of an hypothesis, which would explain 
the celestial phenomena without admitting the revolu¬ 
tionary motions of the planet we inhabit. Neither does 
the fame of Tycho rest upon the merits or the ingenuity 
of his theory, for he was a skilful practical astronomer, 
and made many important observations on the stars, 
contained in the works published by himself, and in the 
famous Rodolphine. Tables of his disciple Kepler. 

Brahil'ov, or Brail'off, in Turkey in Europe.—See 
Ibrail. 

Brah'ma, (bra'ma.) [Sans, probably from the root 
brih, to grow, to expand ; whence briha, wri/ia, to move 
intensely, hence to raise, to produce, to*create.] ( Hin¬ 
doo Myt.) The name of the first of the three gods who 
constitute the Trimurti, (Fig. 247) or triad of principal 
Hindoo deities. The epithets applied to this divinity are 
very numerous, some of the most usual being Swayam- 
bhu, the self-existing: Parameshti, who abides in the 
most exalted place; Pitamaha, the great father; Pra- 
jdpati, the lord of creatures; Lokesa , the ruler of the 
world, &c.; Brahm, the essence of the Supreme Being in 
the abstract, devoid 
of personal indi¬ 
viduality, to whose 
name so much reve¬ 
rence is attached 
that it is considered 
criminal to pro¬ 
nounce it,is said to 
have given birth to 
Brahma, Vishnu, 
and Siva simulta¬ 
neously ; and to 
have allotted to the 
first the province of 
creating, to the sec¬ 
ond that of preserv¬ 
ing, and to the 
third that of de¬ 
stroying. Accord¬ 
ingly, ever since 
the creation of the 
world, B has had 
little or nothing to 
do, and it will not 
be till the 10th 
avatar, or incarna¬ 
tion, that his ser¬ 
vices will be put in 
requisition when this world is to undergo total annihila¬ 
tion. Meanwhile, however, the other deities, Vishnu and 
Siva, are constantly engaged in their respective duties 
of preservation and destruction; and the Hindoos lavish 
chiefly their adoration upon those divinities from whom 
they expect to derive immediate advantage. In the 
mythological poems, and in sculpture, he is represent¬ 
ed with four heads, or rather faces, and holding in his 
four hands a manuscript book containing a portion of 
the Vedas, a pot for holding water, a rosary, and a sacri¬ 
ficial spoon. In the sculptures of the cave-temple of 
Elephanta, he is represented sitting on a lotus supported 
by five swans, or geese. — See Hindooism. 

Brali man. Rrah'min, n. The first, or highest, of 
the four Hindoo castes, said to have proceeded from 
the mouth of Brahma’, (see Brahma.) They form the 
95 


learned or sacerdotal class, and its members have main¬ 
tained a more extensive sway than the priests ol any 
other nation. Their chief privileges consist in reading 
the Vedas, q. v.. tn instituting sacrifices, in imparting 
religious instruction, in asking alms, and m exemption 
from capital punishment The whole life of the B. is de¬ 
voted to the study of the sacred wriiings. Their im¬ 
portance dates from a time later than that of the early 
Vedic hymns, in which Brahma himself is not known as 
a god, and the B. appears as oue among a number of 
priests in no way his inferiors. After the promulgation 
of the Code of Menu. q. v., the B. gradually established 
their supremacy. Of ancient Brahmanical science the 
principal remains are their astronomical and trigonome¬ 
trical methods, both ol which have given rise to frequent 
and learned discussion. Among the modern B we look it 
vain for the deep learning that characterized the ancient 
members of this order; for, with the exception of meta¬ 
physical disquisitions, which have ever been a favorite 
study among them, the learning of the present race of 
B. is exceedingly meagre. Their morals also are woe¬ 
fully deteriorated; and while they are the sole deposi¬ 
taries and ministers of a religion which in point of 
purity of morals yields only to the Christian, their con¬ 
duct is characterized by the most vile and licentious 
practices; a spirit of avarice, falsehood, and revenge is 
everywhere visible; and in many cases superstition and 
fanaticism have been exchanged for infidelity and 
atheism. See also Bramo Somaj. 

Brahmanee’, Brah'maness, n. The wife of a Brahman. 

Bralmiiin'ic, Brahman'ical, Brahmin'ic, Brahmin'i- 
cal, a. Pertaining, or relating, to the Brahmans, or to 
their religious doctrines and worship. 

Brall'manism, Brah'minism, n. The religion of Bra¬ 
hma; the doctrinal system of the Brahmans. 

Brahmapootra, Brahmaputra, (bra'ma-poal- 
tra.) (“ Son of Brahma”) sometimes erroneously written 
Bcrkampooter, one of the largest rivers of Asia, form¬ 
ing the proper E. boundary of Hindostan. It has 3 
separate sources, viz., the Dihong, Dibong, and Lohit 
rivers, which unite in Upper Assam; the first has been 
traced through the Himalaya chain to Lat. 30° 30' N., 
and Lon. 82° E., and is, in all probability, a continua¬ 
tion of the great San-po of Thibet. (See San-po.) The 
Dihong is but partially known, but it however, carries 
twice as much water as the Lohit into the B. The 
Dibong is the central and smallest of the three head- 
streams ; it rises N. of the Himalayas, near Lat 28° 10'; 
and Lon. 97°, and passes through the mountains into 
Assam, near Lat. 28° 15', and Lett. 90°. — The Lohit, 
called by the Assamese “ holy stream,” and considered 
by the Brahmins as more especially the origin of the B. 
is formed by the union of two smaller streams in the 
high mountain region of Thibet, between Lat. 28° and 
29° N., and Lon. 97° and 98° E. ; which having joined, 
the river thence resulting takes a S.W. course, and pass¬ 
es through a remarkable basin of rocky hills, a place 
of pilgrimage often frequented by Brahmins, in which 
it is augmented by the waters of the Brahmakund. a 
holy pool of those religionists. At its exit from this 
basin the river takes the name of B., flows S.W. through 
Assam (where it receives about 60 affluents), enters Ben¬ 
gal in the Rungpore dist., and. finally empties into the 
Bay of Bengal by an estuary 20 m. wide, in Lat. 22° 50' 
N., Lon. 90° 40' E., in conjunction with the largest 
branch of the Ganges. The B .’s banks are mostly cov¬ 
ered with jungle or marshes, and its current is very 
strong. Entire length estimated at 1,500 m. 

Brahmo Somaj. See Section II. 

Brahms, Johannes, born at Hamburg, May 7, 1833, 
one of the greatest of musical composers. His German 
Requiem (1878), commemorative of the Franco-German 
war, established his fame, and was followed by many 
subsequent compositions, chiefly of the choral, sym¬ 
phonic, and chamber styles, which are the admiration 
of all true musicians. Resided in Vienna after 1861, 
and died there April 3,1897. 

Braid, v. a. [A. S. bredan; probably of the same origin 
as broider.] To weave, knit, or wreath; to intertwine; 
to ornament with braid; as, to braid a coat. 

—To mingle, by rubbing in some fluid, or soft substance. 

—n. A texture formed by weaving together different 
strands; something braided; a knot. 

Braid'wood, in Illinois, a thriving city of Will co. 
Coal is largely mined near by. Pop. (1897) abt. 5,000. 

Brail, n. [0. Fr. braye, a truss, from brayes, breeches ] 
( Naut .) Brails are small ropes employed in gathering 
up on a yard the bottom and skirts of its sail, prepara¬ 
tory to furling. They lessen the trouble and danger of 
furling sails, and allow of sail being rapidly reduced by 
hauling the brails either from the deck or top. When the 
brails are hauled taut, the sail is said to be brailed up. 

Brain, n. [A.S. bragen, breegen; Frisian, brein, brin; 
Du. brein, from Goth, brikan; Sansk. vrkna, to break. 
Probably allied to Gr. bregma, the upper part of the 
head, from brecho, to wet, because in infants the fore 
part of the head is wet or moist.] — See below, j) Anat. — 
The seat of sensation and of the intellect, hence, the 
understanding. (Often used in the plural.) 

‘O that men should put aa enemy in their mouths, to steal 
away their brains. ‘— Sbaks. 

—Fancy; imagination; sensibility. (R.) 

• My son Edgar! had he a hand to write this, a heart and brain 
to breed it in? "— Shake. 

(Anat.) The name given to a soft pulpy substance, 
which in man and the higher orders of animals consti¬ 
tutes one of the great central masses of the nervous 
system. This important organ, the seat of sensation, 
thought, and intelligence, and contained in the cavity 
formed by the bones comprising the case of the skull, 
has been described by modern phrenologists as being a 


large flat cake, which, if carefully unfolded and spread 
out, would cover a circular area of several feet in diam¬ 
eter. The B so expanded, is folded and doubled up in 
the most admirable and wonderful manner, to enable it 
to adapt itself to the narrow, oval cavity of the cranium 
that receives it. these doublings or folds being the con¬ 
volutions, as they are called, which impart those ine¬ 
qualities to the vault of the skull-cap Irom which the 
science of phrenology has derived its external symbols. 
— Auatomically, the B consists of two parts, the exter 
nal and internal The external or outer portion is 
termed the bark, or cineritious part, from its ashy gray 
color; it is also called the glandular, or secretory, be¬ 
cause it was supposed to possess some of the secreting 
properties of a gland. This portion is composed of a 
fine cellular membrane, through which a congeries of 
extremely minute blood-vessels circulate freely. The 
internal portion, the largest and most consistent part of 
the B., is called the medullary portion, so named from 
its white marrowy appearance, and consists of bundles 
of minute fibres interlaced together. Both these por¬ 
tions are intimately united in the centre of the mass, or, 
as it is called, in the meisual line, the fibres of the right 
side passing to the left, and vice versa: thus each side 
of the brain is a reduplication of the other. The B. is 
divided into three parts — the cerebrum, or brain proper; 
the cerebellum, or lesser brain; and the medulla oblon¬ 
gata, or commencement of the spinal marrow. — The 
cerebrum, or B. proper, is situated at the upper and an¬ 
terior part of the skull, and is much the largest portion 
of the whole mass. It is divided into two halves, called 
hemispheres, each hemisphere being 6ub-divided by deep 
fissures called sold, into three lobes, named, from their 
situation, the anterior, middle, and posterior lobes. The 
cerebellum, or smaller B., is simply divided into two 
parts — the right and left hemispheres. This portion is 
situated at the back of the head, or oedput. and differs 
materially in structure from the larger B., being com¬ 
posed of flattened layers, or lamince. The medulla ob¬ 
longata is somewhat of a funnel shape, and seems like a 
continuous process of the latter part of the B., and 
passes out of the skull to descend along the tube of the 
spinal column. Besides the external case of the skull, 
the B. is enclosed in three internal investures or mem¬ 
branes, two of them called by the ancients, who believed 
that they gave birth to and supported all the nervous 
mass within the head, the mothers Thus the first, a 
strong fibrous texture, is named dura mater, or hard 
mother, because firm and resistent, lining the inside of 
A B 



A. —A section of the brain and spinal column. 1. The eere- 
brum. 2 The cerebellum. 3. The medulla oblongata. 4, 4. The 
spinal cord in its canal. 

B. —Anterior view of the brain and spinal cord. 1, 1. Th« 
two hemispheres of the cerebrum. 2. Longitudinal fissure sepa¬ 
rating the two hemispheres. 3, 3. The cerebellum. 4. The olfac 
tory nerve. 5. The optic nerve. 7. The third pair of nerves. 
8. The pons varolii. 9. The fourth pair of nerves. 10. The 
lower portion of the medulla oblongata. 11. The spinal cord. 
12, 12. Spinal nerves. 13. 13. The brachial plexus. 14, 14. Th« 
lumbar and sacral plexus. 

the skull and top of the brain, and sending down long 
processes between the two hemispheres and convolutions 
in an analogous manner to the tough membrane found 
liuing the inner shell of a walnut, to which fruit the 
brain bears a strong general resemblance. The second 




















414 


BEAI 


BEAK 


BEAN 


ip termed thejwa mater, or kind mother, because it dips 
into every told and convolution of the brain, and is a 
fine delicate membrane, covered in every part with a 
network of blood vessels, and is the medium by which 
nourishment is carried to the substance of the brain. 
The third coat is named the arachnoid membrane, from 
its resemblance to a spider's web. The proper uses and 
order of these investments will be given elsewhere. — 
Between the folds and doublings of the convolutions of 
the B. there are several cavities, or open spaces and 
elevations, which have received from different anato¬ 
mists names, according to their shape or size, such 
as the Ventricles, Fornix, Hippocampi, &o., q. v. — In 
males, the average weight of the full-grown human 
B. is about 49 or 50 oz.; in females, 44. It varies, how¬ 
ever, considerably in different individuals. In a series 
of 978 cases, the maximum weight of the adult male B. 
was found to be 65 oz., and the minimum 34; in 191 
cases, the maximum weight of the adult female B. was 
56, and the minimum 31 oz. The B of the naturalist 
Cuvier is said to have weighed upwards of 64 oz. Anat¬ 
omists differ as to the size or weight of the B at different 
periods of life. Soemmering believed that the 11 reached 
its full size as early as the third year; the Wenzels and 
Sir William Hamilton fixed the period about theseventh; 
and Tiedemann, between the seventh and eighth year. 
Gall and Spurzheim were of opinion that the B. con¬ 
tinued to grow until the fortieth year. From a series 
of observations, however, it appears that in general the 
weight of the B. increases rapidly up to the seventh 
year, then more slowly to between sixteen and twenty, 
and then more slowly to between thirty-one and forty, 
at which time it reaches its maximum point. Beyond 
that period there appears a slow but progressive diminu¬ 
tion in weight of about 1 oz., during each subsequent 
decennial period. The only animals that possess abso¬ 
lutely a larger B. than man, are the elephant and whale. 
In the former, it is said to weigh between 8 and 10 lbs., 
and in the latter it was found in a specimen 75 feet long, 
to weigh upwards of 5 lbs. Generally speaking, us com¬ 
pared with the weight of his body, the B. of man is 
heavier than that of the lower animals; but there are 
some slight exceptions to this rule, as in the case of cer¬ 
tain species of small birds, and in the smaller apes. The 
proportionate weight of the human B. to the body is 
greatest at birth, being about 1 to 5 - 85 in the male, and 
1 to 6 5 in the female. At the tenth year it is about 1 
to 14; at the twentieth about 1 to 30; and after that age 
it averages about 1 to 36-5, with a trifling decrease in 
advanced life. In general, the size of the B. bears a 
certain relation to the mental powers of the individual, 
■and a certain amount of it is always necessary to sound 
mental action. — In comparing the brain of man with 
that of the other mammalia, the most obvious distinc¬ 
tion is its much greater size in proportion to the size of 
the body. In the dog, the B. bears an average propor¬ 
tion to the body of about 1 to 120; in the horse, 1 to 
450; in the sheep, 1 to 750; and in the ox, 1 to 800. The 
convolutions, too, which are so marked on the human 
B., are few, or altogether wanting on the B. of animals. 
In particular, in animals, the medullary matter of the 
B predominates in every part, while the cineritious is 
deficient. The nerves of sense, too, in animals, are usu¬ 
ally much more largely developed than in man. In man 
the olfactory nerve is not one-fourth of the size of that 
of the horse, though the B. is so much larger. In the 
smaller quadrupeds the comparative size of the B. ap¬ 
proaches nearer to that of the human, being in the 
mouse about a forty-third part of the weight of the ani¬ 
mal; but it is composed almost entirely of medullary 
matter. In birds, the B. is in general a much less complex 
organ than in mammals, presenting no convolutions on 
its surface, and having only a very small quantity of cine¬ 
ritious matter. Though its bulk is in general proportion¬ 
ally much smaller than the human B., yet in some of 
the smaller birds, as the chaffinch and redbreast, it ap¬ 
proaches that of the latter. In fishes the B. is yet 
more diminished; in the chub being only 1 to 842, and 
in the lamprey 1 to 1,425. It consists merely of two 
pairs of ganglia and a single one. The two anterior 
ganglia, or lobes, are the olfactory lobes, immediately 
behind which are two others, generally of larger size, 
called the optic lobes; while behind these is a single 
ganglion, or lobe, situated in the median line, and 
termed the cerebellum. The functions of the B. will be 
examined under the words Nervous System, and Phre¬ 
nology. 

(Ckem.) The chemical examination of the brain of ani¬ 
mals was first undertaken by Vaugaslin, who found in 
the human brain 80 water, 7 albumen, 4'53 white fatty 
matter, O'70 red fatty matter, 1'12 osmazome, 15 phos¬ 
phorus ; acids, salts, and sulphur, 5'15. M. Couerbe, in 
an elaborate dissertation upon the composition of B., 
finds a large proportion of cholestenne in it, and asserts, 
as the result of repeated examinations, that the propor¬ 
tion of phosphorus in the B. of persons of sound intel¬ 
lect is from 2 to 2-5 per cent.; in the brain of maniacs 
it is from 3 to 4-5; and in that of idiots, only from 1 to 
1'5 per cent. 

(Med.) The B., which is the most delicate and ex¬ 
quisitely formed of all the organs of the human body, 
is subject to a great variety of disorders, most of which 
will be treated of under their proper heads, in other 
parts of this work, but some of which it will be neces¬ 
sary to notice here. Inflammation is one of the most 
common diseases to which the B. is subject, and may re¬ 
sult from a number of causes: — from external injuries, 
as blows or falls, the symptoms of which may not mani¬ 
fest themselves for many days; from the improper use 
of narcotics or stimulants; exposure to the cold or the 
action of the sun's rays; protracted study, excessive joy, 


or other mental emotion; as well as less directly from 
diseases of the digestive or other organs of the body. 
It is characterized by more or less violent pain of the 
head, with suffusion or prominence of the eyes, the 
countenance generally tumid or flushed, and delirium or 
stupor. Frequently, in children, inflammation leads to 
a form of disease known as water in the head, or hydro¬ 
cephalus, q. v. Softening of the B. is caused by the 
want of a proper supply of nourishment to the cerebral 
substance, and may arise from various causes. It is 
characterized by lowness of spirits, headaches, giddi¬ 
ness, the loss of memory, and at length, imbecility and 
paralysis. Unfortunately, this is a disease which little 
can be done to remedy, especially when it results from 
a disordered state of the nutritient organs themselves, 
as from disease or obstruction in the arteries which 
convey the blood to the cerebral substance. Frequently 
it is occasioned by over-anxiety or excessive study; in 
which case everything is to be done to get rid of the 
predisposing cause. Every thought, every mental effort 
destroys a certain portion of the cerebral matter; and 
hence, if destruction takes place more rapidly than re¬ 
newal, a wasting or softening of the B. is the result. 
The blood-vessels, particularly in the aged, are also 
liable to be ruptured.— See Apoplexy, Convulsions, In¬ 
sanity, Delirium Tremens, Paralysis. See the Brain, 
by Buys, 1882. 

Bruin, v. a. To dash out the brains of. 

Brained, a. Furnished with brains. 

Brain'erd, in New J 'or!:, a post-village of Rensselaer 
co., on Kinderhook Creek, 16 m. S.E. of Albany. 

Bra ill-fever, n. An inflammation of the brain. See 
Brain, (j> Med.) 

Brain'isli, a. Hot-headed; furious. 

Brain'less, a. Without understanding; silly; thought¬ 
less; witless. 

Brain'-pan, n. The skull, containing the brain.— 

Sheiks., llolland. 

Brain'-racking;, a. Perplexing; harassing the mind. 

Brain-sick, «. Disordered in the understanding; 
giddy; thoughtless. 

Brain-sickly, adv. Weakly; headily. 

Brain -sickness, n. Sickness of the brain. Indis¬ 
cretion; giddiness. 

Brain'-spnn. a. Spun out of the brain. 

Brai n- le-4 omt c, (brdn-lay-komtay,) a town of Bel¬ 
gium, prov. of Hainault, 13 m. N.N.E. of Mons; pop. 
5,065. 

Brain'stone-coral, n. A name popularly applied 
to certain kinds ot Madrepore of the genus Meanarina, 
so named fiotu the general resemblance to the brain of 
man, exhibited in their large rounded mass, and numer¬ 
ous winding depressions. H hen the hemispherical mass 
is broken, the ridges which bound its furrows may be 
traced inwards through its substance, even to the Cen¬ 
tral nucleus from which they commenced. The brain- 
stone corals are very common in collections, and are 
much admired for their beauty. They are found chiefly 
in the seas of warm climates, particularly in the Indian 
and S. Atlantic oceans. They sometimes atiain a large 
size. Their rate of growth, however, appears to be slow. 

Brsiiii'frce, a town of England, in co. of Essex, 36 m. 
N.K.of London. It is an ancient place, noted chiefly 
for its annual fairs. Pop. 4,735. 

Brain'tree, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Nor¬ 
folk co., 10 m. S. by E. of Boston. The manufacture 
of boots and shoes is carried on very extensively. 
Machinery, woollen goods, cordage, twine, mats, crash, 
&c , are also manufactured in the town. 

Brsiin'tree. in Vermont, a township of Orange co., 20 
m. S. by W. of Montpelier. 

Braiil'trem, in Pennsylvania, a township of Wyoming 
co. 

Birairil, n. (Scot.) [A.S. brord. ] In Scotland, the spring¬ 
ing up of seeds, which, when they come up well, are 
said to have a good braird. 

— v. n. To spring up, as seeds. 

Braise, n. A French word, in common use among char¬ 
coal burners to designate the fine refuse coal which 
gathers about their pits. The material is mui h used as 
a coveriug for the heaps of wood to be charred; and 
about iron-works it serves a very useful purpose, when 
mixed with the great piles of ore to be calcined, keeping 
up for a long time the slow combustion required lor this 
p urpose. 

Brail, n. A commercial name of the rough diamond. 

Brake, n. [Swed. and Goth, bralca, to crash, crackle. 
When dry, the plant crackles under the feet.] The com¬ 
mon name of the Pteris, a genus of ferns, called also 
Broken .— See Pteris. 

—A place overgrown with brakes, briers, or brambles. 

Brake, n. [Formerly pret. of break.] That which 
breaks, subdues, curbs, checks, confines, restrains, or re¬ 
tards.— An instrument to break flax. — A sharp bit or 
snaffle.— A vehicle for breaking in young or refractory 
horses. —A large heavy harrow for breaking clods.—An 
ancient instrument of torture. 

(Medi.) A block of wood applied by lever or screw 
pressure to the circumference of a wheel, to slacken or 
arrest the moving power of a machine, by the production 
of a large amount of friction. By extension of meaning, 
it now signifies the railway-carriage in which is placed 
the B. intended to retard or stop the train when needed. 
B. are sometimes used in the form of bands of metal or 
leather passing round a wheel, by the tightening of which 
the necessary amount of friction is produced. — The B - 
beam or B.-bar is the part that connects the ^.-blocks of 
opposite wheels. — The B.-broke is the part of theB. hold¬ 
ing the U.-shoe. — The B.-slioe or B.-rubber, is the part 
of a B. against which the wheel rubs. — The B.-wheel is 
the handle-wheel by which power is applied to a B .—The 


B. generally'used in the U. S. is known as the air-brake. 
See Air-Brake, in Section II. 

(Naut.) [From Lat. bruchium, an arm.] The handle 
of a ship’s pump. 

(Mil.) That part of a military engine or battery by 
which it is turned to any particular point. 

—A kind of cross-bow or ballista. 

Brake'muii, n .; pi. Brakesmen. One whose duty it 
is to tend to the brakes on a railroad-car. 

Brak'y, a. Full of brakes; rough; thorny. 

Bra mail, Joseph, an English engineer, b. 1749. II® 
was bred a carpenter, and worked for some time in Lon¬ 
don as a cabinet-maker, but at length adopted the engi¬ 
neering profession. His inventions were many and use¬ 
ful; as a hydraulic machine, producing motion by the 
uniform pressure of fluids, on the principle of the hy¬ 
drostatic paradox, (see Hydrostatic Press), and an im¬ 
proved kind of lock, known as the Bramah Lock, (see 
Lock.) He was the author of A Dissertation on the Con¬ 
struction of Locks, &c. D. 1814. 

Bra'nian's Corners, in New York, a post-office of 
Schenectady co. 

Brainante d'Ureino, (bra-man'tai), whose real name 
was Donato Lazzari, a celebrated Italian architect, B., 
1444. Showing an early taste for drawing, he was 
brought up to the profession of a painter, but he quitted 
it to dedicate his talents to architecture, which he culti¬ 
vated with uncommon success. He first designed and 
commenced in 1513, the erection of St Peter's at Rome, 
carried on and finished by other architects after his death. 
He wag a great favorite with Pope Julius II., who made 
him superintendent of his buildings, and under that 
pontiff he formed the magnificent project of connecting 
the Belvidere Palace with the Vatican, by means of two 
grand galleries carried across a valley, lie built many 
churches, monasteries, and palaces at Rome, and in other 
Italian cities, and was employed by Pope Julius as an 
engineer to fortify Bologna, 1504. He manifested a de¬ 
cided predilection lor the classic architecture of the 
Greeks, and was the instructor of Raphael in that art. 
D. 1514. B. painted portraits with ability, and he wu» 
skilled in music and poetry. 

Bramble, n. [A. S. breniel, brembel ; Dan. hr am bar ; 
O. Ger. brdma, brumal. Etymol. unknown.] (Bot.) The 
common name of the genus Rubus. </. v. 

Brsun'ble-berry, n. The blackberry. See Rubus. 

Bram'ble-busli, n. A collection of brambles grow¬ 
ing together. 

Bram'bled, a. Overgrown with brambles. 

Bramble-net, n. A net to catch birds. 

Briiin'blint;', Bramble-finch, Mountain-finch, n. 
(Z' bl ) A bird of the family Fringillidce. It breeds iu 
the more northern parts of Scandinavia; visiting Italy, 
Malta, Smyrna, &c., in its winter migrations. It has no 
song, its call-note being a single monotonous chirp. It 
is rather larger than the chaffinch. The tail is forked, 
and its prevailing colors are black, white, and yellow. 

Brani'bly, a. Full of brambles. 

Brain'ida', n. pi. (Zubt.) The Bream family. — See 
Bream. 

Bra'niin, n. See Brahman. 

Bram'lette, iu Kentucky, a post-office of Gallatin co. 

Brniiip'toii. in prov. of Ontario, a thriving town, cap. 
of Peel co., 21 in. N.W. of Toronto. 

Brail, n. [O. Fr.; Celt, bran, bren, excrement, ordure.} 
The skins or husks of corn, especially of ground wheat, 
separated from the corn by a sieve, or bolted. Large 
quantities of wheat B. are used for making starch which 
it contains in the proportion of 55'6 per cent. The dyers 
reckon B among the non-coloring drugs, and use it for 
making the sour water with which they prepare their 
dyes. B. is also used as food for horses and cattle. In 
the practice of medicine it is employed as a warm poul¬ 
tice iu abdominal inflammation, spasms, &c. 

Brail, the sun of Llyr, and father of Carudoc, or Carac- 
tacus, king of Britain; d. about 80 A. D. 

Bran'card, n. [Fr.] A horse-litter; a hand-barrow. 

Brancas-I.aurag'uaiH, (Duke de.) ( bran ' kas - lawra - 
gay',) a member of the French Academy of Sciences, B. 
1733. lie was distinguished for his skill in chemistry, 
and was the worthy associate of Lavoisier, Bertliollet, 
Chaptal, and other celebrated reformers of the science. 
To this nobleman we owe the discovery of the compo¬ 
sition of the diamond, and some very important improve¬ 
ments in the manufacture of porcelain. D. 1824. 

Briincli, n. [Gr. brachion; Lat. brachium, the arm; It. 
branca; Fr. branche.) (Bot.) That part of a plant which 
is produced from a lateral leaf-bud on the primary axis 
or stem. It is looked upon as part of the stem, and not 
as a distinct organ. A branch generally produces sec¬ 
ondary branches, and these give rise to minor ramifica¬ 
tions, called branchlets or twigs. The different modes iu 
which B. spring from the stem give rise to the various 
forms of trees; such as pyramidal, spreading, and weep¬ 
ing. Thus in the cypress, the branches are erect, form¬ 
ing acute angles with the upper part of the stem; in the 
oak and cedar, they are spreading, each forming nearly 
aright angle; in the weeping ash and elm, the angles 
are oblique; while in the weeping-willow and birch, the 
branches are pendulous, from their flexibility. The com¬ 
parative length of the upper and under branches also 
gives rise to great differences in the contour of trees, as 
seen in the conical form of the spruce, and in the um¬ 
brella-like shape of the Italian pine.— See Stem. 

(Anat.) A term applied generally to the principal 
divisions of an artery or vein. B. is then synonymous 
with Ramus. 

(Mining.) A leader, string, or rib of ore, that runs in 
a lode; or if a lode is divided into several strings, they 
are called branches, whether they contain ore or not; 
likewise strings of ore which run transversely ir, »o the 










BRAN 


BRAN 


BRAN 


415 


tode are called branches, and so are all -reins that are 
small, dead, or alive, ' ., whether they contain ore or 
not. 

{ Genealogy .) A portion of the descendants of a per¬ 
son, who trace their descent to some common ancestor, 
who is himself a descendant of a like person. The whole 
of a table of genealogy is often called the genealogical 
tree; and sometimes it is made to take the form of a 
tree, which is in the first place divided into as many 
branches as there are children, afterwards into as many 
brandies as there are graud-cliildren, then great-grand¬ 
children, and so on. If, for example, it is desired to 
form the genealogical tree of Peter's family, Peter will 
be made the trunk of the tree; if he has had two chil¬ 
dren, John and James, their names will be written on 
the first two branches, which will themselves shoot out 
into as many smaller branches as John and James have 
children; from these others proceed, until the whole 
family is represented on the tree. Thus the origin, the 
application, and the use of the word “ branch” in gen¬ 
ealogy will be at once understood. 

(Zool.) The first division of the animal kingdom, sy¬ 
nonymous with Type. — B. are characterized by plan of 
structure. Cuvier has shown that the animal kingdom 
comprises four great B. or Types— 1 'ertebrata, Articu¬ 
late. Mollusca, and Badiuta, q. v. — These four B. are 
sub-divided into classes. — See Class. 

(Naut.) In the U. States the name B., or Full B., is 
given to a pilot bearing a commission of the highest 
grade, to distinguish it from the warrant granted to 
subordinate pilots, who are restricted to vessels of a cer¬ 
tain draught. 

—The ofl'shoot of anything, as of a river, of a stag’s horn, 
Ac.; a small part of anything; any distinct article or 
portion. 

Branch, v. a. To shoot or spread in branches or sepa¬ 
rate parts ; to shoot out ; to ramify ; to fork. 

“ The Alps branch out, on all sides, into several different divi¬ 
sions. ” — Addison. 

— v. a. To divide or form into branches. 

“ The spirits of things are branched into canals, as blood is.” 

Bacon. 

—To adorn with needlework, representing branches, flow¬ 
ers, Ac. 

“la robe of lily white she was array'd. 

Branched with gold and pearl, most richly wrought.’ - Spenser. 
Branch, in Michigan , a S. county, embracing an area 
of 528 sq. m„ watered by the St. Joseph’s, Prairie, Cold- 
water, and Hog rivers. Surface. Rolling prairie. Soil. 
Excellent, yielding heavy timber and iron ore. Cap. 
Cold water. 

—A village of the above co., on the Coldwater River, 89 
m. S S.W. of Lansing. 

Branch, in 1‘enrrsylvania, a township of Schuylkill 
county. 

Branch, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Manitowoc co. 
Rraneh'burg, in New Jersey , a township of Somer¬ 
set co. 

Branch-chuck, n. (Med).) A chuck formed of four 
branches, turned up at the ends, and each furnished 
with a screw. 

Brancll'dale, in Pennsylvania, a P.0, of Schuylkill co. 
Branched’-work, n. (Arch.) Carved and sculp¬ 
tured leaves and branches on monuments and friezes. 
Branck'er, n. One that forms branches. 

(Falconry.) A young hawk that begins to leave the 
nest and go from branch to branch. 

Branch'ery, n. A system of branches; the vascular 
part of fruits. 

Bran'chial, a. Belonging or relating to the branchiae 
or gUls. 

Branching, (brangk'e-e,) n. pi. [Lat. ; from Gr. branchia, 
gills.] (Physiol.) The organs called B-, or GiUs, are 
vascular respiratory organs, destined to submit to the 
process of oxygenation the blood of the greater part of 
aquatic animals. It is by means of the oxygen of the 
air dissolved in water that this method of respiration is 
performed. As the name imports, these organs are more 
or less branched. They are situated upon special parts 
of the body, hut their position varies according to the 
animals in which they have been observed. Their sur¬ 
face, multiplied proportionately to the number of their 
ramifications, is always covered with a very fine and 
permeable membrane. In fishes the gills consist of 
arches of bone attached to the os hyoides or bone of 
the tongue. To these the rays or filaments of the gills 
are attached, generally in a row upon each, varying in 
number, and having their surfaces covered by a tissue 
of innumerable blood-vessels. Upon these is stretched 
the gill membrane. The water taken in by the mouth 
passes through among the filaments of the gills, and 
escape* by the gill openings in the rear. In its progress 
through the filaments of the gills, the oxygen is sepa¬ 
rated from the atmospheric air contained in the water, 
and carbon is given out in return. 

Brancli'iness, n. Quality of being branchy; ful¬ 
ness of branches. 

Braucli'ing - , «. The act of branching, or forming 
into branches 

— a. Supplied with branches: throwing out branches; as, 
a branching elm. 

Bran'cliiopotl. ra. (Zool.) One of the Branchiopnda. 
Branchiop'otla. n. pi. [Gr. branchia, gills, and pous, 
podos, a foot.] (Zobl.) A division of crustaceous animals, 
order Enlomostraca, in which the locomotive extremi¬ 
ties fulfil the functions of gills. These Crustaceans, 
which are for the most part microscopic, are always in 
motion when in an animated state, and are generally 
protected by a shell or crust in the shape of a shield, or 
of a bivalve shell, and are furnished sometimes with 
four, sometimes with two antennte. Their feet vary in 


number, some having not less than a hundred. A great 
portion have only one eye. The genera Cyclops and 
Cypris may be mentioned as examples of B. 
Ilraiu-liios'tegan, ». (Zobl.) One of the Branchi- 
ostegi. 

Braiicliios’tegi, n. pi. [Gr. branchia, gills, and stego. 
to cover.] (Zobl.) A division of cartilaginous fishes, 
comprehending those in which the gills are free, and 
covered by a membrane. It corresponds to the order 
Sturiones, q. v. 

Brnuctiios'teg'ous, a. That has covered gills, as 
the Brancliiostegi. 

Brandi Junc tion, in Pennsylvania, a post-office 
of Westmoreland co. 

Braucli'less, a. Without branches or shoots; barren; 

without any valuable product; as, a branchless tree. 
Brancli'let, n. A little branch. 

Branch-pilot, n. (Naut.) See Branch. 

Branch port, in New York, a post-village of Jerusa¬ 
lem township, Yates co., at the N,W. end of Crooked 
Lake, 200 m. W. of Albany. 

Branch River, in Rhode Island, empties into the 
Blackstone River, 4 m. above Woonsocket. 

Branch’s Store, in N. Carolina, a 1’. 0. ofDuplin co. 
Branch Village, in Rhode Island, a village of Smith- 
field township. Providence co., 10 m. N.N.W. of Provi¬ 
dence. Manuf. Chiefly cottons and agricultural imple¬ 
ments. 

Branch'ville, in Alabama, a. post-office of St. Clair co. 
Braneh'ville, in Arkansas, a post-office of Drew co. 
Branch'ville, in Maryland, a post-office of Prince 
George’s co. 

Branch'ville, in New Jersey, a post-village of Sussex 
co., on an arm of the Paulinskill River, 77 m. N. of 
Trenton. 

Branch'ville. in S. Carolina, a twp. and post-village 
of Orangeburg dist., 62 m. W.N.W. of Charleston, and 
67 S. of Columbia, 

Branch'ville, in Virginia, a P. 0. of Southampton co. 
Branch'y, a. Pull of branches; having wide-spread¬ 
ing branches. 

Bran'co, an affluent of the Rio-Grande. Brazil. It rises 
in the Sierra Dura, Lat. 11° 25' S., Lou. 40° 10' W.: flows 
in a S.E. course, and is navigable from its mouth to 
Tres-barres, a distance of about 40 m. — Branco Rio, an¬ 
other river of Brazil, rises in the’ Parime Mountains, 
flows S. for 400 m., and joins the Rio Negro near Lat. 1° 
20' S. 

Brand, n. [A.S., Du., Sw., and Dan. brand, from bren- 
nen, to burn.] A burning or partly burned piece of 
wood; a lighted fagot. 

“ Take it. she said, and when your needs require, 

This little brand will serve to light your fire. Dryden. 

—A sword, resembling a braud when waved. 

” Waved over by that flaming brand t ” — Milton. 

—A mark made with a hot iron; as, the brand of a cask; 
hence, figuratively, quality; kind; as, a box of cigars 
of a good brand. 

—A stigma; any note or mark of infamy. See Branding. 

” A brand of infamy passes for a badge of honor."— L'Estrange. 
—A disease peculiar to vegetables; sometimes called bum, 
and more commonly Blight, q. v. 

—A term sometimes applied to lightning, or a thunder¬ 
bolt; as, the levin brand. 

’’ The sire omnipotent prepares the brand. 

By Vulcan wrought, and arms his potent hand.”— Granville. 

— v. a. To burn, stamp, or impress with a hot iron; as, to 
brand a package. 

—To fix a mark of infamy upon; to stigmatize as infa¬ 
mous; as, to brand a person’s character; to brand a 
galley-slave. 

•’ Brand not their actions with so foul a name: 

Pity, at least, what we are forced to blame.” — Dryden. 

Brandenburg - , ( bran’den-boorg,) an important prov. 
of Prussia, consisting chiefly of the ancient Mark, or 
marquisate of B., having N. Mecklenburg and Pomera¬ 
nia, E. the provs. of Prussia and Posen, S. Silesia and 
the kingdom of Saxony, and W. Prussian Saxony. 
Anhalt, and Hanover; between 51° 10' and 53° 37' 
N. Lat, and 11° 13' and 16° 12' E. Lon. Area, 15,505 
sq. m. The prov. is divided into 2 regencies and 24 cir¬ 
cles, and consists, mainly, of an immense sandy plain, 
drained by the Oder, Spree, Netz, and other rivers. Soil, 
generally poor. Forests, very extensive. Buckwheat 
and rye form the leading products. With the exception 
of lime and gypsum, the minerals are unimportant. 
Manf. Machinery, agricultural implements, chemicals, 
glass, leather, potash, etc. B. forms the nucleus of all 
the States now united in the Prussian monarchy. It 
was given, in 1416. by the emperor Sigismund to Freder¬ 
ick VI., Count of Hohenzollern and Burgrave of Nurem¬ 
berg, ancestor of the present kings of Prussia. Chief 
towns. Berlin (cap. of Prussia), Potsdam, Frankfort-on- 
the-Oder, Brandenburg, and Spandau. 

Brandenburg, a town of Prussia, in the above prov., cap. 
circ. Vi. Havelland, on the Havel, 37 m. W.S.W. of Ber¬ 
lin, and 38 N.E. of Magdeburg; Lat. 52° 27' N, Lon. 12° 
32' E. The river divides the town into 3 parts, the old 
town on the right, and the new on the left bank; while 
on an island between them is built the Cathedral Town, 
which, from standing on piles, is often called Venice. 
Manf. Woollens, linens, stockings, paper, Ac. Pop. 
26,180. 

Brandenburg, a walled town of N. Germany, in the 
grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 17 m. N. by E. of 
Neu-Strelitz. It has extensive distilleries, and a pop. 
of 6.545. 

Brandenburg, in Kentucky, a post-village, cap. of 
Meade co., on the Ohio River, 40 in. from Louisville. 


Brand'er, n. A person who brands.—A Scotticism for 
a gridiron ; as, a fowl put on the brander. 

Brand -goose, n. (Zobl.) See Brent. 

Brandied, (brdn’did.) a. Mingled or strengthened 
with brandy; as, this is a brandied sherry. 

—Doctored or fortified with brandy; as, brandied plums. 
Brand'ing, n. An ancient mode of punishment by in¬ 
flicting a mark on an offender with a hot iron. It is 
generally disused in the Euglish Civil Law, but is a 
recognized punishment for some military offences, as 
desertion. It is not, however, now done by a hot iron, 
but with ink, guupowder. or some other preparation, so as 
to be visible, and not liable to be obliterated. The mark 
is the letter “ D..” not less than an inch in length, and 
is marked on the lelt side two inches below the armpit. 
Branding-iron, n. An iron used for branding. 
Brand'-iron, n. Same as Branding-iron. 

—A trivet to set a three-legged pot upon, when placed over 
a fire. 

Bran dish, v. a. [Fr. brandir, probably of the sams 
origin as 0. Fr. bransler, to shake.] To shake, move, 
wave, or agitate, as a weapon; to flourish. 

•‘He said, and brandishing at once his blade, 

With eager pace pursued the flaming shade.” -Dryden. 
—To flourish ; to amuse one's self with; as, to brandish a 
controversial argument. 

•• He, who shall employ all the force of his reason only in bran¬ 
dishing of syllogisms, will discover very little.” — Locke. 

— n. A shaking or waving; a flourish; as “Brandishes of 
the fan.”— Tatter. 

Bran'dislier, n. He who, or that which, brandishes. 
Bran dishing - , Brat'tishing, n. (Arch.) A terra 
used for carved work, as a crest, battlement, or other 
parapet. 

Brand'Iing. n. [So named from its color.] (Zobl.) A 
smal 1 worm used for bait. 

Brand'-new, a. [See Brand.] Quite new; unsoiled; 
untouched or unused. (Vulgarly corrupted into bran- 
new.) 

Bran don, n. [Fr.; Ger. brand, fire.] A name some¬ 
times given in England to the first Sunday in Lent, from 
the custom, which at one time is said to have prevailed 
in many places, of the peasants passing through their 
orchards and vineyards on that day with lighted torches, 
and threatening to cut down and burn the trees if they 
did not bear fruit in the coining year. 

Bran'don, a bay, headland, mountain, and village of 
Ireland, co. Kerry. The mountain, 3.126 feet high, has 
for its extreme point the headland which forms the IV. 
boundary of B. Bay. The latter, about 5 m. wide at its 
mouth, cuts into the land for about 5 m. The village is 
a fishing and coast-guard station, 10 m. N.E. of I ingle. 
Bran'don, in Iowa, a post-village of Buchanan co. 

—A township of Jackson co. 

Brandon, in Michigan, a post-township of Oakland co., 
38 m. N.N.W. of Detroit. 

Bran'lion, in Mississippi, a township and post-village, 
cap. of Rankin co. 

Bran'don, in Sew York, a township of Franklin coun¬ 
ty. 

Bran'don, in Ohio, a post-office of Knox co. 

Bran don, in Vermont, a post-township of Rutland co., 
on Otter Creek, 40 m. S.W. of Montpelier. Manf. Wool¬ 
lens, leather, Ac. 

Bran'don. in HTsconyfn, a post-village of Fond-du-Laa 
co., 18 m. W.S.W. of Fond-du-Lac, and 20 S. by E. of 
Berlin. 

Bran'don, in prov. of Ontario, a post-office of Peel cot 
Bran'don Church, in Virginia, a pust-oftice of 
Prince George co. 

Bran'don Point, in Virginia, a post-office of Prince 
George co. 

Bran'donville, in W. Virginia, a post-village of Pres¬ 
ton co., 15 m. N. of Kingwood, and 280 N.W. of Rich¬ 
mond . 

Brand'rith, n. An English provincialism, denoting 
the fence or staked enclosure around a well or spi+ng. 
Brandt, (brant.) a Hamburg chemist, who in 1669 acci¬ 
dentally discovered phosphorus, whilst making experi¬ 
ments with urine in search of gold. D. about 1695. 
Brandt, Sebastian, a German poet. b. at Strasbourg, 
1458, who wrote a number of works, the most celebrated 
of which is The Shipnf Fools, a burlesque poem, in which 
he satirizes the writings of his age. It met with great 
success, and found translators in several countries. D. 
1521. 

Brandt, in Ohio, a post-office of Miami co. 

Brandt Bake, in New York, a sheet of water of War¬ 
ren co., emptying in Schroon River. It is 5 m. in extent. 
Brandt Wood, in Indiana, a post-office of Starke co. 
Bran'dy, n. [Ger. brannt-wein, from brennen, to burn, 
to distil; Fr. orandevin.] Literally’, distilled wine; an 
ardent spirit distilled from wine and colored to the re¬ 
quired extent with burnt sugar, (caramel.) Its flavor is 
due chiefly to the presence of oenanthic ether derived 
from the wine; when newly distilled, it is as clear and 
as colorless as water. The color of genuine pale B. is 
due to its having remained so long in the cask as to have 
absorbed a portion of brown coloring matter from the 
wood, and is, therefore, an indication of its age. Hence 
arose the custom of adding caramel, and sometimes the 
infusion of tea, to impart the astringency due to the tan¬ 
nin taken from the wood by old B. It is prepared from 
wine in most wine-growing countries; but France, and, 
most notably, the town of Cognac, and the Armagnac, 
have always been considered the great ^.-producing local¬ 
ities. The Cognac B. is esteemed from the absence of a 
certain fiery flavor found in other B.. which is caused by 
a vpry small quantity of an acrid oil contained in the 
skin of the grape, inferior B. is distilled from apples, 
pears, peaches, cherries, blackberries, Ac. It is also pr*» 










41G 


BRAN 


BRAS 


BRAT 


ducea from a variety of other ardent spirits; rum, beet¬ 
root spirit, and that of potatoes, are largely used in 
France for its manufacture, and similar processes are 
also carried on in this country. Those inferior and nox¬ 
ious spirits are carefully rectified by repeated distillations 
over freshly burnt charcoal and quick-lime, to deprive 
them of their peculiar flavor, which would, if left be¬ 
hind, betray the imposition. Innumerable attempts are 
also made for producing, by fictitious means, a spirituous 
liquor bearing a close resemblance to the genuine French 
B ., but, as so far produced, they are not so perfect but 
that they may be easily detected. B. manufactured in 
California and some other States, owing to a more 
judicious treatment, has made a great stride during 
the last few years, and our importation is now almost 
entirely limited to the best btands of French £.; in fact, 
there tire many connoisseurs who prefer the domestic 
product to most of the imported brands. 

Bran'dy City, in Cal., a mining village of Sierra co. 

Bran'dy Station, in Fa., a p. o. of Culpepper co. 

Bran'dy-wlne, n. Brandy. 

Bran'dy wine, in Del , a hundred of New Castle co. 

—in Ind ., a twp. of Hancock co.—A vill. and twp. of 
Shelby co., 6 m. N.W. of Shelbyville. 

—in Maryland, a post-office of Prince George co. 

Bran'dywine Creek, in Pennsylvania and Dela¬ 
ware, is formed of two forks, the E. and W., which effect 
a junction in Chester co. of the first-named State, and, 
taking a S.E. course, empties into Christiana Creek at 
Wilmington. Here, Sept. 11 th, 1777, was fought a severe 
battle between the British and German troops, 18,000 
strong, under Howe, and the Americans numbering 
13,000 men, under Washington, in which the latter were 
defeated. The consequence of this battle was the occu¬ 
pying of Philadelphia by the British troops. 

Bran'dywine Creek, in Indiana, after rising in 
Hancock co., runs S.W. into Blue Itiver, near Shelbyville. 

Bran'dywine Manor, in Pennsylvania, a post-office 
of Chester co. 

Bran'dywine Mills, in Ohio, a village of Summit co. 

Bran'dywine Spring's, in Delaware, 4 m. N.W. of 
Wilmington. 

Bran'dywine Village, in Delaware, a suburb of 
Wilmington, ( q . v.) 

Bran'ford, in Connecticut, a post-town and seaport of 
New Haven co., 8 m. E. by S. of New Haven. The har¬ 
bor has a sufficient depth of water for vessels of over 
300 tons. 

Bran'ford, in Illinois, a township of Lee co. 

Brangle, ( brang'gl ,) n [Fr. branler; 0. Fr. bransler. 
See Brandish.] A shaking; agitation; confusion; a 
squabble; «a noisy contest or dispute. 

" The payment of tithes is subject to many frauds, brangles. and 
other difficulties.”— Swift. 


—!•. i. To squabble; to wrangle; to dispute contentiously. 
(R.) 

"Company will be no longer pestered with . . . brangling (lis- 
puters.”— Swift. 

Brang'ler, n. A quarrelsome, noisy person; a pest. 

Brang’liilg, n. A quarrel; a wrangling, (r.) 

Brauk, n. [Probably of Celtic origin.] A name used 
in some provinces in England for buckwheat. 

—A scolding bridle ; i.e., an instrument after the manner 
of a bridle, formerly used in England for checking the 
tongues of shrews and scolding women. 

Brank'ursine, n. A name which, as Bear’s-breech, 
is sometimes found applied to the species of Acanthus, 
said to have furnished the model of the Corinthian 
capital. 

Ilran'lin, n. [Scot, branlie.] ( Zolil .) A local name ap¬ 
plied to a species of fish resembling salmon, and found 
in rapid streams. 

Bran -new, a. Same as Brand-new, ( 7 . v.) 

Bran ny, a. [See Bran.] Consisting of bran; having 
the appearance of bran. 

<• It was .. . wheu I saw it, covered with white branny scales.” 

Wiseman. 



Bran'sle, n [From 0. Fr. bransler .] An old-fashioned 
brawl or dance. 

Brant, n. (Zolil.) See Brent. 

Brant, a. [See Brent.] Steep, rugged. ( Local Eng.) 

Brant, Joseph, a Mohawk chief, born in Ohio, 1742. He 
participated in the campaign of 1755, and held the post 
of secretary to Col. Johnson, superintendent-general of 
Indian affairs. On the outbreak of the American Revo¬ 
lution, B. took an active part in raising an Indian force 
to oppose the colonists, and was present at the action 
of Cherry Valley, and in other engagements. He did 
all in his power to prevent the confederation of the In¬ 
dian tribes previous to 
Gen. Wayne’s expedi¬ 
tion, and opposed peace 
between them and the 
U. States. B. was, how¬ 
ever, a brave and intel¬ 
ligent chief, and a zeal¬ 
ous administrator of all 
that tended to elevate 
and civilize his own peo¬ 
ple. In 1786 he visited 
England, there publish¬ 
ed the Book of Common 
Prayer and the Gospel 
of St. Mark, in Mohawk 
and English, and col¬ 
lected funds for an An¬ 
glican church, the first 
erected in Canada West. 

He passed the closing , AO 

years of his life at Bur- 408 • ~ JOSEPH BRANT. 

tington Bay, on Lake Ontario, on an estate granted him 


by the British government. D. 1807. One of B.'s eons 
commanded a mixed Canadian and Indian force during 
the war of 1812. 

Brant, in Michigan, a thriving township of Saginaw 

j county. 

Brant, in New York, a post-township of Erie co., 24 m. 
S.S.W. of Buffalo. 

Brant, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Calumet co. 

Brant, a S. co. of prov. of Ontario, W. of Lake Ontario. 
Area, 416 sq. m. Brained by the Grand River. Prod. 
Lumber, wool, hops and dairy produce. Cap., Brantford. 
Pop. (1890), 40,352. 

Brant'ford, a prosperous post-town of the province of 
Ontario, and capital of Brant co., 24 m. S.W. of Hamil¬ 
ton, on Grand river. Here are the workshops belong¬ 
ing to the Great Western Railway. Man/. Iron, tin and 
brass-ware, agricultural implements and stone-ware. 
Pop. in 1897, about 16,000. 

Brant-fox, n. A small species of fox. 

Brau'tome, Pierre de Bourdeilles, Seigneur de, 
( bran'tCme,) a French chronicler, b. in Perigord, about 
1540. He travelled in several countries in the capacity 
of chamberlain to Charles IX. and Henry III.; fought 
against the Huguenots (1562), in Barbary (1564), and 
went in 1566 to Malta, to fight against the Turks. After 
his return to the court of France he retired into private 
life, and wrote his Memnires, full of self-praise but very 
interesting, as they afford a lively portraiture of the 
manners and morality of his times, the women, in par¬ 
ticular, being very severely handled. The style is 
charmingly piquant, full of ingenious turns of expres¬ 
sion, sudden sallies of wit, occasional flashes of elo¬ 
quence, and withal so naively simple, that if the author 
cannot, on account of the abundance of his gossip, be 
reckoned a grave historian, he must needs be considered 
a most fascinating chronicler. D. 1614. 

Bran'ular, a. Cerebral: belonging to the brain. 

Brazen, ( braz'n,) a. Made of brass. See Brazen. 

Itrase'nia, n. ( Bot.) A name of the genus Hydropel- 
TIS, 7 . t>. 

Brasil, a. [Swed. and Ban. barsk; L. Ger. borsch.) Im¬ 
petuous; hot-tempered. — A term used in the U. States 
to denote the state of being brittle; as, decayed timber. 

— n. An eruption; a rash or blemish on the skin. — Broken 
pieces of ice; segments of ice. 

(Geol.) A mass of broken and angular fragments, de¬ 
rived from a subjacent rock, generally limestone. 

Brasli'ear, in Louisiana, a post-village of St. Mary’s 
parish, on the Atchafalaya River, 80 m. W.S.W. of New 
Orleans. 

Brash'er, in New York, a township of St. Lawrence 

co. 

Brasli’er Falls, in New York, a post-village of St. 
Lawrence co., on the St. Regis River, 35 m. E. of Og- 
densburg. Agricultural implements are largely fabri¬ 
cated here. 

Brash'er Iron-works, in New York, a post-village 
of St. Lawrence co., on Beer River, 3 m. S.E. of St. He¬ 
lena. It has large furnaces for iron-smelting. 

Bras'idas. a Spartan general, who distinguished him¬ 
self in the Peloponnesian war, and in 426 B. c. made him¬ 
self master of Amphipolis. He was wounded in a com¬ 
bat with Cleon, the Athenian general, who was endeav¬ 
oring to retake this place. I). 422 B. c. 

Brasier, Brazier, (bra'zhe.r,) n. [See Brass.] An 
artificer who works in brass. 

" There is a fellow somewhat near the door, he should be a bra- 

sier by his face.”— Shahs. 

—A pan to hold heated coals. 

‘ It is thought they had no chimneys, but were warmed with 
coals ou brasiers." — Arhuthnot. 

Brasil', n. See Brazil. 

Brass, n. [A. S. brees; Swed. and Goth brasa ; Icel. 
brys, a bright heat; Sp. brasas, live coals, from the root 
of burn.] Literally, a metal of the color of live coals. 
Specifically, a yellow alloy of copper and zinc. The pro¬ 
portions vary according to the required color; four parts 
of copper and one of zinc form an excellent B. It is 
usually made by heating copper plates in a mixture of 
native oxide of zinc, or calamine and charcoal. Its gen¬ 
eral properties are, that it has a well-known, fine yellow 
color, is susceptible of receiving a high polish, and i4 
only superficially acted upon by the air. It is very mal¬ 
leable and ductile when cold, and consequently may be 
beaten into thin leaves, and drawn into fine wire; at a 
high temperature it is brittle. The specific gravity of 
brass is greater than that deducible from the specific 
gravities of the metals which constitute it. Brass is more 
fusible, sonorous, a worse conductor of heat, and harder 
than copper. It is readily turned in a lathe, and is conse¬ 
quently well adapted, not only for philosophical instru¬ 
ments, but those used in manufacturing processes and for 
domestic purposes. In the state of wire it is most exten¬ 
sively employed in pin-making, and for various other pur¬ 
pose* ; the thin leaves into which brass is made by ham¬ 
mering, are called Dutch metal, or Dutch gold. In order to 
prevent ornamental brass-rvork from being tarnished by 
the action of air, it is either lacquered or bronzed. Lac¬ 
quering consists simply in varnishing the brass with a 
solution of shellac, in spirit, colored with dragon’s blood. 
Bronzing is effected by applying a solution of arsenic, 
or mercury, or platinum, to the surface of the brass 

Brass, or Coal Brasses, n. pi. (Mining.) Names 
given to the iron pyrites (sulphide of iron) found in the 
coal measures of the N. of England. They are employed 
in the manufacture of copperas. 

Bras'sage, n. (Old Eng. Law.) A sum of money for¬ 
merly levied to defray the expense of coinage, and taken 
out of the intrinsic value of the coin. The term is sup¬ 
posed to be derived from brachiorum labor. 


Bras'sart, n. (Mil.) In plate armor, the piece which 
protected the upper arm between the shoulder-piece and 
the elbow. 

Brass-hand, n. A company of musical performers, 
who perform on brass instruments, as the trumpet, trom¬ 
bone, bugle, &c. 

Brasse', n. (Zolil.) See Lucioperca. 

Bras'ses, (Monumental,) n. pi. (Archceol.) Th» 
name given to monumental slabs of brass, on which are 
carved effigies in outline. Of such memorials, the ear¬ 
liest on record is that of Simon de Beauchamp, who 
died at the beginning of the 13th century. 

Brass'et, n. A casque or morion formerly belonging 
to a suit of armor. 

Brass'firld, in N. Carolina, a post-office of Wake co. 

Brass'-foil, n. Thin sheets of brass beaten out; some¬ 
times called Dutch gold. 

Bras'sica, n. [From bresic, the Celtic name of the cab¬ 
bage.] (Bot.) A genus of plants, order Brassicacea 1 , con¬ 
taining several species, which are commonly cultivated 
as food for man and cattle. B. rapa is the common 
turnip. The species B. campestris is regarded by some 
as the source of the Swedish turidp; but others consider 
this vegetable to be a hybrid between B. campestris and 
B. rapa, or napus. The species B. oleracea is supposed 
to be the common origin of all the different kinds of 
cabbage, cauliflower, brocoli, and kohl-rabi, the differ¬ 
ent varieties having been produced by the art of the 
gardener. Brocoli and cauliflowers are deformed inflor¬ 
escences ; the kohl-rabi is produced by the stem enlarg¬ 
ing above the ground into a fleshy knob, resembling 
a turnip. On comparing the original plant, as found on 
our shores, with wavy green leaves, no appearance of 
head, and flowering like wild mustard or charlock, say 
with the red cabbage or the canliflower, the difference 
is astonishing. B. napus yields the rape, cole, or colza 
seeds, from which a large quantity of bland fixed oil, 
much used for burning and other purposes, is expressed. 
See Cabbage, Cauliflower, Brocoli, Kohl-rabi, Tur¬ 
nips. 

Brassica'cere, n.pl. (Bot.) An order of plants, alliance 
Cistales. — Biao. Tetramerous flowers and tetradynauious 
stamens.—They are herbaceous plants, annual, biennial, 
or perennial, very seldom suffruticose. Leaves alternate. 
Flowers usually yellow or white, without bracts, gener¬ 
ally in racemes; sepals 4, deciduous, imbricate or val- 
vate; petals 4, cruciate, alternate with the sepals; sta¬ 
mens 6 , of which 2 are shorter; disk with various green 
glands between the petals and the stamens and ovary; 
ovary superior, unilocular; stigmas 2 , opposite the 
placentas ; fruit a silique or silicule; seeds attached in a 
single row by a funiculus to each side of the placenta); 
albumen non e. — properties. The Brassicacea? as a class 
are of much importance to man. They furnish several 
alimentary articles which are very nutritious, as the 
turnip, cabbage, cauliflower; several others are used as 
condiments; as mustard, radish, coclilearia, &c. They 
all possess a peculiar acrid, volatile principle, dispersed 
through every part, often accompanied by an ethereal 
oil abounding in sulphur. They are also remarkable 
for containing more nitrogen than other vegetables, for 
which reason ammonia is generally evolved in their 
putrefaction. In medicine they are eminently stimulant 
and antiscorbutic. None are really poisonous, although 
very acrid. The root of Isatis tinctoria affords a blue 
coloring matter. — The order is divided into 173 genera 
and 1,600 species. The greatest part of the species are 
found in the temperate zone. About 100 are peculiar 
to N. America. 

Brass'iness, n. Quality, or partaking of the nature of 

brass. 

Brass'- loaf', n. Same as Brass-foil, 7. r. 

Brass'-paved, a. Firm and stable as brass. 

Brass'-visaged, a. Impudent; cheeky; bold in de¬ 
meanor. 

Brass'y, a. Made of brass; hard as brass ; resembling 
brass. 

“ And pluck commiseration ofhis state 
From brassy bosoms, and tough hearts of flint.” — Shahs- 

—Impudent; bold; brazen-faced. 

Brat, n. [0. Ger. herd, offspring; Ger. brut, from the root 
of brud, Brood; A. S. bredan.] Originally, that which is 
nourished or cherished; specifically, a child, (so called 
contemptuously.) 

" I can grant ten thousand pounds n-year. 

And make a beggar's brat a peer. — Swift. 

Rrafs’herg, in Minnesota, a post-office of Fillmore co. 

Bratt ioe,(brorf'fts,)n. (Mining.) The main shaft is divided 
by a partition of iron plate and other fit material called a 
brattice, into two chambers, which serve as up-cast and 
down-cast shafts for the ventilation. Mining engineers 
also use the term to express the separation of the cur¬ 
rents, which takes place occasionally on the sides of a 
shaft, which are then said to constitute a natural brat¬ 
tice, or one independent of any artificial ventilation. 

Brat'tleboro’, in Vermont, a post-township of Wind¬ 
ham co., on the Connecticut River, 100 m. S. of Mont¬ 
pelier. Machinery and iron castings are manufactured 
here. This was the eailiest setlleu place in the State. 
Pop. (1890), 6,862. 

—In the above township, B. (East Village), a flourishing 
post-village of Brattleboro’ township, Windham co., at 
the mouth of Whetstone Creek, adjoining the Connecti¬ 
cut River, 110 m. S. of Montpelier, and 70 E. by N. of 
Albany. 

— B. (West Village), a post-village situate on Whetstone 
Creek, 2 m. W. of the East Village, and 110 S. of Mont¬ 
pelier. 

Brat'tleville, in Illinois, a village of McBonough co. 

Bratton, in Pennsylvania, a township of Mifflin co. 








BRAW 


BRAZ 


BRAZ 


417 


Brat'ton's Mills, in Kentucky, aP. 0. of Bracken co. 
Brsittii'ite, n. (Min.) A native sesquioxide of manga¬ 
nese, composed, when pure, of 69 68 per cent, of manga¬ 
nese and 80 32 oxygen. 

Brauns berg:, (bro urns'bairg,) a town of Prussia, prov. 
K Prussia, oil the Passarge, about 3 m. above where it 
falls into the Prische Hafif. It is well-built and pros¬ 
perous, deriving its chief claim to notice from its semi¬ 
nary, the Lyceum Hosianum, for the education of Cath¬ 
olic clergymen. It is so called from its having been 
founded and endowed by the learned Stanislaus llosius, 
bishop of Enueland. Pop. 11,180. 

Bra'va, an island of Africa, in the Cape Verd Archi¬ 
pelago, 7 m. long and 6 broad; Lat. 14° 19' N., Lon. 24° 
45' W.; pop. about 5,000. 

Bravado, (bra-vd’do,) n. fSp. bravada, from bravo, 
brave.] A boast or brag; an arrogant menace. 

“ Spain, to make good the bravado. 

Names it the invincible Armado." — Earl of Dorset. 
Brave, a. [Dan. brav; Du. brauf; Swed. braf; Lat. 
probus, good; Icel. braf; Ger. brav, excellent; Goth. 
brahv, the twinkling of an eye; allied to brag.] Dis¬ 
playing power, courage, or daring ostentatiously yet 
readily; daring; bold; gallant; dauntless; heroic; fear¬ 
less ; as, a brave hero. 

44 None but the brave deserves the fair." — Dryden. 

—Good; excellent; grand; lofty; gallant; dignified; 
showy; as, brave apparel. 

•• Tell how Horatius kept the bridge, 

In the brave days of old." — Macaulay. 

—n. Literally, a blusterer, a bully; wheuce, a man daring 
beyond discretion or decency ; as, an Indian brave. 

44 Morat 's too insoleut, too much a brave, 

His courage to his envy is a slave." — Dryden. 
r-v. a. To set boastfully at defiance; to challenge; to en¬ 
counter with courage and fortitude. 

41 The ills of love, not those of fate, I fear ; 

These I can brave, but those I cannot bear." — Dryden. 
Brave'ly, adv. Courageously; gallantly; heroically. 

44 Your valour bravely did th’ assault sustain." — Dryden. 
—Convalescent; recovered from illness; as, he’s getting 
on bravely. 

Brave'ness, n. Same as Bravery, q. v. 

Brav'ery, re. Courage; heroism; valor; dauntless¬ 
ness ; intrepidity; as, the battle was won by sheer 
bravery. 

“ Juba, to all the bravery of a hero, adds softest love, and more 
than female sweetness." — Addison. 

—Fine dress: showy appearance; magnificence. 

“ Where all the bravery that eye may see, 

And all the happiuess that heart desire, 

Is to be found.” — Spenser. 

—Bravado ; boasting; ostentatious defiance, (o.) 

“ There are those that make it a point of bravery, to bid defi¬ 
ance to the oracles of divine revelation." — L'Estrange. 

Brav'inja;, re. An act of bravado. 

Brav'ingly, adv. In a defiant, blustering manner. 
Bravo, re .; pi. Bravi, ( brd'vo .) A name given in Italy to 
a certain class of individuals who engage themselves for 
money to perform the most hazardous enterprises, fre¬ 
quently murder. 

Bravo, (brah’vb.) interj. [It. and Sp.] An exclamation 
of applause, signifying well done 1 bravely! It is used 
in English without regard to gender or number, but the 
Italians use brava for the feminine, and bravi for the 
plural; the superlative is bravissimo. 
Brav'o-Muril'Io, Don Juan, an eminent Spanish 
statesman, B. 1803. Early in life, he selected the bar 
as his profession. In 1825, he entered the college of 
Advocates at Seville, and showed great devotion to the 
monarchy. When the Progressistas came into power, 
he went to Madrid, and formed a law magazine, the 
Boletin de Jurisprudencia. In 1836, he became Secretary 
to the Department of Justice under SeBor Isturdz. After 
the flight of the Queen-Mother, Maria-Christina, in 
October, IS40, B. M. was compromised in a conspiracy 
against the regency of General Espurtero (q. v.), and 
took refuge first in the Basque provinces, and then in 
France, where ho remained until 1843. In 1847 he be¬ 
came Minister of Trade and Public Instruction, and, in 
1849-50, of Finance. In 1851, he formed a cabinet, with 
himself as premier, but, in 1853, it was superseded by 
that of General Lersundi. The oppressive measures 
adopted by B. M. and his successors led to the revolu¬ 
tion of 1854, and the attainment to power of Marshals 
Espartero and O’Donnell. He has since filled impor¬ 
tant diplomatic posts, but since the abdication, in 1868, 
of Queen Isabella, he has not held any public position, 
being in antagonism to the govt, presided over by Mar¬ 
shal Serrano, (1869.) D. 1873. 

Bravura, ( bra-voo'ra ,) re. [It., bravery, spirit.] (Mas.) 

A term generally applied to a song of considerable spirit 
and execution; but sometimes it is also applied to the 
performance of such a song. 

Brawl, ( bral,) v. i. [Fr. brailler, from Alem. brallen , 
to cry; W. bragal, to vociferate.] To quarrel indecently 
and noisily. 

“ How now? Sir John 1 what, are you brawling here ?"— Shake. 
—To wrangle; to squabble; to rail. 

“ Loquacious, brawling, ever in the wrong." — Dryden. 

—To roar, or make a lond noise, as water. 

“ Upon the brook that brawls along the wood." — Shaks. 

I .—re. A noisy quarrel; a squabble; scurrility; uproar. 

44 But with thy brawls thou hast disturb’d our sport." Shake. 

—An ancient kind of contre-dance, somewhat resembling 
the modern cotillon. (Sometimes written bransle.) 
JBrawl'er, re. Oue who brawls; a noisy fellow; a 
wrangler. 

44 4n advooate may incur censure for being a brawler in court.” 

Ayliffe. 


Brawl ing, re. The act of quarrelling; wrangling. 
Brawl'ing 4 , a. Quarrelling; noisy; quarrelsome. 

“ It is better to dwell in a corner of the house-top, than with a 
brawling woman in a wide house.” — Prov. xxi. 9. 

Brawl'ing’ly, adv. Iu a wrangling or quarrelsome 
manner. 

Brawn, (bran,) re. [A. S. bdr, a boar, pi. bdren, pro¬ 
nounced bawren, wheuce by transposition brawn.] The 
flesh ofa boar; also the prepared and salted flesh of the 
wild boar or domestic hog, generally made from the 
head, cheeks, tongue, ears, &c.; a mayonnaise of pork. 
The cities of Cambridge and Canterbury, in England, 
are celebrated for this deliqacy. 

_ " The best age for the boar is from two to five years, at which 
time it is best to . . . fell him for brawn." — Mortimer. 

—The fleshy, muscular part of the body; bulk; muscular 
strength or power. 

44 But most their looks on the black monarch bend, 

His rising muscles and his brawn commend." — Dryden. 

Brawn'er, re. A boar killed for the table. 

44 Then if you would send up the brawner head. 

Sweet rosemary and bays around it spread.’ — King. 

Brawn iness, re. Strength; muscular power ; hardi¬ 
ness. 

“ This brawniness and insensibility of mind is the best armor 
against the common evils and accidents of life." — Locke. 

Brawn'y, a. Muscular; fleshy; strong; bulky; as, a 
brawny giant. 

44 The brawny fool, who did his vigour boast, 

In that presuming confidence was lost." — Dryden. 
ilrav'lon, in Virginia, an unimportant village of War¬ 
wick co., located about 17 m. N.N.W. of Newport News. 
Its post-office is Leehall. 

15a 4 ta x' ton, in West Virginia, a central co., having an area 
of 565 sq. in., and watered by the Elk, Little Kanawha, 
ami Holly rivers, and Birch creek. Surface. Mountain¬ 
ous and heavily wooded. Soil. For the most part fertile. 
Products, corn, wheat, oats, hay, live stock, lumber. Ac. 
Min. Coal, iron, salt. Cap. Sutton. Pop. (1898) 15,100. 
Brax'y, re. A disease in sheep, caused apparently by 
constipation. It is called braxes and bracks. 

— a. Infected with the braxy. 

Bray, v. a. [A. S. bracan, to break.] To break into 
small pieces; to triturate; to pound, beat, or grind 
small. 

44 I’ll burst him ; I will bray 
His bones as iu a mortar." — Chapman. 

— v.f. [Fr. braire, from Lat. rugire, to roar; Gr. bracho, 
brucho; Icel. brak, crash, noises.] To roar; to make 
a harsh, dissonant sound, as an ass. 

44 Laugh, and they 

Return it louder than an ass can bray." — Dryden. 

—To make a harsh, grating noise or sound. 

44 Arms on armour bray'd 
Horrible discord. ’’ — Milton. 

—re. The harsh sound or roar of an ass; any grating or 
offensive sound. 

44 Boist’rous untun'd drums. 

And harsh resounding trumpets dreadful bray ."— Shaks. 
Bray, re. [0. Eng. braye.] Same as Brae, q. v. 

Bray, a maritime town, and fashionable sea-bathing 
resort of Ireland, co. Wicklow, 12 m. S.S.E. of Dublin. 
It is a beautifully situated and well-built place. Manf. 
Woollens and linens. Pop. about 4,000. 

Bray'er, re. One who brays like an ass. 

44 Sound forth, my brayersl and the welkin rend.” — Pope. 
(Printing.) An instrument used to temper ink in a 
printing-office. 

Bray'era, re. (But.) A gen. of plants, ord. Rosacece. 
The only species, B. anthelmintica, is a tree with pinnated 
leaves, and dioecious flowers, found in Abyssinia. 

Bray Head, a promontory on the E. coast of Ireland, 

2 m. S.W. of Bray, having an elevation of 807 feet above 
the sea. 

Bray'ing, re. The noise given forth by an ass. 

—Noise: clamor; discordance. 

Bray'ins’, P- a - Founding or grinding small. — Making 
the noise of an ass; roaring. 

Brayle, re. See Brail. 

Braze, v. a. [Fr. braser.] % To give the color of brass to; 
to solder with brass or an'alloy of brass and zinc; as, to 
braze a kettle. 

—To cover or decorate with brass. 

—To harden to impudence. 

“ If damned custom hath not braz'd it so, 

That it is proof and bulwark against sense.” — Shaks. 
Brazen, (braz’n,) a. Made of brass; pertaining to 
brass ; as, a brazen lamp. 

“ A bor,'?h his brazen helmet did sustain ; 

His heavier arms lay scattered on the plain." — Dryden. 

—Impudent; having a front like brass; as,a brazen asser¬ 
tion. 

Braz'en. t>. i. To be impudent; to bully. 

“ When I reprimanded him for his tricks, he would talk saucily, 
lie, and brazen it out as if he had done nothing amiss ." Arbuthnot. 
Braz'en Age, re. (Myth.) The age which succeeded the 
Silver Age, when man had degenerated from their primi¬ 
tive simplicity. 

Braz'en-browe«I,(6mz're-&roM(2,) a. Without shame; 
impudent. 

Braz'en-dish, re. (Mining.) The standard by which 
other dishes are gauged. 

Braz'en-Iaeed, a. One who acts with effrontery; a 
shameless person. 

44 Well said, brazen-face; hold it out." — Shaks. 
Braz'en-face, re. Impudent; bold to excess; shame¬ 
less ; as, a brazen-faced hussy. 

“ What a brazen-faced varlet art thou, to deny thou knowest 
me? " — Shaks. 

Braz'enty, adv. In a bold, shameless manner. 


Braz'en-sea. (Scrip.) A curiously carved vessel 
constructed by Solomon, and set in the temple. It ap¬ 
pears to have been an enlargement upon the original 
laver of brass, which Moses constructed for the taberna 
cle, and to have been designed to serve only a part of 
the uses assigned to the most ancient vessel. 
Braz'en-serpen t, re. (Scrip.) An image in brass 
prepared by Moses, resembling the fiery serpent so de¬ 
structive to Israel in the desert, and set up in the midst 
of the camp in the view of all, that whosoever would 
evince penitence, faith, or obedience by looking at it, 
might live. (Num. xxi. 6-9.) 

Brazil (United States or), a Republic of S. Am., and 
one of the largest states of tiie world—exceeded only, in 
its extent of territory by the United States, China, and 
Russia—stretches along two-thirds of that continent, 
while its superficial area occupies nearly half of South 
America. It lies between 4° 3iy N. and 32° 35' S. Lat. 
and 35° and 70° W. Lou. Length, from N. to S., between 
2,600 and 2,700 in.; breadth, from E. to W., between 
2,000 and 2,550 m. B. is bounded S. by the Atlantic 
Ocean aud Uruguay ; on E. by the Atlantic Ocean ; N. 
by the same, French, Dutch, and British Guiana, aud 
the republic of Venezuela: and W. by the republics of 
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argen¬ 
tine. A lai ce proportion of this area consists of elevated 
plateaus and mountains, and the exteut of cultivated 
land bears but a very small proportion to that of the 
whole country. There are two extensive plateau regions, 
known respectively as the Brazilian and the Guiana 
plateaus, and two regions of depression, the Amazonian, 
which is from 50 to 150 miles wide, and the Paraguyan, 
a vast swampy plain, some 250 miles wide and only 400 
feet above sea-level, through which the upper Paraguay 
flows. The interior of Brazil contains one of the 
great forests of the world, a dense growth of tropical 
trees covering the damp aud warm Amazonian de¬ 
pression and following the course of long affluents. 
There is a second large forest region on the upper 
Parana, and a third along the coast range. The plateaus 
are largely open country, while tlie swamps of the 
Paraguay are generally covered with a rank growth of 
grass.—Brazil under the empire was divided into twenty 
provinces: Minas Geraes, Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Pernam¬ 
buco, Sao Paulo, Ceara, Maranhao, Parahyba, Para, Rio 
Grande do Sul, Rio Grande do Norte, Sergipe del Rey, 
Goyaz, Piauhy, Santa Catharina, Matto Grosso, Parana, 
Espiritua Santo, Amazonas, and Alagoas. On the 
abolition of the empire, and the establishment of a 
federal republic on the model of the U. S. of America, 
the former provinces became states, with representation 
similar to that of the States of our own Union. The 
population by a late estimate is over 14,000,000, though 
this is probably too large. The area is officially given 
as 3,209,878 sq. m., but this includes large tracts which 
are claimed by Venezuela, Colombia, and Bolivia. Of 
the population, over one-third is classed as white, but 
a considerable number of these are of mixed Negro and 
Indian blood. One-fifth the population are Negroes, as 
many more are mulattoes; about 400,000 are civilized 
Indians, and there are perhaps 250,000 wild Indians. 
General Desc. The form of B. may be said almost to 
resemble that of a heart, of which the greatest diameter, 
from E. to W., in a straight line from Olinda to the ter¬ 
ritories claimed by Peru, may he about 30 degrees. The 
E. side of this country is traversed, from N. to S., at 
more or less distance from the coast, by a mountainous 
range, of which the average height is about 3,000 feet, 
known by the name of Serra do Mar, its greatest alti¬ 
tude being 4,000 feet. This range serves to divide the 
coast land from the high land, consisting of campon, or 
tracts destitute of wood, the average height of which is 
about 2,500 feet. It gradually becomes lower in the 
direction of Paraguay, until it is lost in the low and 
generally marshy plains inhabited by the Indian tribe 
of Guaycurus. Many geographers have fallen into the 
error of supposing that the prov. of Matto Grosso con¬ 
tains the highest mountains, and that they form a junc¬ 
tion with the Cordilleras of Peru and Chili. But Esch- 
wege, who resided in this country for 10 years, during 
which period he visited the greater part of it, confutes 
this supposition in his Brazilien die neue Welt. He ob¬ 
serves that broad and fertile plains lie between, and that 
the sources of the Madeira, which flows in a N. direc¬ 
tion toward the Amazon, and of the Paraguay, are both 
within a few miles of each other, and that their eleva¬ 
tion is inconsiderable. Mountains, <£c. The highest 
range of the Brazilian mountains is that which traverses 
the centre of the country, and its greatest altitude is 
about 6,000 feet. The mountains of tiiis empire may be 
divided into three different ranges: 1. The Coast range, 
or Serra do Mar, above mentioned. This is by far the 
most picturesque of the Brazilian chains, and in some 
parts approaches within 16 or 18 miles of the sea, while 
in others it sweeps inward to a distance of from 120 to 
140 m. At a distance, and in the vicinity of the moun¬ 
tains, are found ancient forests (matto virgetn), whose 
giant trees, and countless plants and shrubs of luxuri¬ 
ant growth, so thickly woven as almost to defy the at¬ 
tempts of man to force a passage, sufficiently attest the 
excellence of the soil in which they grow. On crossing 
the Serra do Mar, we meet with a barren table-land 
called Campos Geraes, with few traces of cultivation. In 
the valleys gold and diamonds are frequently found. 
The Serra do Mar chain commences in the Campos do 
Vacaria, sinks abruptly in the direction of the Rio Doce, 
and loses itself completely at Bahia. The celebrated 
Monte Pascoal, which was seen by the early navigators, 
forms a part of the Serra do Mar. It is known by va¬ 
rious names in the districts through which it run 3 . On 
the E. side it is styled Serra dos Ay mores - , while in tha 










418 


BRAZ 


BRAZ 


BRAZ 


neighborhood of Rio it is called Serra dos Orgo'es (Organ 
Mountains). It is worthy of remark that the plants 
growing in the Campos are altogether distinct from 
those on the other side the Serra do Mar; and the zoolo¬ 
gist may discover quite a new race of animals, as well 
as birds, in this region. 2. The central chain, called in 
some parts Serra do Mantequeira, and in others, Serra do 
Espinkaco, is more extensive than the former, and com- 



Fig. 409. — ROAD FROM PETROPOLIS TO BARBACENA. 


prises the highest points in B., viz., the Ttacolumi, near 
Villa Rica; the Serra do Carassa, nearCaltas Altas; and 
the Itambe, near Villa do Principe. This range tra¬ 
verses the province of Minas Geraes, running in its N. 
course, through Bahia and Pernambuco, and in its S. 
course, through Sao Paulo and Rio Grande. It is not 
only remarkable as comprising the highest points in 
the empire, but is highly interesting in a geographical, 
botanical, and zoological point of view. In different 
parts it bears the various local designations of Serra do 
Lopo, Serra Sallado, Serra do Sao Geraldn , Serra dos Es- 
meraldas, and many others. 3. The Serra dos Verten/es 
(“Water-separating Mountain”), so called because it 
divides the E. tributaries of the rivers Amazon and La 
Plata from the river Sao Francisco. This chain is some¬ 
times called the Brazilian Piirene.es. Its loftiest points 
are those of Serra do Canastra and Matto Gorda, where, 
on one side the Rio Sao Francisco, and on the other the 
' most important tributaries of the Rio Grande, take 
their rise, and the Pyrineos, in the prov. of Goyaz, 
where the tributaries of the ParaHa are found. Exclu¬ 
sive of its hilly and mountainous districts, and of its 
table-lands, the plains of B. are of vast extent; the prov. 
of Par&, including a portion of the contiguous prov. of 
Matto-Grosso, comprises, in fact, the whole of the lower 
and more level portion of the immense plain of the 
Amazon. During the inundations, large tracts of this 
plain are submerged. It is mostly covered by vast 
primeval forests. There are also some very extensive 
plains in Naranhao and other parts of the empire. That 
which includes the Lagoa dos Platos extends for above 
220 m. along the coast — Rivers. <fe. The harbors of B 
are among the finest in the world : and some of these 
are connected with the interior by largo rivers, navi¬ 
gable for a great way inland. The principal of these 
streams is the Amazon, generally considered the largest 
river in the world. Of the other rivers, the chief are 
the Tocantins, or Para, an immense stream formed by 
the junction of the Araguay (the principal branch), and 
Tocantins (properly so called). The Rio Siio Francisco, 
which rises in the S. part of the prov. of Minas Geraes, 
traverses the centre of the empire, and receives many 
tributaries. The Rio Grande do Sul (“ Great River of 
the South”).the ParaHa,the Parahyba,Itapicuru, Doce. 
and many others Many of them, more especially the 
Marafion, periodically overflow their banks, and inun¬ 
date a large surface of country. The lake, or rather la¬ 
goon, Lagoa dos Patos, in the prov. of Rio Grande do 
Sul, is the most extensive in B., spreading over a dis¬ 
tance in length of above 145 m., and having a partial 
breadth of 40 m. It is navigable for vessels of consid¬ 
erable burden.— Soil. The soil of this great country is 
of various descriptions. It is of great fertility in some 
parts, but by no means throughout, and the oft repeated 
story of the superabundant wealth of the soil in every 
part of the empire is decidedly erroneous The same 
causes, in fact, (as drought, malaria, epidemics, red ants, 
Ac.,) which hindered the foundation in B of a civiliza¬ 
tion analogous to that which was established in Mexico, 
Central America, and Peru, ages before the discovery of 
this continent by Europeans, are still in action to-day, 
and in unuiminished force. Notwithstanding, it would 
ba impossible to overrate the extraordinary fertility of 


those vast tracts of land of which ParH is the capital in 
the N., and Rio de Janeiro in the S. All the operations 
of nature proceed here on the grandest scale. Swarms 
of insect life dispute with the laborer the possession 
of his field. Droughts are frequent and long-continu¬ 
ing. Floods in winter commit mischievous depreda¬ 
tions. Latterly, epidemics have swept off large num¬ 
bers of the inhabitants. All these things naturally 
conspire to check the efforts of the cultivator, and 
the doubt is suggested to the mind of an observer 
whether any real progress is actually being made.— 
(dim.) In the northern parts, and in the neighbor¬ 
hood of the Amazons, great heat prevails; in the higher 
parts, and towards the south, the climate is more temper¬ 
ate, and even cold, the thermometer falling as low as 
40°. The climate in the vicinity of Sao Paulo is usually 
accounted the most agreeable, and the temperature per¬ 
mits the growth of European fruits. The VV. wind in 
the interior is unwholesome, as it passes over vast marshy 
tracts of forest. The sea-coast, from Para to Olinda, 
appears to possess a similar climate to Guiana. Not¬ 
withstanding the position of B. between the equator and 
the tropics, the air, owing to the height of the greater 
portion of the country, is in general temperate, rather 
than hot. Pernambuco, and a few of the other provinces 
suffer occasionally from drought, to which, however, the 
coast lands are seldom subject. M. Von Langsdorff, for¬ 
merly Russian consul-general at Rio, summed up the sa¬ 
lient peculiarities of this ciimate, thus: — “Winter in 
this country resembles summer in the N. of Europe; 
summer appears one continuous spring; while spring 
and autumn are unconsciously lost in winter and sum¬ 
mer.” ( Min.) The most celebrated of the mineral pro¬ 
ductions of B. are diamonds. Those found in the prov. 
of Minas Geraes are generally the largest, and the most 
celebrated mines are those of Serra do Frio. Escliwege es¬ 
timates the annual yield of these gems at an average of 
15,000 carats, and an assessed value of $17,377,635. Gold 
is found in several localities, but the most celebrated 
mine is that of Congo Soco, which was disposed of, in 
1825, to a body of Englishmen, known as the Anglo-Bra- 
zilian Mining Co., (Limited.) The actual produce of the 
entire gold and silver mines of B. (including washings) 
is not believed to exceed more than $l,t> 00,000 annually. 
Iron ore is abundantly found, as, also, rock-salt, salt¬ 
petre, alum, platina, copper, and some varieties of pre¬ 
cious stone, more particularly, topazes. Veget. Among 
the vegetable products of B must be classed sugar, cof¬ 
fee, cocoa, rice, tobacco, maize, wheat, mandioc, ginger, 
yams, sarsaparilla, and many varieties of tropical fruits. 
Of these, the most important, in a commercial sense, are 
sugar, coffee, and cotton, which are now, in point of fact, 
the staple produce of the empire, and the culture of 
which is being increased with almost unexampled rapid¬ 
ity. Sugar is principally raised in the prov. of Bahia, 
the soil of which is admirably suited to its growth; but 
it is also extensively produced in some of the other prov¬ 
inces. The culture of cotton is of more recent growth, 
and its extension owing in great part to the American 
civil war. Coffee is principally grown in the neighbor¬ 
hood of Rio the capital, and tobacco in the islands in 
the bay of that city; it is, however, inferior in quality to 
that of the U. States. Rice is largely cultivated, and is 
exported; but the principal dependence of the popula¬ 
tion is on the mandioc, manioc, or cassava (Jatropha 
Manihot), regarded by the Indians as a bequest from 
their prophet Sune. It is found on every table in B., 
and supplies a great number of excellent dishes. Not¬ 
withstanding her fertility and extent, B. is indebted to 
foreign countries, and especially to the U. States, for 
large supplies of wheat-flour. This has been said to be 
a consequence of the unsuitableness of the soil for the 
culture of wheat: but this does not really appear to be 
the case, that species of grain being found to flourish ex 
trcmely well in the S. provinces, and on the table-lands 
of the interior. The importation of flour is rather a con¬ 
sequence of the indolence of the natives. The prov. of 
Para is peculiarly fitted for the production of rice, and 
might supply it in any quantity. The culture of the tea- 
plant has been tried in B, and the soil and climate have 
been found favorable to its growth; but its culture has 
not made, and could not rationally be expected to make 
much progress, inasmuch as it can only be successfully 
carried on where labor is abundant and cheap; whereas, 
it is here both scarce and dear. The forests of B., which 
are of vast extent, and teeming luxuriance, furnish al¬ 
most every variety of useful and ornamental wood; their 
products being adapted alike to ship-building, carpenter’s 
and cabinet-work, dyeing, Ac. The cocoa-tree is plenti¬ 
ful in the sandy soils along the coast. It is thicker and 
taller than in the E. Indies: cocoa is in genera! use 
among all ranks, and forms one of the chief articles of 
the internal trade, and also supplies a considerable quan¬ 
tity for export. The carassato, or castor-tree, is indige¬ 
nous. and much cultivated for the sake of the oil ex¬ 
tracted from its seed, in general use for lamps, and other 
purposes. The jacarandu, or rose-wood, is peculiarly 
valuable for cabinet-work, and is extensively exported. 
One of the most important woods, the Ccesalpinia Bra- 
ziletto, or Brazil-wood (called Ibiripitanga by the natives), 
is found in the greatest abundance, and of the best qual¬ 
ity, in the prov. of Pernambuco; but being a govern¬ 
ment monopoly, it has been cut down in so improvident 
a manner, that it is now seldom seen within several 
leagues of the coast There are also cedars, logwood, 
and mahogany. The forests of B.. particularly those in 
the prov. of Pard, along the Amazon, yield vast quanti¬ 
ties of caoutchouc or india-rubber, which is nearly all 
exported. Zoiil. The forests are full of rapacious animals, 
as the tiger-cat, the hyena, the zaratu, the jaguar (or S. 
American tiger),the sloth,andthe porcupine; wild hogs, 


and the tapir are common; the latter is an animal r** 
sembling a hog, but of larger size, and its flesh differs 
but little from ox-beef. The useful animals, as the horse, 
ox, and sheep, are all descended front the stocks brought 
from Europe by the early settlers. Their increase, es¬ 
pecially that of cattle and horses, has been astonishingly 
great. Vast herds of wild cattle roam about the open 
parts of the country, particularly in the llanos, or plains 
of the S. provinces. Hides, tallow, charqui (jerked beef), 
horns, and bones, form an important feature in the ex¬ 
ports of this empire. The horses are of medium size, 
but strong, active, and swift. The emu, or American 
ostrich, is found in the Brazilian plains, and the forest* 
swarm with countless varieties of birds and monkeys. 
In the marshy districts the boa-constrictor attains to an 
enormous size, and they are also infested with the coral- 
snake. and other venomous reptiles. Jnhab. Speaking 
generally, the natives of B. are of a bright yellow cop. 
per color, short, robust and well-made; hair, black, lanlq 
coarse, and deficient on the chin; face round; cheek¬ 
bones not remarkably prominent; skin soft and shining; 
nose short, and nostrils narrow; mouth middle-sized; 
lips thin ; eyes small, oblique, and elevated towards the 
exterior angle. They are in an extremely low state of 
civilization, are polygamous, grave and serious in deport¬ 
ment. averse to labor, and (like all other Indians) fond 
to excess of spirituous liquors. The principal tribes are 
the Tupinambas, Corvados, Puris, and Botocudos. The 
Brazileiros, or native Brazilians, born of Portuguese 
parents in Brazil, inherit all the idleness and inactivity 
of their European progenitors, and are prone to indulge 
in a kind of easy locomotion called the Rede, (Fig. 410,) 
a 6pecies of , 

hammock, 
more particu¬ 
larly in use in 
the province of 
Maranhao and 
Parti. The pop¬ 
ulation of this 
country is 
made up of an 
agglomeration 
of many races. 

While B. re¬ 
mained a col¬ 
ony of Portu¬ 
gal, but few 
women accom¬ 
panied the em¬ 
igrants to S. 

America. The 
earliest Euro¬ 
pean settlers 
intermarried 
and mixed with 
Indian women; 
afterwards an Fig. 410. — A redf. or hammock. (Para.) 
extensive in¬ 
termixture of race occurred with the Africans who were 
bought for slavery. The mixed population increases 
continually and rapidly. In S. Brazil the negroes are 
numerous. In the N. provinces the Indian element pre¬ 
ponderates. The greater part of the population prob¬ 
ably consists of mixed breeds, each of which lias a dis¬ 
tinguishing name, thus. Mulatto denotes the offspring 
of a white with a negro, and Mameluco that of a white 
with an Indian; Cafuzu, the mixture of the Indian and 
negro; Curiboco, the cross between the Cafuzo and the 
Indian; and JTibaro. that between the Cafuzo and the 
negro. Before the suppression of slavery B. had abou. 
1,700,000 negro slaves, who belonged to about 40,000 
proprietors, these negroes having generally beon brought 
from Angola, Anguiz, Congo, Benguela, and Mozam« 
bique. In 1854 the emperor sanctioned a law for the 
suppression of the slave trade, which was followed by a 
movement looking to the gradual extinguishment of 
slavery, the Zacluu ias ministry advocating that all blacks 
born after a certain date should be tree, and thus slavery 
became extinct with the passing away of the then exist¬ 
ing generation. This measure, however, was vigorously 
combatted by the conservative party, which came into 
power in 1868, and opposed all plans for the freeing of 
slaves. Yet the abolition of slavery in the U. S. had its 
influence, [the Brazilians not relishing the stigma of 
being the only slave-holding people in America, and in 
1871 a law was passed tor the gradual emancipation of 
the slaves. The slow operation of this law was not 
satisfactory to the people, among whom a strong anti¬ 
slavery sentiment had arisen, and the final abolishment 
of the institution arose from a remarkable popular 
movement, not less than 200,000 slaves being freed by 
private means, while two provinces took the initiative 
ot emancipating their slaves. On May 13, 1888, a bill 
for the immediate abolishment of slavery was brought 
before parliament and passed by an almost unanimous 
vote, thus bringing to an end the institution of slavery 
on the western continent.—The Brazilians divide the 
Indians into Indies mansos, civilized or converted tribes 
speakingthe Portuguese language,and Tupinos or Gentios, 
uncivilized hordes. The latter largely make the foi esto 
of the Amazon region their home, and are very primitiv. 
in their habits and modes of life.— Principal Towns, lti, 
de Jaueiro, the capital had in 1900 a population of 
811,265; Bahia, 174,412; Pernambuco, 111,556; San Paulo, 
64,934; and several others of over 35,000 each. The 
" bites are mainly Portuguese in origin; in the south 
there are several hundred thousands of German colonists. 

— Government. Brazil, formerly an empire, has been 
since 1889, a federal republic, its government closely re¬ 
sembling our own in organization. The president and 





















BRAZ 


BRAZ 


BREA 


419 


vice-president are elected tor a term of four years, but 
cannot be re-elected for the term immediately succeed¬ 
ing. Senators are elected for nine years, and deputies 
—members of the lower house—for three years. The 



Fig. 411.— PERNAMBUCO HARBOR IN 1750. 


powers of the general government are restricted to 
national subjects, the state being free to control their in¬ 
ternal administration. Suffrage is practically universal. 
By the constitution of the new republic freedom of re¬ 
ligious worship is guaranteed, though Roman Catholi. ism 
is the prevailing form of faith.— Com. and Slatutf. Man¬ 
ufactures tn B. are not in a very advanced condition, 
hugar refining is carried on extensively, particularly in 
the great cane growing prov. of Bahia and Pernam¬ 
buco, where there are numbers of engenhos established 
■on a grand scale, with the best modern machinery lor 
water or steam power. Three kinds of rum are manu¬ 
factured. the best of which, called restiln. though 
inferior to the West India rum, is annually exported to 
the extent of b,5ut',utio gallons. Beer breweries, of 
comparatively recent establishment, are in successful 
operation in Rio de Janeiro, Petropolis, Rio Grande do 
Sul. and Pernambuco. S.C., but the full development of 
this industry is seriously impeded by the necessity of 
importing from Europe the barley and hops, which 
might be raised in abundance in the Northern prov¬ 
inces. Tobacco is manufactured on a large scale in 
some places, chiefly in Bahia and Rio de Janeiro. 
Large quantities of cigars of a common class ( charutos) 
are manufactured in Bahia, and in some towns and dis¬ 
tricts of that prov. the saw-mills turn out from 7,0b0 
to 8,000 cigar boxes a day. About 65.000,000 charutos 
are yearly exported from Bahia, valued at $500,000. A 
number of cotton-weaving factories have been estab¬ 
lished. and compete favorably with foreign manu¬ 
factures in the production of the r< arse fabrics. Com¬ 
mon and wall papers are manufactured: also, soap, 
chemicals, braids, ribbons, bronzes. Ac. The prov. of 
Ban Paulo has some large iron works In the large 
cities there are gold and silver smiths and jewelers; 
but these and the artizans of the various other me¬ 
chanical branches are mainly foreigners The average 
value of yearly exports is about $125,000,000; of im¬ 
ports, $100,000,000. The chief artb -ie of export is coffee, 
which supplies more thau half of the consumptiou of 
the world. Among the other products sent in large 
quantities to foreign countries are cotton, sugar, cocoa, 
hides, horns, tobacco, india rubber, diamonds. Ac. The 
principal imports are cotton and woollen fabrics from 
-Great Britain; wrought and unwrought iron from 
various tountries; wines from Portugal, Spain and 
France: agricultural implements, hardware, lard, 
flour, timber (pine), petroleum, biscuits, coal, ice, 
ham-*, soap, boots and shoes. Ac., from the U. states — 
Money. The Coinage consists of gold pieces (of 20 and 
30 mi.reas), the value of the milrea being about 6 Sc., 
but gold am silver coins have almost disappeared in 
recent years, and the only circulating medium is an 
Unconvertible and dewcciated currency of a milrea 
and upwards.— Finances. The revenue of B., of which 
more than one-half comes from custom duties, is about 
$60,000,000. For more than 50 years there have been 
very few in v. nich the revenue exceeded the expendi¬ 
tures. The public debt, foreign and internal, is $363,- 
615,000, besides which there is nearly §100,000,000 of 
paper currency. There are in all over 6,000 m. of rail¬ 
way and 10,000 m. of telegraph lines, with steam navi¬ 
gation on all the ‘.rge rivers, and several lines of 
coasting steamers. Of the railways, the most complete 
are those laid in the coffee-raising districts of Sao 
Paulo, Alinas, and Rio, on a large portion <>f which the 
government guaranteed the payment of interest on the 
outlay. Few of the roads have profitable investments, 
and as yet they are a heavy financial burden. Good 
-highways are rare, being found only near the coast. A 


submarine electric cable connects B. with Europe, and 
one to the U. S. is projected.— Hist. It is believed that 
the first discovery of B. was made Jan. 26,1500, by the 
Spaniards under Vincento Yanez Pinion, one of the 
companions of Columbus. In the same year, Pedro 
Alvarez Cabral was appointed admiral of a large fleet 
sent out by Emanuel, King of Portugal, to follow up 
the successful voyage of Vasco de Gama in the E.; and 
he took possession of the country for the Portuguese 
crown, giving it the appellation of Tierra de Santa Crus. 
In 1508, Amerigo (or Americus) Vespucci attempted a 
settlement in this country, which, however, proved fu¬ 
tile. In 1515, another navigator, Juan Diaz de Solis, 
discovered the harbor of Rio de Janeiro, and madeother 
explorations. Other expeditions followed, and the Bra¬ 
zilian ports were successively taken by the French. 
Dutch, and English. The Dutch held their ground 
until, after a long and desperate struggle, they were dis¬ 
possessed by the Portuguese, in 1640. Henceforward 
the country belonged to Portugal. In 1808 a new era 
began in B. The prince-regent of Portugrl, John VI., 
being obliged to vacate his country by the success of 
the French arms, was declared, in 1822, emperor of B. 
In 1825, the independence of the Brazilian empire was 
recognized by Portugal, and, in 1831, the emperor abdi¬ 
cated in favor of his son Dom Pedro II. (tbe recent 
emperor) and retired to Portugal. In 1843 the Prince 
de Joiuville, Louis Philippe’s son, married a sister of 
Dom Pedro II. In 1858, the first railroad in B. (from 
Rio to Belem) was opened. In Aug., 1S64, in conse¬ 
quence of repeated outrages, B. sent an ultimatum to 
Uruguay, which, being rejected, led to a brief war, (see 
Uruguay); and, on the 12th Oct. of the same year, the 
seizure of theBraziliau postal steamer Marques d' Oliniia 
led to a war with Paraguay; and in Slav of the follow¬ 
ing year, (1SG5,) an alliance was concluded between B., 
Uruguay, and the Argentine Confederation, against 
Paraguay. For the events of this war, we refer to Ar¬ 
gentine Confederation, and Uruguay. After the close 
of the civil war in the U. States, a number of Southern 
planters emigrated to B. with the intention of there 
founding a colony, and growing cotton. The Brazilian 
govt, gave them every facility and encouragement, and 
granted them lands on the Amazon, but the project 
eventually proved abortive. In 1869) an attempted ag¬ 
ricultural settlement by Englishmen also met with simi¬ 
lar results. In 1889 a sudden revolution of citizens and 
soldiers in favor of a re) ul lie broke out, Rio de Janeiro 
was seized by the revolting troops, and the emperor was 
iVirced to al dieate. A provisional government under 
Gen. Deodoro Fonseca was established, and tbe deposed 
emperor put on shipboard and sent to Europe. He 
made no effort to regain bis throne, aDd died two years 
afterward. On Feb. 24, 1891, a federal constitution was 
adopted, Fonseca being chosen as the first president. 
Revolutionary opposition to his administration arising, 
be was deposed in November of the same year, and suc¬ 
ceeded by Floriana Peixoto. The new government fol¬ 
lowed the course of the South American governments 
in general, a vigorous revolutionary outbreak taking 
place in 1893-94, in which several states took part. 
The great strength of this movement lay in the posses¬ 
sion of the navy by the revolutionists, the ships being 
commanded at first by Admiral Aiello, and later by 
Admiral di Gama, who held the harbor of Rio de Janeiro 
for several months, bombarding the city and attacking 
its fortifications. The government held out however, 
and in Alarch, 1894, the movement collapsed. It was 
during this outbreak that the new navy of the U. S. 
fired its first hostile shot, this being a rifle-ball from a 
cruiser of the White Squadron, under Rear-Admiral 
Beuham, discharged as a w arning to di Gama to refrain 
from shelling a position on the w harves where lay some 
merchant vessels carrying the Stars and Stripes. A new 
president, Prudente Aloraes, was elected on Feb. 28,1894, 
succeeding Peixoto and under his administration and 
that of iiis successors, the country continued peaceful, 
with the exception of an ocoisi.oml local levolt. 
Brazil -nut, n. See Bertholletia. 

Brazil -tea, n. See Mate. 

Brazil’-wood, n. A wood used for the preparation of 

a red dye, imported from S. America and the West In¬ 
dies, where it is produced by several species of the genus 
C.SSAI.PINIA, q . v . 

Braz ing:, n. (Metal.) The act of joining together two 
pieces of metal by means of brass solder melted between 
them. The best description of solder is made of 9 parts 
of brass to one of tin; hard solder is made of 2 parts of 
common brass, % of a part of zinc, and % of a part of 
tin. The solder for the precious metals is made of 66 
parts of silver to 33 parts of common brass. 

Brazito. (bra-zed to.)\n Missouri, a post-office of 06e co. 
Brazitos. (bra-zee'tosi) a districtof Mexico, in the State 
of Chihuahua, S. of El Paso. 

B razo'ria. in Texas, a S.E. county, impinging on the 
Gulf of Mexico. Area, 1,330 sq. m. It is drained by the 
Brazos and San Bernard rivers. Surface, flat. Soil, 
tolerably fertile, more particularly so in the river bot¬ 
toms. Cap. Brazoria. 

—A post-village, cap. of above co., on the W. side of Bra¬ 
zes River, 30 m. from its embouchure, and 60 W. by S. 
of Galveston. 

Brazos, (brah'zos,) in Texas, one of the largest rivers in 
the State, rises in the N.W.of T.,and stretching E. into 
Knox co., empties into the Mexican Gulf, -o ni. S W of 
Galveston, after a flow of between 900 and 1000 miles. 
It is navigable for steamboats for 300 m. up. 

—An E. central county, with an area of 585 sq. m., 
bounded S.W. by the Brazos River, and E. by the Nava- 
soto. Surface, rolling. Soil, generally fertile. Cap. 
Bryan. Pop. (1898) 18.490. 


Bra'zos, Sant i aero, (san-te-ah'go,) in Texas, a post- 
town and sea-port of Cameron co., on the Gulf of Mexico, 
35 m. E.N.E. of Brownsville. 

Brazza, ( brat'sa ,) an island in the Adriatic, belonging 
to Austria, opposite to Spalatro, in Dalmatia. Kxt 
about 30 m. loDg, and from 6 to 9 broad. Area, 170 sq. 
m. Desc. Mountainous, but producing corn, figs, al¬ 
monds, oil, saffron, and wine. Pop. 15,500. 

Breach, {brich.) n. [Fr. breche ; from Ger. Irrechen, to 
break, or Celt, breeb. an opening: A.S. brice ; Ger. bruch, 
a fracture; Goth, bnl.an, to break.] The act of break¬ 
ing, or state of being broken. 

“ This tempest 

Dashing the garment of this peace, aboded 
The sudden breach on't."— Shaks. 

—A rupture; a break; a gap; an opening; as, a breach 
in a wall. 

4 * Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once more. 

Or close the wall up with our English dead.”— Shahs, 

—Disruption; infraction; infringement; violation; trans¬ 
gression; non-lulfilment; as, a breach of trust. 

“ It is a custom 

More honor’d in the breach, than tbe observance.”— Shate. 

—Difference; quarrel: injury; disruption of friendly rela¬ 
tions; as, a breach between a man and bis mother-in-law. 

“ It would have been long before the jealousies and breaches be- 
tween the armies would have been composed.” — Lord Clarendon, 
(Mil.) A gap or opening made in any part of the 
walls of the besieged place by the cannon or mines of 
the besiegers. 

— v. a. To make a breach or opening; as, to breach a citadel. 

Breach of the Peace. (Laic.) See Sec. II. 

Breach y, a. Apt to break fences; applied to nnrnly 
cattle in the S. of England, and in some parts of the U. 
States. 

Bread, (bred.) n. [A.S. bread, probably from bredan, tc 
nourish ; 0. Ger. h ot, allied to Gr. bibroosi 6. to eat.’ An 
import..nt article of food, figuratively c alled the staff of 
life, as it is found, of all animal and vegetable sub¬ 
stances, to be most necessary to man’s physical stamina 
and health. It is made by l aking. in an oven or pan. a 
mass of dough, composed of the flour of different grains 
mixed with water. B. has been used as food by man¬ 
kind from the very earliest times. Tbe necessities of 
man’s nature have been tbe origin of many of our usefal 
arts; aud the discovery that grain wheD moistened and 
afterwards heated could be made into a palatable, dura¬ 
ble, and nutritions food, must have been considered a 
very important one. This is probably the earliest form 
in which B. was made. The next step would be the 
pounding of the grain between stone 6 . and the forma¬ 
tion of flour: the last step would be the baking of loaves 
or fermented bread. It is mentioned in the Scriptures 
that Abraham made unleavened B.; and also that, in 
the time of Moses, leavened B. was used, (Fxc-d. xii. 15.) 
The Hebrews had several ways of baking B.: they often 
baked it under the ashes upon the earth, upon" round 
copper or iron plates, or in pans or stoves made on pur¬ 
pose. In common with other Eastern people, they had 
a kind of oven, (tannoor,) which is like a large pitcher, 
open at top, in which they made a fire. 7Vhen it was 
well heated, they mingled flour in water, and this 
paste they applied to the outside of the pitcher. Such 
bread is baked in an instant, and is taken off in thin, fine 
pieces, like our wafers. B. was also baked in cavities 
suDk in the ground, or the floor of the tent, and well 
lined with compost or cement. As they generally made 
their B. thin, and in the form of flat cakes, or wafers, 
they did not cut it with a knife, but broke it, which 
gave rise to that expression so usual in Scripture, of 
“ breaking bread,” to signify eating, sitting down to 
table, taking a repast. — The Show-bread, or B. of pres- 



Fig. 412. — the table of the show-bread. 

ecce. was B. offered every Sabbath-day to God on the 
golden table which stood in the holy place. — twelve 
cakes of unleavened bread, offered with salt and frank¬ 
incense, (Lev. ii. 13; xxiv. 5-9.) The show-bread could 
be lawfully eaten by none but the priests. — Many sub¬ 
stances have from the earliest times been employed to 
make this needful article, such as wheat, barley, oats, 
rye, rice, and potatoes; but though wheat-flour yields 
the largest amount of nutritious principle, it is only of 
late years that it has become the almost exclusive arti¬ 
cle for the purpose; barley, both anciently and in later 
ages, being the most general flour employed. Wheaten 
B. Wits seldom used but by persons of distinction, ot 
prepared for feasts and ceremonials; barley bread bo ; ng 
the common food of the upper classes, and oat and rya 
bread among the peasantry and poor. — The baking of 
unleavened B. is a very simple matter to understand.— 
the ordinary sailor’s biscuit is an example; but the bak¬ 
ing of leavened or fermented B. is a complicated al¬ 
though common process. Wheaten dough, cleared from 
the bran or husks of the grain, consists o f water, -jluten. 





































420 


BREA 


BREA 


BREA 


starch, sugar, and dextrin. If dough is left by itself in 
a temperature between 8U° and 120°, fermentation slowly 
takes place. The starch is first converted into sugar, and 
then into alcohol and carbonic acid; if baked at this pe¬ 
riod, a light B. with an agreeable relish is procured; if, 
however, the fermentation goes on too long, acetic acid is 
formed, and a heavy B. with a sour taste is the result. In 
order to procure a more perfect fermentation, a leaven is 
employed. This leaven is either a piece of dough in a 
fermenting state, or yeast, a substance produced in beer 
while in the act of fermentation. Yeast is most gener¬ 
ally used, as it is quicker and more certain in its action 
than the leaven of dough. In order to bake a loaf of B., 
i small quantity of yeast is well kneaded into a mass of 
lough, and allowed to remain in a moderately warm 
place. Fermentation begins to take place; and, as the 
carbonic acid and alcohol are disengaged, they strug¬ 
gle up through the elastic mass, and the loaf begins to 
“ rise.” It is then put into the oven, where the increased 
heat causes the further expansion of the enclosed gas 
and vapor. The process of fermentation is soon checked 
by the high temperature,and a light porous B. is at last 
produced. Well-baked B. is known by its lightness, and 
the regularity of the size and distribution of the small 
cells formed by the carbonic acid gas and alcohol. Home¬ 
made B. is mostly sweeter, lighter, and more retentive 
of moisture than baker’s B. The following process is 
largely employed in the trade :—Mashed potatoes, water, 
ami patent yeast are mixed together to form a ferment. 
After the quantity of flour required has been put into a 
trough and mixed with water, not too cold, the ferment 
is added and well stirred with the hands. It is then 
strained through a sieve, more flour added, and the 
whole well mixed; after a little flour is sprinkled over 
the top, the dough is allowed to stand for five or six 
hours. During this time, the sponge, as the dough is 
called, rises twice. The first rising is allowed to break 
and fall down ; but upon the second rising, just before 
breaking, a quantity of water is poured into the sponge, 
together with salt, and sometimes alum. The whole is 
then well mixed together again, and, after standing for 
some time, is divided into the necessary sizes and con¬ 
veyed to the oven. The amount of potatoes added to 
the flour in this process is very small, the proportion 
beingS lbs. of potatoes to every 280 lbs. of flour; but 
some cheap-bread bakers use a much larger quantity 
It is technically called fruit in the trade. It is a com¬ 
paratively harmless adulteration ; but the alum, or stuff, 
is a more objectionable addition. By using alum, a 
much whiter quality of bread is produced; how this 
bleaching operation is effected is not thoroughly un¬ 
derstood. Alum also causes the loaves to break from 
each other with a much smoother surface than when 
B. is baked without it. Common salt is also used for the 
same purpose; and on the continent small quantities of 
sulphate of copper have been used by the bakers. It 
not only produces a white B. from inferior kinds of 
flour, but adds greatly to the retentive capabilities of B. 
for water. Besides being much adulterated with mashed 
potatoes, rice flour is often found in B. Rice flour ab¬ 
sorbs and retains a larger quantity of water. Carbonate 
of magnesia is also used; it improves the color of the 
B ., and also enables it to absorb more water. In these 
latter cases the consumer is cheated out of a quantity of 
nutritious flour, and presented with water in its place. 
Another class of adulterations is that of certain earthy 
substances, which are white and tasteless, and only add 
to the weight of the bread; such as chalk, bone-dust, 
plaster of Paris, white clay, &c. These are all easily 
detected by chemical tests. When wheat flour is adul¬ 
terated with rice flour, barley flour, or any other infe¬ 
rior flour, the adulterations can be discovered readily 
with the microscope The presence of mineral substances 
can also be ascertained in the same manner. The differ¬ 
ent varieties of B. are made from the various qualities 
of wheat flour. Brown B. is made from wheat meal, in 
which the husks have been ground up-with the rest of 
the grain. It is generally considered to be much more 
nutritious anil wholesome than ordinary white bread.— 
Aerated Bread. Under this name, and since some years, 
loaves are made, in which an aqueous solution of car¬ 
bonic acid, prepared under great pressure, is mixed with 
the flour in a proper apparatus, so as to produce a ve¬ 
sicular dough when the pressure is removed. The pro¬ 
cess is rapid, and prevents such deteriorations of the 
flour as are said to be attendant on fermentations in the 
usual way. The theory of panificatinn (^.-baking) is 
easy of comprehension. The flour owes its valuable 
quality to the gluten, which it contains in greater 
abundance than any otherof the cere/ilia (kinds of corn i. 
The other immediate principles which play a part in 
panificution are particularly the starch and the sugar; 
and they all operate as follows :—The diffusion of the 
flour through the water hydrates the starch and dis¬ 
solves the sugar, the albumen, and some other soluble 
matters. The kneading of the dough, by completing 
these reactions through a more intimate union, favors 
also the fermentation of the sugar, by bringing its par¬ 
ticles into close contact with those of the leaven or 
yeast; and the drawing out and malaxating the dough 
softens and stratifies it, introducing at the same time 
oxygen to aid the fermentation. The dough, when dis¬ 
tributed and formed into loaves, is kept some time in a 
gentle warmth, in the folds of the cloth, pans, Ac., a cir¬ 
cumstance propitious to the development of their vol¬ 
ume by fermentation. The dimensions of all the lumps 
of dough now gradually enlarge, from the disengage¬ 
ment of carbonic acid in the decomposition of the sugar; 
which gas is imprisoned by the glutinous paste. Were 
these phenomena to continue too long, the dough would 
became too vesicular; they must, therefore, be stopped 


at the proper point of sponginess, by placing the loaf 
lumps in the oven. Though this causes a sudden ex¬ 
pansion of the enclosed gaseous globules, it puts an end 
to the fermentation, and to their growth, as also evapo¬ 
rates a portion of their water. The richness or nutri¬ 
tive powers of sound flour, and also of B., are propor¬ 
tional to the quantity of gluten they contain. It is of 
great importance to determine this point, for both of 
these objects are of enormous value and consumption; 
and it may be accomplished most easily and exactly by 
digesting in a water-bath, at a temperature of 167° F., 
1,000 grains of B. (or flour) with 1,000 grains of bruised 
barley-malt, in 5,000 grains or in a little more than half 
a pint of water. When this mixture ceases to take a 
blue color from iodine (that is, when all the starch is 
converted into soluble dextrin), the gluten left un¬ 
changed may be collected on a filter cloth, washed, 
dried at a heat of 212°, and weighed. The color, tex¬ 
ture, and taste of the gluten ought also to be examined, 
in forming a judgment of good flour, or B. — See Glu¬ 
ten; Starch; Corn; Flour; Wheat. 

Rread'-cliipiier, n. One who chips bread; a baker’s 
servant; an under-butler. 

** Not to dispraise me, aod call me pantler, and bread-chipper, 
and I know not what ?” — Shales. 

Bread-corn, n. Corn of which bread is made. 

“ There was not one drop of beer in the town; the bread, and 
bread-corn sufficed not for six days.”— Hayward. 

Bread'en, a. Consisting of bread; made of bread. 

Breacl'fruit-tree, n. (Bot.) See Artocarpaoe.t:. 

Bread'less, a. Destitute of bread; as, a breadless 
family. 

Bread -nut. n. (Bot.) See Brosimum. 

Brcad'-pudding, n. (Cookery.) A pudding made of 
bread. 

Bread'-room, n. (Naut.) A compartment in a ship 
wherein the store of bread and biscuit is kept. 

Bread'-root, n. (Bot.) See Psoralea. 

Bread'stud's, n. pi. Those kinds of grain, Ac. which 
are convertible into flour, meal, Ac., for the use of man. 

Breadth, n. [A. S. breed and bred. See Broad.] The 
broad dimension of anything; the measure across any 
plane surface, from side to side; width ; extent. 

(Painting) A term applied to pictures when the 
colors and shadows are broad and massive, such as the 
lights and shadows of the drapery; and when the eye is 
not checked and distracted by numerous little cavities, 
but glides easily over the whole. B. of coloring is a 
prominent feature in the painting of all great masters. 
The term Breadth of Effect is also sometimes used. 

Bread tli'less, a. Without breadth. 

Break, (brdk,) (imp. broke ; pp. broken or broke ; ppr. 
breaking,) v. i. [A. S. brcecan, brecan ; Ger. brechen; 
Swed. and Goth, breecka ; Frisian, breka; Lat. frurrgo; 
from the root frag, Gr. rag, reg, with the digamma frag, 
frig, whence regnami; probably formed from the 
sound.] To part; to separate; to divide in two; a«, to 
break bread. 

“ Give sorrow words, the grief that does not speak, 

Whispers the o’erfraughc heart, and bids it break." — Shaks. 

—To burst; to open spontaneously; as, to break a blood¬ 
vessel. 

“ The breaking waves dashed high 

On a stern and rock-bound coast.” — Mrs. Hemans. 

—To burst forth with violence; as, the storm broke. 

‘‘ Every man, . .. broke 
Into a general prophecy.”— Shaks. 

—To open; to come to view; to dawn; as, day is breaking. 

" The day breaks not, it i3 my heart, 

Because that you aud 1 must part." — Donne. 

—To decline in health and vigor; to become impaired in 
constitution; as, in broken spirits. 

11 Yet thus, methinks, I hear them speak: 

See how the dean begins to break." — Swift. 

—To become bankrupt; to fail in business; as, the firm 
has broke. 

“ He that puts all upon adventures, doth oftentimes break, and 
come to poverty." — Bacon. 

—To alter the step or gait; as, to break into a gallop. 

—To fall out; to be no longer friends; to sever a tie or 
connection. 

” Sighing, he says, we must certainly break, 

Aud my cruel unkindness compels him to speak.”— Prior. 

To break away. To free one’s self from control; to 
come or go away against attempted restraint.— To break 
from. To go away with some haste or vehemence. 

‘ 1 How didst thou scorn life's meaner charms, 

Thou who couldst break from Laura’s arras.” — Rose. 

To break forth. To come out suddenly; to issue un¬ 
expectedly; as, the sun, Ac. (Sometimes followed by 
in or into.) 

“ Break forth into singing, O, mountains." — Isah. xlix. 13. 

To break out. To discover itself by sudden effects; to 
burst forth, as from restraint; as, to breakout into pus¬ 
tules. 

“ I saw their words 1 reak out in fire and smoke.” — Dryden. 

To break down. To fail in any enterprise; to come 
down by breaking; as, my horse broke down. 

” He had broken down almost at the outset.”— Thackeray. 

To break in or in upon. To enter unexpectedly, or 
without proper preparation. 

*‘ The doctor ... breaks in upon conversation, and drives down 
all before him.” — Addison. 

To break loose. To shake off restraint; to escape from 
durance or captivity; to forcibly free one’s self. 

•'Who would not, finding way, break loose from hell? ” — Milton. 

To break off. To desist, or suddenly refrain from; to 
violently separate from; as, our intimacy is broken off. 

'* I must from this enchanting queen break off.” — Shaks. 


To break up. To become separated into fragments, .y 
dissolve; to disperse; as, to break up a school. 

“ These and the like oonceits, ... will scatter and break 
like mist."— Bacon. 

To break with. To part friendship with another, to 
fall out; to sever a connection. 

'• It cannot be, 

The Volscians dare not break with us."— Shaks. 

—Also, to come to an explanation, or hold conference with. 
‘‘Stay with me awhile; 

I am to break with thee of some affairs 
That touch me near." — Shaks. 

Break, v. a. To part or sever by violence; to disrupt; 
to forcibly divide; to burst; to rend; as, to break a vase. 
“ The sticks he then broke, one by one: 

So strong you '11 be, in friendship tied; 

So quickly broke, if you divide." — Swift. 

—Figuratively, to disclose; to announce; to communi¬ 
cate ; as, to break the news. 

“ I who much desir’d to know 
Of whence she was, yet fearful how to break 
My mind, adventur'd humbly thus to speak.'*— Dryden. 

—To violate; to infringe; as a contract, promise, Ac. 

4 ‘ Did not our worthies of the house, 

Before they broke the peace, break vows? ” — Hudibras. 

—To interrupt; to intercept; to frustrate; to dissolve th«- 
continuity of; as, to break the thread of a story. 

” Sometimes in broken words he sigh’d his care, 

Look’d pale, and trembled, when he view'd the fair."— Gay. 
—To remove or part; to destroy the completeness of; to 
reduce; to crush; to shatter; as, to break a thing into 
fragments. 

“ Your hopes without are vanish'd into smoke; 

Your captain's taken, and your armies broke.” — Dryden. 

—To weaken, subdue, or impair the bodily health and 
mental faculties. 

“ This rest might yet have halm'd thy broken senses." — Shake. 
—To tamo: to make docile; to train to obedience; as, to 
break a horse. 

“ No sports but what belong to war they know, 

To break the stubborn colt, to bend the bow."— Dryden. 

—To make bankrupt; to destroy one’s financial credit; as, 
the bank is broke. 

“ For this few know themselves : for merchants broke 
View their estate with discontent and pain." — Davies. 

—To discard; to dismiss; to cashier; to destroy the of¬ 
ficial reputation of; as, to break by court-martial. 

‘* I see a great, officer broken.” — Swift. 

—To sink, depress, or appall the spirits. 

“ Thou shalt see Phoenix, how I ’ll break her pride.” — Philips. 
To break the back. To strain or dislocate the verte¬ 
brae ; to disable. 

'* I'd rather crack my sinews, break my back , 

Than you should such dishonour undergo." — Shaks. 

To break down. To overwhelm; to make to succumb. 
To break in. To gain forcible entrance into; as, to break 
in a house. Also, to render tractable; to train to disci¬ 
pline and obedience; as, those horses are well broken 
in. — To break of. To reform; to rid of; as, to break a 
person of bad language. 

'* The French were not quite broken of it, until for some time- 
after they became Christians." — Grew. 

To break open. To open; to gain admittance by break¬ 
ing ; as, to break open a desk. 

“ Open the door, or I wilt break it open.” — Shaks. 

To break off. To interrupt; to put a stop to: to sever 
by breaking; as, to break off a. flower; to break off 
friendly intercourse. 

** To check the starts and sallies of the soul, 

And break off all its commerce with the tongue.”— Addisor.. 

To break over. To disregard; to transgress; as, to 
break over a custom. — To break out. To remove or force- 
out by breaking; as, to break out a window-frame. — To 
breakup. To separate or disband; to dissolve; to put 
an end to; as, to break up a party. 

‘‘Solyman,returning to Constantinople.ftroie up his urmj.”Knolles. 

To break bulk. To remove a portion of a load, cargo, 
Ac.; to open out a mass of anything; as, the ship ha» 
commenced to break bulk. — To break fast. To take food 
after ft period of abstinence; generally applied to the 
morning meal.—See Breakfast. 

To break the heart. To crush or destroy with grief. 

44 Will't break my heart T ”— Shaks. 

To break ground. To begin to excavate the earth; to- 
plough new land; to open a trench, Ac. 

“ Men generally . . . break no more ground than will serve to- 
supply their own turn.” — Carew. 

Figuratively, to commence any undertaking; to em¬ 
bark in a new scheme. — (Nout.) To disentangle the 
anchor from the bottom. — To break a jest. To utter an 
unlooked-for jest.— To break jail. To make an escape 
from jail by ingenious and forcible means.— To break a. 
house. To enter a bouse by fraudulent and violent means, 
with a felonious intent.— To break wind. To expel wind 
from the stomach.— To break cover. To burst out from 
concealment, as game, foxes, Ac., when hunted. — To 
break the ice. Metaphorically, to overcome an early ob¬ 
stacle; to broach a proposition; to initiate into tli» 
knowledge of anything: as. go up to him and break the 
ice.— Tobreak joints. (Building.) To disallow two joints 
to occur over each other. — To break a road, dec. To open, 
a way through a difficulty by forcible means. — To break 
upon the wheel. To punish a criminal by stretching him 
upon a wheel in the form of a St. Andrew’s cross, aud 
breaking his bones with bars. This mode of punish¬ 
ment was, in former times, much practised in Europe._ 

Tobreak sheer. (Naut.) To get clear of an obstacle: to 
be forced by the action of winds, currents, Ac., out of a 
certain position. Many modifications of this lerm exist 






BREA 


BREA 


BREA 


421 


Break, n. A state of being open; an opening; a fissure; 
a breach; an interstice; an open place; as, the break 
of a forest. 

—A pause; an interruption; a hiatus. 

(Ib-inting.) A line drawn in printing and writing, to 
denote suspension of the sense of the text. 

“ All modern trash is 

Set forth with num’rous breaks and dashes."— Swift. 

—The dawn ; the first matutinal opening of the sky. 

“ And those eyes, the break of day, 

Lights that do mislead the morn."— Shaks. 

■-An interruption; change of form or direction; as, a 
break in a ship’s deck. 

(Arch.) The projection from the face of a building is 
called a B., whether it arise in plan or in elevation. It 
is one of the most legitimate ways of securing variety 
of line: but the exaggerated effects of the B. intro¬ 
duced into the Cinque-cents and Louis-Quatorze styles of 
architecture prove that considerable discretion must be 
exercised in their use. They should be caused by some 
necessity of the plan, or of the disposition of the struc¬ 
ture; a B., introduced merely as a break, is a decided 
mistake in a composition. 

•—A large four-wheeled carriage. 

Break'abeen. or Brackabeen, in New York, a. 
post-village of Schoharie eo„ 45 m. W. of Albany. 

Break able, a. Susceptible of being broken. 

Break age, n. A breaking.—An allowance for ar¬ 
ticles broken during transportation or use; as, the 
breakage amounted to fifty dollars. 

Breakdown, n. An accident; a downfall; as, the 
breakdown of a railroad train. — A kind of boisterous, 
shuffling dance, resembling a jig, usually performed by 
negroes. 

Break'er, n. He who, or that which, breaks. 

** Cardinal, I 'll be no breaker of the law."— Shaks. 

(Mar.) (Generally used in the plural.) A peculiar kind 
of billows, that may bo easily distinguished by the white 
foam with which they cover the surface of the sea, and 
the terrible roaring noise which they produce. Break¬ 
ers are generally found in shallow parts of the ocean, 
where rocks lie hidden below the surface, over which 
they break with great violence; and when once a ship 
is driven among them, it is almost impossible to save 
her, as every billow that heaves her up serves to dash 
her down again with additional force, when it breaks 
over the rocks or sands beneath. — The name is also ap¬ 
plied to the wave itself, broken by the rocks, or by sand. 

(Naut.) A small water-cask, used on board ships for 
ballast. 

Breakfast, (brek'fast,) n. The first meal in the day; 
the matutinal repast. 

—A meal interrupting fasting; food generally. 

“ Had I been seized by a hungry lion, 

I would have been a breakfast to the beast."— Shaks. 

— v. a. To furnish with breakfast; as, to breakfast a party 
of guests. 

—v. i. To eat the first meal in the day; to break one’s 
fast. 

•‘As soon as Phoebus’ rays inspect us, 

First, sir, I read, and then I breakfast." — Prior. 

Break'fasting, n. A breakfast party.—Act of taking 
the first meal in the day. 

Breaking, ». The parting or dividing by force and 
violence a solid substance, or piercing, penetrating, or 
bursting through the same. 

(Law.) In cases of burglary’ and house-breaking, 
breaking is the removal of any part of the house, or of 
the fastenings provided to secure it, with violence and a 
felonious intent. 

B.-in. The act of inuring to discipline or labor. 

B.-up. An ending of anything. The act of turning 
up with the plough, as of land. 

B.-down, n. In sawing timber, the operation of divid¬ 
ing the bulk into boards or planks. 

Break'ing’-joint, n. (Arch.) That disposition of 
stones and bricks in their courses, by which vertical 
joints are not allowed to fall over each other. 

Break'man, n. Same as Brakeman, q. v. 

Break'neck, n. A fall which breaks the neck. 

—A steep place endangering the neck. 

“ To do ’t or no, is certain 
To me a breakneck." — Shaks. 

—-a. Endangering the neck; as, a breakneck gallop. 

Break'neck Hill, in New York, an eminence of Put¬ 
nam co., on the E. bank of the Hudson, at the N. ap¬ 
proach to the Highlands ; it is 1,187 feet above sea-level, 
and has, at its termination, the.headland called St. An¬ 
thony's Nose. 

Break'up, n. Causing a cessation, breaking-up, or ter¬ 
mination; as, the break-up of an entertainment. 

Break'water, n. (Marine Engineering.) An artificial 
bank of stones, or a timber structure, sunk to break the 
violence of the sea before its entrance into a roadstead 
or harbor. The Roman emperors erected many struc¬ 
tures of this description, which survive to the present 
day to show the mode of construction adopted, such as 
the B. of the harbor of Civita Vecchia, still in good re¬ 
pair, and many of the ports of Italy. More recently, 
the system of thus forming an artificial barrier to the 
sea has been adopted at Cherbourg and Cette in France; 
at Plymouth, Portland, and Holyhead, in England; at 
Buffalo, and at the month of the Delaware, in the U. 
States; in all of which positions B. are formed of im¬ 
mense magnitude. The mode of construction adopted 
in all such cases is to cast down large stones, from either 
ships or railway wagons, whenever it is possible to con- 
-«ct the works with the mainland; and to allow them 
to assume their angle of repose under the action of the 


tides and currents. The top of the masonry structure 
is then covered with large blocks of artificial stone, as at 
Cherbourg, or with paving laid with a regular slope, as 
at Plymouth ; and a wall is erected on the top of the sea 
slope, after the wall has attained its stability under the 
action of the sea. Cherbourg B. is the most gigantic 
work of the kind executed in ancient or modern times, 
and it is a noble monument of the skill and perseverance 
of the French engineers. B. of considerable magnitude 
have been constructed upon the great Northern Lakes 
for the protection of harbors, as at Buffalo, Cape Hen- 
lopeu, Ac. See Breakwater, Floating, in Sec. II. 

Bream, n. (Zobl.) The Pomotis vulgaris, a fish of the 
fam. Percidce, having an oval, much compressed body, 
and the back much elevated. It is about 8 inches long, 
is common in our fresh ponds, and is an excellent edible 
fish. 

Bream'ing, n. (Haul.) The operation of cleansing the 
bottom of a vessel by the application of fire, when the 
ship is aground, fire being applied to her bottom loosfens 
the pitch, or composition of sulphur and tallow, with 
which it is sometimes covered to defend it from worms, 
and which is then scraped off, together with the bar¬ 
nacles. grass, weeds, Ac., that adhere to it. 

Breast, (brest,)n. [A. S. breast; Ger. brust; Dan. bryst; 
Swed. brijst; Icel. breast] (Anal.) The whole of the 
anterior part of the thorax. The female breasts, in 
a more restricted sense, consist of two globular 
projections, composed of common integuments, adi¬ 
pose substance, and lacteal glands and vessels, and 
adhering to the anterior and lateral regions of the 
thorax. On the middle of each B. is a projecting por¬ 
tion, termed the papilla or nipple, in which the excretory 
ducts of the glands terminate, and around which is a 
colored orb, or disc, called the areola. On the surface 
of the latter are from 4 to 10 sebaceous glands which 
secrete an unctuous fluid to protect the skin of the nipple, 
which is rendered very thin from the saliva of the sucking 
infant. The milk-tubes (15 to 18 in number) enlarge into 



Pig. 413. — BREAST. 


(Lactiferous ducts dissected out and injected.) 

sinuses, and pass each to a separate lobe or subdivision 
of the B., where they divide into twigs and branches 
(the lactiferous ducts), which end in minute vesicles. 
The lobes are held together by fibrous tissues, and are 
well packed in fat, which increases sometimes to an enor¬ 
mous extent the apparent size of the organ. The use 
of the B. is to secrete milk for the nourishment of newly 
born infants. The enlargement of the B. is one of the 
signs of womanhood. Their fullest development com¬ 
mences in the earlier stages of pregnancy, and they con¬ 
tinue to increase in sizeuntil about the time of delivery, 
when they are filled with the lacteal fluid, which passes 
readily on suction into the mouth of the child. 

(Med.) The breasts of females are subject to a variety 
of disorders, one of the most common of which is 
inflammation. It may be produced by various causes, 
as, a blow, exposure to cold or wet, great mental excite¬ 
ment, excessive accumulation of milk, or undue pres¬ 
sure on the parts. It occurs most frequently within 
the first three months after parturition, and is charac¬ 
terized by great heat, pain, redness, and swelling of the 
B. The pain is intense, and of a throbbing nature, and 
often extends to the axillary glands. The B. become 
tense, heavy, and painful to the touch; and there is 
high inflammatory fever. The treatment consists in the 
application of leeches and warm fomentations to the 
part, and the administration of purgatives. If the in¬ 
flammation do not subside in a few days, suppuration 
may be expected. In general, the abscess may be left 
to nature; but when it occasions much pain, it is ad¬ 
visable to get rid of it by a free incision. Chronic in¬ 
flammation is sometimes seated in the B., in which case 
stimulant applications will be found useful. Where this 
is attended with abscess, it should be opened, so as to 
give free exit to the pus, and pressure applied to the 
part. The B. is also subject to various kinds of tumors, 
some of which may be got rid of by simple pressure, and 
attendance to the general health. Sometimes some of 
the lactiferous ducts are blocked up, producing an en¬ 
largement termed lacteal tumor. It is to be remedied 
by puncturing the duct, and keeping it open for some 
time. Occasionally great pain and uneasiness is felt in 


the B. from sympathy with other parts of the system. 
There is no inflammation, swelling, or external altera¬ 
tion of the mammae, and yet the pain is sometimes ex¬ 
cessive, usually intermittent. In this case the general 
health is chiefly to be looked after. Women are fre¬ 
quently subject to sore nipples after childbirth, occa 
sioning great pain. In such cases care is to be taken t« 
keep the nipples as dry as possible; and an application 
of glycerine is generally found useful. Nipple-shields 
of ivory or glass, with India-rubber teats, should also ba 
used when the nipples are too tender to bear the appli¬ 
cation of the child's mouth. 

(Mining.) The face of coal-workings. 

To make a clean breast. To make full confession; tc 
completely unbosom one’s self to another. 

—The seat of consciousness; the receptacle of thought 
and feeling: the seat of the affections and passions ; the 
heart; the conscience. 

“ Gay hope is theirs by fancy fed, 

The sunshine of the breast." — Gray. 

— v. a. To bear the breast against; to meet in front; to face 
breast to breast. 

" The hardy Swiss 

Breasts the keen air, and carols as he goes." — Goldsmith. 

To breast up a hedge. To cut the face of a hedge on 
one side, so as to lay bare the principal upright stems 
of the plants. 

Breast'-bami, n. (Naut.) A rope passed round the 
body of a man who heaves the lead in sounding, and 
fastened to the rigging to prevent his falling into the 
sea. 

Breast'-beam. (sometimes called Buffer-beam,) n. 
(Mach.) The front cross-beam of a locomotive-frame. 

Breast'-bone, n. The bone of the breast; the Ster¬ 
num, q. v. 

B reast'-deep, a. As high as the breast; us, breast-deep 
in water. 

" Set him breast-deep in earth, and famish him.” — Shaks. 

Breast'etl, a. Having a breast; used in composition 
both literally and figuratively, with a compound; as, a 
double-breasted coat. 

Breast'fast, n. (Naut.) A rope used to confine a ves¬ 
sel sideways to a wharf, or to some other ship. 

Breast'-tieight, n. (Port.) The interior slope of a 
parapet. 

Breast'-high, a. High as the breast; up to the breast. 

“Lay Madam Partlet basking in the sun, 

Breast-high in sand ."—Dry den. 

Breast'-hooks, v. pi. (Ship-building.) Strong curved 
timbers placed parallel to the surface of the water with¬ 
in a ship's bows, for the purpose of strengthening and 
consolidating the upright timbers. 

Breast'ing, n. (Mach.) The act of cutting or trim¬ 
ming the sides of a hedge. 

(Mech.) The curved channel or mill-course in which 
the breast-wheel turns. It forms about a quarter of a 
circle, and is carefully adapted to the wheel, to prevent 
waste of water. 

Breast'-knees, n.pL (Ship-building.) Knees placed 
in the fore part of a vessel, across the stem, to unite the 
bows on each side. 

Breast'-knot, (brest'nol,) n. A knot of ribbons worn 
on the breast; a favor. 

Breast'pin, n. A pin used to fasten a scarf on the 
breast: a breast-ornament: a brooch. 

Breast plate, n. Armor for the breast. See Cuirass. 

“ What stronger breastplate than a heart uutainted."— Shaks. 

(Mach.) The plate in which the end of the drill op¬ 
posite the boring end is inserted. 

—A strap placed across a horse's breast. 

( Jewish Antiq.) A piece of embroidery, about 10 inches 
square (Ex. xxviii. 15-30), of very rich work, which the 
high-priest wore on his breast. It was made of two 
pieces of the same rich embroidered stuff of which the 
epliod was made, having a front and a lining, and form¬ 
ing a kind of purse or hag, in which, according to the 
rabbis, the Prim and Thummim were enclosed. The 
front of it was set with 12 precious stones, on each of 
which was engraved the name of one of the tribes. They 
were placed in 4 rows, and divided from each other by 
the little golden squares, or partitions, in which they 
were set. At each corner was a gold ring answering to 
a ring upon the ephod, these 4 pairs of rings serving to 
hold the B. in its place on the front of the ephod, by 
means of 4 blue ribbons, one at each corner. 

Breast-plougli. (brest'plow,) n. (Agric.) A kind of 
spade or shovel, with a cross piece at the extremity of 
the handle, which is applied to the breast, and by which 
the operator skims off a thin slice of turf from a grassy 
surface, as if lie were ploughing. 

Breast'-rail. n. (Naut.) The upper rail of a ship’s 
balcony, or of the breastwork on the quarter-deck. 

Breast'-rope, n. (Naut.) The same as Breast-band, q.v. 

Breast-summer, n. See Beam. 

Breast-wheel, n. (Hydraulics.) The name given 
to a water-wheel so placed as to be struck by the stream 
of water nearly on a level with the axle, the lower quad¬ 
rant of the circumference on the side opposed to the 
stream being placed in a race or channel concentric with 
the wheel, through which the water is conducted in its 
descent from the higher to the lower level, and in fall¬ 
ing on the float-boards within the channel acts both by 
its momentum and weight. 

Breast'work, n. (Fortif.) A hastily constructed par¬ 
apet. about breast-high, generally without a banquette. 
See Epaulement; Parapet. 

(Naut.) A row of stanchions with rails stretching 
across the quarter-deck and forecastle of a ship. 

Breath, (breth). n. [A. S. bretth, from cethm, with a pre¬ 
fix, vapor, breath; Ger. athem; allied to Gr. aemi, from 















422 


BKEA 


BREC 


BREE 


ad, to breathe, to blow.] The air drawn into and driven 
out from the lungs by respiration. 

•' This bud of love, by Summer's ripening breath, 

May prove a beauteous tiow'r when next we meet.”— Shake. 
—The state or power of breatlxing naturally and freely; 
opposed to the condition of being spent or breathless. 

“ A simple child, 

That lightly draws its breath." — Wordsworth. 

—Life; power of respiration. 

“ Can storied urn, or animated bust, 

Bach to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? ” Gray. 

r Respite; jxause; relaxation; time to breathe; as, to take 
breath. 

“ There was silence deep as death; 

And the boldest held his breath, 

For a time.”— Campbell. 

—A single respiration; an instant. 

“ Who pants for glory, finds but short repose; 

A breath revives him, or a breath s'erthrows.”— Pope. 

—A gentle breeze; a softly-moving air; as, a breath of 
wind. 

“ Calm and unruffled as a summer's sea, 

When not a breath of wind flies o'er its surface."— Addison. 

(Hygiene.) There are few things more offensive than 
a foul or foetid breath, not only as a source of annoyance 
to the person himself, but a positive nuisance to all who 
have the misfortune to approach him. Impure breath, 
except in cases of illness, and when the patient is under 
a course of mercury, proceeds from two causes — a neg¬ 
lected state of the stomach and bowels, or from decayed 
teeth and an unclean mouth; and as in either case the 
remedy is easy, it must be owing to an innate disregard 
for others’ comfort, and neglect of his own, that any per¬ 
son allows so noxious an offence to continue. When the 
cause proceeds from the bowels, two or three colocynth, 
or compound rhubarb pills, taken once every six hours, 
and a black draught, or half an ounce of Epsom salts 
afterwards, will almost always remove it; while, if the 
mouth or teeth are the cause, a weak solution of the 
■chloride of lime, used twice a day as a wash for the 
mouth, rubbing the gums and teeth after each time with 
a dry cloth, will soon remove all cause of complaint; or, 
what is still better, the daily employment of a tooth-brush 
and a dentifrice composed as follows: powdered char¬ 
coal % ounce, cuttle-fish 2 drachms, myrrh 1 drachm, 
used as a tooth-powder night and morning with warm 
water. — See Dentifrice. 

Breath able, a. Capable of being breathed; that may 
be breathed; as, breathable air. 

Breatli ableness, n. State or condition of being 
breathable. 

Breathe, ( brethe ), v. i. To draw into and eject air from 
the lungs ; to respire. 

“ And breathed the long, long night away, 

In statue like repose.”— Aldrich. 

—To take breath ; to rest. 

“ When France had breath'd after intestine broils."— Roscommon. 
“ Breathe a while, and then to it again."— Shaks. 

—To pass, as air; to exhale. 

** There breathes a living fragrance from the shore." — Byron. 

— v. a. To inspire and expire; to inhale and exhale air; to 
live. 

Breathes there the man with soul so dead, 

Who uever to himself hath said. 

This is my own, my native land I " — Scott. 

—To infuse, or inject hv breathing, (generally followed by 
intox) as, to breathe air into the lungs. 

“I would be young, be handsome, be belov’d, 

Could I but breathe myself into Adrastus."— Dry den. 

—To eject, or exhale by breathing. 

“ His altar breathes 

Ambrosial odors, and ambrosial flowers."— Milton. 

—To utter softly or in private; as, to breathe a profession ; 
of love. 

“ I have tow'rd heaven breath'd a secret vow, 

To live in prayer and contemplation.”— Shaks. 

—To blow into: to infuse sound into by breathing; as, to 
breathe the JSolian harp. 

“ The artful youth proceed to form the quire ; 

They breathe the flute or strike the vocal wire.” — Prior. 

—To exercise; to keep in breath. 

«« The greyhounds are swift as breathed stags."— Shaks. 

—To rest; to pause in order to breathe; as, to breathe a 
dog. 

“ A moment breathed his panting steed.”— Sir W. Scott. 

—To give air or vent to. 

“ The ready cure to coot the raging pain, 

Is underneath the foot to breathe a vein."— Dryden. 

Breath'er, n. One who breathes, or lives; one who 
utters anything; one who animates or inspires. 

“ The breather of all life does now expire: 

His milder father summons him away.”— Norris. 
Breath-figures, n. pi. (Physics.) If a clean surface 
of glass or any other polished substance be written on 
with a blunt-pointed instrument, aud the surface be 
afterwards breathed upon, the characters written will 
become visible: or if the surface be first breathed upon, 
and the characters then marked upon it, they can be 
again made perceptible by breathing again upon the sur¬ 
face. These form what are called breath-figures, which 
may be produced in several ways. In 1842 Moser in¬ 
formed Humboldt that, “If any two bodies be brought 
sufficiently near each other, and face to face, one of them 
impresses its image on the other;” thus, if a coin be 
placed for any length of time upon a piece of polished 
metal, the metal will retain an impression of the coin, 
and exposure to the vapor of water, iodine, or mercury, 
will make it visible. A glass used to protect ->n engrav¬ 
ing will receive an impression of the engraving on its 
inner surface, although it is not in absolute contact with 


it. Engineers have remarked that those parts of ma¬ 
chines which are in contact with, or near each other, rap¬ 
idly and easily impress their images upon each other. The 
famous Parisian watchmaker Breguet has stated that the 
letters and inscription on the back of the inner cases 
of his watches have been often found impressed on the 
inside of the outer cases. Perfect impressions of objects 
may lie produced by means of electricity; and remarka¬ 
ble varieties of figures can be impressed upon glass 
surfaces by means of a small electrical machine, a Leyden 
jar, and a disoharging-rod. Photographers know that 
the state of the breath has a very considerable influence 
on the plates they use; and the artists in enamel-paint¬ 
ing are taught that no one should be allowed to ap¬ 
proach their work who has been taking mercurial medi¬ 
cines, or eating garlic. 

Breath ing, n. Respiration; act of respiring, or in¬ 
haling and exhaling ail'. 

“We watched her breathing through the night, 

Her breathing soft and low.”— Hood. 

—Air, or wind, in soft agitation. 

“ There's not a breathing of the common wind 
That will forget thee.” — Wordsworth. 

—Breathing-place; vent. 

“ The warmth distends the cheeks, and makes 
New breathings, whence new nourishment she takes.” Dryden. 

—Gentle inspiration, or moral guidance; as, the breath¬ 
ings of religion. 

—Aspiration; secret prayer. 

“ While to high heav'n his pious breathings turn'd, 

Weeping he hop'd, and sacrificing mourned.” — Prior. 

—Exercising the breath; increasing the respiration. 

* ‘ Here is a lady that wants breathing, too.” 

—Utterance; communication by words breathed. 

“ I am sorry to give breathing to my purpose.” — Shaks. 
(Gram..) Aspiration; the sound expressed by the let¬ 
ter h. 

Breath'ing-hole, to. A vent-hole, as in a cask. 

Breatli'ing-place, n. A pause; a vent, or orifice. 

Breath'ing-pore, n. (Bot.) See Stoma. 

Breatli'ing-time, to. Relaxation; pause; rest. 

Breatti'ing-while, to. A short time; time sufficient 
to make a brief pause. 

Breatli'itt, in Kentucky, an E. county, with an area of 
about 600 sq. m. Watered by the N. and Middle forks 
of Kentucky River, and by Troublesome Creek. Surface, 
heavily wooded, and diversified. Soil, fertile. Iron ore 
and stone-coal are abundant. County-town is Jack- 
son. 

—A village of the above co., on Kentucky River. 

Breath less, a. Being out of breath.— Exhausted 
with labor, excitement, or violent action; as, breathless 
from running. 

“ The holy time is quiet as a nun 
Breathless with adoration.” — Wordsworth. 

—Dead; as, a breathless body. 

“ Yielding to the sentence, breathless thou 

And pale shalt lie, as what thou buriest now." —Prior. 

Breath lessness, n. State of being breathless, or ex¬ 
hausted of breath. 

Breaux’s Bridge, in Louisiana, a post-office of St. 
Martin’s parish. 

Breccia, (bret'cha,) n. [It., a pebble.] (Genl.) A term 
applied to a mass composed of angular fragments of 
rocks of the same or different kinds cemented together 
by an enveloping paste, or by infiltrated iron or carbon¬ 
ate of lime. The name of B is derived from the well- 
known Italian B. marble, which has the appearance of 
being composed of fragments joined together by carbon¬ 
ate of lime, infiltrated among such fragments after the 
latter were produced by some disrupting force. 

Bree'ciated, a. Composed of angular segments ce¬ 
mented together. 

Breclie-de-Roland, (brash'-de-xd-lan,) a defile of the 
Pyrenees, between France and Spain, about 11 m. S. of 
St. Jean de Luz, with an elevation of about 9,500 feet 
above the sea. It is a difficult passage of from 200 to 
300 feet iu width, between precipitous rocks rising to a 
height of from 300 to 600 feet. 

Brecli'in, a town of Scotland, in Forfarshire, 8 m. from 
Montrose, supposed to have been the capital of the kings 
of the Piets. It was burned by the Danes in 1012; taken 
by Edward I. in 1303; and burned by the Marquis of 
Montrose in 1645; pop. 6,769. 

Breckenridge, in Colorado, a post-village, capital of 
Summit co., near the Rocky Mountains, 70 m. W. S. W. 
of Denver. Pop. (1897) about 800. 

Breckenridge, in Kentucky, a N. W. county on the 
confines of Indiana. Area, 450 sq. m. Bounded on the 
N.W. by the Ohio River, and on the S. by Rough creek. 
Surface, undulating. Soil, fertile. Cap. Hardiusburg. 
Pop. (1898 ) 20,200. 

Breckenridge. in Minnesota, a post-village of Wilkin 
co., on Red River of the North, at head of navigation, 
217 m. W.N.W. of St. Paul. Pop. (1898) 850. 

Breckenridge, in Missouri, a post-village of Cald¬ 
well co., 61 m. E. of St. Joseph. 

Breckenridge, in Texas, a post-office of Dallas co. 

Breckinridge, in Wisconsin, a village of Vernon co. 

Breek'nock, iu Pennsylvania, a township of Berkes 
county. 

—A township of Lancaster co. 

Breeks'ville, in Ohio, a township of Cuyahoga 
county. 

Breeli'ville, in Mississippi, a village of Madison co. 

Brec’on, or Breck'noUk. an inland co. of England, 
in S. Wales, having N. the cos. of Cardigan and Radnor; 
W. Cardigan and Caermarthen : S. Glamorgan and Mon¬ 
mouth ; and E. the latter and Hereford. It is abt. 35 in. 
in length, by abt. 30 in breadth. The surface is very 


mountainous, the highest summits being the Beacons of 
Brecknock, Cnpellante, and Cradle mountains, respec¬ 
tively 2,862, 2.394, ami 2.545 feet above the sea. It l 
watered by the Wye. the Usk. and the Tauf. Climate, 
rather severe and humid. Agriculture is in a backward 
state. There are large iron v ks at Beaufort and Cl.vd- 
dach. The prin. towns are Brecon, Crickhowell, aud 
Builth. 

Brecon, or Brecknock, a town, cap. of the above co., on 
the Usk, 144 m. W. by N. of London. 

Bred, imp. and pp. of Breed, q. v. 

Breda, ( brai’da ,) a fortified town of Holland, prov. Brae 
bant, on the Merk, 24 m. W.S.W. of Bois-le-Duc. It it 
one of the strongest places in the kingdom; and its 
position in the middle of a marsh that nmy be laid un¬ 
der water, contributes materially to its strength. Its 
trade is unimportant. It was taken from the Spaniards 
by Prince Maurice in 1590; retaken by the Spaniards iu 
1625; and finally ceded to Holland by the treaty of 
Westphalia in 1648. 

Breilerode, Hendrick, Count, (brai'dai-rod.) aDntcl 
patriot, b. 1531, joined with Counts Egniont and Morn it 
opposing the tyranny of Cardinal Granvella, the Span¬ 
ish governor of the Netherlands. In 1566 lie presented 
to Margaret of Parma, who had succeeded Granvella, 
the famous “ Request,” which gave rise to the insurrec¬ 
tion of the Gueux, or “ Beggars.” Under the grinding 
oppression of the Duke of Alva’s administration iu the 
Low Countries, he retired to Germany. D. 1568. 

Bredouiile'nient, n. A French word, applied to a 
precipitate and indistinct mode of utterance, in which 
a part of the words is pronounced, and several of the 
syllables are viciously changed. This defect is analo¬ 
gous to stuttering, but differs from it in being dependent 
on too great rapidity of speech; while stuttering is char¬ 
acterized by continual hesitations, and frequent repeti¬ 
tion of the same syllables. 

Bred'ow, Gabriel Gottfried, a German historian, b in 
Berlin, 1773. His Memorable Events of Universal His¬ 
tory, and Elaborate Narrative, have passed through 
many editions. D. 1814. 

Bredsore, or Breeder. See Breeding-sore. 

Brce, Matthaus Ignazics Yan, an excellent Flemish 
painter, b. at Antwerp, 1773; D. 1839. 

Breeeli, (brech) n. [From break or breach.] The 
posterior and lower part of the human body; hence, 
figuratively, the hinder part of anything. 

“As quick as lightning in the breech ,. . • 

Because a kick in that place more 

Hurts honor, than deep wouuds before."— Hudibras. 

—A garment for the breech. See Breeches. 

“ Ah I that thy father had been so resolv'd 1 
That thou migbt'st still have worn the petticoat, 

And ne'er had stol'n the breech from Lancaster.”— Shake. 

(Gunnery.) The solid part of a piece of artillery be¬ 
hind the bore. See Gun. 

“ So cannons, when they mount vast ditches, 

Are tumbled back upon their breechee." — Sir C. Sedley. 

—The hinder part of anything. 

(Ship-build.) The angle of a knee-timber, the inside 
of which is called the throat. 

— v. a. To put into breeches. 

—To fit anything with a breech; as, to breech a field-piece. 
To connect by a breeching. 

Breeches, (brech’ee,) n. pi. [A. S. broc, pi. brae; Dan. 
brock ; It. brache ; Fr. braies ; Swed. and Goth, brackor; 
Lat. bracca; derived by Junius from Irreechen, to part, 
separate, divide.] A garment worn by men, covering 
the hips and thighs, and reaching to the knees. (Panta¬ 
loons, or trousers, are sometimes erroneously given this 
name.) 

“But the old three-cornered hat, 

Aud the breeches, and all that. 

Are so queer 1” — Holmes. 

To wear the breeches. A popular colloquialism ex¬ 
pressive of a wife who usurps her husband’s authority. 

“ The wife of Xanthus was domineering, as if her fortune, and 
her extraction, had entitled her towear thebreechee." L 1 Estrange. 

Breeeli'-band, n. Part of a horse's harness. See 
Breeching. 

Breeching', (brech'ing,) to. Chastisement on the 
breech; as, to give a boy a breeching. 

(Saddlery.) Part of the harness of a carriage-horse, 
by means of which lie is enabled to push the carriage, 
to which he is attached, backwards; or to support its 
pressure in going down a hill. 

(Naut.) A rope on board a ship by which a gun is 
firmly lashed or fastened to her side. 

Breecli'ing-loop, to. (Naut.) A loop of metai at 
the breech-end of a ship’s gun, through which the rope 
called a breeching is passed, and secured to the sides of 
the vessel to prevent the guns recoiling too far, or roll¬ 
ing across the ship in a sea-way. 

Breeeli'-loading, to. [Fr. breche; Ger. bruch, a 
breach; A.S. hlad, to load.] (Gunnery.) The method of 
making heavy pieces of ordnance and field-pieces, as 
well as rifles and fowling-pieces, with a movable breech, 
to admit of the charge being inserted at the breech end 
of the gun instead of the muzzle. Breech-loading guns 
are infinitely superior to those constructed on the old 
principle, as they can be loaded with much greater ra¬ 
pidity, and can be cleaned with gi eater readiness and 
safety : the liore of the gun can also ne more accurately 
grooved in the case of rified pieces, and the calibre ex¬ 
actly preserved in the construction of smooth bores; 
and the bullet or projectile can be better adapted to fit 
the grooves of the piece or calibre of the bore. The ad¬ 
dition of mechanism is required to secure the breech to 
the main part of the gun, and to insure sufficient strength 
to resist the explosive force of the powder. This renders 
a weapon constructed on this principle more expensive; 







BREE 


BREI 


BREN 


423 


trot the outlay is counterbalanced by the saving effected 
in metal, expenditure of powder, and the facility with 
■which the pieces composing a field-battery can be moved 
from one place to another, as rifled breech-loading guns 
are not more than half the weight of pieces of ordinary 
construction and of the same calibre. At the present 
time it may be said that muzzle-loading weapons, large 
and small, belong to an age that is past. This is true 
alike of smooth-bores and rifles, of whatever calibre. 
The sportsman of to-day uses nothing but the breech¬ 
loading piece; modern armies have not only discarded 
the old muzzle-loading musket, but are satisfied with 
nothing short of the latest magazine rifle, which dis- 



Fig. -Hi.—AX OLD-FASHIONED BREECH-LOADER. 


charges its pencil-like projectile of hardened steel at 
the lute of ten or more a miuute. In the way of heavy 
ordnance, the breech-loading rifled cannon, ever grow¬ 
ing in size and power, is the sole product of the armo¬ 
ries; and the old-fashioned smooth-bore, loaded at the 
muzzle, clumsy and ineffective, is no longer seen except 
on board the more ancient warships or in fortifications 
where no actual service is likely to be required. See 
Rifle, Rapid-fire Gdxs, Ac. 

Breech'-Ioading, a. (Mil.) Inserting the charge of 
a gun at the breech instead of the muzzle. 

Breech'-pin, Breech -screw, n. A strong plug 
firmly screwed in the breech of a fire-arm. 

Breech'-sig'Iit, n. (Mil.) An instrument used for 
pointing a fire-arm. 

Breed, [bred,) v. a. (imp. and pp. bred.) [A.S. bredan; 
brtedanf) To generate; to produce; to beget; to pro¬ 
create. 

“ None fiercer in Numidia bred, 

With Carthage were in triumph led.”— Roscommon. 

—To cherish; to nourish; to foster; to bring up. 

“Bred up in grief, can pleasure be our theme? — Prior. 

—To educate; to train; to form by education; as, a well- 
bred person. 

“ To breed up the son to common sense, 

Is evermore the parent's least expense."— Dryden. 

—To occasion; to cause; to produce; to engender; as, to 
breed suspicion. 

** How use doth breed a habit in a man ! *'— Shake. 

—To give birth to; to be the native place of; as ,1/reeding- 
pomis. 

*' Hail, foreign wonder! 

Whom certain these rough shades did never breed.'' — Shake . 

— v. i. To produce offspring ; to be with young. 

" I.ucina, it seems, was breeding."* Spectator. 

—To be produced, generated, or formed, as young breed in 
the matrix. 

'* How could youth last, and love still breed, 

Had joys no date, and age no need?"— Raleigh. 

—To be produced; to have birth; as, salmon breed in yon 
lake. 

11 Where they most breed and haunt, I have observed the air is 
delicate."— Shake. 

—To propagate; to raise a breed. 

** In the choice of swiue, choose such to breed of as are of long 
large bodies."— Mortimer. 

— n. A caste or kind, or subdivision of a certain species; 
as, horses of the Arab breed. 

—Race; progeny; offspring: — applied to things generally; 
as, a breed of calamities. 

For when did friendship take 
A breed of barren metal of his friend?"— Shake. 

Bree'de, a river of S. Africa, in Cape Colony'. It rises 
in the Warm-Bokkeveld Mountain, and falls into the sea 
at Port Beaufort. It is a deep and large river, but a bar 
at its mouth much impedes navigation. 

Breed'er. n. One that is prolific, and that produces or 
brings up anything; as, he is a breeder of cattle. 

** Time is the nurse and breeder of all good."— Shake. 

“ He 'd recommend her as a special breeder."—Pope. 

Breecl ins", n. Nurture; education; bringing up; 
training. 

•• I am a gentleman of blood and breeding. '—Shake. 

—Manners; deportment; knowledge of ceremonious observ¬ 
ances: social bearing; as, he is a man of fine breeding. 

“ You write with ease to show your breeding. 

But easy writing’s curst hard reading." — Sheridan. 

Breeding in and in. The system of close breeding, 
which has been applied with much success in the rearing 
of cattle and race-horses, is sometimes thus designated. 

(Agric.) The method of multiplying and improving 
the quality of domestic animals rapidly. Great attention 
has been paid to the subject of B. since the commence¬ 
ment of the present century, one notable result being 
that within the last thirty years the weight of mutton 
produced has nearly been doubled in proportion to the 
number of sheep. If a proper supply of food is furnished, 
any breed of animals will perpetuate itself: the various 
breeds of wild animals are instances of this fact. But 
when assiduous attention is paid to the B. of domestic 
animals, varieties are produced which are more useful 
and profitable than the wild breeds, on account of par¬ 


ticular properties which they possess. The first point 
of importance in B. is the selection of the animals with 
which to propagate a useful race. These should always 
be the finest animals possible; and great improvements 
in the stock existing on a farm are often produced by 
the introduction of males of a superior quality. In B„ 
the purposes for which an animal is reared must always 
be taken into account. The B. of horses has occupied at¬ 
tention much longer than that of oxen and sheep. One 
class of horses is bred for speed, another for conveying 
rapidly between different places, another for mere labor, 
or to assist human strength. By attention to the B., 
great excellence has been arrived at in each of these 
varieties. Strength and speed in their extremes are 
never present in the same animal; but a combination 
of the two is most useful. (See Horse.) The properties 
desired in sheep and oxen are very different from 
those required in horses. The fleeces and hides of the 
former are used as raw materials for manufacture, and 
their flesh as food. The breeder of oxen and sheep 
sometimes has the perpetuation of good qualities in view, 
and sometimes the production of the largest quantity of 
beef or mutton possible. Since attention has been paid 
to the B. of these animals, they have been sent to mar¬ 
ket at a much earlier age. Sheep and oxen which have 
been thus improved are both distinguished by small 
heads, small bones, short legs, and fine skin. Wild ani¬ 
mals have precisely opposite qualities. In B. any do¬ 
mestic animal, a near relationship should always be 
avoided. The principal points to be observed in B. are 
as follows: — The kind of animal from which the breed 
is desired should have distinguishing points, which 
ought always to be kept in view. The most perfect 
forms should be selected, and all defects should be cor¬ 
rected with patience and perseverance. Sudden crosses 
should always be avoided, and, if possible, two or more 
families of the same kind should be bred distinct, only 
occasionally crossing them together. The more improved 
a breed becomes by this means, the more difficult be¬ 
comes the selection of the animals by which to continue 
it, and very often, on account of this difficulty, a highly 
improved breed will degenerate. — See Horse, Ox, 
Sheep. <tc. 

Breed ings, in Kentucky, a post-office of Adair co. 

Breeds'ville, in Michigan, a P 0. of Van Buren co. 

Breese, in Illinois, a post-village of Greene co., 50 m. 
S.W. of Springfield. 

Breese, in Michigan, a village of Allegan co., on an arm 
of the Kalamazoo River. 

Breese'ville, in Illinois, a village of Jackson co., on 
the Mississippi River. 

Brees'port, in New Fork, a post-office of Chemung co. 

Breeze, n. [Sp. briza; tr.brise ; Dan. bruser, to rush. 
See Kush.] A wind that rushes on or rists suddenly; a 
shifting wind; a gentle gale; as, a strong breeze from 
the North. 

" The breeze springs up: the lately flapping sail 
Extends its arch before the growing gale." — Byron. 

—Metaphorically, a misunderstanding; an altercation ; a 
quarrel. 

(Brickmaking.) The larger refuse arising from pass¬ 
ing cinders through a sieve; they are much employed 
by brickmakers for the purpose of calcining their bricks, 
and for mixture with the clay when it is too fat for or¬ 
dinary purposes. 

— v. n. (Naut.) To blow gently. 

Breeze'-fly, n. (ZoSl.) See (Estrid^. 

Breeze'less, a. Without a breeze; very calm. 

Breeze -shaken, a. That is shaken or moved by a 
breeze. 

Breez'y, a. Fanned with gentle winds; subject to fre¬ 
quent breezes. 

Bregenz', a mountainous district of the Tyrol, com¬ 
prising the Vorarlberg territory; area, 987 sq. m.; pop. 
108,565. Its capital, Bregenz, is a small, but fine town on 
Lake Constance, near the mouth of the Aach. Pop. 4,416. 

Bregliet, Abraham Louis, \brai'goo-ai,) a celebrated 
French clock and watch mechanician, who, at an early 
age, went to Paris, and first perfected those continually 
going watches which are self-winding. Afterwards, he 
invented for watches, repeated movements and escape¬ 
ments of all kinds, of a delicacy and precision before un¬ 
known. He was a member of the Institute, and greatly 
enriched and extended the science of horology. B. in 
Switzerland, his parents being French Protestant refu¬ 
gees; he D. at Paris, 1823. 

Bre’har, or Bkthek, one of the Scilly Islands. 

Brehat', a small island of France, in the English Chan¬ 
nel; 3 m. long and 2 broad, lying about a mile from 
the mainland. It has a light-house. 

Bre'hon Laws. (Hist.) The ancient laws of the Irish 
are so termed, from an Irish word signifying Judges. It 
is supposed that some of the written collections of these 
laws, which still exist, are of great antiquity; as old, 
perhaps, as the earlier ages of the Christian era. Prior 
to the Anglo-Norman invasion, Ireland was governed by 
these laws. 

Brein'isfSVille, in Pennsylvania, a P. 0. of Lehigh co. 

Brei'sacti. (anc. Mans BHsiacus,) an old town of the 
grand-duchy of Baden, on the Rhine, 12 m. W. of 
Freiburg. Being regarded as the key to the W. of Ger¬ 
many. it was a prominent scene of action during the 
Thirty Years’ War. and changed masters frequently dur¬ 
ing the next century. In l>0>i, the French handed it 
over to the House of Baden. Pop. 3,826 

Breisgau. (bris'gow,) an old division of Germany, in 
the S.W. of Suabia: divided between Baden, Wiirtem- 
berg, and Switzerland in 1806. 

Breis'IaKite, n. (Min.) A variety of Augite occurring 
in wool-like flexible fibres, of a chestnut-brown color, 
in cavities of the older lavas of Vesuvius. 


Breit'enfeld, (Battles of.) See Leipzig. 

Brein'en, one of the three German Hanse towns, or free 
cities, at the mouth of the Weser, 60 m. S.W. of Ham¬ 
burg,and 70 S.E.of the N.Sea. Sea-going vessels being un¬ 
able to come up to the city, B. purchased from Hanover, 
in 1827, a piece of ground on the right bank of thf 
mouth of the Weser, and founded the port of Bremer « 
haven, which has since become a flourishing town of abt 
8,000 inhabitants. The largest portion of B., called the 
Altsladt, or old town, lies on the right, and the Neustadt, 
or new town, on the left bank of the river. The princi¬ 
pal edifices are, the Cathedral, built in 1160: the Church 
of St. Ausgarius, with a spire 325 ft. in height: the new 
Town-hall; and the Exchange. B. has a museum, a 
theatre, a school of commerce and navigation, and nu¬ 
merous charitable institutions. Both sides the river are 
lined with handsome and convenient quays. The manu¬ 
factures are considerable, the principal being those for 
the preparation of snuff and cigars, which employ a 
great many hands. A large trade is also carried on in 
the building and fitting out of vessels. The situation of 
B. at a navigable river, and connected by railroad with 
all the important towns of Germany, renders her the prin¬ 
cipal emporium of Hanover, Brunswick, Hesse, and oth¬ 
er countries traversed by the Weser. In consequence^ 
she has an extensive and increasing trade. Import* 
are tobacco, coffee, sugar, and other colonial products; 
petroleum, cotton and cotton-yarn, cheese, butter, wine; 
tea, rice, iron, spices, and dye-woods. Exports linens, 
snuff and cigars, hams and bacon, rags, bones, chicory, 
oil-cake, refined sugar, soap, Ac. B. is one of the most 
important commercial cities of Germany, its trade hav¬ 
ing increased rapidly within the past decade. Its 
foreign trade is especially large with the United States. 
Its imports in 1890 reached a total of 749,938,507 marks; 
the exports, about 706,000,000 marks. Most of its 
steamers belong to the “ North German Lloyds.” The 
city is governed by a Senate of 18 members, acting 
under the legislative authority of the General Assembly 
of citizens, sitting under the name of the Biirger- 
Conveut, or Convent of Burgesses.— Hist. B. is said to 
have been founded in 788. She was long one of the 
leading towns of the Hanseatic League. In 1806, it 
was taken by the French; and from 1810 to 1813, it was 
the capital of the dep. of the Mouths of the Weser. 
Pop. of the city, 1890, 124,887. The State of B. com¬ 
prises an area of 991 sq. miles, with a total pop. in 1890, 
of 180,443. B. joined the North German Union in 1866 
and the German Empire in 1870. It ranks next to 
Hamburg in commercial importance and as an outlet 
of German emigration. The number of emigrants in 
1890 reached 140,410, of w hom almost the whole num¬ 
ber went to the United States. In 1888, B. became a 
member of the German Zollyereiu. 

Bremerharen, or Bremerhafex, (bra’mer-ha-fen,) 
the port of Bremen, 30 m. N.N.W. of that city. Its 
harbor is accessible for the largest ships. The site of 
the city was acquired from Hanover in 1827. Pop. 
(1897) 21,350. 

Breni'en. in Illinois, a village and township of Cook 
co., 23 m. S.S.W. of Chicago co. 

—A post-office of Randolph co. 

Breni'en. in Indiana, a post-town of Marshall co., on 
B. & 0. R.R., 18 m. S. by E. from South Bend. Pop 
(1898) 1,290. 

Brein'en. in Kentucky, a village of McLean co. 

—A post-office of Muhlenberg co. 

Breni'en. in Maine, a post-township of Lincoln co., on 
Broad Bay Sound. 35 m. S.S.E. of Augusta. 

Brein'en. in Missouri, a village of St. Louis co., 4 m. 
from St. Louis on the Mississippi river. 

Brein'en. in Ohio, a post-village of Fairfield co., 10 m. 
E. of Lancaster, and 49 S.E. of Columbus. 

Bre'nier, Fredehika, a Swedish novelist, born in 1802, 
known to American readers by her novels of The Neigh¬ 
bours, The President's Daughters, Life in Dalecarlia, and 
several other works, w hich have been translated into 
almost all the languages of Europe, and have every¬ 
where been deservedly popular. Died Dec. 31,1866. 

Bre'nier. in Iowa, a N.E. county, intersected by the 
Cedar, English, and Wapsipincon rivers. Area, 430 sq. 
m. Surface, well timbered. Soil, good. Cap. Waverly. 
Pop. (1898) 16,200. This co. was named after Frederika 
Bremer, the popular Swedish novelist. 

Bre'nier Green. ». (Chem.) A pigment composed 
of carbonate of copper, carbonate of lime, and alumina. 

Bre'niO Bln If. in Virginia, a P. O. of Fluvanna co. 

Brenesin (bren’b) River, in Idaho; Lat. 48° 30' N.; 
Lon. 115° 30' W. It empties into Lewis river. 

Bren'ford, in Delaware, a post-office of Kent co. 

Bren'hani, in Texas, a tow'nship and city, the cap. of 
Washington co., 100 ni. E. of Austin, and 20 m. S.W. 
of the Brazos river. Pop. (1898] 7,460. 

Bren ner, one of the culminating points of the moun¬ 
tains of the Tyrol. It rises between the Inn, the Aicha, 
and the Adige, to a height of 6,778 feet: and the moun¬ 
tains to w'hich it belongs are traversed at an elevation of 
4,650 feet on the way to Innspruck from Brixen. 

Brennus. [Celtic brenin, king ] Two individuals are 
known in history under this name. 1. The first was the 
hero of an early Roman legend, which relates to the mi¬ 
gration of the Gauls into Italy and their march to Clu- 
sium and Rome. In the account given by Livy (v. 33, &c.), 
he figures as the “ regulus Gallorum,” or chieftain of the 
Gauls. When he arrived at Clusium, the inhabitants 
called on the Romans for aid. He engaged with and de¬ 
feated the Romans on the banks of the Allia, the name 
of which river they ever after held in detestation. ( Virg. 
xEn. vii. 717.) The whole city was afterwards plundered 
and burnt; and the capitol would have been taken but 
for the bravery of Manlius. At last, induced by famine 
















424 


BEES 


BEET 


BEEV 


and pestilence, the Romans agreed that the Gauls should 
receive 1,000 lbs. of gold, on the condition that they 
would quit Rome and its territory altogether; the bar¬ 
barian brought false weights, but his fraud was detected. 
The tribune Sulpicius exclaimed against the injustice of 
Brennus, who immediately laid his sword and belt in 
the scale, and said, “ Woe to the vanquished.” The dic¬ 
tator Camillus arrived with his forces at this critical 
time, annulled the capitulation, and ordered him to pre¬ 
pare for battle. The Gauls were defeated; there was a 
total slaughter, and not a man survived to carry home 
the news of the defeat. The date of the taking of Rome, 
assigned by Niebuhr, is the 3d year of the 39tli Olympiad, 
B. c. 382. — 2. A king of the Gauls, who, B.c. 279, made 
an irruption into Macedonia with a force of 150,000 men 
and 10,00 i horse. Proceeding into Greece, he attempted 
to plunder the temple at Delphi. He engaged in many bat¬ 
tles, lost many thousand men, and himself received many 
wounds. In despair and mortification he killed himself. 

Brent, a. [Goth, bryn; Sw. brant.] Steep; high. 
(Prov. Eng.) 

Brenta, ( brain'ta ,) a river of N. Italy, rising from two 
small lakes in the Tyrol. After a course of 112 m., it 
falls into the Adriatic, through the canal of Brenta-Nova, 
or Brentono, at Brondolo. 

Brent'fortl, in England, a market-town of Middlesex, 
on the Thames, 8 m. W. of Londou. 

Brent, or Brant, n. (Zabl.) A species of goose, Ber- 
nicla brenta, of the Atlantic coast of N. America. It re¬ 
sembles the Barnacle-goose, but is smaller. 

Brent'idse, n. pi. (Zobl.) A family of Coleopterous in¬ 
sects, which are among the most remarkable of tlie 
beetle tribe, and almost entirely confined to tropical cli¬ 
mates. Distinguishing characters: — body much elon¬ 
gated; tarsi with the penultimate joints bilobed: an¬ 
tennae filiform, or in some with the terminal joint formed 
Into a club; proboscis projecting horizontally; palpi 
minute. They are found crawling on trees, or under 
the bark, and sometimes on flowers. Their general color 
is black or brown, with red spots or markings. The 
Brenthus septentrionalis, found in Massachusetts, about 
six-tenths of an inch, inhabits on the trunk and under 
the bark of the white oak. 

Bren'ton, in Minnesota, a village of Anoka co., 24 m. N. 
of St. Anthony. 

Bren'tonville, in Indiana, a village of Owen co., 18 
in. N.W. of Bloomington. 

Brents'ville, in Indiana, a village of Owen co. 

65roilts'V i lie, in Virginia, a township and village, 
former cap. of Prince William co., on the Occoquan 
creek, 104 m. N. of Richmond. 

Brent'wood, in New Hampshire, a post-township of 
Rockingham co., 30 m. S.E. of Concord. 

Brent'wood, in Tennessee, a post-village of Williamson 
co.. 9 m. S. of Nashville. 

Brescia, ( brai'slia ,) the ancient Brixia, a city of N. It¬ 
aly, cap. of a province of same name, on the Garza, at 
the foot of the Alps, on the margin of the great plain 
of Lombardy, 60 m. E.N.E. of Milan and 30 N.N.E. of Cre¬ 
mona. It is strongly fortified, has a fine cathedral, and 
is distinguished by its industry and trade. 

Breslau, ( bres'lnu,) the second largest city of Prussia, 
cap. of prov. Silesia, at the confluence of the Ohlau with 
the Oder, 190 m. S.E. of Berlin, comprising various 
suburbs, some of them built on islands of the Oder, 
and united to the body of the town by numerous bridges. 
Man/. Wool, linen, cotton, silk, alum, &c. It is the 
centre of a very extensive commerce. The fair held 
here in .Tune for the sale of wool is the greatest of its 
kind in Germany, the quantity sold being usually about 
6,000.090 lbs. /?. is one of the most animated towns in 
Prussia. The inhabitants are wealthy, the town salu¬ 
brious ; with provisions abundant and cheap; education 
excellent; its people intelligent, frank, and sociable; the 
literary institutions numerous and easily accessible; and 
the country around it beautiful. B. was taken from 
Austria by Frederick the Great. Pop. (1895), 335,186. 

B ressay, ( bres'sai ,) one of the Shetland Islands: 4% m. 
long and 3 broad. It is separated from the mainland of 
Shetland by Bressay Sound. Lat 60° 14' N., Lon. 1° 12' 
W. Pip. about 1,000. 

Bressumer, n. (Arch.) A contraction of Breast-sum¬ 
mer. — See Beam. 

Brest, a strongly fortified maritime town of France, 
dep. Finist&re, on the N. side of a spacious bay, near the 
extremity of the peninsula of Brittany, 30 m. N.W. of 
Quimper, 310 m. W.S.W. of Paris by road; Lat. 48° 23' 
32" N„ Lon. 4° 29' 25" W. The greatest part of the 
town is built on a hill, and consists of narrow, steep, 
winding, and dirty streets; in the suburb of Recouv- 
rance, however, these are broad and regular, and the 
houses very handsome. The harbor, situate between 
this suburb and the town, is in the form of a long canal, 
and is capable of containing 60 ships of the line. On a 
steep rock at the entrance stands the citadel, which is 
defended towards the land by strong outworks. Oppo¬ 
site to it is a stately tower, which serves, with the cita¬ 
del and several batteries, to protect the harbor. The 
principal public buildings and objects of curiosity in the 
town are the barracks, rope-walks,cloth-manufactories, 
forges, and foundries; the immense naval arsenal and 
dockyard; the two quays which encompass the harbor; 
the house of correction, the hospital, theatre, two marine 
academies, and the fine walk called Le Conrs. Its com¬ 
merce is principally limited to the supplying of pro¬ 
visions to the town and port. Cardinal Richelieu was 
the first to take advantage of the situation of B. and 
convert it into a naval station. Vauban extended and 
improved its fortifications. It was at B. that Mary 
Queen of Scots landed, when on her way to St. Germain. 
In 1694 it was attacked by an English fleet under Admiral 


Berkeley; but the expedition failed. As a naval school 
and port of construction, it ranked both before Cher¬ 
bourg and Toulon, until the vast extensions and im¬ 
provements made by Napoleon III. at Cherbourg, placed 
tile latter in advance of all the other ports of France. 
Pup. (1895), 75,854. 

Brest, n. (Architecture.) The moulding of a column; 
the torus. 

Bret, or Burt, tt. A name formerly given to a fish of 
the turbot kind. 

Bretagne, Brittany ,(brit'a-ne,) one of the provinces 
into which Frauce was divided. It now forms the dep. 
of Finistere, Cotes-du-Nord, Morbihan, and Loire-Iufe- 
rieure. In ancient times, B., under thename of Armorica, 
was the central seat of the confederated Armorican 
tribes, who were of Celtic and Kymric origin. Traces 
of them still remain in the old Kymric dialect of the 
three most westerly departments, and in the numerous 
so-called Druidical monuments. The Breton has gener¬ 
ally a tinge of melancholy in his disposition ; but often 
conceals, under a dull and indifferent exterior, lively im¬ 
agination and strong feelings. “ The tenacity with 
which the Breton clings to the habits and belief of liis 
forefathers is apparent by his retention of the Celtic 
language almost universally in Basse B., and by his 
quaint costume, which in many districts is that of the 
16th century.” The greater number of the people are 
found to be ignorant and coarse in their manners, and 
their agriculture is of a very rude character, by no means 
calculated to develop the natural resources of the 
country. Apart from the beauty of its scenery, B. 
possesses great interest, as the only place where men 
can be seen living and acting much as our forefathers 
did three centuries ago. Under the Romans, the 
country, after 58 n. c., was made the Provincia Lugdu- 
nensis Tertia; but its subjugation was hardly more than 
nominal, and it was entirely liberated in the 4th c., 
when it was divided into several allied republican States, 
which, afterwards, were changed into petty monarchies. 
B. became subject to the Franks in the reign of 
Charlemagne, and was handed over by Charles the 
Simple to the Northmen in 912. After some fierce 
struggles, the Bretons appear to have at length ac¬ 
knowledged the suzerainty of the Norman dukes. 
Geoffroi, Count of Rennes, was the first to assume the 
title of Duke of Bretagne in 992. The duchy of B. was 
incorporated with France in 1532, by Francis I., to whom 
it had come by marriage, and subsequently shared in the 
general fortunes of the empire, but retained a local 
parliament until the outbreak of the Revolution. 
During the Revolution, B., which was intensely loyal, 
was the arena of sanguinary conflicts, and especially of 
the movements of theChouans (q. v.), who reappeared as 
recently as 1832. 

Breth ren, n. pi. of Brother, q. v. This plural occurs 
frequently in the New Testament, and was currently 
applied to each other by the first Christians. It denotes 
persons of the same society, and is now only used in the 
Solemn or Scriptural style. 

Brethren of Social lafe, n. ( Feel. Hist.) This as¬ 
sociation, which professed to imitate the social condition 
of the primitive Christians, was founded about 1376 by 
Geert Groote and Florentius Radewin. They had their 
goods in common, and were protected against the oppo¬ 
sition of the religious orders by several popes and coun¬ 
cils. The last fraternity was founded at Cambray in 
1505. At the Reformation many members of these so¬ 
cieties joined the reformed congregations, while others 
were united with the Jesuits. They were also called 
Brethren of the Common Lot, Brethren of Good Will, 
llieronymites, and Gregorians. 

Brethren of the Christian Schools. (Eccl. 
llist.) An order of the Roman Church, established at 
Rheims by the Abbe de La Salle in 1725, sanctioned by' 
Benedict XIII. in 1725, and now established in almost 
all the Catholic towns of Europe. In France principally, 
they number upwards of 5u0 schools. The object of the 
order is to provide instruction lor the poorest classes of 
the population. The members of the order take upon 
themselves the vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience. 
Their costume is a coarse black cassock, and a small col¬ 
lar or band around the neck, for the house, and a hooded 
cloak and a wide hat for out-door purposes. Tbeir diet 
is of the simplest kind. Their teaching is mainly rudi¬ 
mentary, although in some of their schools Latin and 
the higher mathematics form part of the course. Priests 
may be admitted to the order, but no member may be¬ 
come a priest. They are- very numerous in Ireland. 
They have established schools in several towns of the 
U. States, where they count about 10,000 pupils. 

Brethren,(White.) See White Brethren. 

Bretigny, (pre-teen'ye.,) a village of France, dep. Eure- 
et-Loir, 6 m. from Chartres, celebrated as the place 
where, in 1360, Edward III. concluded a peace with 
France, by which John II. of France was released from 
his captivity in England, on agreeing to pay 3 million 
crowns for his ransom, England renouncing her preten¬ 
sions to Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Touraine, and 
being confirmed in the possession of Gascony, Guienne, 
and several other parts in France, recently acquired by 
conquest. 

Breton de Los Ilerrcros, Don Manuel, a Spanish 
poet, b. 1796, at Quel, prov. of Logrono. He served in 
the army from 1814 to 1822, and afterwards held several 
situations under Government. At the age of 17 he 
wrote A la Vejez Viruelas, a comedy, which was per¬ 
formed with success. After that period he composed a 
very large number of plays, some original and others 
either translations or adaptations: PoesiasSueltas (1831); 
La Desvergiienza, a humorous poem (1858), and numer¬ 
ous volumes of satirical works. Died in 1873. 


Bre'ton, (Cape,) in Lat. 45° 55' N., Lon. 59° 40' W., o* 
the E. coast of Cape Breton Island, q. v. 

Brett, a river of England, in Essex, falling into the 
Stour. 

Bret'tice, Brattice, n. (Mines.) One of tho wooden 
plankings used in coal mines to prevent the falling in 
of the strata. 

Bretwal'da, n. [A. S., Ruler of Britain.] (Hist.) A 
title assigned by the Saxon chronicle to those kings 
of the Heptarchy who extended their government over 
the entire nation. The following are mentioned by 
Bede, but Hallam and other historians doubt whether 
any sovereign in those early times possessed such au¬ 
thority: a. d. 492, Ella, king of Sussex; 671, Ceawlin, 
king of Wessex; 594, Etlielbert, king of Kent; 615, 
Redwald, king of the West Angles; 623, Edwin, king of 
Deira; 634, Oswald, king of Bernicia; 643, Oswy, king 
of Bernicia. 

Breughel, ( broi'gel ,) the name of a celebrated family 
of Flemish painters. —1. B., Peter, the son of a peasant, 
was born at Breughel, a village in the neighborhood of 
Breda. He was placedunder Peter Koekof Aalst (Alost), 
whose daughter he subsequently married. Having 
learned painting under that master, he travelled into 
France and Italy. He took many views by the way, 
particularly among the Alps. Returning from Italy, 
he fixed his residence at Antwerp, and was admitted into- 
the academy of that city in 1551. Here he lived for a 
long timo with a mistress, whom he would have mar¬ 
ried, but for a habit sbe had of lying; which so dis¬ 
pleased him, that he transferred his affections to the 
daughter of his old master, now dead, and obtained her 
hand upon condition of residing at Brussels, where she 
lived. As ho lay on his death-bed, be ordered many of 
his paintings, which were either satirical or licentious, 
to bo brought before him, and made his wife burn them 
in his presence. The dates of his birth and death are 
unknown.— He painted chiefl.v comic subjects, after the 
manner of Jerome Bosclie, whom he excelled ; and he 
has been considered by many inferior to Teniers alone 
in that branch of art. llis composition has been ob¬ 
jected to; but his drawing is correct and spirited, though 
not very highly finished. Itwas his frequent custom to 
disguise himself and mix with the peasantry at their 
festivals and games; and the happiness with which he 
transferred the living actions he thus witnessed to the 
canvas, has been aptly compared to Moliere’s, though 
in a different kind of satire. Besides comic subjects, he 
painted landscapes, and a few historical pictures. Two 
sons survived him, John and Peter. — 2. B., Jan, b. at 
Brussels about 1570. Ho received the first principles of 
his art from his father, and for some time he confined 
himself to flower-painting; but travelling into Italy, he 
enlarged his style, and painted landscapes, which he 
adorned with small figures, executed with exquisite cor¬ 
rectness and beauty. Many painters availed themselves 
of his liberality, aud induced him to enrich their pic¬ 
tures with his beautiful little figures or landscapes; 
among them are Steenwick, Van Baelen, Rotenhamer, 
Momper, &c. Even Rubens made use of his skill in 
more than one picture, in which Rubens painted the 
figures, and B. the landscapes, flowers, animals, and 
even insects. Jan B. was extremely industrious, as 
the great number of his pictures, and the care with 
which they are finished, sufficiently attest. Growing 
rich by his industry, he cultivated a magnificence in his 
apparel, and was nicknamed Velvet B., from the material 
of his dress, which was a costly stuff. His touch is 
light and spirited, his drawing correct, and his finish 
elaborate, llis pictures are much admired, although 
his landscapes are injured by an exaggerated blueness 
in the distance. D. about 1642. — B., Peter, the eldest 
son of Peter B., was the pupil of Giles Coningsloo. 
From the diabolic nature of liis favorite subjects he has 
been surnamed Hellish. He did not attain the eminence 
either of his father or brother. B. 1569; n. 1625. 

Brenil'nerite, n. (Min.) A native carbonate of mag¬ 
nesia aud iron. It generally occurs crystallized in em¬ 
bedded rhombohedrons, in chlorite-slate and serpentine. 

Breve, (brev, ) n. | It. breve; Lat. brevis, short.] Liter¬ 
ally, a short note or precept. — (Mus.) A note, now sel¬ 
dom or ever used except *i cathedral music. — See Alla 
Breve. 

(Old Law.) A writ. An original writ. Any writ or 
precept issuing from the king or his court. 

( Printing. ) A curved mark, thus, —used to give a par¬ 
ticular intonation to the sound of a vowel. 

Brevet, (bre-vet' ,) n. [Fr., from Lat. brevis.] In French, 
this term signifies a royal act in writing, conferring 
some privilege or distinction: as, brevet d’invenlian, a 
patent. In England and the U. States it is applied to a 
commission giving army rank, as distinct from regimen¬ 
tal rank. Brevet rank is attained either by distinguished 
service, or by seniority in the army. 

— a. (Mil.) Holding rank by brevet; as, a brevet colonel. 

— v. a. (Mil.) To confer rank upon by brevet. 

Brevetey, (bre-vet'si,) n. The rank or condition of a 
brevet. (R.) 

Breviary, ( bre'vi-a-re ,) n. [Fr. breviaire ; Lat. brevia 
rium, from erects.] An abridgment; an epitome; a 
brief account. 

" Cresconins, an African bishop, has given ua an abridgment, 
or breviary thereof." — Ayliffe. 

A book of the offices of daily prayer of the R. C. Church. 
The canonical hours are eight,—the night office of 
matins divided into three nocturne. The day offices are 
seven, viz., lauds, prime, terce, sext, nones, vespers ancj 
compline. Only the clergy are required to recite the 
B. daily. Formerly it was exacted of all. 









BREW 


BRIA 


BRIB 


425 


Bre'vfate, n. fLat. breviatus, from breviare, to shorten.] 
A short summary; a brief epitome or compendium. 

“ The whole counsel of God, ... is comprised in one breviate 
of evangelical truth.” — Decay of Piety. 

Bre viature, n. An abbreviation, (r.) 

Brtrv'icite, n. (Min.) The name given to the better 
crystallized’variety of Bergmanuite, which occurs in 
transparent colorless prisms, and iu a white radiated 
mass, in Brevig, in Norway. 

Brevier, (bre-ver',) n. [Fr. breviaire. See Breviary.] 
( Typography .) A small kind of type, originally used in 
printing breviaries, between the sizes of Bourgeois and 
Minion, as in the following line: 

“ To be born, to suffer, to die.” 

Brev'iped, n. [Lat. brevis, short, andpes, pedis,afoot.] 
An animal that has short legs. 

— a. Having short legs. 

Brev'ipen, n. [bat. breiis, short, penna, quill.] ( Zool .) 
(The of the Brevipexnes, q. v. 

Brevipen'nate, a. Short-quilled, or short-feathered. 

Brevipeniies, Brevipen'nates, n. pi. [See 
Brevipen.] (Xool.) A 
name applied by Cu¬ 
vier to distinguish the 
first family of his or¬ 
der Or alias. The os¬ 
trich (Fig 395), and 
the Cassowary (Fig. 

415), are types of this 
family, corresponding 
to the order Cursores, 
q.v. 

Brev'ity, n. [Lat. 
brevitas— brevis, 
short.] Shortness of 
time or duration; as, 
the brevity of one’s 
stay upon earth. 

-Conciseness or brief¬ 
ness of speech or com¬ 
position; contraction 
into few words. 

“ Brevity is the soul of 
wit.” — Shake. 

Brew, ( broo ,) v. a. 

[A S brivan; O. Ger. 
briuvan; W. berw, a 
boiling: from berivi, 
to boil or bubble.] Fig- 415.—cassowary. 

To boil and mix; to ICasuarius gaXeatus.) 

stir or agitate with violence. 

•—To steep, boil, and ferment malt, &c., so as to make beer, 
ale, &c. 

“We have drinks also brewed with several herbs, and roots, 
and spices." — Bacon. 

—To concoct or prepare; to mingle together; as, to brew 
a bowl of punch. 

44 Take away these chalices ; go, brew me a pottle of sack finely.” 

Shake. 

—To contrive; to plot; as, to brew mischief. 

44 1 found it to be the most malicious and frantic surmise, .... 
that 1 think had ever been brewed from the beginning of the 
world.”— Wotton. 

—r. i. To be in a state of boiling, mixing, forming, or 
collecting; as, a storm is brewing. 

44 Or brew fierce tempests on the wat'rv main, 

Or o'er the globe distil the kindly rain." — Pope. 

—To perform the business of brewing; as, to brew ale. 

44 1 keep his house, and ... brew, bake, scour.” — Shake. 

Brew, n. Manner of brewing, or the thing brewed; as, 
beer of a good brew. 

“ Trial would be made of the like brew.” — Bacon. 

Brew'age, n. Malt liquor brewed; a mixture of vari¬ 
ous things. 

“ With eggs, sir?— 

Simple of itself; I'll no pullet-sperm in my brewage." — Shake. 

Brew er, n. One who brews; one whose business it is 
to brew malt liquors. 

44 When brewers mar their malt with water."— Shake. 

Brew'er, in Maine, a flourishing post-township of Pe- 
nobsewt co., on the Penobscot River, near Bangor; pop. 
3,264. 

Brew'er’s stills, in Kentucky, a P. 0. of Marshall co. 

Brewer's Raneli, in Nebraska, former name of a post- 
office of Merrick co. 

Brew'ersville, in Indiana, a post-village of Jennings 
co., 60 m. S.S.E. of Indianapolis. 

Brew'erton, in New York, a post-village on the 
Oneida River, 144 m. W. by N. of Albany; part of which 
belongs to Onondaga county, and part to Oswego 
county. 

Brewer, in Maine, a town of Penobscot co. 

Brew’ery, n. A house or place in which brewing is 
carried on. 

Brew'-bouse, n. A brewery; a house appropriated 
to brewing. 

44 In our brew-houses, . . . arc made divers drinks.”— Bacon. 

Brew'ingr. n. Act of preparing mait liquors. — The 
quantity of liquor brewed at once. — See Beer. 

(Naut.) A congregation of black clouds, auguring a 
storm. 

Brew'ington, in S. Carolina, a P. 0. of Sumter dist. 

Brew'is, n. [A. S. briw, es, broth.] Bread soaked in 
boiling fat pottage made of salted meat. 

Brews'ter, Sir David, f.r.s., ll.d., k.h., an eminent 
natural philosopher, B. at Jedburgh, Scotland, 1781. He 
was educated for the Church of Scotland, of which he 
became a licentiate; and in 1800 received the honorary 
degree of si. a. from the University of Edinburgh. In 


1808 he undertook the editorship of the Edinburgh En¬ 
cyclopaedia, which was not finished till 1829. In 1815 
he received the Copley medal for his paper on the Po¬ 
larization of Light by Reflection, and in the following 
year, for his discoveries in physics, received from the 
Institute of France 1,500 francs, which was the half of 
their prize. In 1816 he invented the kaleidoscope, in 
1818 received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society, 
and in 1830 was presented with the medal of the Royal 
Society for his further researches on the properties of 
light. In the same year, with Davy, Herschel, and 
Babbage, he originated' the British Association, the first 
meeting of which was held at York, in 1831. He was 
now knighted by William IV., and decorated with the 
Hanoverian Guelphic order. In 1841 he became prin¬ 
cipal of St. Leonard’s College at St. Andrew’s. In 1849 
he was elected president of the British Association, and 
the same year had the high honor of being chosen, in 
the place of Berzelius, one of the eight foreign associates 
of the French Academy of Sciences. His discoveries in 
reference to the properties of light have led to great im¬ 
provements in the illumination of light-houses. Among 
his more popular works are, a Treatise, on the Kaleido¬ 
scope, a Treatise on the Stereoscope, a TreaUze on Optics, 
Letters on Natural Magic. The Martyrs of Science, and 
Memoirs on the Life and Writings of Sir Isaac Newion. 
D. Feb. 2, 1868. 

Brews'ter, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Barn¬ 
stable co., 65 m. S.W.of Boston. 

Brewsterite, (broos'ter-ile,) n. (Min.) A hydrated sili¬ 
cate of alumina, strontia, baryta, and lime, named after 
Sir David Brewster. It occurs in small gray or yellow 
transparent crystals at the Giant’s Causeway, Ireland. 

Brewster’s Law, n. (Optics.) The tangeut of the 
angle of polarization is equal to the refractive index of 
the polarizing material. This requires manifestly that 
the line of the reflected ray, when polarized, should be 
perpendicular to that of the refracted ray. There are 
several other optical laws discovered by Brewster, and 
passing current under his name. They have, however, 
generally been merged in higher laws. 

Brewster’s Station, in New Tork, a post-office of 
Putnam co. 

Brexiaeese, (brex-i-ai'se-e,) n. pi. (Bot.) An order of 
plants, alliance Sarifragales. — Diag. Consolidated styles, 
a many-leaved calyx, alternate leaves, and no albumen. 
This small order comprises four genera, namely, Brexia, 
Ixerba, Argopltyllum, and Roussea, belonging principally 
to Madagascar. The properties and uses of the plants 
are altogether unknown. They are trees with coria¬ 
ceous, alternate, and simple leaves: the flowers are 
green, in axillary umbels; the calyx is five-parted and 
persistent; the petals and stamens are hypogynous, and 
equal in number to the divisions of the calyx; the fruit 
is drupaceous, five-cornered, and five-celled. 

Brez'iline, n. (Chem.) The coloring matter of Bra¬ 
zil-wood. 

Brian, (surnatned Boro i ill lie,) (bo-ror/,) a celebrated 
king of Ireland, son of Kennedy, king of Munster, son 
of Lorcan. He ascended the throne of both Munsters, 
i. e. the present counties of Tipperary and Clare, a. d. 
978. His earlier exploits were against the Danes of 
Limerick and Waterford; but being elated by frequent 
successes against these invaders, he deposed O’Maelach- 
aghlin, the supreme king of the island, and eventually 
became himself monarch of Ireland. He derived his 
surname from the tribute which he now imposed upon 
the provinces. King B. supported a rude but royal 
magnificence at his chief residence of Kincora, near the 
present town of Killaloe, in the county of Clare. He 
had also castles at Tara and Cashel. B. continued for 
many years to rule his dominions with vigor and pros¬ 
perity, reducing the Danes and subduing their native 
allies, building numerous duns or castles, causing roads 
and bridges to be constructed, and enforcing the law by 
taking hostages from all the petty kings of the country. 
Having, however, disputed with Maelmora, the king of 
Leinster, Maelmora revolted, and, inviting a new inva¬ 
sion of Danes to his assistance, brought on the battle 
of Clontarf, in which king B. fell, after gaining a glo¬ 
rious victory over the united forces of the invaders and 
revolted natives, on Good Friday, anno 1014. B. and 
his son Murrough, who fell in the same battle, were 
buried together in the Cathedral of Armagh. The fune¬ 
ral obsequies lasted twelve days and nights, and the 
possession of the heroic remains was afterwards con¬ 
tested by rival potentates. B. is said to have defeated 
the Danes in twenty-five pitched battles. Prior to the 
battle of Clontarf he had confined them to the cities of 
Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, and Limerick; and from the 
final blow which be gave their power in that engage¬ 
ment they never recovered. He was the founder of the 
numerous sept of O'Brien, O or Ua being a distinctive 
adnomen not assumed by Irish families till after his 
time. This national prefix means 44 descendant of,” or, 
“of the kindred of,” and was originally supplied by the 
more ancient Mac. which means 44 son.” 

Briail'clion’s Theorem, n. (Math.) In conic sec¬ 
tions, the reciprocal of Pascal’s theorem, first given by 
its discoverer, M. Brianchon, in the Journal de VNcnie. 
IWytechnique, cah. 13. It is thus enunciated: “The 
three diagonals of every hexagon circumscribed to a 
conic meet in a point, and may be easily deduced from 
the unharmonic properties of conics. By allowing two 
or more sides to coincide, numerous useful corollaries 
may be deduced.” 

Brian^on, ( bre'an-savmg ,) a strongly fortified town 
of France, dep. Ilautes Alpes, cap. of an arrond.. on the 
Durance. 50 m. E.S.E. of Grenoble. This is the highest 
town in France, being 4,280 feet above the level of the 
sea- From its commanding a practicable defile, leading 


from Piedmont into Italy, B. has always been looked 
upon as one of the keys of the kingdom on the side of 
Italy. In consequence, no expense has beeu spared on 
its fortifications, which are now deemed all but impreg¬ 
nable. They consist principally of strong forts built on 
the contiguous heights, and which command all the 
approaches to the town. The two principal fbrts, Trois 



Fig. 416. — brianjox. 


Tetes and Randouillet, communicate with each other and 
with the town by a bridge of a single arch, 130 feet in 
span, thrown over a deep ravine. With the exception 
of a single street, the town is ill-built, gloomy, and dirty. 
Manf. Cotton goods,hosiery, steel, and cutlery. Pop.4,961. 

Briansk', a town of European Russia, govt. Orel, cap. 
of a district on the Desna, 55 m. W. of Orel; Lat. 53° 
16' N., Lon. 34° 24' E. This is a prosperous and well- 
built place, having extensive manufactories of cannon, 
arms, and leather. Pop. 13,341. 

Bri'ar Creek, in Pennsylvania, a township of Colum¬ 
bia co. 

Bri'are. a town of France, dep. Loiret. on the Loire, 
25 m. S. of Montargis. The canal, to which the town is 
indebted for its importance, is the oldest work of the 
kind in France, having been begun in the reign of Henry 
IV., though it was not finished till 1740. It establishes, 
by means of its junction with the canal of Loing at 
Montargis. a communication between the Loire and the 
Seine, and conveys the various products of the prov. 
watered by the former to Paris. Pop. 4,319. 

Bria'rean,a. Hundred-handed; relating to, or resem¬ 
bling, Briareus, q. v. 

Briareus, (bri-ai're-us.) (Myth.) A famous giant, son 
of Coelus and Terra, who had a hundred hands and fifty 
heads, and was called by men JEgeon, and only by the 
gods Briareus. He assisted the giants in their war 
against the gods. and. according to the accounts of some, 
was thrown under Mount iEtna. 

Bribe, (brib,) n. [Fr. bribe, from Sp. bribdr, to beg, 
W. briw. a break, also, broken; bara briw, broken bread.] 
A price, reward, gift, or favor bestowed or promised with 
a view to pervert the judgment, or corrupt the conduct 
of a judge, witness, or other person. 

“ Too poor for a bribe, and too proud to importune; 

He had not the method of making a fortune."— Gray. 

—Means of seduction ; the thing that allures. 

“If a man be covetous, profits or bribes may put him to ths 
test."— L‘ Estrange. 

Bribe, v. a. To give or promise a bribe to; to bestow 
by reward or hire for a bad purpose; as, to bribe a voter. 

44 The great, 'tis true, can still th* electing tribe; 

The bard may supplicate, but cannot bribe." 

Prologue to Good-natured Man. 

—To gain over by bribes. 

41 How powerful are chaste vows ! the wind and tide 

You brib'd to combat on the English side."— Dryden, 

— 1 >. t. To give a bribe to a person; to seek to corrupt by 
a bribe. 

Bribe'less, a. Without being bribed; innocent of % 
bribe. 

44 From thence to heaven's bribeless hall."— Raleigh. 

Brib'er, n. One who gives bribes; he who bribe* 
another. 

“Affection is still a briber of the judgment.”— South. 

Brib'ery, n. The act or practice of giving or taking 
bribes. 

(Hist, and Laiv.) This form of corruption is men¬ 
tioned several times in the Bible, and is forbidden. 

( Deut. xvi. 19.) It prevailed extensively among most 
ancient nations. When Ergocles was convicted of hav¬ 
ing embezzled 30 talents, and payment was demanded 
of his friend Philocrates. his party openly boasted of 
having bribed 2,100 jurymen at Athens. B. prevailed 
to a fearful extent in Rome, and existed in various 
forms during the Middle Ages. — B. is an offence against 
public justice, and is committed when a judge or other 
person concerned in the administration of justice, takes 
any undue reward to influence his behavior in his office. 
— B. at elections for members of Parliament in Great 
Britain has always been held a crime at common law, 
and punishable by indictment or information. An 
attempt to bribe, even though unsuccessful, has been 
held to be criminal, and the offender may be indicted. 
In the U. States similar statutory provisions have been 
enacted. — “Judicial purity has been generally main¬ 
tained in this country,but all penalties against improper 
influence at elections, and upon members of legislative 


























426 


ERIC 


BRIC 


BRIG 


bodies, have been ineffectual, here and abroad.’ 

Brib'ery-oatll, n. In England, an oath taken by a 
voter to make assurance that lie has not been bribed. 

Bribe'-worthy, a. Worth the expense of bribing. 

Bric-a-brac, ( brik-a-brak ,) n. [Fr.] Knick-knacks, 
old things, curiosities, fancy ware, old china, &c. 

Brick, ( brilc ,) n. [Fr. brique, from Celt, brig, baked earth.] 
A mass of clay-earth, sometimes mixed with coal- 
ashes, chalk, and other substances, and then moulded 
into a rectangular form, which in the U. States varies in 
size in the different States, running from 7% to 8]^ 
inches in length,4 to 4J^in width, and from 2%to 2J4 in 
thickness. B. have been used in building from a very early 
period; the Tower of Babel was a structure of II., and 
the imposing edifices of Nineveh and Babylon, reared on 
huge mounds of many acres in extent, also some of 
the pyramids of Egypt, were built of the same material. 
The Greeks and Romans also used B. in many of their 
public works; and it is probable, from the inscriptions 
stamped on those of Babylon, and the various marks on 
those of Greece and Romo, that all were formed in moulds 
before they were hardened by the sun or fire. One pe¬ 
culiarity to be noticed with respect to the Roman B., is 
that they are but a little thicker than an ordinary tile, 
and longer and wider than ours. B. were little used 
during the mediaeval period, although it is to that time 
that we owe the introduction of glazed B. for ornamen¬ 
tal work. For the last 300 years B. have been exten¬ 
sively used in Europe, particularly in districts where clay 
is plentiful, and it is difficult and expensive to procure 
stone. There are many different kinds of B., which may 
be divided into three classes, as follows: — 1. Bricks used, 
for walling; 2. Fire-bricks; and 3. Clinkers, or Paving 
Bricks. There are two methods of burning II. for wall¬ 
ing, and they are accordingly called kiln-burnt B-, 
or clamp-burnt B. The latter B. are the most com¬ 
mon, and are generally known as “common B.” They 
are made of coarse stiff clay, which requires sand to be 
mixed with it to allow it to be worked with facility. 
These B. are burnt in clamps or stacks of 500,000 to 



Fig. 417. — ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BRICKMAKING. 
(From Roselliui’s “ Paintings of Egypt.") 


1,000,000 in number, with the fuel interspersed among 
them, that every B. may be thoroughly exposed to the 
action of the fire. If the fire is too strong, it causes the B. 
to fuse and run together, and form hard irregular masses, 
called clinkers; but if the fire is not strong enough, the 
B. turn out to be soft, and therefore unfit for building 
purposes. About one-tenth of every clamp is lost by the 
unequal action of the fire and breakage. When the 
clamp is sufficiently baked, the B. are divided into classes 
known as cutters , fine close-grained B.. rather soft, and 
better suited for work in which the B. require cutting; 
picked stocks, B. of a uniform red tint; pavioars, hard B. 
fit for paving; common stocks, or ordinary B.\ grizzles, 
or soft II. ; and burrs. The IS. also vary in color, ac¬ 
cording to the degree of heat to which they were exposed. 
Kiln-baked B., also called malm B., are made of a finer 
clay, which contains a considerable quantity of carbon¬ 
ate of lime; for which reason great care is taken to pre¬ 
vent the air getting to thel?. while they are baking, for 
this would cause the lime to p£ss into a caustic state; 
and, when exposed to the action of the atmosphere, it 
would absorb moisture, which would cause it to swell 
and burst the B. in pieces. These malms are slowly 
burnt in kilns; they are better for ornamental purposes, 
being of a pretty buff color, but they are not so durable 
as the common B. From 20,000 to 30,000 are baked at 
once. Fire-B. are made of clay containing a consider¬ 
able quantity of silicate of alumina, and as free as pos¬ 
sible from lime, in any form, or iron. The clay is care¬ 
fully prepared, and the B are exposed to an intense heat 
in kilns, as they are required for building up furnaces, 
and other purposes, for which it is necessary that they 
should be able to withstand the action of fire. Paving- 
B. are made of clay which contains a great amount of 
silica, that fuses when the bricks are burnt, and causes 
them to become very hard. The B. of the Egyptian and 
Babylonian builders, above spoken of, were largely sun- 
dried, this being the case to a minor extent in Egypt, 
and almost wholly in the Babylonian and Assyrian 
structures, the scarcity of fuel in this region rendering 
the process of brick-burning much too costly. Yet 
some of the most ancient Babylonian terraces, such as 
those at Warka and Mugheir, are faced with brilliantly 
colored glazed bricks, showing a considerable develop¬ 
ment of the brick making art at a very remote date. 
The great mounds erected were provided with carefully- 
constructed drains to save them from ruin by the 
action of infiltrated rain-water. But subsequent ages 
of neglect gave full sway to disintegration by water, 
and these enormous structures are now reduced to hills 
of clay, within which invaluable antiquities are for¬ 


tunately preserved. Sun-dried bricks were also largely 
used in America by the natives, and later by the 
Spaniards of Mexico and the Pueblo region. These, 
under the name of adobe, are still much employed in 
that region. In Peru excellent bricks were prepared. 
Glazed or enameled bricks, used, as we have said, in 
ancient Babylonia, w'ere also made in India, Persia and 
China, and have recently come again considerably into 



Fig. 418. — BRICK-CUTTING MACHINE. 


use in England and America. The glazed bricks, being 
washable and non-absorbent, quickly found favor when 
introduced some thirty years ago, and are now largely 
employed in the cities of England. Their principal 
seat of manufacture is the Leeds district, where the 
material for producing the glaze exists in unusually 
fine condition. The output is from four to five million 
bricks per week, of which about one-sixth are shipped 
to America. At present excellent enameled bricks are 
made in this country, though no clay has been found 
that will burn with so smooth a surface as that of the 
Leeds district. The common red brick of the past is 
to-day rapidly losing favor and being replaced by bricks 
of a light shade, the clay being colored buff, yellow, 
pink and other attractive shades. Bricks of this char¬ 
acter are now somewhat widely coming into use.— Slag 
bricks. The manufacture of B. from the refuse slag of 
blast furnaces has grown to be an important industry 
in Germany', where the Luhrmann furnaces have turned 
out millions of B. of this character. The slag is carefully 
granulated and mixed with lime, the mixture being 
then moulded into bricks by a machine. When finished 
they are too soft for building purposes, and need to 
stand from six to twelve months, before they gain the 
requisite hardness.— Paving bricks. The employment of 
vitrified B. for paving purposes is steadily growing in 
favor in American cities, in whose streets many miles 
of such pavement now exist, more particularly in the 
residential and suburban districts, where they are less 
likely to be subjected to heavy traffic. If the bricks be 
carefully selected, such pavements are found to be very 
durable.— Waterproofing bricks. Various experiments 
have recently been made in the production of water¬ 
proof bricks, by soaking them in oil until the.v take up 
all they can absorb. Where crude mineral oil—“ blue 
oil ”—was employed, the oil evaporated and the B. re- 



Fig. 419. — INTERLOCKING BRICKS. 


turned to the original weight in a year’s time, but those 
treated with linseed retained the oil and manifested 
excellent water-proof qualities.— Glass bricks. A move¬ 
ment in the same direction, of considerable interest, has 
been made in the manufacture of bricks of blown glass. 
These contain a hollow space about one-third their 
cubic content, and as the opening is closed at 500° of 
heat, it is filled with rarefied air. These bricks are non¬ 
conductors alike of heat, cold and moisture. They are 


made in cubic, hexagonal, and other shapes, and are 
intended for building walls of plant houses and winter 
gardens, though their useful qualities have brought 
them into favorable consideration for house building 
purposes. For this they would have several advantages, 
their non-conducting properties keeping out the cold in 
winter and the heat in summer, while they would 
freely admit the light although opaque to vision.— 
Special shapes. For building purposes many forms of 
B. are made, among which may be mentioned the 
interlocking shape designed by lCleinberger in 1896 
(Fig. 419), the purpose of which is to impart additional 
firmness to the walls thus composed. The engraving 
represents a portion of the corner of a wall in which 
these bricks are used, the smaller figure showing a 
sectional view of bricks thus laid to break joints. Upon 
both the upper and lower faces of the bricks are recesses 
and projections or nipples, the latter being ordinarily 
made to extend a slight distance above the plane of the 
margin of the brick. These interlocking bricks are de¬ 
signed to tie themselves together in such a way that the 
wall cannot be sprung outward or cracked.— Brick-making 
machines. The old hand manufacture of B. has now 
been very largely replaced by the use of machines, 
which at once make a more shapely and a cheaper 
brick. Several such machines have been invented, each 
with some feature to recommend it. There are two 
general classes of B. machines, one in which a con¬ 
tinuous stream of clay is forced from the pug-mill (or 
mixing hopper) in a continuous stream, and afterwards 
cut into the proper lengths by knives or wires which 
make a smooth transverse cut across the slab. In the 
second class the clay is expressed into molds moving 
under the nozzle of the pug-mill. This latter class has 
several varieties, based on the arrangement of the 
molds, they being borne on wheels or cylinders having 
varied motions—linked into an endless belt or other¬ 
wise arranged. The clay being" shovelled into the 
hopper of the machine is cut by a series of revolving 
knives and thoroughly' mixed so as to form a homogen¬ 
eous mass, and at the same time is pressed forward to 
the orifice of the mill. In a machine of the first class. 



Fig. 420. — gerding and Harrison’s brick machine. 

of which a typical example is the Chambers machine, 
the clay is urged into a chamber, where it is at once 
forced onward and compressed by' the gradually dimin¬ 
ishing space. The orifice of the die holder, into which 
the clay enters, is of the shape of the end of a brick, 
and the die is made hollow to admit the entrance of 
steam, whose action much facilitates the flow of the clay. 
The cutting into proper lengths of the steadily advancing 
stream of compressed clay is alone needed to complete 
the process, the bricks thus formed being carried away 
on an endless belt, whence they are taken by hand and 
finally prepared for burning. Of the second class the 
Morand machine is a typical example. This consists of 
two pug-mills, a horizontal revolving mold-board, and 
an “ oft-bearing” belt. The clay and water being put 
into the horizontal mill, a spirally arranged set of knives 
thoroughly mix and temper it, and force it forward to 
the end, where it descends into the vertical mill. Here 
again it is exposed to the action of cutting and mixing 
knives, the double pugging giving it a high degree of 
plasticity and homogeneity. Under the vertical mill, 
and in contact with its lower end, there revolves con¬ 
tinuously the horizontal mold-table, on whose periphery 
eight molds are placed, near each other, at equal dis¬ 
tances. The clay is forced downward through a slot in 
the bottom of the mill, and fills each mold in succession 
as they pass below. Each mold then passes under a 
pressure plate, which confines the clay on top, w hile a 
movable plate which fills the bottom of the mold is forced 
up into it by passing over a revolving cam on a shaft 
below. This compresses the brick, while the air and 
excess clay are forced through a small circular aperture 
in the pressure plate. As the mold passes on, a second 
cam lifts the brick up to the level of the top of the mold 
table, where it is pushed off automatically to an off- 
carrying belt. From this belt the bricks are taken, 
sanded, hand-pressed, put on cars, and conveyed to the 
drying ovens, all being done within a few' minutes 
after the crude clay has been introduced into the mill. 
The principle adopted in this machine is employed in 
various others, differing in method of action, yet each 
producing similar results. The product of such ma¬ 
chines is large, that of the Morand machine being 
from 20,000 to 24,000 bricks per ten hours, while the 





















































BRIC 


BRID 


BRID 


427 . 


thorough tempering and uniform density and shape of I outer and fnner faces diagonally, at an angle of 45° to 
machine bricks give them superiority over the hand| the face, each course being also laid in an opposite direc- 


product. The machine devised by Gerding and Harrison 
in 1894 (Fig. 420), follows the idea of the Moraud ma-i 
chine in the essentials for its mechanism .—Brick Burn¬ 
ing. The methods of burning bricks vary with the form I 
and size of the kiln and the fuel used. The earlier 
kilns were rectangular, the bricks being “ set” so as to 
allow a free circulation of heat. The fire-chambers 
were arranged in parallel jointed arches, whose axes 
were perpendicular to the sides of the kiln. The fire 


tion to that on which it rests; this leaves triangular 
spaces between the core and the face of the wall, but it 
is supposed to give strength to walls the faces of which 
are built on the principle of the Flemish bond. Garden 
bond consists of three stretchers and a header in every 
course; it is only used for walls of the thickness of one 
brick. 

Brick ley, in Mississippi, a post-office of Jackson co. 

Brick maker, n. tine whose trade it is to make bricks. 


was started gently near the outer walls and worked in Brick Meeting' House, in Maryland, a township 
gradually near the centre, care being taken not to force Tof Cecil co. 

it too rapidly. In another method the fire began in the Brick Mill, in Tennessee , a post-office of Blount co. 
centre and worked out toward the sides. Again, it Brick'-Hogging, n. (Building.) Brickwork carried 
passed up a central flue and drawn through the bricks j up and filled in Detween timber framing, 
arranged around it, being then drawn into a chimney Bricks'borougll. in .Veto Jersey , a village of Cum- 


or flue. The kiln in this case was annular in shape. 
Bricks are also burned in England in “ clamps,” or piles 
without protecting walls, the fuel being placed in layers 
between the courses of bricks. The time of burning 
varies from four to seven days, and the fuel requisite 
from to % cord of wood, or its equivalent, to the 
thousand bricks. After the burning is completed— 
which is tested by the amount of settling in the kiln— 
cooling must be allowed to proceed very slowly, great 
care being taken to lute up the doors of the fire-chambers 
and ash-pits, and other openings, since if a current of 
cold air should penetrate to the interior, it would injure, 
and might ruin, the bricks with which it came into 
contact. 

—Bricks taken collectively; a thousand of brick. 

—A loaf shaped like a brick. 

—A term used colloquially in a cant sense, to denote a 
good fellow; an excellent friend; as, he’s a regular brick. 

— v. a. To lay with bricks; as, to brick a wall. 

“ The sexton comes to know whether his grave is to be plain or 
bricked." — Swift. 

^To fashion in imitation of bricks. 

To brick no. To fill up with layers of bricks. 

Brick, in Mew Jersey , a flourishing township of Ocean 
county. 

Brick'axe, n. An implement used for axing off the 
soffits of bricks to the saw-cuttings, and the sides to the 
lines drawn ; as the bricks are always rubbed smooth 
after axing, the more truly they are axed the less labor 
there will be in rubbing. 

Brick'bat, n. A piece or fragment of a brick. 

“ Earthen bottles, filled with hot water, do produce in bed a 
sweat more daintily than brick-bats hot." — Bacon. 

Brick. Church, in North Carolina, a post-office of 
Guilford co. 

Brick'-clay, n. A common variety of clay adapted to 
the making of bricks. Many mixtures and combinations 
of silicate of alumina with silica, iron, and alkaline earths 
are available; but the best kinds contain little of the. 
latter materials, as they are apt to cause the bricks to 
melt and run together into a kind of glass in the kiln. 
There is no special geological age for brick-clays, as they 
belong indifferently to the oldest and newest formaticns. 
The red color of bricks is derived from the oxide of iron 


berland co., on Maurice River, 14 m. S.E. of Bridgeton 

Bricks'bnrgh. in Mew Jersey, a P.O. of Ocean co. 

Bricks'ville, in Ohio, a post-office of Cuyahoga co. 

Brick'-tea, n. A preparation of tea-leaves made by 
saturating the fresh leaves with fat, or with an alkaline 
solution, and pressing them into large cakes like tiles. 
It is used throughout Thibet and Mongolia. 

Brick'ton, in Illinois, a post-office of Cook co. 

Brielc'-tri miner, n. (Building.) A brick arch abut 
ting upon the wooden trimmer under the slab of a fire¬ 
place. to prevent the communication of fire. 

Brick'-trowel. n. i Building .) A tool used for taking 
up mortar and spreading it along the wall, to cement 
the bricks. Ac. together. 

Briok'ville. in Illinois, a village of Morgan co., 26 m. 
W. by S. of Springfield. 

Brick'-tvork. ». A structure formed of bricks. 

Brick'y, n. Formed of, or belonging to, bricks. (R.) 

Brick'-yard, n. A place or enclosure where bricks 
are made. 

Bricole', n. [Fr.j ( Mil.) Men’s harness for dragging 
guns when horses are not available. 

Bricquebee, (breeUbek,) a town of France, dep. La 
Manche, cap. of a cant., 8. m. W.S.W. of Valognes. 
Pop. 4.365. 

Brid'al, a. Belonging to a bride, or to a wedding; nup¬ 
tial ; connubial; as, a bridal-day. 

•* Come, I will bring ibee to thy bridal chamber." — Shake. 

Brid'al, n. [A. S. bryd-eale, bride-ale.] A wedding; tbfc 
nuptial ceremony; a wedding-feast. 

44 Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright. 

The brid'al of the earth and sky.” — Herbert. 

Bridal Veil Falls, in California. See 1 'ohono 

Bride, n. [A. S. bryd; Frisian, breid; O.Ger. brut; Ger. 
braut; Icel. bruda ; W. briduw, a solemn adjuration.] A 
woman newly married; a recently espoused woman. 

To Germany, what owe we not besides ? 

So oft besto’wiug Brunswickers and brides." — Byron. 

—A woman espoused, or contracted to be married. 

Has by his own experience tried 

How much the wife is dearer than the bride." -^Lord Lyttelton. 

Bride, a river of Ireland, rising in the Nagle Mountains, 
co. Cork, and after flow ing E. for 25 m. joins the Black- 


... . , „„ , . . . , water, in AA’aterford co., 8 m. N. of Youghal. 

that most clays contain, lhe clay in the vicinity of -Another river, co. Cork, joining the Lee, near Cork city, 
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, is remarkably Iree from iron, after a course of 11 m 

and the bricks made of it are of an agreeable straw color. Bride -ale. n. A rustic bridal festival. (Prov. English.) 
with no tinge of redness. These are so highly valued, Bride-bed, n. The nuptial bed. 
that they are transported even to New York city. . . , , , ,.... „ 


Brick -<1 list, n. The dust of pounded bricks. 

* 4 This ingenious author, being thus sharp set, got together a 
convenient quantity of brick-diut, and disposed of it into several 
papers.” — Spectator. 

Brick-earth, n. Earth or clay suitable for the man 
ufacture of bricks. 

Brick'ervi lie, in Pennsylvania, a P.O. of Lancaster co. 

Brick-groins, n. pi. (Building) The intersecting 
or meeting of two circles upon their diagonal elevations, 
drawn upon the different sides of a square, whose prin¬ 
cipal strength lies in the united force of elevation divided 
by geometrical proportions to one certain gravity. 

Brick Head, in Georgia, a district of De Kalb co. 

Brick'-kiln, n. A kiln or furnace in which bricks are 
baked or burned. 

“ Like the Israelites in the brick kilns, they multiplied the more 
for their oppression." — Decay of Piety. 

Brick'land, in Virginia, a post-office of Lunenburg co. 

Brick'layer, n. One who builds with bricks; a brick- 
mason. 

*■ And ignorant of his birth and parentage. 

Became a bricklayer when he came of age." — Swift. 

Bricklaying, n. The art by which bricks are joined 
and cemented, so as to adhere as one body. The thick¬ 
ness of walls of houses built of brick is regulated by the 
length of the B.; walls, therefore, are spoken of as being 
half a B., a B., a B. and a half, Ac., in thickness. In 
houses, generally, the outer walls are from one B. to two 
in thickness, and the partition walls only half a B thick. 
In bricklaying, care must be taken that the B. are well 
bounded, that is, that the successive layers of B. may be 
so placed that no joint in any layer shall come immedi¬ 
ately over another joint in ’the layer below it. Each 
layer of B. is called a course. When B. are laid with the 
side facing outward, and lengthwise in the course, they 
are termed stretchers, and tlie course is called a stretch¬ 
ing course; but when the end appears in the face of the 
wall, they are called headers, and the course a heading- 
course. There are four principal methods of bonding B. 
together, called English bond, Flemish bond, Herring 
bond,and Garden bond. English bond consists of stretch¬ 
ing-courses and heading-courses alternately: Flemish 
bond, in laying a stretcher and header alternately in 
each course; Herring bond is used for the core of thick 
walls, alternate co arses of B. being laid between the 


To the best bride-lied will we, 

Which by us shall blessed be.”— Shaks. 

Bride'-cake, ra. The cake which is made for the guests 
at a wedding. 

44 And divide the broad bride-coke 

Round about the bride-stake." — Ben Jonson. 

Britle'-chamber, n. The bride’s apartment; the 
nuptial room 

Bride'groom, (brid'grom,) n. [A. S. bryd-guma — 
bryd, bride, and guma, a man.] The bride’s man ; spe¬ 
cifically, a newly married man; a man about to be 
married. 

44 As are those dulcet sounds in break of day. 

That creep into the dreaming bridegroom's ear, 

And summon him to marriage.” — Shaks. 

Bride'-niaid. Brides'-maid,n. A woman who at¬ 
tends upon a bride at a wedding. 

Bride'-inan, Brides'-man. «. A man whoattends 
upon bridegroom and bride at a wedding. 

Brides'burg, in Pennsylvania, a suburb of the city 
of Philadelphia, on the Delaware River, at the mouth of 
Frankford Creek. A U. States arsenal is situated here. 

Bride'-stake, n. A hole or post set in the ground to 
dance around at a wedding festival; as, “Round about 
the bride-stake.” — Ben Jonson. 

Bride'well, n. A bouse of correction for offenders is 
commonly so called in England. The name is derived 
from the ancient London house of correction, originally 
a hospital founded by Edward VI. on the site of St. 
Bride's Well, in Blackfriars, a well-known object of 
pilgrimage in Roman Catholic times. The original B. 
is under the control of the Lord Mayor, and used as a 
receptacle for vagrants, Ac., within the jurisdiction of 
the city. 

Bridge, n. (Meek, and Eng.) See Bridge in Snr. II. 

(Mas.) The arch supporting the strings in stringed 
musical instruments. 

( Gunnery.) The two pieces of timber that conuect the 
transoms of a gun-carriage. 

Brirlge of Steamer. (Naut.) A platform raised above 
the deck for the purpose of connecting the paddle-boxes. 
—An elevated observation platform, or half deck, cross¬ 
ing a vessel transversely, upon which the commanding 
officer or pilot has his station. On warships, an armored 
conning-tower is similarly located and employi*;. 

Bridge of the Nose. (Anal.) The upper part of <?ie nose. 


Bridge-train. (MU.) A train of wagons employed fot 
the conveyance of materials required for the construc¬ 
tion of temporary military bridges or pontoons. 

Bridge, v. a. To build a bridge or bridges over; as, to 
bridge a stream, Ac. 

—To make a passage or road by a bridge, or bridges. 

Bridge-board, n. (Arch.) A board on which th« 
ends of the steps of wooden stairs are fastened. Some¬ 
times called notch-board. 

Bridgeborouglt, in X. Jersey, a post-village of Bur¬ 
lington oo., on Rancocas Creek. 12 m. E.N.E. of Camden. 

Bridge Creek, in Georgia, flowing into Ocklockonee 
River, in Thomas co. 

Bridge Creek, in Wisconsin, a township of Eau 
Claire co. 

Bridged-gutters, n. pi. (Carp.) Gutters made with 
boards supported by bearers, and covered over with lead. 

Bridge'hainpton, in Michigan, a township of Sani¬ 
lac co. 

Bridge'hainpton, in New York, a post-village of 
Suffolk co., 2 i m. W. of Montauk Point. 

Bridge'-head, n. [Fr. tete-de-ponl .] (Mil.) A fortifi¬ 
cation designed for the defence of a bridge, built either 
to secure the bridge from the sudden attack of an 
enemy, and then forming an essential portion of the 
regular works constructed for the defence of any town; 
or, thrown up hastily to secure the retreat of an army 
across a river, and to euable a small body of defenders to 
hold the enemy in check until the retreat has been 
safely effected, and means have been taken to de¬ 
stroy the bridge by which the passage has been made. 
The common form of a B. is a breastwork open in 
the rear, offering a salient angle to the attacking 
force; sometimes it is formed by bastions regularly con¬ 
nected by curtains, or by a series of redoubts. The 
army in retreat should gain the bridge by openings in 
the breastwork, which should be placed in the re-enter¬ 
ing angles, if the work be of sufficient extent, and pro¬ 
tected by a cross-fire from opposite faces of the fortifi¬ 
cation, and a direct fire from traverses in the interior. 
The most favorable position for a B., or tete-dupont, as it 
is generally called, is when the bridge which it is in¬ 
tended to defend is situated at a re-entering bend of the 
river, or where the river forms an arc, having the chord 
which subtends it on the same side as the B — B. are to 
be found at many fortiued towns on the Rhine. 

Bridge'less, a. Without a bridge. 

Bridge I.eyden, in Illinois, a village of Cook co., 12 
m. W.N.W. of Chicago. 

Bridge'north. a town of England, co. Salop, on the 
Severn, 125 m. N.W. of London. It is divided by the 
river into upper and lower towns; the tornier is built 
on the acclivity of a precipitous rock, whose summit is 
crowned by an ancient castle and a modern church. 
Manf. Carpets, tobacco-pipes, and nails. Pop. 8,468. 

Br idge'port, in Alabama,a. twp. of Jackson co. 

Bridge port, in California, a post-village and town- 
ship.cap. of Mono co., 200 m S.E. of Sacramento. 

—A village and township of Nevada co., 7 m. W.N.W. of 
Nevada city. 

Bridge port, in Connecticut, a fine city and seaport 
of Fairfield co., on an arm of Long Islaud Sound, at the 
entrance of Peqnonnock River, IS m. W.S.W. of New 
Haven, 54 S.W. of Harttord, and 58 N.E. of New York. 
B. has a flourishing coasting trade, and once had con¬ 
siderable business in the whale fisheries.— Manf. Articles 
of brass and aluminium, hardware, sewing-machines, 
carriages, projectiles, Ac. Black Rock harbor is a 
favorite stopping place for yachting squadrons and has 
sufficient depth of water for large vessels. Pop. 1890, 
48,866 ; 1897, estimated, 60,U00. 

Bridge port, in Illinois, a village of Greene co., on the 
Illinois River, 15 in. N.W. of Carrollton 
—A post-village of Lawrence co., 14 m. W. of Vincennes. 

Bridge'port, in Indiana, a village of Elkhart co. 

—A prosperous village of Harrison co., on the Ohio River, 
13o m. S. of Indianapolis. Boat-building is extensively 
pursued here. 

—A post-village of Marion co., 9 m. W.S.W. of India, 
napolis. 

—A village of Perry co. 

Bridge'port, in Iowa, a village of Jackson co., on tho 
Makoqueta River, 75 m. N.E. of Iowa city. 

Bridge'port, in Kentucky, a post-village of Franklin 
co., 4 in. S.W. of Frankfort. 

Bridge port, in Marylaiul, a P. 0. of Frederick co. 

Bridge port, in Michigan, a village and township of 
Saginaw county, on Cass River, 25 miles N.N.W. of 
Flint. 

Bridge'port, in Missouri, a post-village of Warren co., 
near the Missouri River. 

Bridge'port, in New Jersey, a village of Burlington 
co., on W ading River, 29 m. S.S.E. of Mount Holly. 

—A post-office of Gloucester co. 

Bridge'port. in New York, a post-village of Madison 
co., on Chitteuango Creek, 12 m. N. E. of Syracuse. 

—A post-village of Seneca co., on Cayuga Lake, 12 m. W. 
of Auburn. 

Bridge'port, in Ohio, a flourishing post-village of 
Belmont county, on the Ohio river, opposite Wheeling. 

_A village of Montgomery co., 10 m. S.S.W. of Dayton. , 

Bridge'port. in Oregon, a post-village of Baker co. 

Bridge'port, in Pennsylvania, a thriving borough of 
Bridgeport township, Fayette co., on the Mouongahela 
River, 40 m. S. of Pittsburg. 

—A village of Clearfield co. 

—A village of Franklin co., 12 m. AY. by S. of Chambersburg. 

_A post-borough of Montgomery co., on the Schuylkill 

River, opposite Norristown. 

Bridge'port, in West Virginia, a post-village of Ha* 
risen co-, 5 m. E. of Clarksburg. 















428 


BRID 


BRIE 


BRIG 


Bridgeport, in Wisconsin, a village of Brown <o., on 
the Neenah or Fox River, at the mouth of Plum Creek. 

—A post-village of Crawford co., on the Wisconsin River, 
8 m. S.E. of Prairie du Chien. 

Bridge port Centre, in Michigan, a post-office of 
Saginaw co. 

Bridge I*rairie,in Illinois, a township of St.Clair co. 

Bridge'-Stone, n. (Arch.) A stone laid from the pave¬ 
ment to the entrance-door of a house, over •> sunk area, 
and supported by an arch. 

Bridget, (St.,) (brid'jet) or St. Bride, „ Roman Ca¬ 
tholic saint, native of Ireland, who flourished in the 
end of the 5th and beginning of the 6th centuries, and 
was renowned for her beauty. To escape the tempta¬ 
tions to which this dangerous gift exposed her, as well 
as the offers of marriage with which she was annoyed, 
she prayed God to make her ugly. Her prayer was 
granted, and she retired from the world, founded the 
monastery of Kildare, and devoted herself to the educa¬ 
tion of young girls. Her day falls on the 1st of Feb. 
She was regarded as one of the three great saints of Ire¬ 
land, the others being St. Patrick andwSf. Columba. She 
was held in great reverence in Scotland, and was re¬ 
garded by the Douglases as their tutelary saint. Under 
the name of Sisters of St B., an order was founded in 
1803. by Dr. Delany, bishop of Kildare, and afterwards 
approved by Gregory XVI. It was named after St. 
Bridget. The rule embraces three vows — poverty, 
chastity, and obedience ; and the sisters specially direct 
themselves to the education of girls. 

Bridge'ton, in Indiana, a post-village of Parke co., 
on Racoon Creek, 10 m. S.E. of Rockville. 

Bridge'ton, in Maine, a post-township of Cumberland 
co.. 35 m. N.W. of Portland, possessing many tanneries 
and saw-mills. 

Bridge'ton, in Michigan, a post-village and township 
of Newaygo co., on the Muskegon River, 34 m. N.N.W. 
of Grand Rapids. 

Bridge'ton, in Missouri, a post-village of St. Louis co., 
15 m. N.W. of St. Louis. 

Bridge'ton, in New Jersey, a flourishing city and port 
of entry, cap. of Cumberland co., situate on both sides 
of Cohansey Creek, 20 m. from its embouchure into 
Delaware Bay, 60 m. S.S.W. of Trenton, and 40 S. of 
Philadelphia. It is a neatly built town, with a consider¬ 
able shipping trade, and possessing manufactures of iron, 
glass, nails, woolens, Ac. Pop. (1897), abt. 12,500. 

Bridgetown, "the capital of the island of Barbadoes, 
situate in Carlisle Bay, which is 4 miles broad and 
3 long. It is esteemed one of the finest cities in the 
West-India islands. Lat. 13° 4' N.; Lon. 59° 37' W.— 
Bridgetown was made a city in 1842, and has suffered, at 
different times, both from fires and hurricanes. It was 
burnt down in April, 1668. The greater part of it was 
again destroyed by fire in 1756, 1766, and 1767. It had 
scarcely recovered from the effectsof the dreadful confla¬ 
grations of these years, when it was torn from its foun¬ 
dations by the storm of Oct. 10,1780, in which over 4,000 
of the inhabitants miserably perished. Pop. abt. 20,000. 

Bridgetown, in Maryland, a P. 0. of Caroline co. 

Bridgetown, a parish of Ireland, co. Cork. — There 
are also several small villages of this name in the same 
country. 

Bridge ’Valley, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Bucks co. 

Bridge'ville, in Alabama,a. post-office of Pickens co. 

Bridge'ville. in Delaware, a post-village of Sussex co., 
on the Nanticoke River, 38 m. S.W. of Dover. 

Bridge'ville, in Michigan, a P. O. of Gratiot co. 

Bridge'ville, in New York, a post-village of Sullivan 
co., on the Neversink River, 106 m. S.S.W. of Albany. 

Bridge'ville, in New Jersey, a post-village of Warren 
co., on the Pequest River, 3 m. E. of Belvidere. 

Bridge'ville, in Ohio, a post-village of Muskingum 
co., 62 m. E. of Columbus. 

Bridge'water. Francis Egerton, second Duke of, the 
“Father of Inland Navigation in Great Britain,” was 
b. 1738. Early inheriting great wealth, and actuated by 
scientific tastes, he devoted himself to the development 
of the resources of his large estates, and the prosperity 
of his tenantry and neighbors. For the purpose of con¬ 
necting the two rising cities of Liverpool and Manches¬ 
ter, he conceived the idea of cutting a navigable canal, 
which would commercially unite their interests; and, 
accordingly, in spite of the scepticism of the men of 
science of his day, he succeeded with difficulty in get¬ 
ting an Act of Parliament passed in 1758-9, to enable 
him to enter upon the project. With the assistance of 
his celebrated engineer, Brindley (q. v.), and after enor¬ 
mous expense, and years of difficulty, this great under¬ 
taking was successfully accomplished in 1761. He after¬ 
wards promoted the Grand Trunk Canal Navigation, and 
by the two schemes, for a while, so impoverished himself 
that he was frequently at a loss for $50, lived in a style 
of the closest frugality, and denied himself almost the 
commonest comforts of life. He became ultimately the 
possessor of immense wealth, realized from the results 
of his life’s labors, and d. in 1803. The annual value of 
the “Bridgewater Canal Estate” is estimated at about 
$1,250,000. 

Britlge'water, a seaport of England, co. Somerset, on 
the Parret, 28 m. S.S.W. of Bristol, and 152 W. of Lon¬ 
don. B. is a place doing an extensive shipping-trade 
both coastwise and foreign. Pop. 12,462. 

Bridge'water,in Connecticut, a post-twp. of Litchfield 
co., 30 m. N.W. of New Haven. Manif. Hats. 

Bridge'water, in Maine, a post-townsliip of Aroos¬ 
took co., 130 m. N.N.E. of Bangor. 

Bridge'water, in Massachusetts, a post-townsliip of 
Plymouth co., 27 m. S. by E. of Boston. Manf Machin- 

■*y- 


Bridge'water, in Michigan, a post-township of Wash¬ 
tenaw co., 18 m. N. by E. of Adrian. 

Bridge'water, in Minnesota, a township of Rice 
county. 

Bridge'water, in New Jersey, a township of Somerset 
co., containing Somerville, the co. seat. 

Bridgewater, in New Hampshire, a post-township of 
Grafton co., 48 m. N. by W. of Concord. 

Bridgewater, in North Carolina, a P. 0. of Burke co. 

Bridgewater, in New York, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Oneida co., 15 m. S. of Utica. 

Bridgewater, in Ohio, a post-township of Williams 
co., 30 m. N.N.W. of Defiance. 

Bridgewater, in Pennsylvania, a borough of Beaver 
co., ou the Ohio River, near the mouth of Beaver River, 
28 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. 

—A post-office of Bucks co. 

—A village of Mercer co. 

—A township of Susquehanna co. 

Bridgewater, in Vermont, a post-township of Wind¬ 
sor co., watered by the Queechy River, 52 m. S. of Mont¬ 
pelier. Soapstone and iron ore are abundantly found 
here. 

Bridgewater, in Virginia, a post-village of Rocking¬ 
ham co., on the North River, an arm of the Shenandoah, 
125 m. N.W. of Richmond. 

Bridg'ing-lloors, n. pi. (Building.) Floors in which 
bridging-joists are used. 

Bridg ing-joist S, n. pi. (Building.) The smallest 
beams in naked floorings, for supporting the boarding 
for walking upon. 

Bridg'ing-pieces, n.pl. (Building) Pieces placed 
between two opposite beams to prevent their nearer ap¬ 
proach, as rafters, braces, struts, &c. 

Bridle, (bri'dl,) n. [A. S. bridl, or bridel; Goth, bridal, 
ride, and ol, a strap or rein.] A restraint; a curb; a 
check. 

“ A bright genius often betrays itself into many errors, without 
a continual bridle on the tongue." — Watts. 

(Mil.) A guard to protect the arm;—used by cavalry. 

(Saddlery.) A riding strap or rein; specifically, the 
contrivance by which a horse is curbed, governed, and 
restrained by a rider, comprising the headstall and reins. 

(Naut.) A short rope used on board a ship, serving to 
connect various portions of a base of a sail with the bow¬ 
line, which otherwise only draws on the corner of the 
sail. — Bridles of the bowlines. The spans of rope at¬ 
tached to the leeches of square sails, to which the bow¬ 
lines are made fast. — Bridle-cable. In the navigation of 
a vessel, when a vessel is moored by laying down a cable 
upon the ground, with an anchor at each end, then 
another cable attached to the middle of the ground-cable, 
is called a bridle-cable. 

Bridle, v. a. (imp. uridi.f.d ; pp. bridling.) To put a 
bridle on ; as, to bridle a horse. 

fne queen of beauty stopp’d her bridled doves.”— Prior, 

—To check, restrain, curb, control; as, to bridle one’s 
temper. 

“ With a strong, and yet a gentle band, 

You bridle faction, and our hearts command."— Waller. 

— v. i. To hold up the head and draw in the chin, as an act 
expressive of scorn, indignation, or disdain. Often fol¬ 
lowed by up; as, the good lady bridled up with dignity. 

Bri'dle Creek, in Virginia, a P. O. of Graysou co. 

Bri'dle-hand, n. The hand that holds and directs 
the bridle in riding on horseback; the left hand. 

“ In the turning one might perceive the bridle-hand something 
gently stir.”— Sidney. 

Bri'dle-path, Bri'dle-road. Bri'dle-way, n. 

A path, or road, Ac., used by travellers on horseback. 

Bri'dle-port, n. (Naut.) The foremost port-hole of a 
ship, through which the hawsers, cables, Ac. are passed 
in order to bo stowed. 

Bri'dler, n. One who bridles, curbs, checks, or governs. 

Brid'lington, (pronounced, and sometimes written, 
Bur'lington,) a seaport town of England, in the E. Rid¬ 
ing of the co. of York, a mile from the sea-coast, 24 N. 
by E. of Hull, 37 E.N.E. of York, and 96 N. of London. 
The harbor is good, and B. is much frequented in sum¬ 
mer as a sea-bathing resort. Manf. Hats, malt, bones, 
Ac. 

Bridoon', n. [Fr. bridon, from bride, a bridle.] (Mil.) 
The snaffle and rein of a military bridle, which acts in¬ 
dependently of the bit, at the pleasure of the rider. 

Brid'port, a seaport town of England, co. Dorset, 127 
in. W.S.W. of London. It is a handsome place, with an 
improved harbor, and carries on a considerable import 
and export trade. Manf. Sail-cloth, twine, fishing-nets, 
Ac. Pp. 8,490. 

Brid'port, in Vermont, a post-townsliip of Addison co., 
45 m. S.W. of Montpelier, on the E. shore of Lake Cham¬ 
plain, and opposite Crown Point, in the State of New 
York. 

Brief, (bref)a. [Fr. href, from Lat. brevis, short.] Short; 
concise; expressed in but few words; as.a brief answer. 

*' The brief style is that which expresseth much in little.” 

Ben Jonson. 

—Short of duration ; lasting but a little time; as, a brief 
engagement. 

“ But man, proud man, 

Drest in a little brief authority.”— Shake. 

—Common; customary: rife. (Used in some parts of Eng¬ 
land and the U. States.) 

— n. [Ger. brief, a letter.] A short or concise writing; a 
short extract or epitome rendered in a few words. 

“ There is a brief, how many sports are ripe : 

Make choice of which your highness will see first.”— Shaks. 

(Law.) An abridged statement of the facts in a cause 
before a court, and of the evidence in support thereof, 
with observations of the attorney or solicitor engaged 
for the party on whose behalf it is prepared, and refer¬ 


ences to decided cases affecting any legal points in dig. 
pute. The object of the B. is to inform the person who 
tries the case, of the facts important for him to know, to 
present his case properly; when it has been prepared 
by another person,— as is the general practice in Eng¬ 
land, and to some extent in this country, — or as an 
aid to the memory of the person trying a case, when lia 
has prepared it himself. In gome of the State courts, 
and in the Supreme Court of the United States, it is cus¬ 
tomary or requisite to prepare briefs of the case for the 
perusal of the court. These are written or printed. — 
In the English Prayer-Book, the name B. denotes the 
sovereign Letters-Patent authorizing a collection for a 
charitable purpose. 

(Papal Brief.) A pontifical letter dispatched from 
the court of Rome to princes or other high personages. 
A papal brief is issued to decide affairs of inferior im¬ 
portance to those adjudicated upon by a papal bull, and 
differs irom it by being less ample, and in being always 
written upon paper sealed with red wax, with the pope’s 
private seal, “ the fisherman’s ring;” hence it concludes _ 
with Datum Knmoe, sub annulopiscatoris (given at Rome, 
under the ring of the fisherman). — A papal bull, on the 
other hand, is always written upon the rough side of a 
sheet of parchment, and in ancient Gothic characters. 

Brief, v. a. To make an abridgment of; as, to brief a 
cause. 

Brief'Iess, a. Without a brief; having no client; as, a 

briefless barrister. 

Briefly, adv. Concisely; laconically; in few words. 

“ The modest queen awhile, with downcast eyes. 

Ponder'd the speech ; then briefly thus replies." — Dryden. 

Brief'man, n. One who writes a brief. An amanu¬ 
ensis ; a copyist. 

Briefness, n. Shortness; conciseness; laconism. 

“ They excel in . . . quickness and briefness." — Camden. 

Brieg. (breeg,) a town of Prussia, in Silesia, on the Oder, 
(over which there is here a stately wooden bridge,) 24 m. 
from Breslau. It has a ducal castle, a gymnasium and 
library, and there are various work-houses and estab¬ 
lishments for the poor.— Manf. Linen, cotton, and 
woollen fabrics. A little to the W. of B. is the battle¬ 
field of Mollwitz. 

Briel, or Brielle, (breel,) a fortified sea-port of the 
Netherlands, prov. S. Holland, on the N. shore of the 
island of Voorn, near the mouth of the Meuse, 13 m. W. 
of Rotterdam; Lat. 51° bY 11" N., Lon. 4° 9' 51" E. 
Admiral Van Tromp (q. v.) was born here. B. is also 
famous in Dutch history as being the place where the 
first foundation of the Republic of the Seven United 
Provinces was laid, in 1572. Pop. 4,734. 

Brienne, a town of France, dep Aube, cap. cant., 15 
m. N.W. of Bar-sur-Aube. This place is remarkable as 
formerly possessing a military college where the Em¬ 
peror Napoleon I. received the first rudiments of his 
education. — Here also he attacked Blticher, Jan. 29, 
1814, forcing him from the town, which was reduced to 
ashes, and compelling him, on the following day, to re¬ 
treat to Tranne8. 

Briens'burgh. in Kentucky, a P, 0. of Marshall co. 

Brienz, ( bre-entz ',) a small town of Switzerland, in the 
canton of Berne, beautifully situated at the foot of the 
Bernese Alps, on the north-east shore of the lake of the 
same name, and about 30 m. E.S.E. of Berne. Its cheese 
is held in high repute. Pop. 3,511. 

B., (Lake of.) It is formed by the river Aar, at the foot 
of the Ilasli valley, and by the same river it discharges 
its surplus waters Alto Lake Thun. It is about 8 m. 
long and 2 in breadth. This beautiful lake is situated at 
an elevation of 850 feet above the sea; its average depth 
is about 500 feet, but in some places it is said to have a 
depth of more than 2,000 feet. It is surrounded by tower¬ 
ing mountains, the principal of which is the Roth-Horn, 
from which splendid views of the whole range of the 
Bernese Alps are obtained. A small steamer plies daily 
on the lake between B. and Interlachen, touching at the 
celebrated Giessbach Fall every trip. 

Bri' or. n. [A. S. broe.r; Ir. briar; W.brath, a bite, a 
stab.] A prickly plant or shrub. 

“ What subtle hole is this, 

Whose mouth is cover'd with rude growing briers f "— Shaks. 

Bri'er Creek, in Georgia, takes its rise in Warren co., 
and flowing S.E. for more than 100 m., empties into the 
Savannah River, E. of Jacksonborougli. Here, on March 
3d, 1779, General Ash, with 2,000 men, was surprised by 
the English under General Prevost, and defeated with a 
loss of nearly 500 men. 

Briered, (brVerd,) a. Set or studded with briers. 

Bri'ertield, in Alabama, a post-office of Bibb co. 

Bri'er Hill, in New York, a P. 0. of St. Lawrence co. 

Bri'ery, a. Full of briers; rough; thorny; prickly; as, 
a briery hedge. 

Brieuc, (St.,) a seaport town of France, cap. of dep. 
C6tes-du-Nord, on the Gouet, near its embouchure in the 
Bay of St. Brieuc, 38 m. W.S.W. of St. Malo. It is a 
fine and well-built town, with a commodious harbor. 
Manf. Linen, serge, flannels, paper, leather. Lat. 48° 
31' N., Lon. 2° 45' W. Pop. 15,812. 

Brigade ( bri-gdd '), n. [Fr.; from Celt, briga, a company 
of men; It. brigata, a company, a troop, a crew.] (Mil) 
This term applies either the union of two or more regi¬ 
ments or battalions of infantry or cavalry, or both to¬ 
gether, either with or without artilery, under one com¬ 
mand. In the U. S. army, 3 or more regiments of in 
fantry or cavalry constitute a B., which is commanded 
by a brigadier-general, or a colonel acting as such. 

Brigade Inspector. An officer whose duty it is to in¬ 
spect troops in companies, before they are mustered into 
service. — Brigade Major. An officer who is attached 
to a brigade to perform duties similar to those of tif 
adjutant of a regiment, and acts as an aide-de-camp t 





BRIG 


BRIG 


BRIL 


429 


the brigadier-general. He must be a captain or subal¬ 
tern officer, and is generally selected from among the 
captains of the regiments forming the brigade. 

®rig, n. [From Brigantine.] In its original sense, a 
vessel which was used by brigands or pirates; specifi¬ 
cally, a general term for a two-masted vessel, carrying a 
boom-mainsail, being otherwise square-rigged; that is, 



Fig. 421. — brig. 

having her sails brought to yards hung horizontally by 
the middle.— Hermaphrodite Brig. See Hermaphrodite. 

Brig, Ilrigg, n. [See Bridge.] A term used in Scot¬ 
land, and some parts of England, for a bridge; as, the 
Brigs of Ayr; Glandford Brigg, &c. 

— (Nautical ) On ship-board, tbe room where prisoners 
are confined. i 

Brigadier-general, ( brig-a-decr',) n. (Mil.) The 
name given to the officer appointed to the command of 
a brigade. The post is generally given to one of the 
colonels commanding the regiments of which the bri¬ 
gade is composed. He holds temporary rank between a 
colonel and a major-general. 

Brig'and, n. [Fr.; AV. brigant, from brig , top, summit.] 
Literally, a mountaineer; specifically, a robber; a free¬ 
booter; a bandit; as, a brigand of the Abruzzi. 

Brigandage, (brig'and-dj.) n. [Fr.] The avocation of 
a brigand; freebooting; robbery; plunder; as, the Ital¬ 
ian government is endeavoring to suppress brigandage. 

lirigaiiiline, Brigantine, n. [O. Fr. brigant ; from L. 
Lat. brigans, a light-armed soldier ] (Mil.) A kind of 
scale armor, worn during the Middle Ages by a descrip¬ 
tion of light troops called Brigands, who were employed 
as skirmishers. 

“ Then put on thy helmet. 

And brigandine of brass." — Milton. 

Brigantine, (brig’an-ten,) n. [Fr. brigantin, from 
brigand; Sp. bergantin.] The name sometimes applied 
to a brig. The latter term, as an abridgment of B., is 
now commonly used.— See Brig. 

Briggs, in Minnesota, a township of Sherburne co.; 
now called Clinton Lake. 

Briggs’ logarithms, n. pi. (Math.) The common 
or vulgar system of logarithms, constructed on the base 
10, is sometimes called Briggs' system, after their con¬ 
structor Henry Briggs, a contemporary of Lord Napier, 
who discovered logarithms in the early part of the 17 th 
century.—See Logarithms. 

Briggs'ville, in Pennsylvania, aP. 0. of Luzerne co. 

Briggs'ville, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Marquette 
co., 11 m. N.W. of Portage city. 

Brig'ham City, in Utah, a city, the capital of Box 
Elder co., near Beaver river, 60 m. N. of Sait Lake City. 
Pep. (1890), 2,139. 

Bright, (brit,) a. [A.S. beorht, brihf, byrht, or bryht; 
probably related to bar, beer , bare, naked; Goth, bar, 
naked, manifest, clear, conspicuous.] Glancing; twink¬ 
ling; clear; luminous; shining; full of light and splen¬ 
dor; as, a bright moon. 

“ It were all one 

That I should love a bright, particular star, 

And think to wed it." — Shaks. 

—Transmitting light; translucent; transparent; as, bright 
crystal. 

“ Bright as young diamonds in their infant dew." — Dryden. 

•—Resplendent with shining or attractive qualities; as, a 
bright young face. 

•* All that *s bright must fade,— 

The brightest still the fisetest.” — Moore. 

—Sparkling with wit; acute in intellect; cheerful in 
spirit; brilliant in manner and presence. 

“ Brightest and best of the sons of the morning .”—Bishop Beber. 

—Lucid; clear; manifest; evident to the mind; as, a 
bright idea. 

“ That he may with brighter evidence draw the learner on.” Watts. 

(Painting.) Shining with light; a term applied to 
a picture in which the lights preponderate over the 
shadows. 

Bright, John, a distinguished English orator and states¬ 
man., b. 1811. He was a partner in the firm of “ John 
Bright & Brothers,” cotton spinners and manufacturers 
at Rochdale, and entered public life by taking part in 
the reform agitation of 1831-2. In 1839, he distinguished 
himself politically by becoming one of the earliest mem¬ 
bers of the Anti-Corn-Law League, which grew out of 
an association formed in 183S to obtain the repeal of the 
Corn Laws. He was the representative of the city of Dur¬ 
ham from 1843 until 1S47. when he was returned for 
Manchester. During the interval between his election 
for Manchester and the accession of the first Derby Min¬ 
istry to power, /s.'s activity in Parliament and on the 
platform was varied and continuous. In the House of 
Commons he proposed to apply the remedy of free trade in 

*> 26 


land to the state of things which produced the" Irish 
famine. He appealed unsuccessfully for the dispatch 
of a royal commission to investigate the condition of 
India; and in 1849 he was appointed one of the mem¬ 
bers of the celebrated special committee of the House 
of Commons on official salaries. In the legislature, and 
in the provinces, especially at Manchester, he co-operated 
with Mr. Cobden in the movement which the latter 
sought to create in favor of financial reform, mainly 
with a view to the reduction of the naval and military 
establishments of the kingdom. In 1851, he voted with 
those who attempted to censure Lord Palmerston in the 
Don Pacifico affair, and in 1852 he took a prominent part 
in the welcome given to Kossuth by the advanced libe¬ 
rals of Lancashire. On the formation of the first Derby 
ministry, B. aided in that temporary reorganization of 
the Anti-Corn-Law League, which the acceptance of free 
trade by the new government afterwards rendered un¬ 
necessary. With the accession of Lord Aberdeen’s 
ministry to power began the discussion of the Eastern 
question, his share in which alienated from B. many of 
his former supporters. He denounced the policy of the 
Russian war with the characteristic energy of what his 
opponents styled his peace-at-any-price principles; but 
his protests against it were stopped by an attack of ill¬ 
ness that compelled him to forego all public action and 
retire to Italy to recover his health. The news of the 
defeat of the Palmerston cabinet on the Canton question 
reached B. while in Italy, in March, 1857. Although he 
had necessarily taken no personal part in the debate or 
division which produced Lord Palmerston’s appeal to the 
country, yet he expressed his entire approval of the vote 
of censure which had been proposed and carried on the 
motion of Mr. Cobden. At the ensuing general election, 
B. (at this time very unpopular) was rejected at Man¬ 
chester by a large majority, but was afterwards returned 
for Birmingham, a seat which he has since constantly 
retained. From that time forward, B.'s name was mainly 
identified with a scheme for the reform of the electoral 
representation, by a wide extension of the suffrage, and 
a more equal distribution of the seats with reference to 
population, and alterations in the law of entail. He 
was an uncompromising advocate of the Union during 
the Civil War, and afterward distinguished himself by 
his strenuous support of Mr. Gladstone’s Reform Act, 
which, after keen opposition, was passed in 1868. After 
the general election in November of the same year, Mr. 
Gladstone and the advanced liberal party acceded to 
power, when B. became a member of the Cabinet as 
President of the Board of Trade, with the rank of a 
Privy Councillor.—He was one of the triumvirate of great 
orators then adorning the British Senate, viz.. Glad 
stone, Disraeli, Bright. He was the leader of the liberal 
party till 1871, when owing to ill health, withdrew from 
active affairs until 1880, when he came in office under 
Gladstone. He differed with Gladstone upon his Egyp¬ 
tian and Irish policy, in consequence of the former, he 
resigned from the Ministry in 1882, he retained his seat 
in Parliament, but did not actively participate in political 
affairs, chiefly however from continued ill health. D. 
March 27, 1889. 

Brig'llt'en, (brit’n,) v. a. To make bright or brighter; 
to increase the lustre of; to make to shine; as, his looks 
brightened. 

“ Salutes the Spring, as her celestial eyes 
Adorn the worid, and brighten up the skies."— Dryden. 

—To make illustrious; to add lustre or distinction to. 

” How blessings brighten as they take their flight 1 ”— Young. 

—To make gay or cheerful; to relieve by throwing light 
upon gloom; as, brightening prospects. 

—To become acute or witty. 

** How the wit brightens 1 how the style refines! "—Pope. 

—r. i. To grow bright or more bright; to clear up; as, the 
sky brightens. 

“ And, all his prospects brightening to the last, 

His heaven commences ere the world be past.” — Goldsmith. 

Bright-harnessed, ( brlt'hdr-nest ,) a. Decked with 
glittering armor. (Poetical.) 

Bright-hued, (brU'hud,) a. With a bright tint or 
color. 

Brightly, adv. Splendidly; with lustre; as, how 
brightly the stars shine. 

44 Safely I slept, till brightly dawning shone 
The moon, conspicuous on her golden throne.** — Pope. 

Brightness, n. Quality of being bright, splendid, or 
clear; lustre; splendor; glitter. 

“ The blazing brightness of her beauty's beam .. . 

To tell, were as to strive against the stream.” — Faerie Queens. 

—Acuteness of intellect; perspicuity of understanding; 
keenness of wit. 

“ The brightness of his parts . • . distinguished him in an age 
of great politeness." — Prior. 

Brighton, (formerly Brighthelmstone,) a fashionable 
watering-place, and parliamentary borough of England, 
co. Sussex, 47 m.S. of London. This place — which has 
been called the modern Baice —is situate on the coast 
of the British Channel, between Beachy Head and 
Selsey Bill, and is one of the handsomest towns in the 
kingdom, and so constant a resort of the upper classes 
of metropolitan society that it has received the appella¬ 
tion of London-super-Mare. (“ Loiulon-by-the-Sea). B. 
is pre-eminently distinguished for its architectural [ 
beauty, its fine surrounding scenery, its superb prome¬ 
nades and drives, and for the general air of fashion, 
wealth, and gayety. It would be going beyond our 
limits were we to particularize the various attractive 
features of B.; we may mention, however, the magnifi¬ 
cent but fantastic palace erected here by George IV., 
bearing the name of The Pavilion, but which has, since 
that mouarch ’8 demise, been disused as a royal resi¬ 


dence. It is in the Oriental style, being copied from th* 
Kremlin at Moscow. It now belougs to tbe corporatioi 
of the town by purchase from the royal family. B. hai 
little or no commerce, being exclusively dependent upo» 
the patronage of its wealthy visitors and temporary 
residents. Pop. (1895), 115,4(12. 

Bright'on, in California, a post-township of Sacra¬ 
mento co., on the American River, 5 in. E. of Sacra 
n> suto. 

Bright’on, in Illinois, a post-village of Macoupin co. 
60 m. S.W. of Springfield. 

Bright'on, in Indiana, a post-office of La Grange co. 
Biight'on, in Iowa, a post-village and township of 
Wishington co., 40 m. S.S.W. of Iowa City. 

—A township of Cass co. 

Bright'on, in Maine, a post-township of Somerset co. 
45 m. N. of Augusta. 

Bright'on, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Mid 
dlesex county, 4 miles W. from Boston; annexed to Bos¬ 
ton in 1874. 

Bright'on, in Maryland, a P. 0. of Montgomery co. 
Bright'on, in Michigan, a post-village and township 
of Livingston county, on Ore Creek, 43 m. S.E. of Ians 
ing. 

Bright'on, in Missouri, a post-village of Polk co., 24 
m. N. of Springfield. 

Bright'on, in Hew York, a post-village and township 
of Monroe co., 3 m. S. of Rochester. 

A township of Franklin co. 

Bright'on. in Ohio, a village of Cuyahoga co., 4 m 
S.W. of Cleveland. 

—A village of Clarke co., 35 m. W. by S. of Columbus. 

—A post-township of Lorain co., 30 m. S.E. of Sauduskj 
City. 

Bright'on. in Pennsylvania, a. township of Beaver co. 
on the Ohio River. 

Bright'on, or Old Bright'on, in Pennsylvania, t 
prosperous borough of Beaver co., on Beaver River, neai 
its confluence with the Ohio, 29 m. N.W. of Pittsburg 
Manf. Cotton, paper, and flour; possesses an active 
trade. 

—A village of Mercer co. 

Bright'on, in South Carolina, a post-office of Hampton 
couuty. 

Bright'on, in Vermont, a township of Essex co., 60 m 
N.E. of Montpelier. 

Bright'on, in Wisconsin, a post-village and township 
of Kenosha co. 

—A township of Winnebago co. 

Bright'on, a post-vill. of prov. of Ontario, Northum¬ 
berland co., on Presque Isle Harbor, Lake Ontario, 92 
m. E.N.E. of Toronto. 

Bright’s Disease, or Albuminuria. (Med.) A disease 
of the k iduey s, so named from Dr.Bright, the fi rst to dra w 
attention to the existence of this singular affection, the 
chief characteristic of which is the presence of a greater 
or less amount of serum separated from the blood, and 
found in the urine voided from the bladder. — Symptoms. 
Pain in the back and loins, at first slight and occasional, 
but becoming heavy, dull, and settled, accompanied 
with restlessness and fever, and the usual functional 
disturbance in the other organs; loss of appetite, hectic 
flushes, and general disturbance. These symptoms are 
succeeded by enlargement in the loins, cedema, or swell¬ 
ing .i f the face and extremities, and finally a state of 
general dropsy. Should these symptoms fail to point 
out rhe disease, heat applied to the urine will at once 
indicate its character; for the serum will become coagu¬ 
lated and, according to the amount present, either tlie 
wIioIa will be rendered solid, or masses of coagulum will 
be seen floating about the water. — The causes of this 
terrible malady are any which cause congestion of the 
kidneys — indulgence in strong drinks, long-continued 
suppuration, exposure to wet and cold, the exanthema¬ 
tous fevers, and pregnancy. The cure is very uncertain. 
Bright'some, a. Bright; lucid; lustious; brilliant. 

Brights'ville, in South Carolina, a village of Marl¬ 
borough district. 

Bright'wood, in District of Columbia, a post-office of 
Washington co. 

Brignais, a village of France, near Lyons, where, April 
2,1361, the French, under Jacques de Bourbon, were de¬ 
feated by the Free Companies in the service of England. 
Brignoies, ( breen'yobt,) a town of France, dep. A ar, 
on the Cararni, 22 m. N.N.E. of Toulon. The town is 
neat and well-built, and is finely situated in a fertile 
basin, surrounded by high, wooded hills. Manf. Oil, 
wine, liquors, brandy, and the choice prunes known as 
brignolles. Pop. 6,757. 

Bri gown, a parish of Ireland, co. Cork. 

Brihne'ga, a town of Spain, in New Castile, on the 
Fajuna, 20 m. E.N.E. of Guadalahara. Here, Dec. 9,1710, 
the French, under the Duke de Vendome, defeated the 
allies commanded by Lord Stanhope. 

Brill, (bril,) n. (Zodl.) The Pleuronectes rhombus, a fish 
resembling the turbot in its general form, but inferior 
to it in size and quality. It is distinguished from the 
turbot by the perfect smoothness of its skin, which is 
covered with scales of moderate size, and by its pale 
brown color above, marked by scattered yellowish or 
rufous spots. 

Brill, Paul, an eminent fresco-painter, b. at Antwerp, 
1554. Emulating the example of his brother, a painter 
of some note in his day, he placed himself under his 
tuition, and assisted him in his works at the A’atican, 
where they were employed by Pope Gregory XIII. On 
the accession of Sixtus V., B. was engaged in the Sistine 
Chapel, St. Maria Maggiore, and the Scala Santa of St. 
John Lateran. By direction of Clement VIII., he painted 
his great work in the Scala Clementina, a landscape on 















400 


BRIN 


BRIN 


BRIS 


a grand scale, 68 feet wide, in which he introduced the 
subject of St. Clement thrown into the sea with an 
anchor round his neck. D. at Rome, 1626. 

Brill'iance. BriU'iiiiiey, n. Quality or state of 
being brilliant; splendor; glitter; great brightness or 
lustre: as, brilliance of execution. 

Brilliant, (bril'i-ant,) a. [Fr. brillant, from briller, to 
shine, sparkle, or glitter; allied to beryl and pearl.] 
Shining; glittering: sparkling; twinkling; splendid; 
lustrous; as, a brilliant gem. 

41 Replete with many a brilliant spark, 

As wise philosophers remark.” — Lord Dorset. 

*-Eminent by admirable qualities of mind or manner; as, 
a brilliant orator. 

“ Just knows, amt knows no more, her Bible true, 

A truth the brilliant Frenchman never knew." — Cowper. 

*— n. A diamond of the finest cut, formed into a number 
of facets, so as to refract the light, by which it derives 
increased lustre. The principal face, which is called the 
table, is surrounded by a fringe composed of a number 
of facets, which is all that is visible above the bezel 
when set. The proportion for the depth should be half 
the breadth of the stone, terminated with a small face 
parallel to the table, and connected with the surface by 
elongated facets. As the octohedron is the most com¬ 
mon natural form of the stone, and the brilliant cut is 
by far the most advantageous in point of effect, besides 
being the most economical form that can be adopted, it 
is generally preferred. — See Diamond. 

Brilliante, ( bribldn'tc,) n. [It.J (Music.) Prefixed 
to a movement, this term denotes that it is to be played 
in a gay and lively, or brilliant manner. 

Brill'iantly, adv. Splendidly. 

Brill'ianfness, n. State of brilliancy; splendor; 
lustre. 

Bril'lion, in Wisconsin, a post-township of Calumet 
co., 13 m. E.S.E. of Appleton. 

Bril'lon, a town of Prussia, prov. Westphalia, reg. 
Arnsberg, cap. circ., 24 m. S.E. of Soest. Man/. Linen, 
and brass goods. Silver, lead, and calumine are found 
in the vicinity. Pap. 4,730. 

Brills, n. pi. The hairs on the eyelids of a horse. 

Brim, n. [A. S. brymm — be, and ryman, to enlarge, to 
extend.] The rim, edge, lip, margin, or brink of a vessel 
or other thing; as, the brim of a hat. 

“ How my head in ointment swims! 

How my cup o’erlooks her brims!" — Crashaw. 

—The brink, margin, or verge of a fountain, Ac.; a border. 

4 Within whose cheerful brims, 

That curious nymph had oft been known 
To bathe her snowy limbs." — Drayton. 

Brim, t\ a. To fill to the brim, edge, or top. 

“ Then brims his ample bowl ; with like design 
The rest invoke the gods with sprinkled wine. "—Dryden. 

•—v. i. To be full to the brim, as, a brimming stream. 

“ Now horrid frays 

Commence, the brimming glasses now are hurl’d 
With dire intent.” — Philips. 

Brim'flel<l. in Illinois, a township of Peoria co., abt. 
20 m. W.N.W. of Peoria. 

Brini'lieltl, in Indiana, a vill. of Noble co. 

Kri m'fi ('1<1. in .1/ issachusetts, a post-township of Hamp¬ 
den co., 70 in. W by S. of Boston, possessing manufac¬ 
tures of carriages, leather goods, &c. 

Brim Sield, in Ohio, a post-village of Portage co., 40 
m. S.S.E. of Cleveland. 

BrimTul, a. Full to the brim or top; as, brimful of 
liquor. 

“ The good old king at parting wrung my hand. 

His eyes brimful of tears.”— Addison. 

Brim'less, a. Without a brim; as, a brimless cap. 

Brimmed, (brlm'd,) p. a. Havinga brim; — used gen¬ 
erally with a compound qualification; as, a broad- 
brimined hat. 

Brim'mer, n. A bowl full to the top; as, a brimmer 
of wine. 

“ When healths go round, and kindly brimmers flow, 

Till the fresh garlands on their foreheads glow.”— Dryden. 

Brirn'iniilg-, a. Full to the top or brim. 

*• And twice besides her beestings never fail, 

To store the dairy with a brimming pail.” — Dryden. 

Brimstone. ( brim'ston,) n. [A. S. bryne, a burning, 
and stone; Goth, briunan, to burn; Sansk. bhr; Icel. 
bamnstein.] (Min.) A commercial name for refined sul¬ 
phur.—See Sulphur. 

(Scrip.) Sodom and the other cities of the Plain were 
destroyed “ by B. and fire.” (Gen. xix. 24.) 

—a. Made of, or pertaining to, brimstone; as , brimstone- 
colored. 

Briin'stony, a. Full of brimstone; containing sul¬ 
phur: sulphurous. 

Brin'ded. a. [See Brindled.] Streaked; brindled; va¬ 
riegated with different colors. 

“ She tam d the brinded lioness, 

And spotted mountain pard.” — Milton. 

Brindisi, (brin-de’se,) (ano. Brundusium,) a fortified 
seaport city of S. Italy, prov. Otranto, at the bottom 
of a bay between capes Cavallo and Gollo. In antiquity, 
this was one of the most important cities of Italy, and 
was the port whence the intercourse between Italy and 
Greece and the East was usually carried on. it was 
a poor, decayed place; but a vast plan for the recon¬ 
struction of the old harbor (long ago filled up) was ap¬ 
proved of by the Italian government in 1865, and since 
carried out. The harbor is now well sheltered and un¬ 
dergone great improvements, large quays, a great break¬ 
water and mole, have been made. Steamers can now 
lie alongside the quays in 26 ft. of water. B. is but 60 
hours by rail from London and via B. is the shortest 
route to India, via Egypt and the travel is very large, 
1000 vessels annually enter the port. , 


Brin'dle, n. Quality or state of being brinded, varie¬ 
gated, spotted; as, “ A natural brindle.” — Richardson. 

Brin'dled, a. [From A. S. brennan, to burn.] Marked 
with streaks of different colors, as if burned in; varie¬ 
gated ; spotted; brinded; as, a brindled cow. 

“ The boar, my sisters! aim the fatal dart, 

And strike the brindled monster to the heart.”— Addison. 

Brin'dletown, in North Carolina, a P.O. of Burke co. 

Brind'ley, Jambs, an eminent English civil engineer 
and mechanician, b. 1716. On account of the poverty 
of his family, he received little more than the mere rudi¬ 
ments of education, and became, at 17, apprenticed to a 
wheelwright at Macclesfield, where his natural abilities 
soon developed themselves. After distinguishing him¬ 
self by the contrivance of water-engines and other me¬ 
chanical apparatus, he became known to the Duke of 
Bridgewater (q. t>.), then planning his great scheme of 
inland navigation for connecting Liverpool and Man¬ 
chester by means of a canal. This work, ridiculed as it 
had been by all the scientific men of the day, the duke 
persevered in, and B. undertook the charge of it; when, 
after encountering almost insuperable difficulties, and 
for the time almost financially ruining the duke, the suc¬ 
cess of this bold attempt was triumphantly established. 
In 1766, B. commenced the formation of the Grand 
Trunk Canal, uniting the rivers Trent and Mersey; 
which undertaking was completed after his death, in 
1777. The variety of his inventions and the fertility of 
his resources were only equalled by the simplicity of the 
means he adopted. He seldom used any model or draw¬ 
ing, but relied on the retentiveness of his memory; and 
when conceiving any great design, passed days in bed to 
meditate over it. When asked, on his examination be¬ 
fore the House of Commons, “ For what purpose do you 
consider rivers to have been created ? ” B. at once re¬ 
plied, “ Undoubtedly, to feed navigable canals.” D. 1772. 

Brine, n. [A. S. bryne, from brym, the sea; Icel. brim.] 
The sea or ocean. 

‘‘ The air was calm, and on the level brine 
Sleek Pauopc, with all her sisters, played . 4 — Milton. 

—Saltwater; water strongly impregnated with salt; as, 
to steep meat in brine. 

‘‘Add to it as much salt as will make a strong brine.”— Mortimer. 

—Metaphorically, tears; so designated from their saltness. 

** What a deal of brine 

Hath wash'd thy sallow cheeks for Rosaline! ”— Shahs. 

— v. a. To steep in brine: as, to brine beef. 

—To strew salt over; as, to brine a meadow. 

Brine'-cock, Brine'-valve, n. (Marine Engi¬ 
neering.) An apparatus for allowing the escape of the 
brine at the boiler, at every stroke of the feed-pump. 
It consists of two cocks, or valves, fixed on the same 
vertical spindle; the one valve is in the passage between 
the feed-pump and the boiler, and the other to the brine 
discharge; the feed-water acts on the under-surface of 
the upper valve, by which means it is raised, and allows 
the feed-water to-enter the boiler. But in rising, it 
raises also the lower valve, because they are connected 
together by the spindle, and thus the brine is permitted 
to escape; on the up-stroke of the feed-pump, the feed- 
water ceases to flow, and the entrance of water and exit 
of brine stop at the same time. A difference in the areas 
of the valve regulates the proportion between the quan¬ 
tity admitted and that expelled. 

Brine'-pan, n. The term applied to a receptacle of 
salt water, where salt becomes crystallized by solar 
action. 

Brine'-pit, n. A salt spring or pit, whence water is 
taken for chemical evaporation into salt. 

Brine'-pump, n. (Marine Engineering.) The pump 
in a 8 teamsliip, used occasionally for drawing off a suf¬ 
ficient quantity of water, to prevent the salt from de¬ 
positing in the boiler. 

Brine'-spring', n. A spring of saltwater. 

Bring, v. a. (Imp. and pp. brought.) [A.S. bringan; 
Ger. oringen ; Goth, briggan; Swed. and Goth, bringa; 
probably allied to bear, or to reach.] To lead, draw, or 
cause to come; to guide; to induce. 

*‘I was the chief that raised him to the crown, 

And I'll be chief to bring him down again." — Shaks. 

—To bear, convey, or carry to; as, he brings bad news. 

“ In that sweet mood when pleasant thoughts 
Bring sad thoughts to the mind.” — Wordsworth. 

—To fetch ; to procure; to produce; as, he brought her 
home. 

“ Take away the sword; 

States can be saved without K; bring the pen I ”— Bulwer Lytton. 

—To prevail over; to attract; to induce; to lead by 

degrees. 

•In years that bring the philosophic mind."— Wordsworth. 

—To convey; to move; to carry; to draw along; as, that 
cloud brings rain. 

■ In distillation, the water ascends difficultly, and brings over 
will) it some part of the oil of vitriol." — Newton. 

To bring forth. To give birth to; to produce; to make 
manifest; to bring to light; as, to bring forth a child, 
an argument, Ac. 

“ The good queen. 

For she is good, hath brought you forth a daughter.” — Shaks. 

“ Idleness and luxury bring forth poverty aud want.”— Tillotson. 

To bring about. To bring anything to pass; to effect; 
to cause to occur; as, to bring about a quarrel. 

"This he conceives not hard to bring about, 

If all of you would join to help him out.” — Dryden. 

To bring in. To gather, as persons or things dis¬ 
persed; to introduce, as an adherent; to produce, as 
money ; to reduce within certain limits. 

" He protests he loves you. 

And needs no other suitor, hut his liking, 

To bring you in again.” — Shaks. I 


To bring down. To abase; to humble; to cause t« 
descend from a certain position; as, to bring down her 
pride. 

To bring off. To clear; to procure to he acquitted ; to 
cause to escape; to bear or convey away; as, to bring off 
a prisoner, to bring off water from shore. 

“ Set a kite upon the bench, and it is forty to one he 'll bring off 
a crow at the bar." — L'Estrange. 

To bring on. To produce as an occasional cause ; to 
induce to begin; to originate; as, to bring on a battle, a 
disease, &c. 

“The great question which . .. has brought on them all those- 
miseries.” — Locke. 

To bring over. To carry across; as, to bring over re* 
inforcements, passengers, Ac.; to convert; to make pros¬ 
elytes, Ac. 

“The Protestant clergy will find it, perhaps, no difficult matter 
to bring great numbers over to the church." — Swift. 

To bring out. To exhibit; to show; to introduce to 
society; to expose; to detect; to briug to light, 

“ These shake his soul, and, as they boldly press, 

Bring out his crimes, and force him to confess." — Dryden. 

To bring under. To subdue; to repress; to reduce to 
obedience. 

“ To say that the more capable,.. . hath such right to govern, 
as he may compulsorily bring under the less worthy, is idle.” 

Bacon. 

To bring up. To educate; to instruct; to form; to 
rear; to train : as, to bring up a child; to cause to ad¬ 
vance ; as, to bring up troops. 

“ He that takes upon him the charge of bringing up young men, 
.... should have something more in him than Latin.” — Locke. 

To bring bach. To recall; to induce or cause to return; 
as, to bring bach a truant. — To bring forward. To place- 
prominently before; to lead forth into notice; as, to 
bring forward a suggestion. — To bring to. To restore 
to life or consciousness: as, to bring to a half-drowned 
man. — To bring to. (Naut.) To check a ship's course, 
by brailing the sails so as to counteract each other. — 
To bring by the lee. To stand to the leeward, when a 
ship is sailing large, so as to bring the leeside rapidly to 
windward, and therefore, by throwing the sails aback, 
exposing her to he capsized. 

Bring-'er, n. The person who conveys or brings any 
thing. 

“ Yet the first bringer of unwelcome news 
Hum but a losing office."— Shaks. 

Bringer-up. A trainer; an instructor. 

“ Italy and Rome have been breeders and bringers-up of the 
worthiest of men." — Ascham. 

Bring'iers, in Louisiana, a vill., cap. of St. James par. 

Brin'ish, a. [See Brine.] Having the taste of brine; 
saltish; saline. 

“ Expecting ever when some envious surge 
Will, in his brinish bowels, swallow him.” — Shaks. 

Brtn'isliness, n. Saltness; tendency to saltness. 

Brink. ( bringlc,) n. [Dan. and Swed. brink, from the 
root of break.] Literally, a break or termination: hence, 
the edge, margin, or border of a steep place, as of a prec¬ 
ipice, cliff, gully, or river. 

“ And from the precipice’s brink retire, 

Afraid to venture on so large a leap." — Dryden. 

Brink <‘i'toil , in Pennsylvania, a P.O. of Clarion co. 

Brink'ley ville. in North Carolina, a post-village of 
Halifax co., 90 m. N.E. of Raleigh. 

Brinley’s Station, in Ohio, a post-office of Preble co. 

Brinvilliers, Marie Marguerite, Marquise de, (bran- 
ve-ye-a 1 ,) a notorious poisoner, was the daughter of Dreux 
d’Aubray, lieutenant of Paris, and received a careful 
education. In 1651 she was married to the marquis, and 
formed an improper attachment to St. Croix, a young 
cavalry officer. The latter was imprisoned in the Bastile, 
and there learned from Exili, an Italian, the composition 
of poisons, which art he afterwards taught to his mistress. 
They then commenced a series of poisonings, the first 
victim being the marquis’s father, then his two brothers 
and his sister, with a view to the ultimate possession of 
their fortunes. These crimes were not discovered until 
the death of St. Croix, in 1676, when there were found 
on him some papers which cast suspicion on the mar¬ 
chioness. She fled, but was arrested at Liege, and be¬ 
headed, 1676. Her career had excited such terror in 
France, that Louis XIV. instituted a distinct tribunal, 
the Chambre Ardente (q. v.). to investigate cases of poi¬ 
soning by the “succession powder” used by the mar¬ 
chioness. 

Brin'y, a. Pertaining to brine, or to the sea; as, tho 

briny deep. 

1 ‘ Then, briny seas, and tasteful springs, farewell." — Addison. 

Bri'ony, n. (Bot.) See Bryonia. 

Briomle, (hrefyu.de,) (anc. Brivas,) a town of France, 
dep. Ilaute-Loire, near the river Allier, 29 in. N.W. of 
Le Puy. It is tlie birthplace of Lafayette. Pop. 5,128. 

Brisacll, (Jiow.) or Breisach, a fortified toxvu of Ger¬ 
many, prov Alsace-Lorraine, near the Rhine, opposite 
to Old B., and 9 m. S.E. of Colmar. B. was built, in 
1690, by Louis XIV., and fortified by Vauban. It is a 
regular octagon.and is regarded as one of the finest works 
constructed by that celebrated engineer. Pop. 3,955. 

Bris'bane, in Australia, a county of Queensland; Lat. 
between 36° and 37° S., Lon. 149° E. It was formerly a 
British penal settlement, which it ceased to be in 1842. 

Brisbane, a sea-port and Cap. of the above county, 
and now the chief city of Queensland. It is situate about 
640 m. N. of Sydney, near the mouth of a river of its 
own name. 

Brls'coe Run, in W. Virginia, a P. O. of Wood co. 

Briseis, (bri-se’is.) (Anc. Lit.) A girl of Lyrnessua, 
called also Hippodamia. When her country was takes 









BRIS 


BRIS 


BRIT 


431 












by the Greeks, she fell to the share of Achilles in the 
division of tht spoils. Agamemnon afterwards took pos¬ 
session of her, and Achilles thereupon made a vow to 
absent himself from the field of battle at Troy. This 
incident Homer makes one of the chief features of his 
Iliad. 

Brisk, a [W. brysg, from brhys, extreme ardor or eager¬ 
ness; Fr. brusque, from It. brusco .] Lively; quick; ac¬ 
tive; nimble; vivacious; gay; sprightly of action; as, 
a brisk walk. 

“ Kind, and brisk, and gay, like me." — Denham. 

—Full of spirit; sharp and effervescing to the taste; as, 
brisk cider. 

•' Our nature here N not unlike our wine ; 

Some sorts, wneu old, continue brisk and fine." — Denham. 

A brisk fire. One burning with freedom, activity, and 
clearness. 

A brisk fire nf artillery nr musketry. A rapid and con¬ 
tinuous discharge of heavy guns, or small-arms. 

*—v. a. To cheer; to enliven; to animate; to render 
sprightly. 

To brisk up. To make brisk or lively; to animate. 

—v. i. To come up in a sharp, lively, active manner. 

Bris ket, n. [Icel. bnosk , a gristle, from Goth, brusts, 
the breast: Fr. brechet; Gael, brisgean, a gristle.] That 
part of the breast of an animal that lies next to the ribs. 

Briskly, adv. Actively; vigorously; with life and 
spirit 

Brisk'ness. n. Liveliness; vigor; quickness; gayety; 
vivacity; effervescence. 

Brissoil. Barxvb£, ( bre’son ,) an eminent French ju¬ 
rist, B. 1531. He attained to the highest honors of the 
French bar, and became president a mortier in 1583. 
Henri III. used to say that no other king could boast of 
having in his service so learned a man as B.. and he com¬ 
missioned him to collect and edit the ordinances of his ] 
predecessors and his own, which appeared under the j 
title, Oide. de Henri III., Roy de Fr nice et de Pologne, re- 
dige en ordre par messire Barnahi Brisson, fob, 1587. 
afterwards republished, with additions, under Henri IV.. 
by Le Caron, 1609, and commonly called Code Henri B. 
was also the author of many other works, exhibiting the 
highest erudition. In 1589, he was made first president 
of the Parliament, and after Henri's death, in Aug. of 
the same year, proclaimed the Duke de Mayenne, the 
chief of the League, lieutenant-general of the kingdom. 
B. soon after became suspected by the faction of the 
“Sixteen” who ruled in l’aris,and who thought that he 
was favorable to Henri IV. He was accordingly arrested 
and summarily hanged on the 15th Nov., 1591. 

Brissot, Jean Pierre, ( bre'sn,) one of the leading men 
of the French Revolution, B. at Ouarville, near Chartres. 1 
1754. He was the son of a pastry-cook, and bred to the' 
law-, which he never followed. An acquaintance with. 
English books gave him a turn for politics; when, for a 
time, he settled at Boulogne, and edited the Courier del 
VEurope. On the suppression of this journal, he went 
to Paris, where he soon afterwards published his Theory 
of Criminal Laivs, 2 vols. 8vo. He began, also, a book 
entitled A Philosophical Library of Criminal Laws, and 
wrote a volume on Truth, or Meditations on the Means 
of reaching Truth in all Branches of Human Knowledge. 
About this time he married Mademoiselle Dupont, who 
was employed as reader to the daughter of the Duke of 
Orleans. Finding little encouragement in France, how¬ 
ever, he went to London, where he conducted a periodi¬ 
cal journal called Universal Correspondence on all that 
concerns the Hippiness of Men in Society. This journal 
was designed to disseminate in France such political prin¬ 
ciples as were based on reason. It therefore gave offence 
to the French government, and was seized and sup¬ 
pressed. On his return to Paris, in 1784, he was sent to the 
Bastileon the charge of having assisted in the publication 
of a libel; but obtained his release through the inter¬ 
cession of the Duke of Orleans, whose ambitious projects 
on the government he labored, by his talents, to advance. 
His political pamphleteering activity forced him to flee 
from France, whence he went to Holland, and thenco to 
the U. States, where he wrote against slavery, having 
previously been one of the original founders of “ La 
Societe des Amis des Noirs.” In 1789, the progress of 
events in France enabled him to return home. He floated 
forward on the revolutionary torrent. He was elected 
member of the first municipal council of the city of 
Paris, and in that capacity received the keys of the cap¬ 
tured Bastiie, on the 14th of July. Soon after he was 
elected by the citizens of Paris to be their representative 
in the Constituent Assembly. He joined the party 
called the Girondins, and co-operated with Vergniaud, 
Guadet.Gensonne, the Provencal Isnard, and others, who 
were weak and imprudent politicians, but among the 
most eloquent and best men in France. The Girondists 
triumph.''! over the Feuillans or moderate constitutional 
monarchy party; but they were in their turn defeated 
in much the game manner by the Jacobins or party 
called the Mountain, who went as much farther than the 
Girondists, as the Girondists had gone farther than the 
Feuillans. The Gironde was nothing more in the rev¬ 
olution than a party of transition from the power of the 
middling classes of society to that of the mob. The mem¬ 
bers of it put themselves and their country in a position 
from which there was no escape except through seas of 
blood. During the fearful struggle, B. incurred the 
deadly hatred of Robespierre, which was equivalent to j 
a death-warrant. On the 2d of June, 1793, a sentence of ; 
arrest was passed against him. B. was calm and firm. | 
and at first not inclined to do anything to escape death, 
but on the entreaties of his family and friends he at¬ 
tempted to get to Switzerland. Being arrested at Mou- j 
Jins, he was carried back to Paris, and brought before the i 
revolutionary tribunal, where the Jacobins in vain en -I 


deavored to destroy his courage and self-possession. The 
only regrets he expressed were at the political errors he 
had committed, and at leaving his wife and children in 
absolute poverty. He was condemned, of course, and 
went to the guillotine with twenty other Girondists, his 
associates aud friends, on the 31st of October, 1793, just 
nine months and teu days after they had voted the death 
of Louis XVI. (whose life however they attempted to 
spare), and fifteen days after the execution of the Queen 
Marie Antoinette. They marched to the scaffold with 
all the stoicism of the times, and singing, as it was the 
fashion to do, the Marseillaise, or song of the republic. 
They all died with courage. B. was ouly 39 years old. 
His companions in death were Vergniaud, Gensonne, 
Fonfrede, Ducos, Yalaze, Lasource, Sillery, Gardien.Car- 
ra, Duprat, Beauvais, Duchatel, Mainvielle, Lacaze, Boi- 
leau, Lehardy, Antiboul, and Vigee. B. stood at the 
head of the party, which he embraced. At one time in 
his political career a large section of the house was called 
alter his name, The Brissvtins. He was singularly hon¬ 
est and disinterested; he sincerely wished the good of 
bis country, but be knew not how to accomplish it. 

Bris'tetl. CHARLEr Astor, an American author, b. in 
N. Y. 1820; I). 1874. His works include: The Upper 
Ten Thousand (1852 ); The Interference Theory of Gov¬ 
ernment (1867); and Anacreontics (1872). 

Rrist erslmrg. iu Virginia, a P. 0. of Fauquier co. 

Bristle, ( bris’l ,) n. [A. 8. bristl; Frisian, boarstel; Du. 
U i slet — hour, and steb, a stalk.] The long, stiff, coarse 
hair growing on the back of the hog and wild-boar, and 
extensively used in the manufacture of brushes, and also 
by shoemakers and saddlers. The quality of B. depends 
on the length, stiffness, color, and straightness. 

(But.) Rigid, thick-walled hair, usually of a single 
cell; or any similar bodies, of whatever nature; as the 
pubescence on certain plants. 

— v.a. To erect in bristles. (Sometime < followed by up.) 

“ Boy, bristle thy courage up .* — Shake. 

—To attach a bristle to; as, to bristle a thread. 

— v. i. To rise or stand erect, as bristles. 

11 Thy hair so bristles with unmanly 1 !ars. 

As fieltls of corn that rise in beardff' ears.” — Dryden. 

—To present an appearance of standing close and erect, 
like bristles. 

" The hill of La Have Sainte bristling l i ‘.h ten thousand bayo¬ 
nets." — Thackeray. 

To bristle up. To manifest courag? defiance, or scorn. 
“ Which makes him plume himself at l bristle up 
The crest of youth against your c'iiu’ty." — Shahs. 

Bris'tle-bearinjr, a. Possessing ltittles. 

Bris’tleness, n. 8tate or quality tf Laving bristles. 

Bris'tle-pointed, a. (Bot.) That re emulates gradually 
in a sharp point, as the leaves of certain mosses. 

Bris'tle-sliaped, a. Resembling a bristle in shape. 

Bris'tle-tail, n. ( Zobl .) The Gadilt, q. t\ 

Bristly, ( bris'ly,) a. Thick set with bri bes, or with 
hairs like bristles; rough. 

“ Thus mastfu! beech the briziiy chestnut Ve.xr*, 

And the wild i^sh is white with bloornj pears.” — Dryden. 

Bris'toe Station, in rir^tnta, a post-village of Prince 
William co., 4 in. W.S.W. of Manassas Ju'ictior. Here, 
on the 15th Oct., 1863, a battle was fought between 
Warren's corps of the Army of the Potomac, and the 
Confederates under Gen. Hill. The attack of the Con¬ 
federates was bravely repulsed, with heavy less on their 
part, and Gen. Warren, then confronted by nearly the 
w hole of Lee's army, succeeded iu joining the main army 
on the heights of Centreville. 

Bris tol, an ancient and important city, conuty, i\n,l sea¬ 
port of England, at the confluence of the Avon and frtine, 
8 m. S.E. of the embouchure of the former into the Brit¬ 
ish Channel, 108 m. W. of London. The city extends 
over 7 hills and their intermediate valleys, amidst a pictu¬ 
resque and fertile district. Some portions of it are very 
quaint and old-fashioned, but the major and newer parts 
of the city are finely built, spacious, well paved and 
lighted. B. is famous for its magnificent cathedral 
(700 years old) and churches; the principal of the latter, 
St. Mary’s Redcliffe, being one of the finest Gothic edi¬ 
fices in the kingdom, and renowned for its superb tower. 
B. is replete with other handsome buildings; municipal, 
commercial, educational, literary, and domestic, too 
numerous to be enumerated, but comprising the Guild¬ 
hall, Exchange, Banks, Mechanics’ Institute, literary in¬ 
stitutions, libraries, assembly rooms, theatres, Ac. At 
Clifton, one of its suburbs, are the celebrated hot wells, 
baths, and pump-rooms, so well known and resorted to 
by invalids. In consequence of the high tides in the 
British Channel, vessels of the largest size ascend the 
river almost into the centre of the city. The harbor is 
about 3 m. long, and very spacious, with docks, basins, 
and magnificent quays. The river here is spanned by 
numerous bridges connecting the two divisions of the 
city, and communication by canals and railways extends 
thence to London and the greater part of the kingdom. 
B. was for a lengthened period the second runs” impor¬ 
tant commercial seaport and emporium after London, 
monopolizing nearly the whole of the American and 17. 
Indian trade, until excelled and surpassed by Liverpool. 
It still, however, maintains a most important trade with 
the W. Indies, the E. Indies, and China, and may be ac¬ 
counted the third great seaport of England. — Manf .j 
Tobacco, sugar, brass and copper wares, soap, glass, 
machinery, steam-engines, pottery, iron and tin goods, j 
chain-cables, hardware, shot and projectiles, chemicals, i 
liquors, Ac., Ac. Tonnage of vessels entering the port 
during the year 1890, was given at 1,500,000 t ns.— 
The city rose to notice towards the close of the Saxon 
dynasty, and was at times frequented by ships from 
ail parts of Europe. During the civil war in the 17 th 


century it suffered severely, being alternately taken and 
retaken by the hostile armies. Sebastian Cabot, Chat- 
terton, Southey and Sir Thomas Lawrence, were born 
here. Pop. (1»95), 234,815. 

Bristol, in Connecticut, a post-village and township of 
Hartford, 15 m. S W. by W. of Hartford, Here are ex¬ 
tensive factories of clocks, and also iron and brass foun¬ 
dries. 

Bristol, in Florida, a p.-v., cap. of Liberty co. 

Bristol, in Illinois, a post-township of Kendall coun¬ 
ty- 

—A post-village of above township, on the Fox River, 6 
m. from Osw ego, and 52 W.S.W. of Chicago. 

—Avillage of Effingham co., 12 m, S.W. of Ewington. 

Bristol, in huliana, a flourishing post-village of Elk¬ 
hart co., on the St. Joseph’s River, 156 m. N. of Indian¬ 
apolis. 

Bristol, in Iowa, a post-village and tow nship of Worth 
co., of which it was the former cap., 120 m. N. by E. of 
the city of Des Moines. Popi (1898) 135. 

Bristol, in Maine, a post-township of Lincoln co., oa 
the Atlantic, 30 m. S. bv E. of Augusta. Ship-building 
is extensively carried on. 

Bristol, in Maryland, a post-office of Anne Arundel co. 

Bristol, in Massachusetts, a S.E. county, area 517 sq. 
m. It is bounded S. by Buzzard’s Bay, and watered by 
the Taunton River, Ac. Its sea-coast, about 18 m. in ex¬ 
tent, is indented by numerous bays and good harbors, 
affording facilities for navigation, and the fisheries are 
extensively prosecuted. Surface. Mainly level. Soil 
Partially fertile; iron is extensively found." Prin. Turns. 
Taunton, and New Bedford. 

Bristol, in Minnesota, a township of Fillmore co., near 
the frontier of Iowa. 

Bristol. in Missouri, a post-office of Webster ce. 

Bristol, in JVeir Hampshire, a post-township of Grafton 
co., 30 m. N. of Concord. Manufactures. Leather and 
woollens. 

Bristol, in Xew Port, a post-village and township of 
Ontario co., 212 m. W. of Albany. 

Bristol, in Ohio, a post-township of Morgan co., 30 m. 
N.W. of Marietta. 

—A village of Perry co., 48 m. W.N.W. of Marietta. 

—A township of Trumbull co. 

—A village of Wayne co., 100 m. X.E. of Columbus, and 
14 from Wooster. 

Bristol, in Pennsylvania, t handsome post-borough of 
Bucks co., on the Delaware River, 19 m. above Philadel¬ 
phia, aud 115 E. by S. of Harrisburg. 

—A post-twp. of Bucks co., on the Delaware. 

—A suburb, forming part of the citv of Philadelphia. 

Bristol. in Rhode Island, an E. county, possessing an 
area of about 25 sq. m., bounded S. and W. by Karragau- 
sett Bay, and E. by Mount Hope. Surface. Undulating. 
Soil. Fertile. The inhabitants are largely interested in 
the fisheries. Cap. Bristol. 

—A flourishing port of entry, seat of justice, a^d town 
shipof the above co., on a neck of land extending S. into 
Narragansett Bay, 16 m. S.S.E. of Providence. 14 N. by 
E. of Newport, and 7 W S.W. of Salt River. The town 
is well built and prettily situated, and has an excellent 
harbor accessible to ships of large tonnage. Its ship¬ 
ping-trade, both coastwise and foreign, is very active, 
and it is much resorted to in the summer as a sanato¬ 
rium. King Philip, the enemy of the early New Eng¬ 
land settlers, resided at Mount Hope, in the vicinity, 
and was killed at this place in 1676. During the war of 
the Revolution, B. was bombarded by the British, and 
the greater part of the town destroyed. Pop. of town¬ 
ship (1890), 5,478. 

Bristol, in Tennessee, a post-village of Sullivan co., 15 
m. W.S.W. of Abingdon, and 130 E N.E. of the city of 
Knoxville. 

Bristol, in Vermont, a thriving post-township of Addi¬ 
son co.. 2S m. S.W. by W. of Montpelier. 

Bristol. in IFi'scoiisin, a township of Dane co., 18 m. 
N.E. of Madison. 

—A post-village and township of Kenosha co. 

Bristol Bay, an arm of the Pacific Ocean, in Alaska, 
Lat. about 54° N., Lon. 160° W. It lies immediately N. 
of the peninsula of Alaska, and receives the waters of 
two considerable lakes, which, communicating with each 
other, afford an opening into the interior. 

Bristol-board, n. A description of strong paste¬ 
board, made smooth by glazing, and used for artistic 
purposes. 

Bristol-bricb, n. A kind of brick employed in clean¬ 
ing steel; — so called from the seat of its original manu¬ 
facture, Bristol, in England. 

Bristol Channel, an inlet of St. George’s Channel, 
bet. Wales and England, its upper extremity forms the 
estuary of the Severn. A tunnel under this Channel was 
completed in 1885, its total length beneath the sea is 
7,764 yards, and is 100 ft. below the bed of the Channel. 
The dimensions are 26 ft. wide by 26 ft. 6 in. high, the 
brick work is 3 ft. thick and the total cost was $10,006 
000. It is used by the Great Western Railway System. 

Bristol-diamond, Bristol-stone, n. (Min.) A small 
and brilliant crystal of colorless quartz, found in the 
mountain limestone in the vicinity of Bristol, England. 
It is occasionally used, in a cut and polished state, for 
ornamental purposes. 

Bristow Station, iu Kentucky, a p. o. of Warren co. 

Ih isnre. (bre-zoor .) [Fr., from briser, to break.] (Fort.) 
Any part of a parapet or rampart which is constructed 
in a direction different to that part of the fortification 
of which it forms a continuous portion. In field-works, 
ihe term brisure is applied to the faces of “ star fort, of 
those of any lino of defensive w -^ks consisting o. % 
ri's of -•e-eniering ar.^ salieu* angies- 

Brii, n. \_Z-ool.) See Clvpea. 




















432 


BRIT 


BROA 


BROA 


Britain, (Great.) See Great Britain. 

Britain, (New.) See New Britain. 

Britan'nia. See Great Britain. 

Britannia Metal, n. An alloy of tin with a little 
copper and antimony. It is much used for spoons, tea¬ 
pots, &c., on account of the ease with which it may be 
worked and polished. 

Britannic, ( bri-tan'ik ,) a. [Lat. Britannicus, from 
Britannia , Great Britain.] Pertaining to Britain, or to 
the Britisti Empire. 

Britannicus, ( bri-tdn'ne-kus ,) son of the emperor 
Claudius, by his third wife, Messalina. His original 
name was Tiberius Claudius Germunicus, to which was 
subsequently added Britannicus, from the conquests 
which were made in Britain. D. 56; poisoned by Nero 
in his fourteenth year. 

Brite, Bright, v. i. To be over-ripe, as wheat, barley, 
hops, &c. (Used in some parts of England.) 

Brit'isll, a. [A.S. Brittisc.] Pertaining to Great Britain, 
or its inhabitants. 

British Empire (The) embraces, with its colonies 
and possessions, about one-third of the surface of the 
globe, and nearly a fourth of its population,and has its 
nucleus in the British Islands, or the United Kingdom 
of Great Britain and Ireland. G. Britain, the largest, 
richest, and most populous of the two islands, includes 
what were formerly the independent kingdoms of Eng¬ 
land and Scotland, now united under one crown, and 
form, with Ireland, the centre of the wealth and civiliza¬ 
tion of the whole empire. We give, from the latest 
official returns accessible, an abstract as follows: 


States and Possessions. 


Europe. —Great Britain and Ire¬ 
land, Gibraltar and Malta. 

Asia. —British and Native States 
of India, Burmah, Ceylon, 
Labuan, Straits Settlements, 
Hong Kong, Aden and Soco¬ 
tra, and British North Borneo. 
Africa. —Cape Colony, includ¬ 
ing Caffraria, Natal, Sierra 
Leone, British South and East 
Africa, Gold Coast, Mauritius, 

St. Helena, Ascension, &c . 

British North America. —Do¬ 
minion of Canada, including 

Newfoundland. 

West Indies, Central America, 
&c. — Jamaica, Barba does, 
Trinidad, Tobago, Bahamas, 
Bermuda, Turk’s Island, Vir¬ 
gin Islands, St. Kitt's, Nevis, 
Antigua, Montserrat, Domin¬ 
ica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, 

Grenada, and Honduras. 

South America. —British Gui¬ 
ana and Falkland Islands. 

Australasia. — New South 
Wales, Victoria, South Aus¬ 
tralia, Western Australia, 
Queensland, Tasmania, New 
Zealand, British New Guinea, 
and the islands of Auckland, 
Chatham, Caroline, Fanning, 
Fiji, Lord Howe’s, Malden, 
Norfolk, Starbuck, &c. 

Total. 


Area in 
Eng. sq. m. 

Population. 

121,515 

42,192,428 

1,874,838 

299,061,630 

2,807,760 

44,49o,(i54 

3,787,774 

5,588,352 

28,230 

164,000 

1,611,573 

294,000 

3,172,117 

5,091,470 

12,956,834 

397,335,007 


For further information regarding the various coun¬ 
tries named above, see each name in the vocabulary 
order, and also the article Great Britain. 

British Gum, n. (Chern.) See Dextrin. 

Brit'ish Mollow, in Wisconsin, a P. 0. of Grant co. 

Brit'on, n. [A.S. bryt; Celt, brit, variegated, spotted.] 
Originally, a painted man: an inhabitant of ancient 
Britain; in the modern sense, a native of England or 
Scotland (Great Britain proper). “ Britons never shall 
be slaves.” Thomson. — See Great Britain. 

Brit'tany, in France. See Bretagne. 

Brittle, ( brit'l ,) a. [From A S. bryttian; Swed. and 
Goth, bryta; Icel. briota, to break.] Apt to break; 
easily broken; easily breaking short; not tough or tena¬ 
cious; as, a brittle vase. — See Brittleness. 
g " From earth all came, to earth must all return. 

Frail as the cord, and brittle as the urn."— Prior. 

Brit'tlely, adv. In a brittle manner, (r.) 

Brit'tleness, n. (Plugs .) A property of bodies which, 
although solid, yet are so weakly bound together that 
a very small mechanical force suffices to separate their 
particles. They can be easily reduced to powder. The 
cohesive force between their perceptible particles almost 
vanishes, but they differ from liquids in possessing 
a considerable cohesive force, acting between the parti¬ 
cles, which are so smell as to be almost imperceptible. 

IBrit 'ton, John, an English architect, antiquary, and 
topographical writer, b. 1771. He was the son of a small 
farmer, and received but a scanty education. Some 
short notices which he had contributed to the Sporting 
Magazine brought him into acquaintance with its pub¬ 
lisher, Mr. Wheble, who employed him to compile the 
Beauties of Wiltshire, which lie did in conjunction with 
a young iiterary friend named E. \V. Braytey. They 
also prepared the Beauties o f Bed fordshire in the same 
Banner. B. afterwards issued a more elaborate work, 


entitled The Architectural Antiquities of England. One 
of the most important of his subsequent publications 
was The Cathedral Antiquities of England, 14 vols. fol. 
and 4to., 1814-1335, with upwards of 300 highly finished 
plates. Altogether, his illustrated works in the depart¬ 
ment of architectural and topographical description 
and antiquities number 87. D. 1857. 

Brit'ton’s Neck, in South Carolina, a post-office of 
Marion district. 

Britt's Banding-, in Tennessee, a P. 0. of Perry co. 

Britzska, ( bris'ka,) n. [Buss, britschka; Pol. bryzcka.] 
An open, four-wheeled carriage, with shutters to close 
at pleasure, and space for reclining when on a journey. 

Brive-la-Gaillarde, a town of France, dep. Correze, 
cap. arrond., in a beautiful and fertile plain on the Cor¬ 
reze, 15 m. S.W. of Tulle. It is a well-built place, hav¬ 
ing a large trade in wine, cattle, chestnuts, and truffles. 
Bop. 10,839. 

Brix'en, a fortified town of the Tyrol, 40 m. S.S.E. of 
Inuspruck; pop. 3,9Tb. Near it is the Fort of Francis, or 
Franzensveste, commanding the valley of Eisach, and 
the 3 roads from Germany, Italy, and Carinthia. 

Brix'hain, a seaport of England, co. Devon, on Tor- 
bay, 186 m. IV.S.W. of London. It is a thriving town, 
with a fine and secure harbor. Its principal trade is 
connected with the Torbay fishery. William III. landed 
here, and inaugurated the Revolution, Nov. 5, 1688.— 
Bop. 4,829. 

Brix'ton, in Virginia, a post-office of Alexandria co. 

Bri'za, n. [Gr. brizo, I nod, on account of the quaking 
character of the spikelets.] ( Bot .) The Quaking-grass, 
a genus of plants, ord. Graminacete. The species B. 
media is naturalized in the vicinity of Boston. Its 
dense clusters of flowers hang upon the ends of very 
delicate filamentous peduncles, forming elegant panicles, 
which shake with the slightest breath of air. 

Brize, n. ( Zoiil.) See Gad-flt. 

Briz'ure, n. [From Fr. briser, to break.] (Her.) Any 
charge that is in a broken condition or bruised. The 
terms brize and brise are used s ynonymously. 

Broach, ( broch,) n. [Fr. broche, a spit; from Celt, broc, 
a point; Gael, brag, an awl; W. proc, a thrust, a stab.] 
Originally, a spit. (0.) 

“ And drip their fatness from the hazel broach." — Dryden. 

—An awl or bodkin ; a pointed or penetrating instrument. 

—An ornament for the person; a clasp. See Brooch. 

—A sharp piece of wood used in some parts of England 
for thatching. — A candle-rod. 

(Mech.) A tool of steel, generally tapering, and of a 
polygonal form, with from four to eight cutting edges, 
for smoothing or enlarging holes in metal; sometimes 
made smooth or without edges, as for burnishing pivot- 
holes in watches. The broach for 
gun-barrels is commonly square and 
without taper. — Also, a straight tool 
with file teeth made of steel, to be 
pressed through irregular holes in 
metal that cannot be dressed by re¬ 
volving tools. 

( Arch.) A small steeple or spire 
that is built on the top of a tower, 
rising immediately on the summit of 
its walls, without being surrounded 
at the base by a parapet or battle¬ 
ments. 

—A start of the head of a young stag, 
growing sharp like the end of a spit. 

— v. a. [Fr. hr ocher.] To pierce, as with 
a spit; to spit. 

“ Bringing rebellion broached on his 
sword."— Shake. 

—To tap; to let out; to pierce a cask 
in order to draw liquid ; as, to broach 
a barrel of ale. 

“ And blood was ready to be broach'd, 

When Hudibras in haste approach'd." 

Butler. 

—To open for the first time in order 
to give out; as, to broach the cabin 
stores. 

“I will open the old armories, I will Pig. 422.— BROACH. 
broach my store.” — Knolles. 

—To utter; to open up; to publish first: as, he broached 
the matter gently. 

” This error, that Pison was Ganges, was first broach'd by Jo* 
sephus ."—Sir W. Raleigh. 

To broach to. ( Naut .) To fall off so much, when a ship 
is going free, as to bring the wind round on the other 
quarter, and take the sails aback. 

Broach'er, n. A spit; a broach. 

“ The youth approach'd, and, as it hurn'd. 

On five sharp broachers rank'd, the roast they turn’d.” Dryden. 
One who broaches a matter: the first author of a com¬ 
munication made; an opener or utterer of anything; 
as, a broacher of had news. 

“ The first broacher or an heretical opinion." — L'Estrange. 

Broach ing*lo. n. (Naut.) In navigation, to allow 
the ship’s head to incline rapidly to windward of her 
proper course. This is occasioned by negligence, and 
may result in the sails being taken aback, and the dis¬ 
masting of the vessel. — See Broach. 

Broati, (brawd.) a. [A.S .brad; (lor. hreit; Swed. and 
Goth, braedd. the side: Goth, braids ; allied to spread .] 
Wide; expanded: extended in breadth from side to side ;— 
opposed to narrow; as, a broad river. 

The top may he justly said to he broader, as the bottom is nar¬ 
rower." — Temple. 

—Extended in all directions; wide; ample; open; as 
broad day, ’ 



—Unrestricted ; unreserved; extended; as, a broad method 

“ Broad based upon her people's will."— Tennyson. 

—Vulgar; gross; indelicate; as, abroad jest; broad mirth. 
" Because he seems to chew the cud again, 

When his broad comment makes the text too plain."— Dryden. 

Broad as long. Equal in all respects. 

"For it is as broad as long, whether they rise toothers, or 
bring others down to them." — L'Estrange. 

Broadal’bin, in New York, a post-township of Fulton 
co., 40 m. N.W. of Albany. 

Broad-arrow. «. (Her.) See Pheon. 

—In England, a cuneiform mark, painted or branded, thus 
^*, on all stores and materials belonging to the British 
Admiralty and the Board of Customs. It is unknown 
when this mark originated; hut a penalty was affixed, 
in 1698, to the use of it by any private person under the 
Act 9 and 10 Will. III. cap. 41. 

Broad'-axe, n. An axe with a broad edge, used for 
felling timber. 

"iroad Axe, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Mont¬ 
gomery co 

Broa<l-kill, n. See Fulix. 

Broad'-brim, n. A peculiar kind of hat for men’s 
wear; more particularly applied to the head-covering 
used by the members of the Society of F’riends. — A col¬ 
loquialism for a Quaker, or male member of the Society 
of Friends. 

Broad'-brimmed, a. That has a broad brim. 

Broad Brook, in Connecticut, a thriving post-village 
of Hartford co., 15 m. N.N.E. of Hartford. 

Broad'cast, n. (Agric.) A method of sowing seeds 
by casting them or scattering them abroad, so as to dis¬ 
tribute them evenly over the entire surface of the soil; 
in opposition to sowing in drills or rows. The operation 
of sowing B. is generally performed by the hand, the 
operator carrying the seeds in it hag or sowing-sheet, or 
in a basket. There are also machines for sowing B.. hut 
they are not much in use. In general, grasses are sown 
broadcast; while grain, pulse, and broad-leaved plants 
grown for their roots or leaves are sown in drills or rows. 
The term is sometimes applied to planting, hut it is more 
generally restricted to sowing. 

Broad'cast. adv. By scattering or loosely distributing 
from the hand; as, to sow a field broadcast. 

Broad'cast, a. Scattered over the ground with the 
hand, ns seed in sowing.—Widely diffused or spread over. 

Broad cloth, n. A fine quality of woollen cloth, over 
29 inches in width, fabricated for men’s outer garments. 

Broad Creek, in Delaware, Sussex co., empties into 
the Nanticoke River. 

Broad Creek, in Maryland, a P. 0. of Queen Anne co. 

Broad Creek Neck, in Maryland, a post-office of 

Talbot co. 

Broad'en, v. i. To grow broad. 

“ Low walks the sun, and broadens by degrees.” — Thomson. 

— v. a. To make broad ; to amplify in width or volume. 

Broad -eyed, a. Having a wide survey or scope of 
vision. 

" In spite of broad eyed, watchful day." — Shaks. 

Broad'ford. in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Fayette 
co., 2 m. N. of Connellsville. 

Broad'-gauge, n. (Civil Engineering.) See Gauge. 

Broad haven, a bay on the W. coast of Ireland, co. 
Mayo, 11 m. N.W. of Bangor, and near Erris Head. 

Broad'-liorn, n. In the U. States, a term given to 
the broad, flat-bottomed boats plying on Western rivers. 

Broad -horned, a. Possessing widely extended horns. 

Broad’ish, a. Somewhat broad; broad in moderation. 

Broad kill, in Delaware, a hundred of Sussex coun¬ 
ty. 

Broad-leaf. n. (Bot.) See Terminalia. 

Broad'-leafed, Broad -leaved, a. Having broad 

leaves. 

" Narrow and broad-leaved Cyprus grass." — Woodward. 

Broad'ly, adv. In abroad manner. 

Broad Mountain, in Pennsylvania, an extensive 
ridge, stretching S.W. from the middle of Carbon co., 
through Schuylkill co., into Dauphin, a distance of abt. 
50 m., and forming along its summit, about 2,000 feet 
above sea, a I road table land, whence its name. It is 
the highest mountain in the anthracite coal region of 
Pennsylvania. 

Broad-month Creek, in S Carolina, embouching 
into Saluda River, in Abbeville district. 

Broad'ness, n. Breadth; extent from side to side; 
coarseness : grossness; as, broadness of style. 

“ I have used the cleanest metaphor I coul. find to palliate the 
broadness of the meaning." — Dryden. 

Broad'-pennant, n. (Naut.) The pennant carried 
at the mast-head of a commodore’s vessel. — See Com¬ 
modore. 

Broad'-piece, n. A piece of gold coin broader than 
a guinea. 

Broati Ripple, in Indiana, a P. 0. of Marion co. 

Broad River, in Georgia, rises in Habersham co.. and, 
after a S E. course, empties into the Savannah River at 
Petersburg. 

—A post-office of Elbert co. 

Broad River, in N. and S. Carolina., springing at the 
base of the Blue Ridge in the first-named State, and 
passing into S. Carolina, in York District, takes r. S. 
course, and joins the Saluda at Columbia, there to be¬ 
come the Congaree. 

Broad River, in South Carolina, a strait between th« 
mainland and Port Royal Island. 

Broad Run Station, in Virginia, a post-office of 
Fauquier co. 

Broad Run, in Virginia, a stream of Loudoun co, 
which, after a N. course, falls into the Potomac a few 
miles S.E. of Leesburg. 









































BROC 


BROD 


BROG 


433 


-—Another stream, rising in Fauquier co., and flowing 
S.E., euters the Occoquan River, 1 m. from Brentsville. 

—A post-office of Loudoun co. 

Broad'-seal, n. The Great Seal of England; also, the 
public seal of a country or state. 

IS road side, ft. ( Naut .) The side of a ship above the 
water’s edge. When a vessel is pressed down on one 
side in the water by the wind', she is said to be on her 
broadside. — (Naval Gunnery.) A discharging of the 
whole of the guns contained in one side of a ship at the 
same moment; precisely the same operation as soldiers 
would call a volley. The weight of shot and shell that 
can be delivered by the B. of a line-of-battle ship is very 
great; one of 131 guns being able to fire off at one B. a 
weight of metal amounting to 2,100 lbs. 

(Printing.) Any large page printed on one side of a 
sheet of paper. Modern B. are of various sizes, some¬ 
times consisting of several sheets, which, when put to¬ 
gether, frequently cover a great space. The letters used 
in the largest are often two or three feet in length, each 
one occupying a whole sheet. Old English B. are fre¬ 
quently valuable its illustrating the history of the period. 

Broad'-spread, a. Wide-spread. 

Broad'-spreading', a. Spreading out widely; as, a 
broad-spreading view. 

Broadsword, n. A sword with a broad Wade and 
a cutting edge, but capable of being used like the rapier 
for thrusting. When made so as to be employed in the 
latter way, as well as for cutting, it is called a sabre, and 
forms one of the weapons of the modern cavalry sol¬ 
dier. The modern representative of the old English B. 
is the claymore (q. v ), with which the Highland regi¬ 
ments of the British army are still armed. The English 
people became more and more skilful in the use of the 
B-, according as the wearing of suits of mail began 
to grow out. In the days of Queen Elizabeth, the 
“swash-bucklers,” or “bullies,” of that period achieved 
an unenviable notoriety for their skill in it. The buck¬ 
ler, or shield, a very ancient piece of armor, generally 
accompanied the B., forming as it did the principal 
means of defence against it. At the close of the 16th 
century, sword-and-buckler combats began to decline, 
having been superseded by the continental mode of 
fighting with the rapier, or thrusting-sword, and the 
dagger. The Scots Highlanders, however, continued to 
use the B., as well as the target, or buckler, until they 
were disarmed after the insurrection of 1745. Among the 
Highland clans, the B. was termed the claymore, and it 
was their national weapon. 

“ I heard the broadsword's deadly clang.” — Sir W. Scott. 

Broad Top, in Pennsylvania, a township of Bedford 
co. 

—A post-village of Huntingdon co. 

Broad Top Mountain, in Pennsylvania, situate 
partly in Bedford co., and partly in that of Huntingdon. 
The highest point is about 2,600 feet above sea-level. 
The mountain contains two principal coal-basins, lying 
parallel, side by side, N. 25° E., united by the passage 
of the lower coals from one over the principal anti¬ 
clinal into the other, and each compounded of several 
subordinate parallel troughs. This isolated double coal- 
basin is separated from the bituminous coal-fields of 
the Alleghany Mountain upland, with an interval of 25 
miles, by the great lower Silurian anticlinal axis of 
Morrison's Cove and Nittany Valley. It contains in its 
deepest troughs about 900 feet of coal-measure, and 
takes in the Pittsburg coal-bed with one of the lime¬ 
stones above it. 

Broad'way, in New Jersey, a post-village of Warren co., 
on the Pohatoong Creek, 8 m. S. of Belvidere. 

Broad'way, in Ohio, a post-office of Union co. 

Broadway Depot, ki Virginia, a post-village of 
Rockingham co., about 34 m. N.N.E. of Staunton. 

Broad'well. in Illinois, a twp. and post-vill. of Logan 
co., 21 m. N.N.E of Springfield. 

Broad'well, in Kentucky, a post-office of Harrison co. 

Broad'wise, a. According to the direction of the 
breadth. 

Brocade, ( bro-kdd ',) n. [Sp .brocddo; Fr. brocart, from 
Celt, broc, a point, a needle.] A description of stout silken 
stuff, variegated with gold and silver, raised and en¬ 
riched with foliage, flowers, and other ornaments, and 
used for the dresses of both sexes during the 17th and 
18th centuries. In an inventory of the wardrobe of 
Charles II., in the Bodleian Library, is mentioned “white 
and gold brocade at two pounds three and sixpence per 
yard, and colierc-du-prince brocade at two pounds three 
shillings per yard.” Brocade was not known in Eng¬ 
land till after the 13th century, and was a great rarity 
and luxury upon the Continent in the 14th. 

Brocatl'etl, a. Worked like brocade; as, a brocaded 
robe. 

“ Should you the rich brocaded suit unfold, 

Where rising flow'rs grow stiff with frosted gold."— Oay. 

! .-Apparelled in brocade; as, a lady in brocade. 

Bro'cage, B ro'kage, n. A commission or profit 
gained by transacting business for others.— The busi¬ 
ness of a broker; brokerage. 

Bro'cards, Brooardus, Brocardica, n. pi. Properly, 
maxims or principles of law, as the Brocardica juris 
of Azo; but the word has come to be applied to 
maxims or proverbs generally. It is said by Vossius to 
be derived from the Greek term protarchia, first ele¬ 
ments ; but others, with more probability, derive it from 
Burchard, or Brocard, bishop of Worms, who made a col¬ 
lection of canons, called from him Brocardica; and as 
they abounded in short sententious sayings and prov¬ 
erbs, the name came to be applied to works of that 
description. 

Bro'catel, Brocatello, n. [Fr. brocatelle; Sp. bro- 


catel; It. brocatello .] A coarse kind of brocade used in 
tapestry. 

Broccoli, (brok'ko-li,) n. [Fr. brocoli; It. broccolo; Sp. 
broculi.](Hort.) The Brassica oleracea, a common garden 
vegetable differing from the cauliflower only in having 
colored instead of white heads. — See Cauliflower. 
Broch'antitc, n. (Min.) A native sulphate of copper, 
thus named after Brochant the French mineralogist. 
Broche, (brock.) See Broach. 

Brochette', n. [Fr.] A skewer to stick meat on. — A 
mode of frying chickens. 

Brochure, (bro-shoo/,) n. [Fr., from brocber, to stitch, 
from broche, a needle.] A pamphlet; a printed and 
stitched publication on a small scale; as, the author of 
a witty brochure. 

Brock, (broc,) n. [A.S. broc; Dan. brolc; Ir. broc ; Corn, 
and W. brock ; Gael, breac, spotted, speckled, piebald.] 
(Zoiil.) A badger, so named from the white streaks on its 
face. — See Badger. 

“ Or with pretence of chasing theuce the brock."—Ben Jonson. 
—A Brocket, q. v. 

Brock, in Ohio, a post-office of Darke co. 

Brocken, (brok'kn,) the culminating point of thellartz 
Mountains, in N. Germany, kingdom of Saxony, culti¬ 
vated nearly to its summit, which is 3,740 feet above the 
level of the sea. The phenomenon called the “ Spectre of 
the Brocken ” is here occasionally seen at sunset and sun¬ 
rise. It is caused by the perpendicular rising of the 
mists from the valley opposite to the sun, at the same 
time leaving the top of the mountain clear. The effect 
produced is a wonderful enlargement of every object 
reflected by this dense mass of vapor ascending from 
the valley. 

Brock'et, n. [See Brock.] A red hart two years old, so 
named from its having only a single snag to its antler. 
(Sometimes written brock.) 

Brock'ett’s Bridge, in New York, a post-office of 
Fulton co. 

Brock'isli. a. Brutal; animalish; beastly. 
Brock'port, iu New York, a thriving post-village of 
Sweden township, Monroe co.. 17 m. W. of Rochester. 
There are a number of mills and factories here. 
Brock’s'ville, in Texas, a post-office of Ellis co. 
Brockton. See North Bridgewater. 
Broek'town, in Arkansas, a post-office of Pike co. 
Brock'yille, in Pennsylvania, a mining village of 
Schuylkill county, a few miles north-east of Potts- 
ville. 

Brock'ville, in Indiana, a flourishing village of Steu¬ 
ben county, 9 miles N.E. of Angola, the county- 
seat. 

Brock'ville, in prov. of Ontario, a county town of the 
united counties of Grenville and Leeds, on the St. Law¬ 
rence, 125 m. S.W. of Montreal. This is a well-builtand 
prosperous town, producing steam-engines, machinery, 
and other fabrics. Pop. 7,000. 

Brock'way, in Michigan, a post-township of St. Clair 
co. , 

Brock'way, in Minnesota, a post-office of Stearns co. 
Brock'way Centre, in Michigan, a post-office of 
St. Clair co. 

Brock'way’s Mills, in Maine, a post-office of Pis¬ 
cataquis co. 

Brock'way vilie, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 

Jefferson co. 

Broc'ton, in New York, a post-office of Chautauqua co. 
Brod'becks, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of York co. 
Brod'kead, John Romeyn, an American historian, b. 
at Philadelphia, in 1814. In 1841, the New Y'ork State 
Legislature commissioned him to proceed as their agent 
to Europe, there to transcribe documents relating to the 
history of that State. B. employed three years in the 
task of exploring the government archives of England, 
France, and Holland, and brought home the fruits of 
his researches in 1844; which were printed by authority 
in 10 large 4to. vols. From 1846 to 1849, B. held the 
post of secretary of legation under Mr. Bancroft, at the 
English Court. On his return he began his long- 
cherished work, A History of the State of New York, the 
1st vol. of which, comprising the Dutch period from 1609 
to 1664, was published in 1853. D. 1873. 

Brod'kead. in Pennsylvania, a P. O. of Alleghany co. 
Brod'kead, in Wisconsin, a post-vill. of Green co., on 
Sugar River, 18 m. W. by S. of Janesville. 

Brod'kead’s Creek, in Pennsylvania, Monroe co., 
emptying into the Delaware River. 
Brod'keadsville, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Monroe co. 

Bro'die, Sir Benjamin Collins, Bart, ll.d., f.r.s., an 
eminent English surgeon, b. 1783. Having devoted 
himself earnestly to the study of practical surgery, he 
was, when comparatively young, appointed surgeon at 
St. George’s Hospital, London; and, after the death of 
Sir Astley Cooper, became the first consulting surgeon 
of his day. B.’s reputation did not rest so much upon 
his operative skill as upon his powers of diagnosis, and 
upon his knowledge of the advantageous effects of con¬ 
stitutional treatment in surgical affections. He was a 
prolific writer. Early in his career, he made a series of 
most valuable and interesting observations on the action 
of poisons, and he published various works on surgical 
science, which are held in high authority. Prominent 
among them stands his Treatise on Diseases of the 
Joints, which will in all time coming be a standard 
authority. Latterly, he brought out essays on psycho¬ 
logical science of the most powerful character. Sir Ben¬ 
jamin was serjeant-surgeon to kings George IV. and 
William IV., and also to Queen Victoria. D. 1862. 
Bro'dy, a town of Austria, prov. Galicia, circ. Zloczow, 
52 m. E.by N. of Lemberg; Lat.50°7'N., Lon. 25°18'E. 
Nearly half the residents are Jews. It is a mean place 


in appearance, but has a most extensive trade (princi¬ 
pally transit), the value of which amounts to about 
$15,000,000 annually. Its fairs, too, are conducted on a 
great scale. On account of the great number of Jews 
in this town, it has been nicknamed the German Jeru¬ 
salem. Pop. 18,743. 

Broek, a village of Holland, 6 m. N.E. of Amsterdam. 
This village is celebrated for the wealth of its inhabi¬ 
tants, but more from the extreme cleanliness «f its 
houses and streets, the attention to which is carried to 
almost an absurd excess The entire pop. (about 1,650) 
consists of retired merchants and their families, who 
amuse themselves in keeping their dwellings tree from 
every speck of dust. 

BrolFe'rio, Angelo, a distinguished Italian dramatio 
author, and historian; B. iu Piedmont, 1802. His princi¬ 
pal works are, A History of Piedmont ; the (hamas of 
The Corsair; Beturn of the Proscript; Kenilworth Cas¬ 
tle ; Salvator Bosa, kc. D. 1868. 

Bro'g-an, n. A strong, clumsy shoe. See Brogue. 

Bre gies ville, in Tennessee, a P.O. of Washington co. 

Broglie, Victor Maurice, Comte de, ( bro’le, or brdg'le,) 
a French general, was born of a good family at Quercy, 
served with credit in the wars of Louis XIV., and was 
made a marshal of France. D. 1727. 

Broglie, Francois Marie, Due de, son of the preceding, 
became a marshal of France, and distinguished himself 
in Italy, in the campaigns of 1733 and 1734. D. 1745. 

Broglie, Victor Francois, Due de, son of the preceding, 
b. 1718, was a lieutenant-general during the 7 Years’ 
M ar, routed the Prussians at the battle of Bergen, was 
created a prince of the German empire by Francis I., 
and promoted to the rank of a marshal of France in 
1769. He became Minister of War in 1789; and, in 1792, 
he led a body of French emigres, who invaded Cham¬ 
pagne. D. 18U4, at MUnster. 

Broglie, Claude Victor, Due de, son of the preceding, b. 
1757, became active on the side of the popular party at 
the commencement of the French Revolution, and was 
made a marechal-de-cantp. Guillotined 1794. 

Broglie, Achille Charles Leonce Victor, Due de, son of 
the preceding, b. 1785. Entering early in lile upon a 
career of diplomacy, he was charged with diflerent 
foreign missions, and went in the suite of the Abbe de 
Pradt, iu 1812-13, to the Congress of Prague. Alter 
the Restoration he was made a peer by Louis XV] II., 
and in this capacity he sat in judgment on Marshal Key. 
He spoke strongly in favor of that illustrious man, and 
voted in the minority who voted against his being put 
to death. B. married the daughter of the celebrated 
Madame de Stael (q. ®.), and his first political acts threw 
him necessarily into the opposition. He supported, 
against the various ministers of the Restoration, differ¬ 
ent measures of reform, and advocated with great elo¬ 
quence, freedom of political discussion and of the press. 
In a multiplicity of questions lie showed himself a good 
economist and jurist, while the sincerity of his convic¬ 
tions and the vigor ol his logic, joined to a certain sharp 
irony, established his repute as an orator. In 1828, he 
founded the Bevue Franpaise, to which he contributed 
several articles anonymously. The revolution of July 
made M. de B. a doctrinaire throughout the whole of 
the reign of Louis Philippe. lie did not fear liberty, 
but he was afraid of the democratic tendencies which 
the revolution had encouraged. lie acted for a lew days 
as Minister of the Interior, and yielded his position to 
his friend M. Guizot, a bolder organ of his own ideas, 
contenting himself with the portfolio of Public Instruc¬ 
tion in the first ministerial combination attempted by 
the new king. Both men were obliged to give way to 
the Lafitte ministry, then better suited to the temper 
of the times. Associated with MM. Thiers and Guizot, 
and Marshal Gerard, he formed, October, 1832, a ministry 
that had a longer existence than most of those which 
held office under Louis Philippe, and in this cabinet he 
had the portfolio of Foreign Affairs. His principal act 
in that capacity was the arrangement with England to 
the suppression of the slave-trade. He retired from the 
ministry in April, 1834, in consequence of the rejection 
of the law on the American indemnity, but was shortly 
after recalled by the king to the same portfolio, and 
with the title of President of the Council. It was un¬ 
der B.'s presidency that the famous laws respecting the 
press, called the Laws of September (1835), so contrary 
to the principles he had maintained on this subject un¬ 
der the Restoration, were passed. Iu 1836, he retired 
finally from office, and withstood every solicitation to 
enter upon it again. With regret he saw the destruc¬ 
tion of the royalty he had assisted in founding, in the 
revolution of February, 1848. For a time he was silent; 
but after the election of Louis Napoleon, he entered the 
Legislative Assembly, and proposed the law for a revi¬ 
val of the Constitution, in the hope of reopening the 
door to a monarchy more in harmony with his choice. 
The coup d'etat brought about an order of things B. 
never expected, and he afterwards lived in retirement. 
In 1861, he prosecuted the prefect of police for the il¬ 
legal seizure of a work on w-hich he had been long occu¬ 
pied, Considerations on the Government of France, but 
which was not intended for publication. He succeeded 
however, in recovering the greater portion of the copies 
which had been seized at his printer’s. D. 1870. His 
son Albert, b. 1821, author of Hie Church and the Boman 
Empire in the Fourth Century (1856), was Minister of 
Foreign Affairs in 1873-1875. 

Brogue, (brog,) n. A hrogan; a stout, heavy leather 
shoe, resembling in form the French sabot. Applied gen¬ 
erally to the pedal coverings of the Scottish Highland¬ 
ers, and the Irish peasantry. 

“I. . . pat 

My clouted brogues from off my feet, Shaki. 

















434 


BROK 


BROM 


BROM 


—A cant phrase for a corrupt dialect, or mode of pronun¬ 
ciation; as, spoken with the Irish brogue. 

“ Or take, Hibernia, thy still ranker brogue ."— Lloyd. 
JBroitl'er, v. a. [Fr. broder, by transposition from bor¬ 
der, to bind, to edge, to border; because the borders of 
garments are embroidered.] To ornament with needle¬ 
work. By modern usage, Embroider, q. v. 

" In mantles broider'd o’er with gorgeous pride."— Tickell. 
Broill'erer, n. One who embroiders, (o.) 
Broiti'ery, n. Embroidery, (o.) 

11 The golden broidery tender Milkah wove."— Tickell. 
Broil, n. [Fr. brouille, from brrruiller, to mix; from It. 
brogliare, to confound.] A disturbance; agitation; brawl; 
a noisy quarrel; a confused tumult; as, their anger led 
to a broil. 

“ Rude were their revels, and obscene their joys ; 

The broils of drunkards, and the lust of hoys."— Granville. 
(Cookery.) A piece of meat broiled over a fire,; as, it 
will make a nice broil. 

—v. a. [Fr. brUler, for brusler, from braise, burning or 
glowing charcoal.] To agitate with heat; to dress or 
cook over coals or before the fire; as, to broil a beef¬ 
steak. 

•• Some strip the skin, some portion out the spoil, 

Some on the (ire the reeking entrails broil." — Dryden. 

— o. i. To bo subjected to heat; to be greatly heated; to 
be cooked by being placed over a fire; as, it is a broil¬ 
ing day. 

“ Where have you been broiling t 
Among th* crowd i’ th’ abbey, where a huger 
Could not be wedg’d in more." — Sliaks. 

Broil'er, n. One who broils ; one who incites quarrels. 
(Cookery.) A gridiron; a kitchen-utensil for broiling 
meat. 

Bro'kag’e, ft. Same as Brokerage, q. v. 

Broke, v. i. [A. S. brucan, to use, discharge, profit; 
Swed. and Goth, bruka, to use, exercise.] To transact 
business for another, (r.) 

—To act as broker or procurer in amatory intrigues. 

“And brokes with all that can, in such a-suit, 

Corrupt the tender honor of a maid."— Shake. 

Broke, imp. and pp. of Break, q. v. 

Bro'ken, (pp. of break, q. v., and a.) Parted by vio¬ 
lence; rent asunder; as, a broken pitcher. 

“ When some traveller from New Zealand shall, in the midst of 
a vast solitude, take his stand on a broken arch of London Bridge 
to sketch the ruins of St. Paul’s."— Macaulay. 

—Infirm; incapacitated; weakened in body; as, broken 
health. 

“ The broken soldier, kindly bade to stay, 

Sat by his fire, aud talked the night away.”— Goldsmith. 
—Humbled; contrite; abashed; subdued; as, broken in 
spirit. 

Broken number. A fraction of a unit. 

Broken Arrow, in Alabama, a post-office of St. 
Clair co. 

Broken Arrow, in Georgia, a village of Walton co., 

7 m. W. of Monroe. 

Broken-backed, ( brok’n-backt,) a. Having the back 
broken. 

(Naut.) A ship is said to be broken-backed when, in 
consequence of being loosened from age or injury, her 
frames droop on either end. Often called, technically, 
hogged. 

Bro'ken-bellied, a. Having a ruptured belly. 
Bro'ken burg’ll, in Virginia, a post-office of Spottsyl- 
vania co. 

Bro ken-Hearted, a. Having the spirits crushed or 
ruined by grief or fear. 

“ Had we never loved so blindly, 

Never met or never parted, 

We had ne’er been broken-hearted 1 "— Burns. 

Bro'kenly, adv. Without a regular series; in a shat¬ 
tered or unequal state. 

•• And thus the heart will break, yet brokenly livg on ."—Byron. 
Bro'ken-meat, n. Fragments of meat; refuse after 
a meal. 

Bro'kenness, n. Unevenness; state of being broken. 

Compunction; contrition; penitence of heart. 
Bro'ken Straw, in New York, a post-office of Chau¬ 
tauqua co. 

Bro'ken Straw, in Pennsylvania, a township of War¬ 
ren co. 

Bro'ken Straw Creek, in Pennsylvania, Warren 
co., entering the Alleghany River. 

Bro'ken Sword Creek, in Ohio, falls into the San¬ 
dusky River, in Wyandot co. 

Bro ken*wind, n. (Farriery.) A peculiar affection 
of the wind or breathing of the horse, in which the ex¬ 
piration of the air from the lungs, occupying double the 
time that the inspiration of it does, requires also two 
efforts rapidly succeeding each other, and attended by 
a slight spasmodic action, in order fully to accomplish 
it. Examination of the animal after death has satisfac¬ 
torily explained the reason of this. Some of the air- 
cells, particularly round the edges of the lungs, are rup¬ 
tured ; they have run into one another, and irregularly 
formed cavities have thus been made into which the air 
may easily enter, but cannot, without considerable diffi¬ 
culty, be expelled. This disease may also be recognized 
by a characteristic low grunting cough, likewise easily 
explained by this morbid structure of the lungs. It the 
usual breathing has been rendered thus laborious, it is 
evident that the horse, without skilful management, will 
be utterly incapable of rapid and continued exertion. 
In fact, if he is but a little hurried he evinces evident 
distress, and if still urged on, he drops and dies; this 
therefore is one of the worst species of unsoundness. 
The cause oi the rupture of the air-cells may be pre¬ 


vious inflammation of the lungs, by which a portion of 
them has been rendered impervious, and thus greater 
labor thrown on the remaining parts. The delicate 
structure of the cells, probably weakened by the inflam¬ 
mation in which it had shared, yields to the unnatural 
distention to which they are thus exposed. Many a 
horse has become broken-winded when urged to extra 
exertion immediately after he has beeD fed; for the air 
rushing violently into the lungs in the act of sudden and 
forcible inspiration, and the full stomach lying against 
the diaphragm, with which the body of the lungs is in 
contact, their perfect expansion is prevented, and those 
parts, as the edges, which are free from this pres¬ 
sure, are unnaturally dilated aud ruptured. The kind 
of food also to which the horse is accustomed has much 
to do with this disease. If it is comparatively innutri¬ 
tive, a greater bulk of it must be eaten, and the distended 
stomach will oftener and longer press upon the diaphragm 
and impede the dilatation of the lungs, or render it un¬ 
equal in different parts. Thus, broken-wind is a disease 
of the farmer’s horse fed too much on hay or chaff; it is 
often produced in the straw-yard, where little more than 
the coarsest food is allowed; but it is comparatively sel¬ 
dom seen in the stable of the coach-proprietor, in which 
the food is of a better quality, and lies in a smaller com¬ 
pass, and is more regularly administered; aud it never 
disgraces the hunting or racing stable. It must how¬ 
ever be confessed that there is sometimes an hereditary 
predisposition to this disease, consisting in a narrowness 
of chest or a weakness of structure in the lungs. There 
is no cure for broken-wind; no art can restore the dilated 
cells to their former dimensions, or build up again a wall 
between them. But palliative measures may be adopted 
to a very considerable extent. The food should be of a 
more nutritive kind, and contained in a smaller compass. 
Straw and chaff should be forbidden, the quantity of hay 
perhaps a little diminished, and that of corn correspond¬ 
ingly increased. A mash should constitute a part of 
the evening’s fare; water should be sparingly given 
during the day, and exercise should not be required when 
the stomach is full. Occasional or periodical fits of 
greater difficulty of breathing should lie met by small 
bleedings and gentle laxatives. By this management 
not only will the broken-winded horse be rendered use¬ 
ful for many ordinary purposes, but will be capable of 
service and labor, which it would otherwise be cruel to 
require of him. 

Bro'ken-winded, a. Having a shortened respiration, 
as a horse. 

Broker, n. [See Broke.] One who does business for 
another.— (Cbm.) An agent or negotiator who transacts 
business for merchants; as, a ship-firofcer. A broker is 
a sort of middleman between vendor and purchaser. 
He is not, like a factor, intrusted with the possession 
of the article he vends, and he is not authorized to buy 
or sell in his own name. 

“ Some Soutb-Sea broker from the city, 

Will purchase me, the more’s the pity.” — Swift. 

—One who deals in old furniture, goods, &c„ or who sells 
personal effects, &c., after being distrained upon for 
rent. 

—A pimp or procurer, (o.) 

” To play the broker iu mine own behalf."- Shake. 

Bro kerage, n. The business of a broker. 

—The percentage paid to a broker for his trouble in ef¬ 
fecting a sale, or in negotiating any particular business. 

Bro lt i ng. p. a. Pertaining to the business of a broker; 
practised by brokers; relating to brokerage, (o.) 

“ Redeem from broking pawn the blemish’d crown."— Shake. 

Bi-o'ina, n. [Gr.] (Med.) Food of any kind that is mas¬ 
ticated. 

Bro'mal, tt. (Chem.) An organic compound consisting 
of Aldehyde. , in which three equivalents of iiydrogen 
are replaced by chlorine. It is an oily liquid of unpleas¬ 
ant odor. Sp. gr. 3’35. 

Bromar'gyrite, n. (Min.) See Bromartte. 

Bro'uiate, n. (Chem.) A compound of bromic acid 
with a base. 

Broniatol'og’y, n. (Med.) A discourse on food. 

Brom'berg, a town of Prussia, prov. Posen, cap. of a 
circ. of the same name, on the Braa, 6 in. from its junc¬ 
tion with the Vistula. This place is one of the most 
thriving towns of E. Prussia. Man/. Tobacco, liquors, 
and chicory. 

Brome, n. (Chem.) Same as Bromine, q. v. 

Brome. a S. County of Quebec, a Twp. and Lake. B. 
and W.B. Post Vills. same co. Pop. 13,757. 

Brome'-grass, n. (Bot.) See Bromus. 

Brome lia, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, order Brome- 
liace.ce. The green fruit of B.pinguin is used as a diu¬ 
retic in the W. Indies; the prickly leaves yield long 
fibres, which are twisted into ropes and woven into 
coarse cloth. 

Bromeliacesc, (brn-me-le-ai'-se-e. (Bot.) An order of 
plants, alliance Narcissales, named after Bromel, a Swe¬ 
dish botanist.— Diag. Tri-petaloidous six-leaved flow¬ 
ers, having imbricated divisions, and mealy albumen.— 
They are herbs or somewhat woody plants, stemless or 
with short stems, and rigid, channelled, often spiny and 
scaly leaves. The flowers are in racemes or panicles; 
the calyx 3-parted or tubular, persistent, more or less 
cohering with the ovary ; the petals three, withering or 
deciduous, equal or unequal, imbricated in bud. The 
stamens are six, inserted into the tube of the calyx and 
corolla, the anthers opening inwards. The ovary is 3- 
celled, the style single, the fruit capsular or succulent, 
many-seeded; the seeds with a minute embryo lying in 
the base of mealy albumen. — The order contains 28 
genera and about 175 species, all natives of the warmer 
parts of America, although some of them are now natu¬ 


ralized both in Asia and Africa. The best known plant 
of the order, and the only one much valued for its fruit, 
is the Pine-apple, Ana¬ 
nassa sativa. B.. with 
their strong spiny leaves, 
cover the ground in many 
places, so as to form im¬ 
penetrable thickets. Many 
of them are epiphytic, or 
grow upon trees, witiiout 
being parasites, particu¬ 
larly the species of Tilr 
landsia, one of which is 
the New Orleans Moss, 

Long Beard, or Old Man’s 
Beard of the West Indies 
and of the southern parts 
of the United States, 
hanging from the trees 
like the lichens of colder 
climates. The leaves of 
some are so formed and 
placed as to retain near 
their base a quantity of 
water, often affording a 
delicious refreshment to 
the traveller in a hot cli¬ 
mate. Tlie water is, per¬ 
haps, of use to the plant 
itself in droughts. Not a 
few of the B. are capable 
of vegetating long with- .?%. 423. 

out contact with earth, 

and of sustaining long FRUIT of ananassa sativa. 
drought without inconve- (Pine apple.) 

nience; for which reason, 

and because of their beautiful and fragrant flowers, 
some of them are very frequently suspended from bal¬ 
conies in South America as air-plants. But the plants 
of this order are more generally valuable for their fibres 
than on any other account. The principal genera are, 
Ananassa, Bromelia, Billbergia, and TUlandsia, q. v. 

Bro'mic Acid, n. (Chem.) The only known compound 
of bromine and oxygen. Equivalent 120. It corresponds 
in composition to chloric acid, but has never been ob¬ 
tained in an anhydrous condition. In combination with 
water it forms a colorless liquid, which first reddens and 
then bleaches litmus. With bases it forms bromates, 
which are similar in their properties to chlorates. Form. 
B0O5. 

Bro mine, n. [Gr. bromos, a stench.] (Chem.) An ele¬ 
mentary substance discovered by Balard, in 1826, in mi¬ 
nute quantities in sea-water, in which it exists as bro¬ 
mine of magnesium. It also occurs in a native bromide 
of silver found in Chili, and in union with various alka¬ 
lies in certain mineral waters. It is prepared by passing 
chlorine through a solution of alkaline bromides, until 
the yellow color produced remains uniform. Ether is 
added, which isolates the bromine. This is separated 
from the saline solution and shaken up with a solution 
of caustic potash. The solution is then evaporated to 
dryness, and the residue distilled with binoxide of man¬ 
ganese and sulphuric acid. Its aspect is totally differ¬ 
ent from that of any other element, for it distils over in 
the liquid condition, and preserves that form at ordinary 
temperatures, being the only liquid non-metallic element. 
Its dark red-brown color, and the peculiar orange color 
of the vaper which it exhales continually, are also char¬ 
acteristic ; but, abovo all, its extraordinary and disagree¬ 
able odor, from wdiich it derives iti name, leaves no 
doubt of its identity. The odor has some slight resem¬ 
blance to that of chlorine, but is far more intolerable, 
often giving rise to great pain, and sometimes even to 
bleeding of the nose. Liquid B. is twice as heavy as 
water (sp. gr. 2-96), and boils at 145°, yielding a vapor 
5 [4 times as heavy as air (sp. gr. 5 54). It may be frozen 
at 9’5° to a brown crystalline solid. It requires 33 times 
its weight of cold water to dissolve it, and is capable of 
forming a crystalline hydrate corresponding to hydrate 
of chlorine. In its bleaching power, its aptitude for di¬ 
rect combination, and its other chemical cbaracters.it 
very closely resembles chlorine — so closely, indeed, that 
it is difficult to distinguish, in many cases, between the 
compounds of chlorine and B. with other substances, 
unless the elements themselves be isolated. A necessary 
consequence of so great a similarity is, that very little 
use has been made of B.. since the far more abundant 
chlorine fulfils nearly all the purposes to which B. 
might otherwise be applied. In the daguerreotype and 
photographic arts, however, some special applications 
of B. have been discovered, and for some chemical op¬ 
erations, such as the determination of the illuminating 
hydro-carbons in coal-gas, B. is sometimes preferred to 
chlorine. The principal compounds of B. are Hydro- 
bromic add, a compound of one equivalent each of hy¬ 
drogen and B. The action of hydrobromic acid on me¬ 
tallic oxide is precisely similar to that exerted on them 
by hydrochloric acid. Tiius hydrobromic acid and pot¬ 
ash combine, forming bromide of potassium and water. 
It is soluble in water to a considerable extent. It is 
colorless, strongly acid, and suffers no change on expo¬ 
sure to the air. On the addition of nitric acid, decom¬ 
position takes place, and a bromic aqua regia is formed, 
which, like the chloric aqua regia, dissolves gold and 
platinum. With oxygen, B. forms bromic-acid, q. v. 
With chlorine, a chloride, possessing oleaching proper¬ 
ties. With sulphur it forms a single bromide. As a 
sedative in nervous excitement and sleeplessness, Bro¬ 
mide of Potassium gives great relief. The use of 
Bromine Compounds in large doses, often leads to un¬ 
pleasant effects. Theequivalentof B. is80: its symbol Br. 

















































































































































gj 



























































































BRON 


BKON 


BKON 


437 







Bro'inize, t>. a. ( Plwtog .) To treat with bromine; as, 
to hromize a silvered plate. 

Brom'lite, n. [Gr. bromos, a stench, and litlios, a stone.] 
(Min.) A carbonate of lime and baryta. 

Brom'oform, n. (Client.) A compound of bromine 
and formyl; corresponding to chloroform. It has no 
particular interest. Form. C 2 HBr 2 . 

Bromohy'tlric, a. (Chem.) Applied to an acid com¬ 
posed of one equivalent of bromine and one of hydrogen. 

Bromp’ton, a western division of London, 4 m. W. of 
St. Paul’s. 

Broms'grove. a town of England, c<>. Worcester, 108 
in. N.W. of London. It is a prosperous and well-built 
place, doing an extensive trade in nail-making, buttons, 
and chemicals ; pop. 5,788. 

Bromnret, n. (Chem.) A basic compound of bromine 
with other elements. 

Bro’snus, n. [Lat.; from Gr. bromos, wild oat.] (Bot.) 
The Brome-grass: a genus of plants, order Graminaceoe, 
characterized by the flowers being in lax panicles ; the 
glumes many-flowered; the outer palea bifid, and the 
extremities awned beneath; and by the very short 
stigma growing from the face of the germen beneath its 



Fig. 424. — RYE BROME-GRASS. 
(Bromus secalinus 


apex. Some species are very common in the United 
States. The B. secalinus is a handsome grass in fields, 
often among wheat. In a young state it has a great re- 
semblance to rye. Its seeds, which are large, retain j 
their power of germination for years, and do not lose 
it by passing through the intestines of animals. Dele¬ 
terious effects have been erroneously ascribed to bread 
made from rye, along with which these seeds have been 
ground: but poultry are very fond of them. 

Broin'wicll (West,) a town and parish of Stafford¬ 
shire, England, 3 m. from Wednesbury, with mines of 
coal and iron in the neighborhood. 

Brom'yrite, »• (Min.) Native bromide of silver. 
When pure it is of a yellow color, with a slight tinge of 
green. It is met with in Mexico and Chili, accompany¬ 
ing other ores of silver. 

Bronchitis, (bron-ki'tis,) n. (Med.) There are few 
diseases affecting the respiratory organs more common, 
and more serious, than that form of inflammatory ac¬ 
tion attacking the air-passages, known as the bronchial 
tubes, or any form of disease calling for more prompt or 
energetic action. The great exciting cause is cold, espe¬ 
cially when combined with moisture; but, whatever 
tends to diminish the general vigor of the system, and 
excesses of every kind, predispose to it. Any sudden 
change of temperature is apt to produce it. It is espe¬ 
cially prevalent during the spring months. Its first 
symptoms are generally those of a common cold, accom¬ 
panied with an occasional cough, and a sense of weari¬ 
ness and headache. The cough increases, and there is 
a feeling of oppression in the chest, and the breathing 
produces a kind of wheezing noise. The pulse is rapid 
and weak, and there is extreme lassitude, with pain in 
the limbs, mental heaviness, &c. If the feverish symp¬ 
toms increase, the breathing becomes difficult from the 
slogging of the tubes with mucus, which is, to some ex¬ 
tent, expectorated during the cough. In severe cases, 
the symptoms become more and more alarming; the 
breathing becomes so embarrassed that the patient can 
no longer lie down, but requires to maintain an upright 
posture, and use all his muscles in respiration. At last, 
he is so exhausted that he ceases to expectorate, and 
dies of suffocation from the accumulated mucus, usually 
in from five to seven days. Even in less severe cases, the 
delicate respiratory tubes are frequently permanently 
injured, so that the proper aeration of the blood is in¬ 
terfered with. The treatment of this disease will vary, 
according to its nature and the constitution of the pa¬ 
tient ; and the necessity of always having recourse to a 


medical man cannot be too strongly insisted upon. The 
great object of the treatment is to reduce and remove 
the inflammatory condition of the organs ; hence a mus¬ 
tard-poultice should be applied to the chest, the feet 
bathed in hot water, and warm diluent drinks, as bar¬ 
ley-water or linseed tea, given. It is frequently neces¬ 
sary to administer emetics, in order to remove the accu¬ 
mulations of mucus. The bowels should be kept mod¬ 
erately open during the whole course of the disease. — 
See Asthma, Catarrh, Cough. 

Bronchi, Bron'chia, Bron'chi®, n.pl. [Gr .bronchos, 


the windpipe.] 
strictly meaning 
the bifurcations, 
or the two tubes 
into which the 
trachea or wind¬ 
pipe splits on 
entering the 
chest. The word 
B., or air-passag¬ 
es, signifies ev¬ 
ery division,sub¬ 
division, and mi¬ 
nute ramifica¬ 
tion into which 
the division of 
the trachea sep¬ 
arates till open¬ 
ing into the air- 
cells in the sub¬ 
stance of the 
lungs. The func¬ 
tion of the bron¬ 
chia is to convey 
the air received 
by the mouth 
and nostrils and 
the windpipe to 
every part of the 
three lobes of 
the lungs, and 
carry it to the 
bronchial cells, 
where it mingles 
with the impure 
blood, convert¬ 
ing it into arte- 


(Anat.) The bronchial tubes; though 



tRKbfsws -jy 

E 4# 


Fig. 425. 

LUNGS AND TRACHEA IN MAN, 
showing the position of the windpipe and 
bronchial tubes, relatively to the lungs. 

A. Larynx and superior extremity of the 
. . . , , , trachea; B, trachea; C, division into bron- 

nal blood, and . [) one 0 [- tlle Xungs; E, bronchial ra- 
changing it to muscules. 
a bright scarlet 
color. — See Bronchitis. 

Bron'cliial, Broil'cliic, a. Relating to the bronchi. 

Bronchial glands. (Anat.) Numerous small, dark-col¬ 
ored glands, situated on each side of the bronchial tubes 
in their course from the trachea to the lungs. 

Bron'chocele, n. (Med.) The surgical name for a dis¬ 
eased enlargement of the thyroid gland. — See Goitre. 

Broncbopli'ony, n. [Gr. broychos, the throat, and 
phone, voice.] (Med.) A thrilling sound in the bron¬ 
chial tubes, audible by auscultation, aud occurring only 
in certain diseases. 

Broncliot'omy, n. (Surg.) See Tracheotomy. 

Bron'chns, n. (Anat.) One of the two Bronchi, q. v. 

Brongnlart, Alexandre, an emiuent French chemist 
and geologist, B. at Paris, 1770, was son of Alexandre 
Theodore B., a distinguished architect. Appointed, in 

1800, director of the porcelain manufactory at Sevres, he 
held that office for the remainder of his life, aud revived 
the almost lost art of painting on glass. In his Essai 
d’une Classification de.s Reptiles, 1805, he established the 
four divisions of reptiles, and first gave them the names 
of Saurians, Batrachians , Chelonians, and Ophidians. 
His Traite EUmentaire de Mineralogie, published in 
1807, at the instance of the Imperial University, became 
a text-book for lecturers. In 1814 appeared his Memoire 
sur les Corps Organises Fossiles volumes Trilobites, a 
name which, as well as a basis of classification for those 
singular Crustacea, naturalists owe to Brongniart. In 
1815 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sci¬ 
ences of the French Institute ; he was also a member of 
the Royal and Geological Societies of London, and of 
other learned bodies. In 1845 appeared his Traite des 
Arts Ceramiques. D. 1847. 

B., Adolphe Theodore, son of the preceding, b. at Paris, 

1801. He early devoted himself to the study of the nat¬ 
ural sciences, especially to that of botany, selecting 
crvptogamous plants for special notice. In 1825, he 
published a Classification des Champignons, and, in 1828, 
presented to the institute the first portions of his His- 
toire des Vegetaux Fossiles, ou Recherches botaniques et 
geologiques sur les vegetaux renfermes dans les diverses 
couches duglebe. The publication of this valuable work 
was stopped in consequence of the gifted author’s ill- 
health. In 1854. b. was elected a member of the Aca¬ 
demy of Sciences. He was also Professor of Botany and 
Vegetable Physiology in the Museum of Natural His¬ 
tory after 1.333, was Inspector General of the University 
for the Sciences after 1852, aud was one of the prin¬ 
cipal founders of, and contributors to, the Annates des 
Sciences Naturelles; wrote the botanical portion of the 
Voyage de la CnquiUe. in 1831, and published Enumera¬ 
tion des Genres de Plantes cultivees au Museum d'Histoire 
natureUe, in 1843. D. 1876. 

Bro'ni, a town ofN. Italy, prov. Alessandria, 11 m. S.E. 
of Pavia, at the foot of the Apennines. Near it is the 
castle of Broni, where Prince Eugene obtained a victory 
over the French in 1703. Fop. 5,076. 

Bronn, Heinrich Georg, a German naturalist, b. 1800. 
He was educated at the university of Heidelberg, where 
he was nominated Professor in 1833, and appointed Lec¬ 


turer on Zoology in succession to Leonhard. Among hi( 
various scientific works may be named, A System of 
Antediluvian Zoophytes, (1827 ;) Lethaca Geognostica, an 
important geological work, (1837;) History of Mature, 
(1841-9;) and Universal Zoology, (1850.) D. 1862. 

Bron'son, in Florida, the capital of Levy co., 140 m. 
S. E. of Tallahassee. 

Broii'son, in Ohio, a township of Huron co., 20 m. S. 
by E. of Sandusky City. 

Bvon'son, in Michigan, a village and township of 
Branch county, 130 m. W. S.W. of Detroit, and 66 W. 
of Adrian. Is in a farming aud lumbering district; has 
stave factories aud flour mills, creamery, &c. Pop. (1897) 
about 1,000. 

Bronte, or Bronti, ( bron’te ,) a town of S. Italy, iD 
Sicily, Val di Catania, near the Giaretta, at the W. base 
ol Mount Etna, 22 m. N.N.W. of Catania. Manf. Wool¬ 
lens and paper. The country around is productive of 
wine, oil, and fruits. B. gave the title of duke to the 
English admiral Lord Nelson. Pop. 12,791. 

Bronte, a post-village of Upper Canada, Halton co., 28 
in. S.W. of Toronto. 

Bronte, Charlotte, a distinguished English novelist, b. 
1816. The daughter of a clergymau living secluded in 
the wild Yorkshire moors, she astounded the literary 
w orld in 1846 by the production of June Eyre, one of 
the most remarkable novels in the English language. 
She was at once placed on the pinnacle of popularity, 
and under the pseudonym of “Currer Bell,” she, in con¬ 
junction with her two sisters Emily and Anne, who re¬ 
spectively assumed the cognomens of “Ellis Bell ” and 
“ Acton Bell.” brought out a series of novels sufficiently 
meritorious to stamp them as writers of eminent mark; 
though, perhaps, no succeeding work from Charlotte’s 
pen may justly rank with her first and most powerful 
effort. Villette; Shirley; Withering Heights; Agnes 
Grey ; The Professor, kc., are the best known of the pro¬ 
ductions of the three sisters. Charlotte married in 
1854, and d. in 1855. Her Life has been written by 
Mrs. Gaskell (2 vols., 1857), also by T. W. Reid (1877). 

Bron'tern, n. [Gr. bronte, thunder.] (Greek Arch.) 
Brazen vessels under the floor of a theatre, used for 
imitating thunder, by rolling stones in them. 

Bron'tolite, n. [Gr. bronte, thunder, and lithos, a 
stone.] The thunder-stone. 

Erontol'og'y, n. [Gr. bronte, and Z' gos, adiscourse.] A 
dissertation upon thunder. 

Bron’tozouni, n. (Pal ) A genus of the large, appar¬ 
ently cursorial, fossil birds of the triassic deposits in 
the Connecticut valley, has been thus called. It is only 
known by its gigantic footprints, some of which meas¬ 
ure 12 inches between the tips of the inside and outside 
toes. 

Bronx, in New York, a small stream of Westchester 
co., emptying into East River. 

Bronx'ville. in New York, a small but improving 
post-village of Westchester co., on Bronx River. 

Bronze, n. [Fr.] (Metal.) An alloy of copper and tin, 
to which are sometimes added small portions of zinc and 
lead. Gun, bell, and speculum metal partake much of 
the nature of bronze. The manufacture of bronze is 
very ancient, having been brought to a considerable 
state of refinement 700 years before the Christian era. 
The ancients used it for weapons arid tools, on account 
of its great hardness; but it was at length superseded 
for these purposes by steel, and is now’ only employed 
for statuary and medals. For the former purpose, bronze 
is particularly well fitted, being tough, hard, and little 
affected by atmospheric influence, besides possessing 
the valuable property of flow ing freely w hen melted, 
and expanding when solidifying; by which means the 
most intricate detail in the mould is copied w ith sharp¬ 
ness. Bronze may be tempered in an exactly contrary 
manner to steel. If cooled suddenly, it becomes so soft 
that it may be hammered and tinned in the lathe; but 
if allowed to cool slowly, it becomes brittle, hard, and 
elastic. In casting large statues or other works, the 
greatest skill and care are necessary, trom the circum¬ 
stance that alloys of copper and tin have a tendency, 
when melted, to separate, the tin rising to the top of the 
melted mass, and forming a more fusible mixture. 
From the follow ing analyses, it will be seen that bronze 
differs greatly in composition: — Ancient bronze from 
Celtic antiquities,— tin, 12; copper, 88. Egyptian 
bronze,— tin 22; copper, 78. Chinese bronze, — tin, 
20; copper, 80. Roman bronze,— tin,. 15; copper, 85. 
Modern bronze from the statue of Louis XV.—copper, 
82’45; zinc, 10’30; tin, 4T0; lead, 315. See Sec. II. 

Bronze, v. a. To color, harden, or give a superficial 
appearance to, as of bronze. 

—To make hard in a manner of feeling; to brazen. 

Bronze, Age of. (Geol.) See Stone, (Age of.) 

Bronze-powder, n. See Bronzing. 

Bronz'ing, n. (Applied Chem.) The process of cov¬ 
ering plaster or clay figures, and articles in ivory, metal, 
and wood, so as to communicate to them the appearance 
of ordinary bronze. The materials usually employed for 
B. are termed Bronze powders. — The base of most of 
the secret compositions for givir.g the antique appear¬ 
ance is vinegar with sal-ammoniac. Skilful workmen 
use a solution of 2 ounces of that salt in a quart of 
French vinegar. Another compound which gives good 
results is made with an ounce of sal-ammoniac, aud ]Z 
ounce of salt of sorrel (binoxalate of potash), dissolved 
in vinegar. The piece of metal being well cleaned, is to 
be rubbed with one of these solutions, and then dried by 
friction with a fresh brush. If the hue be found too 
pale at the end of two or three days, the operation may 
be repeated. It is found to be more advantageous to 
operate in the sunshine than in the shade. In B. pla» 
ter figures a cement may be used or not; if used, the B. 




















438 


BROO 


BROO 


BROO 


will be more durable; the powders are mixed with 
strong gum-water or isinglass, and laid on with a pencil. 
The subject may be covered with gold-size diluted with 
turpentine, and when nearly dry, rubbed with a piece 
of soft leather. — Copper coins and medals may be 
bronzed thus: dissolve in vinegar two parts of verdigris 
and 1 part sal-ammoniac. Boil, skim, and dilute the 
solution with water until it ceases to let fall a white pre¬ 
cipitate. The solution is then boiled and poured upon the 
objects to be bronzed, being previously made perfectly 
clean and free from grease; the articles are then washed 
and dried. — A deposit of brass or bronze may be thrown 
on objects by the electrotype process, by employing a 
solution of 500 parts carbonate of potash, 20 parts chlo¬ 
ride of copper, 40 parts sulphate of zinc, 250 parts nitrate 
of ammonia. — I)r. Wagner published in 1868 the for¬ 
mulas of metallic bronze powders that give the most fa¬ 
vorable results. The mqtals employed are, for the most 
part, copper and zinc, an alloy of the two being reduced 
to an impalpable powder. The proportions are given as 
follows: for a bright yellow shade, 83 parts of copper, 
and 17 of zinc; for an orange shade, 90 to 95 of copper, 
and 5 to 10 of zinc; for copper red, 97 to 99 of copper, 
and 1 to 3 of zinc. 

Bronz'ing-liquid, n. ( Applied Cham) A solution 
containing chloride of antimony and sulphate of copper, 
used for bronzing iron gun-barrels. Brass is sometimes 
bronzed by washing it over with a solution of chloride 
of platinum. 

Broilz'ist, n. One who fabricates or imitates bronze. 

Bronz'ite, n. (Min.) A variety of Diallage, with a 
pseudo-metallic lustre, frequently approaching to that 
of bronze. 

Bronz'y, a. Resembling, or pertaining to, bronze. 

Brooch, (brock) n. [Fr. broche , a spit, a needle, from 
Celt, bmc, a point; Slav, obrutch.] An ornamental pin 
or buckle used to fasten dress; an ornament for the 
bosom; a jewel. — B. were much used in antiquity, and 
varied in form as much as in modern times. They were 
worn both by men and women, and with a view both to 
•rnament and use, from the time of Homer to the fall 
of the Western Empire. 

(Painting.) A painting all of one color, as an Iudia- 
ink painting. 

a. To adorn as with a brooch or breast-ornament. 

“ Not th’ imperious show 
Of the full-fortun’d Caesar, ever shall 
Be broach'd with me.”— Shahs. 

Brood, v. i. [A.S. brod, brid, from bredan , to nourish, 
to cherish; Oer. briitcn .] To sit, as on eggs; to hatch 
by warming and covering; as, to brood a covey of birds. 

4t They breed, they brood, instruct, and educate, 

And make provision for the future state.”— Dryden. 

s-To regard or think of with long anxiety; to ponder 
anxiously and constantly; as, to brood over one’s 
troubles. 

“ Defraud their clients, and to lucre sold. 

Sit brooding on unprofitable gold."— Dryden. 

— v. a. To be in a state of care or watchfulness, as a 
mother over her young. 

“ Here nature spreads her fruitful sweetness round, 

Breathes on the air, and broods upon the ground."— Dryden. 

—n. [Ger. brut) Offspring; progeny. (Generally used in a 
contemptuous sense, when applied to the human species.) 

“ The lion roars and gluts his tawny brood I" — Wordsworth. 

—That which is bred, or the number produced at once; 
species generated; as, a brood of difficulties. 

44 Its tainted air, and all its broods of poison 1 Addison . 

—A hatch; the number of young birds bred at once; as, 
a brood of chickens. 

44 1 was wonderfully pleased to see a hen followed by a brood 
«f ducks."— Spectator. 

(Mining.) A heterogeneous mixture. 

Brootl'-mare, n. A mare kept for breeding purposes. 

Brootl'y, a. In a state of sitting on eggs for hatching; 
inclination to brood. (R.) 

44 The common hen, all the while she is broody, sits.”— Ray. 

Brook, n. [A.S. broc or broac, from brocen, the pp. 
of brecan, to burst or break forth.] A small natural 
stream of water which breaks forth from a source, and 
struggles through obstacles with babbling noise; a riv¬ 
ulet; a burn; a small stream of running water. 

“Ill habits gather by unseen degrees, 

As brooks make rivers, rivers run to seas."—Dryden. 

—v. a. [k.S.brucan; Gr. bruko. bruxo.] To bear; to 
endure; to support; to be patient under; as, he cannot 
brook an affront. 

44 Heav’n, the seat of bliss, 

Brooks not the work of violence and war."— Milton. 

Brook, in Indiana, a post-office of Newton co. 

Brook'dale, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of Susque¬ 
hanna co., 5 m. W. of Great Bend. 

Brooke, Henry, an English poet, politician, dramatist, 
novelist, and diviue, B. 1706. He was one of the most 
prolific and popular authors of his time, but his best 
known work is the Pool of Quality, which has gone 
through many editions, and is still popular. With many 
faults it has rare beauties of style and incident; it is 
thoroughly original, and written in the purest English. 
John Wesley published an edition of it, and spoiled it. 
B. was a man whose mind was a hundred years in 
advance of his time ou political and religious questions. 
D. 1783. 

Brooke, Sir James, k.c.b.,(Rajah of Sarawak,) an Eng¬ 
lish explorer, b. 1803. He served in the Burmese war, and 
impelled by a spirit of enterprise, sailed in his own 
yacht, in 18"30, for China, and in his passage through the 
Eastern Archipelago saw enough to convince him that 
if the island of Borneo were acquired, it might be made 
• powerful and wealthy dependency of Great Britain. 


On his return from China, he undertook an expedition 
at his own cost to Borneo, where he assisted the Malay 
king, Mudah Hassein, in suppressing a native insurrec¬ 
tion. Afterwards becoming Rajah of Sarawak, he ex¬ 
erted himself in suppressing piracy, in facilitating Euro¬ 
pean commerce, and in introducing civilization among 
the Dyak tribes. When the English govt., in 1847, took 
possession of the island of Labuan, B. was appointed 
governor and commander-in-chief, and created a k.c.b. 
He held authority at Labuan till 1856, acting also as 
commissioner and consul-general to the Sultan and in¬ 
dependent chiefs of Borneo Sir James became the pio¬ 
neer of civilization and commerce in this remote part 
of the East, and resolved to govern these Asiatics not 
only for themselves but by themselves. There is no in¬ 
stance in ancient or modern history of an experiment 
so successfully carried out as in this case. B. governed 
the island, through a native council, for the benefit of 
the native races. Ho quelled iutestine feuds, reconciled 
opposite races, introduced Christianity to a great ex¬ 
tent, and exercised the sway of a suzerain over the na¬ 
tive chiefs and princes. During the war between Eng¬ 
land and China, Sarawak was seized by the Chinese, 
and the greater part of its inhabitants, European and 
native, were massacred. Sir James, however, escaped, 
and returned to England in 1858. In 1861, he again went 
to Borneo, and suppressed an internecine war wiiich had 
broken out in the island. The independence of Sarawak 
having been at last acknowledged by England, an ob¬ 
ject for which Sir James had toiled for many years, he 
bade his adopted home for so many years a last adieu, 
and returned in broken health to England, where he D. 
11th June, 1868. 

Brooke, in W. Virginia , a N.W. co., bordering on Ohio 
and Pennsylvania. Area, 75 sq. m , and bounded on the 
W. by the Ohio River. Surface. Hilly. Soil. Very fer¬ 
tile, containing coal and iron ore. 

Brook'fieltl, in Connecticut, a post-township of Fair- 
field co., on the Ilousatonic River, 29 m. N. by W. of 
Bridgeport. 

Brook’fieltl Iron Works, a post-village in tne 

above township. 

Brook'field, in Illinois, a township of La Salle coun¬ 
ty. 

Brook'fieltl, in Indiana, a post-village of Shelby co., 
14 m. S.E. of Indianapolis. 

Brook'fieltl, in Iowa, a post-village and township of 
Clinton co., 55 m. E.N.E. of Iowa city, and 36 S. of Du¬ 
buque. 

Brook'fieltl, in Massachusetts, a thriving post-town¬ 
ship of Worcester county, 55 miles W. by S. of Bos¬ 
ton. 

Brook'fieltl, in Michigan, a post-township of Eaton 
co., 24 m. S.S.W. of Lansing. 

Brook'fieltl, in Missouri, a township and post-village 
of Linn co., 102 m. E. of St. Joseph, aud 104 W. of Han¬ 
nibal. 

Brook'fieltl, in Mew Hampshire, a post-township of 
Carroll co., 30 m. N.E. of Concord. 

Brook'fieltl, in New York, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Madison co., 88 m. W. by N. of Albany, on the 
TJnadilla River. 

Brook'fieltl, in Ohio, a township of Noble coun¬ 
ty. 

—A village of Starke co., 12 m. W. of Canton. 

—A post-township of Trumbull county, 15 m. E. of War¬ 
ren. , 

Brook'fieltl, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of Tioga 
co., 20 m. N.W. of Wellsborough. 

Brook'fieltl, in Vermont, a post-townsh»p of Orange 
co., 15 m. S. of Montpelier, 

Brook'fieltl, in Wisconsin, a post-township of Wau¬ 
kesha co., 14 in. W. by N. of Milwaukee. 

Brook'fieltl Centre, in Wisconsin, a post-office of 
Waukesha co. 

Brook'fieltl Junction, in Wisconsin, a village of 

Waukesha co, 14 in. W. of Milwaukee. 

Brook'liaven, in Mississippi, the capital of Lincoln 
co., 60 m. S.W. of Jackson. 

Brook'liaven, in New York, a township of Suffolk co., 
extending across Long Island. 

Brook'ing'S, in South Dakota, an E. county, on the 
frontier of Minnesota. Area, about 795 sq. m. It is 
watered by the Big Sioux river. Pop. (1895) 10,840. 
Cap. Brookings. 

Brook'land, in Pennsylvania, a P. 0. of Potter co. 

Brook'landville, in Maryland, a post-office of Bal¬ 
timore co. 

Brook'let, n. A small brook. 

Brook'Iin,in Illinois, a township of Lee co. 

—A township of McHenry co. 

Rrook'lin, in Kentucky, a post-office of Butler co. 

Brook'lin, in Maine, a post-office of Hancock co. 

Brook'lin, in New Jersey, a village of Middlesex co., 6 
m. N.E. of New Brunswick. 

Brook'lin, or Brook lyn, in Minnesota, a twp. of 
Hennepin co., on the Mississippi River. 

—A former township of Mower co., now merged in Wllf- 
dom township. 

Brook'line, n. (Bot ) See Veronica. 

Brook'line, in Georgia, a village of Madison co., 80 m. 
N. of Milledgeville. 

Brook'line, in Louisiana, a P. 0. of Jackson parish. 

Brook'line, in Massachusetts, a post-township of 
Norfolk co., 5 in. S.W. of Boston, with which it is con¬ 
nected by steam and electric railways, crossing Charles 
river bay. This place is remarkable for its picturesque 
beauty and the many fine private residences that adorn 
it. Pop. (1895) 16,159. 

Brook'line, in New Hampshire, a post-township of 
Hillsborough co, 30 m. S. by W. of Concord. 


Brook'line, in Vermont, a post-township of Windham 
co, ou the Connecticut River, 85 m. S. by E of Mont¬ 
pelier. 

Brooklyn, in Alabama, a post-village of Conecuh 
county, on the Sepulga River, 100 m. S. of Montgom¬ 
ery. 

Brook'lyn, in California, a post-village and township 
of Alameda co, on the E. side of the Bay of San F’ran- 
cisco, and 10 m. off the city of that name. It forms now 
a part of Oakland, and sometimes called East Oakland. 

Brook'lyn, in Connecticut, a thriving village, post- 
township, and former cap. of Windham co, 38 m. E. by 
N. of Hartford. 

Brook'lyn, or Fish Trap, in Georgia, a village of 
Baker co, 145 S.S.W. of Milledgeville. 

Brook'lyn. in Illinois, a township of Ogle co,—now 
called Rock Vale. 

—A post-village of Schuyler co., on Crooked Creek, 76 m. 
W.N.W. of Springfield. 

—A township of Lee co. 

Brooklyn, in Indiana , a post-village of Morgan co., 
24 m. S.S.W. of Indianapolis. 

Brook'lyn, in Iowa, a flourishing village of Powe¬ 
shiek co, 110 m. W. of Davenport. 

Brook'lyn, in Kansas, a village of Douglas co, 11 m, 
S. of Lawrence. 

—A post-office of Linn co. 

Brook'lyn, in Kentucky, a village of Campbell co, on 
the Ohio River, 2 m. from Cincinnati, and 74 E.N.E. of 
Frankfort. 

— A prosperous village of Jessamine co, on the Kentucky 
River. 

Brooklyn, in Maine, a township of Hancock coun¬ 
ty. 

Brook'lyn, in Michigan, a township and village of 
Jackson county, on the Raisin River, 53 m. S.S.E. of 
Lansing. 

Brooklyn, in Mississippi, a village of Noxubee co, on 
Noxubee River, 126 m. E.N.E. of Jackson. 

Brooklyn, iu Missouri, a post-office of Harrison co. 

Brooklyn, [Du. bveuck-landt, broken land,] in New- 
York State, until 1898 a city, capital of King’s co., at 
the W. end of Long Island, opposite New York City, 
from which it was separated by East River, an arm ot 
the sea, about % of a mile wide, crossed by a mag¬ 
nificent suspension - bridge, and also, at every 
few minutes, by numerous steam-ferries. The city 
extends along New York Bay and East River to New¬ 
town Creek, Lat. at the Navy Yard 40° 41' 50" N, 
Lon. 73° 59' 30" W. The exterior line of B. is 22 m.; 
its area, 16,000 acres. Tlio S. and E. borders are occu¬ 
pied by a broad range of low hills, which extend E. into 
Queen’s co. Along the shore opposite the lower point 
of New York is an irregular bluff known as B. Heights. 
A considerable portion of the S. part of the city is low 
and level. Newtown Creek, forming the N. boundary, is 
an irregular arm of the sea, receiving several small fresh¬ 
water streams. Wallabout Bay is a deep indentation ly¬ 
ing between the old cities of Williamsburg and B. Go- 
wanus Bay extends into the S. part of the city. The land 
that borders upon these bays is flat and marshy. Within- 
the limits of the city are several districts known by file¬ 
names which they bore when they were distinct locali¬ 
ties. B. includes the old settled parts of the city S. of 
Wallabout Bay. Upon East River, in this district, are 
numerous large manufactories. The water front is en¬ 
tirely occupied by wharves and warehouses. — Williams' 
burg (annexed in 1854) includes the thickly settled 



Fig. 426.— seal of Brooklyn. 

portions N. of Wallabout Bay. It contains a large num¬ 
ber of manufacturing establishments, and its entire 
water front is devoted to commercial purposes. Green 
Point, comprising the 17th Ward, lies between Busliwick 
and Newtown creeks, and occupies the N.W. part of 
the city. It contains extensive ship-yards, and manu¬ 
factories of porcelain, coal-oil, lifeboats, and many other 
articles. Wallabout (or East) B. lies E. of Wallabout 
Bay. Bedford and New B. are localities on the R.R., in 
the E. part of the city. Bushwick Cross Roads and 
Bushwick Green are villages of Williamsburg. Gowanut 
is a village near the head of Gowanus Bay. South B. 
comprises the portion of the city tying S. of Atlantic St. 
It has an extensive water front; and along the 6hore 
immense works have been constructed to facilitate com¬ 
merce, the Atlantic Dock alone containing an area of 46 
acres, with sufficient depth of water for any vessel. Tho 
commerce of B. is considerable, though it scarce has an 
independent existence, from its intimate relation with 
that of New York. The docks and piers at South B. are 
among the most extensive and commodious in th» 












BROO 


BROO 


BROT 


439 


countrv. Ship* and boat-building and repairing are ex 
tensively carried on at Williamsburg and Green Point. 
The whole water front of the city is occupied by ferries, 
piers, ships, and boat- and ship-yards; and the aggre¬ 
gate amount of business transacted there forms an im¬ 
portant item in the commerce of the State. In the ex¬ 
tent and variety of its manufactures, B. ranks among the 
first cities in the Union. Located near the great com¬ 
mercial centre, it has become the seat of an immense 
manufacturing interest. The U. S. Navy Yard is located 
npon Wallabout Bay, and occupies an area of 45 acres. 
E. of it is the U. S. Marine Hospital for the care of sick 
and iufirm seamen belonging to the navy. The city is 
well supplied with pure, soft water, derived from Hemp¬ 
stead, Hook, Valley, and Springfield creeks. B. has a 
paid fire department, and is supplied with gas by three 
companies. Among thenumerous parks in B. the 
handsomest in Prospect Park, laid out at a cost of, 
up to 1890, over §12,000,000, which contains 600 acres. 
—The Court House, situated at the rear of the 
City Hall, is a fine building, as also is the City 
Hall itself.—The Public Schools Are under the charge 
of a board of education, consisting of 45 members. 
The Packer Collegiate Institute, for girls, occupies an 
elegant building, to which is attached an astronomical 
observatory. Besides the public schools, there are in 
the city more than 150 private schools and seminaries, 
several of which are large institutions with permanent 
investments. The B. Institute has a free library, and 
provides free lectures, and lessons in drawing and paint¬ 
ing for apprentices. The Mercantile Literary Associa¬ 
tion has abt. 50,000 vols. and a handsome building, 
the Law Library, the Naval Lyceum, and the King's 
Co. Lodge Library Association, are also very valuable 
establishments. Among the societies for intellectual 
improvement are the Hamilton Library Association, 
the Franklin Debaling Association, the Philharmonic 
Society of B., the B. Horticultural Society, and the Long 
Js. Historical Society, having an extensive and valuable 
library.—The churches of B. are justly celebrated 
for their general elegance and beauty of architec¬ 
tural design. Large numbers of people doing busi¬ 
ness in New York reside in B.; and this has led to 
the erection of so great a number of churches that the 
eity has been denominated the “city of churches.” 
The church of the Pilgrims, represented in Fig. 427, 


Since 
the city 

the magical growth of the cities of the West. Althougl 
until 1897 it had a separate municipal government, in all 
its business and interests it formed an integral part ol 
the city of New York. In the summer of 1776, New York 
and vicinity became the theatre of stirring militan 
events. After the British had evacuated Boston. Geii. 
Washington marched immediately to New York, believ¬ 
ing that the enemy would make this the next point of at¬ 
tack. Every effort was made to construct and strengthen 
the military defences of the place. Strong works were 
erected in B. and other points npon Long Island, and 
large bodies of troops were posted there to defend them. 
The British arrived, and lauded their troops upon Staten 
Island, July 8; and on the 22d of Aug. they passed 
over to Long Island, to the number of 10,000 strong. 
They landed in New Utrecht, whence three roads led 
over the hills to where the Americans were encamped. 



5 1840 the increase of population and the growth of ® rooks’ton, in Indiana, a post-village of White co, 
ityliavebeen very rapid,scarcely paralleled even b\- Brook’s Yule, in Conn., a p o. of New Haven co. 
aagieal growth of the cities of the West. Although Brooks'ville, in Alabama, a p.-v. of Blount co.—A 

p.-v. of Coosa co. 

Brooks'ville, in Georgia, a village of Randolph co. 

140 in. S. W. of Mi ledgeville. 

Brook'ville, in Illinois, a post-village' and township* 
of Ogle county, 20 miles north-west of the city of Ore. 
gon. 

Brooks viile. in Maine, a post-township of Hancock 
co. on the E. side of Penobscot Bay, 50 m. E. of the 
city of Augusta 

Brooks'ville, in Vermont, a post-office of Addison co. 
Brook’ville, in Indiana, a post-town ship of Franklin 
co., 50 m. E.N.E. of Columbus 
—A prosperous post-village, cap. of above co -veil sit¬ 
uated at the junction of the forks of the Wh.tewaier 
River, 41 m. N.W. of Cincinnati, and 70 E.S.E. of In- 
. diauapolis. It possesses an active trade. 

One ol these roads passed near tire Narrows, the next, Brook'ville, in Iowa, a post-village of Jefferson ce, 
led from Flatbush, and the third far to the right by the [ 9 m. W.N.W . of Fairfield. 

route of Fiatlands. It was the design of Gen. Putnam,! Brook'ville, in Iowa, a village of Clayton co. on tl» 
who commanded the American forces, to arrest the! Mississippi River, 
enemy upon the Heights; and the appearance of columns 

of troops early on the morning of the 27th on the mid- IJrooks villc. in Kentucky, a twp. and post-vill., cap. 
die road, led to the belief that the main attack was to he I of Bracken co., 65 m. N.E. of Frankfort, 
made at that point. While intent upon this movement, [ Brook v ille. in Maryland, a post-village of Montgom- 
it was found that the main army of the enemy were ery co., 25 m. N. of Washington. 

approaching from the direction of Bedford, and that I Brook'ville, in Mississippi, a post-village of Noxubee 
there was imminent danger of being surrounded by [ co., 27 m. S.S.W. of Columbus. 

them. Attacked in front and rear, the Americans fought Brook'ville, in North Carolina, a post-office of Gran- 
with bravery; but a part only succeeded in gaining | ville co. 

their intrenebments. The loss of the Americans was j Brook'ville, in Ohio, a post-village of Montgomery ce, 
more than 3,00u in killed, wounded, and prisoners; that j 13 m. W.N.W. of Dayton. 

of the enemy, less than 400. Gens. Sullivan, Stirling 'Brook'ville, in Pennsylvania, a borough, cap. af 
and Woodhull were taken prisoners,—of whom the last-1 Jefferson co., on the Redbank Creek, 170 m. W.N.W. of 
named died from wounds inflicted alter his surrender. Harrisburg. 

The Americans withdrew to New York early on the 30th. [ Brook'ville, in Wisconsin, a post-village of St. Croix 
under the personal direction of Gen. Washington. The co., on the Eau Galle River, 27 m. E. by S. of Hudson. 
American prisoners taken at this battle, and those taken ! Brook'weed, n. ( Bot .) See Samolus. 


afterward during the war, were confined in the hulks of 
old ships anchored in Wallabout Bay, Avhere they per¬ 
ished by huudreds and thousands from violence, cold, 
foul air, and stinted food. During the war of 1812 a 
considerable amount of voluntary labor was expended in 
erecting a line of fortifications around the city, and 
bodies of troops were stationed there to protect the peo¬ 
ple.—In 1890 B. had a population of 806,343, being the 
fourth city in size in the U. S. In 1897 its population 
had increased to 995,276. In 1896 a bill was passed by 
the New Y'oik legislature for the consolidation of B., 
New Y'ork, and various neighboring municipalities, into 
one great city, provisionally known as Greater New York. 
A commission was created to prepare a charter for the 
enlarged city, a scheme for securing equality of taxation 


Broom, n. [A.S, brom.] A common name for different 
shrubs belonging to the genera Cytisls and Spartium, 
q. v. 

—A brush or besom; so named because frequently made of 
broom twigs. 

— v. a. ( Naut .) To clean the sides of a ship.—See Bream. 

Broom -corn, Broom-grass, n. (Bot.) —See Sorghum. 

Broome, in New York, a S. county, embracing an area, 
of about 680 sq. in. Drained by the Chenango, Susque¬ 
hanna, and Olsetic rivers, and by some minor creeks. 
Surface, hilly. Soil, generally fertile. Cap. Bingham¬ 
ton. 

—A township of Schoharie co. 


Broome Centre, in New York, a post-office of Scho- 
harie co. 

and valuation, and to provide for the election of a Mayor 1 Broom'-rape, n. (Bot.) See Orobanche. 
for the corsolidated city at the general election of 1897. j Broom'stick, Broom-staff, n. The handle of a broom. 
The consolidation took place on Jan. 1, 1898, B. retain-l Brooilitown. in Alabama, a post-office of Cherokee cs. 
ing the name of Brooklyn Borough as a constituent: Broom Town, in Georgia, a village of Chattooga co, 
part of the larger municipality. I 200 m. N.W. of Milledgeville. 

Brooklyn Bridge, connecting Brooklyn with New York| Broom'y, a. Full of broom ; containing broom, 
and opened to travel in May, 1883. It is 85 ft. in width; Brose, n. A Scotch dish made by pouring boiling water- 
length of river span, 1,595 ft.; height, 135 ft.; height j on oatmeal. 

of towers, 277 ft., and cost in all about §15.500,000. It Brose'ley, a town of England, co. Salop, on the Severn, 


Fig. 427.— church of the pilgrims, (Brooklyn.) 


is a commanding object to those approaching the city 
from the Bay. — The religious and charitable institu¬ 
tions and societies here are very numerous. The Free¬ 
masons, Odd Fellows, and Sons of Temperance all have 
lodges in the city; and there are, besides, numerous so¬ 
cieties for mutual relief and protection.— Greenwood 
Cemetery, comprising an area of 550 acres, beautifully 
located upon the elevated ground E. of Gowanus Bay, is 
one of the oldest and most beautiful of the rural ceme¬ 
teries connected with our great cities. — History. The 
first settlements were made under the Dutch govern¬ 
ment, in 1625, by several families of French Protestants 
from near the river Waal, in the Netherlands, who located 
near Wallabout Bay. They named their settlement 
“ Walloons,” and the bay “ Walloons Boght ,” from which 
is derived its present name Wallabout. Little progress 
was made in the settlement for many years; and no gov¬ 
ernmental organization was effected under the Dutch. Up 
to the commencement of the present century the popu¬ 
lation was principally confined to several little hamlets 
«0> acred over the territory now embraced in the city. 


was commenced in 1870. See Bridge, in Section II. 

Brook'lyu, in Ohio, a p.-township of Cuyahoga co. 

—In Penn., a p.-t. of Susquehanna co.—In Va., a p.-v. of 
Halifax co.—In IFis, a v. ofGrant co., on the Wisconsin 
River.—A p.-t. of Green co., on Sugar River, 18 m. S. of 
Madison.—A twp. of Sauk co.—A twp. of Green Lake co. 

Brook'lyii, in Upper Canada, a flourishing post-village 
of Y'oik co., 34 ni. N.W. of Toronto; pop. about 750. 

Brook'lyii Centre, in Ohio, a village of Cuyahoga 
co., 4 m. S.W. of Cleveland. 

Brook'mint, n. (Bot.) See Mentha. 

Brook'neal, in Virginia, a post-village of Campbell 
co., 120 m. W.S.W. of Richmond. 

Brooks, Charles Shirley, a popular English novelist 
and dramatic author, b. 1815. A barrister by profession, 
he early showed a predilection for literary labor, and is 
one of the oldest contributors to the London comic jour¬ 
nal “Punch,” and of the political articles in the “ Illus¬ 
trated London News.” llis best-known novels are Aspen 
Court, The Gordian Knot, the Silver Cord, and Sooner 
and Later, the last being published in 1866. Among his 
dramas, The Creole, Honors and Tricks, and The New Gov¬ 
erness. have been highly successful. D. 1874. 

Brooks, John, an American officer and statesman, b. at 
Medford, Massachusetts, 1752. He was a medical prac¬ 
titioner at Reading, when, on the news of the expedition 
to Lexington, he marched with a company of minute 
men, in time to see the retreat of the British. He was 
made lieutenant-colonel in 1777, stormed the intrench- 
ments of the German troops in the battle of Saratoga, 
and was a faithful adherent of Washington during the 
conspiracy' at Newburg. In the war of 1812, he was 
adjutant-general of Massachusetts; and was governor 
of that State from 1816 to 1823 D. 1825. 

Brooks, Maria. See Maria del Occidente. 

Brooks, in Georgia, a S. county, touching Florida. 
Area, about 550 sq. m. It is watered by the Withlacoo- 
chee and Ocopilco rivers. Surface, level. Soil, poor. 
Cap. Quitman. 

Brooks, in Michigan, a township of Newaygo coun¬ 
ty. 


127 m. N.W. of London. This place is celebrated for its 
iron foundries, and its manufactures of tobacco-pipes and 
garden-pots. Pip. 5,196. 

Bro'simum, n. [Gr. brosimos. eatable.] (Bot.) A genus 
of plants, order Artocarpacece. The species B. utile, some¬ 
times called Galactodendron utile, is the celebrated pal® 
de vaca, or cow-tree, of South America. It yields a milky 
juice, said to he almost as nutritious as milk from the 
cow. From the bark of B. namagua strong fibres are 
obtained, which are much used in Panama for making 
sail-cloth and ropes. 

Brosses, Charles De, b. at Dijon, 1709. He became 
president of the Parliament of Dijon, and in 1746 was 
nominated member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He 
was the first person to write a description of the ruins 
of Herculaneum, and was the first to use the names of 
Australia and Polynesia in his Histoire des navigation* 
aux terres Australes. His other principal works are, 
Fssai sur la formation mecanique des langues; and Ilis- 
tnire du septieme siecle de la Republique Rnmaine. Letters 
from Italy have been published under his name, but the 
book is of doubtful authenticity. D. 1777. 

Broth, n. [A. S. See Brew.] Literally, that which is 
brewed or boiled; specifically, an infusion or decoction 
of vegetable and animal substances in water. It is cus¬ 
tomary to use more or less meat, generally ox-flesh, with 
bone, and certain vegetables, as cabbage, greens, turnips, 
carrots, peas, beans, onions, Ac. The whole are mixed 
together in cold water, heat slowly applied, and the ma¬ 
terials allowed to simmer for some hours. The meat 
yields up certain ingredients, while others are retained 
in the residual flesh. The real nutritive material present 
in broth is less than is generally thought, though it aids 
in satisfying the cravings of the appetite. To invalids, 
however, the form of broth known as beef-tea (q. v.) is* 
of great importance, as it affords the weak and sickly 
stomach a light palatable article of diet, at a time when 
stronger food would do the weakened system much harm. 

Brothel, n. [Fr. bordel.] A house of lewdness; a bawdy 
house. 

Broth'eller, n. One who frequents a brothel. 


Brooks, in Maine, a post-township of Waldo co., 40 m. Brother. n.;pl. Brothers, or Brethren. [A.S. brothor ; 


N.E. of Augusta 
Brooksburg, in IF. Virginia, a village of Jefferson 

co. 

Brook's Grove, in New York, a P.O. of Livingston co. 

Brook'side, in New Jersey, a post-office of Morris co. 


Goth. brSthar; Sans .b-hrdtrd; Zend . br&thra; Sclav. 
bratr; 0. Ger. brodar.] One who is born from the same- 
father and mother with another, or from one of thenr 
only. Brothers are of the whole blood when they nr*, 
born of the same father and mother; and of the half- 

































440 


BROU 


BROU 


BROW 


blood when they are the issue of one of them only. In 
the civil law, when they are the children of the same 
father and mother, they are called brothers germain ; 
when they descend from the same father but not the 
same mother, they are consanguine brothers; when they 
are the issue of the same mother but not the same 
father, they are uterine brothers. A half-brother is one 
who is born of the same father or mother, but not of 
both; ope born of the same parents befov 5 they were 
married a left-sided brother ; aud a bastard born of the 
same hither or mother is called a natural brother. 

—Any one closely united with another or others. 

o We few, we happy few, we band of brothers ; 

For he to-day that sheds his blood with me, 

Shall be my brother." — Shahs. 

—One who resembles another in manners. 

“ He alse that is slothful in his work, is brother to him that is 
a great waster.”— Proverbs. 

—An associate; one of the same society or denomination ; 
a fellow-creature. —See Brethren. 

Brother-Merman, n. See Brother. 

Broth'erllOO«l, n. The state or quality of being a 
brother. 

” This deep disgrace of brotherhood 
Teaches me deeper than you can imagine.”— Shahs. 

—An association of men for any purpose; a fraternity. 

** There was a fraternity of men at arms, called the brotherhood 
of St. George."— Davies. 

Brother-in-law, n. The brother of a wife, or the 
husband of a sister. See Affinity, and Relationship. 

Broth'erless. a. Without a brother. 

Brottier-liUe, a. Becoming a brother. 

Brotherliness, n. State of being brotherly. 

Brotherly, a. Like a brother; becoming brothers; 
kind; affectionate; pertaining to brothers. 

•—ado. After the manner of a bruther; with kindness and 
affection. 

Brothers, The, a group of islets at the entrance of 
the Red Sea, 10 in. W.from BerimIsland, Lat. 12°28' N., 
Lon. 43° 22' E. 

Brother’s Valley, in Pennsylvania, a township of 
Somerset co. 

Broth'ertou, in Missouri, a post-office of St. Louis co. 

Broth'ertown, in Wisconsin, a post-township of Calu¬ 
met co., on Winnebago Lake, 14 m. N.E. of Bond du 
Lac; pop. 1,605. 

Brotz'manville, in New Jersey, a post-office of War¬ 
ren county. 

Brougham and Vanx, Hznrt, Lord, f.r.s., &c., 
(broom,) a very eminent English advocate, jurist, philos¬ 
opher, and statesman, B. (of an ancient English family) 
at Edinburgh, 1779. He studied at the University of 
that city, where he early made himself remarkable for 
his aptness for mathematical and physical science; his 
first published production being a paper on The Refrac¬ 
tion and Reflection of Light, which was printed in the 
“Transactions of the Royal Society” for 1798. During 
the following year appeared from his pen, General The¬ 
orems, being chiefly Porisms in the higher Geometry. 
After an extended tour in Germany aud Holland, he 
•was admitted an advocate at the Scottish Bar, in 1800. 
Residing at Edinburgh, he was one of the chief writers 
in the Edinburgh Review, when it was first established, 
and contributed to it regularly till 1828. In 1803, when 
only 24 years of age, he published his Inquiry into the 
Colonial Policy of the European Powers, a work of vast 
research, and of great breadth and comprehensiveness 
of view for so young a man. In 1804, B. exchanged the 
Scottish for the English Bar, and took up his abode in 
London. In 1808, he was called to the Bar at Lincoln’s 
Inn, and commenced practice as a barrister in the King's 
Bench, and on the Northern Circuit. The first occasion 
on which he came prominently before the public, was 
his advocacy of the cause of the merchants of London, 
Liverpool, and Manchester, who complained of the in¬ 
jury done to their commerce by the operation of the 
famous “ Orders in Council,” issued against Napoleon’s 
Berlin and Milan decrees. Though unsuccessful of ob¬ 
taining the repeal of the orders in question, he added 
considerably to his reputation as an advocate, and was 
returned to the British Parliament, where, in the House 
of Commons, he made his first speech, March 5, 1810, in 
the debate on Mr. Whitbread’s motion of censure on the 
Earl of Chatham, for privately transmitting to the king 
his narrative of the expedition to the Scheldt. The 
speech was good, and even eloquent, but it gave little 
promise of those subsequent oratorical achievements 
which placed him in the foremost rank of the public 
men of his time. It would be impossible to give any¬ 
thing like a complete account of B.’s political career 
while he held a seat in the Lower House. It will be 
sufficient to say, that after the close of the war, in 1815, 
the attention of the government and of the people was 
turned to domestic affairs and matters of internal regu¬ 
lation; and that to the discussion of these subjects, B. 
brought a well-informed and versatile mind, an enlight¬ 
ened philanthropy, liberal opinions, and a burning zeal 
against tyranny, wrong, and oppression. His efforts for 
the abolition of flogging in the army, the repeal of Ro¬ 
man Catholic disabilities, reform in the govt, of India, 
the diffusion of education, the improvement of prison 
management, the abolition of slavery, law reform, and 
the independence of the newspaper press, will never be 
forgotten. In 1818, B. obtained a parliamentary com¬ 
mittee for inquiry into abuses connected with the edu¬ 
cational foundations of the kingdom; the commence¬ 
ment of the movement in favor of popular education. 
In 1820-1, he was professionally engaged in Westminster 
Hall as Attorney-General to Queen Caroline, whose cause 
he advocated with something more than the zeal of a 
common advocate, and his fearless and burning elo¬ 


quence had a wonderful effect in securing on her be¬ 
half, whether as queen, wife,or woman, the enthusiastic 
sympathy of the public. In 1825, B. was elected Lord 



Fig. 128. — LORD BROUGHAM. 

Rector of Glasgow University, as a mark of appreciation 
of his untiring efforts in the cause of education, and the 
founding of mechanics’ institutes. In 1827, he laid the 
foundation of the “ Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
Knowledge,” of which he was the first president. The 
first publication of this society was B.'e discourse On 
the Objects, Pleasures, and Advantages of Science. Soon 
afterward, he took the lead in establishing the Penny 
Cyclopcedia. In 1830, the county of York returned B. 
as its representative in Parliament, where he became 
the acknowledged champion of the great cause of Par¬ 
liamentary Reform. On a new and liberal administra¬ 
tion being formed under Earl Grey, B. was appointed 
Lord Chancellor of England, and raised to the peerage 
as Lord Brougham and Vuux. From 1830 to 1834, Lord 
B. had the sole conduct of the Reform Bill in the House 
of Peers, and the series of measures identified with his 
name, and which were carried into effect during that 
period, may be summed up thus: — The abolition of 
slavery in the British colonies; the opening of the East 
India trade, and the destruction of the Company’s mo¬ 
nopoly; the amendment of the criminal law; vast im¬ 
provements in the whole system of municipal jurispru¬ 
dence, both as regards law and equity; the settlement 
of the charter of the Bank of England; the total re¬ 
form of the Scottish municipal corporations; the entire 
alteration of the Poor Laws; and an ample commence¬ 
ment made in reforming the Irish Church, by the aboli¬ 
tion of 10 bishoprics. In 1834, B. resigned office along 
with his colleagues. From that time forward, B. held 
an independent position in the House of Lords, criticis¬ 
ing all parties alike, but principally devoting himself to 
the legal business before it. In 1845, B., who had pur¬ 
chased an estate at Cannes, in the S. of France, pro¬ 
posed to the newly established French Republic to be 
naturalized as a citizen in that country; but ho was in¬ 
formed that his wish could be carried out only on his 
ceasing to be an English peer. During the period which 
elapsed from his partial release from the duties of the 
senate and the forum, Lord B. contributed largely to 
modern literature. In 1838, he published the collected 
edition of his speeches, with notes and introductions, 
and a discourse on the eloquence of the ancients. He 
edited Pa ley'3 Natural Theology, and wrote Dissertations 
on Subjects of Science connected with Natural Theology. 
In 1839 appeared his Historical Sketches of Statesmen 
who flourished in the Reign of George III., a work com¬ 
pleted in 1843. He next edited the speech of Demos¬ 
thenes de CoronA, and published his owu Political Phi¬ 
losophy. B., now retired from official life, gave his 
whole energies to the amendment of the law; obtained 
the establishment of county courts, and labored for 
Bankruptcy Reform with a zeal approaching to enthu¬ 
siasm. In 1850, he contributed to the Royal Society a 
paper of Experiments and Observations on the Properties 
of Light, followed up by further treatises, in which he 
showed the principle upon which Newton established 
his theory of light to be inconclusive. In 1855 appeared 
his Analytical View of Newton’s Principia; which was 
succeeded by a treatise On the Integral Calculus, and 
many articles on “ Light ” contributed to the Transac¬ 
tions of the French Institute, of which body he was a 
member, and before whom he delivered an address in 
French, on this subject. B. in his latter year3 was 
elected Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh, Pre¬ 
sident of the London University, and d.c.l. of Oxford; 
took little or no part in political affairs, and lived in re¬ 
tirement at his seat at Cannes, on the Mediterranean; 
devoting himself till almost the very last day of his life 
to philosophical and scientific pursuits. D. May 9,1868. 

Brougham, (broom,) n. A kind of small two- or four- 
wheeled carriage for general use. 

Broughsliane, (broh'shain,) a town of Ireland, co. 
Antrim, 4 m. E.N.E. of Ballymena; pop. 1,045. 

Brought, imp. and p. of Brino, q. v. 

Brough'ton. John Cam Hobhouse, f.r.s.. Lord, an Eng¬ 
lish author and statesman, b. 1786. He was educated at 
Cambridge, aud while there became acquainted with 


| Lord Byron, whom he accompanied in his travels ia 
Italy and Greece. On his return he entered parliament, 
(being then Sir J. C. Hobhouse,) owing to the strong 
radicalism of his political views, as evinced by the pub¬ 
lication of his Letters to an Englishman, for which he 
had been committed to prison. He subsequently became 
a member of Lord Melbourne’s ministry, and was cre¬ 
ated Lord Broughton, after which latter event he ceased 
to take part in public affairs. Lord B. was the author 
of A Journey through Albania and other Provinces 
of Turkey with Lord Byron, (1812;) Last Reign of Na¬ 
poleon, (1816:) Historical Illustrations of the Fourth 
Canto of Childe Harold, &c. He D. July, 1869. 

Brous'sa, inNatolia. See Brussa. 

Brous'sais, Francois Joseph Victor, a celebrated 
French physician, b. at St. Malo, 1772. Professor at the 
military hospital of Yal de Grace in 1820, he became pro¬ 
fessor of general pathology in the faculty of medicine in 
Paris, 1832, and afterwards was made a member of the 
Institute. The influence of B. in his generation was un¬ 
bounded, and his so-called Physiological Doctrine rapidly 
acquired a great sway, the traces of which are visible 
even now, though a more exact knowledge of physiology 
has demonstrated that the views of B. were one-sided 
and exaggerated. He announced himself as the founder 
of a pathology which, for the first time in the history 
of pathologies, was based upon an enlarged aud compre¬ 
hensive acquaintance with anatomy. The basis of B.’a 
doctrine was the assumption that the animal tissues are 
endowed with a property called irritability, a property 
which is called into play by the action of stimuli of vari¬ 
ous kinds, and by the operation of which all vital phe¬ 
nomena are produced. I). 1838. 

Broussone'tia, n. (Bot .) A gen. of plants, ord. Mo- 
racece. There is but one species, B. papyrifera, the pa¬ 
per mulberry, the bark of which is used in China and 
Japan as paper material, and in the South-Sea Islands 
for making a kind of cloth. The plant forms a small 
tree, with soft, brittle, woolly branches, and large, hairy, 
rough leaves, either heart-shaped aud undivided, or cut 
into deep irregular lobes. 

Brotv, (broil,) n. [A S. breew, bruiva: 0. Ger. brdwa, the 
eyebrow; Goth, brahv; Sans, bhrfi.] The prominent 
ridge over the eye; the arch of hair on it. — The fore¬ 
head.—The general air of the countenance. 

•* Then call them to our preseuce, face to face, and frowning 
brow to broiv." — Shaks. 

—The edge of a precipice, hill, or any high place. 

“ And to the broiv of heaven 

Pursuing, drive them out from God aud bliss.” — Milton. 

— v. a. To bound; to limit; to be at the edge of.— Milton. 

Brow-antler, n. The first shoot on a deer’s head. 

Smart. 

Brow'beat, v. a. (imp. browbeat; pp. browbeaten.) 
To depress or bear down with a stern brow, or with 
haughty, stern looks, or with arrogant speech. 

Brow'beat in n. The act of depressing by stern or 
haughty looks. 

” What man will voluntarily expose himself to the imperious 
browbeatings and scorns of great men ? L’Estrange. 

Brow'bomitl, a. Crowned; having the head encir¬ 
cled as with a diadem. 

“ He was brow-bound with the oak.” — Shaks. 

Brow'er, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Berks co. 

Brow'er’s Mills, in N. Carolina, a post-office of Ran¬ 
dolph co. 

Brow'less, a. Without a brow; without shame. 

Brown, ( broun,) a. [A.S. brun; O. Ger. br&n; Ger. 
braun, allied to brennen, to burn; Fr. brun.\ Of a 
burned color: dusky; of a dark or dusky color, inclining 
to red or black. 

— n. (Painting.) A dark dusky color inclining toward red, 
of various degrees of depth, of which there are many 
sorts. It belongs to the tertiary colors, known as rus¬ 
sets or olives, in which the hue is modified by an admix¬ 
ture of dark or black pigment. 

— v. a. To make brown or dusky; to give a bright brown 
color to. 

— v. n. To become brown. 

Brown, Charles Brockden, an American novelist, b. al 
Philadelphia, 1771, was of a highly respectable family, 
of Quaker descent. He studied law with great ardor, 
but took a disgust to the practice of the profession, and 
abandoned it for literature. His first publication was 
Alcuin, a Dialogue on the Rights of Women, which ap¬ 
peared in 1797; followed in 1798 by Wieland, or the 
Transformation, a novel: and in 1799 by Ormond, or the 
Secret Witness. In 1798 he established himself in the 
city of New York; and when the yellow fever broke out 
there, B. refused to forsake his friends and neighbors; 
and after performing the last offices of affection for one 
of them, a young physician, was himself attacked by the 
pestilence. His conception of the disease he embodied 
in his next work, Arthur Mervyn, or Memoirs of the 
Year 1793. The publication of “Arthur Mervyn” was 
quickly succeeded by that of Edgar Huntly, or the Ad¬ 
ventures of a Sleep-Walker. The second part of “ Arthur 
Mervyn ” appeared in 1800; and Clara Howard in 1801; 
and in 1804 the series of his romances was closed with 
Jane Talbot, first printed in England. In 1801 he re¬ 
turned to Philadelphia, and soon undertook the man¬ 
agement of the Literary Magazine and American Regis¬ 
ter. In 1804 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Dr. Wil¬ 
liam Linn, a Presbyterian divine of New York. He 
projected the plan of an Annual Register, the first work 
of the kind in the United States, and edited the first 
volume of it in 1S06. Between 1803 and 1809 he pub¬ 
lished 3 political pamphlets, which excited general at¬ 
tention. His health gave way, and a voyage to Europe 
was recommended; but he could not make up his mind 

I to leave his family for any length of time, aud tried only 







BROW 


BROW 


BROW 


441 


-* short excursion into New Jersey and New York in the I 
summer of 1809. Finding this was of no effect, he agreed 
to go abroad in the following spring, which he did not 
live to see; d. 1810. Brown’s lift- was blameless; his 
manners were gentle and unaffected; and his conversa¬ 
tional resources considerable, though he was somewhat l 
silent in large or mixed companies. His reading, though 
desultory, was very extensive; and his facility in writ¬ 
ing only too great, as it induced him to compose story 
after story, trusting apparently to luck for the disen¬ 
tanglement of his plots. He threw off 3 romances in one 
year, “with the printer’s devil literally at his elbows.” 
His style was often deficient in ease and simplicity; and 
he was apt to stop short in the midst of his most excit¬ 
ing narrations to philosophize upon them; but his ro¬ 
mances were much admired in his time, and are still 
read with interest. He had a powerful but somewhat 
morbid imagination, considerable descriptive power, and 
much intensity of conception. 

firotvn, Jacob, an American general, b. in Bucks co., 
Pennsylvania, 1775. Descended from members of the 
Society of Friends, he was one of the pioneers of Jeffer¬ 
son co., N. Y. In 1812, he joined the militia service as a 
militia general. He was appointed major-general in the 
regular service in 1814, and distinguished himself in the 
battles of Chippewa and of Niagara Falls; also at the 
siege of Fort Erie. He received the thanks of Congress 
and a gold medal, emblematic of his triumphs. Gen. B. 
succeeded to the supreme command in 1821, and d. 1828. 

Srown, James, an eminent American publisher and 
bookseller—the “ John Murray,” as he was called, of the 
United States—died at his seat in Watertown, near Bos¬ 
ton, March 10,1855, aged fifty-five. The son of a farmer 
in very humble circumstances, in Acton, Mass., he raised 
himself by his shrewdness, sagacity, and enterprise to be 
the head of one of the largest and most successful firms 
in the book-trade in America. Their publications were 
standard works of a high character; and Mr. Brown’s 
fine taste and patriotic pride were gratified by so far 
improving the mechanical execution of them —the pa¬ 
per, print, and binding—that they rivalled the hand¬ 
somest productions of the English and Scotch press. 
Very rarely were his excellent judgment and instinctive 
anticipation of the public taste deceived in his gigantic 
speculations. He was himself well acquainted with 
bibliography; his shop was a favorite resort of all the 
literati of New England, and he never forgot the name 
of a book once inquired for, or the well-considered judg¬ 
ment of a competent person upon its merits. The for¬ 
tune which he had fairly won was munificently used in 
numerous liberal benefactions. 

Brown, John, the founder of the Brunonian system, b. 
in Berwickshire, England, 1735. He divided, in his 
famous system, all diseases into sthenic and asthenic; 
in the first of these, the excitability , which he considered 
the source of life, was increased, while in the second, it 
was diminished. The treatment to be adopted for the 
cure of all, except the sthenic affections, was to stimu¬ 
late. Accordingly he prescribed rich diet, wine, and 
spirits in large quantities; and, as the physicians of that 
day probably erred in the opposite direction, it is not 
strange that, for a while, B. obtained a high reputation. 
Towards the end of the last century, the Brunonian sys¬ 
tem had extended its influence over the whole continent 
of Europe, and in Germany its author was designated 
the Medical Luther. B. professed the greatest contempt 
for all systems of medicine which had preceded his own, 
yet it is obvious that he was less original than he as¬ 
sumed to be. Ilis faculty' of excitability is the Hallerian 
irritability , but elevated into so distinct a form that, as 
is justly remarked by Broussais, it takes the rank of an 
ontological creation; in fact, it was as purely the work 
of fancy as was the Archceus of Van Helmont. But 
there is a great merit which belongs to B., and deserves 
to be remembered, namely, his appreciation of the fact 
that disease, in by far the greatest number of cases, im¬ 
plies a debilitated condition of the organism. D. 1788. 

Brown, John, an officer in the American army during 
the Revolution, was b. in Berkshire co.. Mass., in 1744, 
graduated at Yale College in 1771, and commenced the 
practice of law at Caughnawaga, New York, where he 
was appointed king’s attorney. But he soon returned 
to Pittsfield, in his native State, and took an active 
share in the patriotic movements at the opening of the 
Revolution. In May, 1775, he served under Allen and 
Arnold in their successful expedition against Ticonde- 
roga and Crown Point, and was sent as special messenger 
to the Congress at Philadelphia with the news of their 
success. When Ethan Allen, in Sept, of the same year, 
made his attempt to surprise Montreal, B. co-operated 
with him, but was fortunate enough to escape, while his 
leader was captured. The next Dec., Major B. joined 
Arnold and Montgomery before Quebec. While leading 
a party of men up the Mohawk to the relief of Gen. 
Schuyler in 1780, he fell into an ambuscade of Indians 
and was slain. 

Brown, Joint. See Harper’s Ferry. 

Brow’ll, Henry Kirk, an American sculptor, n. at 
Leyden, Massachusetts, 1814, received the education of 
a farmer’s boy, working in summer, and studying in 
winter. At 18, he went to Boston, and studied portrait¬ 
painting. It was by chance that he became a sculptor; 
for, having modelled the head of a lady, it was so much 
commended that he resolved to pursue that branch of 
art. By the aid of friends, he was enabled to visit Italy, 
and after studying there for some time, he returned to 
the U. States, and settled at Brooklyn, where, having 
many commissions for monumental art, he perfected the 
casting of bronze, as a material better adapted to expo¬ 
sure than marble. Among his principal works in mar¬ 
ble are the statue of Hope , the bas-reliefs of the Hyades 


and Pleiades, and The Four Seasons; besides busts of 
Bryant, Spenser, Nott, &<:. In bronze he has executed a 
colossal statue of De Witt Clinton, the Angel of Retri- 
bulion, &c. D. 1886. 

Brown, Robert, b. 1550, n. 1630; he was the founder of 
the sect of the Brownists, q. v. 

Brown. Robert, a Scotch botanist, b. at Montrose, 
1773. Having studied medicine, he became, in 1795, 
assistant-surgeon in a Scottish Fencible regiment. De¬ 
voting himself to the study of botany, he resigned his 
commission in 1800, and the following year was, on the 
recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, engaged as natu¬ 
ralist in the expedition sent out under Captain Flindexs 
for the survey of the Australian coasts. On his return 
in 1805, he brought home nearly 4,000 species of Austra¬ 
lian plants, a large proportion of which were new to sci¬ 
ence. Soon after, he was appointed librarian to the 
Linnsean Society. To the Transactions of the Edin¬ 
burgh Wernerian Society, and those of the Linnsean 
Society, he contributed memoirs on Asclepiadece ond 
Proteacece, and published Prodromus Flora; Novce Hoi- 
landias et lnsulce Van Diemen's, vol. i. 1810; a sup¬ 
plement to this work appeared in 1830, relating to the 
Fhoteacece only. He also wrote the General Remarks, 
Geographical and Systematical, on the Botany of Terra 
Australis, attached to the narrative of Captain Flin¬ 
ders’s expedition, 1814. His adoption of the natural 
system of Jussieu, the French botanist, led to its general 
substitution in place of the Linnsean method. B.'s 
numerous memoirs in Transactions of societies, and 
other contributions to botanical science, secured for uni¬ 
versal approval the title conferred on him by Alexander 
von Humboldt of Botanicorun x facile Princeps. In 
1810, B. received the charge of the library and splendid 
scientific collections of Sir Joseph Banks, which, in 1827, 
were transferred to the British Museum, when he was 
appointed keeper of the botanical department in that 
establishment. In 1811, he was elected F.R.S.; in 1832, 
D.C.L., of Oxford; and in 1833 was elected one of the 18) 
foreign associates of the Academy of Sciences of the In¬ 
stitute of France. In 1839, the Royal Society awarded 
him their Copley medal for his Discoveries during a Se¬ 
ries of Tears on the Subject of Vegetable Impregnation. 
He was president of the Linnsean Society from 1849 to I 
1853. D. 1S58. 

Brow n, Sir George, an English general, b. 1790, at El-1 
gin, Scotland. He entered the army in 1806, was made 
a lieutenant in 1807, and took part in the bombardment 
of Copenhagen. He served throughout the whole of the 
Peninsular war from 1808 to 1814, dtii’ing which he was 
wounded at Talavera, and led the forlorn hope at the 
storming of Badajoz. He was, in 1814, made a lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel, and served in the American war. He 
was made a lieutenant-general in 1851, and in 1854 com¬ 
manded the light division at the battle of Alma, in 
the Crimea. On Nov. 5, 1854, he was severely wounded 
at Iukermann. He had the command-in-chief of the 
storming party which was unsuccessful in the first at¬ 
tack on the redan of Sebastopol. In 1856 he was ga¬ 
zetted general in the army “ lor distinguished services 
in the field.” D. 1865. 

Brown. Hcgh Stowell, an English divine, u. in the Isle 
of Man, 1823. At the age of 15 he came to England to learn 
the px ofessiou of engineer. This occupation he followed 
until he came of age, and he drove a locomotive engine 
on the London and North-Western Railroad for six 
months. It was his custom, after his day's work at 
Wolverton was done, to spend 4 or 5 hours in reading 
and in meditating on what he had read; and his first 
classical exercises were written with a piece of chalk 
inside the fire-box of a locomotive engine. Resolving 
to become a clergyman of the Church of England, he 
entered as a student at King’s College, and studied there 
for three years. Doubts, however, came over his mind 
respecting the truth of the doctrines in the Liturgy and 
Catechism of the Church of England. These doubts ul¬ 
timately produced in his mind the conviction that the 
baptismal doctrines of the Establishment were at vari¬ 
ance with Holy Scripture, and he accordingly became a 
member of the Baptist denomination. In 184S, he was 
appointed minister of Myrtle Street Chapel at Liverpool, 
and soon became one of the recognized leaders of the 
Baptist body there. As a lecturer to the working 
classes, he is so successful that he collects an audience 
of between 2,000 to 3,000 artisans on Sunday afternoons, 
and from 15,000 to 25.000 copies of his lectures are sold. 

Brow’ll, Thomas, a celebrated Scotch metaphysician, b. 
at Kirkmabreck, Kirkcudbrightshire, 1778. He studied 
at Edinburgh, and, in 1806, entered into co-partnership 
with Dr. Gregory. Dugald Stewart, professor of moral 
philosophy, being indisposed in the winter of 1808-9, en¬ 
gaged B. to read lectures for him in his class. In this 
capacity his success was so great, that in 1810 he was 
induced to resign his practice, and accept the appoint¬ 
ment of colleague to Dugald Stewart in the chair of moral I 
philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. His lectures 
on the Philosophy of the Human Mind, published after his 
death, have been pronounced masterpieces of their kind. 
His style is certainly the most captivating that has ever 
been employed to convey a knowledge of philosophy. D. 
1820. 

Brow n, Maximilian Ulysses, a field-marshal, of Irish 
origin, in the Austrian army, who rendered great services 
to the Empress Maria Theresa, gaining in 1746 the battle 
of Placentia, and taking Genoa. In 1746 he defeated the 
Prussians, who had invaded Bohemia, and won the battle 
of Losowitz. He was mortally wounded at the battle of 
Prague. B. at Bale, 1705; D. 1757. 

Brow’ll, in Illinois, a W. county with an area of 320 
sq. m. It has for its E. frontier the Illinois River, and 
N.E. Crooked River, and is watered also by McKee’s 


Creek. Surface, tolerably level; mixed timbered land 
and prairie. Soil, productive. County-town, Mount 
Sterling. 

Brown, in Indiana, a county in the S. central part of the 
State, area 320 sq. m., watered by the Salt and Bean 
Blossom creeks. Surface, undulating. Soil, fertile. Can. 
Nashville. 

—A township of Hancock co. 

—A township of Hendricks co. 

—A township ofMartin co. 

—A township of Montgomery co., 12 m. S.S/W. of Craw- 
fordsville. 

—A township of Morgan co. 

—A township of Ripley co. 

—A township ofWashington co. 

Brown, in Iowa, a township of Linn co. 

Brown, iu Kansas, a N.E. county, on the confines of 
Nebraska, with an area of about 650 sq. m.; watered 
by the £>. fork ot the Nemaha, and the Grasshopper and 
Wolf rivers. Surface, varied. Noil, fertile. Can. Hia¬ 
watha. 

Brown, in Michigan, a township of Manistee coun¬ 
ty- 

Brown, in Minnesota, a S. county; area, 450 sq. m.; 
watered by the Minnesota and Big Cottonwood rivers. 
Surface, diversified. Soil, excellent. County-town, 
New Ulm. 

Brown, in Ohio, a S.S.W. county, near the Ohio River 
which divides it from Kentucky. It is drained by the 
East fork ot Little Miami River, and also by the White 
Oak, Straight, and Eagle creeks. Area, about 500 sq. m. 
Surface, uneven. Soil, excellent, with a sub-stratum 
of limestone. Cap. Georgetown. 

—A township of Athens co. 

—A township of Carroll co. 

—A township of Daxke co. 

—A township of Delaware co. 

—A township of Fi-anklin co. 

—A township of Knox co. 

—A township of Miami co. 

— A township of Paulding co. 

—A township of Vinton co. 

Brown, iu Pennsylvania, a township of Lycoming 
county. 

—A township of Mifflin co. 

Brown, in Texas, a central count}’, with an area of 
about 1,050 sq. miles. The Colorado River bounds 
it on the south, and it is also watex-ed by the Pecan 
River. 

Brow n, in Wisconsin, a N.E. county at the head of Green 
Bay. Area, 525 6q. m. The Neenah or Fox, and Ef.t<! 
and Centre rivers flow through it. Surface, uneven. 
Soil, partly fertile. Cap. Green Bay. 

Brow 'bill, n. See Halbert. 

Brown Coal, n. {Min.) A variety of coal distinguished 
from stone coal by its streak when scratched, which is 
brown and different from the black streak coal. There 
are, however, two distinctions of greater importance 
than streak, affecting brown coal: one is, that they de¬ 
teriorate by exposure to the air, tending to split and fall 
to powder; the other, that they contain water, which 
interferes with their value as economic fuel. As almost 
all the lignites belong to a more recent geological period 
than that called carboniferous, they have been often 
spoken of as modem coal. They are, however, confined 
to no xige. many true lignites occurring in rocks much 
older than the tertiary period, while some tertiary rocks 
contain excellent stone coal. 

Browne, Sir Thomas, an English physician and author, 
B. in London, in 1605. Having taken his degrees in arts, 
he went to Leyden, where he became an M.D., and in 
1642 published his famous book, the Religio Medici. In 
1646 appeared his book on Vulgar Errors, in folio. 
Charles II. honored him with knighthood in 1671. D. 
1682. His life has been written by Dr. Johnson. 

Brown'field, in Maine, a post-township of Oxford co., 
60 m. S.W.of Augusta. 

Brown 'll elm, in Ohio, a post-township of Lorain co., 
on Lake Erie, 25 m. E. by S. of the city of San¬ 
dusky. 

Brown Hill, in Pennsylvania, a P. 0. of Crawford co. 

Brownie. ( brou'ne.) A kind of fairy, formerly believed 
in in the Hebrides and North of Scotland. He was an 
obliging sort of elf, that used to come into houses by 
night, and perform lustily any piece of work that might 
remain to be done. At one time every family of impor¬ 
tance believed that they had a special brownie, and 
they gave him offerings of the various products of the 
place. Thus, some, when they churned their milk, or 
brewed, poured some of the milk or wort through the 
hole of a stone called the brownie’s stone. The brownie 
of Scotland bore a very striking resemblance to the 
Robin Good fellow of England. 

Brown'ing, n. ( Chem.) A process by which the bar¬ 
rels of muskets and rifles are partially oxidized and 
sulphurized, and so prevented from being easily rusted. 
The barrel being brightened and cleaned thoroughly 
from oil, a mixture of nitric acid, chloride of iron, sal- 
ammoniac, and sulphate of copper, is laid on, and al¬ 
lowed to remain several hours. The process is repeated 
several times, and the barrel is cleaned ultimately with 
alkaline water, and polished. 

Browning’, Robert, a modern English poet, b. at Cam¬ 
berwell. 1812. His first acknowledged work, Paracel¬ 
sus, was published in 1836, and found some eulogists, if 
but few readers. His Pippa Passes, a fantastic but 
graceful dramatic poem, obtained more favor with the 
public. In 1837 he published his tragedy of Strafford, 
which was a failure. Sordello and The Biol on the Scut• 
cheon, were not more successful. In 1856 appeared bis 




















442 


BROW 


BROW 


BRUC 


Men and Women. In addition to the above-mentioned' 
■works, B. has published King Victor and King Charles, 
Dramatic Lyrics , Return of the Druses, Colomb's Birth¬ 
day, Dramatic Romance, The Hold's Errand. A volume of 
poems (1864). The Bing and the Book (1869); Fijine at 
the Fair (1872) ; The Red Cotton Night-Cap Country ( 1873); 
Ferishtah's Fancies (1884). B. lias especially cultivated 
the arts of music and painting, with the history of both 
of which lie is minutely and widely acquainted. D. at 
Venice, Italy, Dec. 12, 1889; buried in Westminster 
Abbey, London. lie married Miss Elizabeth Barrett, a 
poetess, and author of Aurora Leigh, The Dramaof Exile, 
Isabel's Child, Casa Gnidi Windows, &c., who D. in 1861. 
Her genius wasincontestable, taken as a whole, butfew 
of her sex approach her in strength of imagination and, 
knowledge. Her Sonnets from the Portuguese, are among 
the best love poems in any language. The Browning 
Society, started in London in 1881, promote the study 
of his works; has been followed by others in the U. S. 
B's. style is often obscure, he is besides being the most 
erudite of poets, full of intense humor and sympathy. 
Brown Iron-ore, n. (Min.) A native hydrate per¬ 
oxide of iron, composed of 85 - 6 per cent, of peroxide of 
iron and 14-4 water. There are several varieties of this 
ore, which generally occurs in stalactitic, botryoidal, and 
mammillated forms, with a fibrous structure, a silky 
lustre, and often a semi-metallic appearance. In color 
it is of various shades of brown, and is distinguished 
from other ores of iroy by a brownish-yellow streak, 
free from any tint of red. 

Brown'isli, a. Somewhat brown. 

Brown'ism, n. The tenets of the Brownists, q. v. 
Brown'ists, n.pl. (Keel. Hist.) A sect of Christians, 
which arose in England towards the end of the 16th 
century, and took their name from their founder, Robt. 
Brown, a man of some learning, but of an impetuous 
and fiery temper. He began to inveigh against the cere¬ 
monies of the Church of England in 1580, and zealously 
diffused his sentiments by preaching from place to place, 
principally in the county of Norfolk. Being greatly op¬ 
posed, he left England with a congregation which he had 
collected, and settled at Middleburg, in Zealand: but, 
quarrelling with his flock, he. three years afterwards, 
left them, and returned to England. He again itinerated 
through the country, and preached with considerable 
success; but he afterwards conformed to the Established 
Church, obtained the rectory of Oundle, and D. 1630. 
His followers, however, continued to increase, so that 
Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1592, estimated their number at 
upwards of 20,000, exclusive of women and children. 
The B. underwent great persecutions under Elizabeth, 
and retired in considerable numbers to Holland. From 
them, however, have sprung the powerful sect of the 
Independents or Congregationalists, q. v. 

Brown Marsh, in N. Carolina, a P. O. of Bladen co. 
Brown'ness, n. The quality of being brown. 
Brown Pigments, n. pi. (Painting.) A term ap¬ 
plied to those substances in which the three primary 
colors unite in unequal proportions, red being in excess. 
B. P. are chiefly mineral, and are used sometimes in a 
raw but usually in a burned state. The most important 
are bistre, asphaltum, umber, terra di sienna, Mars 
brown, Cassel earth, and brown madder. 
Brown'-rnst, n. (Agric.) A disease of wheat, in which 
a brown powder is substituted for the farina of the grain. 
Brown-Sequard, C. Edouard, a French-Ameriean 
physiologist, born at the Mauritius, 1818, became some¬ 
what distinguished for his researches into the diseases 
of the nervous system. He published many professional 
works of considerable value; was appointed professor 
in the Paris School of Medicine in 1869. He was the 
originator of the B.-S. liquid for restoring the vital 
powers, which made quite a discussion in 1889 but is 
generally considered worthless. Died in April, 1894. 
Browns'lnirg', in Fa., a p. v. of Rockbridge co. 
Iirowiis bii rg. in Indiana, apost-viTIa.ee of Hendricks 
county, on White Lick Creek, 14 m. N.W. of Indianap¬ 
olis. 

Brown’s Cove, in Virginia, a P. O. of Albemarle co. 
Brown’s Creek, in North Carolina, Anson conjoins 
the Yadkin from the S.W. 

Brown’s Creek, in IP. Virginia, a post-office of Har¬ 
rison co. 

Browns'dale, in Pennsylvania, a P. 0. of Butler co. 
Browns'fortl, in Iowa, a village of Madison co., on 
North River. 

Brown’s Mills, in Illinois, a post-office of Clark co. 
Brown’s Mills, in Iowa, a post-office of Davis co. 
Brown’s Mills, in New Jersey, a post-office of Bur¬ 
lington co. 

Brown’s Mills, in Ohio, a post-village of Washington 
co., 16 m. W.N.W. of Marietta. 

Brown's Mills, in Pennsylvania,a. village of Mercer 
co., on Sandy Creek. 

—A village of Mifflin co. 

—A post-office of Franklin co. 

Brown’s Mills, in West Virginia, a post-office of Har¬ 
rison co. 

Brown'son, Orestes Augustus, b. in New Hampshire, 
1802, is to some extent a self-educated man. Origi¬ 
nally a Presbyterian, he became a Universalist preach¬ 
er, then a Unitarian, and afterwards a Socialist, of the 
school of Robert Owen and Frances Wright, in support 
of whose tenets he delivered lectures. He contributed 
extensively to the periodical literature of the Socialist 
and Rationalistic party, wrote an autobiographical novel 
entitled Charles Ellwood, and several other works. About 
1847, he commenced the publication of the Boston Quar¬ 
terly Review, a title which was afterwards changed to 
that of Brownson's Quarterly, on his removal to New 
York, after his adoption of the Roman Catholic creed. 


This review continued for many years the leading Roman 
Catholic periodical in the U. S. Mr. B. also wrote The 
Spirit-Rapper, and a work entitled The Convert, a meta¬ 
physical account of the mental processes by which he 
arrived at his convictions. Died April 17, 1876. 

Brown Spar, n. (Min.) A magnesian carbonate of 
lime, tinged by oxide of iron and manganese. The name 
is applied more especially to those varieties of brown 
crystallized Dolomite which contain carbonate of iron. 

Brown’s Point, in New Jersey, a village of Mon¬ 
mouth co., on Raritan Bay, 5 m. S.E. of Purth-Amboy. 

Browns'port,m Tennessee,a. village of Decatur co., on 
the Tennessee River, 110 m. W.S.W. of Nashville. 

Brown Stout, n. A superior kind of porter. 

Browns'town, in Arkansas, a P.0. of Sevier co. 

Browns'town. in Indiana, a post-township of Jack- 
son co., 25 m. S.S.W. of Columbus 

—A post-village, cap. of above co., 70 m. S. of Indianapo¬ 
lis. 

Browns'town, in Michigan, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Wayne co., 14 m. N.E. of Monroe city. 

Browns’town, a parish of Ireland, co. Meath. 

Browns'town €reck, in Michigan, Wayne co., emp¬ 
ties into Lake Michigan. 

Brown-study, n. Gloomy study; dull thoughtful¬ 
ness; absorption of the mind in listless meditation. 

Brown’s Valley, in California,a post-village of Yu¬ 
ba co., 12 m. N.E. of Marysville. 

Brown’s Valley, in Indiana, a post-office of Mont¬ 
gomery co. 

Browns’ville, in Alabama, a P.O. of Talladega co. 

Browns'ville, in Arkansas, a post-village, cap. of 
Prairie co., 27 m. E. of Little Rock. 

Browns'ville, in California, a post-village of Yuba 
co., 30 m. N.N.E. of Marysville. 

Browns'ville, in Georgia, a village of Monroe co., on 
Ocmulgee River, 35 m. W. by S. of Jackson. 

Brow'ns'ville, in Illinois, a village of Jackson co., on 
the Big Muddy River, 175 m. S. of Springfield. 

Brow'ns'ville. in Indiana, a village of Montgomery 
co., 40 m. W.N.W of Indianapolis. 

—A post-township of Union county, 4 m. N.W. of Lib¬ 
erty. 

—A post-village of the above co., on the E. fork of the 
White Water River, 13 m. S.W. of Richmond, and 50 
N.W. of Cincinnati. 

Browns'ville, in Kentucky, a village of Rarren co. 

—A post-village, cap. of Edmondson co., situate on Green 
River, 130 m. S.W. of Frankfort, and 10 m. W. of the 
Mammoth Cave. 

Browns'ville, in Maine, a post-village and township 
of Piscataquis co., 100 m. N.N.E. of Augusta. Slate is 
largely produced here. 

Browns'ville, in Maryland, a post-office of Washing¬ 
ton co. 

Browns'ville, in Michigan, a village of Kent co., on 
Thorn Apple River, 55 m. W. by N. of Lansing. 

—A village of Lenawee co., on the Raisin River, 11 m. 
N.N.E. of Adrian. 

Browns'ville, in Michigan, a post-village of Cass 
cou nty. 

Brow'ns'ville, in Minnesota, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Houston co., on the Mississippi, 11 m. from La 
Crosse. 

Browns'ville, in Mississippi, a village of Hinds co., 
20 m. N.W. of Jackson. 

Browns'ville, in Missouri, a post-village of Salinoco., 
on Lammine River, 40 m. W. of Booneville. 

Browns'ville, in North Carolina, a post-office of Gran¬ 
ville co. 

Browns'ville. in Pennsylvania, a prosperous post¬ 
borough of Brownsville township, Fayette co., on the 
Monongahela River, 35 m. S. of Pittsburgh, and 190 W. 
by S. of Harrisburg. Steamers ascend thus far from 
Pittsburg. A splendid bridge, 630 feet long, spans the 
river, and, taken generally, this is a busy town with 
manufactures of iron, glass, paper, Ac. 

Browns'ville, in Ohio, a village of Knox co., 54 m. 
N.E. of Columbus. 

—A post-v. of Licking co., 40 m. E. of Columbus. 

—A village of Washington co., 5 m. W. of the Ohio River. 

—A village of Harrison co., 14 m. W.N.W. of Cadiz. 

—A village of Monroe co., 27 m. N.E. of Marietta. 

Browns'ville, in Oregon, a post-village of Linn co., 
on the Calapooya River, 22 miles south-east of Al¬ 
ban v 

Brow'ns'ville, in South Carolina, a post-village of 
Marlborough co. 

Brownsville, in Tennessee, a city, the cap. of Haywood 
co., on the Louisville & Nashville R. R., 57 m. N.E. of 
Memphis. An extensive trade is carried on, including 
the shipment of some 200,000 bales of cotton annually. 
Pop. (1897) about 2,900. 

Brownsville, in Texas (formerly Fort Brown), a 
flourishing city, cap. of Cameron co., on the Rio Grande, 
lacing Matamoras, 40 m. from the embouchure of the 
river, and 300 S. of Austin. This is ono of the most 
enterprising and busy places in the State, having an 
active trade with Mexico, carried on by steam naviga¬ 
tion. Pop. (lain) about 7,000. 

Brownsville, in Utah, a village of Ogden co., on the 
E. border of Great Salt Lake. 

Brownsville, in Vermont, a post-vill. of Windsor co. 

Brownsville, in Washington, a post-office of Kitsap co. 

Brownsville, in HVsl Virginia, a village of Cabell 
co., on the Ohio river, 24 m. from Ironton, O. 

Brownsville, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Dodge 
co. on C., M. & St. P. R. R. Pop. (1895) 260. 

Brow'nton, in Minnesota, a post-village of McLeod co., 
on C. M. A St. P. R. R. Pop. (1895) 480. 

Browns Wells, in Mississippi, a P. 0. of Copiah co. 


i Brown'town, in New Jersey, a P. 0. of Middlesex co. 

Browntown, in Ohio, a post-village of Brown ca 

Browntown, in Oregon, a post-village of Josephine 
co. Pop. (1897) about 300. 

Browntown, in Pennsylvania, a village of Bradford 
co., 150 miles N. of Harrisburg. 

Browntown, in Virginia, a post-village of Warren ca 

Browntown, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Green co, 
on C. M. and St. P. li. R. 

Brown Valley, in Minnesota, a post-village, cap. oj 
Traverse co, on G. N. R. li. Pop. (1895) 496. 

Brown'ville, in Indiana, a village of Vigo co., 12 m. 
S.E. of Terre Haute. 

Brow'nville, in Iowa, a post-village of Mitchell co. 

Brown ville. in Maine, & post-town of Piscataquis co., 
on B. & A. R. R. Pop. (1897) 1,160. 

Brow'nville, in Michigan, a village of Lenawee co. 

Brown ville, in Nebraska, a thriving post-town oi 
Neliama co, on tiie Missouri river. 

Brown'ville, in New York, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Jefferson co, on Black river, 4 m. from Water- 
town, near Lake Ontario. 

Brown'wood, in Missouri, a post-office of Stoddard co, 
on B. & N. W. R. R. 

Brownwooil, in Texas, a city of Brown co. 

Browa'wort, n. (Bot.) See Scrofularia. 

Brow'-post, n. (Carp?) A cross beam. 

Browse, v. a. [0. Ger. prnsa, a shoot; Yr. brouter ] To eat 
or feed upon leaves, twigs, buds,or sprouts; to feed upon 
branches or shrubs. 

•* And being down, is trod in the dust 
Of cattle, and browsed, and sorely hurt." — Spenser. 

— v. n. To feed on leaves, sprouts, or buds, or on the ten¬ 
der branches or shoots of shrubs and trees. 

** Savages browsing on herbage, like cattle." — Arbuthnot. 

— n. Buds, sprouts, or leaves, or the tender branches or 
twigs of trees and shrubs, fit for the food of goats, Ac. 

“ The greedy lioness the wolf pursues, 

The wolf the kid, the wanton kid the browse." — Dryden. 

Brows'er. n. One that browses. 

Browse'-wood, n. Bushwood or twigs on which an¬ 
imals feed. 

Brows ing, n. The same as Browse. 

Brox'ton's Bridge, in South Carolina, a post-office 
of Colleton district. 

Broyles'ville, in Texas, a post-office of Washington co. 

Brn al, Akmand Joseph, a French admiral, u. at Colmar, 
1796. Commander-in-chief ol the Ocean squadron in 
1852, he served in 1854 in the fleet in the Black Sea, a# 
vice-admiral, under Admiral Hamel in, and took a prom¬ 
inent part in the first bombardment of Sebastopol. The 
same year, he succeeded Admiral llamelin. D. of the 
cholera at Messina, Nov. 25,1855. 

Bruce, the name of a Scottish family of Nornian origin. 
Robert de Brus, or Bruys, came over to England with 
William the Conqueror, and was rewarded for his ser¬ 
vices by a grant of land in Yorkshire. Robert, his son, 
was the companion in arms of David I. of Scotland, at 
the court of Henry I. of England; ar.J when the Scot¬ 
tish prince succeeded to tiie throne of his ancestors, he 
bestowed the lordship of Annandale upon his early 
friend, Robert de Brus. The eldest son of the second 
Robert carried on the English line of the family, while 
his younger son became the proper founder of the Scot¬ 
tish branch. His great-grandson married Isabel, second 
daughter of David, Earl of Huntingdon, brother of Wil¬ 
liam the Lion; and their eldest sou was Robert de Bruce, 
the competitor with Baliol for the Scottish throne. 
(See Baliol, John.) His son, also called Robert, mar¬ 
ried under singular and romantic circumstances, a young 
and beautiful widow, only child of Nigel, Earl of Car- 
rick, and Margaret, a daughter of Walter, the High- 
Steward of Scotland, and thus added largely to the es¬ 
tate and feudal influence of the family of this union. 

Bruce, Robert, the restorer of Scottish Independence, was 
the first fruit of the above marriage, lie was B. the year 
(1274) in which Edward I. of England was crowned. In 
1296, as Earl of Garrick, he swore fealty to Edward I. at 
Berwick. Shortly after, lieabandoned the cause of Edward, 
and with his Carrick vassals joined tiie Scottish leaders 
in arms for the independence of their country. On the 
defeat of the Scots a few months afterwards, at Irvine, 
B. made his peace with the English monarch. After 
W’allace’s defeat at Falkirk, B. burned the castle of Ayr 
to the ground, to prevent its falling into the hands of 
the English, and retired into the recesses of Carrick. In 
1299, the year after Wallace had resigned the regency, 
B., then in his 25th year, was admitted one of the four 
regents, who ruled the kingdom in the name of Baliol. 
In the three campaigns which subsequently took place, 
B. continued faithful to Edward. With John Comyn, 
called tlie“Red Comyn,” the nephew ofBaliol,heappears 
to have entered into some agreement as to their rival 
claims to the throne. In an interview between them, 
in the church of the Minorite Friars, Dumfries, Feb. 4, 
1305-6, a quarrel took place, and B., in a paroxysm of 
passion, stabbed Comyn with his dagger. B. hastened 
to Lochinaben Castle, assembled his vassals, and asserted 
his right to the throne. Two months after (March 27), 
he was crowned king, at Scone. An English army under 
the Earl of Pembroke, nominated by Edward governor 
of Scotland, took possession of Perth, and on the night 
of June 18, attacked B. in the wood of Methven, com¬ 
pelling him to retreat into the wilds of Athole. Send 
ing his queen and her ladies to Kildrummie Castle, 
under the charge of Nigel Bruce and the Earl of Athole, 
he, with 200 followers, crossed Loch Lomond, and had 
recourse for subsistence to the chase. B. next took ref¬ 
uge in the little island of Rathlin, on the north coast of 
Ireland, where he remained all winter, and was sup¬ 
posed to be dead. In his absence, the English took the 


























































BRUC 


BRUG 


BRUM 


445 


castu of Kildrtimmie, hung Nigel Bruce and other chiefs 
who had defended it, and tore the queen, and princess 
Marjory, from the sanctuary of St. Duthac, Koss-shire. 
All S.’s estates were confiscated, and himself and adhe¬ 
rents excommunicated by the Pope’s legate at Carlisle. 
In the spring of 1307, with about 300 men, B. landed in 
■Canuck, and at midnight surprised the English garrison 
in his own castle of 'l'urnberry; but before a superior 
force, he retired into the mountainous districts of Ayr¬ 
shire. At Loudoun Hill, May 10,1307, he defeated the 
English under the Earl of Pembroke. In less than two 
years he wrested from the English nearly the whole of 
Scotland. His authority being now established, in 1309 
B. advanced to Durham, laying waste the country. The 
same year Edward II. of England invaded Scotland, but 
was compelled to retreat from Edinburgh to Berwick- 
upon-Tweed. During the harvest of 1312, the Scots again 
invaded England, but unsuccessfully. B. now reduced 
the Isle of Man also. On his return, in the autumn of 
1313, he found his brother, Edward Bruce, engaged in 
the siege of Stirling Castle, held by Sir Philip Mowbray 
for the English. A treaty Was entered into, by which 
Mowbray bound himself to surrender it, if not relieved 
before 24th June following. This led to the memorable 
battle of Bannockburn, q. v., at which B> commanded in 
persou (June 24, 1314). In 1317, B. passed over to Ire¬ 
land, to assist his brother Edward, q. v., and defeated the 
Anglo-Irish under the Baron of Clare; and in the spring 
of 1318 the Scots army invaded England by Northum¬ 
berland. Another invasion of Scotland by the English 
king, who was compelled to retreat, was followed by B. 
again marching into England. After besieging Norham 
Castle, he defeated Edward once more at Bowland Abbey, 
Yorkshire. A truce was, in consequence, ratified be¬ 
tween the two kingdoms at Berwick, June 7, 1323, to 
last for 13 years. On the accession of Edward III., in 
1327, hostilities recommenced; and the Scots being again 
victorious, a final treaty was ratified in a parliament at 
Northampton, March 4, 1328, recognizing the indepen¬ 
dence of Scotland, and S.’s right to the throne. His 
object was now accomplished, and suffering under the 
disease of leprosy, he spent the last two years of his life 
at Cardross Castle, on the N. shore of the Frith of Clyde. 
D. June 7, 1329) He was twice married, first to Isa¬ 
bella, daughter of Donald, tenth earl of Mar — issue, a 
daughter, Marjory, wife of Walter the High-Steward, 
whose son ascended the throne as Robert II.; and second 
to Elizabeth, daughter of Aymer de Burgh, Earl of Uls¬ 
ter— issue, one son, who succeeded him as David II., 
and two daughters. 

Bruce, Edward, brother of the above, was distinguished for 
his indomitable courage, which, however, degenerated 
into recklessness. In 1315, the chieftains of Ulster tender¬ 
ed to him the crown of Ireland, on condition of assisting 
them to expel the English from the island. His rapid 
victories soon made him master of the province of Ulster, 
and he was crowned, but was slain at the battle of Dun¬ 
dalk, Oct. 5,1318. 

®ruce, David, only son of king Robert Bruce, ascended 
the throne, 1329, when only about five years old. The 
celebrated Randolph, Earl of Moray, the regent, died in 
1332, and immediately afterwards the kingdom was in¬ 
vaded by Edward Baliol. The total overthrow of the 
Scottish army at Dupplin, the coronation of Baliol at 
Scone, the invasion of Scotland by Edward III., and the 
defeat of the Scots with great slaughter at Halidon Hill, 
compelled B. to escape to France, where he resided till 
1341, when, the nobles Murray, Douglas, and Stuart hav¬ 
ing expelled Baliol from the throne, ho ventured to re¬ 
turn. In 1346 he invaded England, but his troops were 
totally defeated, and he was made a prisoner. Ho was 
detained in the Tower of London till 1357, when he was 
liberated, on the condition of paying the then enormous 
sum of $1,500,000, the last instalment of which was not 
paid til-1 the 7th year of Richard II. David D. 22d Feb¬ 
ruary, 1371. 

Bruce, James, an English traveller, b. in Stirlingshire, 
Scotland, 1730. Till the time of this intrepid explorer 
of Africa, our knowledge of the interior kingdoms and 
resources of that vast continent was of the most imper¬ 
fect kind; but Bruce’s journey to Abyssinia and the 
source of the Nile forms an epoch in the annals of dis¬ 
covery. By his travels and researches great accessions 
were made both in the science of geography and that of 
natural history; and though the marvels he revealed 
were long and derisively treated as fabrications, a more 
extensive and perfect knowledge of E. Africa has gen¬ 
erally confirmed the truth of his assertions. D. 1794. 

Bruce, in Illinois, a thriving township of La Salle coun- 
ty. 

—A post-office of Moultrie co. 

Bruce, in Iowa, a township of Benton co. 

Bruce, in Michigan, a post-township of Macomb co., 35 
m. N. of Detroit. 

Bruce, in prov. Ontario, a N.W. county, bordering on 
Lake Huron; area, 922 sq. m. 

Bru'cea, n. (Bot.) A genus ot plants, order Simaru- 
hacece. The species B. antidysenterica possesses pro¬ 
perties similar to those of quassia, q. v. 

Br uce'port, in the State of Wash., a post-village of 
Pacific co., on Shoal water Bay, 50 m. W.S.W. of Olympia. 

Bru'cerville, in Alabama , a post-office of Pike co. 

Bruce’s Bake, in Indiana, a post-office of Fuller co. 

Brueeton Mills, in IF) Virginia, a post-office of Pres¬ 
ton co. 

Bruce'town, in Virginia, a post-village of Frederick 
county. 

Bruce'ville, in Alabama, a post-office of Bullock co. 

Brucerille, in Illinois, a post-office of La Salle co. 

Sruceville. in Indiana, a post-village of Knox co., 8 
m. N.E. of Vincennes. 


Bruce'ville, in Maryland, a post-office of Carroll co. 

Bruce'ville, in Washington, the former capital of 
Chekalis co., 35 m. N. N. E. of Pacific City. 

Bruchus, (broo'kus,) n. ( Zonl .) A gen. of insects, fam. 
Curculionidse. The female deposits an egg in the young 
and tender germ of various leguminous or cereal plants, 
&c., upon which the larva feeds, and within which it un¬ 
dergoes its trans¬ 
formations ; the 
perfect insect, in 
order to make its 
escape, detaches 
a portion of the 
epidermis, like a 
small cup; hence 
the small holes 
often observed in 
peas, dates, Ac. 

The family is 
very extensive. 

B. pisi. which is Fig. 429. — bruchus sekipes. 
two lines long, 

black, with gray spots on the elytra, in some years does 
great mischief to peas, particularly in our country. B. 
stripes (Fig. 429), with the head and posterior limb, is 
a fine example of this family. By some authors it is 
placed in a separate genus. 

Brueia, Brucine, (bru'se-d,) n. (Chem.) An alkaloid oc¬ 
curring in large quantities in conjunction with strychnia 
in the strychnos nux vomica. It is less marked in its 
properties than strychnia, which it closely resembles. 
It crystallizes in colorless transparent rhombic prisms, 
which are insoluble in ether. Its poisonous properties 
are less active than those of strychnia. By the action 
of nitric acid on Decompounds are obtained which ren¬ 
der it probable that methyl enters into the composition 
of this alkaloid. Form. C 40 U 26 N 2 O 8 . 

Bru'cite, n. (Min.) A fibrous hydrate of magnesia 
occurring in silky grayish or bluish-white masses. This 
name was given to cliondrodite in honor of Br. Bruce 
of New York, by whom the mineral was first described. 

Bi-iiclt, Karl Ludwig, Baron von, an eminent Austrian 
statesman and financier, b. 1798. After achieving great 
honor by his successful foundation of the “Austrian 
Lloyds,’’ he received, in 1848, from the imperial govern¬ 
ment the appointment of minister-plenipotentiary to 
the National Assembly convoked at Frankfort. After 
the revolution in Oct. of the same year, B. was named 
Minister of Trade, a position in which his talents were 
exercised to the inestimable advantage of the commerce 
of the empire. In 1851, he resigned his portfolio, but 
in the following year was recalled to the imperial ser¬ 
vice, and in 1853 appointed to the dignified ami momen¬ 
tous post of internuncio at Constantinople. In this po¬ 
sition he exerted himself strenuously to avert the rup¬ 
ture between Russia and the Ottoman Porte. In 1855, 
he became Minister of Finance. After the Italian war, 
an unsuccessful lottery loan, and the scandal of the cel¬ 
ebrated Cynattan process (relating to robberies commit¬ 
ted in Italy), in which B. was indirectly involved, ren¬ 
dered it incumbent upon him to tender his resignation 
of office, which was contemptuously accepted by the 
emperor (1861). In his chagrin, B. committed suicide, 
being found dead in his bed, with his veins opened by 
his own hand, on 23d April of the same year. From 
what was elicited at the searching inquest held after his 
death, it would appear that B. was innocent of the accu¬ 
sations that brought about his untimely end; and it 
must be said, that even if he had been unsuccessful in 
relieving his country from a financial crisis, he inau¬ 
gurated the future prosperity of Austria by the many 
reforms he introduced into the old fiscal and industrial 
systems of the empire. 

Brnck'enan, a town of Bavaria, on the Sinn, 36 m. N. 
of Wiirtzburg, in the middle of beech forests and beau¬ 
tiful scenery. At 2 m. from the town, in the valley of 
the Sinn, are the chalybeate springs and baths of B., 
frequented in the summer season by the Bavarian court. 
Pop. 1,628. 

Bruges, (broozh,) a city of Belgium, cap. of W. Flanders, 
at the junction of the canals from Ghent, Ostend, and 
L’Ecluse, 7 m. from the N. Sea, and 60 m. N.W. of Brus¬ 
sels; Lat. 51° 12' 30" N., Lon. 3° 13' 44" E. The city 
lias a circumference of nearly m., and is entered by 
6 gates. Many large and noble ancient mansions and 
spacious public edifices present their pointed gables to 
the streets, and afford interesting specimens of the orna¬ 
mental Gothic architecture of the Middle Ages. Among 
the most remarkable public edifices are, the Cathedral 
of Notre Dame (Onser Vrouw), the old Gothic Hospital 
of St. John, and the elegant church of St. Saviour. In 
the great square is a lofty Gothic tower or belfry (Fig. 
430), the most beautiful in Europe, and its chimes or 
carillons are esteemed the most complete and harmonious 
in the Netherlands, where only superior qualities are 
approved in this species of musical instrument, or 
rather, machine. In this tower there are 48 bells, some 
weighing 6 tons; they are played upon every quarter of 
an hour by means of an immense copper cylinder com¬ 
municating with the clock, and weighing about 9 tons. 
Its surface is pierced by 30,500 square holes, so that an 
infinite variety of airs may be set upon it, by merely 
shifting the iron pegs that lift the hammers. — The Os¬ 
tend canal presents an expanse of surface that resembles 
a stately river, and is sufficiently wide to admit the 
passage of ships of 500 tons from the sea. There are 
54 bridges across the numerous canals, by which the 
streets are intersected; hence the Flemish name of the 
place — Brtigge, that is, bridges ; in French, Drives.— 
Manf. Woollens,.linens, cottons, lace, dye-works, sugar- 
refineries, and ship-building yards. The lace manufac¬ 



ture is the most important: it employs 7,400 persons.— 
Hist. From the 7th century, B. was rapidly acquiring 
importance. During the government of the rich and 
powerful Counts of Flanders, who resided there from ths 



Fig. 430.— the belfry of Bruges. 


9th to the 15th centni ies.its woolen manufactures grew 
and nourished to an amazing extent. The wealth and 
splendid attire of the citizens of B. had long been sub¬ 
jects . d wonder; for when the queen of Philip le Bel 
of France visi'ed this city in 1300, she is said to have 
exclaimed with astonishment, “I here see hundreds 
who have mol e the. appearance of queens than myself.” 
The wealth of the citizens was enormous; a single 
merchant gave security for the ransom of Jean sans 
Pcur, the last count of Flanders, to the amount ot 
40h,ht)0 crowns of gold. Under the Austrian dynasty 
at the close of the 15th century, the lebellious conduct 
of the inhabitants of II. called upon it such destructiv 
vengeance that henceforth its greatness died away, its 
trade was transferred to Antwerp, anil the religious per¬ 
secution and ferocity of the Spanish under Philip II. 
and the Duke of Alva completed the process of its ruin. 
Its subsequent history is comparatively unimportant. 
Fop , 1900, 53,200. 

Brn'in, tt. [O. Ger. brim; Fr. brim, brown.] A familiar 
name given to the bear. 

Bru'in, ill Kentucky, a post-office of Elliott co. 

Bru'in, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Butler co, 

Bru'ington, in Virginia, a P. O. of King and Queen co. 

Bru'insburg, in Mississippi, a village of Claiborne 
co., on the Mississippi River. 

Bru'in's Cross Roads, in Indiana, a post-office o' 
Park co. 

Bruise, ( brbz ,) v. a. [A. S. brysan ; Fr. briser ; Gael 
bids, break, fracture.] To crush; to press or dash tc 
gether so as to break or reduce to small fragments; tt 
bray; to make a contusion upon the flesh. 

“ Fellows in arms, and my most loving friends, 

Bruis'd underneath the yoke of tyranny.” — Shales, 

— n. A contusion; a hurt or injury from a blow with some 
thing blunt or heavy, without breaking the skin. 

Bruised, p. a. Crushed; hurt or broken by a blunt oi 
heavy instrument. 

Bruis'er,n. He who. or that which, bruises. — A boxer 
(Low.)—A tool for grinding the specula of telescopes. 

Bruise'wort, n. A popular name for any plant sup 
posed to be efficacious in healing bruises, as comfrey 
soapwort, &c. 

Bruis ing', n. The act of crushing or contusing by • 
blow. 

Bruit, (brbt,) n. [Fr., from bruire; Gr. brucho, to roar.] 
A noise spread abroad; report, rumor; fame. 

“ A bruit ran from one to the other, that the king was slain." 

Sidney. 

— v. a. To report; to noise abroad. 

Brul'yement, or Brul'ziement, n. (In Scot 
and N. Eng.) A brawl; a quarrel; an embroilment. 

Bruly Banding’, in Louisiana, a post-office of Wes: 
Baton-Rouge parish. 

Brnniaire', tt. [Fr., from brume, fog.] (Chronol.) Tin 
second month of the year in the French revolutionary 
calendar. It commenced on the 23d of October, anc 
ended on the 21st of November, thus comprising 30 days 
It received its name from the fogs that usually prevail 
about this time. — The 18th of B., vm. year (9th of Nov 
1799), is celebrated for the overthrow of the Directory 
and the establishment of the sway of Napoleon. 

Bru'ilial, a. [Fr., from Lat. bruma ; probably former 
from brevissimus,brevimus, brevima, thesuperl.of brevis 
short.] Pertaining to the season of the shortest days 
belonging to the winter. 

Brume, n. [Fr.] Mist; fog; vapor, (r.) 

Brumfield Station, in Kentucky, a post-office oi 
Boyle co. 

Brum'fieldville. in Pennsylvania, a post-village « 
Berks co., 62 m. E.N.E. of Harrisburg. 
















446 


BKUN 


BRUN 


BRUN 


Brnmley, in Missouri, a post-office of Miller co. 

Brum'mel- Georue Bryan, (the sometime famous 
Beau Brunimd,) was b. in London, 1778. He was edu¬ 
cated at Eton, and there formed intimacies with the 
younger nobility of the day. On his father's death, in¬ 
heriting a fortune of about $150,000, he commenced his 
career as a man of fashion, and became the intimate as¬ 
sociate of the Prince of Wales (afterwards George IV). 
lie it was who inaugurated the reign of dandyism, and 
for a period of twenty years exercised almost despotic 
sway over English society in the matter of dress, liis 
taste was decidedly superior, and he did much to miti¬ 
gate, if not extinguish, the bizarre foppery in costume 
then prevailing. His fortune being soon swallowed up, 
he maintained his position in society by his success at 
play, and the indescribable charm of his manner and 
conversation. His abilities were good, though little ex¬ 
ercised ; he possessed wit, a cultivated taste in music 
and letters, and a supreme knowledge of the arts of dress 
and manner. After a rupture with the Prince, his influ¬ 
ence gradually declined; and oppressed by debt and the 
falling off of former friends, he retired to Calais, and after¬ 
wards to Caen, where he was appointed British consul, 
and finally d. in a lunatic hospital, 1840. 

Briiin'inel’S, in IV. Carolina, a P. O. of Davidson co. 

Bruii, Burn, Bran, Bourn, n. [A. S. burn.'] A river or 
brook. 

Brun, in Kentucky, a post-office of Carter co. 

Brunai', a Malay State of Borneo, extending from the 
mouth of Batang-Lupar River, in Lon. 108° 38' E., along 
the N.W. coast to the Bay of Sandakan. The coast-line 
is abt. 900 m.; area 28,000 sq. m. The territory of B. is 
mostly covered with a dense tropical forest, accessible 
only to the Dyaks and orang-outangs. Along the wa¬ 
ter-courses, which are numerous, Europeans are engaged 
in the mining and exportation of the fossil coal and anti¬ 
mony, the latter being found in this territory more 
abundantly than in any other part of the world. The 
country is inhabited by a tribe of the Dyalcs, q. v. In 
consequence of a treaty made with the Sultan of B., in 
1850, which secures to Americans the right of acquiring 
and holding property in B. territory, the Congress of 
the United States established a consulate at the port 
of B.\ but the trade between the two countries has not, 
till now, been of great extent. Estimated pop. 300,000. 

Brunai, the capital, is a maritime city, like Palembang 
and Acheen in Sumatra. It is situated on a river of the 
same name; Lat. 4° 55' N., Lon. 114° 55' E. Pop. abt. 
22 , 000 . 

Bruncln'sinm, Brundisium, (Anc. Geog.,) a city of 
Calabria, now Brindisi, q. v., on the shores of the Adri¬ 
atic. It was taken by the Romans, b. c. 267, and became 
a colony of the Republic b. c. 244. During the Illyrian 
war, b. c. 229, it was the naval and military station for 
the Roman fleet and army, and its fine harbor rendered 
it on many subsequent occasions the centre of warlike 
operations. Virgil n. here, B. c. 19. 

(Irune, Guillaume Marie Anne, a marshal of France, 
B. at Brives-la-Gaillarde, 1763. He was brought up to 
the law, but when the Revolution broke out, he took 
up arms and served under Dumourier. He rose rapidly, 
and in 1795 became a general of brigade under Napoleon 
I. He was appointed commander-in-chief of the army 
which invaded Switzerland, after the peace of Campo 
Formio; aud also of that of Italy after the fall of Berne. 
In 1805 ho was made a marshal of the French empire, 
and in 1807 became governor of the Hanseatic towns, 
but fell into disgrace for omitting the titles of Napoleon 
in the text of the convention which procured for France 
from Sweden the surrender of the island of Riigen. He 
now went into retirement till the first abdication of 
Napoleon, when he submitted to Louis XVIII., who 
gave him the cross of St. Louis. In the “Hundred 
Days,” he joined Napo'eon, but after the battle of Wa¬ 
terloo, proclaimed the king. Leaving his corps and pro¬ 
ceeding to Paris, he entered an inn at Avignon, where 
he was attacked by an infuriated mob, who accused him 
of having been a terrorist, and taken partin the massa- 
cresofl792. At that time, however, he said he wasfiglit- 
ing on the frontiers of his country against the enemy. 
Nevertheless, they immediately shot him, dragged his 
bodv through the streets, and threw it into the Rhone, 
1815. 

Brune Island, off the S. part of the E. coast of Tas¬ 
mania, from which it is separated by D’Entrecastaux 
Bay. Length 32 in., breadth 1 to 6 m. Adventure Bay 
is on its E. coast. 

Brunehaut, or Brunehilde, a famous queen of Aus¬ 
tralia, daughter of Athanagildus, king of the Spanish 
Visigoths, b. 634, and espoused Sigebert, king of Aus- 
trasia, in 568. About the same time, Chilperic, king of 
Neustria, married her young sister, Galswintha. This 
prince having put his wife to death aud invaded Aus- 
trasia while Sigebert was engaged in repelling an in¬ 
vasion of the Huns, B. urged her husband to retaliate 
by a war in Neustria, in the course of which Siegbert 
was assassinated and B herself taken prisoner. On her 
escape from Rouen, after her marriage with Meroveus, 
son of the king of Neustria, she returned to Metz, and 
combatingsuccessfully the opposition of the nobles, wield¬ 
ed the royal authority during the minority of her son 
Childebert. After the death of that prince, and the ac¬ 
cession of her grandsons, Thierry and Theodebert, the 
nobles of Austrasiacompelled her to fleeinto Burgundy. 
These two princes having quarrelled, she took part with 
Thierry, who put his brother to death in 612. Thierry 
djjing the following year, she again assumed the au¬ 
thority of regent; but being attacked by her ancient 
enemy, Fredegonde, 2d wife of Chilperic I., she was be¬ 
trayed by her nobles into the hands of the Neustrians, 
and, as some historians report, delivered during 3 days 


into the hands of a brutal soldiery, drawn at the tail of 
a wild horse, and finally burned piecemeal. Her char¬ 
acter and government have been the source bf endless 
controversy. The best authorities, nevertheless, are in 
favor of her blameless character and excellent govern¬ 
ment. Killed a. d. 614. 

Brunei,(Sir,) Mark Isambard, ( broo'nel ,) a French civil 
engineer, b. at Hacqueville, near Rouen, 1769. He 
entered the mercantile marine, made several voyages to 
the W. Indies; and when the French revolution of 1793 
drove him from his country, he landed in New York, 
with the resolution of endeavoring to turn his en¬ 
gineering skill to some account. Accordingly, he con¬ 
jointly with another, surveyed the ground for the canal 
which now connects the river Hudson at Albany with 
Lake Champlain. Desirous, however, of returning to 
Europe, he came to England, where he produced several 
inventions, and submitted to the government a plan for 
making block pulleys for ships, by machinery. This 
was carried into execution in the dockyard at Ports¬ 
mouth, and proved a wonderful success. Brunei was now 
a made man; he continued to exercise his talents in con¬ 
structive works, and in 1825 commenced excavating 
for the Thames Tunnel. This extraordinary work was 
opened to the public in 1843; but, previously, in 1841, 
the honor of knighthood had been conferred upon him. 

- D. 1S49. 

Brunel, Isambard Kingdom, son of the above, B. 1806, was 
educated at the Coliege of Henri IV., at Caen, France, 
aud commenced the study of civil engineering under 
his father, lie was the resident engineer of the Thames 
Tunnel, and the designer and civil engineer of the 
Great Western, whiqh was the first steamship built to 
cross the Atlantic. He was niso the constructor of the 
magnificent, but till now unsuccessful, iron steamship 
the Great Eastern, which was built at Millwall. In 1833 
he was appointed engineer to the Great Western Rail¬ 
way, and all the tunnels and works connected with that 
line and its branches were constructed under his direction. 
Ho also superintended the erection of many bridges; 
among which may be mentioned the Ilungerford sus¬ 
pension-bridge across the Thames, since removed to 
give place to a railway-bridge, and the bridge of the 
Cornwall Railway, crossing the Tamar at Saltash. This 
latter is supported by a central pier from a depth of 80 
feet of water, which is the deepest yet achieved in civil 
engineering. It was opened in May, 1859, by Prince 
Albert, after whom it was named, and is one of the 
greatest undertakings of its kind in the world. D. 1859. 

Brun'erslbuirg, in Ohio, a post-village of Defiance 
county. 

Brun'erslown, in Indiana, a post-village of Putnam 
co., 50 m. \V. by S. from Indianapolis. 

Brunette', n. [Fr., dimin. of brun, brune, brown.] 
A woman with a brownish or dark complexion. 

Brunistcete, (bru-ne-as'se-e,) n.pl. (But.) An order of 
plants, alliance UmbeUales. They are small heath-like 
shrubs, found at the Cape of Good Hope, and in Mada¬ 
gascar. Their properties and uses are unknown. 

Briin'ion, n. [Fr. brugnon.] See Nectarine. 

lirunn, a town of Austria, cap. of Moravia, at the con¬ 
fluence of the Scliwarza and Zwittawa, 70 m. N.N.E. of 
Vienna. The town is built on the declivity of a hill, 
having the cathedral on its summit, and the suburbs at 
its foot; it is encircled by walls, and was formerly defended 
by the citadel of Spielberg, on the hill of that name to the 
W. of the town; but the defences of the latter having 
been destroyed by the French, it was subsequently used 
as a State prison, and has more recently been con¬ 
verted into barracks. Silvio Pellieo was shut up in the 
Spielberg for over 8 years. B. is the seat of a bishopric, 
of a Protestant consistory, a court of appeal, the land- 
recht, or court of nobles for the prov., &c.,and has numer¬ 
ous scientific and charitable institutions. Its manufac¬ 
tures are of great importance; those of woollen goods, 
which are the most extensive in the empire, occupy 
about 18,000 hands. 

Brunelleschi, Filippo di ser Lappi, ( broo - nel - les ' ke ,) 
a very distinguished Italian architect, b. at Florence, 
1377. After receiving a good education, he learnt the 
goldsmith’s art, practised sculpture for a short time, and 
finally adopted architecture as his sole pursuit. His en¬ 
thusiasm for art was intensified by a visitto Rome with 
his friend Donatello. About 1407 he was chosen to un¬ 
dertake the great task of completing the Duomo of his 
native city; its noble cupola is his principal title to 
fame. He built also the Pitti Palace and the church of 
St. Lorenzo at Florence. He was competitor with 
Ghiberti for the execution of the gates of the Baptistery. 
He was long a member of the supreme council of Flor¬ 
ence. D. 1444. 

Brunnen, ( broon'nen ,) a village of Switzerland, near 
the mouth of the Muotta, on Lake Lucerne. Here the 
basis of the Helvetic republic was laid by the three 
original cantons, Uri, Schwytz, and Unterwalden, in 
1315. 

Bruu'nerville, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Lancaster co. 

Brun'now, Ernest Philip, Baron de, a Russian di¬ 
plomatist, b at Dresden, 1797. Having completed his 
education at the University of Leipzig, he was received 
into the diplomatic service of Russia at the Congress of 
Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1818. After the signature of the 
treaty of Adrianople, in 1829, he accompanied Count 
Orlotf to Constantinople, and on his return to St. Peters¬ 
burg, in 1830, he was promoted to the rank of senior 
councillor to the Foreign office. In 1839 he was ap¬ 
pointed ambassador at Stuttgart and Darmstadt. In the 
course of the same year he was sent on aspecial mission 
to London, and (after a brief visit to Germany) accredited 


as ambassador to England in July, 1840, taking part du*. 
ing the following 15 years in many memorable negotia, 
tions. Leaving England, Feb. 8,1354, on occasion of the 
outbreak of the war with Russia, he was appointed ambas¬ 
sador at the German Diet in Oct., 1855, attended in th® 
following year the peace conference of Paris, as 2d rep¬ 
resentative of Russia, was nominated ambassador at 
Berlin, Feb. 19, 1857, and resumed his post at the court 
of St. James’, in March 1858. In 1862 he received th®- 
insignia of the order of St. Andrew of Russia, together 
with a most flattering autograph letter from the Emperor 
himself, as a testimony of liis long and valuable services. 
He represented Russia at the Conference m London, on 
the Danish question, in 1864. D. 1873. 

Brn'no, Giordano, an Italian philosopher, one of fbe 
boldest and most original thinkers of his age, b. at Nola, 
about 1550. lie became a Dominican monk, but his 
religious doubts, and his censures of the monastic or¬ 
ders, compelled him to quit his monastery and Italy. He 
embraced the doctrines of Calvin at Geneva, but doubt 
and free discussion not being in favor there, he went 
after two years’ 6tay to Paris. He gave lectures on 
philosophy there, and by his avowed opposition to the 
scholastic system, made himself many bitter enemies. 
He next spent two years in England, and became the 
friend of Sir Philip Sidney. In 1585, he went again to 
Paris, and renewed his public lectures. After visiting 
aud teaching in various towns in Germany, he returned 
in 1592 to Padua, and went afterwards to Venice, where 
he was, in 1598, arrested by the Inquisition and sent to 
Rome. He lay in prison two years, and on the 17th 
Feb., 1600, was burned as a heretic. B. was a man 
of powerful understanding, vigorous and fertile imagi¬ 
nation, and rich and diversified learning. His theory of 
the world was pantheistic. He was well versed in as¬ 
tronomy, and adopted the views of Copernicus. But ho 
was also a believer in astrology. His works in Latin 
and Italian are numerous, and abound in bold and no¬ 
ble thought and rich eloquence. Spinoza was indebted 
to B. for some of his theories. Among the works of B. 
are the following : Delta Causa, Principio ed Uno, Dell' 
lnfinito Univc.rso e Mondi, La Cena deile Ceneri, Speccliio 
della Bestia Trinnfante, Sic. 

Bruno, (St).,the apostle of the Prussians, b. at Quer- 
furt, 970. He was of a noble Saxon family, converted 
the emperor Henry II.. and was assassinated by the pa¬ 
gans of Lithuania, in 1008. 

Bruno, (St)., the founder of the Carthusian order of 
monks, b. at Cologne about 1040 ; d. in Calabria, 110L 
See Carthusians. 

Bruno'nian System, n. See Brown, John. ' 

Bruns wick, Duchy of, in Germany, consists of 5 de¬ 
tached portions of territory on the rivers Weser, Seine, 
Ocker, and Aller, between Lat. 51° 38'and 52° 59'N., and 
Lon. 9° 10' and 11° 22' E. It occupies part of the vast 
plain which stretches from the foot of the Ilartz Moun¬ 
tains and their continuations (the Soiling) to theGerman 
Ocean and the Baltic, with a portion of the rise of those 
chains on the N. side. The largest portion contains 
the districts of Wolfenbiittel and Sclioningen, in which 
the cities of Brunswick and Wolfenbiittel, and the 
towns of Konigsbutter and Ilelmstadt, are situated. 
Two small detached portions of territory, viz., the circ. 
of Thediugliausen on the Weser, and that of Badenburg, 
are enclosed by the Hanoverian territory, and form 
part, the former of the Weser district, the latter of the 
Seine district. Finally, the detached circ. of Kalvorde, 
enclosed within the Prussian prov. of Saxony, belong® 
to the district of Schbningen. The duchy has an area , 
of 1,526 sq. m. The inhabitants are mostly engaged in 
agricultural and mining pursuits. Iron is the chief 
produce of the mines worked in the three districts of 
the Ilartz, Weser, and Blankenburg. — Army. The mili¬ 
tary organization of R. is on the Prussian system of gen¬ 
eral liability to the service of arms. Practically, how¬ 
ever, no more men are raised by conscription than are 
required as contribution to the army of the Confedera¬ 
tion.— Ilel. Nearly' the whole of the inhabitants ar® 
members of the Lutheran church, with the exception of 
some Calvinists, Roman Catholics, aud members of othei 
Christian sects, and Jews. Pop. 1890, 375,000.— Hist. 
The late Duke of B., Wilhelm I., is the lineal de¬ 
scendant of Henry the Lion, the last of the house of 
Welf, who held the duchies of Bavaria and Saxony. 
Henry the Lion was deprived of both duchies by the em¬ 
peror Frederic Barbarossa, 1180, and left only the posses¬ 
sion of his allodial domains of B., and Liineburg, which 
were subsequently split into numerous branches, but 
merged finally in the till recently reigning line of Liine¬ 
burg (or Hanover), and that of Brunswick, which is the- 
elder branch. The intimate family connection which in 
the last century subsisted between the House off?, and the 
reigning families of Great Britain and Prussia, engaged 
the princes of B. in political alliances with these two 
powers, in opposition to France. The Prussian army, at 
the outset of the disastrous campaign of 1806, was com¬ 
manded by the Duke Charles William Ferdinand of B. y 
who fell in the battle of Jena. His duchy w'as incorpo¬ 
rated in the kingdom of Westphalia. His son and suc¬ 
cessor, Frederick William, fell at the head of his troops 
while maintaining the position of Quatre Bras, two days 
before the battle of Waterloo. His successor, Charles, 
was driven away in 1830, and the throne made over to 
his brother William, the late duke, who d. Oct., 1885, 
the last of the line. He being without legitimate heirs, 
the duchy would fall to the Duke of Cumberland, son 
of the ex-king of Hanover, in conformity with ancient 
treaties, but Germany resolved not to admit the claim. 

Brunswick, the cap. of the above duchy, on the Ocker, { 
m. S.E. of Hanover. Although bearing rather an anti¬ 
quated appearance, B. has some good 6t.-eets, anf 







BRUS 


BRUS 


BRUS 


447 


abounds in interesting remains of the Middle Ages. A 
splendid new ducal palace, built at an enormous ex¬ 
pense, to replace the residence of Duke Charles, de¬ 
stroyed by the mob in 1830, was burnt down in 1865. 
The Museum has some paintings of the Flemish and 
Dutch schools. Manf. Wool, yarn, linen, porcelain, 
F^Qt\ b ^ d rlAn Paper ' hangiugS) aud Chemicals. Pop. 

Brunswick (g. v.) House of, an ancient princely 
family of Germany, descended from the princess of Este. 
Ernest of fi., the Confessor (see Zell, Ernest of) was a 
zealous Protestant, and in him were re-united the two 
principalities of Brunswick and Luneburg, descended 
from Henry the Lion (see Brunswick and Ghibeli ines) 
who had been deprived of the Duchies of Bavaria and 
baxony by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1180 ' 
retaining only his allodial domains of Brunswick and 
Luneberg, his grandson, Otho, was invested in 1235 with 
these domains, as a fief of the Empire, and thus became 
, e hist duke ot B. Ernest of Zell, the Confessor was 
the founder of the houses of B. Liineberg-Zell, or Han- 
over, and B. Wolfenbiittel, or Brunswick, lie died 
lo46. 11 is descendant, Ernest Augustus, Duke of B 
Liineberg-Zell, became Elector of Hanover. 

Bruus'wick, in Ga., a port of entry, cap. of Glynn 
co., on Turtle River, 80 m. S.S.W. of Savannah. It has 
a spacious harbor, and carries on a prosperous trade. 

BruiiNwick, in Maine, a town of Cumberland co., on 
the Androscoggin, 26 m. S.W. of Augusta. The falls of 
the river afford a convenient supply of water-power. 
Boivdoin College , founded in 1794, stands on a plateau 
near the town. It possesses a philosophical and chemi¬ 
cal apparatus and laboratory, a cabinet of minerals, gal¬ 
lery of paintings, and a splendid library. A medical 
school, connected with the college, was 'established in 
1820. 

Brunswick, in Minn., a p.-v. of Kanabec co. 

Brunswick, in Missouri, a p.-v. aud twp. of |Clariton 
co., near the Missouri River. 

Brunswick, in N. Y., a twp. of Rensselaer co. 

** village in the S. part of Ulster co. 

Brunswick, in A r . C., a S. E. co., washed by the At¬ 
lantic, and drained by Cape Fear and Waccamaw rivers; 
area, 950 sq. m. Surface, level and swampy ; soil, poor. 
Product, Rice and cotton. 

Brunswick, in Ohio, a p.-twp. of Medina co. 

Brunswick, in Vermont, a post-township of Essex co., 
on the Connecticut River, 50 miles N.E. of Montpe¬ 
lier. 

Brunswick, in Virginia, a S.S.E. county, bordering 
on N. Carolina. Area, 600 sq. m. It is drained by the 
Nottaway, Roanoke, and Meherrin rivers. Its great 
product is tobacco. Organized in 1820. Cap. Lawreuce- 
ville. 

Brunswick, in Wisconsin, a township of Eau Claire 
co., on the Chippewa River. 

Bruns'wick Cireen, n. ( Chemf A pigment obtained 
by exposing metallic copper to the action of muriate of 
ammonia. It is a compound of chloride and oxide of 
copper. It is also generated by the action of sea-water 
upon copper, as is the green matter which incrusts the 
copper sheathing of ships. 

Brunswick Landing, in Mississippi, a post-office 
of Issaquena co. 

Brunswick, (Jfew.) See New Brunswick. 

Brunt, n. [O. Ger. brand, a burning, from Irennen, to 
burn.] The heat of battle; the onset when it burns or 
rages most fiercely; violence. 

“Erona chose rather to bide the brunt ot war, than venture 
him." — Sidney. 

—Shock; force of a blow; as, “ the heavy brunt of cannon¬ 
ball.” — Hudibras. 

Bru'ree, a parish of Ireland, in Munster, co. Limerick, 
4 m. N.W. of Kilmalloclc. 

Brush, n. [Fr. brosse, a bush: from Celt, brouss, a 
thicket : Ger. borstt. a bristle.] An instrument used for 
painting, or for removing dirt by light rubbing, from 
floors, furniture, Ac. They are generally made of hair, 
bristles, or whalebone, and are divided into two classes 
— simple and compound. Simple B. are composed of 
a single tuft, and compound B. consist of several tufts 
inserted in a handle. Painters’ B. are examples of the 
former, and ordinary hair-A. of the latter. The smaller 
kinds of simple B. are known by the name of pencil, 
and are made of camel- or sable-hair, inserted in quills 
of different sizes. When coarser and stronger material 
is used, they are generally mounted in tin tubes, and 
known by the name of tools, the larger kinds being 
bound around sticks with string or copper wire. After 
these come I Vhitewash B.. which consist of two or more 
large tufts fixed side by side on a flat handle, and se¬ 
cured firmly with string or wire. Compound B. are 
so made that a number of tufts are inserted into holes 
perforated at regular distances in the back, or stock, of 
the handle. 

—A rude assault; a skirmish. 

“ Let grow thy sinews till their knots be strong. 

And tempt not yet the brushes of the war.” — Shahs. 

—A thicket. — The tail of a fox. 

Electrical brush. The brush-shaped or luminous rays 
diverging from painted bodies that are highly charged 
with positive electricity. 

— v. a. To sweep or rub with a brush.— To paint with a 
brush. 

'* You have commissioned me to paint your shop, and I have 
done my best to brush you up like your neighbors." —Pope. 

—To strike, rub oyer, or touch lightly in passing. 

“ Has Somnus brushed thy eyelids with his rod ? ” — Dryden. 

—To remove by brushing; as, “the water brushed off by 
the winds.” — Benlley. 


— v. n. To move nimbly as in haste. To move lightly. 

“ A thousand nights have brushed their balmy wings over these 
eyes." — Dryden. 

—To move or skim over. 

" Love . . . awakes the sleeping vigor of the soul, 

And brushing o’er, adds motion to the pool." — Dryden. 

Brasil Creek, in Alabama, a post-office of Perry co. 

Brush Creek, in Arkansas, a township of Washing¬ 
ton co. 

Brush Creek, in California, a post-village of Butte 
co., 23 m. ,\.E. of Oroville. 

Brush Creek, in Illinois, a village of Knox co., 80 m. 
N.N.W. of Spriugfield. 

Brusli Creek, in Indiana, a post-office of Ripley co. 

Brush Creek, in Iowa, a post-office of Fayette co. 

Brush Creek, in Michigan, a village of Van Burenco., 
on the Paw Paw River, 27 m. W. by S. of Kalamazoo. 

Brush Creek, in Minnesota, a township of Faribault 
co. 

Brush Creek, in Missouri, a post-office of Laclede co. 

Brusli Creek, in IV. Carolina, a P. 0. of Randolph co. 

Brush Creek, iu Ohio, joins the Ohio River in Adams 
county. 

—Another, in Scioto co., joins the Scioto River, about 10 
m. N. of Portsmouth. 

— A township of Highland co. See Bush Creek. 

—A township of Jefferson co. 

—A township of Muskingum co. 

—A township of Scioto co. 

Brush Creek, in Pennsylvania, a township of Fulton 

co. 

—A post-office of Beaver co. 

Brush Creek, iu Tennessee, a post-office of Polk co. 

Brush'er, n. One who brushes. 

Brush'd. n. See Busket. 

Brush Hill, in Illinois, a post-village of Du Page co., 
about 10 m. W. of Chicago. 

Brush'iuess, n. Quality of being brushy; roughness. 

Brush'iug', n. The act of brushing or sweeping. 

Brush'-Iike, a. Resembling a brush. 

Brush'-maker, n. One who makes brushes. 

Brush Mountain, iu Pennsylvania, a short ridge, 
S.W. of Bald Eagle Mountain, in the N. part of Blair co. 

Brush Point, iu Illinois, a post-office of De Kalb co. 

Brush Prairie, in Minnesota, a P. 0. of McLeod co. 

Brush Bun, in Pennsylvania, a P. O. of Washington co. 

Brush’s Mills, iu Ac w York, a post-village of Frank¬ 
lin co. 

Brush Turkey, n. (Zobl.) See Megapodiidje. 

Brush Valley, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of 
Indiana co.. 55 m. E. by N. of Pittsburg; pop. abt. 1,850. 

Brush'ville, in New York, a post-office of Queen’s co. 

—A post-village of Livingston co. 

Brush'ville, in Wisconsin, a post-office of Waushara co. I 

Brush -wheel, n. (Mech.) One of the wheels used 
in light machinery, to turn eacli other by means of bris¬ 
tles or brushes fixed to their circumference. 

Brush'y, a. Resembling a brush; rough; shaggy. 

Brush'y, in Arkansas, a P. O. of the Choctaw nation. 

Brushy Creek, in S. Carolina, a P. O. of Anderson co. 

Brushy Creek, in Texas, rises in Lavacca co., and 
falls into Lavacca River. 

—Another, rises in Williamson co., and falls into Little 
River. 

—A post-office of Williamson co. 

Brushy Fork, iu Illinois. See Bushy Fork. 

Brushy Fork, in Ohio, a post-office of Scioto co. 

Brushy Prai'rie, iu Indiana, a P. 0. of La Grange co. 

Brushy Run, in W. Virginia, a P. 0. of Pendleton co. 

Brush, Brusque, ( brosk,)a. [Fr .brusque. See Brisk.] 
Sharp; rude; rough. 

Brussa, Brusa, Prusa, or Broussa, a city of Turkey in 
Asia, Natolia, 60 m. S.S.W. of Constantinople, at the foot 
of Mount Olympus; Lat. 27° N., Lon. 40° E. — B. is most 
pleasantly situated, facing a beautiful and luxuriant 
plain, covered for many miles with plantations of mul¬ 
berry-trees. The city aud suburbs are about six miles 
in circumference. The town is divided from the eastern 
suburb by a deep channel or vale, over which there are 
several bridges, one of them — with shops on eacli side — 
being 90 paces long and 16 broad. The streets are re¬ 
markably clean, and the bazaars very good, being sup¬ 
plied with European goods from Constantinople. — Prusa 
is said to have been built by Prusias, king of Bithynia, 
q. v. It is one of the most flourishing commercial em¬ 
poriums of the Turkish dominions, and in all ages has 
been celebrated for its thermal springs. Pop. 102,907. 

Brus sels. [Fr. Bruxelles (broox'el); Flem. Brussel; 
Lat. Bruxelles .J Capital of the kingdom of Belgium, and 
of the prov. of Brabant, 20 m. S. of Antwerp and about 
50 m. E. by S. from the sea, on the Senne, a small river 
which falls into the Scheldt, through the Rupel. Lat. 
50° 51' 11" N., Lon. 4° 21' 10" E. Its circumference is 
said to be 7 English miles, and its ramparts are planted 
with trees, and form most beautiful walks. It has ex¬ 
tensive suburbs, consisting of various villages joined to 
the city by a continuity of streets. It has, besides, sev¬ 
eral public squares of great beauty ami elegance. Its 
chief ornaments, however, are its public promenades, 
no city in Europe possessing one superior to that which 
is called the Alice Verte, or Green Alley, or to the great 
interior square called the Park, in which the chief 
struggle in the revolution of 1830 took place. In the 
great market-place stood the Hotel-de-ville, an old but 
handsome Gothic edifice (Fig. 431), its turret 364j 
feet high, surmounted by a figure of St. Michael, ini 
copper, 17 feet high. The new Courts of Justice isj 
one of the handsomest buildings in Europe, erected, 
at a cost of nearly $15,000,000. The church of St. 
Gudule is a magnificent structure, and celebrated for) 


its finely carved pulpit. The chapel of Notre Dame is 
likewise an elegant building. There are, besides, within 
the wails, several elegant mansions, belongii^ to noble 
men. The Opera-house is a stately edifice, in the Italian 
style, built in the year 1700. The public fountains are 
numerous, and are all embellished with sculptures. A 
statue to Godfrey de Bouillon was inaugurated in 1848. 



Pig. 431.— old hotel de viLLE. or ciTT hall. (Brussels.) 
Destroyed by fire iu 18S4. 


Brussels has many charitable foundations, and establish¬ 
ments for ptiplic instruction There are, besides a 
library (containing nearly 100,u00 volumes, mostly saved 
from suppressed convents), an extensive and valuable 
collection of paintings, a cabinet of natural history, a 
polytechnic institute, an academy of painting, sculpture, 
and engraving, and numerous primary and industrial 
schools. There are several literary and scientific establish¬ 
ments, an academy of belles-lettres, and a botanical gar¬ 
den.— Manf. Lace,camlets,carpets.carriages, ticking, va¬ 
rious kinds of cotton and woollen stuffs, silk stockings, 
galloons, earthenware, & c . It carries on a considerable 
trade by means of the canals which bring it into commu¬ 
nication with tlie Scheldt. — Hist. This city is supposed 
to have been founded at the commencement of the 7tll 
century. Otho II. held his court herein the 10th century, 
and it was fortified in the 11th century. In its palace, 
which was built in 1300, and bad been the residence of 
the dukes of Brabant since the time of John II., Charles 
V. of Spain abdicated his crown in favor of his son, 
Philip II., on October 25, 1555: and. twelve years after, 
the tyranny of the Duke of Alva, Philip's bloodthirsty 
governor, drove 10.000 of its citizens to seek refuge and 
to settle in England. Under the French empire, it was 
the capital of the department of the Dyie. and previous 
to 1830 it was one of the capitals of the kingdom of the 
Netherlands. In 1848 the first peace congress was held 
in it, and in 1853 a general European statistical congress 
also assembled here. Pop., including surrounding par* 
rislies, in 1895, 488,000, or of the city only, 182 205. 

Brussels, In Wisconsin, a post-township of Door co., 
24 m. N.E. of Green Bay. 

Brussels Sprouts, n. pi. (Hart.) A variety of Bras- 
Sica oleracea , or common cabbage, distinguished by pro¬ 
ducing in the axils of the leaves, little clusters of leaves 
which close together and form miniature cabbages. These 
are used, like other greens of this species, for the table, 
and are very delicate. The plant is cultivated much in 
the same way as cabbage or kale, requiring, however, 
less space than the other varieties. It may he planted 
in shady situations, or between the rows of crops, such 
as peas, beans, scarlet-runners, &c.. which are to be re¬ 
moved from the ground in autumn. The sprouts are fit 
for use in winter and spring. The stem sometimes at¬ 
tains a height of 4 feet, and the head resembles a small 
imperfectly boiled savoy; but there is a sub-variety with 
shorter stems, preferable for many situations. In some 
places, it is customary to remove the head early in win¬ 
ter, in order to promote the development of the lateral 
shoots in spring, hut if the head is allowed to remain, 
the plant becomes taller, and new shoots are formed as 
the lower ones are removed. The seed is sown in Feb. or 
March. None of the many varieties of the species to- 
which it belongs is better deserving of cultivation, but 













































448 


BRUT 


BRYO 


BUBO 


as the seed frequenllv degenerates, it is better to import 
it from Belgium.— Ch. Encycl .—See Bkassica, Cabbage. 



Fig. 432.— BRUSSELS sprouts. 


Bru’ta, Brute, n. [Lat. brutus, heavy, stupid.] IZool.) 
The term by which Linmeus designated an order of 
mammals, including the elephant, manati, and walrus, 
with the quadrupeds now forming the order Edentata 
of Cuvier. • 

Brutal, a. Pertaining to a brute; unfeeling; like a 
brute; as, “brutal force.” 

—Inhuman; savage; cruel; ferocious. 

44 The brutal bus’nes 1 ’ of the war 
Is manag’d by thy dreadful servants’ care.”— Dryrten. 

Brutality, Bru'talism, n. Quality of beiug bru¬ 
tal; inhumanity; savageness; cruelty; insensibility 
to pity or shame. 

Brutnlizn'tiou, n. The act of brutalizing or making 
brutal, (r. ) 

Bru’talize, v. a. To make brutal. 

— v. n. To become brutal. 

Bru'tally, adv. Iti a brutal manner. 

Brute, (brot.) a. [Fr. brut; Lat. brutus, from Gr. haru- 
tes, heaviness, senselessness.] Senseless; stupid; un¬ 
conscious; irrational; bestial. 

"Not yet are we the sens of brute earth. ”— Bentley. 

—Rough; uncivilized; insensible. 

44 The brute philosopher who ne’er has prov’d 
The joy of loving, or of beieg lov’d.”— l’(pc. 

— n. A beast; any animal destitute of reason ; a brutal 
person; a savage; a low-bred, unfeeling man. 

Brut'ify, v. a. To make brutish or brutal. 

41 0 thou fallacious woman ! am I then brutified ? 

Ay; I feel it here; 1 sprout; I bud; I am rih rn mad.” 

Congreve. 

Brut'ish, a. Like a brute; beastly; ignorant; stupid; 
unfeeling; savage; cruel; brutal; inhuman; ferocious; 
grossly sensual. , 

Brut'islily, adv. In a brutish manner. 

Brut'isliuess, n. Quality of beiug brutish; brutality. 

Brut'ism, n. The quality of a brute; extreme stu¬ 
pidity. (r.) 

Bru ton, a town of England, in Somersetshire. Man/. 
Silks, woollens, hosiery. Pop. 4,304. 

Bru tus, Lucius Junius, one of the most celebrated 
characters of early Roman history, but whose story is 
half mythical, and full of contradictions and improba¬ 
bilities, was the son of Marcus Junius, a wealthy patri¬ 
cian of Rome. The father aud brother of Lucius Junius 
were assassinated by order of their relative,'1 arquin- 
ius the Proud; and Lucius Junius owed the preserva¬ 
tion of his life to an assumed idiotism. It was Sextus 
Tarquinius who, by his criminal outrageon Lucretia, 
the wife of Collations, afforded him an opportunity to 
arouse the people against the king ami bis sons. Throw 1 
ingotlhis pretended stupidity, he joined v itli Collati¬ 
ons, assembled the senate, aud caused a decree to be 
made for banishing the king and establishing a repub¬ 
lic. This change took place aud B. and Colla’inus were 
appointed chief magistrates, with the title of consuls. 
The change in the form of government gave offence 
to inauy of the patricians; aud the two sons of B. and 
three nephews ofCollatintis conspired, with others, to 
murder tne consuls and restore the monarchy. The plot 
was disclosed by a slave, aud the conspirators were 
brought before the consuls for judgment. B., disre¬ 
garding the entreaties of the multitude and his own 
feelings as a parent, sentenced his sons to death. Col- 
latinus endeavored in vain to save his nephews, and 
retired from the consulship. The cause oftheTarquiuii 
was espoused, according to the legend, by some of the 
neighboring cities, and B. fell in combat with Amins, 
one of the sons of the deposed king. The conflict 
ending in the victory of the Romans, the body of B. 
was interred with great solemnity, and a statue was 
erected to his memory, b. c. 507. 

Bru'tns, Marcus Junius, an illustrious Roman, one of 
the murderers of Julius Cie«ar. His mother was the sis¬ 
ter of Cato. Heat first sided with Pompey, but, being 
treated with great lenity after the battle ofPharsalia, 

7) be attached himself to Ciesar, by whom he was greatly 


Caressed and trusted. But the stern republican Spirit 
of B. rendered it impossible for all Ciesar’s kindness to 
him to reconcile him to Csesar’s ambition; and he at 
length conspired wit h Cassius aud otln is.and slewhim 
on the Ides of March, b. c. 44. Auto y succeeded in 
exciting the popular indignation against the mtu det¬ 
ers, who tied from Rome,and raised an army,of which B. 
and Cassius took the command ; but being totally de¬ 
feated at the battle of Philippi,where they encountered 
the army of Antony aud Oelavianns, B. escaped with 
only a few frieuds.passedthe night in a cave, and,as he 
saw his cause irretrievably ruined, requested Stialo, 
oneof his confidants, to kill him. For a long time his 
friend refused; but at last presenting the sword as lie 
turned away his face, the noble Roman fell on it aud 
expired, b. c. 36, in the 43d year of his age. 

Bru'tus, in Michigan, a p.-v. of Emmett co. 

Bru'tus, in New York, a township ofCayuga co. 

Bru'yere, Jean de La. See La Britykrb. 

Bruyns'wick, in New York, a post-office of Ulster co. 

Brya’ceae, n. pi. [Gr. bruo, I sprout.] (Bot.) An order 
of plants, alliance Muscales. — Diag. Spore-cases valve¬ 
less, with a r. operculum, without elaters.—They are 
erect or creeping, terrestrial or aquatic, cellular 
plants, having a distinct axis of growth, destitute of 
avascular system, and covered with minute imbri¬ 
cated, entire or serrated leaves. The B. are chiefly 
distinguished from other mosses by the sporangium 
dehiscing transversely, either from the separation of 
the operculum or in an irregular manner. 

Bry an, in Georgia, an E. county, bordering on the At¬ 
lantic ; area 472 sq. m. It is watered by the Ogeechee and 
the Cannouchee rivers. Surface. Generally level. Sail, 
sandy, most of which is covered by pine forests. Cap. 
Eden. 

Bry'au, in Missouri, a post-village in Saline co., 70 m. 
N.VV. of Jefferson city. 

Bry'au, in Ohio, a post-village, cap. of Williams co., 54 

m. W. S.W. of Toledo. 

Bry'au, in Texas, a city, cap. of Brazos co. Pop., 3,200. 

Bry'ait Clourt-Hotise, in Georgia, a village of Bryan 
co., about 20 m. W. by S. of Savannah. 

Bry'ansburg, in Indiana, a post-village of Jefferson 
co., 76 in. S.S.E. of Indianapolis. 

Bryan’s Store, in North Carolina, a post-office of 
Moore co. 

Bryansville, in Pennsylvania, a P.O. of York co. 

Bry'ant, William Cullen, an eminent American poet 
and man of letters, b. at Cummington, Massachusetts, 
1794. When he was but 13 years old, he wrote The Em¬ 
bargo, or Sketches of the Times, a satire; and the Span¬ 
ish Revolution, and other Poems, Boston, 1808. The 
youthful poet was admitted to the bar in 1815, and was 
engaged in the legal practice for ten years, mostly at 
Great Barrington. Mass. In 1825 he finally quitted the 
profession, and went to reside in New York, where he has 
since exclusively devoted himself to literary pursuits. 
Thanatopsis, the unrivalled production of a youth only 
18 years old, was published by him in the North Ameri¬ 
can Review, in 1816. In 1821, B. published at Cambridge 
a volume containing The. Ages, Thanatopsis, and a few 
others of his finest productions. The book established 
his reputation as a popular poet. All the pieces 
in it are polished to the last degree of nicety: the 
forms of expression, the imagery, and the general turn 
of thought, are perfectly simple and natural. The first 
outbreak of B.’s genius was the most rich and abun¬ 
dant, After the appearance of The Ages he published 
only short poems and at considerable intervals. The 
whole of his published poetry, the production of a full 
half century, is contained in a single volume of very 
moderate size. Several of B.’s poems appeared first in 
the New York Review, which he edited in 1825-27. In 
1826 he became the editor of the Evening Post, one of the 
oldest and most influential newspapers in New York, 
with which he was connected until his death. B. was 
always a generous aud uncompromising advocate of 
free soil and free institutions. He also labored effect¬ 
ually to diffuse a taste for the fine arts in America, 
became president of several associations for this pur¬ 
pose, and always showed himself a kind and judicious 
friend to young artists. As a prose-writer, his style 
was pure, easy and idiomatic. Few who have been 
compelled by circumstances to write so much, have 
■written so uniformly well. An edition of his works, il¬ 
lustrated with 71 engravings, came out in London, 1858, 
and in 18G9, his masterly translation of the Iliad, was 
followed, in 1S70, by its companion vol. the Odyssey. 
His Popular IB story of the U.S. appeared in 1874. Upon 
his 80th birthday he was presented with a handsome 
Silver vase; in 1876, elected a member of the Russian 
Academy, d. in New York, June 12th, 1878. 

Bryant’s Creek, in Indiana, a P. O. of Monroe co. 

Bryant's Pond, in Maine, a post-office of Oxford .co. 

Bryantsvi tie, in End., a pt. vil. of Lawrence?co. 

Bry autsville, in Ky., a post-village of Garrard co. 

Bryg'mus, n. [Gr. hrticho, I grind my teeth.] (Med.) 
The grinding of the teeth, or the gnashing and chatter¬ 
ing of the teeth which takes place in epilepsy and 
other convulsive disorders. 

Bry nil it'd a. ( Scand. Myth.) The name given in the 
Scandinavian legends to a mystic personage, probably 
connected with Attila, Sigurd, Gurnar, or Gunther; 
playing the principal part in the series of extraordi¬ 
nary adventures attributed to those persons. 

Bryo'nia, n. [Gr. hryo, I sprout.] (Bot.) A genus of 
plants, order Cucnrbitacece. The most interesting spe¬ 
cies is B. dioica, the red-berried bryony, or wild vine, an, 


indigenous perennial, growing in liedgesand thickets 
and blossoming during i lie month of May. The flowers 
are yellowish-» bite, with green streaks, and are dioe¬ 
cious ; that is, the male and female flowers are borne 
by distinct plants. The stems are put forth annu¬ 
ally, and climb by means of tendrils The root is 
large, w hite.and is sold by herbalists under the names 
of while bryony aud mandrake-root, (lor the true 
mandrake, see Mandragora.) The root contains a 
peculiar bitter principle, termed Bryonine. It is a 
violent emetic aud purgative, and is highly poisonous, 
giving rise to symptoms much resembling those of 
cholera. A remedr often resorted to in homoeopathic 
practice. B. is also employed as a topical application 
to bruises. B. Alba, Americana, and Africana have 
similar properties. 

B ry'onine, n. ( Cliem.) See Bryonia 

Bry'ony, n. The English name for Bryonia, q . v . 

BryopliyTlum, n. [Gr. bryo, to grow, phyilon, a leak 
i. e. germinating from a leaf.] A genus of plants, order 

Crassulacece. 

Bryozo'a, Poi.yzoa, n. [Gr. brion, moss, soon, ir» ani¬ 
mal.] An order of animals of the class Acalepha. Xitev 
are very small or minute mollusks growing in clusters 
upon rocks, shells, and sea-weeds, which they ornament 
with their delicate ramifications. Some kinds, however, 
inhabit only fresh waters. All are polyp like in general 
appearance, but molluscan in structure. The aggregated 
cells of some genera are coral or coral-like. 

Bry'son, in Nebraska, a post-office of Johnson co. 

Bry'uni , n. [Gr. bryom, moss.] (Bot.) A genus of moss, 
order Bryacece. 

Brzesc JLitewski, or Brest Litowsky, a fortified 

town of Russia, gov. of Grodno, on the river Bug, about 
110 m. S. of Grodno. In 1794, Suwaroff gained here a 
victory over the Poles. Pop. 18,500. 

Brze'zan. or Brzezany, a town of Austrian Galicia, 
on the Zlota-Lipa, about 54 m. S.E. of Lemberg; pop 
8,765. 

Buaclie. See Garden Island. 

Bnaze, ( bu'aize.) (Bot.) A South-African plant found 
growing in the Maravi country by Dr. Livingstone. It 
affords a remarkably strong fibre, which is used by the 
natives for stringing heads upon. The botanical charac¬ 
ters and relations of the plant have not yet been ascer¬ 
tained. 

Btib'ble, n. [Du. bobbel.] That which rises in boils or 
bulbs; a small bladder or vesicle of water or other fluid, 
inflated with air; — that which will burst easily aud sud¬ 
denly. 

—A vain project; a delusion; a fraud. 

— v.n. To rise in bubbles; to run with a gurgling noise. 

—v. a. To cheat; to deceive or impose upon. 

Bub'bler, n. A cheat, (r.) 

(Znbl.) A fish found principally in the Ohio River, and 
so designated from a peculiar grunting noise it makes. 

Bubbly, a. Abounding in bubbles; bubbling. 

Bub by. n. [O. Fr. poupe, a teat, a wemau’s breast.] A 
cant term for a woman’s breast. 

Bub'by, n. [From brother.] A brother. (A term col¬ 
loquially used among small boys.) 

Bubo, ( bu'bo ,) n.; pi. Buboes. [Lat. bubo ; Gr. boubdn, 
the groin.] (Anat.) The Groin, qsv . 

(Med.) A tumor in the groin, or a swelling of the 
glands situated in the armpit (axilla), or among those 
in groin ( inguen ), and generally caused from the ab¬ 
sorption of irritating matter, such as venereal or other 
specific poisons. — B. are eitlier constitutional or local. 
In the first instance they may occur in any part of the 
body, and in any number, — as in the disease known as 
the plague, when the B. becomes a symptom of the dis¬ 
ease; or they occur locally, from irritation applied to 
some part in the neighborhood, — as in the armpit from 
a prick in the finger or hand during dissection, and in 
the groin from a cause already hinted at. B. are, again, 
sympathetic, and arise entirely from over-exertion, or 
an injury applied to the glands in some remote part, but 
in connection with the one that forms the swelling 
Thus, longstanding, or a fatiguing journey, will cause a 
B. in the groin to rise in a few hours. In consequence 
of their hardness and slow suppuration, B. are gener¬ 
ally extremely painful, and cause ceusiderable incon¬ 
venience. See Bubonic Plague, in Sec. II. 

( ZoiSl.) The Great-horned, Cat, or Eagle owls, • 
genus of the Strigidce or Owl family, characterieed by 
large size, robust and powerful form, conspicuous ear- 
tufts, and very large eyes. There are 15 species of this 
genus. The Great-horned Owl, B. Virgintanus, is hut 
little inferior in size to the golden eagle; and is very 
destructive to young fawns, hares, rabbits, rats, moles, 
reptiles, partridges, grouse, and other game. It is found 
in almost every quarter of the United states; frequent¬ 
ing deep forest glens, and making its nest in the fissures of 
rocks, ruins of buildings. &c. “ Along the mountainous 
shores of the Ohio, and amidst the deep forests of Indiana,” 
says Wilson, “ this ghostly watchman has frequently 
warned me of the approach of morning, and amused me 
with his singular exclamations, sometimes sweeping 
down and around my fire, uttering a loud and sudden 
Waugh O! Waugh O! sufficient to havealarmeda whole 
garrison. He has other nocturnal solos, no less melodious, 
one of which very strikingly resembles the half sup¬ 
pressed screams of a person suffocating, or throttled, and 
cannot fail of being exceedingly entertaining to a lonely 
benighted traveller, in the midst of an Indian wilder- 
ness.” “There is something in the character of the owl 
so recluse, solitary, and mysterious, something so dis¬ 
cordant in the tones of its voice, heard only amid the 
silence and gloom of night, and in the most kmel.v and 
sequestered situations, no have strongly impressed th» 



















































BUCC 


BUCE 


BUCH 


451 




minds of mankind in general with sensations of awe, and 
abhorrence of the whole tribe. The poets have indulged 
freely in this general prejudice; and in their descriptions 
and delineations of midnight storms and gloomy scenes 
ot nature, the owl is generally introduced to heighten 
the horror of the picture. Ignorance and superstition, 
in all ages and in all countries, listen to the voice of the 
owl, and even contemplate its physiognomy with feel¬ 
ings of disgust and a kind of fearful awe.” - Nothing 
is a more effectual cure for superstition than a knowledge 
et the general laws and productions of nature; nor more 
forcibly leads our reflections to the first, great, self-ex¬ 
istent Cause of all. to whom our reverential awe is then 
humbly devoted, and not to any of his dependent crea- 
tures. With all the gloomy habits and ungracious tones 
of the owl. there is nothing in this bird supernatural or 
mysterious, or more than that of a simple bird of prev 
formed for feeding by night, like many other animals, and 


seas. By French writers these rovers are commonly 
called Plibustiers, apparently a corruption of the Eng¬ 
lish word freebooters. The History of the Buccaneers of 
America, by James Burney, is a well-known and enter¬ 
taining work. 

Buccaneer', v. i. To act as a buccaneer; to commit 
piracy. 

Buccella'tion, rt. [From Lat. buccella, a mouthful.! 
The act of dividing into large pieces. 

Bucci'na, n. [Lat.] (Antiq.) A kind of horn-trumpet, 
anciently made out of a shell ( buccinum ), the form of 
which is exhibited in the two specimens annexed. In 
the former it is curved for the convenience of the per¬ 
former, with a very wide month, to diffuse and increase 
the sound. In the next, it still retains the original form 
of the shell. The buccina was distinct from the cornu; 
but it is often confounded with it. The buccina seems 


Fig. 433. — great-horned owl, (Bubo Virginianus.) 

«f reposing by day. The harshness of its voice, occasioned 
by the width and capacity of its throat, may be intended 
by Heaven as an alarm and warning to the birds and 
animals on which it preys to secure themselves from 
danger. The voices of all carnivorous birds and animals 
are also observed to be harsh and hideous, probably for ! 
this very purpose.” Its general color is ferruginous. 1 
varied with larger and smaller spots and markings of 
brown, black, and gray; together with innumerable! 
minute specks. The larger wing- and tail-feathers are 
obscurely varied by dusky transverse bars: the bill is 
bla< k; tiie eyes very large, and of a golden-orange color: 
the legs are short and strong, thickly clothed down to the 
very claws with fine downy plumes; and the claws are 
extremely large, strong, and black. It rarely lays mure 
than two eggs, which are larger and rounder than those 
of a lien, and of a reddish-brown color, with darker 
blotches and variegations. 

Buboii'ocele, n. (Med.) An old medical term fora 
rupture at the bottom of the belly. — See Hernia. 

Bucatun'na, in Mississippi, a post-office of Wayne co. 

JBuc’cal. a . [From Lat. bucca , cheek.] Belonging, or re¬ 
lating, to the cheek. 

B. Glands. (Anat.) Mucous follicles, seated in the buc¬ 
cal membrane, opposite the molar teeth. They secrete 
a viscid humor, which mixes with the saliva, and lubri¬ 
cates the mouth. — B. Artery, arises from the internal 
maxillary, and distributes its branches to the cheek, and 
especially to the buccinator muscle. — B. Membrane, the 
mucous membrane which lines the interior of the 
mouth. 

Buc'can, n. A hurdle composed of sticks. 

Buc'can, v. a. To prepare beef by cutting it into long 
pieces, and salting, and smoking over a buccan or boucan. 
See Buccaneer. 

Buccaneer, Biteanier. ( buk-a-ner',) n. [Fr. bou- 
canier, from boucan, or buccan, a word of the Carib 
Indians signifying a place or apparatus made for cook¬ 
ing and feasting on meat prepared in a peculiar manner I 
(see Buccan) ; hence those who established themselves j 
on the West India Islands for the purpose of smoking] 
meat were called “Buccaneers.” — Wedgewood, Diet, 
of Enq. Etym.) The pirates who infested the coasts of 
the West Indies and Spanish America during the 17 th and 
18th centuries were so called. The association of these 
pirates is said to have commenced as early as the mid¬ 
dle of the 16th century; but in 1625 they obtained pos¬ 
session of St. Kitt’s, and afterwards of Tobago, which 
thenceforward became for along time the head-quarters 
of the B.. who formed a sort of seafaring republic, com¬ 
posed chiefly of English and French adventurers. Their] 
chief object was war against the Spaniards, and plunder 1 
ot their ships and settlements. After the peace of 
Bys wick, in 1697, they gradually disappeared from the j 


Fig. 434. — buccina, (trumpets.) 


to have been chiefly distinguished by the twisted form 
of the shell, from which it was originally made. In 
later times it was carved from horn, and perhaps from 
wood or metal, so as to imitate the shell. The buccina 
was chiefly used to proclaim the watches of the day and 
of the night, hence called buccina prima, secunda. Ac. 
It was also blown at funerals, and at festive entertain¬ 
ments, both before sitting down to table and after. — In 
modern times, the name is sometimes applied to a herds¬ 
man's horn. 

Biic'cinal, a. [Lat. buccina.') Shaped like a trumpet. 

Buccina tor, n. [From Lat. buccina, a trumpet, be¬ 
cause it is chiefly used by the trumpeter in sounding his 
instrument.] (Anat.) The name of the principal muscle 
of each cheek. It assists in mastication, by pushing the 
food back towards the teeth; and if the cheeks be dis¬ 
tended by air, its contraction forces it out. 

Biifcinuni. n. (Zobl.) See Whelk. 

Buc'co. n. ( Zobl .) A gen. of birds. See Barbet. 

Bnccn'taur, n. [Gr. bous, an ox; kentauros, a cen¬ 
taur.] (Myth.) A mythological monster, half man and 
half ox. — See Centaur. 

(Hist.) The name of the state galley of the Venetian 
doges, in which they annually sailed over a portion of 
the Adriatic on Ascension Day, and dropping a ring into 
the sea, espoused it in the name of the republic, with 
these words, “ Desponsamus te, mare, in signum veri per- 
petuique Domini.''’ The date of the original B. is not 
very clearly ascertained, but its use on the feast of As¬ 
cension is traced to a victory obtained in the year 1177 
by the Doge Sebastiano Ziani over the Emperor Fred¬ 
eric Barbarossa. The Venetians had espoused the 
cause of Pope Alexander III., who had taken refuge 
in the Lagune. The doge with a fleet not mustering 


Fig. 435. — bucentaub. 

half the number of vessels which Pisa, Genoa, and An¬ 
cona had placed under the command of the emperor’s 
son Otho, encountered them off the coast of Istria. 
After a battle which lasted more than six hours, Otho, 
with 48 out of his 65 galleys, was taken prisoner, two of 
his ships having been destroyed. The Pope received the 
conquerors on the Lido, and presenting Ziani with a 
golden ring, addressed him in these words: “Take this 
ring, and with it take, on my authority, the sea as your 
subject. Every year, on the return of this happy "day, 
yon and your successors shall make known to all pos¬ 
terity that the right of conquest has subjugated the 
Adriatic to Venice as a spouse to her husband.” After 
the fall of the Venetian republic the ceremony was dis¬ 
continued. 

Bucephalus. [Gr. bous, bull, kephalos, head.] (Hist.) 
The celebrated horse of Alexander the Great, whose 
head resembled that of a bull, whence his name. Alex¬ 
ander was the only one who could mount him. In an 
engagement in Asia, where he received a heavy wound, 
he immediately hastened out of the battle, and dropped 
dead as soon as he had set down the king in a safe place. 
Alexander built on the river Hydaspes, in India, a city 
which he called after his name. 

Bil’cer, Martin, one of the Protestant reformers, who 
first united with Luther, but afterwards inclined to 
Zuinglius, though he labored much to bring the two par¬ 
ties into a union. He came to England in 1549,and was 


made divinity professor at Cambridge. B. in Alsace, 
1491; n. 1551. In the reign of Mary, his body was taken 
up and burnt. His writings are verv numerous. 

Bueer'idfe, n.pl. (Zobl.) The Hornldll fam. of birds, 
ord. Insessores. The species are remarkable for the very 
large size of the beak, and tor an extraordinary protu¬ 
berance with which this is surmounted. They are both 
carnivorous and frngivorons, feeding not only on various 
berries, fruits, and other vegetable matter, but also on 
the smaller kinds of animals, as mice and small birds, 
as well as on insects and any putrid animal substance! 
Their large bills are of much less real than apparent 
strength, and they vary considerably in appearance 
during the different periods of their age, the upper pro¬ 
cess, or excrescence, noi exhibiting its genuine form till 
the full growth of the bird. When cut across, it is found 
to consist of a very loose bony substance; its interior 
being traversed in evc-y direction by osseous fibres, the 
interspaces being quite hollow; all the bones, indeed, of 
this remarkable bird being more permeated by air than 
in any other species. They inhabit the warm parts of 
Asia and Africa; and in their general habits they seem 
to bear a considerable resemblance to the Crows". The 
larger species are very difficult of approach; and they 
perch on the branenes of high trees, where their vision 
can command an extensive range. They may be said to 
hold the same rank in the old continent that the Tou¬ 
cans do in America: not only from the enormous size 
of the bill, but also from their habit of swallowing their 
food whole, throwing it up into the air, and catching it 
as it falls. There are many species; but one will suffice 
for our description.—The Rhinoceros hornbill, B. rhi¬ 
noceros, is about the size of, though rather more slender 
than, a hen turkey; its color black, except the lower 
part of the belly and tip of the tail, which are white; 
the bill is about ten inches in length, slightly curved, 
sharp-pointed, irregularly serrated on the edges,and fur¬ 
nished at the base of the upper mandible with an im¬ 
mense appendage in the form of a reverted horn; a lon¬ 
gitudinal black line divides this process, the part above 
it being of a bright red. the part below yellow, and the 
base of it black: the bill itself is black at the base, 
tinged with bright red, and the remainder is yellow; 
the legs are short, strong, and of a pale yellow color. 


Fig. 436. — rhinoceros hornbill, (Buceros rhinoceros.) 

Bti 'ceros, n. [Gr. boukeros, from bous, an ox, and keras, 
a horn.] (Zobl.) A genus of birds, fam. Bucerid.e, q. v. 

Buell, Leopold Von, a distinguished German geologist, 
B. 1774. He is chiefly remembered by his explorations 
in, and investigations of, the volcanic mountain-system 
of Auvergne, by means of which he succeeded in laying 
the sure foundations of the rational dvnamics of geology. 
D. 1853. 

Bucban, (book'an,) John Stewart, Earl of, the second 
son of Robert. Duke of Albany, Regent of Scotland, and 
grandson of King Robert II., b. 1380. In 1420, B. passed 
over to France at the Lead of 6,000 Scottish troops, to the 
assistance of the Dauphin, afterwards Charles VII., then 
hard pressed by the English; and on March 22d, 1421, 
gained a signal victory at Beauge in Anjou, over the Eng¬ 
lish commanded by the Duke of Clarence, brother of 
Henry V., who was slain in a personal encounter with 
the Earl. For this service the Dauphin rewarded B. with 
the office of Constable of France. He was killed at the 
battle of Verneuil, Aug. 17, 1424. 

Buchan'an. George, r.n eminent Scottish divine and 
historian, b. 1506. After being educated at the univer¬ 
sities of St. Andrew’s and Paris, he returned to Scotland, 
where he soon turned his attention to literature, produc¬ 
ing the famous satires Franciscanus and the Sonmium, 
in which he lashed with caustic severity the mode of life 
of the monastic orders of that day. For this he was per¬ 
secuted, and taking refuge in France, became professor 
of Latin in the College of Guienne at Bordeaux: while 
here, he wrote his remarkable Latin tragedies, the Bap¬ 
tistes and the Jephthes. and enjoyed the friendship of 
Montaigne and the elder Scaliger. He next successively 
resided at Paris, and in Lisbon, and in 1554 published 
his celebrated translation ef the Psalms, commenced 























452 


BUCH 


B U C K 


BUCK 


during his incarceration in a Portuguese dungeon. Re¬ 
turning to Scotland, lie became classical tutor to Mary 
Queen jf Scots, and received high ecclesiastical prefer¬ 
ment. In 1571, B. became preceptor to the young King 
James VI. (afterwards James I. of England.) In 1579 
appeared his great work the De Jure, Jiegni apud Scotos, 
an eloquent appeal on behalf of civil liberty; but which 
was afterwards condemned by the parliament, and sup¬ 
pressed. His last work was the History of Scotland, 
written in Latin, and remarkable for the richness, force, 
and perspicuity of its style. B. has been much censured 
for the harsh manner in which helms treated the charac¬ 
ter of the unfortunate Mary; a censure from which, how¬ 
ever, he must be exonerated, if we are to trust the rev¬ 
elations which lately discovered documents have thrown 
on that sad and eventful history. B. d. 1582. 

Buchanan. James, a distinguished American states¬ 
man, and 15th President of the U. States, was li. in 
Franklin co., Pa., April 13, 1791. After completing his 
education at Dickinson College, he studied law, and 
was a successful practitioner during the short portions 
of his life which were not devoted to politics. He began 
his political career as a Federalist, and as such was a 
member of the Pennsylvania legislature in 1814-15. In 
1821, he was chosen to the House of Representatives, of 
which he continued a member for 10 years. Upon the 
Democratic party being formed upon its new basis by 
the adherents of Gen. Jackson, B. 
became a prominent and active 
member of it, and shared its hon¬ 
ors and fortunes for over 30 years. 

In May, 1831, he was appointed 
minister-plenipotentiary to Rus¬ 
sia, as successor to the celebrated 
John Randolph, which post he 
held for three years. On his re¬ 
turn he was elected a senator of 
the U. States, and continued so 
for 8 years. On the formation of 
the Polk administration, begun 
in 1845, B. was appointed Secre¬ 
tary of State, and retained that 
effiee until the Whigs came into 
power under Gen. Taylor, four 
years afterwards. In 1853. B. 
was appointed American minister to Great Britain, and, 
in 1856, was chosen President of the U. States by 174 
electoral votes, against 114 which were cast for Colonel 
Fremont, and 8 lor Mr. Fillmore. During his term of 
presidency, B. found himself placed in a difficult position, 
owing to the acting of the Fugitive-Slave Law, the Kan¬ 
sas business, and the growing hostility of the Southern 
people; he did his best, however, to avert for as long as 
possible the impending contest. His MSS. and papers 
left at his death to edit, finally came into the hands of 
Mr. Curtis, who pub. his biography in 1883. D. June, 1868. 

Buchanan, Robert, an eminent English poet, b. 1841, 
and educated at Glasgow University. His principal 
works are, Understones , (I860;) Idyls and Legends of In- 
vorburn, (1865;) London Poems; Wayside Posies, and 
the Danish Ballads, (1866); Foxglove Manor, (1884); Sc 
phia, (1886); The City of Dreams, (1886). D. June 10,1901. 

Buchan'an, in Georgia, a post-village, cap. of Haral¬ 
son co., 50 m. W. by N. of Atlanta. 

Buchanan, in Iowa, a N.E. co., with an area of 576 sq. 
m. Watered by Wapsipinicon River, and by Buffalo 
Creek. Soil, fertile. Surface, well timbered. Cap. In¬ 
dependence. 

—A township of Jefferson co. 

—A township of Page co. 

Buchanan, in Kentucky, a P. 0. of Lawrence co. 

Buchanan, in Michigan, a flourishing post-village and 
township of Berrien co., on St. Joseph’s River, 197 miles 
W. by S. of Detroit, and 6 miles W. of Niles. Manf. 
Chiefly flour, furniture, and lumber. 

Buchanan, in Minnesota, a village of Dodge co., 20 m. 
N.W. of Rochester River. 

■—A village of Lake co., on the N.W. bank of Lake Su¬ 
perior, 25 m. N.E. of Superior city. 

Buchanan, in Missouri, a W.N.W. co., divided from 
Kansas by the Missouri River. Area, 415 sq. m. It is 
drained by Little Platte River, and Castite and Livings¬ 
ton creeks. Cap. St. Joseph. 

i—A post-office of Bollinger co. 

Buchanan, in Nebraska, a village of Platte co., near 
the Platte River, 62 m. W. by N. of Omaha city. 

Buchanan, iniV. Carolina, a post-office of Granville co. 

Buchanan, in Ohio, a post-office of Pike co. 

Buchanan, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Alleghany 
county. 

Buchanan, in Texas, former name of a central county, 
watered by the Clear Fork of the Brazos river. In 1862 
Its name was changed to Stephens. 

—A post-village of Bowie co., 50 m. S.W. of Pallas. 

Buchanan, in Virginia, a village of Botetourt co., 
181 m. W. of Richmond, on James River. 

Buchanan, in Virginia, a eounty on the confines 
of Kentucky. Area, 500 sq. m. Drained by the Louisa 
fork, and the Russell fork of the Sandy River. Surface, 
mountainous. Cap. Grundy. 

Buchanan, in Wisconsin, a village of Iowa co., on the 
Wisconsin River, 22 m. N. of Mineral Point. 

Buchanan, in Wisconsin, a township of La Crosse co.; 
now called Washington. 

—A township of Outagamie co., on Fox River, 4 m. E. of 
Appleton. 

—A township of Manitowoc co., now called Liberty. 

Buchanan River, in IP.Fmpim'a,rising in Randolph 
co., and flowing E.N.E., empties into Tygart’s Valley 
River. (Generally spelled Buekhannon.) 

Bu charest, or Bu'korest, a city of Europe, cap. 


of the kingdom of Roumania, on the Damboritza, 37 
m. from its confluence, with the Danube, and 281) W. 
N.W. of Constantinople; Lat. 44° 26' 3o"N , Lon. 46° 47' 
E. It is situated in a vast swampy plain, and preseuts a 
curious conglomeration of civilization and barbarism, 
it being built on no regular plan, but affording to the 
view mud cabins, shingle-roofed brick-houses, and spa¬ 
cious modern hotels in heterogeneous medley. B. also 
presents a curious mixture of European and Oriental 
habits and costumes, half the inhabitants wearing hats 
and coats, and the other half calpacs and pelisses. The 
Cathedral is a fine edifice, completed in 1884, and the 
streets are now well lighted and paved. An elaborate 
system of fortification was undertaken in the year 1885 
and the royal palace rebuilt. B. contains the palace 
of the hospoaar or prince, a vast number of churches 
and monasteries, several hospitals, and a large number 
of Khans or Oriental inns. Since 1834, the college of 
St. Sauvain has been organized, and a lyceum, a society 
of belles-lettres, a public library, and an agricultural 
society. B. is principally distinguished for the profli¬ 
gacy of manners tiiat prevail. Gambling-houses are 
abundant, and prostitution obtains to a greater extent 
than in any other European city of the same size. The 
trade of this place is very considerable — the exports 
chiefly consisting of horned cattle and hogs, wool, but 
ter, wheat, hides, tallow, and wax. Watchmaking anil 
jewelry work is also extensively carried on. B. was vis¬ 
ited in 1847 by a tremendous fire which made great rav¬ 
ages; it has, however, been partially rebuilt on an im¬ 
proved plan. In 1698 the seat of government was trans¬ 
ferred to B. (then a miserable village), from Tergovest, 
tbeaueientcap. 

Bucli'olzite, n. (Min.) A variety oi sillimanite, of a 
whitish-grayish, or pale brown color, with a lustre ap¬ 
proaching to adamantine. It is a sesquisilicate of alumi¬ 
na, and is found in fibrous masses at Chester on the 
Delaware, and at other places in the Northern States. 

Bu'chu Leaves, n. pi. See Bakosma. 

Buck, (buk,) n. [Swed. and Goth, byka, to steep clothes 
in lye, and rub them with the hands; O. Fr. buquer, to 
strike, to thump, because clothes so steeped were also 
thumped.] An alkaline lye in which clothes are steeped 
or soaked in order to their being cleansed or whitened. 

“ Buck I I would I could wash myself of the buck ."— SUaks. 

—The clothes so steeped ; a wash of clothes. 

*• Of late, not able to travel with her furred pack, she washes 
bucks here at home.** — Shake. 

— v. a. To steep or wash clothes in lye. 

Here is a basket; he may creep iu here, and throw foul linen 
upon him ; as if it were going to bucking." — Shuks. 

(Mining.) To bruise small copper by hand, in order 
to separate the pure ore from the useless waste. 

Buck, n. [A.S. buc, bucca, a he-goat; O. Ger. loch; 
Ger. bock; Norse, buck, bukld, a he-goat; Sansk. chdga, 
a she-goat. Root bug; Sansk. bhuj, to bend.] Literailv, 
an animal with bent horns; specifically, the male of the 
fallow deer. A B. is called a fawn in his first year; a 
pricket in his second; a sored in his third; a sore in his 
fourth; a B. of the first head in his fifth, and a great B. 
iu his sixth. The female of the B. is termed a doe. The 
term B. is also applied to the male of the goat, sheep, 
rabbit, and hare. The male of the red deer is termed a 
stag, or hart, and never called a B. — See Antler, Deer, 
Stag. 

—A cant term for a gay, smart, dashing young fellow; a 
fop. 

Buck, v. i. To copulate as bucks and does. 

Buck, in Illinois, a township of Edgar co. 

Buck, in Ohio, a township of Hardin co. 

Buck, in Pennsylvania, a post-otfice of Lancaster co. 

| —A township of Luzerne co. 

Buckataw'ing River, in Mississippi, flows into the 
Chickasawha River from the N. 

Buck -basket, n. The basket in which clothes are 
carried to the wash. 

Buck'bean, n. (Bot.) See Menyanthes. 

Buck'board, Buck'wagon, n. A kind of clumsy 
four-wheeled vehicle, formed of a long board resting its 
either end on each axle-tree, and having a seat placed 
upon it. 

Buck Branch, in Georgia, a district in Clark 
county. 

Buck Branch, in Illinois, a post-otfice of De Kalb co. 

Buck Bridge, in New York, a post-office of St. Law¬ 
rence co., 18 m. E. of Ogdensburg, on Grass River. 

Buck Bridge, in Illinois, a village of De Kalb co., 
150 m. N.N.E. of Springfield. 

Buck Creek, in Indiana, empties into Sugar Creek in 
Shelby co. 

—A stream of Harrison co., falling into the Ohio at Manks- 
port. 

—A stream of Henry co., emptying into the W. tork of 
White River at Yorktown. 

—A township of Greene co. 

—A township of Hancock co. 

Buck Creek, in Iowa, a post-office of Bremer co. 

Buck Creek, in Ohio. See Lagonda Creek. 

Buck Creek, iu S. Carolina, a village of Spartanburg 
district. 

Buek'er, n. (Mining.) A bruiser of the ore. 

Buck'et, n. [A. S. buc, with Dan. postpositive article 
— et. The Dan. is buk, whence Scot, bucket .] A small 
tub. pail, or vessel in which water is drawn or carried. 

“ The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, 

The moss-covered bucket, which hung in the well.” Woodworth. 

(Me,ch.) A species of cavities placed on the circum¬ 
ference of a water-wheel, aud into which the water is 


delivered to set the wheel in motion. By the revolt* 
tiou of the wheel the B. are alternately placed so as to 
receive the water, and inverted so as to discharge it, the 
loaded side always descending. 

(Marine Kng.) The float of a paddle-wheel. 

Fire-bucket. A bucket iu which water is carried to 
put out a fire. 

Buck'cty, 7i. A pasty substance obtained from buck¬ 
wheat, witli which weavers dress their webs. 

Buck'eye, n. (Bot.) See iEscui.us. 

-—A citizen of the State of Ohio; a cant word probably 
used in allusion to the abundance of buckeyes in that 
State. —The State is sometimes called the Buckeye State. 

Buck'eye, in California, a village of Shasta co., 6 m. 
N.E. of Shasta. 

—A post-village of Yolo co. 

Buck'eye, in Georgia, a village of Laurens co., 12 m. 
N. of Dublin. 

Buck'eye. in Illinois, a township of Stephenson 
county. 

Buck'eye, in Kentucky, a post-office of Garrard co. 

Buck eye, in Minnesota, a post-office of Freeborn co. 

Buck'eye Cottage, in Ohio, a P. 0. of Perry co. 

Buck'eye Cove, in W. Virginia, a. post-office of Po¬ 
cahontas co. 

Buek'eyed, ti. Having bad eyes; a term used among 

horse-dealers. 

Buck'cyst own, in Maryland, a post-village of Fred¬ 
erick co., abt. 40 m. N.W. of Washington. 

Buck'fieUi. in Maine, a post-village and township of 
Oxford co., 40 in. N. by W. of Portland, 13 ui. from Me¬ 
chanic Falls. 

Blicklian'noii. in IU. Virginia, a twp and post-vill., 
cap. of Upshur co., 95 m. S.S.E. of Wheeling. 

Buck'kai’t, iu Illinois, a township of Fulton 
county. 

—A township of Christian co. 

Buck'hcad Creek, in Georgia, flowing into the 

Ogeechee River, in Burke co. 

—A post-village of Morgan co., 96 m. W. of Augusta. 

Buck Hollow, in Vermont, a post-office of Franklin co. 

Buck Horn, iu Arkansas, a post-office of Indepen¬ 
dence co. 

Buck Horn, in III., a twp. of Brown co. 

Buck Horn, in Iowa, a post-office of Mahaska co. 

Buck Horn, in Kentucky, a post-office of Ohio co. 

BuckTiorn. in Louisiana, a P. 0. of Bienville parish. 

Buck'liorn, iu Mississippi, a 1'. O. of Pontotoc co. 

Biick'horn, in Pennsylvania, a P. O. of Columbia co 

Buck Horn, in W. Virginia, a P. 0. of Preston co. 

Buck'ie, 7i. A Scotticism for the Fusus antiquus, and 
other marine shells, which, when applied to the ear, 
emit a sound like the roaring of the waves. 

Devil's (or Deil's) Buckie. A madcap young fellow; a 
mischievous youth ; a froward youngster. (Scot.) 

Buck ing, n. Act or operation of steeping linen in 
lye for bleaching.—The lye so used. — A washing of 
clothes.— A punishment used in the U. S. Army. 

(Mining.) A term applied in England to a method of 
breaking the poor foul copper-ore smaller by hand, witlT 
small flat-irons, called bucking-irons, in order to wash 
and separate the pure ore from the waste dross; the 
same term is used in the lead-mines; but Pettus, in his 
I’lata Miner, gives it tiie signification of washing or 
wet-stamping ores. 

Buck'iugliain. a title borne by many heads of groat 
houses conspicuous in English history. Of the early 
holders of this title we may mention Thomas Plantagk- 
nkt, youngest son of King Edward III.; his heir. Hum¬ 
phrey, Earl of Stafford, was created Duke of B in 
1401; and his grandson. Henry Stafford, “the deep- 
revolving, witty Buckingham” of Shakspeare, after as¬ 
sisting Richard III. to mount the throne, was put to death 



Pig . 438. — GEORGE VTLLIERS, DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. 
(From a print after Michael Mierevelt.) 


by him in 1483. His son Edward, Duke of B, offended 
Wolsey, became suspected by Henry VIII., and was at¬ 
tainted and beheaded in 1521. He was the last nobl» 



Fig. 437. 

BUCHANAN. 










BUCK 


BUCK 


BUCK 


455 


who held the office of Lord High Constable of England, j 
The title of B. was not revived till 1617, in the person j 
of B., Geurge Villiers, Duke of, who occupies a curi- 
ous place in history, being in many respects the lord 
and master of two English monarchs, and the reputed) 
favorite lover of a French queen. He was b. in 1592, in 1 
Leicestershire, of good family, and was educated in all 
the fashionable accomplishments of the day. As a 
youth he was preeminently graceful in dress, in man- j 
ner, in riding, in dancing, in speech; and from his ear¬ 
liest years he had the position of one of those arrogant 
favorites who win easy pardon for every caprice. He I 
was sent to France for two or three years, during which 
he devoted himself to the arts and charms of high so¬ 
ciety, and returned to England at the age of 21. Pre¬ 
senting himself at court, he attracted the notice of j 
James I. A few days after his appearance, young Vil¬ 
liers was made cup-bearer, and in a few weeks succeeded ( 
the Earl of Somerset as chief favorite. Offices and! 
honors were showered upon him in profusion. He was 
knighted and made gentleman of the chamber, and j 
Knight of the Garter, and he became by rapid strides a' 
laron, a viscount, an earl, a marquis, Lord High Admi- 
*al of England, Master of the'Horse, and entire dis- 
I oser of the favors of the king. He had learned that 
in dealing with a weak monarch, arrogance is victory. 
Called to guide the grave affairs of a kingdom, through j 
his influence with James, Villiers treated events which 
determined the destinies of nations as though they were 
intrigues to gratify personal pride and passion. The 
famous journey of Prince Charles to Spain, for the pur¬ 
pose of seeing his intended bride, the Infanta, was 
planned by Villiers. In Spain, B.' s gay and indepen¬ 
dent familiarity of manner astonished the formal cour¬ 
tiers. The preliminaries of the marriage were arranged, 
but afterwards broken off by .James under B.’s influ¬ 
ence, guided as much probably by hatred of the Spanish 
minister, Olivarez, as by motives of state policy. On 
the death of James and the accession of Charles I., the 
Duke's position at court was unchanged ; as heretofore, 
the patronage alike in church and state was at his dis¬ 
posal, but his general popularity was on the wane. He 
resented his increasing disfavor with the public with a 
proud and indignant scorn, and to save him from im¬ 
peachment by the Commons, Parliament was hastily 
dissolved and B. dispatched to Paris to conduct the 
Princess Henrietta to England as Charles’s bride; and, 
while there, it is said that he ventured to address the 
French Queen Anne of Austria, not as an ambassador, 
but as a lover. Threatened with assassination if he 
dared to repeat such insolence, he swore that he “ would 
see and speak with that lady, in spite of the strength 
and power of France,” and rumor went that he did not 
break his wild vaunt, and more, that the Queen herself 
secretly favored his addresses. Be this as it may, he 
was obliged to leave the French court; and being unable 
to obtain permission to return, he openly espoused the 
caaise of the Huguenots. The Duke himself went as 
admiral and general of the expedition against France, 
which terminated in his defeat at the Isle of Rhe; and 
subsequently made preparations for a new expedition to 
relieve Larochelle, then hotly pressed by the royal 
forces. B.’s unpopularity now reached its acme. The 
Commons impeached him as the cause of the national 
misfortunes, and the people sang ribald ballads antici¬ 
pating his downfall. B., willing to stake all upon the 
expedition to assist Larochelle, spent £60,000 of his own 
money upon the fleet, and declared that he would be 
the first man who should set his foot on the dyke be¬ 
fore Larochelle, “ to die or do the work.” Proceeding to 
Portsmouth to embark with the fleet, he was there as¬ 
sassinated by one John Felton, a lieutenant whose 
claims he had slighted, Aug. 23, 1628. 

B , George Villiers, second Duke of, son of the pre¬ 
ceding, b. 1627. He early shared in the troubles of the 
civil war, as a devoted adherent of the roy'al cause, and 
became the attendant of Charles II. in his exile in France 
and Holland. At the Restoration, B. became, like his 
father, first favorite to the reigning king, and distin¬ 
guished himself by his wit, profligacy, magnificence of 
life, and political versatility. He succeeded in overthrow¬ 
ing Lord Clarendon, and forming the famous Cabal ( 7 . v.) 
government, when he became virtual prime minister of 
England. He eventually lost to a great extent the royal 
favor, and impoverished by his lavish expenditure, retired 
to one of his estates, where he d. in 1088. B. was a man of 
brilliant but prostituted talents, and the author of several 
comedies and satires much esteemed in their day, but of 
which The Rehearsal alone is now considered noteworthy. 

Buck'ing-hain, John Sheffield, Earl of Mulgrave, 
and Duke of, an English poet and statesman, and the 
reputed lover of Queen Anne of England, b. 1619. He 
served with gallantry in the navy during his youth, 
maintained a politic and dignified attitude during the 
Revolution of 1688, and was, on the accession of Anne, 
created Duke of Buckinghamshire. He was an active 
ally of the Tory party, and d. 1721. Dryden is said to 
have revised B.’s Essay on Satire , while his Essay on 
Poetry was applauded both by Dryden and Pope. 

Buck'iilgisitin, or Bucks, an inland co. of England, 
having N. Northamptonshire, E. the counties of Bedford, 
Hertford, and Middlesex, S. Berks, and IV. Oxford. Shape 
very irregular. Area, 466,932 acres, of which about 
440,000 are arable, meadow, and pasture lands. The vale 
of Aylesbury, one of the richest tracts in the kingdom, 
occupies the centre of the county, and is noted for its 
fine dairy produce and poultry. Agriculture and the 
rearing of farm stock form the principal industry. 
Straw plat is also manufactured on a pretty extensive 
scale. Prin. towns. Aylesbury, Marlow, Buckingham, 
»nd Wycombe. 


Buck'ingjliam, a borough of the above co., on the 
Ouse, 56 m. N.VV. of Loudon, lying in the centre of a 
fine agricultural country. Man/. Paper. Pop. 8,388. 

Buckingham, in Connecticut, a post-office of Hart¬ 
ford co. 

Buckingham, in Iowa, a post-township of Tama 
county. 

Buckingham, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of 
Bucks co., 27 m. N. by E. of Philadelphia, watered by 
Neshaminy Creek. 

—A township of Wayne co. 

Buckingham, in Virginia, a S.E. central county, 
with an area of 680 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. aud 
N.IV. by the James River, and on the S. by the Appomat¬ 
tox River. Surface, undulating. Soil, tolerably fertile. 
Cap., Buckingham L'. H. 

Bucking ham Court-House, in Virginia, a town, 
the capital of Buckingham co. 

Buckingham Mine, in Virginia, & post-village of 
Buckingham co. 

Bucking-iron, n. (Mining.) The tool with which 
the ore is pulverized. 

Blickiiig-kicr. ( buck'ing-keer ,) n. A large boiler of 
peculiar construction, used in the process of bleaching 
clothes. 

Bucking-plate, n. (Mining.) An iron plate to re¬ 
ceive the ore tor the process of bucking. 

Bucking-stool, n. A wooden bench or block on which 
a bucking-utensil is set. 

Buck’isli, a. Pertaining to a buck; foppish in man¬ 
ner : as, a buckish fellow. 

Buckism, n. Quality or condition of being a buck or 
dandy; foppery, (r.) 

Buck'laud, in Connecticut, a post-vill. of Hartford co. 

Buckiailil, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Frank¬ 
lin co., on Deerfield River, about 100 m. IV. by N. of Bos¬ 
ton. 

Buck'lanil, in Virginia, a, post-vill. of Prince William 
co., 116 m. N. of Richmond. 

Buckiancl, William, d.d., f.r.s., an eminent English 
geologist, B. 1784. He was reader in geology to the uui- 

'• versity, and president of the Royal Geological Society. 
His greatest works are Vindicice Geologicte (1820), the 
Iteliquite Diluviums (1823), aud the Bridgewater Trea¬ 
tise (1836). In 1845 he was appointed Dean of West¬ 
minster, and D. in 1856, having for some years previous 
suffered from a darkening of liis fine intellect. 

Buckla.nd, Francis Trevelyan, a distinguished English 
naturalist and writer on pisciculture, is the son ol the 
above, and was B. in 1826. B.’s best-known works are 
his popular Curiosities of Natural History, aud Pish- 
hatching. D. 1880. 

Buckiamlite, n. (Min.) A variety of epidote, con¬ 
sisting of silica, alumina, oxide of iron, aud lime. 

Buckle, (buck'l,) n. [Fr. boucte, from L. Lat. buccula, 
the part of the shield through which the arm passed ; 
Ger. bucket, a knob, a stud, a boss.] An instrument (per¬ 
haps originally round aud protuberant) to fasten dress, 
harness, &c.; a link of metal with a tongue or catch, 
made to fasten one thing to another. 

—A curl of hair, or the state of the hair crisped and curled. 

“ The greatest beau was drest in a flaxen periwig, . . . and lets 
it lie in buckle ftfr a whole half year.”— Spectator. 

—A grimace; a peculiar wry expression of the face. 

— v. a. To fasten with a buckle or buckles. 

44 Thus ever when I buckle on my helmet, 

Thy fears afflict thee.” — Philips. 

—To prepare for action (reciprocal) ; to enter vigorously 
upon work. 

44 And catching up in haste his three square shield 

And shining helmet, soon him buckled to the field.”— Spenser. 

—To join in battle. 

44 Until the front of the avant-guard were buckled with them in 
front." — Hayward. 

— v. i. To bow or bend, as with heat or other motive 
power. 

44 The wretch, whose fever-weaken'd joints. 

Like strengthless binges, buckle under life.* 4 — Shake. 

—To engage with; to encounter; to enter upon some close 
contest. (Generally 4 followed by with.) 

44 For single combat, thou shalt buckle with me.” — Shake. 

To buckle to. To apply to in earnest; to enter upon 
with energy; to prosecute with vigor. 

44 Endeavouring to make them buckle to the law. 44 — Locke. 

Buckle, Henry Thomas, an English author, b. in Kent, 
1822. He early devoted himself to study, relieved by 
the relaxation of chess, at which he became one of the 
first players in the world. In 1857 appeared the first 
parts of his History of Civilization in England, a work 
which caused a sensation in the world of letters, and of 
which many editions have been published both in Eng¬ 
land and the U. States. This work may be termed a 
brilliant fragment, inasmuch as its completion was 
cut short by the premature death of the author, 29th 
May, 1862. 

Buck'lcr, n. [Fr. bouclier, from L. Lat. buccularium, 
or bocalarium , from buccula, the handle of a shield.] 
Literally, that which is buckled or fastened to the arm; 
specifically, a kind of shield or defensive armor, for¬ 
merly used in warfare. Among the ancient Greeks and 
Romans (Fig. 194) the B. was about 4 feet long, by 2]^ 
wide, made of boards, covered on the inside with linen 
and sheep-skin, and on the outside with iron plate. In 
the Middle Ages (Fig. 192), the B. was round, oval, or 
square in shape, and was frequently made of wicker¬ 
work or of hide, strengthened by metal plates.—Hence, 
metaphorically, anything that defends or shields from 
harm. 

44 This medal compliments the emperor as the Romans did dic¬ 
tator Fabius, when they called him the buckler of Rome.' 4 

Addison. 


(Pal.) The anterior segment of the carapax or shell in 
trilobites. 

(Naut.) A block of wood made to fit in the hawse- 
hole of a A'essel to prevent water from entering when 
lurching in a heavy sea. 

— v. a. To support; to defend. 

44 Fear not, sweet wench, they shall not touch thee, Kate : 
i'll buckle thee against a million.” — Shake. 

Buckier-hea«le«l, a. Armed with a head like a 

buckler. 

Buckier-mustard, n. (Bot.) The common name 
of the genus Bisculella , order Brussicacett, so named in 
allusion to their seed-vessels when bursting. They are 
generally unimportant small annual or perennial plants, 
with small bright-yellow flowers. 

Buckler - tliorn, Christ’s-ihorn, n. (Bot.) See 
Faliurus. 

Buek'lin, in Illinois, a village of Winnebago co., 11 m. 
N.W. of Rockford. 

Buek'lin, in Missouri, a post-village of Linn co., 94 m. 
W. of Hannibal. 

Buckiey, in Illinois, a post-vill. of Iroquois co. 

Buckiey, in Ohio, a post-vill. of Highland co. 

Btickinan ville, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of 

Bucks co. 

Buck'-mast, n. [Scot, buck, beech, aud mast.] The 
fruit or mast of the beech-tree. 

Buek Mountain, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of 
Schuylkill co. 

| Buck'ner, in California, a village of Sacramento co., 
10 m. S.E. of Sacramento city. 

Buck ner’s Creek, in Texas, emptying into the 
Colorado River. 

[Buckner’s Station, in Kentucky, apost-villageof 
Oldham co. 

j Buck port, in Maine, a township of Oxford co., 30 m. 
IV. by S. of Augusta. 

j Buek Prairie, in Missouri, a village of Lawrence co, 
150 in. S.1V. of Jefferson city. 

Buek'ra, n. A white man; used generally by the 
negro race. 

Buek'ra, a. White; in contradistinction to black. 
(Used by the black people.) 

Buckram, ( buk'ram ,) n. [Fr. bougran; It. buche- 
route, from buen, a hole.] A coarse linen cloth stiffened 
with glue, and originally having open holes or inter* 
stices. 

44 Four rogues in buckram let drive at one. 4 ’ — Shake. 

—pi. A name given to the wild garlic. 

— a. Made of buckram. 

44 1 have peppered two of them,... two rogues in buckram suits. 4 * 

ShakB, 

—Stiff: precise; haughty in manner; as, a buckram 
spinster. 

—i 4 . a. To make stiff; to fortify as Avith buckram. 

Buek Bancfi, in California, a village of Plumas co., 
16 m. W. of Quiucy. 

Bucks, in England. See Buckingham. 

Bucks, in Ohio, a post-village of Columbiana co. 

—A township of Tuscarawas co. 

Bucks, in Pennsylvania, an E.S.E. county, with an area 
of about 600 sq. m. It is bounded on the N.E. and ou 
the S.E. by the Delaware River, which separates it from 
New Jersey. — Area. 600 sq. m. — Surface, hilly and di¬ 
versified. — Soil, highly fertile, containing valuable do- 
posits of limestone, sandstone, plumbago, &c.— Cap. 
Doylestown. It is one of the three counties founded by 
IV. Penn, in 1682. The inhabitants are generally farmers, 
who supply Philadelphia with grain, hay, and dairy pro¬ 
duce. 

Buck’s Bridge, in New Vork, a village of Madrid 
township. St. Lawrence co., 6 m. N. of Canton. 

Buck’s Creek, in Georgia, a stream of Macon co, 
flowing into Flint River. 

BuckV-horn, n. (Bot.) See Lobelia. 

Bucksliu'tein, in New Jersey, a village of Cumber* 
land co., 15 m. S.E. of Bridgeton. 

Buck'skin, n. The skin of a buck; whence a kind of 
leather so called. 

—A person clothed in buckskin, particularly an American 
soldier of the Revolutionary war. 

— pi. Breeches made of buckskin, as worn by English fox- 
hunters, huntsmen, jockeys, &c.; as, he appeared in 
scarlet, with buckst.ins and tops (i.e. top-boots). 

Buck'skin, in Colorado, a village of Park county. 

Buck skin, in Indiana, a post- vill. of Gibson co. 

Buck'skin, in Ohio, a thriving township of Ross 
county. 

Bucks'port, in Maine, a flourishing post-village and 
township of Hancock co., on the Penobscot, 18 m. S. 
of Bangor. This place possesses a flourishing shipping 
business, and is also exteusively engaged in the fish¬ 
eries. 

Bucks'port, in Texas, a village of Falls co. 

Bucks'port Centre, in Maine, a post-vill. of Han¬ 
cock co. 

Buck’s Ranch, in California, a vill. of Plumas co. 

Buck'stall. n. A contrivance to enmesh deer. 

Buck'stone, John Baldwin, a popular English dra¬ 
matic author aud comeuiau, born la 12 . He was one of 
the veterans of the English stage, and was favorably 
known in the U. S. as the author of the Green Bushes, 
The Flowers of the Forest, the Wreck Ashore, Our Mary 
Ann, Good for Nothing, and many other comedies, dramas, 
and farces "f the most genuine stamp. He was for 
many years the lessee and manager of the Haymarket 
Theatre, London. D. 1S79. 

Bucks'town, in Pennsylvania, a vill. of Somerset ca 

Bucks'vilte, in Pennsylvania, a vill. of Bucks co. 

Bucli'thorii, n. (Bot.) See Rhamnus. 













454 


BUD 


BUDD 


BUDD 


Biiclt'tewn, ih Maryland, a P. 0. of Dorchester co. 

linck Valley, in Pennsylvania, a P. 0. of Fulton co. 

Bnck'wheat, n. [A corruption of beechwheat.] ( Agric.) 
A kind of grain produced by the Fagopyrum esculentum. 
It lias a triangular form, not unlike that of beech-mast, 
but smaller. In some countries it is cultivated as food for 
man. particularly so in the U. States, where its flour 
enters into the composition of the thin cakes known as 
Buckwheat Cakes, but which in England are called 
Crumpets. In the latter country it is extensively used 
as food fior pheasants, who are so fond of it that they 
may be decoyed from their covers by its employment. 
It is a good healthy grain, and may be grown on poor 
liglu soils. — See Fagopyrum. 

Bucolic, Biicolical, ( bu-kol'ik ,) a. [Gr. boukolikos, 
relating to boukolos, a herdsman — bous, an ox or cow, 
and knleo — Lat. coin, to take care of.] Pertaining to the 
care of cattle; pastoral; as, a bucolic youth. 

•— n. {Lit.) The Greek term for a pastoral poem, mean¬ 
ing, literally, the song of a herdsman. To this class 
belong the poems of Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus, and 
the Eclogues of Virgil. The metre universally em¬ 
ployed is the hexameter, or heroic; but in pastoral poetry 
an easier flow of the lines was more studied than in 
the epic, and this was generally accomplished by intro¬ 
ducing a larger proportion of the metrical feet called 
dactyls in the former than in the latter. This species 
of poetry has been cultivated also by most modern na¬ 
tions, as in England, France, and especially in Germany, 
where it has been attended with great success. 

Bttcra'uia, n.pl. [Lat.] {Arch.) A term to denote the 
heads of oxen, flayed and lacerated and decked with 
wreaths ; sometimes represented on friezes, 
liucy rus, m Onto, a city, the cap. of Crawford co.; an 
important It. It. and rnanuf. place, center of rich farming 
section. Pop. (1890), 5,074; (1897), abt. 7,000. 

Bud, n. [A. S. boda; O. Ger. boto, a herald, a messenger; 
Fr. boutou; O. Fr. bouler, to push, put, or thrust.] 
(Physiol. Vegetable.) The organized rudiment of a branch 
(leaf-bud), or a flower ( flower-bud). Whatever becomes 
a branch is, when first organized, a bud; but it does not 
therefore follow that all buds become branches ; on the 
contrary, owing to many disturbing causes, to which 
reference will presently be made, buds are subject to 
transformations and deformities which mask their real 
nature. A leaf-bud is constructed thus : — In its centre 
it consists of a minute conical portion of soft succulent 
cellular tissue, and over the surface of this are arranged 
rudimentary leaves, in the form of scales. These scales 
are closely applied to each other; those on the outside 
are the largest and thic kest, and the most interior ones 
are the smallest and most delicate. In cold countries the 
external scales are often covered with hair, or a resin¬ 
ous varnish, or some other contrivance, which enables 
them to prevent the access of frost to the young and 
tendercentre which they protect; butin warm countries, 
where such a provision is not required, they are green and 
smooth, and much less numerous. The cellular centre 
of a bud is the seat of its vitality ; the scales that cover 
it are the parts towards the development of which its 
vital energies are first directed. A leaf-bud usually 
originates in the axil of a leaf; indeed there are no leaves 
in the axil of which one or more buds are not found 
either in a rudimentary or a perfect state. Its cellular 
centre communicates with that of the woody centre of 
the stem, and its scales are in connection with the bark of 
the latter. When stems have the structure of Exogens, 
the bud terminates one of the medullary processes ; in 
Endogens it. is simply in communication with the cellu¬ 
lar matter that lies between the bundles of woody tis¬ 
sue in such stems. It is moreover important to observe 
that this is true not only of what are called normal 
buds, that is to say, of buds which originate in the axil 
of the leafy organs, but also of adventitious buds, or 
such as are occasionally developed in unusual situa¬ 
tions. It would seem as if] under favorable circumstances, 
buds may be formed wherever the cellular tissue is pres¬ 
ent ; for they occur not only at the end of the medul¬ 
lary processes of the root and stem of exogens, but 
on the margins of leaves, as in Bryophyllum, Ma- 
laxis paleida, and many others. A leaf-bud has three 
special properties, those of growth, attraction, and pro¬ 
pagation. In warm damp weather, under the influ¬ 
ence of light, it has the power of increasing in size, of 
developing new parts, and so of growing into whatever 



Fig. 439. 

1. Leaf-buds. 

I. The scaly bulb of the lily, showing its analogy to the bud. 


body it may be eventually destined for. As : oop as 
growth commences, the sap which a bud contains ;s either 
expended in forming new tissue, or is lost by evapo¬ 
ration; in order to provide for such loss, the bud attracts 


the sap from that part of the stem with which it is in 
communication ; that part so acted upon attracts sap in 
its turn from the tissue next it, and so a general move¬ 
ment towards the buds is established as far as the roots, 
by which fresh sap is absorbed from the soil. Thus is 
caused the phenomenon of the flow of the sap. Every 
leaf-bud is in itself a complete body, consisting of a vital 
centre, covered by nutritive organs or hair. Although 
it is ordinarily called into life while attached to its parent 
plant, yet it is capable of growing as a separate portion, 
and of producing a new individual in all respects the 
same as that from which it was divided; hence it is a 
propagating organ as much as a seed, although not of the 
same kind; and advantage has been taken from this for 
horticultural purposes. (See Budding.) In general, a 
bud is developed into a branch; but that power is in¬ 
terfered with or destroyed by several causes. This must 
be evident from the following considerations inde¬ 
pendently of all others. Every one knows that leaves 
are arranged with great symmetry upon young branches; 
as buds are axillary to leaves, the branches they produce 
ought therefore to be as symmetrically arranged as 
leaves; and this we see does not happen. We may ac¬ 
count for this in two or three ways: accidental injuries 
will doubtless destroy some; from want of light others 
will never be called into action; and of those which are 
originally excited to growth a part is always destroyed 
by the superior vigor of neighboring buds, which attract 
away their food and starve them. There is moreover in 
many plants a special tendency to produce their leaf- 
buds in a stunted or altered state. In Fir-trees the 
side-buds push forth only two, or a small number of 
leaves, and never lengthen at all; in the Cedar of Lebanon 
they lengthen a little, bear a cluster of leaves at their 
points, and resemble short spurs; in the Sloe, the White¬ 
thorn, and many other plants, they lengthen more, pro¬ 
duce no leaves except at their very base, and grow into 
hard sharp-pointed spines. Bulbs are nothing but leaf- 
buds (Fig. 439), with unusually fleshy scales, and with 
the power of separating spontaneously from the mother 
plant; and flower-buds are theoretically little more than 
leaf-buds without the power of lengthening, but with 
the organs that cover them in a special state. Hence 
flowers are modified branches. — See Flower. 

(ZoSl.) A protuberance on polypi, &c., growing into 
an animal as a bud blows into a flower. 

— v. i. To put forth or produce young shoots, buds, or 
germs. 

“The budding rose above the rose full-blown.” — Wordsworth. 

—To germinate; to begin to grow or shoot forth. 

“ Tho’ lab’ring yokes on their own necks they fear’d, 

And felt four budding horns on their smooth foreheads rear’d.” 

Drydtn. 

—To be in bloom, or growing into maturity-, as a plant. 

" Young budding virgin, fair and fresh and sweet.” — Shake. 

— v. a . To graft or inoculate by inserting a bud. 

“ Of apricocks, the largest is much improved by budding upon 
a peach stock.”— Temple. 

Bu'da, [Slav. Budin ; Ger. Ofeni] A royal city of the 
Austrian empire in Hungary, of which, in conjunction 
with Pesth, it is the cap., and seat of govt., on the right 
bank of the Danube, immediately opposite to Pesth, 116 
m. W. of Debreczin, and 135 E.S.E. of Vienna. B. is built 
on and around the last hill of a range which decreases in 
height as it approaches the Danube, and is divided into 
0 quarters. It has a fine observatory, and is celebrated 
for its hot and Turkish baths, which procured for the 
city its German name of Ofen (oven). There are, in ad¬ 
dition, some fine libraries, and scientific and charitable 
institutions, including 4 hospitals. A magnificent sus¬ 
pension bridge, % of a mile in length, with a clear wa¬ 
ter-way of 1,250 ft., spans the Danube, connecting the 
city with Pesth. This was the first permanent bridge 
erected over the Danube, below Vienna, since the time 
of Trajan. B. is the usual residence of the governor- 
general, the seat of the vice-regal council, and of the high¬ 
est administrative authority. It lias much less of a 
bustling and commercial character than Pesth. There 
are a few manufactures of linens, woollens, silks, velvets, 
leather, gunpowder, earthenware, and a cannon-foundry; 
hut its principal trade is in its fine wines, of which 
about 3,450,000 gallons are produced annually from the 
vineyards around the heights in its neighborhood. B., 
the ancient Curta Aquincum, was held by the Romans 
till nearly the end of the 4th century. Arpad, the Ma¬ 
gyar chief, made it his head-quarters in 900, and it then 
became the cradle of the Hungarian monarchy. It was 
enlarged and improved by succeeding Hungarian mon¬ 
arch*, and made a free city by Bela IV., in 1245. It was 
taken by Solyman in 1529, and was held by the Turks 
till 1686, when it was recovered by the Imperialists, af¬ 
ter a desperate resistance. Joseph II. removed the seat 
of the Hungarian govt, thither in 1783. The city suf¬ 
fered much during the revolutionary war of 1849.—Since 
the year 1873, the cities of Pesth and Ofen (Buda), form 
one municipality under the name of Budapest, which is 
the capital of Hungarv. Total pop., 1897, ah. 550,000. 

Bu'd », in 111 ., a p.-v. of Bureau co., 12 m. from Princeton. 

Bud'dha, n. Title given to the founder of Buddhism, q. v . 

: It lultiliisin, n. One of the most remarkable religious 
systems of the East, partly from the peculiar character 
of its doctrine, and partly on account of the vast num¬ 
ber of its followers. From Hindostan, or India proper, 
the country which gave it birth, nearly every trace of 
B. has now disappeared; but under several modifica¬ 
tions ithas become the religion of the groat majority of 
the inhabitants of the high table-lands to the N. of the 
Himalayas, as far as the boundary of Siberia, and it is 
the prevailing creed of the peninsula of India beyond 
the Ganges, of Ceylon, of the empire of Japan, and of | 


China, where it will be examined under the name 
of Fo. The votaries of this religion number about 
300,000,001), or, in other words, more than one-third of 
the entire population of the earth,— B. has riot been stud¬ 
ied for much more than 40 years, yet its original princi¬ 
ples are better known than those of other religions, 
without excepting our own; all the details of the life of 
its founder have been recorded in the archives of history, 
and we are in possession of all those canonical writings 
wherein are deposited the doctrines declared and de¬ 
fined by 3 successive councils. These books, at first 
written in Sanskrit, or in some dialect of this language, 
have been translated into the idioms of other nations 
among which the Buddliic faith was propagated, as the 
Cingalese, Thibetians, Tartars. Mongols, Chinese, .Ja¬ 
panese, and Burmans. We are in possession of these 
translations, which secure tons a truthful and infallible 
knowledge of the original works. The most successful 
investigator in these important matters of research was 
Mr. B. H. Hodgson, appointed in 1821 British Political 
Resident at Nepaul, for the East India Company. He 
was informed that in Buddhic monasteries were reli¬ 
giously kept manuscripts said to contain the canonical 
doctrine of Buddha, which works were written in the 
Sanskrit tongue. Mr. Hodgson had » list of these writ¬ 
ings, remitted to an old Buddhist priest of Patan, and 
by his instrumentality he secured the works themselves. 
The Thibetian translations were even more easily pro¬ 
cured, for in that country books were almost as numer¬ 
ous as in Europe, being reproduced by wood-engraving, 
which art had been imported into that country from 
China. Mr. Hodgson achieved this important result in 
1824-5, and at the same time he offered to the Royal 
Asiatic Societies of London and Paris, 60 Buddhic vol¬ 
umes, and 250 in the language of Thibet. The same 
offer he had previously made to the Asiatic Society of 
Bengal. Almost about the same time a young Hunga¬ 
rian physician, Mr. Csoma, from Kotos, in Transylvania, 
was equally successful in making discoveries. Starting 
from Hungary, full of enthusiasm, but with scnnty 
means, be penetrated into Thibet, acquired the language 
of that country, and read the great works named the 
Kahggoor and the Bstanggoor. These two encj'clopaj- 
dias, the first in 100 vols., the sdcond in 226 vols., printed 
in 1731 in the monastery of Snaarthang, in Thibet, were 
a full translation of the books brought from India, and 
everything pertaining to Buddhic literature. Mr. Csoma 
gave, under the auspices of Mr. Wilson, the illustrious 
Orientalist, and member of the Calcutta Asiatic Society, 
an analysis of the two works, and in that edition were 
found almost all the Sanskrit books discovered by Mr. 
Wilson at Nepaul. Mr. Csoma died young, exhausted 
by his great labors, but consoled with the idea that he 
had left something behind him, in a work which is a 
treasure of Asiatic research, and which consecrates his 
memory. In 1829, Mr. L. J. Schmidt, a member of the 
St. Petersburg Academy, demonstrated that nearly all 
the Buddhic works translated in Thibetian were trans¬ 
lated also into the Mongolian tongue, and under the 
same conditions; thus happily confirming the assertions 
of Mr. Hodgson, while other confirmations were still to 
come from different countries. In the S. of the island 
of Ceylon, where B. was known to have penetrated 
three centuries before our era, Mr. George Tumour 
found, almost in the same shape, the canonical books. 

He discovered that the Cingalese priests were in posses¬ 
sion of a complete collection of the Buddhist writings, • 
brought to Ceylon by a certain Indian king, a protector 
of B., 316 b. c. These books were written *i the Pali 
language, a Sanskrit dialect. These Pali writings, 17 in 
number, are almost identical copies of the books of Ma- 
gadha and Nepaul; they also contain the life and doc¬ 
trinal system of Buddha. So that in the North, the 
Sanskrit version of Magadlia was the text from which 
the Thibetian translation was made; while in the South, 
the Pali version, from Ceylon, was used for the Siamese 
and Burmanic translations, the island of Ceylon (the 
Taprobana of the Ancient Books, from the Hindoo Tam- 
rapanna) having always been in religious accord and 
relationship with Siam and Burmah. But Ceylon had 
still something more. Besides the sacred volumes, the 
priests had written chronicles in which were recorded, 
year by year, the most important facts touching their 
religion and history. Mr. Tumour obtained the Cinga¬ 
lese annals, and published the leading parts of that 
valuable work, the Mahavansa, and the analyses of 
many others. These historical works, the only ones 
produced by the Hindoo genius, go back to the conver¬ 
sion of the island to Buddhism, and contain the life of 
Buddha and his religious traditions. The portion of the 
Mahavansa published by Mr. Tumour was composed 
in tho 5th century of the Christian sera, from older 
materials which the author had collected. The sacred 
books of Ceylon in the Pali language must therefore 
be considered as the most authentic documents re¬ 
lating to B. After the various countries already 
mentioned, and which bear testimony to the authen¬ 
ticity of the Buddhist volumes, comes China. The 
annals of that empire, compiled and preserved with a 
care never equalled by any government even among 
tlie most civilized nations, show that B. was introduced 
into China 217 years b. c., by some Indian apostles. 

In 61 b. c. it waB adopted, in the reign of the emperor 
Ming-Ti, as the public worship of the empire, and at the 
end of the first century was commenced the translation 
of the Sanskrit books into the Chinese language. One 
of the most renowned of these works, the Lalitavistara, 
a kind of biography of Buddha, was four times trans¬ 
lated into Chinese: numerous books were thus published, 
and Mr. Stanislaus Julien gives the titles of 1,000 vols, 
from the catalogue of books gotten up by the govt, of the 














BUDD 


BUDD 


BUDD 


455 


Celestial empire, and now the Buddhic literature in 
China torms libraries of countless volumes. We have, 
besides, the testimony of the pilgrims who went from 
China to India to visit the places sanctified by Buddha, 
and especially those of Fo-hinn and Hiover-Thxung , pub¬ 
lished by MM. Abel Remusat and Stanislaus Julien. Fi¬ 
nally, we may consult the inscriptions engraved on the 
stones, rocks, and columns in India. Mr. James Prin- 
Sep, one of the secretaries of the Bengal Society, deci¬ 
phered these hieroglyphics with a sagacious accuracy 
that made him celebrated. These inscriptions were in the 
Magadha dialect, and contained the edicts of a king 
named Piyadasi, recommending to his people morality, 
advising tolerance, and favoring new religious creeds. A 
short time after Mr. Prinsep’s elucidations, .Mr. Tumour, 
well acquainted with the monumental antiquities of Cey¬ 
lon, showed that the Piyadasi of these Magadha inscrip¬ 
tions was the same as Acoka, the king of Magadha, one 
of the pillars of B. during its first period. Another Cingal¬ 
ese work, Le Diparansa, quoted by Mr. Turnout 4 , states 
that Acoka reigned 218 years after Cakyamouni, that is, 
325 before our era, or in that of Alexander the Great; and 
although Mr. Wilson dissents, we think it probable that 
he is the identical Acoka, or at least a Buddhist promul¬ 
gating the doctrines of Cakyamouni at the end of the 
4th century. Among the Greek writers we find some¬ 
thing in relation to the Buddhists. Nearclius and Aris- 
tobulus, who followed Alexander, mention only the 
Brahmans; but Megosthenes, who, 30 years after, pene¬ 
trated to Patalipootra (the Palibotkra of the Greeks), at 
the court of king Tchandragoopta. represents the Bud¬ 
dhists in naming the Sannanai and Germana , who, he 
says, are philosophers living in celibacy, begging their 
daily bread, and are accompanied by women following 
the same tenor of life. The name of Buddha is found 
in the writings of St. Clement of Alexandria. All these 
authorities peremptorily prove that B. was established 
in India before the reign of Alexander. Of the sacred 
books which contain the Buddhic predictions, two have 
been translated into French, the first under the title of 
“The Lotus of the Good Law” (Saddharmapourdarika), 
by M. Eugene Burnouf, who extracted from this mine 
his golden book “ Introduction d VI/istoire du Bud¬ 
dhisms,” the other, “ Soutra,” is a book called the J Lalita- 
vistara, translated from the Thibetian by M. Philippe de 
Fourcaux. Following in the footsteps of the above au¬ 
thorities, our venerated master, M. Barthelemyde St. Hi¬ 
laire, one of the most profound Orientalists of the day, 
has published his two admirable works, Du Buddhisme 
(1855), and Le Bouddha e.t sa Religion (1866), from which 
is taken the following resume of the life and tenets of 
the founder of this Oriental creed. — Buddha was born 
about the end of the 7th century, b. c., in the city of 
Kapilavastou, the capital of a realm bearing the same 
name, in Central India, at the foot of the mountains of 
Nepaul. His father, Couddhodama, belonging to the 
Cakyas family, and descended from the great Solar race 
the Gotamides, was the king of that country. His moth¬ 
er, Maya Devi, was the daughter of king Sonprabuddha, 
and of such beauty that she was called Maya, or the 
“Illusion,” because her body, according to the“ Lali- 
iavistara,” was a bewitching illusion. But her virtue 
and piety even excelled her beauty. Couddhodama was 
worthy of such a wife, and “ King of the law, he ruled 
according to the law.” Such was the family from which 
the liberator sprang. He belonged to the caste of the Ka- 
hattriyas, or •* warriors,” and when he gave himself up 
to religion, he was called Cakyamouni, that is, the 
“monk of the Cakyas,” or Cramana Gaoutama, “ the 
ascetic of the Gotamides.” His personal name at his 
father’s court was Siddhdrta, or Sarvdrthasiddha, which 
he hcdd until he acquired that of “Buddha.” His moth¬ 
er, who retired to a garden, awaiting her hour, was sur¬ 
prised under a tree by the pains of labor, and gave birth 
to Siddharta on the 3d of the month of Outaracadha, 
but debilitated by fasting, she died seven days after his 
birth. The orphan was entrusted to his maternal aunt 
Pradydpati-gaoutami, who was also one of his father’s 
wives. The child was as handsome as his mother, and 
when still a boy showed extraordinary talents. When 
admitted to the schools of writing, he soon excelled his 
own master, and avoiding the amusements incidental 
to his age, he seemed absorbed in his own meditations. 
Wnen he arrived at a marrying age, his elders, fearing 
that he, according to the prediction of the Brahmans, 
had abandoned his right to the crown by giving him¬ 
self up to religion, asked the king's consent to cause 
him to marry forthwith; the king refus to interfere, 
but granted the elders the privilege of bringing a bride 
for his son. This was done, and the virgin selected was 
the virtuous and beautiful Gopa, but in order to obtain 
her, he was obliged by her father, Dandapani, to show 
talents of the first order. He had, accordingly, to en¬ 
gage in a contest against 500 young men in all the games 
and exercises esteemed in India. Siddharta came off 
victorious not only in scholastic exercises, knowledge 
of the Vedas, morals, and philosophy, but also in calis¬ 
thenics and games of bodily skill. Among his com¬ 
petitors were his cousin Ananda, who afterwards became 
one of his most faithful disciples, and Devadatta, who, 
ashamed of his defeat, became thenceforward his im¬ 
placable enemy. The beautiful Gopa then became his 
prize, and once his wife, she refused to veil her face, 
saying that “the supreme and magnanimous Richi, and 
theother gods, knew her thoughts, qualities, and actions, 
and that she had nothing to conceal. Siddharta, 
though happy, aspired to some life better and more per¬ 
fect, and, after long meditation, he left his father’s pal¬ 
ace, gave his rich dress to a hunter, whose mean gar¬ 
ments he took in return, and sought some eminent 
Brahmans; but, dissenting from their views, he retired 


to the wilderness of Ourovilva, where he spent his time 
in the practices of austerity, fasting, meditation, and 
prayer. He would remain for weeks plunged in deep 
abstraction, attempting to solve the mysteries of life, 
death, sin, goodness, wisdom, and the like. At length, 
alter six years of meditation, being then 36 years old, he 
was enlightened, he felt that he was the Buddha, i. e. 
the perfect sage. The place where he had this revela¬ 
tion is most celebrated, and called Bodhimanda, i. e. the 
“ seat of intellect.” The tree under which he was seated 
when lie received that gift was a fig-tree, which was 
visited in 632. a. d., by the famous Chinese pilgrim Hio- 
Ver-Thsang, who saw many monuments erected around 
it, and spent seven days in worshipping them. From 
Bodhimanda Buddha started to preach his doctrine in 
small places, and then in the great capital, Benares, the 
“holy city.” For upwards of 40 years he continued to 
preach his system, traversing a great part of Northern 
India, combating the Brahmans,and making numerous 
converts. He died in the 80th year of his age, b. c. 543, 
after having lived to see his doctrine spread all over 
India. F'or several centuries B. seems to have been 
tolerated by the Brahmins. At length, it seems to have 
endured a long-continued persecution, which ultimately 
had the effect of entirely expelling it from the country 
where it had originated. What was the cause or the 
nature of these persecutions is unknown, but the last 
traces of the system disappeared about the 11th or 12th 
century. By this time it had taken firm root in other 
parts, where it still continues to flourish. Numerous 
remains of Buddhist temples are scattered over India; 
and, during the period of persecution, when they were 
driven from the cities, they retired among the hills of 
the west, and there constructed those cave-temples, 
which, from their number, vastness, and elaborate struc¬ 
ture, still excite the wonder of all who see them. — B. 
differs from Bralimanasni in the extreme simplicity of 
its religious doctrine, and the almost complete absence 
of dogmas or ritual. It is, or rather was—for it has 
been much corrupted by other creeds — an essentially 
moral system. Its object was to teach man how to at¬ 
tain to a pure and holy life. Hence, it did not so much 
destroy other religions with which it came in contact, 
ns engraft itself upon them. It did not abolish castes 
where they already existed, but it did not introduce 
them where they were unknown. The Buddha is not 
a god, he is the ideal of what-any man may become; and 
the great object of Buddhist worship is to keep this 
ideal vividly in the minds of the believers. This vene¬ 
ration of the memory of Buddha is, perhaps, hardly 
distinguishable, 
among the igno¬ 
rant, from wor¬ 
ship of him as a 
god; but in the¬ 
ory, the ritual 
is strictly com¬ 
memorative, and 
does not necessa¬ 
rily involve idol¬ 
atry, any more 
than the gar¬ 
lands laid on the 
tomb of a parent 
by a pious child. 

The ritual orwor- 
sliip is extremely 
simple, consist¬ 
ing in offering 
flowers and per¬ 
fume, the repeat¬ 
ing of sacred for¬ 
mulas, and the 
singing of 
hymns. The tem¬ 
ples contain only 
an image of Bud¬ 
dha and a Dago- 
6 a,orshrinecon- 
taininghisrelics. 

There are no 
priests or clergy, 
properly so call- 
ed, but only an Pig. HO. buddha. 

order of monks, 

the Sramanas or Bikshus (mendicants), who have 
given themselves np to a life of sanctity, and who are 
generally very numerous. They are obliged to live in 
celibacy; but they may retire from their order if they 
desire it, and are permitted to marry. The four sub¬ 
lime verities, or axioms, upon which the system of 
B. is built, are:—1. That there exists pain; 2. that 
the cause of pain is desire, or the attachment of the 
soul towards certain objects; 3. that pain can be ended 
by Nirvana ; and 4. that, by the practice of six tran¬ 
scendent perfections — alms, morals, science, energy, 
patience, charity — a man might hope to arrive at the 
state of Nirvana — repose or annihilation. Existence 
is viewed as a curse rather than a blessing; and the 
endless transmigrations through.other beings that have 
to be endured, are causes of suffering; and hence the 
highest object of desire is to be delivered from the ne¬ 
cessity of being born again. There are five moral pre¬ 
cepts of universal obligations, viz., not to kill, not to 
steal, not to commit adultery, not to lie, and not to be 
drunken; but there are others more strict for those en¬ 
tering upon a religious life. — There is not in the whole 
doctrine of B. the least appearance of a belief in God, and 
when it is supposed that it admits the absorption of the 
human soul into the divine essence, it is a gratuitous 
admission, entirely contrary to the ideas of Buddha. 


He ignores God so utterly that he not once thinks of de. 
nying him; he does not destroy him, he is silent regard¬ 
ing him; neither explaining the origin and previous 
existence of man, nor his present state, nor offering 
conjecture as to his future fate and final liberation. 
The Buddhist knows not God in any way, and wholly 
occupied with his own heroic aspirations and self-sym¬ 
pathies, he has never looked up so high nor so far. 
Again, and on the authority of the Sutras (or doctrinal 
discourses and apophthegms of Buddha), it must be 
maintained that Buddhism does not admit the immor¬ 
tality of the soul any more than it admits God. No 
Buddhic text can be produced in which the simplest 
distinctiveness of the human soul and body is stated, 
or, indeed, would seem to be even suspected. Death is 
but a modification as fallacious as the rest of these 
matters. It is held that man, unless he follow the 
creed of B., is revivified in one species of being or an¬ 
other, according to his merits, but that no special des¬ 
tiny is provided here for his body or there for his soul. 
The soul may be transmigrated into another body, 
it is true, but it is not more divided from the latter 
than it was from the former one; it never exists with¬ 
out corporeal entity, (not even in that famous heaven 
of Tousliita, where the gods of the Brahmanic Pan¬ 
theon sit on their thrones, promiscuously with the in¬ 
numerable Bodhisattvas of the Buddhist superstition.) 
It must be remembered, however, that this teaching, 
absurd and to be deplored as it is, was nothing new in 
itself when first proclaimed and publicly preached as B:, it 
is known to have been started by the school of Sankhya, 
from Kalpa, or Kapila,vrho is identical with Sankhya the 
godless, or, as he is called by the Brahmans, Nerievara ; 
the Sankhya, long before the rise of B., taught the lib¬ 
eration of man by means of science and of virtue, but 
the absorption of the human soul into God, who was ex¬ 
cluded from his system, could not be possible; then 
what did he do with the soul, and what does it become 
when redeemed ? On this point, the only one of impor¬ 
tance, the philosopher was silent, and his reticence 
darkened his solution with doubt and uncertainty that 
B. cleared away. The soul, or rather that compound 
of soul and body called man. is not really liberated un¬ 
less annihilated; for, if the least atom of it should re¬ 
main, the soul might still be revived into one of the 
numberless appearances pertaining to existence, and 
its pretended liberation would be but an illusion like so 
many others of the same kind. The only abode and the 
only reality is annihilation: from that state nothing re¬ 
turns ; and once resting in the Nirvana, the soul has no 
longer anything to fear or to hope. From this point of 
view, B. is no longer that monstrous doctrine the exist¬ 
ence of which we would willingly doubt. No, it is not a 
spontaneously formed doctrine; step by step India 
reached the attainment of it. The Sankhya approaching 
to the rejection of the authority of the Vedas and the deny¬ 
ing of God was not self-constituted in one day. Ages of 
examination and controversy had to elapse to produce it, 
hideous as it is. The Buddha was at once the most logi¬ 
cal and the boldest of Kapila’s disciples. He perfected 
the teaching of the school, and published it for the sal¬ 
vation of mankind for whom his big heart overflowed 
with pity; but he did not discover the whole of it, ha 
must share the responsibility, if not the glory, of it, 
with his predecessor Kapila. Buddha has but reproduced 
those sad principles, urging them to the utmost, with 
a severity that plunged him headlong into the abyss, not 
unseen nor perhaps unfeared by the philosopher; such 
is the true meaning of all the Buddhic Sutras. The 
Nirvana is always introduced and presented as the eter¬ 
nal liberation, the infallible ending of all miseries and 
revivifyings, through the annihilation of all the princi¬ 
ples which compose man. The Sutras must be believed; 
their language may be hard to understand, but clear¬ 
ness in this matter would be surprising. The idea of 
absolute extinction is full of mystery, and consequently 
the terms intended to depict it shed but a dubious and 
sinister light. But the Sutras are the best, we should 
say, the only authority, and they are not more objec¬ 
tionable than the Gospel would be when the Christian 
faith is to be expounded. It sometimes happens that, 
in new legends, the production of imaginative chroni¬ 
clers, Buddhic personages are represented as escaping, 
replete with life, from the Nirvana, in which cases the 
Nirvana would appear to be other than nothingness; 
but when grave doctors learnedly treat these matters, 
they speak always of the Nirvana as we have done, viz., 
as the land of oblivion and annihilation. It is true, how¬ 
ever, that they take more care to speak of what is not, 
than of what really is; the idea of nothingness finding 
a very imperfect expression in the disordered and excit¬ 
ed imagination of the Buddhist monks: truer to nature 
than their own narrations, they forget, that, having 
confined them in an everlasting prison, they reclaim from 
their retreat of oblivion those holy men whose existence 
they had previously annihilated It appears that Bud¬ 
dha himself never understood the Nirvana in any other 
light; if even the explanations of it have been since al¬ 
tered, the original character of the doctrine remains un¬ 
changed The schools still in existence at Nepaul are to 
be considered as truthful witnesses, when we have before 
us the primitive monuments. No doubt, B. has been, and 
is even now actually modifying its own dogmas. By B., it 
must be understood, we mean that doctrine founded by 
Buddha himself which is adopted iu the canonical works. 
This, as we understand it, is the B. of the Theory of An¬ 
nihilation. In the progress of time, the Buddhists con¬ 
ceived an Adhibuddha, resembling our own Supreme 
Being: but it does not follow from this that the Buddha 
of Ourovilva and Bodhimanda, &c. has ever thought 
of God. To the preceding we may add the testimony of 
























45 C 


BUDD 


BUEL 


BUEi\ 


the Brahmans, who call tlieir opponents, the Buddhists, 
“ Men of Nothingness ” ( Nastikas), which reproach they 
accept as a title of honor; and the testimony of their 
best philosophical work, known as the Pradyndpa- 
ramita, in which we are taught that the supreme degree 
of human knowledge is the negation of the known ob¬ 
ject and knowing subject, a perfect vacuity of all exist¬ 
ence and all knowledge. So we have manifold proofs 
that the Nirvana is but another name for Annihilation ; 
and in this the missionaries, both Catholic and Protes¬ 
tant, as Mr. Spence Hardy, Father Brigandet, Father Jos. 
Mullens, and M. Wassilieff, who resided many years in 
India, agree with M. Barthelemy St. Hilaire. In China, 
the same opinion prevails, and in the works of Confu¬ 
cius, or Lao-Tsen, we do not discover even a faint idea 
of God; and if the Chinese are absolutely atheists, we 
must confess that they are very reticent on this subject. 
The modern Tai-pings, who endeavor to plant the Chris¬ 
tian Trinity in their country, are considered as religious 
innovators, not less than rebels. B. has been a success 
in the Celestial empire, and produced remarkable men. 
Some may object that the idea of God and the Immortal¬ 
ity of the Soul being, so to speak,co-natural to man, the 
explanation given here of the Buddhic belief can not be 
true. But this theory, noble and rational as it is, should 
not prevail against matters of fact. We have among us 
men of intellect who do not hesitate to profess infidelity 
both as regards the Deity and our own immortality. 
Buddha was one of these earnest but, we hope, deluded 
thinkers. B. is not only an opinion, but also a religion; 
and the admission by it of such singular opinions can be 
explained by the influence of the religious leaders, and 
the weakness of those numerous populations, who, tired 
of a life of poverty and subjection, and fearing to bo 
transformed by metempsychosis into the several species 
of animals who dwell beneath the sky, have sought re¬ 
fuge in the state of utter nonentity. They are terrified by 
the prospect of passing through a series of suffering ex¬ 
istences, and their only remedy, as they conceive, is to 
seek the place, the Nirvana, where transformation shall 
be an impossibility. Christianity has taught us better 
principles; it has supplied us with ideas to live by, with 
hopes to live for; but because we are the superiors of 
these unbelievers, have we any cause to declare them 
foreign to humanity? Their books and teaching are er¬ 
roneous and defective, but still merit some respect. The 
Veda comes immediately after the Bible, and the misfor¬ 
tune of B. has been in repudiating the principles of 
the former. But Brahmanic India did not succeed much 
better than the Buddhic, and could not raise from their 
sacred seeds the promised fruits. At first the Aryans 
were the brethren of our ancestors who sprung like 
them from the N.W. of the Himalayas: they were then 
equal, but the progress of ages worked against them, 
and while the Western nations had their development 
into superior civilization recorded by history, the Aryan 
races proper could not rise above the Vedic faith, and 
they bore B. in their bosom, a quasi-legitimate son, but 
despised and banished.— In conclusion, it must be said 
in favor of B., that, where it took root, it imparted 
to the people who received it some ideas of morality, 
which made them less ignorant and degraded. Christ 
alone excepted, there is not among the founders of re¬ 
ligious creeds a purer and more touching figure than 
that of Buddha. His life is spotless, his heroic constan¬ 
cy equals his convictions, and though the theory he an¬ 
nounces be untrue, his personal example is above re¬ 
proach. He is the perfect pattern of all the excellences 
he preaches; his self-abnegation, charity, meekness, do 
not falter for a moment. Leaving the court of the king, 
his father, to become a monk and a beggar, he prepares 
for his career of preaching by six years of seclusion and 
meditation ; he extends his doctrine by his strength of 
mind and persuasion of speech, and when he dies in the 
arms of his disciples, he presents the serene counte¬ 
nance of a sage who did well throughout, and dies secure 
in the possession of the truth. The nations who adopt¬ 
ed his tenets never thought of making a divinity ,of 
him, for their ideas were foreign to such a notion, but 
they made him a prototype whom they strove to imi¬ 
tate, and hence B. could produce some few souls worthy 
of holding companionship with those admired and re¬ 
vered by mankind. 

Buildll'ist, n. A worshipper of Buddha; a believer in 
Buddhism. 

Budrth'ist, Buddhis'tic, a. Relating to Buddha or 
Buddhism. 


JSud'ding, n. (Hort .) A peculiar mode of grafting, in 
which a leaf-bud is used instead of a young twig or 
scion. The bud to be employed is cut out of the branch 
along with a small portion of the bark aad young wood, 
and the woody part is then carefully separated (Fig. 441, 
a). Two incisions are made in the bark of the stock, in¬ 
tended to receive the bud (b) ; the bark is raised on both 
sides of the longitudinal cut, and the bud, with its 
shield of bark, is inserted in such a way that the upper 
edge of the shield 
joins exactly to the 
transverse cut in the 
bark of the stock (c). 

The leaf in the axil of 
which the bud grew 
is cut off, and the 
newly inserted bud is 
for a while held in 
its place by strands 
of bass matting. If 
the bud is sufficiently 
matured, and if the 
bark attached to it 
is properly fitted to 



BUDDING. 


that of the stock, the operation is almost sure to be suc¬ 
cessful. This is by far the most common method of B. 
It is generally distinguished as shield-B. Another 
method, called scallop-B.. consists in removing entirely 
a thin slip of bark from the stock, and fitting into the 
wound a similar slip bearing the bud. The proper time 
for B. is a little after midsummer, when the bud is per¬ 
fectly formed. The process is particularly well adapted 
for trees which are apt to exude gum when wounded, as 
the plum, cherry, peach, and stone-fruits in general; 
also for roses and many other flowering shrubs. The 
It.-knife has a point like a lancet, and the handle gen¬ 
erally terminates in a thin ivory blade, to be used for 
raising the bark of the stock. The effects of B. are pre¬ 
cisely similar to those of Grafting, q. v. 

Bud die, n. (Mining.) A pit dug in the earth near the 
stamping-mill, 7 feet long and 1% feet deep, where the 
stamped tin is curiously washed from its impurities by 
water constantly running through the huddle, while a 
boy, called a buddle-boy, is standing in the body of it, 
and working both with a shovel and with his feet. 

— v. a. To wash, as ore. 

Buddlea, ( bud-le'a,) n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, ord. 
Bcnrphulariacece. The species are shrubs, natives of the 
warmer regions of the world, and are remarkable for 
their gay and sweet-scented orange-colored flowers. B. 
neemda is said to be one of the most beautiful plants of 
India. B. globosa, a native of Chili, is burly enough to 
endure a temperate climate, and has become a common 
ornament of our gardens. 

Rudd’s Creell, in Maryland, a P. 0. of St. Mary’s co. 

Hilda's Fake, in New Jersey, a P. 0. of Morris co. 

Budds'town, in New Jersey , a village of Burlington 
co., 8 m. from Mount Holly. 

Budd'ville, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Centre co. 

Biute Light, n. A term applied to various forms of 
oil and gas-burners contrived by Mr. Gurney, of Bude, 
hi Cornwall. 

Budge, ( buj,) v. a. [Fr. bouger, from O. Ger. wegan, to 
move.] To move off; to stir; to wag. 

— n. [0. Fr. bouge, fur.] The dressed skin or fur of lambs. 

— a. [Probably from the aspect of the ancient scholastic 
habit, which was lined with bouge.) Surly; stiff; formal. 

11 0 foolishness of men ! that lend their ears 
To those budge doctors of the stoic fur.” — Milton. 

Budge-bachelor, n. One of a company of men 
dressed in a long gown lined with lambs’ fur, who ac¬ 
company the Lord Mayor of London at his inauguration. 

Budge'-barrel, n. A small barrel used in carrying 
gunpowder. 

Budg' er, n. One who budges. 

Budget, (bud'jet.) [Fr., from bougette.] A bag or satchel, 
such as may be easily carried. — A pocket used by 
tilers for holding the nails in lathing before tiling.— A 
stock or store. 

—A condensed statement of the income and expenditure 
of a nation, or of any particular public department. A 
B. contains two leading elements — astatement how the 
nation’s account of charge and discharge stands in rela¬ 
tion to the past, and an explanation of the probable ex¬ 
penditure of the ensuing year, with a scheme of the 
method in which it is to be met, whether by the exist¬ 
ing or new taxes, or by a loan. In England, the annual 
B. is submitted to Parliament by the Chancellor of the 
Exchequer. In France, it is submitted at first at the 
Chambre des Deputts by the Ministre des Finances. In 
both countries the presentation of the B. gives rise to 
the discussion of the most important questions of politi¬ 
cal finance. 

Bud'let, n. [From Bud.] A small bud springing from 
a larger one. 

Budukhistan, (bud-uk'his-tan'',) a prov. of Central 
Asia, now a dependency of the Khan of Klioondooz, be¬ 
tween Lat. 36° and 38° N., and Lon. 70° 30' and 72° 30' 
E.; having N. and N.E a chain of mountains inhabited 
by tribes claiming a Macedonian origin; S.E. and S. the 
Bolor-Tagh mountains and the high country of the Can- 
firs, and W. the other territories of Klioondooz. The 
scenery of this country and its natural productions are 
highly spoken of; it contains ruby mines and cliffs of 
lapis-lazuli. Its inhabitants are Tadjiks; very social 
and hospitable, speaking the Persian language, and re¬ 
taining the manners and customs prevalent N. of the 
Hindoo-Coosh before the Tartar invasion. The cap., 
also called Budukliistan, or Tyzdbad, is on the E. bank 
of the river Koocha, in Lat. 36° 28' N., Lon. 71° 23' E., 
and its inhabitant, are of the Shiak sect. This country 
was almost destroyed and depopulated by an earthquake 
in 1832. 

Budweis, (bua wise,) a town of Bohemia, cap. of a circle 
of the same name, on the right bank of the Moldau, 75 
m. S. of Prague and 159 N.W. of Vienna. Man/. Wool¬ 
lens, damask, saltpetre, and musical instruments. Pop. 
25,000. ^ 

Bu'el, in New York, a P. O. of Montgomery co. 

Bit'el, in Michigan, a post-township of Sanilac co., 8 m. 
W. of Lexington. 

Bu'ell, Don Carlos, an American military commander, 
b. in Ohio, in 1819, took his degree at West Point in 
1841, and entered the U. States army as 2d lieutenant of 
infantry. He highly distinguished himself during the 
Mexican war at the battle of Monterey, where he was 
dangerously wounded. In 1848 he was appointed asst, 
adj. general in Texas. During the civil war, B. was 
made lieut.-col. of the adj.-general’s dept., and placed 
by Gen. McClellan at the head of 12,000 men in the dept, 
of the Ohio, relieving Gen. Sherman. He co-operated 
with Gen. Grant in the advance on Forts Henry and 
Donelson, and, in 1862, was placed in command of five 
divisions, with which he advauced in time to take part 


in the second day’s battle of Shiloh, and was engage! 
in various important operations till the close of the war. 

Buena, (bwa’na,) in Ohio, a post-office of Van Wert co. 

Buenaventura, (bwd-na-ven-too'ra,) a small town of 
s Mexico, state of Chihuahua; Lat. 29° 55' N., Lon. 106° 

i 30' W. At about 10 m. N.W. of this place there are 

ruins covering an area of several square miles, called 
Casas Grandes. The ancient town to which they be¬ 
longed was evidently very large, and inhabited by a 
comparatively civilized people. 

Buenaventu'ra, a small maritime village of S. Ame¬ 
rica, in New Granada, on the bay of Choco; only im¬ 
portant as being the port for a large tract of country. 

Buena Ventura, in California. See San Buena 
Ventura. 

Buena Vista, (bwa'na-vees'ta.) [Span., “ fine view.”] 
The name of several places in Mexico, at one of which, 
7 m. from Saltillo, and 90 S.W. of Monterey, occurred, 
Feb. 22-23, 1847, a great battle between the Ameri¬ 
cans, numbering about 6,000 men, under Gen. Taylor, 
and a force of 20,000 Mexicans, under Santa Anna, in 
which the latter were utterly defeated. The American 
loss was small. This action has beeai also called the 
Battle of La Angostura. 

Buena Vista, in Alabama, a village of Monroe co. 

Buena Vista, in A rkansas, a post-office of Ouachita ca 

Buena Vista, in California, a post-village of Amador 
co., 13 m. S.W. of Jackson. 

Buena Vista, in Georgia, a post-village and township, 
cap. of Marion co., 101 m. S.W. of Milledgeville, and 33 
S.E. of Columbus. 

Buena Vista, in Illinois, a township of Schuyler 

county. 

—A post-village of Stephenson co., 10 m. N.N.E. of 
Freeport. 

Buena Vista, in Indiana, a village of Franklin co., U 
m. W. of Brookville. 

—A village of Gibson co., on White River, 110 m. S.8.W. 
of Indianapolis. 

—A village of Hamilton co., 12 m. N. of Noblesville. 

—A village of Harrison co., on Mosquito Creek. 

—A village of Monroe co., 13 m. S.W. of Bloomington. 

—A village of Pulaski co., on Tippecanoe River. 

—A village of Randolph co., 8 m. S.W. of Winchester. 

—A village of Washington co., 8 m. N.W. of Salem. 

Buena Vista, in Iowa, a village of Clayton co., 80 m 
N.N.E. of Iowa City. 

—A township of Jasper co. 

—A post-office of Clinton co., 46 m. E. by N. of Iowa City. 

—A N.W. county embracing an area of 576 sq. m., and 
drained by the Racoon and Little Sioux rivers, and soma 
smaller streams. Cap. Storm Lake. 

Buena \ ista, in Maryland, a post-office of Calvert 
county. 

Buena Vista, in Michigan, a village of Saginaw co., 
on the river of the same name. 

Buena Vista, in Mississippi, a post-village of Chicka¬ 
saw co., 11 m. E. of Houston. 

Buena Vista, in New York, a P. 0. of Steuben co. 

Buena Vista, in Ohio, a post-office of Tuscarawas co. 

—A village of Fayette co., on Rattlesnake Creek, 46 in. 
S.W. of Columbus. 

—A village of Scioto co., on the Ohio River, 100 m. from 
Cincinnati. 

Buena Vista, in Oregon, a post-office of Polk co. 

Buena Vista, in Pennsylvania, a village of Bed¬ 
ford co. 

—A village of Lancaster co. 

— A post-office of Alleghany co. 

Buena Vista. in Tennessee, a post-village of Carroll 
co., 96 m. W. of Nashville. 

Buena Vista, in Texas, a village of Shelby co., 20 m. 
W. of Sabine River. 

Buena Vista, in Wisconsin, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Portage co., 7 m. S.E. of Stanton, on the Cen¬ 
tral railroad, 10 m. S. of Steven s Point. 

—A township of Richland county, on the Wisconsin 
River. 

Buena Vista Bar, in Idaho, an unimportant mining 
village of Boise county, situated about 2 miles from 
Idaho City. 

Buena Vista Furnace, in Virginia, a post-office 

of Rockbridge co. 

Buena Vista Spring's, in Kentucky, a post-office 

of Logan co. 

Buen Ayre, or Bon Air, one of the Dutch islands, in 
the W. Indies, about 30 m. E. of Curasao, Lat. 12° 20' N., 
Lon. 68° 27' W. It has a tolerable harbor on its S.W. 
side. Pop. abt. 3,000. 

Buenos Ayres, (bo'nos a'riz.) [Span., “ good air.”] A 
prov. of the Argentine Republic, extending from the 
Rio Negro, on the S., in Lat. 41° S. to the prov. of 
Santa Fe, on the N., in Lat. 33° S.; and from the Atlantic 
Ocean on the W. to the upper waters of the Talquin 
River, and the W. limit of the Sierra Ventana, or a 
breadth N. to S. of about 540 m., and a length E. to W. 
of 750 m. Area, 63,000 sq. m. This prov. presents an 
almost uniform level surface of vast extent, forming 
what is commonly called the Pampas, and yielding per¬ 
haps the finest area of rich and open pasture in the 
world. It is, consequently, the habitat of immense 
herds of wild cattle and horses, which, in a merchant¬ 
able form, afford the staple commerce of the territory. 
Grain, fruits, and vegetables are also thriving products 
of some parts of the prov., though cereal crops are not 
cultivated to any great extent; while the latter are 
chiefly produced on the shores of the River La Plata, in 
the neighborhood of the city of Buefios Ayres. In theS. 
portion of the prov. a vast number of saline lakes are 
interspersed over the surface of the country, which is 
here almost uninhabited, except by roving Indian 





















BUFF 


BUFF 


BUFF 


457 


6 *ibes. The climate is, in general, healthy, though at 
times rendered almost unbearable by the hot winds, 
called pamperos, which strongly resemble the sirocco of 
-lie eastern hemisphere. As before Btated, cattle and 
norses, and their prepared produce, as hides, tallow, 
horns, jerked beef, &c., form the principal wealth of the 
prov., and are largely exported to foreign countries. 
‘Okie/ town, Buenos Ayres. This prov., in common with 
the other Spanish-American states, became independent 
■ot Spain in 1870, and formed part of the Argentine Re¬ 
public until 18.34, when it seceded, but in 1860 resumed 
its allegiance to the republic. Pop., 1904,1,312,953. 

Suenos Ayres, a maritime city, cap. ot the above prov., 
and of the Argentine Republic, is situate on the S. Vf , 
shore of the great estuary of La Plata, 125 miles W. 
by N. of Monte Video, and 90 N. W. of Point Piedras; 
Lat. 34° 36' 29" S., Lon. 58° 23' 34" W. The city stands 
on a bank elevated about 20 ft. above the level of the 
river, having a length of upwards of 2 m., with a cen¬ 
tral breadth of \]/ 2 m. It is built in a rectangular form, 
and is a tolerably well paved, lighted, and drained city, 
great improvements having been made in late years. 
The houses are tolerably well built, after the Spanish 
fashion, and are surrounded by gardens; though some 
quarters of the city, inhabited by the lower classes of 
inhabitants, present a mean and squalid appearance. 
Water until lately, was bad ; but now the supply is ex¬ 
cellent. The principal public buildings are the Cathedral, 
in the Plaza, University, the Government buildings, 
new Post Office, Ac. Like every other large Spanish- 
American town, it possesses a multiplicity of churches 
and convents, many of which have an attractive aspect. 
Nearly all these buildings are erected of fine white 
stone. B. A. has hitherto had no harbor, and vessels 
drawing 16 or 17 ft. anchor in the outer roads, called the 
Amarradero, 7 or 8 m. from the shore, loading and dis¬ 
charging by means of lighters. One of the chief points 
of lading and discharge for ships trading with B. is 
Ensenada, on the estuary of La Plata, distant 35 m. by 
Sail. It is the principal outlet for the produce of the 
vast countries traversed by the La Plaia, and especially 
for the provinces situated on its right bank, the trade of 
which is constantly increasing. The markets of this 
city are well supplied generally', but poultry, vegetables, 
and fruits are dear. Education obtains to a noticeable 
extent, and the city supports numerous schools; few 
children of 10 or 12 years of age being found who are 
unable to read and write. As might be presumed from 
its commercial importance, the element of a foreign 
resident population is here very marked, and no doubt 
tends chiefly to maintain the growing progress of its 
civilization. The geographical position of B. A. is such 
jas to enable it completely to control the foreign com¬ 
mercial relations of the entire republic of which it 
terms a part. The exclusive policy which it has 
always pursued on this point has often involved it in 
serious quarrels, not only with many of the South 
American States and the other provinces of the Argen¬ 
tine Republic, but with England and France. Since 
the expulsion of Gen. Rosas, the navigation of the 
Parana and Uruguay has l-een thrown open, and other 
measures have been taken to place both the province 
and city of B. A. on a level with the other provinces 
of the republic. The population in 1904 was 979,236— 
3. A. was founded by the Spaniards under Don 
^edro de Mendoza, in 1534; but, in consequence of the 
opposition of the Indians to the settlement, it was not 
permanently colonized till 1580. In 1620, it was erected 
into a bishopric, and in 1700 contained 16,000 inhabi¬ 
tants. In 1776, it was made the seat of the vice-royalty 
of La Plata, and in 1778, upon the trade of the river 
being thrown open by Spain, it began rapidly to aug¬ 
ment in importance. In 1806 it was taken by the 
British, and retaken by the Spaniards. See Argentine 
Republic. 

$net, (L,e,) ( boo'ai,) one of the Alps of Savoy, between 
Chamounixand Sixt, to the N. of Mont Blanc, with an 
elevation of 10,128 feet above sea. 

Suff, n. [Contracted from buffalo, or baffle.'] Leather 
prepared from the skin of the buffalo, elk, &c., by im¬ 
buing it w'ith an aluminous compound, and afterwards 
some oily matter, such as yolk of egg: formerly much 
Used for waist-belts and other military accoutrements.— 
A military coat formerly worn by soldiers, made of buff 
or other strong leather; as, a trooper in buff and breast¬ 
plate. 

\ wolf, nay worse, a fellow all in buff.” — Shaks. 

ix»A color somewhat between pink and primrose yellow; 
as, he wore a suit of buff. (In England, the costume of 
the Whig or Liberal party was, until comparatively a 
recent date, a blue coat, and buff vest, or waistcoat.) 
a It's gtide to support Caledonia’s cause. 

And bide by the buff and the blue.” — Burns. 

<=>A buffet, ( q . v .)—The nude skin; as, to be stripped to the 

buff. 

(Mech.) A wheel coated with buff-leather, and used in 
polishing cutlery, &c. 

(Med.) A yellow, viscid substance, which, in inflam¬ 
mation, forms on the blood. 

<»<z. Of the color of buff leather; light yellow.—Made of 
buff leather; as, a 6«//yjerkin.—Sturdy; valiant; reso¬ 
lute. 

44 And for the good old cause stood huff 

'Gainst many a bitter kick and cuff. Hudihras • 

&V. cl To strike. See Buffet. 

Buffalo, n.; pi. Buffaloes. [It. bufolo; Sp .buffalo.] 
(Zobl .) Under this title we have to describe the Bison 
and the Buffalo, two very distinct species of the genus 
Ox, hut which are often confounded, at least as far as 
concerns the Bos Americanus, commonly called Buffalo, 


though a true Bison.—1. The European Bison, called 
by naturalists Bos Bison, Bos Urus, or Bos Priscus — 
called also Aurochs (Ger., wild ox)—is now chiefly found 
in the marshy forests of Poland, the Carpathian moun¬ 
tains, and Lithuania. It is as large as a bull, but looks 
much bigger, on account of its wealth of shaggy hair, 
and is ten times as formidable, because of its tremen¬ 
dous strength and intense ferocity. Its head is small; 
its horns short, sharp, and strong; and its eyes red and 



Fig. 442.— American bison, (buffalo ; 


(Bos Americanus.) 

fiery. The color of its hide is rufous-brown.—The 
American bison (Bos Americanus), commonly called the 
American butlalo is larger than the European species, 
and, though usually shy and pacific when let alone, is 
fierce when provoked. The hair about its neck and 
shoulders is bushier, and of a fine texture. The bump, 
which is oblong, diminishes in height towards the tail, 
lending a considerable obliquity to the outline of the 
back. On the crown of the head the hair rises in an im¬ 
mense mass, and shows in thick, close curls before the 
horns; below the chin the hair grows like a heard, and 
falls as low as the knees. The Bison differs from all 
varieties of the common Ox, in the arched line of the 
back, which rises in a sudden elevation behind the neck: 
the hump, which is formed, not consisting, however, of 
mere fat, but in great part of the very thick and strong 
muscles which support the large head. Its horns are 
short, tapering,very distant, spreading, and a little curved 
inwards at the point. The figure of the forehead differs 
also from that of the Ox in its greater breadth, and in 
its convex profile. Another important anatomical dif¬ 
ference is in the number of ribs, of which the Bison has 
14 pair, while the Ox has only 13. Formerly immense 
herds of bisons roamed over the vast plains of the west, 
the prey of Indian hunters, and later the helpless 
victims of the whites. As late as 1870 there were still 
millions of them, but after that time the value of their 
hides and the thirst for killing caused such a terrific on¬ 
slaught upon them that by 1884 they were nearly exterm¬ 
inated, only a few scattered animals remaining. Such 
an example of merciless and useless slaughter has never 
been paralleled in the history of the world. There is 
now a herd of only a few hundreds in Yellowstone Park, 
but certain ranchmen of the northwest have engaged 
in the rearing of these animals. See Sec. II.— 2. The 
Buffalo (Bos bubalus) differs from the bison in having uo 
hump on the back, and only a small dewlap on the breast. 
Besides tiiis it carries no shock of hair about its neck 
and shoulders. It is a native of the East Indies, from 
which it was carried to Egyptand the S. of Europe. They 
generally live in flocks of about a hundred, and affect 
marshy regions, both on account of the coarse but luxu¬ 
riant vegetation there to be found, as well as the oppor¬ 
tunity for a “mud” bath, of which the buffalo is re¬ 
markably fond. The way he indulges this ugly predi¬ 
lection is singular : throwing himself flat upon liis side 
in the mire, he shuffles round and round, the soil yield¬ 
ing to his immense weight the exudation of any moist¬ 
ure it may contain, till he manufactures for himself a 
delicious basin of mortar covering him to his very eyes. 
When he emerges and has basked a while in the sun, he 
looks like some hideous slack-baked clay image. This 
manoeuvre, however, is not without its purpose. Among 
the rank vegetation, and in the air, swarm millions of 
stinging flies, and until the buffalo’s mud coat peels off 
through long wear, he is as impregnable to their attacks 
as the clay image he represents- The buffalo is one 



Fig. 443. — buffalo, (Bos bubalus.) 


among the very few animals who manifest no fear at the 
approach of the tiger; indeed, sportsmen concur that 
unless a tiger be full-grown and in possession of all his 
strength, he will not venture to attack the bull buffalo. 
Should the tiger, made desperate by bunger, r.ttaclsa: 


herd of buffaloes, bis fate is certain. The whole herd 
will band against the common foe, and; assailing him 
with hoofs and horns, rend his striped hide to gory rib¬ 
ands, and trample him maimed and crushed into the 
mire. — The Cape Buffalo (Bos Caff re), found in large 
herds in the interior of S. Africa, is generally regarded 
as a different species. The horns are very large; they 
spread horizontally over the top of the head, aud are 
then bent down laterally, and turned upwards at the 
point. This animal is regarded as more formidable tliaD 
any other in S. Africa; and the hunter will more readily 
risk an encounter with a lion than offer any provocation 
to a B. without great advantages for the combat, or 
great facilities for escape/ The hide is so thick and 
tough that the Caffres make shields of it, impenetrable 
to musket-shot; and the balls used by the huntsmen in 
shooting the animal are mixed with tin, aud yet are 
often flattened by the resistance. 

Buf fiilo, in Ark., a twp. of Marion co.—A P.0, of 
Washita co.—In 111., a twp. of Ogle co., 16 ni. W.S.W. 
of Oregon City.—A twp. of Rock Island co.—In Bid., 
a vill. of Brown co., 50 m. S. of Indianapolis.—A P.O. 
cf White co.—In Iowa, a p.-vill. and twp. of Scott co., 
50 m. E.S.E of Iowa City, on the Mississippi River.—In 
Kansas, a P.O. of Wilson co.—In Ky., a P.O. of La Rue 
co.—In Minnesota, a p.-vill. aud twp. of Wright co., 44 
m. W.N.W. of St. Paul.—Iu Missouri, a p.-vill., cap. of 
Dallas co., 4 m. W. of Niangua River, 35 ni. N. by E. of 
Springfield.—In N. C., a vill. of Randolph co., 65 m. W. 
of Raleigh, on Deep River.— In Nebraska, a central 
county, bounded on the S. by Platte River, and drained 
by Loup ForUand other streams; area, abt.2,000 sq.m.; 
surface, undulating; soil, various.—A post-village of 
Dawson co., near Platte River, 40 m. W.N. W. of 
Omaha. 

Buffalo, in New York, a city, port of entry, and seat 
of justice of Erie co., at tlie E. extremity of Lake Erie, 
where it contracts into Niagara River, 22 m. S. of Niagara 
Falls, aud 422 m. by rail N.W. of New York City. The 
town stands partly on a low marshy tract, intersected 
by Buffalo Creek, which forms its harbor, and partly 
on an elevated terrace, leading to a still higher plateau. 
The principal streets descend from the high ground 
over the terrace towards the creek and harbor, and are 
crossed by the others generally at right angles. It is 
finely situated, well built and drained; the houses in 
the principal streets are lofty, substantial, and usually 
of brick or stone. B. possesses 600 r.cres in handsome 
public parks and drives. Conspicuous among its publio 
buildings are the Insane Asylum, erected at a cost of 
$1,500,000, said to be the largest in the U. S., if not in 
the world; the State Arsenal, Custom House, New City 
Hall and Court House, completed in 1877 at a cost of 
$1,400,000; Penitentiary,Young Men’s Association Hall, 
with a library of over 30,000 vols.; Academy of Natural 
Sciences, with a fine museum and library; the Academy 
of Fine Arts, the Historical Society, with a free library ; 
the Grosvenor Free Library, besides several imposing 
banking and insurance edifices and private residences, 
that of Mr Fargo costing $500,000. B. lias also 14 
asylums for the widow, orphans, &c., 5 hospitals, 5 dis¬ 
pensaries, and numerous other benevolent associations; 
over 20 cemeteries, Forest Lawn being conspicuous for 
its size and beauty, it adjoins the Park; 97 churches, 
St. Paul’s (Epis.) costing $250,000, St. Joseph’s (R. C.), 
each with fine chime of bells; the Delaware Avenue 
(Methodist), are among the most striking. The first 
church edifice erected in B. was in 1806, by the Method¬ 
ists. The city has about 28 newspapers. B. is pre¬ 
eminent for its extensive manufacturing interests, and 
its importance as a great entrepot of the Western trade, 
commanding, as it does, the navigation of the great 
upper lakes of this continent. Iron forms a leading 
feature of industry, aud its blast furnaces, rolling-mills, 
foundries, and stove works, are among the largest in 
the U. S. Distilleries, malting breweries, and flour¬ 
mills flourish here. But it is to its immense traffic 
in grain that B. owes much of its importance aud 
wealth. Its creek is navigable for about eight miles, 
and admits vessels drawing 14 feet of water. A pier, 
extending 1,500 ft., with a light-house upon it, facilitates 
ingress and egress. Still, however, the harbor is not ac¬ 
cessible at all seasons, especially in the winter, on ac¬ 
count of the accumulation of ice at the end of the lake. 
This ice, in spring, is pushed forward to B. by the SW. 
winds, and causes a late opening of navigation. The 
enormous increase during tiie lust few years in the re¬ 
ceipts of grain at this port have originated tiie estab¬ 
lishment of great elevators, for its reception and storage; 
these, some 43 in number, are conveniently located 
along both sides the creek, and have an aggregate ca¬ 
pacity for storage of about 14,000,000 bushels, and daily 
transfer capacity of over 4 , 000,000 bushels, unsurpassed 
by any port in this or any other country. The largest 
of these affords storage-room for 1 , 000,000 bush¬ 
els of grain. B. was an inconsiderable place previously 
to 1812, in which year it was a military frontier station. 
Its destruction, in 1814, was effected by a party of 
British and Indians ; but in 1817 it was resuscitated. 
In 1832, it was incorporated as a city, and divided intc 
Swards (now 13 wards), with tiie municipal govt, vested 
in the Mayor and Common Council chosen annually by 
the citizens. The International Bridge, from B. to 
Fort Erie, Canada, % of a mile long, was completed in 
1873, at a cost of $1,500,000. The city is supplied with 
water through a tunnel extending to the middle of 
Niagara river, and with power and light from the 
great electric plant at Niagara Falls. A fine series of 
parks are connected by boulevards which encircle the 
city. Bufialo was in 1901 the scat of the attractive 
Pcm-Amoriccn Exposition, (q. v.) Pop. (1900) 352,387. 













453 


BUFF 


BUFF 


BUG 


Buffalo, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of Wash-! 
ington co., 30 m. S.W. of Pittsburg, on Buffalo Creek. 
Coal abounds. 

—A township of Union co. 

—A township of Butler co. 

—A township of Perry co. 

Buf'falo, in Tennessee, a village of Perry co.,on Buffalo 
River, 100 in. S.W. of Nashville. 

Buf'falo, in Texas, a post-village of Henderson co., on 
the Trinity River, 200 t.. N.E. of Austin City. 

Buffalo, in W. Virginia, a thriving post-village and 
township of Putnam co., on tne Great Kanawha River, 
310 m. W. by N. of Richmond. Coal and iron-ore are 
largely found in the vicinity. 

Buf'falo, in Wisconsin, a W. county, on the confines 
of Minnesota, with an area of 650 sq. m. It is watered 
by the Mississippi River (which bounds it on the N.W.), 
the Chippewa (on the Yv.,, and the Eagle and Tranpea- 
leau rivers. Surface. Diversified. Soil. Fertile. Cap. 
Alma. 

—A post-township of the above co., on the Mississippi, 5 
m. below Fountain City. 

—A village of the above co.. on the Mississippi, 8 m. from 
Alma. See Buffalo Ctti 

—A township of Marquette co. 

Buffalo Bayou, in Texas, flows E. through Harris 
co., and empties into Galveston Bay at Lynchburg. 
Steamers ascend as far up as Houston, 45 m. from its 
embouchure. 

Buffalo-berry, n. (Sot.) See S^epherdia. 

Buffalo-cllips, n. pi. The sun-dried excrement of 
the buffalo, used as fuel on the American plains. 

Buffalo City, in W<*"<msin, a post-village of Buffalo 
co., on the Mississippi mver, 8 m. from Alma. 

Buffalo-Clover, n. (But.) A name applied in the U. 
States to a species of Trifolium , common to the prairies 
where liisons (buffaloes ) feed. 

Buffalo Creek, in Georgia, Glynn co., falls into the 
Oconee River, 12 m. S.W. of Saudersville. 

Buffalo Creek, in Iowa, Buchanan co., empties into 
the Wapsinicon River, near Anamosa. 

Buffalo Creek, in Mississippi passes through Wil¬ 
kinson co., and empties into the Mississippi. 

Buffalo Creek, in N. Carolina, falls into Rocky 
River, in Cabarrus co., 12 m N. o f Concord. 

Buffalo Creek, in New York. Erie co., formed by 
Cayuga, Seneca,and Cazenove creeks, empties into Lake 
Erie at Buffalo. 

Buffalo Creek, in Pennsylvania, in the W. part of the 
State, flows into the Alleghany River, 25 m. N.E. of 
Pittsburg. — Another, in Perry co., empties into the 
Juniata River, 12 m. from its mouth. — A third, in 
Union co., falls, near LewisDurg, into the N. branch of 
the Susquehanna. 

Buffalo Creek, in S. Carolina , empties into Broad 
River, York district. 

Buffalo Cross Roads, in Pennsylvania, a post- 
office of Union co. 

Buffalo-fish, n (ZoGl.) See Tacrichthys. 

Buffalo Ford, in N. Carolina, a post-office of Ran¬ 
dolph co. 

Buffalo Forg e, in Virginia, a i'. 0. of Rockbridge co. 

Buffalo Fork, in Arkansas, a township of Marion 
co. 

Buffalo'Fork, in Iowa, a post-office of Kossuth co. 

Buffalo Grove, in Illinois, a village of Ogle co., 15 
m. W. by S. of Oregon City. 

Buffalo Grove, in Iowa, a P. 0. of Buchanan co. 

Buffalo Heart, in Illinois, a village of Sangamon 
co., 15 m. N.E. of Springfield. 

Buffalo Knob, in Missouri, a village of Pike co. 

Buffalo Fake, in Wisconsin, Marquette co., abt. 12 
m. long, connects with l'uckavva Lake. 

Buffalo Fake, in British N. America. The name of 
three lakes: one in Lat 66° 20' N., Lon. 113° W.; an¬ 
other in Lat. 56° N., Lon. 113° 45' W.; and the third in 
Lat. 52° 15' N„ Lon. 112° 10' YV. 

Buffalo Ulills, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of 
Bedford co. 

—In Virginia, a post-office of Rockbridge co. 

Buffalo Mountain, in Pennsylvania, Union co., in 
its N. part. 

BufTalo-nut, n. (Bot.) A name given in the U. States 
to the nut of Pirularia oleifera. 

Buffalo Paper Mill, in N. Carolina, a post-office 
of Cleveland co. 

Buffalo Plains, in New .. ork, a P. 0. of Erie co. 

Buffalo Prairie, in Illinois, a township of Rock Is¬ 
land co. 

Butralo'ra, a village of N. Italy, prov. of Lombardy, 
25 m. N.N.YV. of Pavia. There a magnificent bridge 
of 12 arches over the Ticino, that was partially blown 
up by the Austrians, at the beginning of the Italian 
campaign of 1859. 

Bufralo'ra, in W. Virginia, a P. 0. of Logan co. 

Buffalo Ridge, in Teniitssee, a post-office of YVash- 
ington co. 

Buffalo River, or RiVIiSre au Bceuf, ( re've-air'o-bif ,) 
in Missouri, flows through Gasconade and Franklin coun¬ 
ties, into the Missouri River. 

Buffalo River, in Tennessee., rising in the S.W. of 
the State, and taking a course YV. and N., empties into 
Duck River. 

Buffalo River, in Wisconsin, forms the boundary 
between La Crosse and Chippewa cos., and empties into 
the Mississippi. —Another stream. '’iwingS.W. through 
Chippewa co. into Chippewa River. 

Buffalo-robe, n. A buffalr '•’tin retaining the hair, 
prepared and used in N. America as a covering or gar > 
ment, and held, as such, in high estimation. j 

Buffalo Run, in Pennsylvania, a P. 0. of Centre co. 1 


Buffalo Shoals, in Virginia, a post-office of Wayne co. 

Buf faloville, in Indiana, a post-office of Spencer co. 

Buff-coat, n. A military outer garment worn in the 
17th century as a defensive covering. It was made of a 
thick and elastic material, as the buffalo-skin, had no 
sleeves, and was laced tightly over the chest. 

Buf'fcl-duck, n. (Zool.) The Anas bucephala of Linn., 
ord. Fuligula albeola of Audubon, a species of duck found 
in winter in the rivers of N. and S. Carolina; — so called 
from the fulness of the feathers about the head. 

BuFf’er, n. (Meek.) A rod with enlarged end or striking 
block, projecting from the ends of the frame of a rail¬ 
way carriage, and attached to springs, for deadening the 
force of concussion with any object of collision. 

Buffer-head, n. (Me.ch.) The head of the buffer of a 
railway carriage, which receives the force of a concussion. 

Buffet, (buffet,) n. [It. buffetto; O. Fr. buffe, a slap on 
the cheek. Formed from the sound.] A blow which 
produces a dull, hollow sound; a thump; a box on the 
ear; a slap; as, I gave him a good buffet. 

** Go, baffled coward, lest I run upon thee, 

And with one buffet lay thy structure low."— Milton. 

—Violent concussion, or meeting of force and resistance; 
as, the buffet of the waves. 

“ Those planks that used.,, to brave the buffets of the Bay of 
Biscay.” — Burks. 

—A small stool. 

— v. a. To strike so that the blow produces a dull sound ; 
to thump; to beat; to strike; to box on the ear; to cuff. 
“ Our ears are cudgelled; not a word of his 
But buffets better than a fist of France.”— Shaks. 

—To contend against; as, to buffet the frowns of fortune. 

“ And buffeting the billows to her rescue.”— Shaks. 

— v. i. To play in a boxing-match. 

“If I might buffet tor my love, I could lay on like a butcher." Shaks. 

—To strive to make one’s way by buffeting. 

Buffet (boo-fa'), n. [Fr.] A sideboard; hence, a place 
where light refreshments or drinks are served. 

Buffet-car, n. A railroad car which is supplied with 
a buffet. 

Buf feter, n. A boxer; one who buffets. 

Buf'fcting', n. A striking with the hand.— A series 
of blows; attack; assault. 

BuFfct-stool, n. A little portable seat, without arms 
or a back. 

Buf'fing'-appara'tus, n. (Mech.) See Buffer. 

Ruf fle-headed, a. Having a large head like a buf¬ 
falo; dull; stupid; obtuse; foolish. 

Buffo, Buf'fa, n.(Mus.) The term applied by the Ital¬ 
ians to an actor and singer who takes the humorous 
and ludicrous parts in their operas. There are two sorts 
of Buffos, — the buffo cantante, who has frequently an 
important part to play, requiring considerable musical 
talent, and the buffo comico, whose part consists more 
in acting. The term is also applied to the pieces them¬ 
selves ; as, opera buffa. a comic opera. 

BufTon, Georgs Louis LeCleuc, Comteve,( boof-fawng 1 ,) 
an illustrious French naturalist, b. at Montbard, 1707. 
Son of a counsellor of the Parliament of Dijon, he stu¬ 
died for the law; but his inclination led him into the 
paths of science, and he paid much attention to astron¬ 
omy and geometry. At the age of 20 he made the tour 
of Italy, visited England, and in 1735 published some 
translations from the English. In 1739 he was admitted 
into the Academy of Sciences, and appointed Superin¬ 
tendent of the Jardindes Plantes and Cabinet of Natural 
History, which, by his care, were considerably enriched 
and improved. Profiting by the resources of the estab¬ 
lishment over which he presided, he devoted himself en¬ 
tirely to the study of natural history. In 1749 appeared 
the first of his great works. Natural History, General 
and Particular, which was notcompleted till 1767, when 
it amounted to 15 vols. 4to., and 31 vols. 12nto. To it 
were afterwards added several volumes more by way of 
supplement. In 1771 appeared his History of Birds, and 
in the same year he was created a count. In 1773 he 
began his History of Minerals. D. 1788. The character 
of Bis mind seems to have been comprehensive, exhibit¬ 
ing an insatiable desire of knowledge joined with a per¬ 
severing fondness and appetite for study rarely to be 
found. To these gifts nature had added a most fervid 
imagination, and liis biographers have superadded no 
small portion of vanity. If by vanity be meant an 
anxious solicitude for a literary immortality, “ that last 
infirmity of noble minds,” which was continually be¬ 
traying itself, It. was without doubt a vain man. It. was 
of a noble countenance and commanding figure, and his 
fondness for magnificence and dress seem to have 
amounted almost to a passion. It is curious to observe 
such an intellect as his finding time, in the midst of the 
severest studies, to submit his head to the friseur often 
twice and sometimes three times in the day, and to 
make his toilet in the extreme of the fashion. Ilis de¬ 
votion to study soon ripened into a habit, and became 
his solace under the excruciating torments which em¬ 
bittered the last years of his life. YV'hen asked how he 
had found time to do so much, he would reply, “ Have 
I not spent fifty years at my desk ? ” Bis style was bril¬ 
liant and eloquent even to the verge of poetry; and it 
is worthy of remark that a mind which had been trained 
and disciplined in the severity of the exact sciences 
should surrender the reins so entirely to the most luxu¬ 
riant, but fanciful imagination. Hence, as is observed in 
the article on Birds, he was often arraigning nature at 
the bar of his fancy for some supposed defect of design, 
when the fault was in his own w'ant of perception of the 
end to which that design was directed, arising from his 

I not being acquainted with the habits to which it minis- 

| tered. ilis observations on the bill of the Avoset.onthe 

l structure of the Sloth, and on the melancholy condition 


of the Woodpecker (picus), are examples of this habit; 
upon the woodpecker he is quite pathetic, but, as in ali 
such cases, he bestows his pity upon a very unworthy 
object. He has been charged with infidelity; but this, 
like some others, is a charge easy t< h made and hard 
to be disproved, though it must be admitted that his 
works afford ground for it. His son, the Con.te Henri 
de B., fell under the guillotine at the beginning of tho 
revolution, the name of his illustrious father being un¬ 
able to save him from the penalty attaching to the no¬ 
bility at that period. 

Bailout', n. (Costume.) A projecting covering of 
gauze or linen for a lady’s breast, in fashion in and 
after the year 1750. a period when English and French 
lady’s costume was very ungraceful. The B. entirely 
concealed the neck and bosom, and stuck out from bo 
neath the chin like the breast of a pigeon. It was 
generally accompanied by some other ugly articles of 
costume which were invented at that time. The B. was- 
worn in Paris as late as 1788. 

ButFoon, ( buf-fon '.) n. [Fr. bouffon, from bouffer; It. 
buffare, to puff’, to trifle, to jest, to play the fool.] One 
who excites laughter by puffing out his cheeks and 
making grimaces; one who makes sport by low jests, 
antic postures, and low gestures; a droll; a mimic. 
— In England, the name B. was sometimes applied to 
those persons who w'ere employed as fools at court orat 
the tables of great men. 

— 1 <. i. To play the part of a buffoon, (r.) 

— 1 >. a. To render or make ridiculous. 

Buffoon', a. Resembling, or pertaining to, a buffoon. 

Buffoon'ery, n. The arts and practices of a buffoon. 

“ In an ill-bred man, • • • learning becomes pedantry, and wit 
buffoonery ." — Locke. 

—Low jests; ridiculous pranks; ribald nonsense. 

“ And whilst it lasts, let buffoonery succeed 
To make us laugh ; for never was more need.” — Dryden. 


micnlously 


Buffoon'ing 1 , n. Buffoonery; low mirth 

Buffoon'ish, a. Imitatory of a buffoon; 
nonsensical in voice and gesture. 

Buf'fortl’s, in Missouri, a village of Reynolds co., on 
Big Black YY'ater River. 90 m. S.S.YY'. of St. Louis. 

Buff'-stick, n. ( Mech .) A stick of wood covered with 
buff leather, used in polishing silver-plate, &c. 

Buf'fy, a. Of the color of buff; light-yellow; applied 
to the blood. 

Buf'ly-coat, n. (Med.) YY'hen the coagulation of blood 
is retarded so as to allow the red particles to sink, and 
the lighter white corpuscles to rise towards the surface, 
the supernatant opaline plasma coagulates without tho 
red particles, but includes the white ones, and forms a 
light-colored clot of fibrin and white corpuscles resting 
on the main body of the coagulum which has included 
the red corpuscles, and constitutes what is called the 
buffy-coat. It is indicative of inflammatory disease, 
during which the coagulation of the blood is retarded 
beyond the ordinary time. 

Bti'io, n„ and Bufo'iiiclne. n. pi. (Zool.) See Torn. 

Bu'Fonite. n. (Pal.) The obsolete name of the round¬ 
ish teeth of fossil fishes found in oolite formations. 

Bu'ford, in Illinois, a post-office of Macoupin co. 

Bu'ford, in Kentucky, a post-office of Ohio co. 

Buford, in Ohio, a post-village of Highland co., 45 m. 
E. of Cincinnati. 

Bu'Ford's, in Virginia, a post-office of Bedford co. 

Bu ford's Station. in Tennessee, a P. 0. of Giles co. 

Bug, n. (Zool.) Of the numerous tribe of hemipterouB 
insects belonging to the genus Cimex, we may specify 
the troublesome and nauseous insect, the Cimex lectula - 
rius, or common domestic B. To give a very particular 
description of this noxious tormentor would be super¬ 
fluous ; it may be sufficient to observe, that it is of an 
oval shape, about the sixth of an inch long, of a com¬ 
pressed and flat form, and of a reddish-brown color. 
The English assert that they trre indebted to our coua- 
try for the introduction of this little pet, but it appears 
to have been very common in Europe before 1670, the 
year fixed for its importation from America among the 
timber used in rebuilding ttie city of London after the 
great fire of 1666. Its blood-sucking properties, and the 
offensive smell it emits when touched, are toe well 
known to require comment. The 
female B. deposits her eggs in the 
beginning of summer; they are very 
small, white, and of an oval shape; 
each is fixed to a small hair-like 
stalk, which is glutinous, and readily 
adheres to anything it touches. The 
places in which the eggs are gen¬ 
erally deposited are the crevices of 
bedsteads or other turnitnre, or the 
walls of a room. During the winter 
months these odious insects secrete 
themselves behind walls, old wain¬ 
scoting, or any neglected places, where they are capa¬ 
ble of bearing the most intense frost without injury, 
and on the return of warm weather again emerge Il ona 
their concealment. A bug always avoids the light, ii ,<s- 
sible, and takes advantage of every chink a.- cranny 
to make a secure lodgment; its motion is slow and un¬ 
wieldy; but its sight is so exquisite, that, although it 
persecutes its victim with unceasing assiduity in the 
dark, the moment it perceives the light it generally 
makes good its retreat.—The best preventive of bugs 
in a housle is scrupulous attention to cleanliness; hut 
where the nuisance exists it is not easily removed, and 
various means are employed for this purpose, of which 
one of the best and safest is thorough washing with 
spirit of turpentine, although recou’i 3 is even had to 
washing with a solution of corrosive sublimate. — Se* 
Cimex. 



Fig. 444.—bug. 

(Cimex tectu£—”'*(«.) 




BUHR 


BULB 


BULI 


459 


Png, Bog, or Boug, a river of European Russia, rising in I 
the S.W. of Volliynia, and flowing S.E., falls into the 
estuary of the Dnieper, 25 m. below Nicolaieff. It is 
navigable from Vosnesensk. — Also, a river which rises 
in Galicia, and. after a course of 300 m., joins the Vis¬ 
tula 18 m. N.W. of Warsaw. 

Bug bear, Bug'aboo, Bug:, «• [Bug and bear; W. 
bwg, a hobgoblin or scarecrow; from bw ; Eng .bn! an 
exclamation used to scare or terrify children.] A fright¬ 
ful object; a walking spectre; anything imaginary that 
is considered frightful; anything that excites needless 
fear. 

“Would he not, naughty man, let it sleep? 

A bugbear take him.” — S/taks. 

“ Take you abroad ? Indeed not I; 

For all the bugaboos to fright ye." — Lloyd. 

Jtug:'bear, a. Exciting or causing needless terror; as, 
a bugbear thought. 

Bng'bear, v. a. To frighten with idle apprehensions. 

Bugeaud tie la Picounerie, Thomas Robert, 
Dug d'Isly, ( boozli'o ,) a marshal of France, B. at Li¬ 
moges, 1784. In 1804 he entered the French army as a 
private, distinguished himself at Austerlitz, served in 
the campaigns of Prussia and Poland, and was after¬ 
wards sent to Spain, where he remained till 1814. On 
his return to France he was promoted to a colonelcy, 
and, at the first Restoration, seemed favorable to the 
dynasty; but, during the Hundred Days, he followed the 
fortunes of Napoleon. In 1831, he was created a mar¬ 
shal of France and sent to Algeria, where he conducted 
a brilliant campaign against the Arabs. In 1840 he 
was appointed Governor-General of that country, then 
become partially a French province, and had not held 
the office long before he recommended the home govt, 
to adopt measures for the entire subjugation of that 
country. In three years this was realized. In 1844, hos¬ 
tilities broke out between the French and the emperor 
of Morocco, when B., with 10,000 men against 40,000, 
routed the emperor’s army at the battle of Isly for 
which he was rewarded with the title of duke. La 1847 
he retired, discontented that his plans for colonizing 
Algeria were thwarted. Summoned to the aid of Louis 
Philippe on the night of the 23d and 24th of February, 
1848, the command of the army was, a few hours after¬ 
wards, taken from him, just as he had adopted decisive 
measures to save the monarchy. After the election of 
Louis Napoleon, in the December following, as president 
of the republic, B. was taken into favor, and received 
the command of the army of the Alps. He d. of cholera, 
in Paris 1849. 

Bu'g'enliag’en, Johann, (surnamed Pomeranus, or Dr. 
Pommer,) a German Protestant theologian, B. at Wollin, 
near Stettin, 1485. He was a friend of Luther, and as¬ 
sisted him in the translation of the Bible. His numer¬ 
ous works are now seldom read. D. 1558. 

Jlug gabo, in N. Carolina, a post-office of Wilkes co. 

Btie'ger, n. [Fr. bougre.] One guilty of the crime of 
unnatural intercourse ; a sodomite. — A vile wretch. 

Bug'gfery, n. Unnatural intercourse; sodomy. 

Bug'g'iness, n. The state of being infected with bugs. 

Bug'gy, a. Abounding with bugs; as, a buggy house. 

Bllg'gy, n. A term used in the U. States to specify alight 
four-wheeled carriage with a movable calash top. 

Bugia, or Boiuljeiab, a seaport town of Africa, in 
French Algeria, at the mouth of the Aduse, 122 m. 
E. of Algiers. There is good anchorage off the town 
in 8 or 10 fathoms, but N.E. winds throw in a heavy sea. 
It was bombarded by the English in 1671, and taken by 
the French in 1833. 

Bugle, (bu'gl,) n. [0. Fr. ; from Lat. buculus, a young 
bullock.] A buffalo, (r.) 

Bugle, Bugle-horn, n. [Probably from 0. Fr. bugle, 
an ox, from Celt, bw, an ox, whence beugler, to low, to 
bellow, as a buffalo, bull, or ox.J Literally, the horn 
of an ox or buffalo; specifically, a hunting-horn; a brass 
wind-instrument of military music, latterly so much 
improved by the addition of six keys, that it now is of 
the greatest service both in solo and concert music, 
and is very commonly found in orchestral and military 
bands. The bugle, when played with taste, forms a de¬ 
lightful accompaniment to the pianoforte, and possesses 
the advantage over most other horns, of a methodical 
fingering, by which the true tones can be produced with¬ 
out so much recourse to the ear as would otherwise be 
necessary. 

( Bot.) See Ajuqa. 

—The name given to a horn drinking-vessel, formerly used 
in England. 

« And drinketh of his bugle-horn the wine." — Chaucer. 

—[Ger. biigel, a bent trinket.] An elongated glass bead, 
generally of black color. 

“ Bugle bracelets, necklace amber, 

Perfum’d for a lady's chamber.” —* Shake. 

Btl'gler, n. The player on a bugle. 

Bugle-weed, n. (Bot.) See Lycopus. 

Rii gloss. n. (Bot.) See Lycopsis. 

Bug'wort, n. (Bot.) See Cimicifuga. 

B|! Ill, (but,) n. Same as Boule, q. v. 

Buhl-work., n. See Boule. 

Buhr'-stone, n. (Min.) A variety of quartz containing 
many small empty cells, which give it a peculiar rough¬ 
ness of surface. They are used principally as mill-stones. 
The best kinds are creamy white, with a granular and 
somewhat cellular texture, and are obtained in the ter¬ 
tiary formation of the Paris basin, and chiefly at La- 
Ferte-sous-Jouare. They are cut into wedge-shaped 
parallelopipeds called panes, which are bound together 
with iron hoops to form large millstones. Numerous 
substitutes for the French B. have been found in the U. 
States, the most important being furnished by the B. 
rock of the bituminous coal-measures of N.W. Penn¬ 


sylvania and E. Ohio; but they cannot compete in the 
great markets with the French rock. 

Build, (bild,) v. a. (imp. and pp. built. The regular 
imp. aud pp. buildkd is sometimes, but rarely, used.) 
[A.S. byldan, to confirm; Du . beelden, to form; Ger. 
bauen, to build, from Goth, bauan, to dwell; Swed. and 
Goth, bo, bua, to prepare; Swed. bygga, to build. Root 
bU, Sansk. b/til, to be.] ''To prepare, raise, or construct a 
habitation; to construct and raise; to erect a structure 
by the use of materials; as, to build a church. 

“ He builded better than he knew, 

The conscious stone to beauty grew." — R. W. Emerson. 

—To raise or erect on a basis or foundation; as, to build 
up one's hopes. 

“ Love built on beauty, soon, as beauty, dies." — Donne. 

—To confirm; to establish; to strengthen; to consolidate. 
(Sometimes followed by up.) 

— v. i. To exercise the art, or practise the business, of 
building. 

•‘To build, to plant, whatever you intend* 

To rear the column, or the arch to bend." — Pope. 

—To construct, rest, or depend, as on a foundation. 

“Some build rather upon the abusing of others, and putting 
tricks upon them, than upon soundness of their own proceedings." 

Bacon. 

— n. Construction; make; form; as, the build of a vessel. 
(Sometimes written built.) 

“ As is the built, so different is the sight. 

Deep in their hulls our deadly bullets light." — Dryden. 

Builder, (bild'er,) v. One who builds; a constructor. 
This term is applied both in civil and naval architecture ; 
in the former, the B. is generally employed under the su¬ 
perintendence of an architect, by contract, or at measure 
and value; in the latter, under the naval architect, 
mostly by contract. 

Build'ing, n. The art of putting together certain ma¬ 
terials, such as stones, bricks, timber, slates, &c., wrought 
into various necessary forms, lor the purpose of con¬ 
structing dwelling-houses and other edifices required 
for public or private purposes. In building, the builder 
practically carries out the ideas of the architect, who 
contrives the plan of the required edifice, that it may 
be well fitted for the purpose for which it is intended in 
every respect, and be suitable for the locality in which 
it may happen to be placed. This subject is too compre¬ 
hensive to be usefully treated in a general notice, so 
that for the different departments and details of the art, 
and also the materials employed, reference is made to 
the articles Ashlar, Arch, Bend, Brick, Brick-laying, 
Carpentry, Chimney, Door, Foundation, Lime, Lintel, 
Masonry, Painting, Plastering, Roof, Slate, Staircase, 

i Stone, Tiling, Ac. See also Building, in Section II. 

—An edifice; a raised structure; anything built, as a house. 

Built, imp. and pp. of Build, q. v. 

Built, a. Shaped; formed; fashioned; constructed; as, 
a strongly built man. 

Built, p. a. Resembling; having a likeness to; after a 
given manner; used generally after the word specifying 
the type; as, a clipper-6wt7t vessel.— Built beam, mast, 
Ac., one formed by the joining of two or more pieces 
mortised or kneed together. 

Bujal'ance, a town of Spain, in Andalusia, prov. Cor¬ 
dova, 22 m. from the latter city, and 7 from the Gua¬ 
dalquivir. It is a well-built place, with manufactures of 
woollens. Pop. 9,808. 

Bukharia. See Bokhara. 

Bukowi'na, a prov. of Austria. See Galicia. 

Buk'slieesli, n. See Backshish. 

Bill, n. (Zobl.) The common flounder. 

Bulau, n. (Zobl.) See Gymnura. 

Bulb, n. [Gr. bolbos; Lat. bulbus; W. bal, bol, a protu¬ 
berance.] (Bot.) A shortened stem or branch, usually 
subterranean, bearing on its surface a number of fleshy 
scales, which are modified leaves. It is only found iu 
monocotyledonous plants, and is seen in the hyacinth, 
lily (Fig. 439), and onion. The B. may be looked upon 
as a subterranean leaf-bud, arising from a shortened 
axis. F’rom its centre an herbaceous stem arises, and 
from the subterranean axis new B. or cloves, as they are 
called, are produced. Every new B. is formed in the axil 
of a scale like a bud, q. v.; sometimes it remains at¬ 
tached to the parent B.. and sends up an axis aud leaves; 
at other times, it is detached in the course of growth, 
and forms an independent plant. The new B. feeds on 
the parent one, and ultimately causes its complete ab¬ 
sorption. The scales are generally thickened by the 
deposition of nutritive matters, intended for the future 
use of the plant. In the onion, squill, and leek, these 
scales ape covered externally by thin membranous coats 
or tunics: lienee the B. are said to lie tunicated. When 
the membranous coats are absent, the B. is said to be 
naked or scaly, as in the white lily. The solid, rounded 
underground stem, called by botanists a corm, is com¬ 
monly regarded as a B. 

(Anat.) A name given to different parts which resem¬ 
ble. in shape, certain bulbous roots. The B. of the aorta 
is the great sinus of the aorta; the B. of a tooth is the 
vascular and nervous papilla contained in the cavity of 
a tooth; the B. or root of the hair is the part whence the 
hair originates. 

—A round body', or spherical expansion on a stem or pipe; 
as, the B. of a thermometer. 

Bulb, v. a. To form bulbs; to grow into bulbs. 

Bulbed, (bulbd,) a. Having a bulb. 

Bul'bel, n. (Bot.) Same as Bulblet, q. v. 

Bulbelif erous, a. (Bot.) Producing or giving out 
bulbs; as, a bulbelifef'ous plant. 

Bulb let, n. (Bot.) Small conical or rounded bodies 
produced in the axil of the loaves of some monocotyle¬ 
donous plants, and which are of the nature of bulbs. 
They can be readily distinguished from ordinary leaf-buds 


by their fleshy character. They are easily detached from 
tlie parent stem, and, when placed in favorable circum¬ 
stances, they produce new individuals. They may be 
seen in Lilium bulbiferum, Dentaria bulbifera (coral- 
wort), and in Banunculus ficaria (pile-wort). 

Bulbo'dium, (Bot.) A kind of underground stem 
resembling a rhizome. 

Bulbogem'ma, n. (Bot.) A term applied to those 
bulbs that grow on the stems of plants, as in the tiger, 
iily and other species of that genus. 

BulboMc', Bul bous, a. (Bot.) Containing a bulb 
or bulbs; growing from bulbs; round or roundish; as, 
a bulbous root. 

Bul'bo-tuber, n. (Bot.) That kind of stem which 
the old botanists termed a solid bulb, and the moderns 
more generally a corm. It is a solid underground stem, 
generally round or roundish, clothed with the withered 
remains of leaves, and producing buds on its surface as 
in the crocus. 

Bul'bul, n. [Per.] (Zobl.) The Persian nightingale. 

Bul'bule, n. [Lat. bulbulus .] (Bot.) A young bulb 
springing from au old one. 

Bulga ria (anc. Msesia Inferior). A hereditary prin¬ 
cipality of South Eastern Europe, bouuded N. by the 
Danube, which separates it from Roumauia; E. by 
the Black Sea, S. by the Balkan chain, which separates 
it from Roumelia; S. W. by Prisseua, and N. W. by 
Servia. Length N. E. to S. W., about 350 miles; 
area, 24,300 square miles. This country is fur the 
most part mountainous, aDd eminently so in tlie S. 
where the principal chain of the Balkan Mountains 
forms its boundary; the Danube constitutes its N. limit; 
but excepting that river, B. has none of any magnitude, 
although sufficiently watered by small streams. Its cli¬ 
mate is temperate, and its soil fertile and well adapted 
for the culture of corn, vines, the mulberry, and other 
fruit trees, and tobacco; but agriculture is rather back¬ 
ward in regard to modern improvements. There are 
but few marshes; the pastures are extensive and rich, 
and feed numerous herds of cattle; the higher lands are 
often covered with forests of pine, oak, and beech. The 
Bulgarians are descended from a Slavonic horde, for¬ 
merly inhabiting the banks of the Volga, who crossed the 
Danube and established themselves in this country in the 
7th century, and have since gradually spread themselves 
over a large part of the region S. of the Balkan. The 
present race have laid aside the military character of 
their ancestors; they are pastoral in their mode of life, 
dwelling in small hamlets of about 40 or 50 windowless 
and unwholesome bouses each, aud occupying them¬ 
selves chiefly with agriculture and cattle-breeding, with 
some manufactures, as those of coarse woollens, rifle- 
barrels, morocco leather, and attar of roses. Large gar¬ 
dens are devoted to the culture of roses. They are kind 
and benevolent people; their women mix freely with 
the men, are handsome, industrious, and dress neatly. 
All wear trinkets, and the girls have their heads uncov¬ 
ered, and hair braided and ornamented with coins. In 
1860, an independent B. Church was formed, which now 
embraces almost the entire population renouncing alle¬ 
giance to the Greek Patriarch. Education, until about 
1860, almost unknown; free schools have of late been 
established. Two schools, under American auspices, 
were opened in 1865. The language of B. is a dialect 
of Servia.— Chief Towns. Sophia or Sofia, (the cap.), 
Tirnova, Shumla, Silistria, Rustchuk, Widdin, and 
Varna. Formerly a Turkish province, B. was consti¬ 
tuted, by the Treaty of Berlin, July 13, 1878, an auto¬ 
nomic and hereditary principality, under the nominal 
suzerainty of the Sultan. Alexander I, of Battenburg, 
was elected by the Assembly prince of B. April 29,1879, 
deposed 1886, succeeded, 1887, by Ferdinand I, of Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha. The constitution of 1879 invests the legis¬ 
lative power in an Assembly, elected by universal 
suffrage. Pop. in 1897, estimated 3,154,375. 

Bulga rin,THADDEUs,a Russian author, B.in Lithuania, 
1789, received a military education in St. Petersburg, 
and, in 1805, served against France. Later, he forsook 
the Russian army for the French, and was, in 1814, ap¬ 
pointed by Napoleon to a command. After Napoleon's 
fall, B. went to Warsaw, where he contributed several 
poetical aud humorous works to Polish literature. But, 
ultimately, he settled iu St. Petersburg, and devoting 
himself to tlie study of Russ, soon became a popular 
author. In 1825, together with his friend Gretsch, he 
began the Northern Bee. and since then he lias written 
several romances — of which Demetrius and Mazeppa are 
the best. B. is humorous and graphic as a writer, ju¬ 
dicious as an editor; as a critic, severe, and by no means 
dispassionate. His large work, Russia in its Historical, 
Statistical. Geographical, and Literary Aspect, has been 
translated inti) German. His last work, Vnspominaniya, 
contains reminiscences of his life. D. 1859. 

Billie, (bulj,) n. [Ger .bulge, a swelling wave; 0. Ger. 
balg, a bag made of an animal’s hide; Swed. 6o7/a; 
Dan. bulge; Gael. bolg. builg, a bag; W. bivlg, a rotun¬ 
dity. Root bal; O. Ger. betgan, to swell.] Literally, 
a swelling out; a protuberance; specifically, tlie bilge 
or protuberant part of a cask. 

(Naut.) That part of a ship which bulges out at the 
floor-heads, to assist the vessel when taking the ground. 
Sometimes called bilge. 

— v . i. To swell out : to be protuberant. 

“ Any timber that bulges from its bottom or foundation." — Afoxor*. 

—To bilge out, as a ship. 

“And scattered navies bulge on distant shores." — Broome. 

Bulge'ways, n. (Naut.) See Bilgeways. 

Bulim ia- Bu limy, n. [Gr., literally, ox-hunger.] 
(Med.) An inordinate or voracious appetite; a disease of 
the stomach and the digestive organs. Persons laboring 






460 


BU XjXj 


BULL 


BULL 


under this disease fee! al! the effects of hunger, even 
when the stomach is full: and the stories that are told 
of the quantities of food consumed in such cases are 
scarcely credible. The real nature of this disease is 
very imperfectly known. In some cases, the health ap¬ 
pears to be otherwise good; but usually, B. is a con¬ 
comitant of other diseases. Its consequences are, lean¬ 
ness, pulmonary fevers, consumption, dropsy. — Some¬ 
times there exists an extraordinary craving for food 
after the system has been much exhausted, or from a 
certain condition of the stomach, which causes it to di¬ 
gest the food with too great rapidity; but these do not 
indicate disease, but only excessive appetite. The 
amount of food consumed by persons laboring under 
this ravenous state of appetite is enormous. Ancient 
history is full of accounts of men and women whose 
consumption, though beyond all precedent, never 
seemed to bring satiety. The Emperor Maximus, a man 
eight feet high, dispatched daily for his dinner 40 pounds 
of beef and 19 bottles of wine, without counting bread 
and vegetables. In consequence of this immeuse diet, 
his frame expanded to such dimensions that his wife’s 
bracelets served him for rings to his fingers. But even 
Milo the Cretonian, the gormandizing of the Emperor 
Claudius, and all other cases recorded of B., sink into 
insignificance before the achievements of the bloated 
monster Vitellius, who ransacked Europe, Asia, and 
Africa, to find luxuries for his inordinate appetite, every 
road being covered with couriers, and every sea with 
ships, stored with dainties for this Caesar’s symposia. 
He made four immense meals a day, frequently taking 
an emetic an hour before the next, to enable him to eat 
more and enjoy the feast longer. So insatiable was his 
appetite, that during the pontifical sacrifices, when, as 
nigh-priest, he officiated, he wouldfrequently snatch the 
half-heated entrails from the sacred fire and devour them 
before the congregated people. His brother, Lucius Vitel- 
iius, once gave him a feast, at which there were 2,000 
fishes cooked, 7,000 of the most rare and delicious sing¬ 
ing-birds, besides other varieties from all quarters of the 
world. Some idea of the enormous gluttony of this em¬ 
peror may be formed when it is known that in the four 
months of his reign his table alone cost a sum equal to 
35 million dollars. A standing order in this despot's do¬ 
mestic arrangements was, that several thousands of 
pheasants’ livers, tongues of fishes, peacocks'brains, and 
tails of lampreys, should be always kept in stock. 

Bulk, n. [A. S. buce ; Du. buik; Swed. buk; W. bwlg ; 
Gael. bolg. Of the same origin as bulge.] The whole 
magnitude or dimensions of anything; size; mass; as, a 
man of great bulk. — The gross; the majority; the main 
part; as, the bulk of the people. 

“ The bulk of the debt must be lessened gradually."— Swift. 

{Law.) Merchandise which is neither counted, 
weighed, nor measured. — A sale by bulk is a sale of a 
quantity such as it is, without measuring, counting, 
or weighing. 

( Naut .) The chief contents of a ship’s cargo when 
laden; as, iron formed the bulk o her freight. 

■-=-A projecting front of a building, . place jutting out,as 
a stall. 

“ Here, stand behind this bulk. Straight will he come; 

Wear thy good rapier bare, and put it home." — Shaks. 

In bulk. In a solid mass or body; as, grain in bulk. 

Stowed in bulk. {Naut.) Having the cargo stowed 
iioose in the hold, and not packed in bales, cases, &c. 

To break bulk. To commence the discharge ofacargo. 

Sale by bulk. A sale of commodities as they stand, 
without weight or measurement. 

Bulk 'ar, n. {Carp.) A beam or rafter. 

Bulk 'er, n. {Naut.) A person employed to determine 
the carrying capacity of a ship. 

JBulk'liead, n. (Naut.) A partition built up in several 
parts of a ship, to form and separate the various com¬ 
partments. Modern steamers for ocean traffic are ren¬ 
dered additionally safe by being divided into several 
compartments of water-tight bulkheads. 

Sulk iness, n. Quality of being bulky; greatness in 
bulk, size, or stature. 

“ Wheat,... cannot serve instead of money, because of its tidi¬ 
ness." — Locke. 

JBulk'y, a. Large; of great size or bulk; of great di¬ 
mensions ; as, a bulky package. 

“ Latreus, the bulkiest of the double race." — Dryden. 

Bull. n. [Ger. bulle ; probably from Ger. bellen; A.S. bel- 1 
lan , to roar, to bellow; Swed. bola; Icel. baidi; W. 
bwla; Hindoo, bud.) (Zool.) The male of any quadru¬ 
ped of the bovidae family. 

(Astran.) A sign of the zodiac; Taurus, q. v. 

(Cbm.) A cant term used on the Stock Exchange, and 
applied to those brokers who contract to buy any quantity 
of stock or shares, without having the intention or the 
ability to pay for them, and who are, therefore, obliged 
to sell again, either at a profit or a loss, before the time 
at which they have contracted to take it. It is the op¬ 
posite of Bear, (q. v.) 

*»a. A term used in composition as a qualification of large 
size; as, a bull-trout , a bull-head, &c. 

.Bull, n. [It. bolla; Lat. bulla , a bubble; from hullo, to 
boil, to bubble.] A seal of a round shape; a stamp. 

(Eccl. Hist.) An instrument, edict, ordinance, or decree 
•Of the pope, equivalent to the proclamations, edicts, let- 
ters-patent, or ukases of secular princes. B. are writ¬ 
ten on the wrong side of parchment, to which a leaden 
seal is affixed, and are granted for the consecration of 
bishops, the promotion to benefices, and the celebration 
of jubilees, Ac. The publication of papal bulls is 
termed fulmination; and it is done by three commission¬ 
ers to whom they are usually addressed. The seal, or 
•'bull,” is thus described by Matthew Paris, a. d. 1257 : 


t; In bulla domini Papae slat imago Pauli a dexlris cru- 
cis in medio bullae figuralct, et Petri a sinistris.” Bulls 
are generally designated by the first words of their 
text; thus, the B. Unigenitus, or In coma Domini, Ac. 

Golden Bull. (Hist.) A term particularly applied to 
astatute or enactment of the Emperor Charles IV., pub¬ 
lished in 1536, in two diets held in succession at Nurem¬ 
berg and Metz, for the purpose of fixing the laws in the 
election of the emperor, and of regulating the number 
and privileges of the electors ( Churfursten). The original 
copy of this instrument is preserved at Frankfort-on-the- 
Maine, and has a seal of gold appendant; whence the 
appellation “ Golden Bull ” is derived. 

—A verbal blunder or contradiction. (The Irish people 
are peculiarly noted for their liability to this kind of 
lapsus linguae.) 

“ I confess it is what the English call a bull , in the expression, 
though the sense be manifest enough." — Pope. 

Bull, (John.) The popular sobriquet or characteristic 
name applied to the English nation. Its origin is ob¬ 
scure. It appears to have been first used in Arbuthnot’s 
famous satire, the History of John Bull, written in ridi¬ 
cule of the Duke of Marlborough. This work is in¬ 
cluded in those of Dean Swift. 

Bul'la, n. ; pi. Bull,*. (Med ) A portion of the cuticle, 
detached from the skin by the interposition of a trans¬ 
parent watery fluid. It forms ihe 4th order in VVillan’s 
and Bateman's arrangement of cutaneous diseases, and 
includes erysipelas, pemphigus, and pompholyx. 

(Antiq.) A stud or boss, but more particularly an or¬ 
nament in the shape of alieart, wornaround theneck by 
noble Roman children till they were 17 years old, when 
they assumed the virile dress of the toga, and suspended 
tho B. as a consecrated offering to the lures or house¬ 
hold gods. 

(Zool.) A genus of molluscous animals with univalve 
shells, whose general characteristics are—that the shell 
is sub-oval, that the aperture is oblong and smooth, and 
that one end is a littleconvoluted. The animal breathes 
by gills, but has no respiratory tube, and consequently 
the margin of the aperture of the shell is entire. Most 
of this genus, especially of the larger sizes, are furnished 
with an organ exactly resembling the gizzard of a fowl, 
and which they appear to use for the purpose of masti¬ 
cating their food. 

Bullace, n. (Bot.) The English name of a species of 
plum, the Prunus insititia. — See Phunus. 

Hu Han't io. a. Pertaining to, or denoting the orna¬ 
mental capital letters used in Apostolic bulls. 

Bul lard's Bar, in California, a P. O. of Yuba co. 

Bul'lary, n. A series or collection of papal bulls. 

(Salt Alanuf.) A boilery; a place where salt is boiled. 

Bnllate, a. [Lat. bullatus .] (Med.) Having inflated 
elevations like blisters. 

Bullate Leaf. (Bot.) Applied to a surface appearing 
as if blistered, puckered,or bladdery. 

Bull'-baiting', n. (Sports.) The practice of baiting 
or exciting bulls to combat by the attacks of dogs. The 
animal was usually tied to a stake, with the points of 
his horns muffled, and then attacked by the dogs, who 
tore him to death for the amusement of the spectators. 
This barbarous practice was a favorite sport among 
the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, and being 
introduced into England about 1209, became for centu¬ 
ries the leading amusement of the lower orders of the 
pedple. It was put down by the Act for Prevention of 
Cruelty to Animals, in 1835. 

Bill 1-bee, Bull-fl.v, n. (Zool.) The Gad-fly, q. v. 

Bnll'-beggai', n. A bugbear; any frightful object, (r.) 

Bull'-brier, n. (Bot.) A name applied in the U. States 
to a large brier, called also bamboo-brier, found in the 
Southern States. 

BuU'-ealf. n. A male calf sometimes applied as a 
term of reproach to a stupid ibbi v, 

Bull (log, n. (Zool.) The Cum molossus, a variety 
of the Dog, remarkable for its short broad muzzle, and 



Pig. 445. — BULLDOG. 

(Awarded the premium at the Exhibition of Oauioc Sa<18,; Paris, 
1869.) 


the projection of its lower jaw. The head is massiw 
and large, and the frontal sinuses broad; the lips are 
thick and pendulous ; the ears pendent at the extremity, 
the neck robust and short; and the legs short and thick. 
Though inoffensive and harmless when properly domes¬ 
ticated, the Bulldog presents to the eye a most savage 
appearance: the doubtful and designing leer, the tiger¬ 
like shortness of the head, the under-hung jaw, the 
width of the skull, the distention of the nostrils, and the 
almost constant sight of the teeth, hold forth a very 
formidable proof of the power he can exert, when that 
power is angrily brought into action. The breed is by 
no means so numerous as formerly, in consequence of 
the abolition of the barbarous sport of bull-baiting. In 
Europe, the butchers, use Bulldogs in catching and throw¬ 
ing down cattle; and it is surprising to see the apparent 
ease witli which the dog will seize an ox by the nose^ 
and hold him perfectly still, or throw him on his side, 
at bis master's command. They become very vicious, 
and sometimes extremely dangerous, as they advance in 
years, inflicting dreadful bites for the slightest provoca¬ 
tion; in their unrestrained state, indeed, they are a real 
nuisance, and therefore ought never to be allowed their 
full liberty. 

Bull Creek, in Georgia, a post-office of Tatnall co. 

Bull Creek, in W. Virginia, a post-office of Wood co 

Bulled, (build,) a. Swelled out. (r.) 

Bulleti-nail n. A nail with round head and shor: 
shank, turned and lacquered, and used principally tor 
hangings of rooms. 

Bul let, n. [Fr. bvulet; dimin. of boule, a bowl to play 
with; from Lat. bula, a bubble.] (Gun.) The general 
name for any kind of leaden projectile discharged from 
a rifle, fowling-piece, or pistol. Prior to the introduc¬ 
tion of the various kinds of modern rifles with karrela 
furnished with numerous spiral grooves, the B. was 
spherical in form, and made by pouring lead in a molten 
state into a mould, the diameter of which corresponded 
with the calibre of the weapon for which it was intended. 
For the old rifle with two deep grooves in the interior of 
the barrel, the bullet was surrounded with a projecting 
rib, and was made by casting the lead in a grooved mould. 
B. of all shapes are now made by compression, a method 
infinitely superior to that of casting them, as there can 
be no irregular cavity or air-hole in any bullet formed by 
pressure, a tiling which would seriously affect the flight; 
of any projectile, and cause it to fall wide of the mark, 
on account of the eccentricity of motion that would ba 
imparted to it, arising from the cavity causing it to bo 
lighter on one side than on the other. The spherical B. is 
now entirely superseded by conical elongated projectiles 
of various forms, one of the principal of which is that used 
for the Enfield-Pritchett rifle. This B. is spherical at ono 
end and hollow at the other, which is next the powder 
when the musket is loaded. The cavity is in the form of a 
truncated cone, and extends into the bullet nearly halt 
its length. A little boxwood plug, about half the depth 
of thecavity in height, is fitted into the end of the bul¬ 
let, leaving a small hollow space in its interior between 
the plug and the bottom of the cavity. IVhen the pow¬ 
der explodes, this wooden plug is driven deeper into the 
cavity, and causes the lead, which presents the form of 
a tolerably thin ring at ttie flat end of the bullet, to ex¬ 
pand and fit tightly into the grooves of the rifle, by 
which windage is prevented, and the accurate flight of 
the missile towards the mark insured The first conical 
B. was invented in 1847 by Capt. Minie, and this inven¬ 
tion almost immediately caused the abandonment of 
the use of the rod in the carabine d tige. and gave r.a 
impetus to the introduction of rifles in all Eu¬ 
ropean armies. There are now many kinds of 
B. of the conical form, with numerous contriv¬ 
ances for obtaining expansion at the moment of dis¬ 
charge, the principal of which will be briefly noticed 
in connection with the accounts of the rifles to whicii 
they belong. 

The latest 
small arms, 
as the Mau¬ 
ser, the Krag- 
Jorgensen, 

Ac., use a bul¬ 
let of small 
caliber—from 
•22 to -26— 
which is made 
of hardened 
steel and av¬ 
erages about 
two inches in Fig. 446. —bullets. 

length.The.se 1. Minie; 2. Enfleld ballet, 

missiles have 

great penetrating power, but are less deadly than leaden 
bullets of larger calibre, because of the cleaner wounds 
they produce. 

Bulletin, n. [Fr.. from boule, because votes were given 
by means of balls.] Originally, a slip of paper on which 
a vote is given Ivy writing. In diplomatics, a term equiv¬ 
alent to schedule, and variously applied to different pub¬ 
lic acts. In the modern sense, it is used to specify a 
report of a state of facts issued by authority; us, bul¬ 
letins of health; bulletins of military operations, Ac. 

—Any public announcement of late news. 

—A work published periodically, to record the proceedings 
of a learned society, Ac. 

Bulletin-board, n. A board in a news-room, Ac t 
whereon are posted the notices of latest intelligence. 

Bullet-proof, a. Made to resist the impact of a bullet. 

Bullet-tree, or Bully-tree, n. (Bot.\ Atreemuch 
esteemed for its timber, which is hard and durable. It 
yields Ci delicious fruit about the size o r cherry. A 















































































































































































BULL 


BULL 


BULW 


463 


native ot Guiana, it is supposed to belong to the genus 
Mimusops, order Sapotacea. 

Bull'-faced, a. H aving a large face 

Bull'-feast, a. (Sports.) See Bull-fight, 

Bull'fice, Bull-fish, n. (But.) See Frog’s-cheese. 

Bull'-tiglit, n. (Sport.) A combat with a bull, wherein 
a man is the animal’s antagonist. B. are a very ancient 
and barbarous kind of amusement, and were common in 
Greece several centuries before the Christian sera. In 
Home, under the emperors, they were also common, and 
afterwards they became popular in many of the other 
countries of Europe. At present Spain is the only Eu¬ 
ropean country where they are still held. In Madrid, 
and all the larger towns of Spain, bull-tights are fre¬ 
quent. In the capital, the season lasts from April to 
November, during which time these contests take place 
at least once a week. The combats are held in a large 
amphitheatre called the Plaza de Toros (“ place of the 
bulls”), open at the top, and with seats rising one above 
another round the circle, and capable of accommodating 
from 10,000 to 12,000 spectators. The arena is divided 
into an outer and an inner circle, separated from each 
other by a strong fence, the latter (or arena) being the 
place where the combats take place; the former affording 
shelter to the men on foot, when hard pressed by the 
bull, in order to effect which there are a series of open¬ 
ings in the fence just large enough to allow a man to 
pass through. The actors on the arena are the bull, 



Fig. 447. — bull-fight in the Madrid amphitheatre. 
(The vault with the pole.) 


usually of the fierce Andalusian or Castilian breed; the 
picadores , or combatants, on horseback; the banderil¬ 
leros, who are armed with sharp goads decked with col¬ 
ored streamers; the chidos, who wear vert light-colored 
cloaks; and the matador, who dispatches the bull. The 
contest begins with the picadores, who are each armed 
with a lance, and mounted usually on a very worthless 
horse. Their object is to wound the bull with the lance, 
and then to avoid his onset. The horse is frequently 
gored in the encounter, and when a picadore is closely 
pressed, the banderilleros and chulos rush in and with¬ 
draw the bull’s attention by pricking him with their 
darts and waving their cloaks. When the bull begins 
to flag, the picadores withdraw, and are succeeded by 
the banderilleros, who are armed with banderillas , or 
darts, about two feet long, ornamented with a colored 
flag. Those the banderillero sticks into the bull behind 
the horns, when it is preparing to toss him. After a 
time, the third act of the play commences, and the ma¬ 
tador enters upon the stage, attended by some chulos as 
assistants. Over his left arm he has a red mantle, be¬ 
hind which is concealed a sword which he has in his 
right hand. He awaits the charge of the bull, and, if 
well skilled, dexterously plunges the sword between the 
shoulder and the blade, and the animal drops dead at his 
feet. Twenty minutes is the time usually taken to ter¬ 
minate the contest, and 8 or 10 bulls are often dispatched 
in a single day. Lord Byron thus vividly describes the 
closing scene: 

" Foil’d, bleeding, breathless, furious to the last. 

Full in the centre stands the bull at bay. 

'Mid wounds, and clinging darts, and lances brast 
And foes disabled in the brutal fray : 

And now the matadors around him play. 

Shake the red cloak, and poise the ready brand; 

Qnce more through all he bursts his thundering way —• 

Vain rage 1 the mantle quits the cunning hand, 

Wraps his fierce eye — 'tie past - be sinks upon the sand!” 

Bit ll'linctl, to. ( /tool.) The Pyrrhula, family Fringilr 
lidce, a pretty bird, about the size of a sparrow, very 
common in many parts of Europe Its wild note is i] 


soft low twitter; but, when tamed, it becomes remark¬ 
ably docile, and learns with great facility to whistle 
musical airs, which, if properly taught, it seldom wholly 
forgets. The bill is strong, short, black, and thick; the 
upper part of the head, the ring round the bill, and the 



Fig. 448. —bullfinch. 


margin of the neck, fine glossy black; the back, ash-gray; 
breast and belly, red; wings aud tail, black; the upper 
tail-coverts and vent are white; legs, dark-brown. 

(Sporting.) A high, stiff hedge, grown to an unusual 
height, in order to afford an obstruction to fox-hunters 
in England. 

Btlll'-frog'. ». (Zool.) The Rana pipiens , the largest 
species of the gen. Rana, or Frogs proper. It is generally 
6 to 8 inches long, exclusive of the feet, and 4 inches 
broad. It is an inhabitant of North America, particu¬ 
larly of the Southern States. At a distance, its voice 
resembles the lowing of a bull; hence its name. 

Bull'heatl, w. (Zodl.) The name of the fish Miller’s- 
Thumb, q . r. 

I —A stupid fellow; a blockhead. 

—A small, black water-insect. 

Bul'liug’er, Heinrich, a Swiss Protestant theologian 
b. near Zurich, 1504. In 1531, he succeeded Zuinglius as 
preacher in the cathedral at Zurich, which office he held 
to his death. Ho assisted in drawing up the first Hel¬ 
vetic confession of faith at Basle in 1536; and was sole 
author of the second Helvetic Confession. D. 1575. 

Bull'ion, to. Uncoined gold and silver, or, morestrictly, 
refined gold and silver in bars or other masses; but in 
political economy tbe term is frequently used to denote 
the precious metals both coined and uncoined. The 
word is said to be derived from the French billon, base 
Coin, from the currency in France having been much 
debased by the kings.— See Currency, Monet, <fcc. 

Bull'ionist, to. One who advocates an exclusive me¬ 
tallic currency, or a paper equivalent always converti¬ 
ble into gold. 

BuI'Iirag’, v. a. [bully and rag.] SameasB.ALLARAG. 

Bullish, a. Partaking of the nature of a bull, or a 
blunder. (R.) 

Bul l ist. to. [Fr. bulliste.] One who transcribes papal 
bulls, (r.) 

Bul'litsville, in Kentucky, a post-office of Boone co. 

Bul litt, in Kentucky, a N.W. county near the centre 
of the State, having an area of about 300 sq. m. It is 
watered by Salt River and Rolling Fork, which drains 
its S.W. frontier. Surface, wooded and diversified. Cap. 
Shepherdsville. 

Bull'inoutli Creek, in Mississippi, flows into the 
Tombigbee River, near the N. of Monroe co. 

Bullock, n. [A. S. bulluca.] A young bull. — An ox. 

Bullock. in Alabama, ah E.S.E. county. Cap. Union 
Springs. Pop. (1898) 29,300. 

Bul'lock, in Georgia, an E. oounty, adjoining the Ogee- 
chee River. Area. 900 sq. m. Surface, flat aud wooded. 
Soil, tolerably fertile. Cap. Statesborough. 

Bullock’S Creek, in South. Carolina, Ydrk district, 
flows into Broad River. 

—A post-village of York district. 

Bulloek’s-eye, to. A small, round sky-light. See 

Bull’s-eye. 

Bull I*oint, in Missouri, a village of Dallas co. 

Bull Bun, or Bull's Bun, in Virginia, a stream di¬ 
viding Fairfax aud Prince William counties, in the N.E. 
part of the State, and flowing into the Occoquan River 
14 m. from the Potomac. On its banks were fought two 
of the most memorable battles during the Civil War. 
After a series of heavy skirmishes, July 16-19, 1861, 
the Union army under Gen. McDowell were, on the 
21st, utterly routed by the Confederates under the com¬ 
mand of Gens. Beauregard and J E. Johnston. The 
National loss was about 3000 men, while that of the 
Confederates was estimated at nearly 2000 men. The 
former lost, in addition, 27 guns, besides an immense 
quantity of small arms, ammunition, stores, provisions, 
and accoutrements. On the 30th Aug., 1863, another 
great battle was fought here between the National forces 
commanded by Gen. I’ope, and the Confederates under 
Gens. Lee, Longstreet, and “ Stonewall” Jackson, when 
the former were again defeated with heavy loss. The 
three battles of Groveton, Bull’s Run, and Chantilly, 
fought in three successive days, cost the Union cause 
about 20,000 men in killed, wounded, missing, and pris¬ 
oners, 30 guns, and 30,000 small arms. The first battle 
of B R. is sometimes known as the battle of Manassas. 

Bull Bun, in Tennessee, a post-village of Knox co. 

Bull’s Bay, or Baboul Bay, on the E coast of 
Newfoundland, in Lat. 47° 25' N., Lon 52° 20' W 

Bull's-eye, n. A small circular aperture foi tbe ad¬ 
mission of light and air. 


(Arch.) The technical name given to a description of 
glass lens used for the purpose of concentrating the light 
of a given centre upon an object; it is also applied to a 
circular window of plain glass. 

(Archery and Gunnery.) The centre, or point of aim, of 
a target 

—-In England, a policeman’s dark lantern, having a glas* 
reflector opening and closing at pleasure. 

(Astron.) The bright star Ai.debaran, q. v. 

(Naut.) A small oval block of hard sheaves, having t 
groove round the outside, and a hole in the middle. 

—The name given by sailors to a small cloud with a red¬ 
dish centre, which, in the Mediterranean, and tropical 
latitudes, is regarded as the precursor of a sudden and 
violent gale of wind. 

—A thick, bossy protuberance made on sheet-glass by the 
end of the blow-pipe. 

—An Americanism for a small, and thick, old-fashioned 
watch. 

Bull's-Gap, in Tennessee, a post-village of Hawkins co. 

Bull’s Head, in New York, a village of Dutchess co. 

Bull'skin, in Pennsylvania, a township of Fayett# 
county. 

Bull’s Hills, in Missouri, a post-vill. of Christian co. 

Bulls -nose, n. (Arch.) The external angle of a poly¬ 
gon, or of two lines which meet at an obtuse angle. 

Bull'-stag, to. A castrated bull. 

Bull'-town, in Indiana, a village of Franklin co., 15 m, 
W.N.W. of Brookville. 

Bull'-town, in IF. Virginia, a. post-vill. of Braxton co. 

Bull-trout, to. (Zool.) See Grat-trout. 

Bul'luctah, in Mississippi, a post-village of Leake co. 

Bull'ville. in New York, a post-Tillage of Orange co. 

Bull'-weed, to. (Bot.) A species of Centaurea. q. v- 

Bul'ly, to. [A.S. bulgrdn, to bellow; Swed. buller, noise, 
clamor; bullerbus, a blusterer; Swed. and Goth, bullra. 
to make a noise or tumult; Ger . poltem, bultern ; akin 
to Lat. pulsare.] A noisy, blustering, overbearing, 
quarrelsome fellow. 

“All on a sudden the doors flew open, and in comes a crew «f 
roaring butties, with their wenches, their dogs, and their bot 
ties.”— L' Estrange. 

Bul ly, a. Jovial; staunch; merry; genuine. (Asian? 
phrase.) 

“Mine host of the Garter I— What says my bully rook ? ”— Shake. 

Bul'ly,t>. a. To insult and overbear with noise and blus¬ 
tering menaces; to act tbe part of a bully towards *B6 
" Prentices, parish clerks, and hectors meet. 

He that is drunk, or bullied, pays the treat."— King. 

— v. t. To bluster; to be noisy and quarrelsome. 

Bullying, to. Act or conduct of a bully. 

“As remote from the spirit, of true philosophy as bullying a**«» 
cowardice are from valor.”— Beattie. 

—State or condition of beiug bullied; as, I will not sub¬ 
mit to your bullying. 

“ Remote as bullying and cowardice is from true valour.”— Beattie 

Billow, Friedrich 'Wilhelm, (Count von Dennewitz,) 
(boo'lo,) a celebrated Prussian general, b. 1755. He en¬ 
tered the army when 14 years of age, and in 1792 was 
appointed governor to Prince Ludwig Ferdinand ot 
Prussia. He served with distinction in the campaign o»> 
the Rhine; fought under Bliicher at Eylau, Friedland, 
and Tilsit, and was ennobled in 1813 for his victories at 
Miickern, Luckau, Gross-Beeren, and Dennewi tz. He took 
a prominent part in the battle of Leipzig, and afterwards 
served with great distinction in Westphalia, Holland, 
and Belgium, and throughout the campaign of 1814. 
especially at Soissons. As commander ot the 4th divi¬ 
sion of the allied army he greatly contributed to tha 
victorious close of the battle of Waterloo. D. 1816. 

Bul'rush, to. (Bot.) See Papyrus. 

Bul'saur, a seaport of Hindostan, pres. Bombay, om 
the Gulf of Bombay, 45 m. S.W. of Surat; Lat. 20° ‘iM 
N., Lon. 73° 6' E. Exp. Grain, jaghery, and timber 

BulSC, n. & specific weight or number of diamonds. 
(A term used in India.) 

Bul'tel, n. [ L. I.at. butellus.] A bolter-cloth or bolter ,mm 
The bran after sifting. 

Bul'ti, or Bultistan. See Little Thibet. 

Bui'tow, to A mode of fishing by fastening several 
hooks on one line, and thus taking many fish at one 
time. It is practised by the Newfoundland fishermen. 

Bulwark, ( bul'werk,) n. [Swed. bolvarck; Ger. boll- 
werk; Fr. boulevard; Swed. and Goth, bol, the trunk ot 
a tree, and werk, work.] A defensive work around any 
place, originally constructed with the trunks of tree*; 
any means of defence, safety, or security, 

“Britannia needs no bulwarks, 

No towers along the steep."— Campbell. 

( Fortif.) A bastion; rampart; outwork, &c. 

“ Our naval strength is a bulwark to the uation.”- Addison- 

(Naut.) A parapet of woodwork raised around a ves- 
sel’s deck, for the purpose of preventing men and goods 
from slipping overboard, and at the same time for pro¬ 
tecting the deck from the waves. In ships of war, the 
bulwark is of considerable solidity and height, to afforo 
the crew cover from an enemy’s small shot The ham¬ 
mocks are ordinarily stowed in the bulwark during the 
day. ( Almost invariably used in tbe plural.) 

— v. a. To fortify with a bastion, &c.; to strengthen wi*r 
bulwarks. 

-‘And yet no bulwark’d town, or distant coast, 

Preserves the beauteous youth from being seen .”—Addisoit 

Bnl'wer, Henry Lttton, (Lord Dalling and Bulwek, 
an English diplomatist and author, brother to Lord Lyt- 
ton, b. 1804. He has held successively the posts of set 
retary to the Eng. Embassy at Paris ; minister to Madi d' 
(where he brougiit about the peace between Spain an 
Morocco, in 1*44); minister tc- the (j States (where - 
fn.nr -i;r. “ Bnlwar-U-Vavton Treaty-” was ilk a great - 














































































464 


BUNC 


BUNG 


BUNK 


ure, his work); minister to Tuscany, and, lastly, 1859- 
66, ambassador to Constantinople. After retiring from 
the diplomatic service, he was raised to the peerage in 
1871. Lord Dal ling has written The Monarchy of the 
Middle Classes; France, Social and Literary; and edited 
Memoirs of Lord J‘aim erst on (1870). D. 1873. 

Bul'wer-Clayton Treaty, n. (Ilist.) The name 
given in Great Britain to a treaty entered into between 
that country and the U. States, relative to the establish¬ 
ment of a communication by ship-canal between the 
Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It was so called from the 
names of the contracting parties, viz., Sir Henry Lyttou 
Bulwer ( q. t\), on the part of Great Britain, and J. M. 
Clayton, on behalf of this country; and was signed 
at Washington, April 19, and ratifications were ex¬ 
changed there, July 4,1850. It consisted of 9 articles. 
The contracting parties declared that they would not 
erect fortifications on the banks, or in the vicinity of 
the proposed canal, and that they would not assume do¬ 
minion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosqui*" Coast, 
or any part of Central America. Opposite and -trary 
constructions having been placed upon this treaty by 
the two Powers interested,another,called the Clarendon- 
Dallas Treaty (q. v.), was, after various negotiations, 
signed at London, Oct. 17. 1856; but objections being 
raised by both parties to this also, it was ultimately re¬ 
jected, and the President, in his message for the year 
1859, recommended the abrogation of the Bulwer-Clay ton 
Treaty as the best method of solving the difficulty. 

Bul'wer-Lyt'ton. See Lytton, (Lord.) 

Hum. n. [A corruption of bottom, q. v.] A low phrase 
for the buttocks; the seat. 

“ This said, he gently rais'd the knight, 

And set him on his bum upright.” — Hudibras. 

Bum. v. i. [Du. bommen, to sound as an empty barrel; 
formed from the sound.] To make a booming noise like 
that of the bittern or bee. 

Buiil'baililF. n. [A corruption of bound-bailiff.] (Eng. 
Law.) A subordinate officer whose duty it is to serve 
writs, and effect captions of debtors. (Used in a vulgar 
sense.) 

“ Go, Sir Andrew, scout me for him at the corner of the orchard 
like a bumbailiff.” — Skaks. 

Bum hard, n. See Bombard. 

Bum barge, n. Same as Bumboat, q. v. 

Itumhast. n. See Bombast. 

Bumbe'lo, Bombe'lo, n. (Chem.) A glass flask of 
flattened ovoid shape, in which camphor is sublimed. 

Bum'lile, n. An English provincialism for the bittern. 

—v. i. To make a hollow, booming, humming sound, like 
that of a bittern, or bumble-bee. 

‘•As when the bittern bumbleth in the mire.”— Chaucer. 

Biim'kle-bee, n. ( Zobl .) See Apidaj. 

Btiin'boat, n. [Du. boom, a tree, and boat, a canoe.] 
( Naut.) A large boat allowed to attend a ship to supply 
thesailors with articlesof provision, liquors, clothing, Ac. 

Biiiurlia.n. (Bot.) A genus of trees, order Sapotacea. 
The bark of B. nigra and other species is bitter, astrin¬ 
gent, and febrifugal, and the wood very hard. The fruit 
of B. retusa is said to be milky; while the flowers of B. 
grarenlens have a heavy, unpleasant odor. 

Biim'kiu, Boom'kin, n. [Ger.&awm, a tree,boom.] 
(Naut.) A short boom fixed on each side of the bow 
for the purpose of stretching the foresail farther to 
windward than the width of the deck at that part per¬ 
mits. It has a strong block at the end through which 
the back of the sail is worked. — An outrigger extended 
out from the stern of a boat to stretch out the mizzeu. 

Bum'lin, a parish of Ireland, co. Roscommon. 

Bump. n. [Goth, and Icel. bomps, a blow.] A thump or 
heavy blow, or the noise of it. — A lump produced by a 
blow; a swelling or protuberance; as, the bumps of the 
skull of the head. 

“ His eyes 

Hung by a string, in bumps his forehead rise."— Dryden. 

— i. To strike against anything large or solid; to 
thump; as, to bump against a boat. 

Bum'piiss, in Virginia, a post-office of Louisa co. 

Blini'per, R. [From bump.] A cup or glass filled to 
the brim, or till the liquor swells up and runs over; as, 
to drink a bumper of wine. 

44 Pledge it merrily, fill your glasses, 

Let the bumper toast go rouud.”— Sheridan. 

—A crowded house at a theatre, to compliment a favorite 
performer. 

Bump'kin, n. [Du. boom, abeam or log, and kin, kind.] 
A clumsy, heavy, awkward rustic; a lout; a country 
clown. 

“ In his white cloak the magistrate appears, 

The country bumpkin the same liv'ry wears.”— Dryden. 

Bumptious. ( bum'shus ,) a. Self-conceited; offensive¬ 
ly forward. (Used vulgarly.) 

Bump t iotisnt‘ss, n. Quality of being bumptious or 
self-conceited. 

Bun, n. [Scot, bun, bunn.] A small cake; as, a Chelsea 
bun. 

** Thy songs are Rweeter to mine ear 
Than . . . buns and sugar to the damsel's tooth.” —Gay. 

Bunch, (bunsh,) n. [Goth, puggs, a purse; 0. Norse, 
bunki, a heap] A heap; a protuberance; a hunch; a 
knob; a lump. 

” Little round balls or bunches, like hard boiled eggs.” — Boyle. 

—A cluster; a collection; a number of things put or tied 
together; as, a bunch of keys. 

14 For thee, large bunches load the bending vine, 

And the last blessings of the year are thine.” — Dryden. 

—Anything bound into a knot or tuft; as, a bunch of 
ribbon. 

44 Upon the top of alt his lofty crest. 

A bunch of hairs . . . with sprinkled pearl, 

And gold full richly drest.”— Spenser. 


(Mining) A small isolated mass of ore. 

— v.i. To swell out in a bunch or protuberance; to be 
protuberant or round. 

—i>. a. To form or fasten in a bunch or bunches; as, to 
bunch flowers. 

Bunch'-backed, a. Having hunches on the back; 
crook-backed. 

44 The day shall come, that tbou shait wish for me 
To help tnee curse this pois'uous hunchback'd toad.”— Shake. 

Buuch'iuess, n. The quality of being bunchy, or 
growing in bunches. 

Bunch'y, a. Growing in bunches; having tufts; as, “a 
bunchy tail.” Grow. — Swelling out in masses or protu¬ 
berances; as, bunchy joints. 

— (Mining.) A mine that is sometimes rich and at other 
times poor, is said to bo bunchy. 

Buu'combe, in Iowa, a N.W. county, touching Min¬ 
nesota, with an area of abt. 800 sq. m. The Sioux River 
forms its \V. boundary, and it is drained by Inyan Rea- 
kah River and other streams. 

—A post-office of Dubuque co. 

Buu'combe, in Mississippi, a village of Union co. 

Buu'combe, in North Carolina, a W. county, having 
an area of 450 sq. ni. This county is traversed by the 
Blue Ridge of the Appalachian chain of mountains, 
and is watered by the French Broad river. Soil, fertile. 
Cap. Asheville. Pop. (Ib98) 38,750. 

Buu'combe, Bun'Uum, n. [From Buncombe, a 
county of North Carolina.] An American term applied 
to a speecli delivered merely for the purpose of concili¬ 
ating popular favor, or gaining public applause. The 
origin of the phrase ‘‘ talking for Buncombe” is thus ex¬ 
plained: “Several years ago, in Congress, the member 
from this district arose to address the House, without 
any extraordinary powers, in manner or matter, to in¬ 
terest the audience. Many members left the hall. Very 
naively he told those who remained that they might go 
too; he should speak for some time, but he was ouly 
talking for Buncombe." — ( Wheeler’s History of N. C.) 

Buncra'na, a seaport and bathing resort of Ireland, 
co. Donegal, on Lough Swilly,llm. YV.N.W. of London¬ 
derry ; pop. 1,097. 

Buiutctcuud, (boon-del-koond',) a large division of 
Ilindostan, prov. Allahabad, between Lat 24° 3'and 26° 
26'N., and Lon. 70° 48' and 81° 33' K.; having N. the 
Jumna; S. Berar and Malwali; E. Begilcund, and W. 
Scindia’s dominions; area, 23,817 sq. m. This country is 
mountainous, and imperfectly cultivated; the moun¬ 
tains belong to the Vindhyan chain, and run in parallel 
ranges, each buttressing a table-land, and forming a 
series of natural fortifications. The Cane, Desan, and 
Betwah are the only rivers of importance. The soil is 
of every variety, from rich black to sterile conkar, and 
a large extent of country is covered with jungle. Dia¬ 
monds are found and extensively worked. At the fall 
of the Mogul empire, the Mahrattas, under Ali Bahaw- 
der, possessed themselves of part of this prov. until 1817, 
when it was ceded to Great Britain. Pop. 2,400,000. 

IIumile, (bund't,) n. [A. S. hyndcl; Du. bundel; O.Ger. 
bendil; from the root of bind.] A number of things 
bound or put together; a package or parcel made up 
loosely; a roll; as, a bundle of straw. 

44 She carried a great bundle of Flanders lace under her arm.” 

Spectator. 

— v. a. To tie or bind in a bundle or roll. (Generally used 
with tip.) 

44 As if a man in making posies, 

Should bundle thistles up with roses.” — Swift. 

To bundle, off. To cause to depart in a hurry; as, he 
was bundled off about li is business. 

— v. i. To make preparations for departure; to leave in a 
hurry. 

—To sleep together on a bed while fully dressed; spoken 
of a man and woman who are courting. 

Bun'tlle-pilljir, n. (Arch.) A column or pier, with 
others of small dimensions attached to it. 

Bun'dling'. n. The act of one that bundles. 

Bumlo'raii, a watering-place of Ireland, co. Donegal, 
on the bay of the latter name, 5 m. S.W. of Ballyshan- 
non. 

Bung;, n. [A. S. pyngan, to prick; Swed. and Goth. 
bunga, to strike through; L. Ger. pungen, inpungen, to 
pack in or up; Fr. bondtm, a stopper.J The stopple of 
the orifice in the bilge of a cask. 

—The orifice itself; called, properly, the bung-hole, q. v. 

—A vagabond; a sharper; a low fellow, (o.) 

44 You filthy bung, away.”— Shake. 

■v.a. To stop the orifice in the bilge of a cask with a 
bung; to close up. 

ISuii gnlow, n. [Bengalee, bilngld.] An East-Iudian 
term for a sort of house, or villa, with a thatched or tiled 
roof. They are occupied by Europeans, and vary in size 
and accommodation to meet the taste or requirements 
of tlieir owner. They generally consist of a ground- 
floor, surrounded by a verandah; but some are of two 
stories. In the cities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, 
the B. of the wealthier class of Europeans are spacious 
and magnificent. Public B. are maintained by govern¬ 
ment for the reception of travellers, and somewhat re¬ 
semble inns in other countries. Military B. are for the 
accommodation of troops in cantonments, and are on the 
same extensive scale as barracks. 

Buu'gay, a town of England, co. of Suffolk, 98 m. N.E. 
of London. It is a neat, well built town, with a con¬ 
siderable agricultural trade, and manufactures of hemp. 
Pop. 4.185. 

Bung''! 4 , Alexander Von, a Russian botanist and trav¬ 
eller, b. 1803. He travelled with Ledebour into Siberia 
and visited the Altai Mountains. In 1833, B. was sent 
by the Russian govt, as naturalist with the mission to 
Pekin, where he remained for some months, and made a 


large collection of plants. lie again vi.lited the lltai« 
Mountains at the request of the Russian govt. He was- 
subsequently appointed professor of botany at Kazan, 
and, finally, in 1836, he succeeded Ledebour as professor 
of botany and director of the botanical garden at Dor- 
pat. His chief works are, a Treatise on the Natural 
System, Enumeration of Chinese Plants, and Catalogue 
of Altai Plants. 

Buug'-hole, n. The hole or orifice in the bilge of a 
cask. 

44 Why may not imagination trace the noble dust of 
Alexander, till he find it stopping a bung-hole t" — Shake. 

Bungle, (bung’gl,) v. i. [W. bwn y gler. the lowest class- 
of minstrels; probably allied to jongleur.] To perform 
in a clumsy, awkward manner. 

— v. a. To make or mend clumsily; to botch; to manag© 
awkwardly; as, repaired iu a bungled manner. 

44 Other devils... do botch and bungle up damnation, • • • 

From glittering semblances of piety.” — Shake. 

—n. A botch; an inaccuracy r a gross blunder; a cluihsy 
performance; as, he has made a bungle of it. 

Bun'gler, n. A clumsy, awkward, inexpert workman;, 
one who performs without skill. 

44 Hard features every bungler can command, 

To draw true beauty shows a master's hand." — Dryden* 

Bungling, a. Clumsy; unskilful; awkward; as, a. 

bungling operator. 

—Awkwardly done ; inexpertly performed. 

44 When men want light. 

They make but bungling work." — Dryden. 

Bung'lingl.V.arfb- Unskilfully; clumsily; atvkwardly. 

Hun 'go. n. (Naut.) A kind of boat or canoe, used in- 
the Southern States, and in Central America. 

Bunias, n. (Bot.) A genus of European plants, order 

Brassicacece. 

Bunion, (bun’yun.) [Gr. bourios, an eminence.] (Med.y 
An inflamed and painful swelling of the bursa mucosa* 
or 6ac containing the oil of the joint; chiefly situated on 
the inside of the great toe. This disease, if not reme¬ 
died in time, is certain to lead to a permanent enlarge¬ 
ment and disfigurement of the toe. The exciting cause- 
is generally a long-continued pressure from a tight boot 
or shoe. The treatment should commence with a warm- 
bran poultice, continued for one or two hours, so as to 
soften the cuticle of the part; a piece of lint, wetted in- 
the extract of lead, is then to be applied cold, round the- 
toe, and the lint moistened from time to time with more- 
of the extract. In a few hours all inflammation will 
have subsided, and if care be taken not to repeat the 
pressure, but use a large boot, the bunion will be cured. 
If it be preferred, a couple of leeches may be applied, 
and, after the bleeding, a lotion. But in most cases 
the above treatment repeated will effect a cure. 



Hu nil, n. [Swed. bunke, a coop, a tub.'] A wooden re¬ 
ceptacle in the form of a box, which Berves for a seat by 
day, and for a bed at night. (U. S.) 

(Naut.) A sleeping-berth on board ship. 

Blink, v. i. To retire to rest in a bunk. (U. S.) 

Builka'ra, or Blue River, in the State of Colorado , 
river which, rising in the Rocky Mountains, takes a S.W. 
course, unites with the Gunnison River in Lake co., and 1 
forms Grand River. 

Buuk'er, n. [Scot, bunker, a bench.] A large bin, or 
hollow bench, used as a receptacle for various things. 

—A description of box which serves as a seat. (Used in 
Scotland.) 

Bun'ker Hill, an eminence, 110 feet high, situate in- 
Charlestown, Massachusetts, connected by a ridge with 
another elevation, 75 ft. high, named Breed’s Hill. These- 
heights are memorable 
as being the seat of a 
battle fought bet. the 
British and American 
forces, June 17, 1775, 
and known under the 
name of Banker Hill. 

The city of Boston was 
occupied by the Britisli 
under Gen. Gage, who 
had resolved to begin 
offensive operations 
against the rebels. This 
design being known in 
the American camp, it 
was determined to seize 
and fortify the heights 
of Charlestown on the 
night of the 16th of 
June. The execution 
of this perilous mission 
was confided to Cols.W. 

Prescott and Pepper- 
ell at the head of a bri¬ 
gade of 1,090 men; and 
at dawn of day a strong 
redoubt was already 
completed on Breed's Hill 


Fig. 449. 

BUNKER HILL MONUMENT. 


About 1,500 Americans ad¬ 
vanced successively to the relief of Prescott, and Gen.War¬ 
ren entered the redoubt as a volunteer, refusing the com¬ 
mand which was tendered to him. At about 2]^ o’clock, 
two columns of the British advanced to a simultaneous 
assault; they were received with a terrific fire, and twice 
repuised in disorder. When the Americans had ex¬ 
hausted all their ammunition, Prescott gave the order for 
retreat. They received a destructive volley as they left 
the redoubt, and Warren fell, shot through the head with 
a bullet. The retreat was harassed by a raking fire 
from the British ships and batteries, but there was no 
pursuit beyond Charlestown Neck. The British loss was 




































































BUNZ 


BUPR 


BUED 


467 


226 offic?rs and men killed, and 828 wounded; that of 
■the Americans 145 killed or missing, and 304 wounded. 
Although a defeat, the moral result of this action was 
.great. The Americans had seen superior numbers of 
the disciplined soldiers of England retreat before their 
lire, and given the glorious proof that they were able to 
preserve their liberties. On Breed’s Hill, and near the 
spot where Warren fell, stands now the Bunker Hill 
Monument , the corner-stone of which was laid by the 
Marquis de Lafayette, June 17, 1825. This monument 
was inaugurated June 17, 1843. It consists of a plain 
granite shaft, 220 feet high, 31 feet square at the base, 
and 15 at the top. Within is a winding staircase, by 
which it is ascended to a chamber immediately under 
the apex. 11 feet in diameter, containing four windows, 
which afford a magnificent panoramic view of the sur¬ 
rounding country. 

Bunker Hill. in Illinois , a city and township of 
Macoupin county, 20 miles N. E. of Alton, pop. (1897) 
about 1,800. 

BllltkerllilK in Indiana, a post-village of Miami co., 
abt. 6 m. S. by W. of Peru. 

Bunker Hill, in Michigan, a post-township of Ing¬ 
ham co., 70 m. W.N.W. of Detroit. 

Bunker Hill, in Missouri, a P. 0. of Lewis co. 

Bunker Hill, in Ohio, a post-village of Butler co.,10 
m. W. by N. of Hamilton. 

Bunker Hill, in Tennessee, a post-office of Giles co. 

Bunker Hill, in Virginia, a P. 0. of Bedford co. 

Bun'kinn, n. See Buncombe. 

Bii u million, (bun'man,) a bathing resort of Ireland, co. 
of Waterford, and 14 m.S.W.of the latter city. 

Bunn, n, [Scot, bun; Ir. bonna.] A kind of sweet 
bread; a cake. 

Bun'ner’s, in W. Virginia, a P. 0. of Marion co. 

Bun'nian, Bnn'yon, n. See Bunion. 

Buii'ny, tt. (Mining.) In tin and copper mining, a large 
collection of ore without any vein coming into, or going 
out of it. 

Bunrat'ty,a par. of Ireland, co. Clare, on the Shannon. 

Bunrat'ty, (Upper and Lower,) two baronies of Ire¬ 
land, co. Clare. 

Bun'sen, Christian Karl Josias. Baron, an eminent 
German diplomatist, theologian, and author, b. 1791. 11« 
was educated at Gottingen, and early distinguished 
himself by his scholarly acquirements, and knowledge 
of the Old German, Icelandic, Persic, Arabic, and other 
languages. In 1818 he was appointed secretary to the 
Prussian embassy at Rome, under Niebuhr, in 1827, 
he succeeded the latter as minister there, and amidst 
his archaeological and other studies, his attention was 
directed to Egyptian antiquities by Champollion’s visit 
to Rome, in 1826. To the importance of the great dis¬ 
covery made by Champollion, B.'s eyes were immedi¬ 
ately opened; and, in his grand work on Egypt, he has 
done ample justice to the genius of the great French¬ 
man. In 1841. he was appointed minister to the court 
of St. James’, where he remained for 14 years. His 
works are too numerous to notice here, embracing, as 
they do, almost the entire range of theological and 
archaeological study, but we mention his Egypt's Place 
in Universal History, (Hamburg and Gotha, 1845-57, 5 
vols.,) perhaps his greatest production. D. 1860. 

Bunt, n. [Dan. bundt; Swed. bunt, a bundle, a bunch, a 
protuberance.] (Haul.) The middle part of a sail 
formed into a bag, belly, or cavity, that it may gather 
more wind. 

(Agric.) A disease of wheat and other grains. — See 
Uredo. 

—r. t\ To swell or belly out: as, the sail bunts. 

-—To butt with the horns; — spoken of a stag. 

Bun'tani Falls, in Connecticut, a village of Litchfield 
co., 25 m. W. of Hartford. 

Bunt'er,n. [O. Eng. bunt, a mushroom.] A cant phrase 
for a female rag-picker; lienee, by implication, a low, 
coarse woman. 

Bun'tiue, n. (Naut.) See Bunting. 

Bunt'ing, n. [Swed. ’wit.] ( Zool.) See Plectrophanes. 

Bunt ing, n. [Du. bunt, particolored ] (Naut.) Thin 
woollen stuff of different colors, of which ships’ colors 
are made; hence, the flags themselves are often so called; 
as, there was a fine display of bunting. 

Bunt'line, n. (Naut.) A rope used for gathering up 
the centre part of a square sail.— Buntline cloth, the 
lining sewed up the sail in the direction of the buntline, 
to prevent the rope from chafing the sail. 

Bun'ynu, John, one of the most popular of religious 
English writers, b. at Elstow, 1628. He was originally a 
travelling tinker, and having neither been taught to 
read nor to write, led a profane kind of life for some 
years; at length his attention was happily drawn to seri¬ 
ous subjects, and he began to study the Scriptures, of 
which he acquired a great knowledge. In the civil war 
he took the side of the Parliament. About 1655 he be¬ 
came a member of, and was accustomed to address, a 
Baptist congregation at Bedford. On this account, he 
was, at the Restoration, confined in the jail of that 
town for twelve years and a half, supporting himself 
and family by tagging laces. Here he wrote his es¬ 
teemed Pilgrim's Progress, a religious allegory, which 
has received universal praise and been translated into 
many languages. On his release from prison, he became 
teacher of the Baptist congregation at Bedford, often 
travelling through different parts of England to visit 
the people of that persuasion, and was consequently 
called “ Bishop Bunyan.” D. in London, 1688. 

Gunz'Iaii, or Buntzl.au, (boonts'lou,) a town of Prus¬ 
sia, in Silesia, on the Bober, 25 m. W.N.W. of Liegnitz; 
pop. 8,125. 

Bnnzlau, (Jung,) a town of Austria, in Bohemia, on 
the Iser, 32 m. N.E. of Prague; pop. 5,866. 


Rnoliok, a parish of Ireland, co. Tipperary. 

Buol-Schaii'enstein, Karl Ferdinand, Count von, 
an Austrian statesman, B. 1797. lie was ambassador at 
Carlsruhe (1828), at Stuttgart (1838), at Turin (1844), at 
St. Petersburg (1848), and at London (1851). On 
Schwartzenberg’s death, B. became minister for foreign 
affairs, and retired in May, 1859, the month following 
the declaration of war against Sardinia. D. 1865. 

Buonarotti. See Michael Angelo. 

Buoy, (hoi,) n. [Fr. bouie, from Sp. boy a; Du. boei.] 
(Naut.) A block of wood, cork, &c., used as a float: a 
floating body formed of wood, and very often of hollow 
iron, moored over a certain spot, to indicate the situa¬ 
tion of a shoal or sand-bank, and to mark out the course 



a ship is to steer. When used for this purpose, B. are 
usually close vessels of conical form, of large dimen¬ 
sions in order that they may be seen from a distance; 
and generally painted of some particular color, so as to 
be readily distinguished from one another. Some B. 
have a bell attached to them, particularly those sta¬ 
tioned on coasts liable to fogs, others have a storm-proof 
lantern, lighted by gas (the Pintsch system), the buoy 
forming the receptacle for the gas. Small B. are also 
used to indicate the situation of ships’ anchors (to which 
they are fastened by a rope), in order that the ship may 
be prevented from running foul of the anchor.— To 
stream the buoy. To allow it to drop into the water by 
the vessels before letting go the anchor. 

— v. a . To keep afloat; to bear up. (Used generally be¬ 
fore up.) 

“ Presbytery, .. . was lately buoyed up in Scotland by tbe like 
artifice of a covenant.” — King Charles I. 

—To support or sustain; to keep from sinking into de¬ 
spondency ; as, buoyed on hope. 

—To place or fix buoys; to mark by buoys; as, to buoy 
a channel. 

— v . i. To float; to rise by specific lightness. 

“ Rising merit will buoy me up at last." — Pope. 

Blioyas©, (boi'age,) n. Buoys collectively; a complete 
set of buoys for the service of a harbor. — Duties or tolls 
levied on vessels for the use of buoys. 

Buoy'ance, n. Buoyancy. (Used poetically.) (r.) 

Buoy ancy. ( boi'an-se,) n. The quality of being buoy¬ 
ant, or floating, or of floating on the surface of water, 
or in the atmosphere; as, the buoyancy of a cork. 

“ All the winged tribes owe their flight and buoyancy to it.” 

Derham. 

—Lightness of spirits; vivacity; cheerfulness; as buoy¬ 
ancy of manner. 

(Phys.) The weight of ft floating body, measured by 
the volume of fluid displaced. 

Buoy'ant,a. [From buoy.] Floating; light; elastic; 
as, buoyant as a wave. 

“ I swum with the tide, and the water under me was buoyant." 

Dryden. 

—Vivacious; sprightly; cheerful; as, a buoyant mind. 

” His once so vivid nerves. 

So full of buoyant spirit, now no more 
Inspire the course.” — Thomson. 

Buoy'antly, adv. In a buoyant manner. 

Buoy'-rope, n. (Naut.) A rope which fastens a buoy 
to the anchor. 

Bupres'tris,u..and Buprestid.*, pi. (Zool.) A genus 
and family of Coleopterous insects, distinguished by 



Pig. 451. — buprestris. 


tbe toothed or serrated form of the antennas, and the 
splendor of its colors; many of its species having spots 
of golden hue upon an emerald ground, whilst in others 
azure glitters upon the gold. The B. are hard-shelled 
beetles, often brilliantly colored, of an elliptical or oblong 


oval form; the legs are rather short, and the feet ar« 
formed for standing firmly, rather than for rapid mo¬ 
tion. The larvas are wood-eaters or borers; and both 
fruit- and forest-trees are very subject to their attacks. 
There exist nearly 500 species, the most brilliant of 
which are found chiefly in tropical climates. 

Buplia'ga. n. (Zool.) There is but one species which 
constitutes this genus of birds of the family FringiUidre, 
and that is the African Beel-eater, or Ox-pecker, B. 
Africana. It is said to be frequently found in Senegal, 
and that its chief food consists in the larvae of astri. or 
bot-flies, which it sedulously extracts from the backs of 
cattle : hence its name. It measures about eight inches 
and a half iu length : is rufdus-brown above, and of a 
dull yellowish white beneath. The bill is nearly an inch 
long, yellowish, witli a red tip; the legs and claws are 
brown. — It is extremely wild or shy, and is usually seen 
in small flocks of six or eight together. 

Bur, Burr, (Mr,) n. [Fr. Iiourre, down, from L. Lat. 
burra ; W. bar, a busby head, a bunch; Ir. borr, a 
bunch or knob.1 The rough, prickly head of the bur¬ 
dock, chestnut, Ac. 

—The indurated edge left by a tool, in cutting, or trimming 
metal, &c. The rough neck left after casting a bullet. 

—The lobe of the ear. — The sweetbread. — A clinker- 
stone or brick. — A broad circle of iron on a tilting- 
spear. 

—A guttural enunciation of the r, formed by trilling the 
surface of tbe palate against the back part of the tongue. 
Frequently called the Northumbrian burr, from its pe¬ 
culiarity to the speech of the people of Northumberland, 
and the English Border. 

(Mech.) A small circular saw.— A sort of triangular 
chisel. 

(Engraving.) A slight ridge of metal raised on the 
edges of a line by the graver or the. dry point. As the 
bur produces an effect like a smear, it is usually regarded 
as a defect, and scraped off. Some etchers, however, 
take advantage of it to deepen their shadows, and Rem¬ 
brandt made use of it in this way with telling effect. 

Bursts Settlement, in Louisiana, a post-office of 
Plaquemines co. 

Bu'ratite, n. (Min.) A hydrated carbonate of copper, 
containing also zinc and lime, occurring in the radiating 
needles at Chesey in France,and in the Altai Mountains. 

Bur'bag'e, Richard, an English actor, for many years 
associated with Shakespeare iu dramatic productions. 
B. was the first licensed English player. Died in 1619. 

BII r' trail li, in Minnesota, a post-olfice of Kandiyohi co. 

Bur'bank, in Ohio, a post-office of Wayne county. 

Burbot, n. (Zool.) See Lota. 

Burch Creek, in Indiana, Clay co., empties into Eel 
River. 

Burch’ville, in Michigan, a post-township of St. Clair 
co., 80 m. N.N.E. of Detroit. 

Burckliardt, (burk'hard,) Johann Ludwig, a cele¬ 
brated explorer, B. at Lausanne in 17S4. He studied at 
Leipzig and Gottingen, went to England in 1808, and in 
1809 was sent by the English African Society on an ex¬ 
ploring expedition into Africa. He first repaired to 
Aleppo, where, during a tliree-years’ residence, he meta¬ 
morphosed both his outward and inward man into a 
true Mussulman; an operation which he performed with 
such success, that, afterwards, when a doubt bad been 
raised as to his creed, he was examined by two ulemas 
(or priests), and by them declared not only a true, but 
a deeply learned Moslem. In 1812 he travelled through 
Egypt, up the Nile to Nubia, through the Nubian 
desert, and across the Red Sea to Mecca, in order to 
study Mohammedanism at its fountain-head. Thence 
he joined in a pilgrimage to Mount Ararat, by which 
he acquired the title of hadji, i. e. pilgrim. In 1815, 
B. returned to Cairo, and made preparations for his 
long intended journey to Fezzan; when, however, the 
caravan was just about to start, he died of a fever, 17th 
Oct., 1817, and was honorably buried in a Mohammedan 
cemetery. Ilis journals were published after his death, 
at London. A German edition appeared at Weimar. 
For truth, accuracy, and minute observation, they are 
hardly to be excelled. His Notes on the Bedouins and 
Wahabees, (London, 1830,) ani. his Arabic Proverbs, (Lou¬ 
don, 1831,) are also highly valuable works. 

Bur'daeh. Karl Friedrich, a well-known German 
physiologist, b. in Leipzig, June 12,1776. He was pro¬ 
fessor of anatomy and physiology in Dorpat from 1811 
to 1814. when he accepted the same chair in the Univer¬ 
sity of Konigsberg, which he held until his death in 1847. 
He was a man of fine ability, and an arduous worker in 
science; he is the author of many works on anatomy, 
physiology, Ac., and is well known for hi' works. The 
Formation and Life of the. Brain and Spinal Marrow; 
Medical Jurisprudence; Physiology of the Nervous Sys¬ 
tem, Ac. 

Burdelais', n. [Fr. bourdelais, from Bordeaux.'] A 
sort of grape. 

Bur'den, Henry, a distinguished inventor and iron 
manufacturer, born in Scotland, 1791; iu early life 
removed to Troy, N. Y., where he built up a large busi¬ 
ness. B. made the first cultivator used in America; 
invented the hook-headed spike used in railway con¬ 
struction. and the horse-shoe machine. Died in 1871. 

Burden, (beridn,) n. (Written also Burthen.) [A.S. 
byrden , byrthen, from beran , to bear; Ger. b'urde.} That 
which is borne or carried; a load; a weight; as, he bore 
a burden on his back. 

“And the gay grandsire, skill'd in gestic lore. 

Has frisk’d beneath the burden of three-score.”— Goldsmith ■ 

—That which is grievous, oppressive, or wearisome; 
the burden of pain. 

"Deaf, giddy, helpless, left alone, 

To all my friends a burden grown.”— Swift, 
























4GS 


EURE 


BURG 


BURG 


—A fixed quantity of a certain commodity; as, a burden 
of steel, (120 lbs.) 

(Naut.) The contents of a ship; freight: cargo ; the 
tonnage capacity of a vessel; as, a ship of five hundred 
tons burden. 

Bur'llen, n. [Fr. bourdon.} The chorus or refrain of 
a song; the boh of a melody; hence, that which is often 
repeated, or on which one dwells; as, the burden of a 
taie. 

“Atev’ry close she made,«h’ attending throng 
Reply’d, and bore the burden of the song."— Dryden. 

(Mas.) The drone or bass of a musical instrument; 
the drum of a bagpipe. 

{Mining.) The tops or heads of stream-work which 
lie over the stream of tin, and which must first be 
cleansed. — Beast of burden. Any animal employed in 
carrying a burden.— Burden of proof. {Law.) The 
duty of proving a fact in dispute on an issue raised. 

Bnr'den, v. a. To load; to encumber with a weight; 
as, to burden a camel. 

"Burden not thyself above thy power.”-— Eccl. xiii. 2. 

e-' To oppress with anything hard to be borne; as, to bur¬ 
den one’s self with a wife. 

“ With meats and drinks they had suffic'd, 

Not burden'd nature. "^Milton. 

—To impose a weight upon as a load to be borne; as, to 
burden another with one’s own responsibility. 

Bur'dener, n. An oppressor; one who loads. 

Bur'llenous, a. Grievous; oppressive; wearisome. 

•* Nor let it be light to thee, which to me is so burdenous.'* 

Sir P. Sidney. 

—Useless; cumbersome. 

“ But to sit idle on the household earth, 

A burd'uous drone, to visitants a gaze.”—Jfiilton. 

Biii*'<Iensonie, a. Grievous to be borne; heavy; 
weighty; oppressive. 

•* Could I but live till burdensome they prove. 

My life would be immortal as my love."— Dryden. 

Bnr'densomely, adv. In a burdensome manner. 

Bur'tlensomeness, n. Weight; heaviness; causing 
uneasiness or oppression. 

Burdett', Sir Francis, Bart., a celebrated English 
politician, b. 1770. He sat in the British parliament 
for 40 years, as a Liberal of the most ultra type; was 
one of the earliest advocates of parliamentary reform, 
and suffered bitter persecutions at the hands of the Tory 
government of those times. He was twice imprisoned 
in the Tower of London for his out-spoken Liberalism, 
fined $5,000, and condemned to three months’ further 
imprisonment in the King's Bench. Died in 1841. 

Blirdett-C’outts, Baroness Angela Georgiana, born 
in 1813, daughter of Sir Francis Burdett. Inherited 
from her grandfather, Coutts, the banker, an enormous 
fortune, which she devoted largely to works of philan- 
trophy._ 

Burdett, (bui-ait’,) in New York, a village of Tomp¬ 
kins co., on Seneca Lake, 180 m. W. by S. of Albany. 

—A post-village of Schuyler co., about 3 m. from Watkins 
Glen. 

Bar'dicKville, in Michigan , a P. 0. of Leelenaw co. 

Bur dock, n. (Bit.) See Lappa. 

Bur'don, Bur'den, n. [Fr. bourdan .] A pilgrim’s 

Staff. 

Bunlwall, ( boord'wan,) a district of Hindostan. pres, 
and prov. Bengal; between Lat. 22° and 24° N., and Lon. 
87° 20'and 8 s° 25' E.; having N. Beerbhoom, E.Nuddea, 
S. Hooghlv, and W. the Jungle Mehals dist.; area, 2,000 
sq. m. This is one of the most productive territories of 
India, and being environed by jungles N. and S., appears 
like a garden surrounded by a wilderness. The chief 
articles of produce are indigo, sugar, cotton, tobacco, and 
mulberry-trees. A principal part of the wealth of B. 
lies in its coal mines, which are very extensive. The 
zemindars (or proprietors) are very opulent, and the 
proportion of Mohammedans to Hindoos is about one to 
five. B. became subject to the British in 1760. Cap. 
Burdwan Pop. Estimated at 1,500,000. 

Burdw \n, f city, and cap. of the above prov., 60 m. N.N.W. 
of Calcutta; Lat. 23° 15' N., Lon. 87° 57' E. Pop. about 
54,000. 

Bureau, (bii'ro,) n. [Fr. bureau; 0. Fr. bure, burel, 
thick cloth made of wool dyed red or russet, from L. 
Lat. burr us, red and black.] Originally, a thick, coarse, 
brownish kind of cloth made of wool; hence, a writing- 
table, for which it formed a covering, with drawers to 
contain papers. 

For not the desk with silver nails. 

Nor bureau of expense, . . . avails 
To writing of good sense.” — Swift. 

—An office, co’.rt, or place wherein public business is 
transacted; as, a banker’s bureau. 

—A department, or organized company of persons, ap¬ 
pointed to control or take charge of certain public du¬ 
ties; as, the Freedmen’s Bureau .— In the chissification 
of public officers of government, and the distribution 
of duties among them, a B. is understood to be a divi¬ 
sion of the great departments of which the secretaries, 
or chief officers, constitute the cabinet. 

—A wardrobe, or article of furniture for the safe-keeping 
of clothes, Ac. (Used in the U. States.) In England, 
a name sometimes given to a closet, or garde-de-vin. 

Bureau, ( bu'ro,) in Illinois, a, N.W. county, bounded 
S.E. by the Illinois River, and watered by Green River 
and Bureau Creek. A rea, 800 sq. m. Surface, diversi¬ 
fied. Soil, fertile, dtp. Princeton. 

Bureaucracy, (hu-rb'kra-sy,) n. [Fr. bureaucratic..} 
The system by which the business of administration is 
carried on in departments, each under the control of a 
chief; in contradistinction to those systems in which 
government officials have a co-ordinate authority. 


Bureaucrat'ie, a. Pertaining to, or having the form 
of, a bureaucracy. 

Bureau'cratist, n. An upholder, or supporter of 
bureaucracy. 

Bu'reau Creek, in Illinois, empties into the Illinois 
River, in Putnam co. 

Bu'reau Junction, in Illinois, a post-village of Bu¬ 
reau co., 47 m. N.N.B. of Peoria, and 30 W. of Ottawa. 

Bu'ren, Martin Van. See Van Buren. 

Burette, {bu-ret',) n. {Chem.) An instrument occasion¬ 
ally used in the laboratory, and the assay office, for the 
purpose of dividing a given portion of any liquid into 
100 or 1,000 equal parts. 

Bur'ford’s Landing, in Alabama, a post-office of 
Wilcox co. 

Burg - , Burg'll, {berg,) n. See Borough. 

Burg, a walled town of Prussia, prov. Saxony, reg. 
Magdeburg, on the Ille, 13 m. N.E. of Magdeburg. 
Manuf. Woollens and snuff. Pop. 16,632. 

Bll rgag*', (berg'aj,) n. [From burg.) {Eng. Law.) A 
species of tenure in boroughs, cities, and towns, under 
which citizens hold tenements of the sovereign, or other 
person, at a certain rent. 

Burgall, n. (Zobl.) See Ctenolabrus. 

Burgamot', n. A variety of pear. — A perfume. See 
Bergamot. 

Bur'g’anet, ltur'gonet, n. [Fr. bourguignotte, from 
Burgundy.} The upper part or ridge above the crown- 
piece or curvature of the ancient helmet, upon which 
the heraldic crest of the knight’s family was attached, 
and to which a panache of feathers was sometimes su- 
peradded. Hence, B. is sometimes used to signify the 
heraldic crest itself; and, at other times, the entire 
knightly casque so crested. 

Bur'gas, or Burghaz, a town of East Roumclia, on a 
promontory in the Gulf of Burgas in the Black Sea, 76 
m. N.E. of Adrianopte. Pop. 6,538. 

Bu rgaw, in North Carolina, the capital of Pender 
county. 

Bur'g'ee, n. Small coal for burning in the furnaces of 
engines. 

{Naut.) A distinguishing ensign or pennant ending in 
two points, used by yachts and merchant-vessels. 

Bur'geo Islands, between Newfoundland and Cape 
Breton, Lat. 47° 33' N., Lon. 57° 44' W. They belong 
to Great Britain. Pop. abt. 800. 

Iturgeois, n. See Bourgeois. 

Bur geon, v.i. See Bourgeon. 

— n. {Hort.) A knot or button put forth by the branch of 
a tree in spring. 

Burger, ( bbbr'jer,) Gottfried August, a German poet, 
b. in Molmerswende, 1748; d. 1794. Well known for his 
ballads, most of which have been translated into all the 
languages of the civilized world. He wrote Lenore. 
(translated by Sir Walter Scott); Lenardo and Blan- 
dine ; The Wild Hunter, Ac. 

Burgermeister, n. The title of the chief magis¬ 
trate of a city or town in Germany; corresponding to 
our mayor, and to the French main. 

Bu rgess, Tristam, an American statesman and orator, 
B. in Rochester, Massachusetts, 1770. He was elected as 
a representative to Congress in 1825, and successively re¬ 
elected till 1835, when lie was defeated by the candidate 
of the Democratic party. During the ten years of his 
congressional career, there was scarcely a question of 
any importance which he did not illustrate with his 
convincing logic, his persuasive eloquence, or his blight¬ 
ing satire. D. 1S53. 

Bur' gess, n. [Fr. bourgeois, from L. Lat. burgensis.l 
from burg.} An inhabitant of a borough or walled 
town; a freeman of a borough; a representative of a 
borough in the English parliament. 

—A magistrate of a borough. An officer who discharges 
the same duties for a borough that a mayor does for a 
city. The word is used in this sense in Pennsylvania. 

Bur'gess, or Bur'gessbeg, a parish of Ireland, co. Tip¬ 
perary. 

Bur gess, in Iowa, a post-village of Clinton co., 38 m. 
S.S.W. of Dubuque. 

Bur'gessshiji, n. State, privilege, and position of a 
burgess. 

Bur'gettstown, in Pennsylvania, a post-village of 
Washington co.. 20 in. N.N.W. of Washington, the 
co. seat. 

Bnrg'grave. Bur'grave, n [Ger .burg-graf] In 
Germany, the feudal title for a castellan, or lord of a 
castle, having the right of private justice, and of impos¬ 
ing taxes, Ac. 

Burgli, n. See Borough. 

BairgU'bote, n. {Old Eng. Law.) An impost levied for 
the raising or repairing of the defences of a borough 
or city. 

Burgh-lireoh, (burg'brech,) n. (Old Eng. Law.) A 
breach of the peace. 

Burgher, ( borg'er ,) n. A burgess or freeman of a 
burgh or borough. 

(Eccl. Hist.) In Scotland, a member of the seceding 
party from the Scottish church (1747) which asserted 
tiie legality of the burgess-oath (abiding by “ the true 
religion professed within the realm”), their opponents 
being denominated anti-burghers. 

Burgh'ermaster, n. See Burgermeister. 

Burgh'erslli|>, n. Quality or privilege of a burgher; 
citizenship. 

Burgh MiJJ. in Ohio, a post-village of Trumbull co., 
17 m. E.N.E. of Warren. 

Burgh -holder, n. See Borsholder. 

Burgh'-master, n. A burgermeister. 

(Mining.) An officer in tin-mines, called also bar- 
master and bailiff. 


Burgh'-mote, n. [ Burgh and mote, meeting.] The 
Court of Wards of a borough; a municipal court. 

Burglar, ( berg'ler,) n. [Burg, and Arm. laer, a thief; 
Lat. latro; Fr. larron.} One guilty of burglary. 

Burgla'rious, a. Pertaining to burglary; constitut¬ 
ing the crime of burglary. 

Burgla'riously, adv. In the manner of a burglar; 
with an intent to commit burglary. 

Burglary, n. [L. Lat. burgi latrncinium.} (Law.) 
The breaking and entering the dwelling-house of an¬ 
other in the night-time, with intent to commit a felony. 
This offence is punishable by penal servitude or im¬ 
prisonment. 

” Flat burglary as ever was committed.” — Shake. 

Burgo. a town of Spain, 36 m. W. of Malaga; pop. 2,50(1 

Burgomaster, n. See Burgermeister. 

(Zobl.) See Gull. 

Bur'gonet, n. See Burganet. 

Burgos, ( boor'gos,) a city of Spain, cap. prov. of same 
name, on the Arlangon, 134 m. N. of Madrid, and59 S.W. 
of Vittoria. The city is of irregular shape, but is clean 
and generally handsome. It lias a fine Gothic cathe¬ 
dral ; and from having been the cradle of the two most 
renowned warriors of Spain, — Ferdinand Gonzales, and 
the Cid Campeador, — B. contains a triumphal arch in 
memory of the former, and a monument to the hitter. 
Manuf. Leather, woollens, and hats. B. was formerly 
the residence of the counts of Castile, and of many of 
the Castilian kings. 

Bur'gout, Bur'goo, n. A kind of thick porridge 

eaten by seamen. 

Burgoyne', John, an English general, and dramatic 
author, b. abt. 1730. After having served with distinc¬ 
tion in Portugal, he was sent to America in 1775. He 
joined General Gage at Boston, with large reinforce¬ 
ments, and witnessed, from one of the batteries in that 
city, the famous battle of Bunker Hill, of which he has 
left an animated description. After proceeding to Can¬ 
ada as governor, he returned to England, but, in 1777, 
was dispatched to takecommand of that expedition from 
Canada against the U. States, the failure of which so 
largely contributed to the establishment of American 
freedom. Few battles, indeed, have achieved, in their 
ultimate influence, results so great as the surrender of 
B., with 5.791 fighting-men, well provided with artillery, 
at Saratoga, to the army of General Gates. It gave heart 
to the colonists,confirmed them in their resistance, and, 
in England, greatly strengthened the hands of those op¬ 
posed to a continuance of the struggle. B., on his re¬ 
turn home, was received by the king with marked dis¬ 
favor. He defended himself with eloquence, and de¬ 
manded an inquiry. The inquiry was commenced, hut 
summarily stopped by a prorogation of parliament. Al¬ 
though B. did not possess the genius of a great general, 
and was in many respects utterly inadequate to the 
tasks imposed upon him, yet no one can read the work 
published in his defence— State of the Expedition from, 
Canada, London, 1780—without acknowledging hia 
courage, and detecting qualities, which, in a less exalt¬ 
ed station, might have been of service to his country. 
Disgusted witli his treatment by the govt., he retired 
into private life, and devoted his leisure to the produc¬ 
tion of dramas, many of which, as the Maid of the. Oaks, 
The Lord of the Manor, Ac., were highly popularin their 
day. His best play, The Heiress, still keeps the stage. 
D. 1792. 

Burgrass,ii. (Bot.) See Cenchrus. 

Bur’grave, n. See Burggrave. 

Burgundy. [Fr. Bourgogne.} An ancient province 
of France, now forming the departments of Cute d'Or, 
Sapne-et-Loire, Ain, and part of Youne. Dijon was the 
capital of B. The ancient Burgundians (Burgundi or 
Burgundiones), originally a German tribe, were at first 
settled on the banks of the Oder and the Vistula, and 
afterwards extended themselves to the Rhine and the 
Neckar, and, in 407, penetrated into Roman Gaul. Their 
conversion to Christianity took place in the course of 
eight days! They adopted a brief Arian confession of 
faith, and were baptized. From 407 to 534. the kingdom 
of B. was several times divided; and in 451, Gundicar, 
king of B., with 10,000 men, confronted Attila, but was 
defeated and slain. The tradition of this overthrow of 
the old Burgundians is still preserved in a confused form 
in the Nibelungen Lied. In 534, IS. passed under the rule 
of the Franks; but the weak government of the later 
Carlovingiau kings allowed it to become once more in¬ 
dependent, and it was named the kingdom of Arles, from 
the residence of its first king, Boso, who died 887. He 
was succeeded by his son Louis; and after a time of con¬ 
tention, and division of the French territories, Duke Ru¬ 
dolf, nephew of King Hugo of France, made himself 
ruler of Upper B., and was followed by Rudolf II. 
(912), who was crowned king of Italy in 921, and united 
Lower B., or Arles, to his own kingdom in 928. Conrad 
the Peaceable succeeded, and after him Rudolf III., who 
dying without male issue in 1033, bequeathed his king¬ 
dom to the Emperor Conrad II. of Germany, whose son, 
Henry III., made it a duchy of the German empire. 
With Philip the Good, the founder of the new ducal 
dynasty of B., a new and splendid sera was commenced, 
in 1363, and was continued to the death of Charles the 
Bold ( q. ii.), in 1477, who left no male issue. B. was then 
incorporated with France. 

Burgundy Piteh, n. (Med.) A resin obtained from 
the species of fir known as the white pine. It is, how¬ 
ever, seldom obtained pure, a common pine resin being 
mixed with it. Burgundy pitcli is only used in the com¬ 
position of plasters, in which it is retained on account 
of its warm, stimulating properties. It is employed itt 
the manufacture of the pitch plaster, emplaslrum picis, 



































































































































.BURK 


BURL 


BURM 


471 


»nd in making the common warming plaster—a combi¬ 
nation of Burgundy pitch, litharge plaster, and blister 
plaster. 

Burgundy Wines, n.pl. These celebrated French 
Wines derive their name from the ancient provinceof Bur¬ 
gundy. They are wines of delicious flavor and bouquet, 
and are often recommended in the cure of disease, as a 
light, diffusible stimulant, on account of the small per¬ 
centage of alcohol contained in them. They are imper¬ 
fectly known in this country, to which it has been be¬ 
lieved that they would not well bear a sea-voyage. It 
has been ascertained that, in well-corked bottles, the 
8. wines may be imported in good condition, but we 
do not believe, as has been said, that they improve by 
crossing the Atlantic. The most renowned red wines of 
B. are Romane-Oonti, dos Vnngeot, Chambertin, Nuits, 
Richebnurg, and Beaune. The Chab'iis, a white wine, 
is relatively inferior to the red products of B, though 
preferred by some to the best growths of white Bor¬ 
deaux (claret). The annual product of wine in B. is 
about 7,000,000 gallons. 

Bu rial, [ ber’e-al ,) re. Act of burying; interment; a 
sepulture; a funeral.—See Sepulture. 

i [Law .) No B. is lawful unless made in conformity 
with the local regulations; and when a dead body has 
been found, it cannot be lawfully buried until the coro¬ 
ner has held an inquest over it. 

Burial Service. That portion of a religious service re¬ 
lating to the interment of the dead; as, the English 
burial-service. 

Burial-ground, n. A place appropriated for de¬ 
positing the dead; a cemetery. 

Btl'ridan, Jean, a French scholastic philosopher, b. at 
Bethune, flourished in the 14th century. The events of 
his life, as well as the manner of his death, are very ob¬ 
scure. Ouo account states, that he was thrown into the 
Seine, by command of Marguerite de Bourgogne, 
daughter-in-law of Philippe le Bel, whose infidelities he 
had rebuked. Another, later, but less mythical-looking 
account, states that B. was driven front France as a dis¬ 
ciple of Occam, and fled to Austria, where he founded a 
school. He is now but known for an apologue which 
he invented to illustrate the doctrine of free will. “An 
ass,” says he, “ placed midway between two bundles of 
hay, would maintain his position, and die of starvation, 
if lie had no choice; but if he turns to one side or the 
other for the purpose of satisfying his appetite, then 
he has choice, ami of course freedom of will.” This prop¬ 
osition, commonly called “ Buridan’s ass,” was long a 
source of great perplexity to the schools. It has been 
said that this celebrated sophism was adduced, not by 
B., but by his adversaries, who wished to ridicule his 
metaphysical doctrine of Determinism. D. 1538. 

Bu r'ier, n. One who buries; that which covers or con¬ 
ceals. 

Bli'rin, n. [Fr. burin: It. borino. bnlino, from the root 
of bore or bite.] A graver; an instrument for engrav¬ 
ing. See Graver. 

Bu riu, a S. district of Newfoundland. 

Burk. in Iowa , a post-office of Benton co. 

Burke, v. a. [From the name of an Irishman who first 
perpetrated the crime in 1829. ] To murder in order to ob¬ 
tain the body for dissection. (R.)—To dispose of in a quiet, 
unobtrusive manner; to shelve; as. to burke a question. 
Bu rke, Edmund, an eminent author, statesman, and 
orator, b., of a good Irish family, at Dublin, 1730. After 
leaving Trinity College in that city, where he had 
acquitted himself brilliantly, he resorted to London in 
1749, where he became an associate of the most eminent 
literary characters of that day. In 1756, he published lus 
celebrated Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful, which at 
once placed him in the front rank of authors. In 1765, 
B. became secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham, 
priine-miuister of England, and obtained a seat in Par¬ 
liament, where h6 joined the Whig party. In 1769 ap¬ 
peared his observations On the Present State of the Nation, 
which elicited such admiration as to draw upon B. the 
credit of the authorship of the letters of “Junius,” 
which appeared about the same time. On the outbreak 
of the American War, B. espoused the side of the colo¬ 
nists, and on the 19th April, 1774, in the debate for re¬ 
pealing the duty on tea, levied on the American people, 
he delivered a speech that electrified the BriLsh senate. 
B. steadily continued to be the champion of liberal 
measures in the English parliament, and, in 1782, was 
made a privy-councillor, and paymaster of the forces. 
Shortly afterwards, on Mr. Pitt taking the head of the 
govt., B. became, in conjunction with his illustrious 
friend Fox, one of the leaders of the opposition. In 
1788, on the trial of Warren Hastings (q.v.), late gov¬ 
ernor-general of India, for “high crimes and misde¬ 
meanours,” B was one of the managers of the impeach¬ 
ment. On the third day of this momentous trial (which 
lasted for 10 years), B. delivered iii the English House 
of Commons a speech only equalled by the famous 
“ Begum” speech of his friend Sheridan. This wonder¬ 
ful masterpiece of commanding oratory held parliament 
for nine days under a spell of mingled awe and admira¬ 
tion. On the outbreak of the French revolution, he de¬ 
fended the cause of the French royal family, and de¬ 
nounced the excesses of the revolutionists in such un¬ 
measured language as estranged him from his old politi¬ 
cal associates. In particular, his championship of the 
lovely and unfortunate Marie Antoinette Wits one of those 
episodes of the old knightly spirit of past days, resusci 


and 13,000 in France. It produced an effect such al no o Wan ' * ° f Indlaua P olls . and 22 miles S. 


other political essay ever‘had; it arrested'th^Wolem | -A village "of Delaware co.. on Prairie Creek 7 m 

England, and 1 »-• ’ 


progress of the revolutionary spirit in__ 

gave the first and most decisive check to the disorganiz" 
ing influences which were rapidly spreading through 
Europe. This great Irishman d. 7th July, 1797. 

Burke, in Georgia, an E. county, divided from S. Caro¬ 
lina by the Savannah River; area, 1,040 sq. m. It is 
drained by the Ogeechee River and Rocky and Brier 
creeks. Surface. Undulating. Soil. Excellent, with sub¬ 
strata of limestone and gypsum. Agate and jasper are 
also obtained. Qip. Waynesborough. 'j 

Burke, in New York, a twp. of Frauklin co. 

Burke, in North Carolina, a W. county, having an area 
of about 620 sq. m. It is watered by Catawba and Lin- 
ville rivers, and by Mulberry creek. Surface. Hilly 
being skirted on the N.W. by the Blue Ridge. Soil. 
Tolerably good. This county was named after the illus¬ 
trious British statesman, Edmund Burke. Cap. Mor- 
ganton. Pop. (1898) 15,750. 

Burke, in Vermont, a post-township of Caledonia co., 
48 m. N.E. of Montpelier. It is drained by the Pas- 
sumpsic River, and traversed by the Passumpsic R. R. 

Burke, in Wisconsin, a post-township of Dane coun¬ 
ty. 

Burk'er, n. One who burks, or commits burking. 

Burkes'ville, in Kentucky, a post-village, cap. of 
Cumberland co., on Cumberland River, 116 m. S. by W. 
of Frankfort. 

Burkesville, in Virginia, a village of Prince Edward 
co., 52 m. W. of Petersburg. 

Bur'kettsville, in Maryland, a post-office of Fred¬ 
erick co. 

Burke'ville, in Texas, a post-village, former cap. of 
Newton co. Pop. (1898) 400. 

Burk'ism,ra. The practice of quietly murdering people, 
in order to sell their bodies for dissection. 

Burk’s Garden, in Virginia, a P. 0. of Tazewell co. 

Burks'vilie, in Illinois, a P. 0. of Monroe co. 

Burksville, in Virginia, a P. 0. of Nottaway co. 

Burl, ( berl ,) v. a. [From burr.] To remove burs, knots, 
loose thread, &c. from cloth. — Manf. To dress cloth as 
fullers do. 

— A knot ia thread or cloth. 

Bnr'lace, a. Same as Burdelais, q. v. 

Burlap. a. A coarse textile material, made of jute, 


S.E. 


of Muncie. 

—A vill. of Rush co., 8 m. W.N.W. of Rushville. 
Burlington, in Iowa, a thriving post-citv, and seat of 
justice ot Des Moines co., and formerly the State cap.,on 
the Mississippi River, 45 m. from Keokuk, 210 m W.S.W 
ot Chicago, and 250 from St. Louis. This is a well-built 
uated* Pidl y improviug cit J> iUld most picturesquely bit- 
Burlington, in Kansas, a city and township of Coffey 

rf W),a IS?’ 60 “- 

Biirlin^ton, in Kentucky ,a post-village and twp., cap, 

of Boone co., 16 m. S.W. of Cincinnati. 

Burlington, in Maine, a post-towusliip of Penobscot 
co., 40 m. N.E. of Bangor. 

-Burlington, in Massachusetts, a post-township of Mid- 
-I die sex co., 14 m. N. by W. of Boston. 

I5 " r ! i '' lr,on ' in Mbhigan, a post-viilage and township 
of Calhoun co. r 

—A township of Lapeer co. 

Burlington, in Minnesota, a village of Clay co., oe 
the Red Kiver of the North. 

Burlington, in Missouri, a post-office of Boone co. 

Burling ton, in New Jersey, a central county, embrao 
ing an area of about 860 sq m. Bounded on the N.W 
by the Delaware river, N.and N.E. by Mercer, Monmouth 
and Ocean cos., on S.W. by Camden and Atlantic cos. 
Surface, level. Soil, generally fertile. Cap. Mount 
Holly. Pop. (1898) 61,150. 

—A city, port of entry, and township of the above co., on 
the Delaware, nearly facing Bristol, 20 m. from Phila¬ 
delphia, and 12 S.W. of Trenton. This is a very hand¬ 
some, and well built and lighted town, possessing a 
college and many fine buildings. It is in summer a 
great resort of Philadelphia pleasure seekers, and was 
originally called New Beverly. Pop. (1898 ) 7,950. 

Burlington, in New York, a township of Otsego co. 

Burlington.in Ohio, a village of Clinton co., 11 m. 
N.W. of Wilmington. 

—A village of Belmont co., on the Ohio river. 

—A village of Hamilton co. 

—A township of Licking co. 

—A post-village, former cap. of Lawrence co., on the 
Ohio, 145 m. S.E. of Columbus. 


flex, hemp, or manila, used for wrapping merchandise, —A village of Marseilles township, Wyandot co. 

A n n or Iriurl eiirtuii.. i.. ^.1 II ■■ III 1 .. ...if,._ t •_ 


A finer kind is used for curtains and in upholstery. 
Burleigh, Lord. See Cecil. 


Burlington, in Oregon, a village of Linn co., 11 m 
S.S.W. ol Albany. 


Burler, ». One who dresses cloth; one who removes Burlington, in Pennsylvania, a post-village and town- 
knots, &c. from cloth. - 1 -*- -**»—■»*—* " . 

Burle’son, in Alabama, a P. 0. of Franklin co. 

Burleson, in Texas, a S. central county, bounded N.E. 
by Brazos river, and S. by Tegua creek. Area, 1,025 sq. 
m. Soil. For the most part fertile. Cap. Caldwell. 

Pop. (1898) 15,000. 

Burlesque, ( bur-lesJc ',) a. [Fr.; It. burlesco, from L. 

Lat. burlare, to jest, play the fool; L. Eat. burleschus, 
satirical.] Jesting; jeering; jocular; tending to excite 
laughter by ludicrous images. 

—re. (Lit.) A style of composition in which the humor Burlington.in Virginia, a village ofjioanoke co. 
consists in a ludicrous mixture of things high and low, ' ' 

of high thoughts clothed in low expressions; or vice 


ship of Bradford co., 8 m. W. of Towanda. 

Burlington, in Vermont, a flourishing city, port of 
entry, and seat of justice of Chittenden co., on a hay of 
the same name, on the E. bank of Lake Champlain. 40 
m. W.N.W. of Montpelier, and 82 N. ol Whitehall, Lat. 
44° 27' N., Lon. 73° 10' W. This is a finely built and 
pleasantly situated place, and contains the State Uni¬ 
versity, and many handsome buildings. It is largely 
engaged in shipping, and is a busy town generally 
Pop. (1900) 18,640. 


-A village of Hampshire co., on Patterson’s Creek, 205 
m. N.W. of Richmond. 

versa, of ordinary or base topics invested in artificial Burlington.in W. Virginia, a P. 0. of Mineral co. 
dignity. The B. style may exist in conversation as well as Burlington, in Wisconsin, a flourishing post-vjlutge 


in written composition, and even in acting and drawing.! 

It is, however, most common in poetry. B. appears to 

have been unknown among the ancients; but 6peci- Burlington Fiats, in New York, a post-village of 


and township of Racine co., on Fox River, 26 i 
S. of Racine Citv. 


mens of it are fouud in most modern languages, particu-S Otsego co., 25 m. S. of Utica. 
larly the Italian. Butler’s Hudibras is a well-known Burly, (ber’H,) a. [A. S. gebur ; Dn/horr; Ger. baue/r, a 


tated to redeem the barbarous proletarianism of the 
time. It was in this speech, when describing the woes 
of this hapless queen, that he uttered his memorable 
Words, “ The age of chivalry is past, ’tis gone! ” B. next 
produced his Reflections on the Revolution of France, a 
Vork which has had no equal in knowledge, eloquence, 


example in English. 

-r. a. To turn into ridicule; to make ludicrous by per¬ 
verted representation. 

Burl esq ner, ( bur-lesk'er ,) n. One who burlesques, or 
acts in a burlesque. 

Burlet'ta, re. [It., from burlare, to jest.] A comic ope¬ 
retta or musical farce. 

Bur'liness, n. State of being burly; bulkinese. 

Bur'lingame, Anson, b. at New Berlin, New York. 
1822. Having embarked in politics, he was elected a 
member of the senate of Massachusetts, and afterwards 
of Congress. He was sent as U. States Minister to the 
Chinese gov. in 1861. On his retirement from this post, 
in 1867, he was requested by the regent. Prince Rung, to 
go on a special mission for the Chinese gov., to some for¬ 
eign courts. Alter visiting the U. States, where he 
concluded a treaty, he visited several Euiopean courts, 
and died at St. Petersburg in 1870. 

Burlingame, in Kansas, a city, former cap. of Osage 
co., 22 m. S.S.W. of Topeka. Pop. (1898) 2,450. 

Bur'lingliain, in New York, a. post-village of Sullivan 
county. 

Burlinghain, in Ohio, a post-office of Meigs co. 

Burl'ing-iron, n. An instrument used in hurling 
cloth. 

Bu r'lington, Richard Boyle, third E arl of, and fourth 
Earl of Cork, b. 1695. He was distinguished for his ar¬ 
chitectural taste and skill, and designed many fine edi¬ 
fices in England; and he was not less eminent for his 
munificent patronage of arts and letters. He was the 
friend of Pope and Bishop Berkeley, and published at his 
own expense one of Palladio’s works. D. 1753. 

Burlington, in England. See Briduxgtox. 

Bur'lington, in Connecticut, a post-township of Hart¬ 
ford co., on Farmington River, 15 m. W. of Hartford. 
Manf. Screws, woollen goods, etc. 

Burlington, in Illinois, a post-village and township 
of Kane co., 54 m. W. by N. of Chicago. 


boor, boor-like.] Like a boor; great in size; of full fig¬ 
ure; clumsy. 

“ Too "burly and too big to pass my narrow gate." — Dry den. 

—Boisterous; coarse and rough. 

“It was the orator's own burly way of nonsense." — Cowley. 

Btir mah, Birmah, or the Birman Empire, in Asia, an 
extensive country of India beyond the Ganges, formerly 
the most powerful State of that peninsula, and con¬ 
siderably larger than at present; extending between the 
lat. of 9° and 27° N.. upwards of 1,000 m. in length, and 
nearly 600 in breadth. At present it comprises the ter¬ 
ritory between Lat. 19° 29' and 27° 22' 30” N., and Lon. 
92° 43' and 99° E.; having W. the British provs. of Ara- 
can,Chittagong,and Pegu; N., Upper Assam and Thibet; 
E., the Chinese prov. Yunnan, Laos, the country of the 
independent Shuns, and prov. of Martaban belonging t 9 
the British; and S., the kingdom of Siam, and the British 
province of Pegu. Area, about 2,000,000 sq. m. B. is 
enclosed E. and W. by two principal offsets of the Hi- 
malayachain of mountains, which again ramify into sub¬ 
ordinate mountain ranges. From Cape Negrais to 23° 
N., the Yoomadong range constitutes the W. boundary, 
giving a maximum altitude of 5,000 ft. The highest 
summit, however, in this country is the Phnngan, attain¬ 
ing to a height of 12,474 ft. above sea-level, and covered 
with perpetual snow.— Plains, dc. There are many 
plains, but none of them very extensive: numerous val¬ 
leys of the highest fertility End beauty are found in the 
S. of the empire; in the N. they are mostly defiles or 
narrow steppes.— Rivers. The principal are the Irra¬ 
waddy, with its affluents; and the San-luen, and Si-tang; 
all streams of the first class. The largest lake is that 
of Kandangyee, or the “ Great Royal Lake,” 25 m. N. of 
Ava, which is 30 m. long by 9 broad. Min. The N. prov. 
are the richest in valuable minerals. Besides fine mar¬ 
ble, serpentine and nephrite, and amber mines are 
worked by the Chinese, gold, silver, rubies, sapphires, 
diamonds,and topazes; iron,copper, tin,lead,antimony. 











472 


BURM 


BURM 


BURN 


arsenic, vitriol, sulphur, and nitre are found. Coal is also 
believed to exist largely. Petroleum has been obtained 
to the gross annual amount of 80,000 lbs.; but its ex¬ 
portation has been considerably diminished since the 
great development of this product in the U. States. 
The government has a monopoly of gold, silver, and 
precious stones.— Cliin. Generally healthy, especially in 
the hilly tracts. The extremes of heat and cold are 
rarely experienced, except before the perio ’deal rains. 
Bot. 16,000 different species, natives of this country, were 
collected by Dr. Wallich, in 1826: the teak-tree abounds; 
the saul and varnish-tree are most plentiful; and the 
bamboo grows to the circumference of 24 inches in the 
jungles. The mimosa catechu, sugar-cane, indigo, and 
cotton-plant are common; and the tea-plant, ofa genuine 
character, besides inferior sorts, flourishes in the N. and 
central provinces. The banana, cocoa, palm, pine-apple, 
guava, jambo, and mango are abundant; but citrons, 
pomegranates, and oranges are the only fruits shared in 
common with Europe. Pulse of all kinds, wheat, mil¬ 
let, and rice are extensively cultivated.— Zoul. Elephants 
of three different varieties, the single-horned rhinoceros, 
wild boar, tiger, leopard, Ac., inhabit the jungles; buffa¬ 
loes, porcupines, civet and wild cats, and great numbers 
of apes, deer, and antelopes are found. Occasionally a 
white elephant is met with, which is much prized, and 
one is always kept as part of the royal establishment at 
Ava, where he is treated with the greatest care and atten¬ 
tion. Parrots, and other tropical birds of rich plumage, 
are plentiful: while the serpent tribe, reptiles, and ven¬ 
omous insects flourish here to a formidable extent.— 
Inhab. Several distinct tribes inhabit the B. territories : 
viz., 1. The Mramoia (Burmans), between 19° and 24° N. 
Lat.; 2. Tulains, between the Shan-luen river and the 
Anopectomoo hills: 3. Shans, with more affinity to the 
Siamese than other races, and spreading over the E. and 
N. provinces; 4. Cu.ssaye.rf, chiefly in the capital; 5. 
Khyens, a rude people, scattered among the other pop¬ 
ulation; 6. the V0, probably a Chinese tribe who have 
adopted Burmese, customs; and the Karyens, Zabanigs, 
and several others. Most of these nations, though dif- 



Fig. 452. — A BURMESE CIVIL OFFICER. 


fering in language and manners, are of the physical 
type common to all those situated between India and 
China, resembling most, however, the Malays. They are 
generally well-featured, robust, and active; more lively 
than their Bengalee neighbors, thieving, lying, deceitful, 
servile, and proud, but at the same time courteous, be¬ 
nevolent, and religious. — Agric. Farming is on a very 
rude and limited scale; rice, millet, and maize being 
the produce generally raised; cotton, of good texture, 
but short staple, is extensively cultivated. Oxen are 
used only for draught. The Burman horse is strong and 
active, and used only for the saddle. The elephant is 
domesticated and used for draught purposes.— Man/. 
Manufactures are in the most rude and backward state; 
bells, cutlery, and matchlocks, lacquered ware, coarse 
cottons, Ac., form the principal articles.—Om. The prin¬ 
cipal foreign trade is with China, and its chief seat the 
town of Bhamo; whither the Chinese caravans come, and 
meet the Burmese and Mohammedan merchants; and, 
from Dec. to April, this town presents a more animated 
scene of active industry, and a greater variety of people, 
than is,perhaps, to be found at any other fairin Asia. The 
total annual value of the trade with China is variously 
estimated at from $2,000,000 to $3.500,000.— Currency. 
There is no coined money in B., excepting some of very 
base quality, and of lead, struck at AmarapOra; gold and 
silver ingots, of a tical weight, and various degrees of 
purity, form the rest of the currency. Gold is valued at 
about i7 times the worth of silver, a tical of which latter, 
nearly pure, is worth 80 cents.— Govt. An hereditary and 
absolute despotism was the former form of government, 
the emperor being “ lord of life and limb ” over his sub¬ 
jects, who styled him *' golden.” They approached him 
with their hands joined above their heads, and even 
made obeisance to the palace walls, before which all had 
to dismount and take off their shoes. The whole nation 
was divided into the royal family, nobles and common¬ 
alty, and none dared assume the dress of a superior grade. 
The Burmese have no further distinctions of caste, as in 


India, although, in other respects, a kind of feudal sys¬ 
tem prevails. — Revenue. Besides the government mo¬ 
nopolies,— l-10th of the produce of the country, 10 per 
cent, on imports and on exports,—a system of wring- 



Fig. 453. 

1. Kee WoDgee, or prime minister. 2. A trooper. 

ing money, in the form of forced presents, from the 
people, prevails to a great extent, and, altogether, 
combine to form the financial resources of this country. 
Army. The Burmese are not, as a nation, a military 
people, but would make good soldiers under able officers. 
They have no standing army, but every man is liable Jo 
serve, and, in emergency, can bring a respectable force 
of about 50,000 men into the field.— Religion and Educ. 
The religion of the Burmese is Buddhism, but toleration 
with regard to foreigners is fully permitted, although 
they are most intolerant among themselves ; no Burman 
dare change his religion under the severest penalties; 
and the most rigorous measures are adopted for sup¬ 
pressing all religious innovations. Education is so far 
diffused that almost every male Burman can read and 
write; and this is the case with many of the females.— 
Manners and Customs. The dress of the people in many 
respects resembles that of the Hindoos, although in the 
N.E. of the empire the Chinese costume is adopted. 
Chewing betel is common, and smoking universal, even 
with children. Slavery, and especially the selling of 
women, is general; polygamy is allowed; marriage, 
though a mere civil contract, is universally respected, 
and the sovereign himself has no right to seize for his 
harem a married woman. Divorces are exceedingly 
common. Boxing, cock-fighting, foot-ball, chess, and 
dancing, are among the chief recreations of the people. 
They are good mimics, fond of acting and music, and 
their drama is by far the best among the Indo-Chi¬ 
nese nations.— Chief towns. Mandalay, Monohobo (the 
cap.), Ava, Martaban, Bhamo, Prome, Ac. Pop. Estimated 
at 9,000,000. Hist. The earliest records of B. go back to 
the year n. c. 543. The first monarchs are said to have 
come from Bahar, in Hindostan, and fixed the seat of 
govt, at Prome, where it continued for 366 years. In 
the 18th cent., the Burmese became the most powerful 
nation of the E. peninsula of Asia. Ava had been gov¬ 
erned by the King of Pegu for some time previous to 
1753, when Alompra, the founder of thepresent dynasty, 
expelled the Peguans, and in 1756 conquered their 
country. The Shan country was conquered by his son in 
1768; Cassay, in 1774; Aracan, in 1783 ; in 1790, the 
Tenasserim provinces were taken from the Siamese; and 
Assam was conquered in 1823. Hostilities were then 
commenced against British India, and a war followed, in 
which the Burmese were defeated, and a treaty of peace 
was signed in 1826, by which the provs. of Aracan, Ye, 
Tevoy, Mergul. and Martaban, were ceded to the British, 
together with $5,000,000 to defray the war-expenses, and 
the king of Ava ceased to have dominion over Assam, 
Cassay, and other provs. A war bet. B. and the English 
broke out in 1851, when the latter stormed Martaban 
and Rangoon, captured Pegu and Prome, and annexed 
Pegu. In Nov., 1885, another war broke out bet. B. and 
Gt. Britain ; the campaign was short and decisive and 
resulted in the absorption of B. into the British Empire. 

Burmati, British. See Section II. 

Burinanniacece, Burmanni ads, (bur-man'ne-ai'se-e,) 
n. pi. {Bot.) An order of plants, order Orchidales. Diag. 
Regular flowers and free peryginous stamens. They are 
herbaceous plants, without true leaves, and with tufted 
radicle ones. Flowers hermaphrodite, regular ; perianth 
tubular, regular, superior, usually with 6 divisions ; 
stamens inserted into the tube of the calyx, 3 or 6, dis¬ 
tinct ; ovary inferior, l-celled,with three parietal placen¬ 
tas ; seeds numerous, very minute ; embryo solid. This 
order includes 10 genera and 38 species, natives of the 
tropics, Burmania being found as far north as Virginia. 
The species have no important properties. [Bidens. 

Bur-ma_riarol«l. or Burr-marigold, n. (Bot.) See 

Bur'meister, Hermann, a German naturalist, b. in 
Stralsund, 1807, and studied at Greifswalde and Halle, | 


where he received the diploma of doctor of medicine 
Was elected professor of zoology in Halle in 1842. In 
1850 he started on a scientific tour through Brazil, return¬ 
ing in 1852.—He returned again, in 1856, to South Ame¬ 
rica, passed through Uruguay and the Argentine Con¬ 
federation, and in March, 1859, over the Andes to Co- 
piapo, by a route that no European had traversed before, 
and went from there by sea, via Panama, to Cuba, whence 
he shipped in May, I860, for Germany. In 1861 lie re¬ 
signed his professorship in Halle, and went to Buenos 
Ayres as professor and director of the museum of natu¬ 
ral history which he had established there. All his writ¬ 
ings show great clearness and comprehensibility of their 
subject, llis works are numerous; among them are: — 
Manual of Natural History, Zoological Atlas, Manual 
of Entomology, Genera Insectorum, Geological History of 
the Earth and its Inhabitants, Travels in Brazil, Travels 
through the States of the La Plata, The Climate of the 
Argentine Republic, Ac. Died May 21,1891. 

Burn, v. a., (pp. burned or burnt.) [A.S. bernan, beer- 
nan, or byrnan; Goth, brennan; Ger. orennen .] To con¬ 
sume with fire: as, thehousewas burned down. (Some¬ 
times used with up.) . 

—To injure or wound by fire; as, to burn one’s fiDger. 

—To exert the qualities of heat, as by drying or scorch¬ 
ing ; to heat; to inflame. 

“ But this dry sorrow burns up all my tears." — Dryden. 

(Surg.) To cauterize; as, to burn a sore. 

(Chem.) To combine with oxygen; as, a man bums a 
certain amount of carbon at each respiration. — Webster, 
after Liebig. 

To burn together. (Metal.) To fuse two surfaces of 
metal together by pouring over them a quantity of the 
same metal in a liquid state. 

To burn one’s fingers. A metaphorical phrase signify¬ 
ing to get into trouble by interfering in matters one's 
self is not concerned in. 

To burn a bowl. (Gaines.) To displace the bowl acci¬ 
dentally, when playing at bowls. 

To burn out. To obliterate by burning. 

To burn up. To consume entirely' by the action of fire. 

— v. i. To be on fire; to be kindled; to flame; as, the 
place is burning. 

44 The light burns blue." — Shaks. 

—To shine; to sparkle. 

“ The barge she sat iu, like a gilded throne, 

Burnt ou the water." — Shaks. 

—To be inflamed with passion or desire. 

44 Traniu, ... I burn ... if I achieve not this young, modest giri.’ # 

Shaks. 

—To act as fire, or with destructive violence. 

44 The groan still deepens, and the combat bums ."— Pope. 

—To be heated; to glow; to be affected with a sensation 
of heat; as, how her cheek burns. 

—Iu certain plays, to approach near to a hidden object, as 
in blindman’s-buff. 

To burn out. To burn till the fuel is exhausted. 

Burn, n. A hurt, injury, or mark caused by burning. 

—The operation of burning iu relation to brick-making' 
as, bricks of a good burn. 

(Med.) No species of accident is more painful to wit¬ 
ness, or more serious in its consequences, than burns, 
especially when the result of the clothes catching fire; 
for they not only cause immediate and terrible agony, 
but produce most serious local injuries afterwards, often 
impairing all the enjoyments of life, and too often 
proving latal on the spot. So thoroughly is the mind 
paralyzed by the instant terror, that no previous teach¬ 
ing, no experience, is of any avail to the victim, who, 
losing all presence of mind, rushes wildly into the air, 
creating an extra draught by the flight, and doubling 
the danger by its fanning power. Till female gar¬ 
ments are made of less inflammable material, there 
seems no way by which the present frightful sum of 
annual deaths by' burning might be reduced, the fool¬ 
ish fashion of crinoline having fearfully added to the 
yearly list of mortality through such accidents. As it 
seems hopeless to impress on the mind of the persons in 
flames the observance of any code of rules, (the fright 
making them for the time delirious,) it should be famil¬ 
iarly known to all, what steps to adopt in case they are 
suddenly called on to render assistance to man or woman 
in such an extremity, though, unfortunately, the cases 
are seven to three of women over men. The moment a 
person is seen in flames, the by-standers should instantly 
pull her or push her to the ground, whether in a room 
or the street, as the fire on that part of the person on 
which they lie will be thereby, in part at least, extin¬ 
guished : the rug, the carpet, the table-cover, whatever 
material is at hand, must be snatched up — no matter 
at what risk of damage — and flung on the body, being 
at the same time tightly pressed down, so as to suffocate 
the flames. To a man, the first idea will be to take off 
his coat, and, if a large one, hardly anything better could 
be obtained; but still he must not attempt to stifle the 
fire by wrapping it round the victim as she stands ; she 
must be forced down; for while she believes he is con¬ 
quering the flames above, the deadly enemy may be, 
unseen, destroying the sufferer below. If water is at 
hand, a pail suddenly dashed over the person might ex¬ 
tinguish the fire, and act beneficially; but before such 
a volume could be obtained from a tap the victim would 
be past the benefit of aid. Independent of the fatal 
consequences arising from the ignition of the clothes and 
from the violent shock conveyed to the nervous system, 
all burns over the head, chest, throat, and bowels are con¬ 
sidered mortal, through the inflammation certain to 
ensue, by the powerful stimulus applied to the parts 
covering the vital organs. Before proceeding to the 
treatment of burns, there are three points which cannot 




















































































































































BURN 


BURN 


BURN 


475 


&e too (irmly fixed on the mind of those who undertake 
the care of the sufferer. First, never to expose the 
burnt part to the air. Secondly, as quickly as possible 
to cover it from all contact with the atmosphere, for the 
•old air coming iu contact with the inflamed part is the 
source of all the suffering. Thirdly, the blisters raised 
are not to bo cut or broken, and burnt clothes never re¬ 
moved from the flesh to which they adhere.— Treatment. 
Sheets of wadding, the wool next the skin, are as quickly 
as possible to be placed over the burnt parts, or folded 
round the arms and legs, removing everything from the 
body but such fragments sis adhere to the skin. This 
operation cannot be performed too quickly, so as to ex- 
clade the cold air, a second coating of the wadding 
being in the same way laid over and round the first, so 
as to exclude all access of air to the parts. If an abun¬ 
dance of soft wool is at hand, it may be substituted, the 
same precautions being adopted to protect all parts 
-qually from the air. This must be done at the time 
while a person rushes for a doctor. — For trivial burns 
on the hands, arms, and face, apply lint soaked in 
the extract of lead, over which lay a piece of wadding, 
and secure the whole with a bandage; or the wadding 
may be used alone, so that the part is not uncovered till 
the burn is healed. — See Scald. 

Burn,n. [See BRUNand Bourn.] A small river; a brook; 
a stream. (Used in Scotland.) 

Burn'able, a. That may be burnt; combustible. 

IBurn'er, n. One who burns something. — The part of a 
lamp that holds the wick. 

( Gas Fixtures.) The jet-piece at which combustion 
takes place. Carburetted hydrogen of the specific gravity 
•390 (which is about the density of gas when arrived at 
the point where it has to be burnt) requires two volumes 
of pure oxygen for its complete combustion and con¬ 
version into carbonic acid and water. Atmospheric air 
contains, in its pure state, 20 per cent, of oxygen (in 
populous cities less; but 20 per cent, may be taken as a 
fair average); a cubic foot of carburetted hydrogen, 
then, requires for its proper combustion 10cubic feet of 
air; if less be admitted on to the flame, a quantity of 
free carbon will escape (from its not finding a proper vol¬ 
ume of oxygen for conversion into carbonic acid), and 
be deposited in the form of dense black smoke. When 
the flame from an Argand burner is turned up high, the 
air which rushes through the interior ring becomes de¬ 
composed before it can reach the air on the top of the 
flame, which consequently burns in one undivided mass, 
the gas being in part unconsumed, the products uncon¬ 
verted, and carbon deposited abundantly. If an excess 
of air is admitted, it would appear at first to be of no 
consequence, but it will be found that the quantity of 
nitrogen accompanying this excess has a tendency to 
extinguish the flame, while it takes no part in the elec¬ 
tive affinity constantly going on,between the several 
elementary gases, viz., hydrogen, oxygen, and the 
vupor of carbon; and also that the quantity of atmos¬ 
pheric air passing through the flame unchanged, tends 
to reduce the temperature below that necessary for igni¬ 
tion, and therefore to diminish the quantity of light. 
For the proper combustion of the gas, neither more nor 
less air than the exact quantity required for the forma¬ 
tion of carbonic acid and water can be admitted through 
the flame without being injurious. It is not possible 
practically to regulate the supply of air to such a nicety; 
it is preferred, therefore, to diminish the quantity of 
light by having a slight excess of air rather than topro- 
duce smoke by a deficiency, the former being unques¬ 
tionably the least evil. 

Bur'ncrsville, in W. Virginia, a P. 0. of Barbour co. 

It it rut's. Sir Alexander, an English explorer, n. 1805. 
He, early in life, went to India, and after his arrival vol¬ 
unteered to explore the N.W. frontier of that country 
and descend the Indus to the sea. He afterwards trav¬ 
elled to Cabul, and over the Hindoo Coosh to Klioon- 
dooz. Balkh, and Bokhara, and thence through Persia 
to Bushire. The information he had thus collected was 
of inestimable value to his government. In 1839, B. was 
appointed commercial resident at Cabul for the English 
govt,, and on Nov. 3, 1841, was murdered by an Afghan 
mob. B. was the author of Travels in Bokhara. 

Bur'net, n. (Bnt.) See Sanguisorba. 

Burnet. Gilbert, bishop of Salisbury, b. at Edinburgh, 
1643. Iu 1664 he went to Holland, where he studied 
the Hebrew language, and on his return was ordained 
and presented to the living of Saltoun. He subse¬ 
quently became bishop of Salisbury, and is known 
principally by his History of the Reformation, and by 
that of His own Times. He was interred in the church 
of St. James, Clerkenwell. Besides the above, he pub¬ 
lished an excellent treatise on Pastoral Care, and sev¬ 
eral Sermons. The History of his own Times appeared 
in 1724, and is very entertaining, though far from being 
impartial. The bishop possessed many virtues, although 
somewhat vain and credulous. D. 1715. 

Bu r'net, Jacob, one of the founders of Cincinnati, b. at 
Newark, 1770. Admitted to the bar in 1796, he removed 
to Cincinnati, then a village with about 500 inhabitants, 
and was a member of the territorial government from 
1799 till the establishment of a State government in 
1803. In 1821 he was appointed judge of the supreme 
court of Ohio, and was elected U. S. senator in 1828. B. 
was elected a member of the Krench Academy of Sciences 
upon the recommendation of Lafayette, and published in 
1847 a vol. of Notes on the North- Western Territories. One 
of the principal hotels of Cincinnati is called after him 
the Burnet House. D. 1853. 

Bur net, John, an engraver, painter, and art-critic, B. 
near Edinburgh. 1784. He was first brought under the 
notice of the public through his engravings of Wilkie’s 
works, which he executed in a most admirable manner. 

28 


Of his own paintings, the best-known engraving is that 
of Greenwich Pensioners receiving News of the Battle 
of Trafalgar. He has written several works on art, 
illustrated by drawings and engravings of his own, the 
most important of which is a Practical Treatise on 
Painting. He is also the author of Rembrandt and his 
Works, 4to, 1849 ; and, in conjunction with Mr. Peter 
Cunningham,of the Life and Works of J. M. W. Turner, 
4to, 1852. In 1862, he received a pension on the recom¬ 
mendation of Lord Palmerston. I). 1868. 

Bur'net, Thomas, b. at Croft, in Yorkshire, 1635; chief¬ 
ly known from his Sacred Theory of the Earth, published 
in 1684. It is an ingenious speculation, written in 
ignorance of the facts of the earth’s structure, and is 
therefore a mere system of cosmogony, and not geology. 
But it abounds in sublime and poetical conceptions 
and descriptions, conveyed in language of extraordinary 
eloquence, and called forth the highest applause at that 
time. D. 1715. 

Bur'net, in Missouri, a village of Dallas co, on Nian- 
gua Kiver. 

Bur'net, in Texas, a central county, with an area of 
about 95U sq. m. The Colorado River intersects it, and 
is, also, its W. boundary. Surface. Hilly. (Soil. Tolerably 
fertile. Cap. Burnet. 

—A township and village of the above co. 

Bur'net-Saxifrage, n. ( Bot .) See Pimpinella. 

Bur'nett, James. See Monboddo, (Lord.) 

Bur nett, in California, a post-office of Santa Clara co. 

Bur'nett, in Wisconsin, a N. W. county on the border 
of Minnesota; area about 1,100 sq. m. It is watered by 
the St. Croix, Namekagon, Yellow, and Shell rivers. 
Surface, undulating and wooded. Soil, fertile. Cap. 
Grantsburg. Pop. (1890) 4,393. 

—A post-village and township of Dodge co, 55 nr. N. W. 
of Milwaukee. 

Bur nett's Creek, in Indiana, emptying into the 
Wabash, 4 m. from Lafayette. 

—A post-office of White co. 

Bur nett Station, in Wisconsin, a post-village of 
Dodge co, 25 m. S.S.W. of Fond-du-Lac, and 22 N. of 
Watertown. 

Bur'nettsville, in Maryland, a P. 0. of Somerset co. 

Burney, Charles, f.r.s, an eminent English musical 
composer, b. 1726. In 1776 he published his General 
History of Music, a masterpiece of profound learning 
and critical acumen. In 1784 appeared from his pen 
the Life of Handel, which still holds its place in Eng¬ 
lish standard biography; and in 1796, the Life and Let¬ 
ters of Metastasio. His merits as a composer are over¬ 
shadowed by his honors of authorship. B. was the fa¬ 
ther of the celebrated Madame D'Arblay, and D. in 1814. 

Bur'ney, Frances. See D’Arblay, (Madame.) 

Bur'ney’s Mills, iu North Carolina, a post-office of 
Randolph co. 

Burn'liain, in Maine, a post-village and township of 
Waldo co, on the Sebasticook River, 30 m. N.E. of Au¬ 
gusta. 

Burn'ing, n. The act of burning, or the state of 
being consumed by fire. — State of inflammation. 

— a. Much heated; very hot; ardent; fiery; scorching; 
as, the burning deserts of Africa. 

—Flagrant; powerful; vehement; as, a burning shame. 

“ Like a young hound upon a burning scent.” — Dryden. 

Burn'ing-busli, n. (Bot.) See Euonymus. 

Biirn'ing-glass, Burn'ing-mirror,n. ( Optics.) 
A glass which collects the rays of the sun, producing 
an intense heat. 

Burn'ing'-house, n. (Mining.) The furnace in 
which tin ores are calcined to sublime the sulphur from 
pyrites; the latter being thus decomposed, are more 
readily removed by washing. 

Bur'nip's Corners, in Michigan, a post-office of 
Allegan co. 

Bur'nish, v. a. [Fr. brunir, from brun, brown.] To 
make brown or of flame-color, as brass ; to polish. 

44 The shadow’d livery of the burnish'd sun.” — Shaks. 

—To make smooth, bright, glossy, or resplendent. 

44 I’ve seen a snake in human form . • , • 

Burnish , and make a gaudy show, 

Become a general, peer, and beau.”— Swift. 

—v. t. To grow bright or glossy. 

44 The slender poet must have time to grow. 

And spread and burnish as his brothers do.” — Dryden. 

— n. Gloss: brightness; lustre. 

Bur'nislier, n. He, or that which, burnishes. — A 
tool used for smoothing and polishing a rough surface. 
Agates, polished steel, ivory, &c. are used for burnishing. 

Bur'nisbing), n. The act of polishing, or giving a 
gloss. 

Burn'Iey, a flourishing manufacturing town of Eng¬ 
land, co. Lancaster, 180 m. N.W. by N. of London, and 
21 N. of Manchester. Manf. Cottons, iron and brass 
founding, machine-making, and tanning. Great coal¬ 
fields surround the town. 

Bur'noose, Bur'nos. n. See Bournous. 

Btir'nouf, EugSne, a French orientalist, b. at Paris, 
1801, who, alter entering on the study of law, betook 
himself to the Oriental languages, especially those of 
India and Persia. In 1834. he published the first volume 
of his Commentaires sur le Yagna Vun des Livres Litur- 
giques des Parses, a work which, for the first time, ren¬ 
dered possible a knowledge, not only of the dogmas, 
but also of the language of Zoroaster. In 1840, he pub¬ 
lished the text along with a translation of the Bhdga- 
vat-Curdna, a system of Indian mythology and tradi¬ 
tion. As the fruit of his study of the Sanskrit books 
of the Buddhists, appeared, in 1845, the Introduction d 
VHistoire du Bhoudhisme. This great work absorbed 
during six years the whole energies of B., who was now 


recognized as the worthy successor of Silvestre de Seucj. 
D. 1852. 

Burns), Robert, the national poet of Scotland, b. in 
Ayrshire, in 1759. His father, a small farmer, was able 
to afford his son but a scanty education, and B.’s adoles¬ 
cent years were passed in working at the plough, and, 
in his spare hours, writing scraps of verse. He enlivened 
his dull, prosaic mode of life, however, by occasional fits 
of tippling and love-making. His innate spirit of poetry, 
fostered by a perusal of the writings of Pope, soon de¬ 
veloped itself into active and powerful life. His Poems 
appeared in 1786, and made him at once famous, — the 
Cotter’s Saturday Nip h * ’one being sufficient to stamp 
him a poet of the truest and best class. In 1786, B. 
went to Edinburgh, where lie was received with the ut¬ 
most distinction by the literati of the “ Modern Athens.” 
There is no need that we should here enter upon the 
story of the too well-known weakness of this gifted 
man; suffice it, that, iu 1788, he married Jean Armour, 
the ‘‘Bonny Jean” of some of his earlier poems, with 
whom he had previously formed a connection. The pub¬ 
lic success of his works enabled B. to purchase a farm, 
and also to assist, in a "•"'cunlary manner, his father and 
brothers. But the man’s generosity of disposition, and 
addiction to good-fellowship and the “flowing bowl,” 
soon made serious inroads upon Ins means. Iu 1791, he 
was, through the patronage of powerful friends, ap¬ 
pointed an officer of excise, and went to reside at Dum¬ 
fries. Here his unconquerable habits of intoxication 
again got the maste>y over him, domestic afflictions 
added their share to the drama of a sad life, and he died 
in poverty and sorrow, in his 37th year, July 18,1796.— 



The history of literature scarcely affords another in¬ 
stance of a popularity either so sudden or so complete 
as that obtained by the poetry of B. Even in his own 
lifetime, and indeed almost immediately after his genius 
first burst into public notice, his name and his poems 
were familiar to all ranks of his countrymen. Nor did 
the enthusiasm for his poetry die away witli the genera¬ 
tion among whom it was first kindled. His works are 
still everywhere a cottage-book in his own land, and 
they are read wherever the English language is under¬ 
stood. No poetry was ever better fitted to obtain exten¬ 
sive popularity than that of B. It has little of either 
grandeur or richness of imagination, but it is all heart 
and passion, and every human bosom capable of feeling 
strongly must be stirred by its fire and tenderness. 
Nothing can be more masterly— more demonstrative 
both of high skil’ and of general elevation of mind — 
than the manner in which he triumphs over the disad¬ 
vantages of a dialect so much vulgarized as that of Scot¬ 
land had come to be at the time when he wrote. Famil¬ 
iar as his subjects generally are,and boid and expressive 
as his diction constantly is, we will venture to say that 
there is not one instance of .cal vulgarity in all that, be 
has written. Of mere license and indecorum there is 
certainly no want in some of his productions; but even 
in his broadest humor, in his most unpardonable viola¬ 
tions of moral propriety, in the rudest riot of his mer 
rimeut and satire, there is never anything that is mean 
or grovelling, anything that offends our sense of what 
is noble and elevated. Some of toe most immoral of 
his pieces are distinguished by a studied propriety of 
expression springing from the finest taste and most del¬ 
icate sensibility to the beautiful. — In 1859, the cente¬ 
nary of the birth of B. was celebrated with enthusiasm 
in every country wl «re the English language is spoken; 
and nowhere more enthusiastically than in the United 
States. B.'s two sods, Colonel B. and Major B., were 
officers in the Britisli Army. 

Burns, in Illinois, a township ot Henry co., 55 m. N.W. 
of Peoria. 

Burns, in Michigan, a i-ckt-village of St. Clair co., 6 
miles W. of Port Huron. 

Burns, in New York, a township of Alleghany co., 50 m. 
S. by W. of Rochester. 

Burns, in Wisconsin, a po„t-village and township of La 
Crosse co., 15 m. N.E. of La Crosse. 

Burn'side, in Connecticut, a post-office of Hartford co 









476 


BURR 


BURR 


BURT 


Burn'side, in Illinois, a post-village of Hancock co. 

Burn'side, in Indiana, a post-village of Clinton co. 

Burn'side, in Michigan, a post-township of Lapeer co., 
65 m N. of Detroit. 

Burn side, in Minnesota, a township of Goodhue co., 
6 m. from Red Wing, on the Mississippi River. 

Burn'side, in New York, a r >et-village of Orange co. 

Burn'side, in Pennsylvania, a post-village and town¬ 
ship of Clearfield co., 30 ra. N.W. of Altoona, and 75 
E.N.E. of Pittsburg. 

—A township of Centre co. 

Burn'side, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Buffalo co. 

Burn'side, Ambrose Everett, major-general in the U. 
States army, b. 1824, at Liberty. Onion co., Indiana, from 
which State he was appointed a "adet to West Point 
Academy in 1843, and 2d lieutenant of the 3d Artillery, 
-847. In 1851 he was appointed to a 1st lieutenancy, 
but resigned his connection with the regular service in 
1853, and acted as treasurer of the Illinois Central 
Railway, the same line of which Gen. McClellan was pres¬ 
ident. This position he held at f he breaking out of the 
Civil War. The “ call ” of the President for troops to 
defend the capital brought B. from his private position, 
and at the head of the lot regiment of Rhode Island 
volunteers, a corps of 1,300 moo, he made his way to the 
capital, April 27, 1861. When the army of N.E. Virginia 
was organized under Gen. McDowell, Col. B. was ap¬ 
pointed commander of the 2d brigade of the 2d division, 
and on the return home of his regiment, Aug., 1861, 
was commissioned as brigadier-general of volunteers. 
After taking part in various operations in the war, he 
was, Nov. 5, 1862, appointed to succeed Gen. McClellan 
in command of the army of the Potomac. After a rapid 
march upon Iredericksuurg, he made a rash attempt to 
storm the heights, and was defeated with terrible loss in 
the following month. II- was . -heved, at his own re¬ 
quest, of the command of that army in January, 1863, 
was employed in the movements around Chattanooga, in 
conjunction with Gen. Rosecrans, was transferred to the 
West, and on the re-opening of the campaign in Virginia, 
in the spring of 1864, commanded a corps of reserve in 
Gen. Grant's army, having a large force of negro troops 
under him. The aid of that corps was required at the 
sanguinary contest of the Wilderness, and its services 
were chiefly relied upon to secure the advantage that 
Gen. Grant hoped to gain through springing a mine 
near Petersburg Owimr, however, to some “ blunder,” 
the attack failed, and the Union army was repulsed. 
He resigned April 15,1865; was elected governor of 
Rhode Island in 1866, and reelected in 1867 and 1868. 
In 1875, he was elected senator to Congress from this 
State. D. Sept. 13th, 1881. 

Buriis'vll le, in Alabama, a vill. of Dallas co. 

Burnsville, in Illinois, a village of McDonough co., 
90 m. N.W. of Springfield. 

Burnsville, in Indiana, a post-village of Bartholomew 
co., 11 in. E. by S. of Colu_ous. 

Burnsville, in Minnesota, c. township of Dakota 
county. 

Burnsville, in Mississippi, a vill. of Tishemingo co. 

Burnsville, in North Carolina, a village, and cap. of 
Yancy co.. on the Nolichucky River, 250 m. W. of Ra¬ 
leigh. 

Burnt, imp. and pp. of Burn, n. v. 

Burnt Cabins, in Pennsylvania., a post-village of 
Fulton <o. 

Burnt Carmine, n. (Paint.) The carmine of cochi¬ 
neal partially charred till it resembles in color the pur¬ 
ple of gold, for the uses of which in miniature and water- 
color painting it excels. 

Burnt Corn, in Alabama, a post-village of Monroe co. 

Burnt-ear, n. See Uredo. 

Burnt Fort, in Georgia, a. village of Camden co., on 
the Santilla River. 

Burnt Hills, in New York, a vill. of Saratoga co. 

Burntisland, (burnt-i'land,) a seaport town of Scot¬ 
land, in Fifeshire, on the Frith of Forth, 6 m. N. of 
Granton. It has a good harbor, and is much resorted to 
for sea-bathing 

Burut-ofTerinsr, n. (Script.) See Sacrifice. 

Burnt Or'dinary, in Virginia, a post-office of James 
City co. 

Burnt Prai rie, in 111., a twp. of White co. 

Burnt Rauch, in California, a village of Trinity co., 
38 m. W. of Weaverville. 

Burn t Sien na Earth, n. (Paint.) The Terra di 
Sienna burnt, which is of an orange-russet color. 

Burnt Uin'ber,n. ( Pu,.,t.) A pigment obtained from 
a fossil substance, whicn when burnt assumes a deeper 
and more russet hue; it courains manganese and iron, 
and is very drying in oil, in which it is employed as a 
dryer. It is a fiue warm brown, and a good working 
Strong color, of great use for the liair of the human 
head, and mixes finely with the warm shades. 

Burnt Ver'digris, «. (Paint.) An olive-colored 
oxide of copper deprived of „eid. It dries well in oil, 
is more durable, and iu other respects an improved and 
more eligible pigment than in its original state. 

Bu'rotv. Julie, (Mrs. Pfannensehmidt,) a German writer 
of romance, B. Feb. 24, 18n6. She has written, A Life's 
Dream, .1 Dodo in a Little City, John Kepler, Pictures 
from Life, The Burgomaster, &c., Ax., and the much ad¬ 
mired work, The Nursing and Attention of Children. 

Burr. n. See Bur. 

— v. n. To pronounce with a burr; to talk or whisper 
hoarsely: to murmur. 

Burr. Aaron, the third vice-president of the U. States, 
B. at Newark, New Jersey, 1756. He was but threeyears 
old when liis parents died, leaving him a considerable 
estate At the outbreak of th6 Revolution he joined the 


force before Boston, volunteered for the expedition 
against Canada, where he distinguished himself, was 
raised to the rank of major, and invited to join the 
family of Gen. Washington. Some event soon occurred, 
the precise character of which is not well known, which 
compelled B. to leave headquarters, and produced on the 
mind of Washington an impression against him, which 
was never removed. Iu 1779 B. resigned his commis¬ 
sion; he was admitted to the bar at Albany in 1782, 
and married the same year Mrs. Prevost, the widow of 
a British otticer. In 1789 he was appointed attorney- 
general of New York, and U. States senator in 1791. 
In 1800, being then one of the leaders of the republican 
party, he was elected vice-president. His connection 
with the republicans was soon dissolved, and in 1804 he 
was nominated for governor of New York by the Feder¬ 
alists, but some of the leading men of that party re¬ 
fused to support him, and the bitter contest which ter¬ 
minated iu his defeat led to a duel between B . and Col. 
Hamilton, in which the latter was killed. In 1805 he 
made a journey to the South-west; and on being sus¬ 
pected of organizing an expedition to invade Mexico, 
witli the project of establishing there an empire which 
should embrace Borne of the S.W. States, lie was ar¬ 
rested and taken to Richmond for trial, upon an indict¬ 
ment for treason. He was acquitted, Sept., 1807, and 
went to Europe in 1808. He returned to America in 
1812, and resumed in New York his profession at the bar, 
but without regaining his former influence. He D. 1836, 
leaving no children, his only daughter, Theodosia Alls- 
ton, having been lost at sea, Jan., 1813. His principles 
were very loose, but his manners and presence were 
very attractive, and he mainly owed his political influ¬ 
ence to his skill in enlisting the good-will and sym¬ 
pathy of those with whom he came in contact. 

Bnr'rageville, in Massachusetts, a post-vill. of Wor¬ 
cester co. 

Bur'ras-pipe, n. (Surg.) A utensil for holding cor¬ 
rosive substances. 

Bnr'-reed, n. (Bot.) See Sparoaxium. 

Bnr'rel, n. A sort of pear, called also red butler-pear, 
which has a delicious soft pulp. 

Burrel-fly, n. (Zobl.) The Gad-flt, q. v. 

Bnr'rell, in Pennsylvania, a township of Armstrong 
co. 

—A post-township of Westmoreland co. 

Burria'na, a town of Spain, 8 m. S. of Castellan-de-la- 
Plana, on the Rio Seco, about 1 m. from its mouth in the 
Mediterranean; pop. 6,769. 

Bur'rlll, or Burrell, in Iowa, a township of Decatur 
count}'. 

Bur'rillville. in Rhode Island, a post-township of 
Providence co., 20 m. N.W. of Providence. It has flour¬ 
ishing cotton and other manufactures. 

Bnrrishoole', a parish of Ireland, co. Mayo. 

Bur'ritt, Alexander M., jurist, b. in New York, about 
1807, received his education at Columbia College, where 
he graduated in 1824; was admitted in 1828 to the bar 
in the Stale of N. Y., and practised with much success. 
In 1840 he published a treatise on the Practice of 
the Supreme Court of the State of New York. His best 
work, A Law Dictionary and Glossary, which did not 
appear till 1850, is recognized as an authority by all U. 
States jurists. In 1853, Mr. B. published his Treatise on 
the Law and Practice of Voluntary Assignments for the 
Benefit of Creditors, and, in 1856, his Treatise on Circum¬ 
stantial Evidence. D. 1869. 

Burritt, Ei.ihd, an American linguist, b. in New Bri¬ 
tain, Connecticut, 1811. His father was a village shoe¬ 
maker, and himself a blacksmith; but he had a great 
facility, however, in the acquirement of languages, and 
while serving his apprenticeship at his trade, he labored 
at self-instruction, and made considerable progress in 
the Latin and French languages. When his term of ap¬ 
prenticeship had expired, he had six months’ education 
at the school of his brother, where he made further ad¬ 
vancement in these languages, and also gained some 
knowledge of mathematics. On returning to his trade, 
lie assiduously pursued his studies, and made him¬ 
self acquainted with the Hebrew, Greek, Syriac, Spanish, 
Bohemian, Polish, and Danish languages. In 1842 he 
translated some of the Icelandic Sagas, and contributed 
to the “American Eclectic Review” translations from 
the Samaritan, Arabic, and Hebrew. In 1843 he com¬ 
menced the study of the Persian, Turkish, and Ethiopic 
languages, and in the following year started a news¬ 
paper called “The Christian Citizen.” Since then he 
has edited several journals, and lectured throughout 
Europe and America, endeavoring to form a “ League 
of Universal Brotherhood,” and establish an ocean penny 
postage. Hu lias also produced several works advocating 
these schemes, and others of a kindred nature. D. 1879. 

Bur'ritt. in Illinois, a post-township of Winnebago co., 
10 m. N.W. of Rockford. 

Burritt's Rapids, in Upper Canada, a post-village 
of Grenville co., on the Rideau Canal, 73 m. N.E. of 
Kingston. 

Burr-ma'rijfoUl, n. (Bot.) See Bidexs. 

Burr Oak. in Iowa, a post-township of Winneshiek 
co., 17 m. N.N.W. of Decorah. 

Burr Oak, in Kansas, a township of Doniphan co. 

—A post-village of Jewell co. 

Burr Oak. in Michigan, a post-township and village 
of St. Joseph co., 73 m. W. of Adrian. 

Burr Oak, in Wisconsin, a post-vill. of La Crosse co. 

Bur'rock. n. A small weir, or dam, for catching fish. 

Burrow. ( bur’ro,) n. [A.S. beorh, a hill, defence, refuge.] 
A hollow place in the earth, made by small animals, as 
rabbits, w here they lodge for defence, security, or shelter. 

“They will out of their burrows like coules after rain.” 

Shake. 


(Mining.) The heap of attle, deads,or earth (void of ore), 
which are raised out of a mine, and commonly lie 
around the shafts; any heap or hillock of deads or waste. 
— v. n. [A. S. beorgan, to protect, to shelter, to fortify.] 
To excavate a hole underground; to lodge in any deep 
or concealed place. 

Bur'row-duels, «. (Zobl.) The Anas tadoma, an 
aquatic bird; named also Shell-drake. 

Bur'rowing, p. a. Lodging in a burrow'. 
Bur'rows, in Indiana, a post-office of Carroll co. 
Burr’s Mills, in New York, a. vill. of Jefferson co. 
Burrs'ville. in Maryland, a vill. of Caroline co. 
Burr'ville, in Connecticut, a vill. of Litchfield co. 
Bur ry, a. Covered with hooked stiff hairs, like the 
heads of bur or burdock. 

Bursa, in Asia Minor. See Brcsa. 

Bur'sfe Muco'ste, n.pi. [ Lut., mucus-bags.] (Anaf.) 
Small membranous sacs, situated about the joints of 
the bones, and containing a kind of mucous fat, which 
serves to lubricate the joints, in order to render their 
motion easy. They are of different sizes and firmness. 
Bursal'ogy, n. (Anat.) A treatise on, or description 
of, the bursie mucosa;. 

Bu r'sar, n. [Fr. boursier, from bourse. See Burse.] A 
treasurer or cash-keeper of a college or convent. — A 
student in a Scottisli university maintained either is 
whole, or in part, by funds derived from endowments. 
Bur'sary, n. Allowance paid to a bnrsar or student; 
an exhibition to a college. 

Bursch, or Burse lie, (boorsh.) [Ger.] A student at a 

university in Germany. 

Burschenschaft, (boorsh 1 en-shaft.) (Hist.) The 
name of an association of the students in Germany, 
formed in 1815, and which had for its object the politi¬ 
cal regeneration of Germany. 

Burse, n. [Fr. bourse; Lat. bursa, from Gr. byrsa, a shin, 
a Hide.] An Exchange for money or mercantile trans¬ 
actions. See Bourse. — A fund, or foundation, for the 
maintenance of poor scholars in the French universities. 
Bur'sera, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, order Amyri- 
dacece. The species B. gummi/era and acuminata yield 
fragrant resinous substances; that from the former be¬ 
ing termed Chibou, or Cachibou resin, aud that from the 
latter, resin of Carana. 

Blirs'lcm, a town of England, in the Potteries district 
of Staffordshire, 3 in. N.W. of Newcastle-under-Lyme, 
19 m. N. of Stafford, and 161 N.W. of London. This is 
one of the principal places engaged in the earthenware 
manufacture. 

Bur'sonville, in Pennsylvania, a P. O. of Bucks co. 
Burst, v .». (Imp. and pp. burst.) [A. S. berstan, byrstan, 
burstan; Dut. and Ger. bersten. J To break in pieces; to 
start or break open. 

“ It is ready to burst like new bottles."— Job. 

—To fly asunder; to rush, or gush, forth. 

“ Yes, I am thankful; if my heart were great, 

’T would burst at this.”— Shake. 

—To break away; to break forth. 

“ You burst, ah cruel 1 From my arms. ...” — Pops. 

—To come suddenly, or with violence. 

“ Young spring protrudes the bursting gems.” — Thomson. 

—To begin an action violently or suddenly; to rupture. 

“She burst into tears, and wrung her hands.” — Arbuthnot. 

— v. a. To break by force or violence; to reel; to open 
suddenly. 

— n. A sudden breaking forth; a violent disruption; a 
sudden explosion; a rupture. 

— p.a. Opened or rent asunder by violence. — Diseased 
with a rupture or hernia. 

Burst'er, n. One who bursts. 

Burst'wort, n. (Bot.) See IIerniaria. 

Burt, n. [See Birt and Bret.] A species of turbot. 

Burt, or Bert, a parish of Ireland, co. Donegal. 

Burt, in Nebraska, an E.N.E. county,on the confines of 
Iowa, and bounded on the E. by the Missouri River. 
Area. About 500 sq. m. Drained by Logan’s Creek. Sur¬ 
face. Uneven. Sod. Fertile, with a substratum of lime- 
stone. Cap. Tekamah. 

Bur'tlien, n. and t>. a. See Burden. 

Bur'ton, John Hill, an English historian and biogra¬ 
pher, B. at Aberdeen, 1809. His best work is the His¬ 
tory of Scotland, from the Earliest Period to the Revolu¬ 
tion of 1688, (1867). D. 1881. 

Bur'ton, Robert, an English divine and WTiter, B. at 
Lindley, Leicestershire, 1576. His Anatomy of Melan¬ 
choly consists mainly of an extraordinary mass of quo¬ 
tations from old and obscure writers, strung on a thread 
of rambling reflection; often tiresomely pedantic, but 
relieved by quaint touches of humor and feeling. Dr. 
Johnson said it was the only book that ever took him 
out of bed two hours before bis usual time. It supplied 
Sterne with much of his wit, and Byron declares “ it is 
tlie most amusing and instructive medley of quotations 
and classical anecdotes he ever perused.” D. 1640. 
Bur'ton, in Illinois, a township of McHenry co., on the 
Wisconsin line. 

—A post-village and township of Adams co., 10 m. E. by 
S. of Quincy. 

Bur'f on, in Michigan, a tow'nship of Genesee co. 

—A post-village of Shiawassee co. 

Bur'ton, in New York. See Alleohaxy. 

Bur'ton, in Ohio, a post-village and township of Geauga 
co., 30 m. E. by S. of Cleveland. 

Bur'ton, in West Virginia, a post-office of Wetzel co. 
Bur'ton-on-Trent, a town of England, cos. Stafford 
and Derby, 22 m. E. of Stafford, and 128 N.N.W. of Lon¬ 
don. B. is famous, all the world over, for its ale. Brew¬ 
ing is conducted here on the most extensive scale ; and 
the India Pale Ale, made by the great firms of Bass and 















































































































BUSH 


BUSS 


BUTE 


479 


Allsopp, bears a noted reputation both at home and 
abroad, more especially in India, its greatest market. 
Pop. in 1895, 4(5,047. 

Bur'toil’s Corners, in Illinois,* village ofBooneco. 

Hur'tousville, in New York, a post-office of Mont¬ 
gomery co. 

Uurt/scheirt, or Borcette, a town of Rhenish Prussia, 
and a suburb of Ai.x-la-Cbapelle, celebrated for its sul¬ 
phur springs and baths, with a temperature of 10(5° to 
155°; pop. (5,827. 

Burt'ville, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of Potter co. 

Hu rwliu, or Baruwa, a walled town of Central Africa, 
on the W. bank of Lake Tchad, kingdom of Bornou; 
p ip. about 6,000. 

III!c'wood, in California, a post-village of San Joa¬ 
quin co., 25 m. S.E. of Stockton. 

Bur y, v. a. [A. S. byrian, buryan; Du. and Ger. bergen, 
to conceal, to hide.] To secrete ; to cover; to conceal or 
put into concealment. — To put into a grave or sepul¬ 
chre; to inter; to entomb; to deposit in the earth; to 
overwhelm. 

— n. [A. S. burh, a castle, a town; bur. a cottage.] An 
obsolete name foradwelling-place; a manor house. It is 
still found as a termination to the names of several 
places, as Atderman6«ry, Ac. 

—n. [b'r. beurre.] A name applied to several varieties of 
delicate pears. 

Bury, (ber're,) a manufacturing town of England, co. 
Lauc.ister, 8 ill. N N.YV. of Manchester, and 196 N.N.W. 
of Loudon. Cotton goods, calicoes, and woollens form 
the leading manufactures. B. is famous as being the 
original seat of the English cotton manufacture, first 
established here in 1791, by the father of Sir Robert 
Peel. 

Bur'ying 1 , n. Burial. — John xii. 7. 

Bur'ying-beetle, n. (Zobl .) See Necrophorus. 

Bur'ying-ground, Burying-place, n. A burial- 
ground; a Cemetery, q. v. 

Bury St. Edmund’s, a borough of England, co. 
Suffolk, 60 m. N.E. of London. This is one of the most 
ancient towns in England, and was formerly noted for 
its magnificent abbey. The town now bears a modern¬ 
ized aspect, is handsomely built, paved, and lighted, 
and is, altogether, for its size, a neat and prosperous 
place. 

Busachi'no, or Busaqtii'no, a town of Italy, in 
Sicilv, prov. Palermo, 29 m S.S.W. of Palermo city; pop. 
8,326*. 

Busaw, in Indiana, a post-office of Miami co. 

Bus'bay ville, in Georgia, a post-village of Houston 
co., 16 in. S. by \V. of Macon. 

Bus’ca. a town of Italy, in Piedmont, about 9 m. N.YV. 
of Coni; pop. 10, 212. 

Basil, n. [Du. bnsch; Ger. busch ; It. bosco.] Athicket: 
a cluster or clump of trees or shrubs; a shrub with 
branches; a thick shrub.—Something resembling a bush. 

—The sign of a tavern in England; — formerly an ivy- 
bush. It was sometimes applied to the tavern itself; 
as, “you will find him at the Bush." — Beau. <t FI. 

(Hunting.) A fox's tail. (Usually called brush.) 

( Mech .) [Du. bus, a box.] A circle or hollow cylinder 
of metal which lines the box, or hollow of the nave of a 
wheel in which the axle works. — A similar circle let 
into other holes or orifices. 

Bush, v. a. To grow thick or bushy. 

Busll'berg-, in Missouri, a post-office of Jefferson co. 

Busll-bok. n. See Bosh-bok. 

Busli Creek, in Arkansas, a township of Washington 
co. See Brush Creek. 

Bush Creek, in Ohio, a township of Highland 
cou n ty. 

—A township of Scioto co. See Brush Creek. 

Bush'd, n. [Fr. boisseau, from Celt, boessel — hoes, wood, 
and tel, in comp, sel, hollowed.] A dry measure, con¬ 
taining generally 8 gallons or 4 pecks. The Winches- 
Ur B., established by 13 Will. III. c. 5 (1701), was made 
the standard of grain. A cylindrical vessel, 18% inches 
in diameter, and 8 inches deep inside, contains a B.; 
the capacity is 2145 42 cubic inches. The B. estab¬ 
lished by 5 and 6 Geo. IV. c. 74, is to contain 221S - 192 
cubic inches. This measure lias been adopted in many 
of the U. States. In New York the heaped B. is allowed, 
containing 2815 cubic inches. The exceptions, as far as 
known, are Connecticut, where the B. holds 219S cubic 
inches; Kentucky, 2150%; and Indiana, Ohio, Missis¬ 
sippi. and Missouri, where it contains 2150 4 cubic inches. 

Bnsh'elage, n. In England, a duty payable on goods 
by the bushel. 

IluHb'eller. n. In the U. States, one who repairs gar¬ 
ments for tailors. 

Busk'd, n. A wood. See Bosket. 

Bush-harrow, n. An implement used in harrowing 
grass lands. 

Bush IXill, in IV. Carolina, a post-office of Randolph 
county. 

Bit'shi, in Alabama, a post-office of Clark co. 

Bush'iness, n. Quality of being bushy. 

Blisll'ing - , n. (Mch.) The operation of fitting a lin¬ 
ing of metal in an orifice in which an axis or journal 
turns. 

Bushire', Aboo-Shehr, Aboosfif.hr, (“Fit’/er of Cities,") 
a seaport town of Persia, prov. Fars, and excepting Bas- 
sora, the principal port of the Persian Gulf, on the N.E. 
coast of which it is situated, 120 m. W.8.W. of Shiraz, 
and 255 S. by W. of Ispahan; Lat. 29° N.; Lon. 50° 4S' 
E. It is built on a low, sandy spit of ground enclosing 
a deep bay or harbor, and is nearly surrounded bv the 
sea. It was bombarded by the English in 1856. Estim. 
pop. 18,000. 

Bush k ill, in Pennsylvania, a post-township of North¬ 
ampton co. 


—A post-village of Pike co., near the mouth of Bushkill 

Creek. 

Bush'kill Creek, in Pennsylvania, falls into the 
Delaware River, near the S. extremity of Pike co. 

—In Northampton co., enters the Delaware at Easton. 

Bush'man, n. See Bosjesmaxs. 

Bushman's, or Bosjesmun’s River, in South 
Alrica, iu the E. part of Cape Colony, empties into the 
Indian Ocean, and forms, in its lower course, the W. 
boundary ot Albany. 

Bushmills', a town of Ireland, co. Antrim, on the 
Bush. 8 m. N.E. of Coleraine; pop. 1,500. 

Bush'iiell. in Illinois, a post-township and city of Mc¬ 
Donough co., 77 m. N.E. of Quincy. Manufactures . 
Plows, pumps, &c. 

Btishnell. in Michigan, a township of Montcalm co. 

—In Nebraska, a post-village on the U. P. R. R. 

Bushnell Centre, in Mich., a P. 0. of Montcalm co. 

—iu New York, a post-office of Monroe co. 

Busbnell’s Basin, in New York, a post-village of 
Monroe co., 217 m. W. by N. of Albany. 

Bush'nellsville, in New York , a P.0, of Greene co. : 

Busk Rm er, in S. Carolina, a small stream flowing 
into Saluda River, in Newbury district. 

Busk's Mills, in IF. Virginia, a post-office of Lewis co. 

Busk’s Store, in Kentucky, a post-office of Laurel co. 

Busk'ville, in Georgia, a post-village of Franklin co., i 
109 m. N. of Milledgeville. 

Busk'ville, in New York, a post-office of Sullivan co. J 

Busk'-tv hacker, n. One accustomed to beat about | 
or travel through bushes ; a raw countryman.—A stout 
scythe or other instrument for cutting bush or bushes ; 
a bush-scythe. ( Webster.) — A Guerilla, q. v. (U. S.) 

Bush-whacking, n. A word applied in the U. 
States to the action of travelling, or working a way 
through bushes ; or, of pulling by the bushes, as iu haul¬ 
ing a boat along the bushy margin of a stream. 

Bush'wick, in New York, formerly a township of i 
King's co., now included in the limits of Brooklyn. 

Husk y, a. Full of bushes ; full of branches ; tliick and j 
spreading like a bush. 

Bushy Fork, in Illinois, a village in the N.E. of 
Coles co. 

Bushy Fork, in North Carolina, a P. 0. of Person co. 

Bus ily, aciv. Iu a busy manner; actively; earnestly. 

Business, (biYnes,)n. [From busy.] That which makes 
busy ; employment; that which occupies the time,atten¬ 
tion, and labor of men.—Occupation ; concern: serious 
engagement; affair; a point; something to be transacted. 
Trade; profession; office; calling. 

Businessburg, in Ohio, a post-office of Belmontco. 

Business Corner, in Iowa, a P. 0. of Van Buren co. 

Bu'siris, n. (Egypt. Myth.) A fabulous personage, of 
whose origin, exploits, and character the most contra-1 
dictory accounts are given, some maintaining that he 
was a king of Egypt, others that the name signified only 
the tomb of Osiris, q. v. 

Busk, n. [Fr. busc, from L. Lat. boxus, a wood.] A 
piece of something, originally wood, worn by women to 
strengthen their stays ; the quilted belly of a doublet; 
a piece of steel, whalebone, or wood, worn by women 
on the breast. 

Busked, a. IVearing a busk. 

Bus'ket, n. [It. boschettn.] A sprig or small bush.— 
A compartment of shrubs in a garden, (r.) 

Buskin, n. [Du. broosken ; Fr. brodequin; probably 
from bnotikin, a little boot ] A species of covering for the 
leg, or rather for the ankle and foot, generally used by 
English writers, as the translations of cothurnus, caliga, 
and other Greek and Latin words, denoting different 
kinds of boots, <ic. Hence B., in the sense of cothui~nus, 
stands for the tragic drama, in contradistinction from 
soccus, the boot or sock worn by comedians, and used 
in the comic drama. 

“ Great Fletcher Dever treads In buskins here, 

Nor greater doneon dares iu socks appear. -1 — Dryden. 

Rns'kined, a. Dressed in buskins.—Tragic; as, “ Bus- 
kined measure.”— Gray. 

Bus'kirk’s Bridge, in New York, a post-village of 
Washington co., on Hoosick R., 29 m. N.N.E. of Albany. 

Bus'ky, a. Woody; shaded with woods; bosky. 

Bus'rjtlt, or Basra, a town ot Asiatic Turkey, situated 
on the W. bank of the Euphrates (which is here called 
Shat-el-Arab), 56 miles from its mouth at the Persian 
Gulf. The liver is navigable up to this point for vessels 
of 500 tons. Pop. (1898) about 55,0o0. 

Buss. n. [Fr. buiser, from Lat. basio; Gael, bus, a mouth, 
a lip] A kiss; a salute with the lips. 

—A two-masted vessel, 50 to 70 tons in burden, formerly 
much used by the Dutch and English in the herring 
fisheries. 

— v. a. To kiss; to salute with the lips. 

Bus'selvillc, in Illinois, a village of Lawrence co. 

Bus'sero Freek,iu Indiana, rises in Vigo co., and 
falls into the Wabash, about 15 m. above Vincennes. 

Bus'seron. in Indiana, a post-village of Knox co., 12 
m. N.N.E. uf Crawfords ville. 

Bus’s!, or Bussy d’Amboise, Louts de Clermont 
de, one of the favorites of the Duke d’Anjou, brother of 
Henry III., king of France. Little is known of this 
minion but the history of his desperate bravery and his] 
crimes. During the massacre of St. Bartholomew, hav¬ 
ing joined the assassins, lie murdered with his own hand j 
his relation, Antoine do Clermont, with whom he had a j 
law-suit for the marquisate of Renel. He afterwards 
commanded at Angers, where his exactions rendered 
him most unpopular; and having long interrupted the 
tranquillity of Paris by private brawls and combats, in' 
which he set at nought the terrors of the Bastile and] 
the authority of the king, he became so odious to Henry 
III. by frequent acts of presumption, that he gave in-[ 


formation to Charles de Chambres, ComtedeMontsoreau, 
of an intrigue which B. carried on with his wife. The 
secret had been revealed to the king by his brother 
d’Aujou, to whom B. had jestingly written in one of his 
letters that he “had the game of the mighty master in 
his toils.” Montsoreau compelled the wretched adul¬ 
teress to write a letter with her own hand, making an 
assignation in the Chateau de Cotistuncieres, where the 
injured husband awaited B. with a numerous ambuscade 
of armed men, and, in spite of a most courageous resist¬ 
ance, put him to death, 1579. 

Busso'ra, in Turkey in Asia. See Bassora. 

Buss'ville, in Illinois, a village of Jefferson co., 12 in. 
W. by N. of Mount Vernon. 

Bus'sy, Roger de. See Rabutin. 

Bust, n. [Fr. buste; It. and Sp. busto; L. Lat. bustum, 
allied to uro, ustum, to burn, the place where a corpse is 
burned and buried. In this place the portrait of the 
deceased was placed in bas-relief.] The chest and thorax. 

(Sculp.) Tiie figure of a person in bas-relief (Fig. 74), 
showing only the head, shoulders, and breast. 

Bus'tamente. See Guerrero. 

Bus'tamite, n. (Min.) A grayish-red variety of Rho¬ 
donite (or native silicate of manganese) occurring in ir¬ 
regularly disposed prismatic crystals. 

Bus tard, n. (Zobl.) See Otis. 

Bus ter, n. Anything very large. — A spree. (Vulgar.) 

Busti, in New York, a post-township of Chautauqua co, 
on Chautauqua Lake. 

Bustle, ( bus'l ,) v.i. [A.S. brasllian, to crackle, to mak» 
a noise.] To stir quick; to be very active; to be very 
quick in motion. 

" Come, bustle, bustle, caparison my horse.' 1 .— Shake. 

— n. Hurry; great stir; rapid motion with noise and 
agitation; tumult. 

—An article of female attire; a Bishop, q. v. 

Bus'tler,n. One who bustles; au active, stirring person. 

Bus tleton, in Pennsylvania, formerly a village of 
Philadelphia co., 11 ni. N.E. of the State-House; now 
included iu the limits of Philadelphia city. 

Bus'y, a. [A.S. bysi, bysig; Goth .budum, budans, to 
order, to command.] Occupied ; fully employed; ac¬ 
tively engaged. —Earnestly diligent; active. — Officious; 
meddling; bustling; troublesome. 

“ They repulsed the proud enemy, still busy with them. 11 — Knolle s* 

—r. a. To make or keep busy; to employ with constant 
attention; to keep engaged. (Used chiefly with the re¬ 
ciprocal pronoun.) 

Bns'y-body, n. An officious meddling person. 

"Busy-bodies and intermeddlers are a dangerous sort of people 
to have to do withal.”— L’ Estrange. 

But, conj. and prep. [A.S. butan, baton ; originally the 
imperative of A.S. beon-utan, to be out.] Except; be¬ 
sides ; unless; save. 

“ Tour poem hath been printed, and we have no objection but 
the obscurity of several passages, by our ignorance in facts and 
persons."— Swift. 

—Excepting that; were it not that; unless. 

“And but infirmity, .. , 

Hath something seiz'd his wished ability, 

He had himself the lands and waters measur'd.”— Shake. 

—Yet; nevertheless; otherwise than that. 

“ Our wants are many, and grievous to be borne, but quite of 
another kind."— Swift. 

—Only; solely; nothing more than; merely. 

“ Did but men consider the true notion of God, be would appear 
to be full of goodnesV ”—Tillotsoiu 

—On the contrary: yet; still; nevertheless; however. 

“ Now abideth faith, hope, charity, these three ; but the great¬ 
est of these is charity.”—1 Cor. xiii. 13. 

But, n. [Fr. bout, from Celt, bod, an end.] A limit; a 
bound. See Butt, and Bi t-end. 

— v. n. To be bounded by; to lie contiguous to; to abut. 
See Butt. 

Butcher, ( buch'er,) n. [Fr. boucher, from bouche, the 
mouth.] One who provides for the mouth; one who 
furnishes animal food; one who slaughters animals for 
market. 

“Like a butcher doom’d for life 
In his mouth to wear the knife. 11 — Swift. 

—One who delights in slaughter or bloody deeds. 

“ Honour and renown are bestowed upon conquerors, who. for 
the most part, are but the great butchers of mankind ."—Locke. 

— v. a. To kill or slaughter animals for food, or for market, 
—To murder; to slaughter cruelly. 

“ The poison and the dagger are at hand to butcher a hero, 
when the poet wants brains to save him."— Dryden. 

Butch'er-bird, n. (Zobl.) See Collyrio. 

Butch'ering, n. The act of slaughtering; killing with 
wanton cruelty. 

—Avocation or trade of a butcher. 

Butch'erliness,«. A cruel, brutal, savage, butcherly 
manner. 

Butcti'erly, a. Cruel; bloody; grossly barbarous. 

Butch er-meat, Butcher's-meat, n. The flesh 
of animals slain for human food, as distinct from game 
or other animal food; fresh meat bought from a butcher. 

Butch'er-row, n. A row of shambles. 

Bntch'er’s-broom, n. (Bot .) See Ruscus. 

Butch'er’s Store, in Virginia, a post-office of Ran¬ 
dolph co. 

Butch'ery, n. The trade or business of a butcher. 

—Murder; carnage; massacre; slaughter. 

“If thou delight to view thy heinous deeds, 

Behold the patron of thy butcheries."—Shake. 

Bute, an island of Scotland, in the Frith of Clyde, and 
forming, with the island of Arran, the county or shire 
of Bute; it is separated from Argyleshire by a narrow, 
winding channel called the Kyles of Bute, is 5 miles W. 

















480 


BUTL 


BUTL 


BUTT 


from the nearest point of Ayrshire, and is about 19 m. 
long by 4 broad. Surface. Hilly. Soil. Tolerably fertile. 
The entire island belongs to the Marquis of Bute, whose 
seat, Mount Stuart, is the chief ornament of the island. 
Cap. Rothesay. Pop. 7,153. 

Bute, a county of Scotland, consisting of the above island, 
and those of Arran, the Cumbraes, and Inchmarnock; 
all in the Frith of Clyde. Area, 171 sq. m. Cap. Rothe¬ 
say. Pop. 16,97". 

Bute'a, n. {Bot.) A genus of plants, order Fabaceer. 
The most important species is B. frmdosu, a native of 
India. This tree yields an astringent gum called butea 
gum, which resembles kino in its properties. The dried 
flowers of this species and those of B. superba, are 
known as Tisso and Kessaree flowers, and are exten¬ 
sively used by the Indians in the production of beautiful 
yellow and orange dyes. The fibres of the inner bark 
of B.frondosa are known under the name of Pulas cor¬ 
dage. 

But'-en<l, Bntt-en(l, n. The end of a plank where it 
unites with another; the blunt end of anything; as, 
the butt-end of a musket. 

Bute'o, n. (Zool.) The Buzzards, a genus of birds of 
prey, family Falconidce. There are many species. The 
Harlan’s buzzard, B. Harlani, of Western N. America, 
which may be given as a type of the genus, has a thick 
heavy body, measures about twenty inches in length, 
and the full expansion of its wings is about 50 in. It is 



Fig. 455. — harlan’s buzzard. 


usually of a ferruginous brown above, and yellowish- 
white beneath. It breeds in extensive woods, and lays 
2 or 3 eggs. The young accompany the old birds for 
some time; a circumstance unusual in other birds of 
prey, which always drive off their young as soon as they 
can fly. The buzzard is very sluggish and inactive, re¬ 
maining perched on the same bough for the greatest 
part of the day, and always found at the same place. 
It feeds on birds, frogs, insects, moles, and mice. 

Bute'ville. in Oregon, a post-office of Marion co. 

Bu t ic Acid, n. ( Chem .) A solid matter contained in 
cows’ butter in connection with glycerin. 

Bnt'ler, n. [0. Fr. bouteillier; Fr. bnutillier, from bou- 
teille, a bottle.] A bottler; specifically, one who has 
charge of wine-bottles; one who has the care and man¬ 
agement of wines and other liquors in great houses. 

“ Butlers forget to bring up their beer time enough."— Swift. 

But'ler, Joseph, an English theologian and moralist, b. 
at Wantage in 1692. Ilis father was a Presbyterian, 
and sent him to the Dissenting Academy at Gloucester. 
But he soon conformed to the Chin ch of England, studied 
at Oxford, and in 1718 became preacher at the Rolls. In 
1724 he was appointed rector of Stanhope, and two 
years afterwards settled there, renouncing his Rolls 
preachersliip. Through the influence of Bishop Seeker, 
his fellow-student and friend, he became chaplain to Lord 
Chancellor Talbot, and clerk of the closet to Queen Caro¬ 
line. In 1738 he was raised to the see of Bristol, soon 
after made dean of St. Paul’s, and in 1750 was translated 
to Durham. His health soon (ailed him, and he only 
held his see two years. B.’ s great work is the Analogy 
of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution 
and Course of Nature.. It was published in 1736. Its 
admirable argument had been foreshadowed in his vol¬ 
ume of Sermons, published ten years earlier. D. at 
Bath, 1752. 

Butler, Benjamin Franklin, an American politician, 
and major-general in the U. States army. B. at Deer¬ 
field, New Hampshire, 1818. Having been educated at 
Lowell High School and Waterville College, he was ad¬ 
mitted to the bar in 1840, and became a successful advo¬ 
cate, especially in criminal cases. In 1857 be was ap¬ 
pointed brigadier-general of militia, and was m 1859 an 
unsuccessful candidate for the post of governor of Mas-j 
sachusetts. In 1860 he was a delegate to the Democratic i 
Presidential convention at Charleston, and afterwards at j 
Baltimore. On the breaking out of the civil war, he com -1 
manded the Federal force encamped at Annapolis, his! 
command extending to the city of Baltimore. He 
became commander of the Virginia department in May, 
1861, was military commander at the capture of Fort 
Hatteras, in Aug., and organized the expedition against! 


New Orleans, which city, having been rendered unten¬ 
able by the destruction of the Confederate fleet by Far- 
ragut, surrendered April 28,1862. B .'s conduct towards 
the citizens during the occupation has been diversely 
appreciated. In Nov., 1863, he was appointed to the com¬ 
mand of the 18tli army corps, relieving Gen. Foster, aud 
in 1864 to that of the forces operating on the James 
River, in conjunction with Gen. Grant, against Rich¬ 
mond. He was relieved of the command of the army of 
the James River, Jan. 8, 1865; was elected a member of 
Congress from Massachusetts in Nov., 1866, and aided the 
impeachment of President Johnson. He was reelected 
in Nov., 1868, and became Gov. of Mass., 1882. D. Jan. 
11,1893. 

But'ler, Samuel, an English poet, author of Hudibras, 
B. at Strensham, 1612. He had only a scanty education 
in his youth, but afterwards cultivated his mind by 
study and reading. He held the office of secretary to 
several eminent persons in succession, and was acquaint¬ 
ed with the wits and writers of the age. His witty poem 
was intended to throw ridicule on the Presbyterian and 
Independent parties. It appeared in three parts, the 
first in 1663, the second soon after, aud the third in 1678. 
A subsequent edition, published in 1726-7, was rendered 
additionally attractive by 18 illustrations contributed by 
Hogarth. Though sparkling with wit, the poem is now 
little read, and is probably seldom obtainable. It is 
defaced by many objectionable passages. B. died at 
London, very poor it is said, in 1680. 

But'ler, in Alabama, a S. county, on Sepulga River; 
bounded by W. fork of Conecuh River. Prod. Chiefly 
cotton and Indian corn ; surface, uneven; soil, moder¬ 
ately fertile; area, 375 sq. m. Pino is abundantly found. 
Cap. Greenville. 

—A post-village and cap. of Choctaw co., abt. 100 m. S.by 
W. of Montgomery. 

Butler, in Georgia, a township, cap. of Taylor co., about 
44 m. E. by N. of Columbus. 

—A post-office of Talbot co. 

Butler, in Illinois, a twp. and village of Montgomery 

co. 

Butler, in Indiana, a twp. of Franklin co. 

—A post-township in De Kalb co. 

—A prosperous township in Miami co. 

—A post-village of Montgomery co., 63 m. N.E. of St. Louis. 

Butler, in Iowa, a N.E. co., has an area of 576 sq. m.; is 
intersected by Shell Rock River, and is drained by the 
W. Fork of Cedar river; cap. Alison. 

—A township of Jackson co. 

—A post-village of Keokuk co., 60 m. S.W. of Iowa city . 

Butler, in Kansas, a S. county, washed by Walnut 
Creek and other streams. Area, 720 sq. m.; surface, 
undulating; cap. Eldorado. 

Butler, in Kentucky, a S. W. co.; cap. Morgantown]; 
area, 500 sq. m. It is intersected and drained by Greene 
and Barren rivers, the former navigable for steamboats; 
soil, moderately fertile; surface, uneven. 

Butler, in Louisiana, a post-village of De Soto co. 

Bil tier, in Michigan, a post-township in N.E. or Branch 
co. 

Butler, in Missouri, a S.S.E. co., bordering on Arkansas. 
Area, 716 sq. m. Bounded on E. by St. Francis river, 
and intersected by the Big Black river and Cane creek. 
Surface. Level. Named in honor of Wm. 0. Butler, of 
Kentucky. Cap. Poplar Bluff. Pop. (1898) 10,350. ’ 

—A city, cap. of Bates co, on Mo. Pac. R.R, 73 m. S. of 
Kansas City. Coal is abundant in the vicinity ; has a 
large local trade. Pop. (1898) 3,100. 

Butler, in Nebraska, an E. county, with an area of 576 
sq. m. It is washed by the Platte and Big Blue rivers; 
surface, nearly level: soil, fertile. 

Butler, in New York, a post-office of Wayne coun¬ 
ty- 

Butler, in North Carolina, a post-office of Rutherford co. 

Butler, in Ohio, a S.W. county bordering on Indiana, 
intersected by the Miami River, and drained by St. Clair’s 
Mill and Four Mile creeks. Surface. Nearly level. Soil. 
Highly productive. The Trenton limestone (a good 
material for building) is procured from this State. Area, 
455 sq. m. Cap. Hamilton. 

1 —A township of Columbiana co. 

—A township of Darke co. 

—A township of Knox co. 

—A township of Mercer co. . 

—A township of Montgomery co. 

—A post-township of Richland co. 

Butler, in Pennsylvania, a W. county, bounded N.E. 
and S.E. by the Alleghany River, and also watered by 
Slippery Rock and Conequenessing creeks. Area, abt. 
800 sq.m. Surface. Undulating. Soil, in many parts 
sandy. It has very valuable mines of iron, and abounds 
in bituminous coal. Chp. Butler. 

—A township of Adams co. 

—A pleasant post-town, cap. of Butler co., on Coneque¬ 
nessing Creek. 36 m. N. of Pittsburg. 

—A township of Luzerne co. 

—A township of Schuylkill co. 

Butler, in South Carolina, a P. 0. of Saluda, co. 

Butler, in Tennessee, a post-office of Carter co. 

—A post-office of Johnson co. 

Butler, in Wisconsin, a post-village of Milwaukee co., 5 
m. N.W. of Milwaukee City. 

But'lerag-e, n. {Old Eng. Law.) A duty of two shil¬ 
lings on every tun of wine imported into England by 
foreigners or merchant strangers; —so called because 
originally paid to the king’s butler for the king. 

Butler Centre, in low a, a post-village of Butler co., 
24 m. N.W. of Cedar Falls. 

Butler’s Creels, in Georgia, Richmond co., a fine 
stream flowing into the Savannah. 

But'lersliip, n. The office of a butler. 


[Butler's Land'iiig. in Tennessee, a post-village of 
Clay co., 85 m. N. E. of Nashville. 

Butler’s Spring', in Alabama, a P 0. of Butler co. 

But'lersville, in South Carolina, a post-office of An¬ 
derson district. 

But'lerville. in Alabama, a P. 0. of Butler co. 

But'lerville, or Butlersville, in Indiana, a post- 
village of Jennings co., 6 m. E.N.E. from Vernon. 

But'lerville, in Ohio, a post-office of Warren co. 

Butman’s mills, in Maine, a P. 0. of Penobscot co. 

But'ment, n. {Arch.) The support on which the feet 
of arches stand; an Abutment, q. v. 

But'ment-clieclcs, n. pi. {Carpentry.) The two solid 
sides of a mortise varying in thickness. 

Butoina'cesr, m. pi. {Bot.) An order of plants, alli- 
uuce Alismales. Diag. 3-petaloidous flowers, and many- 
seeded, netted, and parietal placentas.—They are aquatic 
plants, with parallel-veined leaves, sometimes milky 
Flowers perfect and showy, with interior perianth of 
six pieces arranged in two whorls, the inner being col¬ 
ored; ovaries superior,3 to 6 or more; ovules numerous, 
arranged all over the inner surface of the ovaries; fruit 
many-seeded, separating more or less into as many parts 
as there are component carpels ; seeds without albumen. 
The Butrrmacea chiefly inhabit the northern parts of the 
world, but a few occur in tropical countries. There are 
lour genera, and seven species. 

Buto'mus, n. [Gr. bous, an ox; temno, I cut.] {Bot.) A 
genus of plants, order Butomacece. B. umbellatus, the 
typical species of the genus and order, is very coinmen 
in ditches and ponds in Europe. The leaves, which 
spring from the crown of the root, are from two to three 
feet long, and of a triangular shape. The scape, or flow¬ 
ering stem, is longer than the leases, and terminates in 
a large umbel of rose-colored flowers. The plant pos¬ 
sesses acrid and bitter properties, and was at one time 
used in medicine. The roasted rhizome is edible. The 
sharp leaves of the Butomus were believed to cut the 
mouths of the cattle that cropped it—whence the name. 

Butt, n. [ Fr. but, a mark.] {Gun.) A screen, generally 
made of earth work and masonry, for protecting the 
markers during rifle-practice at a target. — The bank, 
screen, or earth-work, against which the target leans is 
also called a butt. 

Butt, But, n. [It. botto, a blow: botta, a thrust.] The 
striking end of a thing; the thick end of anything; as, 
the butt of a musket.— A mark to be shot at; the ob¬ 
ject of aim ; as, an archery butt. 

41 The groom his fellow groom at butts defies. 

And bends his bow and levels with his eyes." — Dryden. 

—The person at whom ridicule, jests, or contempt are di. 
rected; as, he was the butt of the company. 

44 1 playod a sentence or two at my butt, which I thought very 
smart. ” — Spectator. 

—A push or thrust given by the head of an animal; as, 
the butt of a ram. 

—A stroke or thrust given in fencing. 

44 To prove who gave the fairer butt, 

John shews the chalk on Robert's coat." — Prior. 

—A mound of earth placed to receive the projectile at proof 
of, and practice wilh, fire-arms. 

—A large-sized cask, sometimes called a pipe. Abu/tot 
wine contains 126 gallons; a beer butt, 108 ale gallons; 
and a butt of sherry, 10S imperial gallons. 

{Ship-building.) See Bi’T-t nd. 

{Carpentry.) See Butt-hinge. 

—The metallic ring at the end of the hose of a fire-engine. 

A butt's length. The distance between the place of 
shooting and the mark. 

— n. pi. Short ridges of different lengths, which necessa¬ 
rily occur in the angle of a field when the direction of 
the ridges is not parallel to one of the sides. 

Butts and bounds. The lines bounding an estate. The 
angles or points where these lines change their direction. 
See Abuttal. 

Butt and butt, spoken of planks when they join end t@ 
end without overlapping. 

Butt, v. i. [It. buttare: \V. puitiaw, to poke, to thrust, 
to butt.] To join at the butt-end ; to abut. 

—To thrust the head forward; to strike by thrusting the 
head against. 

44 Two harmless lambs are butting one another.”— Wotton. 

— v. a. To strike by thrusting the head or horns against, 
as a ram. 

44 A ram will butt with his head though he be brought up tame. 44 

Ray. 

Buttahat'cliie, a small river, which takes its rise in 
the NAY. of the Stale of Alabama, and flowing S.W., 
enters the Tombigbee near Hamilton, in the State of 
Mississippi. 

Buttaliat'chie, or Buttahateliy, in Mississippi, 

a post-office of Monroe co. 

Butte, (but,)n. [Fr.] An abrupt eminence, too high tob« 
called a hill, and not high enough to be designated a 
mountain:—peculiar to the U. States. 

Butte, in California , a county in the northern part of 
the State: area, abt. 5,000 sq. in. It is watered by Sac 
ramento River, which forms its W. boundary, and by 
Feather River. Surface, uneven, and in some parts 
mountainous, the county being traversed by Butte Moun¬ 
tains, from which it is named, and having several re¬ 
markable elevations, one of which, called Table Moun¬ 
tain, bears a strong resemblance to a castle. The county 
is very rich in minerals, embracing not only gold, but 
also platinum, silver, quicksilver, iron, and lead. Cap. 
Oroville. r ’ 

Butte, in California, a N\E. town of Butte co., cn the 
Sacramento River, 125 m. from San Francisco. 

—, or Butte City, in California, a mining village of Amw 
dor co., 42 m. N.E. of Stockton. 











BUTT 


BUTT 


BUTY 


481 


Rntte. in California, a twp. of Putter co. 

Butte'bar, in California ,a mining camp of Plumas co., 
8 in. from La Porte. 

Butte Des Mortes, (but-da-mor',) in Wisconsin , a post- 
village of Winnebago co. 

Blit ter, ra. [A. S. outer; Ger. butter; Lat. butyrum ; Gr. 
bmityron — bous, a bovine animal, and tyros, cheese, some¬ 
thing coagulated; Fr. beurre.} A fatty matter aggre¬ 
gated from animal milk; an oily substance obtained 
from cream or milk by churning. Considered chemically, 
B. from cow’s milk con tains about two-thirds of its weight 
of solid fat, which consists in great part of margarine, 
but contains also buline, which yields glycerine and butic 
acid when saponified. The liquid portion consists chiefly 
of oleine. B. also contains small quantities of butyrine, 
caproine, and caprine, which yield, when saponified, 
glycerine and butyric (HO C 8 II 7 0 3 ), caproic (HO.C 12 H u 
0 3 ), and capric (HO.C 00 H 19 O 3 ) acids, distinguished for 
their disagreeable odor. Fresh butter has very little 
odor, being free of those volatile acids, but if kept for 
some time, especially if the caseine of the milk has been 
imperfectly separated in its preparation, spontaneous 
resolution of these fats into glycerine and the volatile 
disagreeable acids takes place. By salting the B., this 
change is in great measure prevented. — Cow’s milk 
is composed of three ingredients, — the cheesy portion 
or curd, the whey or watery part, and the B. Milk 
when examined by the microscope is found to consist 
of a number of fatty globules floating in the whey. 
These globules, which are little sacs containing the B., 
are broken during the process of churning, which allows 
the liberated fatty matter to aggregate in small masses 
and float on the top of the whey. These are generally 
united by pressure against the bottom of the churn, and 
the remaining butter-milk is used often for beverage. 
The B. is afterwards spread out in a thin layerin a shal¬ 
low pan, and washed with clear spring-water to free it 
from any buttermilk that may remain in its pores. It 
is then formed into rolls if intended to be sold as fresh, 
but if it is to be kept for any length of time, it is mixed 
with salt, in the proportion of three or four pounds of 
salt to half a hundredweight of butter, and packed in 
casks for the market. The quality and quantity of B. 
contained in cows’ milk depend materially on the na¬ 
ture of the pasture. Rich natural meadows afford the 
best food for cows intended to produce B. Poor pas¬ 
tures are objectionable, not only from the quantity of 
B. contained in the milk being diminished, but from its 
receiving an unpleasant taste from certain plants or 
weeds growing on all unfertile or marshy soils. The 
amount of B. produced by a gallon of milk should be 
from three to four ounces. B. is much adulterated with 
water, dripping, and mutton-fat. The first may be de¬ 
tected by the wetness of the B. when squeezed, and the 
two last by small white particles being visible in the 
newly-cut surface of the B. — “ Philadelphia jrrint is 
known in the central cities of the U. States as butter un¬ 
surpassed for sweetness, solidity, and golden color; it 
always commands a fancy price. Excellent B. is found 
elsewhere, as in N. England, N. York, and the West,; 
but inferior qualities are the rule in the dairy sections 
proper, which these exceptions only prove; while in a 
large portion of the West and South there is very little 
superior butter, a large amount of it being not fit to eat, 
of less value for cooking than good lard, and unworthy 
of the repute of the American farmer. Greater advances 
have of late been made in cheese-making than in the 
art of butter-making. The factory system has secured 
uniformity with positive progress in processes and 
knowledge of principles. B. dairies are individual and 
isolated, and excellence in their product is the result of 
peculiar care in the manager, and special adaptation to 
his business. It is of the utmost importance that the 
very best modes of manufacture should be understood ; 
that the dairyman and the farmer’s wife who cares for 
the smaller dairy of the ordinary farm should compare 
their processes (which they may now deem to be tho 
best because they know no other better) with those of 
model establishments, and learn to stamp a higher ex¬ 
cellence upon the yield of their dairies. The difficulty 
of obtaining really good B in the city markets appears 
to be increasing, probably from a growing fastidiousness 
of ^.-eaters, as well as from the increasing disproportion 
in the numbers of consumers and producers. This fact 
gives urgent and paramount importance to efforts for 
improvement. The best Philadelphia B. comes mainly 
from Chester, Lancaster, and Delaware counties. See 
Oleomargarine. 

B. of Antimony, tercliloride of antimony. See Anti¬ 
mony.— B. of Sulphur, an obsolete name for precipitated 
sulphur. — B. of Tin, bichloride of tin. See Tin. — B. 
of Zinc , chloride of zinc. See Zinc. 

B. ( Vegetable), a name commonly given to any concrete 
oil of vegetable origiu which at all resembles the butter 
obtained from animal milk, or which is employed for 
similar purposes. The most important solid oils or fats 
procured from plants are, — Butter of cacao, from 
Theobroma Cacao; of cinnamon, from Cinnamomuni 
zeylanicum; of nutmeg, from Myristica moschata ; of 
cocoa-nut, from Cocos nucifera; of laurel, from Laurus 
nobilis; Shoaor Galam butter, from a species of Bassia; 
palm-oil, from Elais guineensis ; and vegetable tallow, 
from Stillingia sebifera in China, from Vate.ria indica in 
India, and from Pentadesma kutyracea in Sierra Leone. 
All these oils contain a large proportion of stearine, and 
many are used as substitutes for animal fat in candle¬ 
making. Plants yielding them are frequently termed 
butter-trees. Artificial B., see Oleomargarine. 

But/ter, v. a. To smear or spread with butter. 

Bnt'ter-bnr, n. (Bot.) See Tossilago. 

Bnt'ter-cc*», n. (Bot.) See Rancnoclus. 


But'terfieUl, in Wisconsin, a village of Ashland co., 
on Lake Superior, 8 in. M ol Ashland. 

But'terliy, n. (Zoiil.) The popular name of an exten¬ 
sive group of beautiful insects, belonging to the sub¬ 
order Lei'IDoptkra, q. v . 

But'terlt.v, in .Yew York, a post-office of Oswego co. 

But'terfiy-valve, n. (Mecli.) The double valve of an 
air-pump’s bucket, consisting of two clack-valves, hav¬ 
ing the joints opposite, and on each side of the pump-rod. 

Bufterlly-weed, n. (Bot.) A popular name of the 
plant Asvlepias luberosa. — See Asclepias. 

But torliill, in New York, an eminence in Orange co., 
on the W. side of the Hudson; height 1,530 ft. 

Butterinc. See Oleomargarine. 

But'teris, n. (Farriery.) An instrument of steel set in 
a wooden handle, used for paring the hoof of a horse. 

Butte Kiver, in Cal., rises in Butte co., and after a 
S.S.W. course empties into the Sacramento in Sutter co. 

But'teruiilk, n. The milk which is left after the but¬ 
ter has been separated by means of churning, or other 
process. B. contains the caseine, sugar, and salts of 
ordinary milk, and is only deficient in oily matter. It is 
therefore tolerably nutritious. It may be drunk ad libi¬ 
tum, is a very agreeable, cooling beverage, and is therefore 
useful in certain febrile and inflammatory conditions. 

But'termilk Channel, in Neio York harbor, sepa¬ 
rates Governor’s Island from Long Island. 

But'termilk Falls, of New York, a cascade on the 
W. bank of the Hudson, 2 m. below West Point. 

Buttermilk Falls, in Pennsylvania, a post-village 
of Wyoming co., on the Susquehanna River. The water¬ 
power here is excellent. 

But'ter-nut, n. (Bot.) See Juglans. 

Butternuts, in New York, a post-township of Otsego 
co., drained by Unadilla River, 90 m. W. by S. from Al¬ 
bany. 

Butternut Valley, in Minnesota, a post-village of 
Blue Earth co., abt. 20 m. W. by N. of Mankato, on Lit¬ 
tle Cottonwood River. 

But'ter-jjrint, n. A piece of carved wood, used to 
mark pats of butter. 

Butter-tooth, n. One of the broad front teeth. 

Butter-tree, n. (Bot ) The gen. Bassia, q. v. 

But'ter-wife, But'ter-woman,n. A woman who 

prepares or sells butter. 

Butter-wort, n. (Bot.) See Pi.ngcicula. 

But'tery, a. Having the qualities or appearance of 
butter. 

— n. An apartment in a house or college, where butter, 
milk, provisions, and utensils are kept. 

Butte Valley, in California, a post-village of Plumas 
count}’. 

But'tevant, a town of Ireland, Cork co., is about 3% 
m. W. of Doneraile, and on the river Atvbeg; pop. 1,600. 

But'teville, in Oregon, a post-village of Marion co., 28 
m. N.N.E. of Salem, on the Willamette River. 

Butt'-hiuge, n. (Carpentry.) A hinge used in hanging 
doors, shutters, <&c. 

But'ting’, n. A boundary of land. 

But'tiug’-joint, n. (Carpentry.) See Joint. 

But tock, n. [Fr. bout, the end.] The protuberant ter¬ 
mination of the body behind; the rump. 

(Naut.) The round part of a ship abaft, from the wing- 
transom to the upper water-line, or lower down. 

Button, a. [Fr. bouton; W. botwn, from bot, a round 
body.] An article of dress used for the fastening of cloth¬ 
ing or for ornament. Buttons are made of an end¬ 
less variety of materials, the processes employed in the 
manufacture varying according to the substance used. 
Metal, wire, wood, bone, glass, shell, mother-of-pearl, 
precious stones, velvet, silk, paste-board, &c., are used. 
Birmingham is, in Europe, the place where they are most 
extensively manufactured. They are made in a great 
variety of shapes; but, at the present time, these may 
be classed under four heads: — buttons with shanks, 
buttons without shanks, buttons on rings or wire 
moulds, and buttons covered with cloth or other mate¬ 
rial. Buttons with shanks are usually made of brass, 
which is supplied to the manufacturer in sheets of the 
required thickness. By means of fly-presses and punch¬ 
es, circular discs, called blanks, are cut out of these 
sheets. This is mostly performed by females, who can 
furnish about thirty blanks per minute, or twelve gross 
in an hour. Hand-punching is the general mode of cut¬ 
ting out blanks; but more complicated machines, which 
cut out eight or ten blanks at a time, are in use. After 
being punched, the edges of the blanks are very sharp, 
and require to be smoothed and rounded. Their sur¬ 
faces are then planished on the face by placing them 
separately in a die under a small stamp, and allowing 
them to receive a sharp blow from a polished steel ham¬ 
mer. In this state they are ready to receive the shanks, 
or small metal loops by which they are attached to the 
dress. The shank manufacture is a distinct Branch of 
the button industry. They are made by machines in 
which a coil of wire is gradually advanced towards a 
pair of shears which cuts off short pieces. A metal 
finger then presses against the middle of each piece, first 
bending it and then pressing it into a vice, where it is 
compressed so as to form a loop; a hammer then strikes 
the two ends, spreading them into aflat surface,and the 
shank is pushed out of the machine ready for use. The 
shanks are attached to the blanks by women, with iron 
wire, solder, and resin. They are then put into an oven, 
and, when firmly united, form plain buttons. If a crest 
or inscription is wanted, the button is placed in a die and 
stamped. After being cleaned, they can be silvered 
or gilt. (See Gilding.) The manufacture of gilt but¬ 
tons has fallen off greatly of late years, the Florentine 
and silk buttons having superseded them. Wire but¬ 
tons are rings of wire covered with cloth. Horn B. 


are made by pressure, the horn being previously soft¬ 
ened by heat. B. are also made of India rubber, and 
also very largely from shell-pearl, the latter industry 
being imporlant in this country when tariff’ conditions 
are favorable. Large quantities of B. aie also made in 
Germany. 

—The bud of a plant; as, the button of a daisy. 

( Assaying 1 The round mass of metal collected at the 
bottom of a crucible after fusion, or which remains iD 
the cupel in the process of assaying. 

(Smithery.) A brass, china, or glass knob of a lock 
serving to open or shut a door. 

(Carpentry.) A piece of wood or metal upon a nail, 
to keep a door closed. 

To hold by the button. To detain a person in unsought- 
for communication; to bore; to weary. 

— v. a. To fasten with a button or buttons; to inclose or 
make secure with buttons. Sometimes preceding up; 
as, he buttoned up his coat. 

— v. i. To be fastened with a button or buttons; as, to 
button a garment. 

But'ton-lmsli, n. (Bot.) See Cepfialantitcs. 

Button-hole, n. The hole or loop in which the but¬ 
ton is caught. 

— v. a. To take or hold a man by the button, or button-hole, 
so as to detain him for conversation; to bore one by 
wearisome talk. 

Biit'ton-nioukl, n. The shaped material, as bone, 
ivory, &c., which forms a button, when covered with 
cloth, &c. 

Fossil button-moulds, n. pi. (Pul.) See Encrinite. 

Bnt'ton-tree, n. (Bot ) See Conocarpus. 

But'ton-weed, n. (Bot.) SeeDiomA; Spermacoce. 

But'toii-wootl. n. (Bot.) See Platanus. 

Butt r<‘ss. n. [Fr. aboutir, to border on, to abut; from 
bout, an end, from Celt, bod, bottom, end.] (Arch.) A 
mass of masonry or 
brickwork, built to 
resist the horizontal 
thrust of another 
mass; though when 
they are on the op¬ 
posite side to the 
thrust, and below 
the line of its effort, 
they are frequently 
called counterforts. 

B. are much used in 
Gothic architecture 
to counterbalance 
the outward thrust 
of the arches, or of 
the vaulting which 
covers the naves 
and aisles of cathe¬ 
drals. When they 
are open, and carry 
down the thrust to 
a point of support at 
some distance from 
the spot where it is 
exercised, they are 
called flying buttresses. 

— v. a. To prop; to support by a buttress. 

But'trice, n. (Farriery.) See Butteris. 

Butts, in Georgia, a central co., bounded on the E. and 
ME. by the Oconee River, and drained by Tassaliaw, 
Yellow Water, and Sandy creeks. Area, abt 180 sq. m. 
Surface, generally level. Soil, fairly productive; granite 
beds are pretty numerous. Cap. Jackson. 

Bult'-shaft, n. A bolt or arrow used to shoot at arch¬ 
ery butts with. 

Butts'ville, in Missouri, a post-office of Grundy co. 

Butt-weld, n. (Mech.) See Jcmp-weld. 

Butyl, 1 1 ’ethyl, Valyl, n. (Chem.) An organic radical, 
discovered by Kolbe among the products obtained by 
electrolysis, from valerate of potash. Form. C 8 II 9 . 
When pure, it is a limpid oil, with an agreeable ethereal 
odor. It boils at 226° Fahr., and may be distilled with¬ 
out alteration. It is one of the lightest known fluids, 
its spec. grav. being only 0-694. It is the radical of a 
great number of very interesting organic compounds. 
It has been called ‘-valyl” by certain chemists, from 
being formed from valeric acid, and by others “tetryl,” 
from being fourth in the series of hydrocarbon radicals, 
as follows: 1. Methyl, C 2 H 3 ; 2. Ethyl, C 4 II 5 ; 3. Propyl, 
C«H 7 ; 4. Tetryl, C 8 (I 9 . 

Bu'tyleue, Bu'tyline, n. (Client.) Butyl less an 
equivalent of hydrogen. Form. C 8 I1 8 . This compound 
was discovered by Faraday amongst the products of dis¬ 
tillation of oil, and is frequently called oil gas. It is a 
colorless gas, burning with a white luminous flame. It 
is one of the principal products of the distillation of In¬ 
dia-rubber. It was afterwards obtained by Kolbe from 
valerate of potash, and by Wurtz by acting on bntylic 
alcohol witli chloride of zinc. It is similar in its pro¬ 
perties to ethyline C 4 H 4 , or olefiant gas, the correspond¬ 
ing product of ethyl. 

Butyl'ic Alcohol, n. (Chem.) Hydrated oxide of bu¬ 
tyl, discovered by Wurtz, in beetroot molasses. It is a 
colorless, highly refractive liquid, boiling at 228°, and 
has a slightly vinous odor, somewhat resembling that of 
amylic alcohol. It is quite similar in its properties to 
the other alcohols of the same group. Sp. gr. 0-803. 
Form. C 8 H 0 O,HO. 

Butylic Ether, or Oxide of Butyl, was first described 
by Kolbe as a product of the voltaic decomposites of 
valerate of potash. Form. C 8 H 9 0. 

Butyra'ceous. Bu'tyrous, a. [Lat. butyrum, but¬ 
ter.] Having the qualities of, or resembling, butter. 

Bu'tyrate of Lime, n. (Chem.) Wheu sugar, chalk. 



Fig. 456. — A BUTTRESS. 
(Canterbury Cathedral.) 
















4S2 


BUY 


BY 


BY r PA 


and cheese are mixed with sufficient water to form a so¬ 
lution of sp. gr. X'UTO, and exposed to a temperature of 
80° or 90° for some weeks, butyric fermentation ensues, 
the liquid becomes ropy, and gives rise to lactic acid, 
which unites with the lime and forms lactate of lime. 
The lactate of lime in turn becomes decomposed, giving 
rise to butyrate of lime in abundance. 

B«ty r'ic Acid, n. (Chem.) A liquid with a sharp, 
acrid taste, and a smell of rancid butter, having a spec, 
grav. of 0 973, and boiling at 314° Fahr. It is prepared 
by distilling three parts of butyrate of lime with twelve 
parts of water and one of hydrochloric acid. Butyric 
acid exists ready-formed in certain fruits, and is one 
of the products of oxidation of fibrin or caseine. All 
substances which form lactic acid may be made to 
yield butyric. Its salts, when dry, are inodorous, but 
when wetted, the strong smell of rancid butter is per¬ 
ceptible. Form. H0C 8 H 7 0 3 . 

Butyric Ether, a. colorless inflammable liquid, with a 
peculiar odor and taste of pine-apple. It is a combination 
of ethyl and butyric acid. Dissolved in alcohol, it is used 
in confectionery under the name of Pine-apple oil. The 
peculiar odor of old rum is due to the presence of a small 
quantity of this ether. It must not be confounded with 
butylic ether. 

Bil'tyrine, n. (Chem.) An oleaginous substance, dis¬ 
covered by ChevreuI in butter. It is prepared by expos¬ 
ing purified butter to a temperature of 66 ° for several 
days. Stearine separates in grains, and an oily com¬ 
pound is obtained, which is mixed with alcohol and fre¬ 
quently shaken during twenty-four hours. The alcohol 
is then distilled off, carbonate of magnesia added to the 
oily residue, which is washed and treated with alcohol, 
when, on being once more distilled, it leaves the butyrine 
behind. 

Bu'tyrone, n. (Chem.) A substance similar in prop¬ 
erties to acetone and propione; obtained by ChevreuI 
amongst the products of distillation of butyrate of lime. 
Butz'town, in Pennsylvania, a post-office of North¬ 
ampton co. 

Bu x'eous, a. [From Lat. huxus, the box-tree.] Per¬ 
taining, or relating to, the box-tree. 

Buxine, ( buk'sine ,) n. (Chem.) An alkaloid obtained 
from the bark of box-wood, which contains nearly one 
per cent, of it. It has a bitter taste, is insoluble in wa¬ 
ter, but slightly soluble in alcoholic ether. It forms 
neutral salts with the acids. 

.Buxom, (bucks'um,) a. [A.S. bocsum — hoga, anything 
curved, a bow, and termination sum, Eng. some.] Gay; 
.lively; brisk; wanton; jolly; healthy; vigorous; cor¬ 
pulent ; as, a buxom woman. 

"A daughter fair, 

So buxom, blithe, and debonnair.”— Milton. 
—Originally, this word signified obedient or obsequious; 
and in the old form of marriage, the bride promised to 
be faithful and buxom to her husband. 

Btix'oillly. adv. Briskly; lively; amorously. 
Bnx'omness, n. State or quality of being buxom; 
liveliness. 

Bu x'os, n. (B"t.) A genus of plants, order Eitphor- 
biacfXB, consisting of evergreen shrubs or small trees with 
opposite leaves, entire at the margins, and easily split 
into two plates. The flowers, which are very small, 
grow in little axillary clusters, the male and female 
flowers being distinct, but borne on the same plant. 
There are only two species known, namely, B. semper- 
virens and B. balearica. The former, which is the com¬ 
mon box, is remarkable, botanically, for being the most 
northern arborescent European species of Euphorbiaceet. 
In the S. of Europe it attains frequently a height of 
30 feet. It grows wild in this country only on the dry 
chalky hills of the south. Many varieties are known in 
gardens, the most remarkable of which is the dwarf- 
box, so much used for the edgings of walks, ’llie wood 
of the arborescent B. sempervirens is heavier than that 
of any other European tree, and will sink when placed 
in water. It is of a beautiful pale-yellow color, and of 
a fine, regular, and compact texture. It is preferred to 
every other kind of wood for the manufacture of flutes, 
flageolets, and other reed-instruments: of rules and 
mathematical instruments; and of the handles of most 
small tools. For the purposes of the turner, the wood- 
carver, and especially the wood-engraver, box-wood is 
invaluable. Spain and Portugal export large quantities 
of it; so also do Circassia and Georgia. 

Bux'tAn, a town and fashionable watering-place of 
England, co. Derby, 150 m. N.VV. by N. of London, in 
the middle of a romantic country. The temperature of 
the springs ranges from 66 ° to 88 °. B. waters are much 
valued in cases of dyspepsia, gout, and rheumatism, and 
were celebrated for their medicinal virtues during the 
time of the Romans. Pop. 4,987. 

Bux ton, in Maine, a post-township of York co., on 
Saco River, 60 m. S.W. by S. of Augusta. 

—A post-village of York co., 15 m. W. of Portland. 
Bnx'ton and Bar-Mill, in Maine, a village of York 
co., 18 m. W. of Portland, on the E. bank of Saco River; 
pop. about 400. 

Buxton Centre, in Maine, a post-village of York co., 
16 m. W. of Portland. 

Buy, (bi,) (imp. and jrp. bought.) [A. S. byegan, bygan; 
Goth, bugjan .] To acquire, procure, or obtain by pay¬ 
ment or purchase; to purchase; to obtain by paying a 
price or an equivalent in money:—used in contradistinc¬ 
tion to sell. 

“ They must buy up no corn growing within twelve miles of 
Geneva."— Addison. 

—To procure by a consideration given; to bribe; as, to 
buy a vote. 

“ I hare bought 

Golden opinions from all sorts of people. "—Shaks. 


To buy out. To purchase another's interest in a prop¬ 
erty so as to become sole proprietor; to buy off.— To 
buy in. To purchase stock in any interest, fund, or prop¬ 
erty.— To buy off. To cause to yield or surrender, by 
some consideration; as, to buy off an opponent.— To buy 
on credit. To purchase on a given promise, or written se¬ 
curity, to pay at a certain specified time. — To buy the 
refusal. To advance money for the right of purchasing, 
at a given price, on a future day. 

— v. i. To negotiate or treat about a purchase. 

“ I will buy with you, sell with you, talk with you.”— Shake. 
Buyer, (bi'er,) n. One who buys; a purchaser. 


Buz, a nephew of Abraham. Elihu, the Buzite, is sup¬ 
posed to have been of his family. 

Buzancais, a town of France, dep. Indre, cap. cant., 
on the Indre, 14 m. N.W. of Chateauroux. It is a quaint, 
ill-built place, in a good situation, and has a trade in 
wool. Pop. 5,517. 

Buzz, (buz,) v. i. [Formed from the sound.] To make a 
low humming sound, as bees: to hum; to whisper. 

Among the bussing multitude."— Shake. 

— v. a. To whisper; to spread, as report, by whispers. 

“ Did you not hear 
A bussing of a separation 
Between the king and Catherine? ” — Shako. 

—To sound by buzzing. 

Herewith arose a bussing noise among them.” — Hayward. 

— n. The humming noise made by bees, wasps, &c. 

—A whisper; a rumor; a hum of talk. 

11 1 found the whole outer room in a buss of politics.”— Addison. 

Buzzard, (buz'erd,) n. [Fr. busard. from Ger. bussaar; 
said to be from the verb to buss’, Pers. bans, a hawk.] 

(ZoSl.) The popular name of the predatory birds form¬ 
ing the genus Buteo, q.v. 

—A blockhead; a numskull; a dunce. 

“Those blind buszards, who, . . . would neither learn them- 
selves nor could teach others.”— Ascham. 

— a. Stupid; thickheaded, (r.) 

Bnz'zardet, n. (Zobl.) A species of Buzzard. 

Buz'zard** Bay, on the S. coast of Massachusetts, 
separated from Vineyard Sound by the Elizabeth Islands, 
and containing the harbors of New Bedford, Fair Haven. 
Rochester, and Warelram. It is 30 m. long, with a mean 
width of 7 m. 

Buz'zardsville, in Indiana, a village of Madison co., 
44 m. N.N.E. of Indianapolis. 

Buz'zer, n. One who buzzes; a secret whisperer. 

44 .Ani wants not buzzers to infest his ear 
With petulant speeches of his father's death." — Shaks. 

Buz'zing, n. A humming noise; incessant talk in an 
undertone. 

Buz'ziug'ly, adv. With a low, murmurous sound, like 
that of bees. 

By, (bi,) prep. [A. S. be or big ; Goth, bi ; Ger. bei ; Sansk. 
abhi.] At; near; beside; close to; not far from; in the 
vicinity of:—noting proximity of place; as, by the 
church. 

“ Stay by me; thou art resolute and faithful.” — Dryden. 

—Near to in motion or passage; past; from one to the 
other side of; as, to sail by a port. 

—Used to denote the instrument, agent, cause, manner, 
way, or means; through; with; as, by the aid of justice. 

•• Death s what the guilty fear, the pious crave, 

Sought by the wretch, and vanquish'd by the brave.”— Garth. 

—In the above sense, as a means or instrument, it denotes 
the cause of any effect. 

“ By woe the soul to daring action steals, 

By woe iu plaintless patience it excels.”— Savage. 

—It denotes the means by which anything is performed 
or obtained; as, by the action of machinery. 

“ You must think, if we give you anything, we hope to gain by 
you." — Shaks. 

—Used to show the manner of an action; as, it was 
brought about by chance.—At or in; specifying place 
or position. 

1 By land, by water they renew their charge.” — Pope. 

—According to;—denoting permission. 

“ It is lawful both by the laws of nature and nations, and by 
the law divine."— Bacon. 

—Noting the quantity had at once; at the rate of; 
cording to the proportion of; as, eggs by the dozen. 

“ The North by myriads pours her mighty sons."— Pope. 

—In comparison, it denotes the ratio of excess, or dimi¬ 
nution ; as, older by ten years. 

“ Her brother Rivers. 

Ere this lies shorter by the head at Pomfret.”— Rowe. 

—From; denoting ground, or comparison; as, by what has 
passed. 

“ The son of Hercules he justly seems 
By his broad shoulders and gigantic limbs." — Dryden. 

—As soon as; not later than; as, by four o’clock. 

“ By this time the very foundation was removed.” — Swift. 

— Pointing to the author, contriver, inventor, or pro¬ 
ducer ; as, a poem by Longfellow. 

—At hand; on hand; in one's possession; as, he keeps 
much money by him. 

—In the same direction with ; as, furrowed by the length. 

—Used in the form of adjuration, swearing, or protestation. 
“ His godhead I invoke, by him I swear.” — Dryden. 

—According to; bv direction, testimony, or authority of; 
as, what is the time by your watch ? 

By-and-by. Presently; shortly; in a short time; be¬ 
fore long. 

“ Now a sensible man, by and by a fool, and presently a beast.” 

Shaks. 

By one?s self. Denoting the absence of all others; 
alone. — To set by. To esteem ; to regard ; as, to set a 


Value by. — To come by. To gain possession of; to ob¬ 
tain; to realize; as, to come by a tortune.— One by one, 
day by day, piece by piece. Each day, piece, thing, per¬ 
son, &c, singly, or severally.— To do by. To behave 
or act towards; to treat; as, he has done nobly by 
me.— To stand by. To aid, support, uphold, sustain*; 
as, I will stand by him to the last. — Twenty feet by ten, 
a length or distance measuring twenty feet one way 
and ten the other. — By the head, or steCn. (Naut.) 
Said of a vessel when her head is lower in \he water 
than the stern; or conversely. — By the lee. The posi¬ 
tion of a ship when going free, or, in other words, when 
she has fallen off so much from the wind, as to Lung it 
round her stern, and take the sails aback on the other 
quarter. — By the run. To let go altogether,or at once; 
as, to let a sail go by the run. Opposed to slacking, or 
letting go gradually. — Good-by, see Good-bye. — South- 
ivest by South. Further South than South-west. (Used 
in telling off the points of a coinpass.) 

By, adv. Near; beside; in presence; as, he was not by 
at the time. 

44 Pris’ners and witnesses were waiting by, 

These had been taught to swear, and those to die."— Roscommon* 

—Passing; going or gone past; as,the troops have passed by, 

44 1 did hear 

The galloping of horse. Who was’t came by ? "— Shaks. 
Aside; on one side; as, to put by something for future 
use. 

By, a. Something out of the direct or common way; 
aside; anything of a collateral or incidental nature; as, 
a by-law. (Used in composition generally as a prefix.) 
By. Bye, n. Something not directly the object of; an 
object by the way, or of secondary importance; as, a 
bye at cricket. 

By the by. Digressively; in passing; apropos or touch¬ 
ing the matter in view, or subject of remark. 

By'ard, n. (Mining.) A piece of leather worn across 
the breast by those who drag the 6ledges in coal-pits. 
By'berry, in Pennsylvania, a former township of 
Philadelphia co., 14 m. N.E. of the State-House; now in¬ 
cluded within the limits of the city. 

By'-bidder, n. One who is engaged by an auctioneer 
or seller to make mock bids in order to run up the pries 
of articles; sometimes called, in a vulgar sense, a 
sweetener. 

By'-blow, n. A side blow ; a blow incidentally given. 
—An illegitimate child, (o. or R.) 

By'-business, n. Business t ransacted out of the com¬ 
mon or customary way. 

By-coffeeliouse, n. A coffee-house in an obscure 

situation. 

“ I afterwards entered a by-coffeehouse that stood ... at the 
end of a narrow lane.” — Addison. 

By' -coneern'ment, n. An affair apart from the 
main business. 

“ Oar plays have underplots, or by-concernments." — Dryden. 
By'-corner, n. A private corner. 
By'-depend'ence, n. An appendage; something in¬ 
cidentally depending upon another. 

By'-desig'n, n. An incidental purpose or design. 

“ And if she miss the mouse-trap line, 

They ’ll serve for other by-design." — Hudibras. 

Bye. By. (bi.) n. [Dan. bye; Icel. bu; Goth, beidan, t« 
dwell ] A dwelling; a way out of the common road; 
as, a bye-way. 

—In certain games, a station or place of an individual 
player. 

By '-end, n. Private end; secret interest or advantage. 

“ Fear, profit, or some other bye-end." — VEstrange. 

By'ersville, in New York, a post-village of Livingston 
co., 16 m. S. of Genesee. 

By'fleld, in Massachusetts, a post-village of Essex co., 
35 m. N. by E. of Boston. 

Ry'-gone, a. Past; gone by-.vanished; as, by-gone days. 
— n. Something pastor gone by; a past occurrence or event. 
Let by-gones be by-gones. A phrase implying that the 
past should be forgotten. 

Bytia'Iia, in Mississippi, a post-village of Marshall co, 
18 m. N.W. of Holly Springs. 

Bylia'Iia. in Ohio, a post-office of Union co. 
Bying-ton, (bi'ing-ton,) in Ohio, a I*. 0. of Pike co. 
By-in'terest, n. Private interest; self-advantage. 
By'-lane, n. A private lane, or one out of the usual 
road. 

By'-law, it. (Law.) A private law; the local or subor¬ 
dinate law of a city, town, or private corporation.— 
The power to make by-laws is usually conferred by ex¬ 
press terms of the charter creating the corporation; 
though, when not expressly granted, it is given by im¬ 
plication, and it is incidental to the very existence of 
a corporation. The Constitution of the United States, 
and Acts of Congress made in conformity to it, the con¬ 
stitution of the State in which a corporation is located, 
and all acts of the legislature constitutionally made, 
together with the common law as there accepted, are of 
superior force to any by-law; and such by-law, when 
contrary to either of them, is therefore void, whether 
the charter authorizes the making of such by-law, or 
not; because no legislature can grant power larger than 
it possesses. 

By'ler’s Mill*. in Missouri, a village of Morgan co., 
56 m. W.S.W. of Jefferson City. 

By'-matter, n. Something incidental. 

By'-name, n. A peculiar or incidental name; a nica- 
name. 

— v. a. To confer a nickname upon. 

By'numville, in Ohio, a post-office of Pike co. 

By - passage, n. A by-way or passage; out of tb« 
common road. 






























































































BYRG 


BYRO 


BYZA 


485 


By'-pnst, a. Past: gone by; as, “ These three hundred 
years by-past." — Cheyne. 

By'-|>atll, n. A private or obscure path; as, the by-path 
of knowledge. 

By'-place, n. A retired or private place. 

By-play, n. A scene which is carried on in dumb show. 

in tne background of the main performance. 

By - 5 >u rpose, n. A clandestine or indirect purpose. 
By ram, in Mississippi, a post-village of Hinds co., on 
Pearl River, about la m. S. by W. of Jackson. 

By ram, in New Jersey, a townshi)i ot Sussex co. 

By rainghaut ,a to.of 0ude,34 m.N.K. of Lucknow. 
Byram Biver, in Connecticut, flowing into Long 
Island Sound, separating this State from New York. 
Byrd,(6t rd,) in Ohio , a township of brown co. 

Byre, (6tr,)». A term for a shippon or cow-house: — 
peculiar to Scotland and the north of England. 
By'-respect, w. Private end or view. 

Byrjjuis, Justus, (properly Jobst Burgi,) an inventor 
and manufacturer of “ Globes of the Heavens,” and as¬ 
tronomical instruments, B. in Lichtensteg, cant. St. 
Gallen, Switzerland, 1552. In 1579 he was appointed 
horologist to the court of William IV., Landgrave of 
Hesse. Ilis first work was a globe of the heavens made 
of silver plate, on which the stars were indicated after 
his own observations. The landgrave sent this globe to 
the Emperor Rudolph II. of Germany, who was so 
pleased with it that he called B., in 1604, to his own 
court as his mechanician. He returned to Cassel in 1622, 
where he d., 1633.—Before 1603, without the knowledge 
of Napier’s work, he discovered, or calculated logarithms, 
which he published in the Arithmetical and Geometrical 
Progression Tables, Prague, 1620.— He also constructed 
a geometrical triangular instrument, which was de¬ 
scribed by his brother-in-law, Benj. Barmen, 1648. 
Byrns'ville, in Indiana, a post-village of Harrison 
co., about 105 m. S. of Indianapolis. 

Byrn'ville, in New York, a village of Schoharie co., 
46 m. W. by S. of Albany. 

By ■road, n. A private or obscure road. 

“Through slipp ry by-roads dark and deep.”— Swift. 
By'ron, (George Gordon Noel Btron,) Lord, the great¬ 
est English poet of modern times, was B. in London, 1788. 
He was descended from the Scandinavian Biirixns, one 
branch of which settled in Normandy, and came over to 
England at the Norman Conquest; while the other re¬ 
mained in Prance and founded the house of the dukes 
de Biron. B. was grandson of the Admiral John 
Byron, q. v., and the son of Captain John Byron of the 
Guards. By his mother, the heiress of the Scottish family 
of Gordon of Gight (and the second wife of Captain 
Byron), he was descended from the royal house of 
Stuart. At 3 years of age, B. lost his father, and was 
brought up by his mother (a woman of weak mind and 
irritable temper), in the Scottish Highlands, where he 
early imbibed that spirit of poetry and enthusiasm for 
liberty, which afterwards made him famous. In 1798 
he succeeded his great-uncle as Lord Byron, and in 1800 
was sent to Harrow to begin his education In 1803 he met 
with his first love, the “ Mary ” of his poems (Miss Mary 
Chaworth of Annesley Hall). In 1M)5 ho wont to Cam¬ 
bridge University, and in 1807 published his first volume 
of poems, which at once brought him into note. But 
it was in 1808 that the savage criticism on his Hours of 
Idleness, Which appeared in the “ Edinburgh Review,” 
evoked the manifestation of the real power of his genius. 
His reply to it. published in 1S09, is that marvellous and 
matchless satire — English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. 
Estranged from his mother by her peculiarities of tem¬ 
per and disposition, B. passed the first years of his early 
manhood lonely and solitary, even amid the vortex of 
brilliant society. Home lie had none, nor yet a relation, 
excepting an only half-sister, to regard him with sym 
pathy and affection, and open to him the quieter charms 
of happy domesticity. Added to this dearth of domestic 
influences, his estate (impoverished by the reckless ca¬ 
reers of his father and his great-uncle) was inadequate to 
duly maintain the dignity of his rank. Flung on his own 
resources, he sought society and companionship in the 
fashionable world, where he, for a period, shone as a 
brilliant meteor, alike distinguished by his personal 
grace and beauty, his sparkling wit, and by the honors ac¬ 
quired by his genius. Tiringof, and mentally despising the 
fripperies and empty conventionalities of the gay world 
surrounding him, he repaired to the continent of Europe, 
and during his residence there composed the two first 
cantos of his great poem, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. 
He returned to England in 1811, where he achieved, 
through the publication of that work, the highest lit- 
, erary reputation of any man of his time. This was soon 
followed in rapid succession by the Giaour, Bride of Aby- 
dos, and Onrsair, and. in 1813, by Lara. In .fan., 1815, he 
married Anne Isabella, the daughter of Sir Ralph Mil- 
banke. a lady singularly uncongenial in mind, manner, 
and disposition to himself. Twelve months afterwards 
they separated, after the birth of a daughter, the “ Ada, 
sole daughter of my house and heart,” of his exquisite 
verse. He was at the same time involved in serious pecu¬ 
niary embarrassments. Smarting under domestic unhap¬ 
piness, public scandal, and all the other calamities of his 
position, he quitted England never to return, and took 
up his abode at Geneva, where he wrote the Prisoner of 
Chilton. — He subsequently removed to Venice, where 
he formed his well-known liaison with the beautiful 
Countess Guiccioli, produced his Manfred and Beppo, 
finished Childe Harold, and commenced his greatest 
work, Don Juan. While here, too, he espoused tire 
cause of the Italian “ Carbonari.” In 1819 he took up 
his residence at Ravenna, and in 1821 at Pisa. In 1822, 
while staying at Genoa, he forwarded money and ma¬ 


terial of war in aid of the Greeks, who were, at that 
time, engaged in a war of independence, and on Jan. 5, 
1824, he joined their ranks in person, at Missolonghi, 
and was appointed commander-in-chief of an expedition 
intended to be sent against Lepanto. Before this could 
be carried into effect, however, he was seized with a 
fever, and, on the 19th of April, he expired, to the inex¬ 
pressible grief of the Greek people, who went into 



Pig. 457. — LORD BYRON. 


mourning for him for a period of 21 days. His body 
was brought to England, and was interred in the tomb 
of his ancestors, at Hucknall, in Nottinghamshire, the 
only mourner present on the occasion, related to him 
by blood, being his half-sister, the Hon. Mrs. Leigh. B. 
was a man of great sensibility of feeling; he was ever 
morbidly sensitive in some things, most particularly so 
with regard to any allusion to his only personal deform¬ 
ity, a malformation of one of his feet, occasioned by an 
accident at his birth. — As a poet. Lord B. will take 
rank second only to Homer, Shakspeare, and Dante. 
Recent critics even assert him to be the greatest poet 
the English language can boast. The third and fourth 
cantos of Childe Harobl alone place their author in 
the foremost rank of descriptive writers. But it is 
in Don Juan that the genius of B., with its wonder¬ 
ful power to blend pathos, humor, wit, scorn, satur¬ 
nine gloom, and exuberant vitality, has found its high¬ 
est and richest development. B. was the sworn foe 
of cant, and in the words of Gbtlie, “lie led the ge¬ 
nius of Britain as on a pilgrimage throughout all 
Europe.” The most trustworthy Life of Byron, is that 
written by his friend and fellow-poet, Moore ; and a true 
insight into his mind and opinions will also be found in 
Lady Blessington’s Conversations with Lord Byron. — B. 
had entrusted his private diary to his friend and literary 
executor, Moore, for publication, after his death, by his 
old publisher, Murray, of London; but just prior to its 
public appearance in print, Moore thought fit to take it 
back and destroy it. This strange proceeding (which 
has hidden forever much that would have thrown anew 
light on the private history of Byron’s life) has ever 
since cast a shadow over the character of Moore; who, 
nevertheless, seems to have been actuated by good in¬ 
tentions, and in accordance with the expressed wishes 
of Lady Byron. — In the early part of 1869 appeared 
from the pen of the Countess Guiccioli, her Recollections 
of Lord Byron; a work that elicited from Mrs H. B. 
Stowe an article in the “Atlantic Monthly,” for Sept, 
of the same year, entitled The True Story of Lady By¬ 
ron's Life, in which she has alleged, against the memory 
of the great poet, a monstrous charge, that was received 
with much disfavor. See also Jaffreson’s Real Lord Byron. 

By'ron, John, a British admiral and circumnavigator, 
grandfather of the poet Lord Byron, b. 1723. He sailed 
with Lord Anson, in his voyage round the world, and en¬ 
dured fearful sufferings; and on his return to England 
published a highly interesting narrative of his five years’ 
absence. In 1764, he commanded an expedition to the 
South Sea, and made important discoveries. During 
the course of his professional career, B. was so sin¬ 
gularly unlucky in meeting adverse gales and danger¬ 
ous storms, that throughout the entire British navy 
he acquired the nick-name of Foul-weather Jack. D. 1786. 

By'ron, in Georgia, a post-office of Houston co. 

By'ron, in Illinois, a post-village and township of 
Ogle co., about 12 m. N. by E. of Oregon City, and 88 
m. W. by N. of Chicago, on the C. and P. R. R. 

By'ron, in Indiana, a flourishing village of La Porte 
co., 5 m. N.E. of La Porte. 

By'ron, in Iowa, a township of Buchanan co. 

—A post-village of Humboldt co. 

By'ron, in Maine, a post-townsliip of Oxford co., 56 m. 
N.W. of Augusta. 

By'ron, in Michigan, a post-village of Shiawassee co., 
on the Shiawassee River, about 33 m. E. of Lansing. 

By'ron, in Michigan, a prosperous township of Kent 

co. 

By'ron, in Minnesota, a township in the S. of Vaseca 
co. 

By'ron, in Missouri, a post-office of Osage co. 


By'ron. in New York, a flourishing post-village and 
township of Genesee co., 25 m. W.S.W. of Rochester, 
Manf. Flour and farming implements. 

Byron, in Ohio, a post-village of Green co., about 11 m. 
E. by N. of Dayton. 

Byron, in Wisconsin, a post-township in Fond-du-Lac 
co., about 10 m. S. of Fond-du-Lac. 

Byron Bay, in N. America, on the N.E. coast of Lab* 
rador; Lat. 54° 40' N., Lon. 57° 30' W. 

Byron'ic, Byronesque, (bt-run-esk’,) a. Pertain¬ 
ing to Lord Byron, or to his poetry; after the manner 
ot Byron; as, a Byronic style of expression. 

Byron Island, in tlie Pacific Ocean, about 12 m. in 
length; Lat. 1° lb' S., Lpn. 173° 16' E. 

By -room, n. A private room situated within another. 

“ I pry thee, do thou stand in some by room." — Shahs. 

Byr'rhus, n.; Byr'rhidte, pi. (ZoSl.) A genus and 
family of Coleoptera. B. pilula is about the size of 
the common Lady-bird; its color is a dull brown ; it is 
of an extremely convex shape, and, when disturbed, 
contracts its limbs and lies in an inert state, like an 
oval seed or pill, while thus counterfeiting death as a 
means of escape from danger. It is found on various 
plants in gardens and elsewhere. 

By rsoni'ma, n. (But.) A genus of plants, order Mal- 

PIGHIACEAE, q. V. 

By'-speecli, n. An incidental or casual speech not 
exactly relating to the point. 

ByssaceoHS, (bis-sa'shus,) a. [See Byssus.] (Bot.) Re¬ 
sembling byssus ; composed of fine entangled threads. 
Bys'sine, a. [See Bvssus.J Silky; made of silk; having 
a silky appearance. 

Byti'soid, n. ( Bot.) See Byssus. 

Bys'solite, n. [Gr. bassos, fine flax, lladns, a branch.] 

( Min.) A name applied tc fibrous varieties of amianthus, 
tremolite, and other minerals of a filamentous nature. 
Bys'sus, «. [Lat., from Gr. bassos. ] (Physiol.) A fas¬ 
ciculus of shining semi-transparent horny or silky fila¬ 
ments; secreted by a gland at the base of the foot of 
certain lamellibranchiate bivalves, and serving as an 
organ of adhesion to submarine rocks or other foreign 
bodies. 

(Bot.) A name formerly given to all those filamentous 
plants which inhabit cellars and other underground 
close places, and or which no fructification is found; it 
was also applied to vegetation of a similar kind when 
found growing in the air. It is now ascertained that a 
large number of these sunnosed plants are merely the 
young state of certain kinds of fungi, or other plants of 
a low vegetation; and the genus is consequently ex¬ 
ploded, the term Byssoid alone being retained to express 
a fringed structure in which the threads are of unequal 
lengths. 

(Scrip.) A word variously translated “ fine linen ” and 
“silk,” and supposed by some to have been cotton, and 
by some the asbestos fabric. There appear to have been 
two quite different qualities of B.; one, the finest, used 
for the habit of the priests, and the other for that of the 
Levites. 

By'-stander, n. [A. S. biglandan, to stand by.] One 
who stands by or near; a spectator; a mere looker-on. 

“ The bystanders asked him, why he ran away." — Locke. 

By'-street, n. A separate, private, or obscure street. 

“ Bent on some mortgage, to avoid reproach. 

He seeks by by-streets, and saves th' expensive coach." — Gay. 

By'-stroke, n. An incidental or casual stroke. 

By'town, in Upper Canada. See Ottawa. 

Byttneriacete, (bit'ne-ri-ai'se-e,) n. pi. (Bot.) An 
order of plants, alliance Malvale.s .—Diag. Monadelphous 
stamens, in most cases partly sterile, and 2 -celled an¬ 
thers turned inwards. They are trees, shrubs, or under¬ 
shrubs. mostly tropical, sometimes climbing. They have 
simple alternate leaves, with usually deciduous stipules ; 
calyx 4-5-lobed, valvate; corolla absent, or havingasmany 
petals as there are lobes to the calyx ; filaments more or 
less united; ovaryseseile or stalked,composed of 4-10 
carpels, united round a central column; style single; 
stigmas equal in number to the carpels : ovules 2 in each 
cell, fruit usually capsular; embryo straight or somewhat 
curved, usually lying in a small quantity of fleshy albu¬ 
men, the cotyledons being plaited or spiral. There are 
45 genera and 400 species. In their properties they 
closely resemble the Malvaceae and Sterculiacece. The 
typical gen. Byttneria does not include any plants re¬ 
markable for useful products. 

By'-turning', n. An obscure path or road. 

By-view, (bi'vii,) n. Private view; self-interested 
purpose. 

By-walk, (bi'wawk,) n. A private or secluded walk. 

By'-wash, n. The ou.Lt of the water of a dam. (Prov. 
Eng.) 

By'-way, n. A private, secluded, or obscure way. 

** Thy bounteous Lord 

Allows the choice of paths; take no by-ways .”— Herbert. 

By'-w ipe, n. A sly, underhand stroke of irony or 
sarcasm. 

By'-word, n. [A. S. bi or big, and word.] A passing 
or current word; a common saying; a proverb. 

“ We are become a by-word among the nations for our ridicu¬ 
lous feuds and animosities."— Addison. 


Byz'ant, Byz'antine, n. (Numis.) See Bezant. 

Byz'antine Architecture, n From the classic 
architecture of old Rome was derived the Romanesque, 
which gradually spread through Western Europe, and 
passed through various phases, until it attained the full 
extent of its development in the Gothic architecture, 
and became in the B.A. the parent stock of the Arabian. 
B. A. may he considered to have been originated by Con¬ 
stantine the Great, who commenced rebuilding Bygau- 












48G 


BYZA 


BYZA 


BYZA 


tium in the year 324, and spared no expense to make 
his new city the most magnificent in the world. At 
first, the palaces, temples, churches, baths, and basilicas, 
which were erected, were based on the plans, and em¬ 
braced all the characteristic features, of similar buildings 
at Rome; but, to carry out his grand designs, Constan¬ 
tine caused schools to be established for the study of 
architecture, in which men were trained for the profes¬ 
sion, who gradually mingled new and original features 
with those of the style that had been introduced from 
the West, and formed a style of architecture peculiar in 
itself, and eminently adapted to the requirements of the 
ritual of the Greek Church, although bearing evident 
traces of the source from which it originally sprung. — 
B. A. has been divided, somewhat arbitrarily, into four 
periods:—1. From the time of Constantine to the middle 
of the sixth cent. 2. From the beginning of Justinian's 
reign down to the eleventh cent., which comprises the 
greater part of the existing buildings of the pure Byzan¬ 
tine type. 3. From the eleventh cent, to the conquest of 
Greece by the Turks, when the influence of the Venetian 
successes is apparent in the intermixture of Italian and 
Gothic details and characteristics.—4. The prevalent form 
of the churches of the second period or period of pure B. A ., 
is that of the Greek cross; tne central square, formed 
by the intersection of the arms of the cross, is covered 
by a dome or cupola, and the spaces winch represent 
the arms are also covered by semi-cupolas, or, in many 
eases, entire ones. The whole length of the interior, 
from east to west, is divided into five parts. At the E. 
end is the apse, in which stood the altar, divided from 
the next portion, called the bema, by a panelled screen 
richly adorned with paintings and gilded carved work, 
in which were three doors of communication between 
the bema and the apse, which was considered to be the 
holiest part of the church. The Roman, or semi-circular 
arch, is the only form of arch employed, and the great 
distinctive feature of the style <s the constant use of the 
cupola or dome, which ,<as supported on arches of a wide 
span, springing from massive piers at the four corners 
of the central space. The capitals were adorned with 
foliage, generally of a symmetrical pattern, in relief, on 
sunken panels formed in the faces. The interior was 
richly ornamented with sculpture, paintiug, and mo¬ 
saic-work of most elaborate description. The cathedral 
of St. Sophia, now the principal mosque at Constanti¬ 
nople {Pig. 458), built by Justinian in 532, is considered 


to be one of the finest existing specimens of Byzantine 
architecture. Good examples of the style of the second 
period are also to be seen in the churches of St. Sergius 
and St. Irene, at Constantinople. The best examples of 
the third period are the churches of St. Mark, at Venice 



Fig. 458. — the mosque of st. Sophia, (Constantinople.) 

{Fig. 300), and St. Pantocrator, at Constantinople. At 
this period greater attention was paid to external deco¬ 
ration, but the churches were much smaller in every re¬ 
spect, The church of St. Anthony, at Padua, the cathe¬ 


dral at Aix-la-Chapelle, the churches of Ravenna and 
Pisa, are also Byzantine in character. In our ow n times, 
B.A. is the ecclesiastical form of architecture in Russia; 
the prevailing style of the Greek Church, as Gothic ar¬ 
chitecture, is peculiar to the cathedrals and churches 
of Roman Catholic and Protestant countries. 

Byzantine Church, n. A name applied to all those 
churches which acknowledge the supremacy of the oecu¬ 
menical patriarch of Constantinople. The adherents of 
this church are comprised almost entirely within the 
limits of Turkey, Greece, and Palestine, and are alto¬ 
gether estimated to number about 3,000,000. 

Byzantine, Eastern, or Greek Empire. See 
Greek Empire. 

Byzantine Historians, a series of Greek histori¬ 
cal authors who lived under the Greek empire between 
the 6th and 15th cent. They may be divided into three 
classes:—1. Historians whose works form a continuous 
history of the Byzantine Empire from the 4th cent, of 
the Christian era down to the Turkish conquest of Con¬ 
stantinople. They are nearly 30 in number, with various 
shades of literary merit; but their works constitute 
almost the only authentic source of the history of that 
eventful period. 2. General chroniclers, or historians, 
whose works treat chiefly of the chronography of the 
world from the oldest times. 3. Authors who confined 
their attention to the politics, statistics, antiquities, 
manners, ic. of the Romans. These two latter classes, 
combined, amount also to about 30, and their writings 
give an excellent illustration of the times of which 
they treat. The works of the Byzantine historians, Sec. 
were collected and published by order of Louis XIV., in 
36 vols. folio, Paris, 1645-1711. Another edition was 
published at Venice in 1729 and the following years. A 
more complete edition w r as projected by Niebuhr, (he 
historian of Rome (Corpus Scriptnrum Histories Byzan- 
tines). This edition was superintended by him till his 
death; and it has, since that time, been carried on by 
Becker, Bindorf, and other eminent philologists. 

Byzantine Painting' and Sculpture. See 
Painting ; Scui.pture. 

Byzantine Recen'sion, n. (Eccl. Hist.) The name 
given to the text of the Greek New Testament, as propa¬ 
gated within the limits of the patriarchate of Constan¬ 
tinople. 

Byzantium, ( be-zan'shum ,) n. ( Geog .) The ancient 
name of Constantinople, q . o . 


























BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 

France, io. Dome of church at Daphne, Syria 


Church of S. Maria, at Palermo, Sicily. 16. Church of S. Giovanni, at Palermo, Sicily.’ 


i. Plan of Church of Sta. Irene, Constantinople. 2. Interio Kamnekarea AthenJ* * p ?' Ve f n ‘^- • 4 * E rt u 
Church of the Mother of God, Constantinople. 7 - P |an ° end 0 f the Katholfcon Atf*' £ °/ C '°' st f er Church T 

11. Dome of Church of St. Tax archis, Athens. 12. West e -con, Athens. 13. East ejid of same. 14. 


same 5 Plan of Church of St. Elias, Athens. 6. Plan of 
St Lucas, Bceotia, Greece. 9. Plan of church at Perigieux, 
Church of St. Mary, at Semendria, Servia. 15. Interior of 


— - - - - - 















































































































































































































































































































B—SECTION II. 


BABY 


Bab'bitt. Edwin B., born in Connecticut in 1802, 
graduated West Point, 1826. Served in Florida 1837-8 
and in Mexico, 1847-8. Brevetted brigadier-general, 
1865; chief quartermaster of the Dept, of the Columbia, 
1866-7; superintendent of the clothing depot of the 
division of the Pacific, 1867-9. Died in 1881. 

Bab'bitt, Isaac, born at Taunton, Mass., in 1799. A 
goldsmith by trade; was the first to manufacture brit- 
aunia ware in U. S. (1824), and invented (1839) the 
anti-friction metal which bears his name. D. in 1862. 

Bab'coek, James F., a Connecticut journalist, born 
in 1809; in turns a prominent Whig, a Civil War 
Republican, and eventually a Democrat; collector 
of the port of New Haven under Lincoln; elected 
to the Slate Legislature as a Democrat, 1873; judge 
of the police court of New Haven, 1874. D. 1874. 

Bab'coek, James Francis, an eminent Boston chem¬ 
ist, born in 1844 ; professor of Chemistry in the Boston 
University and subsequently (1881) in the Massachu¬ 
setts College of Pharmacy. Invented a well-known 
fire-extinguisher. 

Bab'coek, Orville E., an American soldier, born in 
1835 at Franklin, Vt. Served in the Army of the 
Potomac as lieutenant-colonel and aide-de-camp to 
Grant; selected the meeting-place of the generals at 
Appomattox, for Lee’s surrender; promoted colonel in 
the regular army, 1866; served for a time as private 
secretary to President Grant, who subsequently deposed 
in his favor and thus obtained his acquittal from an 
indictment for complicity in revenue frauds, 1876. 
Died in 1884. 

Bab'coek, Kurt'S, a Baptist clergyman; born at North 
Colebrook, Conn., in 1798; president of Waterville Col¬ 
lege (Colby Univ.) Me., 1833-7; founder of the Baptist 
Memorial ; a considerable writer and contributor to 
Sprague's Annals of the American Pulpit. D. in 1875. 

Baby, Louis Francois George, born in Montreal, Can¬ 
ada, in 1834. A noted statesman and conservative 
politician ; member of the privy council as minister of 
inland revenue, 1878. 

Babylonian Exploration. The low alluvial 

plain, through which How the Tigris and Euphrates in 
their lower courses, and the Shat-el-Arab, which results 
from this confluence, has long been known as the seat 
of two great empires of the past, the Babylonian and 
Assyrian, its high fertility having provided food for 
teeming populations, which, with their works, have 
disappeared as a result of savage invasion aud bar¬ 
barous neglect. Some few historical records of these 
peoples remained, but their cities, their irrigating 
canals, the fertility of their soil had disappeared, and 
nothing was left but the wide, flat plain, whose level 
(urface was here and there broken by a hill or a mound 
if clay, in which occasional evidences of brickwork 



appeared. Such was the condition of affairs half a 
century ago. To-day, in consequence of active research 
ami diligent study, the history of the vanished empires 
has been in considerable part recovered, and modern 
museums are full of works of art and written records, 
obtained from the ruins of palaces and cities which 
long lay safely hidden under shapeless mounds of clay. 
This work began in the mounds of the northern empire 
of Assyria, the ruins of the great city of Nineveh 
being excavated by Layard ami others, and yielding 
results of remarkable interest and value. See Assyrian ; 
Exploration. One important lesson was learned from | 
the study of Assyrian inscriptions, viz., that Babylonia 
was a much more ancient centre of civilization, and 
the original source of the literature and culture of the 
Assyrian people. Research accordingly extended to 
the mounds of this vanished realms of the far past, a re- j 


search which in late years has been attended with almost 
magical results, the pick and spade of the explorers 
having exhumed a great lost civilization, possessed of 
numerous populous cities, and reaching much farther 
back into the past than was deemed possible as late as 
twenty years ago. England led the way in this great 
work of exploration. Hormuzd Rassam, who had 
aided Layard in his excavations, and had himself dis¬ 
covered the great palace of Sardanapalus, was sent in 
1876, by the British Museum, to conduct explorations 
in the southern Mesopotamian region, and continued 
his fertile labors there until 1882, discovering the cities 
of Kuthah and Sepharvaim or Sippara. In the latter, 
the ancient city of the Babylonian sun-god, he ex¬ 
humed the library of the ancient temple, which proved 
to be richly supplied with those inscribed clay tablets 
which formed the books of the Babylonians. A library 
had formerly been found in the palace of the Assyrian 
King Sardanapalus, from which an abundant store of 
early lore had been obtained. This useful idea of 
forming libraries proved to be not confined to Assyria, 
each of the large Babylonian cities having its richly 
supplied temple library. Several of these have been 
found, and a steady stream of inscriptions has reached 



J\g. 2687.— ornamented swords and STAFr 
FROM BABYLON. 


the British and other museums, whose perusal has 
added immensely to our knowledge of the far past. 
These clay books were principally deeds and contracts, 
but the study of these has • thrown a flood of light on 
the social life and customs of the Babylonians, giving 
us a knowledge of their doings and dealings little less 
full than that which we possess of the customs of the 
ancient Greeks.— German Explorations. The British 
were followed by German explorers, who opened two 
cemeteries near Shatra, and for the first time taught us 
how the Babylonians disposed of their dead. T1./S was 
done by burning, not only the corpses, but the objects 
buried with them, being consumed; so that those graves, 
w hile adding their share to our acquaintance with Baby¬ 
lonian customs, have yielded no treasures for museums 
or monuments of ancient art. It is interesting to learn, 
from the earlier researches of Loftus, that the Assyrians 
disposed of their dead in quite a different manner, 
burying them in slipper-shaped coffins of clay, and 
using the ruined cities of Babylonia as cemeteries. 
They seem never to have forgotten that their fathers 
came from this southern land, which continued holy 
ground to them, while its ancient literature was dili- 


BABY 

gently studied, translated and faithfully preserved by 
their scholars and bibliographers — French Explorations. 
During the very long period of Babylonian civilization 
many new dynasties rose into power, new' cities became 
the seats of empire, each in its turn sinking into insig¬ 
nificance and decay, aud adding its quota to the multi¬ 
tude of ruins which dot that historic plain. Babylonia 
seems to have been separated into two fixed divisions— 
Sumar (Shinar) aud Akkad—the former in the north, 
the latter in the south. One of the capital cities of 
Akkad was named Erech, and in its vicinity, at a locality 
named Telloh, in the extreme south of Babylonia, was 
a more ancient city, whose ruins have been thoroughly 
explored by M. de Sarzac, French consul at Basra, who 
worked with diligent enthusiasm among its ruins, and 
brought to light hosts of important relics. Telloh was 
not one of the chief cities of the land. It was rather 
a provincial town; yet it has yielded immense numbers 
of monuments, including some highly interesting statu¬ 
ettes of the very hard mineral diorite, which are now r in 
the Louvre. But the most valuable of its treasures are 
the remains of its library, discovered during 1888-96, and 
containing not less than 33,000 day tablets,which are be¬ 
lieved to be nearly 5000 years old. These very archaic 
books are written in the ancient Sumerian dialect,which 
preceded that of the Semitic conquerors of Babylonia. 
Most of them are now at Constantinople, the Turkish 
government, having perceived the value placed by 
European scholars on these relics, no longer permitting 
them to be removed from the kingdom except in the 
way of gifts from the Sultan. Assyriologists are actively 
at work in their perusal, but they have been too short 
a time in hand for their contents to be yet largely 



Fig. 2688.— royal head dresses, babylon* 


a .iphered.— American Explorations. Still more interest* 
ing have been the results attained by an American 
expedition, sent out by the University of Pennsylvania, 
and choosing as the site of its labors the ruins of Niffer 
or Nuffer (anciently Nippur), in northern Babylonia. 
This city has proved to be one of the oldest seats of 
human civilization, its great temple, dedicated to Mul- 
lil or El-lil, going back to the beginning of Babylonian 
history. This god at a later date became the Bel of the 
Semite conquerors, and was eventually replaced by the 
Bel Merodach, of Babylon, a younger deity. It was in 
the ruins of the temple of this very ancient Bel that 
the American explorers worked, pursuing their labors 
with a systematic care that leaves little or nothing to be 
done after them, they having sunk their shafts through 
the various strata of the city’s history, and cleared away 
all the valuable relics of each stage before descending 
to a lower level. The work began in 1888 under Dr. 
Peters, who continued his labors till 1890, obtaining in 
all about 10.000 tablets and inscribed fragments. In 
1893 the work was resumed under Mr. J. H. Haynes 
and carried on for three years, ending in 1896. The 
task was performed under the greatest difficulties and 
dangers, arising largely from the insect plagues and 
enervating heat of the region, the fever-breeding airs 
which arose from the pestilential neighboring swamps, 
and the hostile treachery of the Arabs. Yet it was 
persevered in until more than 32,000 inscribed tablets 
had been found, and the city excavated to its original 
foundations. As to the value and interesting results 
of this exploration we cannot do better than to quote 
I from a published paper by Prof. A. H. Sayce, the dir 

482 






































48S 


BABY 


[SECTION II.] 


BAB! 


tinguished philologist and oriental antiquarian: “The 
history of civilization has been taken into ages which 
a short while since were still undreamed of. Pro¬ 
fessor Hilprecht, the historian of the expedition, upon 
whom has fallen the work of copying, publishing and 
translating the multitudinous texts discovered in the 
course of it, declares that we can no longer ‘hesitate 
to date the founding of the temple of Bel and the first 
settlements in Nippur somewhere between 60(X> and 
7000 B. 0., possibly even earlier.’ At any rate, the 
oldest monuments which have been disinterred there 
belong to the fifth or sixth millennium before the 
Christian era. Hitherto, we have been accustomed to 
regard Egypt as the land which has preserved tor us 
the earliest written monuments of mankind, but Baby¬ 
lonia now bids fair to outrival Egypt. The earliest 
fixed date in Babylonian history is that of Sargon of 
Akkad and his son Naram-Sin. It has been fixed for 
us by Nabonidos, the royal antiquarian of Babylonia. 
In one of his inscriptions he describes the excavations 
he made in order to discover the memorial cylinders of 
Naram-Sin, who had lived ‘ 3,200 years ’ before his own 
time. In my Hibbert lectures I gave reasons for accept¬ 
ing this date as approximately correct. The recent 


discoveries at Niffer, Telloh and other places, have 
shown that my conclusion was justified. We now find 
that the Babyloniaus from the earliest times kept a 
register of {the successive years of each king’s reign, 
marked by the chief event or events which had charac¬ 
terized them, so that it w r as easy for future historians 
to draw up chronological lists of the Babylonian kings 
and determine the number of years they each had 
reigned. It was also usual on the death of a king to 
devote a single tablet in this way to the chronology of 
his reign, and at times, when one dynasty was suc¬ 
ceeded by another, a chronological record of the fallen 
dynasty was compiled, the years being reckoned by the 
events which had occurred in them, and the whole 
number of years during which the dynasty had reigned 
being summed up at the end. These lists can be tested 
by the contract tablets, of which we now possess many. 
thousands, and which are dated in the way I have just 
described. What particular event should be considered 
as characterizing a particular year must have been 
determined by official authority. Take, for example, 
one of the chronological tablets found at Niffer, which 
was written immediately after the death of Pur-Sin II., 
one of the last kings of the third dynasty of Ur. This 
was the dynasty which preceded that to which Amra- 
phel, the contemporary of Abraham, belonged. The 
tablet begins as follows: (1) ‘The year when Pur-Sin 
became king; (2) The year when Pur-Sin the king 
invaded the land of Urbillum; (3) The year when the 
great throne of Bel was made.’ And so the tablet con¬ 
tinues down to the end, where we read: ‘ The year 
when Gimil-Sin became king of Ur and devastated the 
land of Zabsali’ in the Lebanon. In the contract- 
tablets which have come from the excavations at Niffer 
and Telloh we find these self-same dates expressed in 
precisely the same words. We can, therefore, no longer 
refuse to believe that Nabonidos had quite sufficient 
chronological materials for assigning a date to Sargon 
of Akkad and his son. We may henceforth tranquilly 
accept the fact that the date of these two kings is as 
far back as 3800 B.C .”—Antiquity of Nippur. As regards 
the actual antiquity of Nippur we possess still another! 
means of estimation. In the excavations at the site of 
this city a pavement was found, composed of enormous 
bricks—some of which bore the name of Sargon, others 
of Naram-sin—on which these mouarchs had rebuilt ' 
the temple of the god. Above this pavement debris 
had accumulated 11 metres in thickness, representing 
about 4,000 years of history, as its top was coeval with 
the beginning of the Christian era. Below this pave¬ 
ment Haynes found 9.25 metres of the debris of older 
buildings, while much had doubtless been cleared away 
in making a level space for the temple of Sargon. Thus; 
we can well conceive an antiquity of some 4,000 years 
more. As deep as research has gone, evidences of civili¬ 
zation have appeared. The cuneiform characters were 
in use at that early date, but they were ruder in 8hape'; 
and resemble pictorial forms, indicating their origin in 
an older hieroglyphic method of writing. How much i 
farther back the beginnings of this civilization reach, 
and to what race of people they are due, we may perhaps 
always remain in ignorance. Possibly they extend still 
other thousands of years into early time. Prof. Hil¬ 


precht believes that the temple of Mul-lil was founded 
fully 6,000 years before Christ, and that the golden age 
of Babylonian history arose at least 4000 B. C. Sayce 
accepts this view, busing it on the fine and delicate 
finish of works of art executed in the reign of Sargon 
and Naram-Sin, which represent “the highest point 
attained by the gem-cutter in the ancient oriental 
world. And along with this perfection of art went a 
similar perfection in the cuneiform system of writing.” 

Babylonian History. A brief review of the his¬ 
tory of Babylonia, so far as it has yet been revealed by 
the monuments and inscriptions, will be of interest. 
The earliest king whose name we yet possess, who 
reigned at the beginning of the history of Nippur, 
perhaps earlier than 7000 B. C., was En-sag-ana, who 
lias had himself recorded as “ Lord of Kengi ” and con¬ 
queror of Kis “ the Wicked.” At a later date Kis the 
Wicked became conquerer of Nippur, whose king, and 
the old kingdom of Kengi, passed away. The conqueror, 
Lugal-zuggi-si, “King of Erecli,” told the story of his 
exploits in a long and interesting inscription, which, 
fortunately, is still extant. He claims to have founded 
an extensive empire, reaching “from the rising to the 
setting of the sun,” and, so far as we now know, may 


have been the earliest of the great warriors and conquer- 
ers of mankind. At perhaps a considerably later date 
a new supreme city arose at Ur, in the southern region, 
the city of the Moon-god, and the first home of Abra¬ 
ham, now represented by the mound of Mughair, on 
the west bank of the Euphrates. This, in Hilprecht’s 
view, took place about 4000 B. C. Up to this date 
the Sumerian people had continued the ruling race. 
Of what origin they were we do not well know, but the 
character of their language seems to assimilate them 
with the people of northern Asia, the so-called Turanian 
stock. But now the Semites of the South were rising 
into conquering strength, and about 3800 B. C., Sargan, 
a Semitic conqueror, overran the land of Akkad, and 
by his military energy and that of his son, established 
another great empire, which seems to have reached as 
far as Cyprus, in the Mediterranean. In the new king¬ 
dom, the Sumerians continued the literary and cul¬ 
tured classes, and their language long remained that of 
religion and the law, though in more ordinary neatness 
the cuneiform characters were adapted to Semitic 
words. After the period of Sargon and his son, the 
empire seems to have broken into fragments, in which 


with the Elamites of the East and the Chaldeans of the 
South, while their wars extended to the nations of the 
West as Babylon the Great grew in power. We ap¬ 
proach the end of this long story in the reigns of the 
powerful kings, Nabopolassar and Nebucadrezzar, and 
reach its termination in the overthrow of Babylon by 
Cyrus the Persian and the establishment of the great 
Persian Empire. Babylon continued a great city until 
the days of Alexander the Great, but afterwards so 
utterly passed away that its very site became unknown, 
and remained to be discovered in our own days. 

Babylonian literature. Babylonia, so far as 
we at present know, was the original land of books. 
In the very earliest days of its civilization, possibly 
10,000 years ago, it had its authors and scribes, and 
books or inscriptions written in that remote age are 
still extant. These books differ essentially from those 
of the present day. They are not written on paper, but 
stamped on clay, the most abundant material of that allu¬ 
vial land. Balylouia was a land of bricks. Its edifices 
were built, its books made, of brick, sun-dried or burnt. 
The plastic clay was moulded into thin, brick-shaped 
tablets, which had the words or syllables of the language 
impressed on them by an instrument whose point was 
in the form of a wedge, or a very acute triangle; hence 
these characters are called cuneiform, or wedge-shaped. 
The letters are often minute in size, so that a consider¬ 
able inscription may exist on a small tablet. These soft 
clay tablets were then hardened by baking, and stored 
carefully away in what were the earliest libraries of 
mankind. It is probable that each of the principal 
cities of Assyria and Babylonia had at lea6t one of these 
libraries, in which the clay books were kept for use, 
and seem to have even been loaned out to students, 
like those of a circulating library of the present day. 
We learn from the catalogue of Sargon’s library that 
each was numbered, and that the student had only to 
write down the number of the tablet he wanted and it 
was given him by the librarian. A number of these 
libraries have been found by excavation, some of them 
with their tablets much broken, yet yielding a vast 
amount of curious information to modern students.— 
Language. The language of these old authors of Sumer 
and Akkad was of the agglutinative type, such as is 
still used by the Mongolian populations of northern 
and central Asia. Hence, they are believed to have 
originally come from the north and developed their 
civilization in the fertile Euphrates plain. At a later 
date the Semites of the south became the dominant 
power, and adopted the cuneiform characters to their 
language, so that books w ere written in Semitic, though 
the Sumerian continued the learned language, much as 
Latin long continued the learned language of Europe. 
Cuneiform w’riting was also, in later times, adopted by 
the Medes and Persians, and an inscription on a rock 
face at Behistun, in Persia, in which all three lan¬ 
guages are used, served the important office of first 
giving scholars a clue to the mystery of the unknown 
languages of Assyria and Babylonia.— Literature. The 
subjects with which this archaic literature deals are 
various. Many of the inscriptions found are annalistic, 
detailing historical events. Hosts of contracts and other 
business documents have been found, which yield us 
abundant information concerning the ordinary life 
conditions of these ancient peoples. The literary pro¬ 
ducts, properly so called, are numerous, one of their 
most interesting forms being that of hymns to the 
gods. These bear a striking resemblance to the Hebrew 
hymns, alike in substance and form, while their expres¬ 
sion and feeling assimilate them closely to the poetry 
of the Hebrew race. Of an older date is a collection 


fT If >M \ <! ►« <fr <? \ «fj « fn <*- 


K! W <T» A <K «TT rrr Hffl Kip 


Fig. 2690.— Cuneiform inscription from babylon. 


the cities of Larsa, Telloh, Nippur, and others were the 
seats of local rulers. Those were again gathered into 
a single kingdom by Urbagas, about 2700 B. C., who 
restored temples in all the cities named, and placed over 
them “ priest viceroys.” His son, Dungi, who succeeded 
him, has left us a large number of inscriptions. These 
monarchs take the title, not only of “ King of Ur,” but 
also of King of Sumer and Akkad, and seem to have 
extended their rule widely over Babylonia. In the 
succeeding centuries Ur declined in importance, and 
other cities became seats of power. This was followed 
by a return of Ur to supremacy, its new rulers styling 
themselves “ Kings of the Four Regions.” The dy¬ 
nasty finally fell before an invasion from Elam, led by 
Rim-Sin, who sacked the city of Erech, and established 
himself in power. He did not, however, succeed in 
forming a dynasty, for a new power was now rising at 
Babylon in the north, whose king, Khammurabia, 
repulsed the Elamites, and made himself lord of all 
Babylonia. The rule of this king began about 2700 
B. C., and for several centuries the kingdom remained 
peaceful under his successors. The supremacy at 
Babylon continued to the end, no less than nine dynas¬ 
ties succeeding each other, and having to contend 


of magical formulae and charms, doubtless in use by the 
Sumerian priests and people ages before the Semitic 
replaced the older gods. There seems to have been an 
extensive legal literature, while a collection of very 
ancient fables lias been met with. But what has at¬ 
tracted most attention in the Babylonian literature is 
the recovery of considerable part of a very ancient epic 
poem, originally in twelve books, though only two 
have been preserved intact, with parts of others. One 
of these two is of special interest, in that it tells of a 
great deluge, bearing in several particulars a close 
resemblance to the story of the deluge in Genesis, and 
probably being the original form of the latter. Inscrip¬ 
tions descriptive of the creation are also extant. The 
literature of this land continued essentially Sumerian, 
the Semites being more inclined to war than to works 
of thought. Assyria possessed little native literature, 
It was not until the late reign of Assur-bani-pal that 
any attempt of importance at literary composition was 
made, and this was largely devoted to the study ot the 
old works. Works were written by Assyrian scholars 
in the dead language of Akkad, much as some of our 
scholars still write works in Latin. Syllabaries, gram¬ 
mars, dictionaries and reading books of Assyrian and 



Fig. 2689.— BABYLONIAN WARRIORS—FROM AN ANCIENT BAS-RELIEF. 


















BACT 


[SECTION II.] 


BACT 


489 


Akkadian were drawn up, the purpose apparently 1 
being to provide students with the means of reading 
the classic literature of the land. We cannot go more 
fully into the story of the multitudinous inscriptions 
and works of literature which have been exhumed 
from the dead cities of the Mesopotamian plain, and it 
must suffice to say that they have brought back to the 
light of day the history and character of a great and 
long continued civilization of the far past, of whose 
chaiacter, a century ago, almost nothing was known 
and scarcely a suspicion of its former existence enter¬ 
tained. 

Baca, Lns, a Mexican operatic composer, born in 
1826; wrote Leo nor, (Jiocanna di Castbjlia, Ate Alaria, A c. 
Died in 1855. 

Baehe. Hartmann, born in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1797; 
son of journalist Benjamin Franklin B. [1799-1799], 
ami graudson of Richard B. An engineer, continu¬ 
ously employed by the War Dept, for 47 years, 1820-67; 
brevetted brigadier-general, 1865; constructed the 
Delaware breakwater and was first to use iron-screw 
piles in the foundations of lighthouses. Died in 1872. 

Baeh'mann, Gottlob Ludwig Ernst, born at Leip¬ 
zig, Germany, iu 1792. A noted professor of classical 
philology at the University of Rostock, 1833-65. Wrote 
Lycophronis Alexandria, Scholia cetusta in Lycophronis 
Alexandram, Ac. Died in 1881. 

Baeil'li, n. pi. (sing, bacillus.) [From Lat. bacillus, a 
little rod.] (Biol.) Rod-shaped microbes, a genus of 
the Bacteria, having various microscopic shapes, and 
found practically everywhere. They are thought to be 
the cause of very many diseases, and specific forms 
have been identified with splenic fever, diphtheria, 
consumption, typhoid fever, erysipelas, cholera, Ac. 
See Bacteriology, Germ Theory of Disease, Ac. 

Bacon. Delia, born at Tallmadge, 0., in 1811; a sister 
of Leonard Bacon Wrote The Philosophy of the Plays 
of Shakespeare Unfolded (1857) iu which she originated 
the theory of the Baconian authorship of Shakespeare's , 
plays; Tales of the Puritan, Ac. Died in 1859. 

Bacon. Leonard, born at Detroit, Mich., in 1802. A 
Congregational clergyman, for 57 years (1825-82) pas¬ 
tor of First Church in New Haven, Conn. A copious 
contributor to The Christian Spectator and The Xeic Png- 
lander; one of the founders of the N. Y. Independent, 
and a prolific writer of pamphlets and reviews. Died 
in 1881. 

Bacon, Leonard Woolsey, born at New Haven, Conn., 
in 1830; son of Leonard Bacon. Served as pastor of 
Congregational or Presbyterian churches iu New York, 
Connecticut, Maryland and Pennsylvania: a prolific 
writer for the periodicals, and the author of numerous 
pamphlets, musical compositions and translations. 

Bacter'ia, n. pi. See Bacterium, in Section I, and. 
Bacteriology. 

Bacteriol'og’y. »• (Biol.) Nowhere, during the last 
quarter century, have such startling and far-reaching 
discoveries been made as in the domain of the smallest 
of living organisms, the bacteria—the “germs,"’ “ micro¬ 
organisms” or “microbes” of common parlance. The 
study of these lowly but ubiquitous plants lias devel¬ 
oped, under the leadership of Louis Pasteur, Ferdinand 
Cbhu, and an army of investigators of lesser note, into 
one of the most important departments of modern bio¬ 
logical science—bacteriology. The lower cryptogamic 
or llowerless plants, owing to the alienee of any well- 
defined root, stem or leaves, are termed thallophytes; 
the entire vegetative system consisting of an undif¬ 
ferentiated plant-body, the thallus. The thallophytes 
consist of three more or less closely related groups— 
the Algse, the Fungi, and the Protophyta; the latter 
group including all the lowest forms of vegetable life, 
whether containing chlorophyll or not. The bacteria, 
while classified by some among the protophytes, are by 
others regarded as fungi. In short, their exact position 
is still unsettled. Owing to this fact, the term Bacteria 
is preferable to the term Schizomycetes or Fission-fungi, 
which indicates a closer relationship to the fungi than 



Fig. 2691. 

A. —Bacillus tuberculosis, the bacillus of consumption. 
B.—Spirillum obermeicri, the spirillum 
of recurrent fever. 


really exists, since certain bacteria contain chlorophyll, 
and even those destitute of chlorophyll show very close 
affinity with certain algte. The word bacteria (Gr. bak- 
terion, a little stick or rod) is therefore used to desig¬ 
nate collectively all those primitive vegetal organisms 
which constitute the lower extreme of organic existence; 
the invisible agents by whose means the inorganic 
materials of the earth and air are made available to 
higher forms of life, and by which the elements of the 
most highly organized plants and animals are in turn 
dissociated and restored to the soil. In the bacteria we 
see vital activity reduced to the simplest and lowest 
terms, and beyond them life does not exist. It is diffi¬ 
cult to gain any conception of the extreme minuteness 


of bacteria, and their measurements, stated in microns' 
(the one-thousaudth part of a millimeter, or the 1 
twenty-five thousandth of an inch), convey little or no 
idea of their almost infinitely small structure. Of bac¬ 
teria of the average size, a population over five times 
greater than that of the United States could find ample 
room in a single layer covering an area of one square 
inch. Under the best modern objectives the most 
minute bacteria appear as mere dots, although magni¬ 
fied to a degree which if applied to man would cause 
him to appear to rival in height the highest moun¬ 
tains.—Arthur and Bolle.v have calculated for the Bac¬ 
terium dianthi —the cause of baeteriosis of carnations— 
that one individual may become two within a half 
hour, and these two increase to four in the second half 
hour, and so oil At this rate there would be sixteen j 
at the end of two hours, sixty-four at the end of three 
hours, two hundred and fifty-six at the end of four 
hours, over sixteen millions at the end of twelve hours, j 
and over two hundred and eighty billions at the end 
of one day. Although the individuals in this case are I 
very minute, requiring over fifteen hundred of them 
placed side by side to extend the sixteenth of inch, yet 
the direct product of the multiplication of a single 
germ for one day would occupy a cubic inch of space. 
The minute character of bacteria renders it difficult to 
acquire exact knowledge of the intimate construction j 
of the cells, but by means of basic coloring matters, 
such as the brilliant aniline dyes, it is possible to stain 
the bacteria strongly while leaving the surrounding 
matter colorless. It is thus possible to render them suffi-1 
cieutly opaque and well defined in outline to allow of I 
the use of photography in their delineation. Owing to 
the varying density of the different parts of the cell, 
and the selective action of dyes, it is possible to differ¬ 
entiate the bacteria cell proper from its surrounding 
envelope, its flagella, and the minute spores produced 



A 



B 



Fig. 2692. 


A.—Spirillum cholerce-asiatictx, the bacillus of cholera. 
B.—Streptococcus erysipelatis. the bacillus of ery¬ 
sipelas. C.—Bacillus typhosus, the bacte¬ 
rium of typhoid fever. D. — Micro¬ 
coccus pyogenes, a common 
spheroidal bacterium. 


within certain species. Thus it is ascertained that bac¬ 
teria agree in their chief characteristics with the larger 
cells of other organisms. It is owing to the fact that 
most species of bacteria are destitute of chlorophyll 
and analogous coloring matters that the name of 
fungi has been given them, but Yan Tiegham and 
Engleman have found several species colored green 
throughout by chlorophyll. (Bacterium viride. Bacillus 
nrens, and Bacterium chlorinum. See Bulletin Soc. bot. tie 
FVance, 27 (I860) p. 174, and Bot. Ztg. 1 1882) p. 323). There 
are certain other species, termed chromogenic, in 
which the protoplasm or the limiting membrane of the 
cell is intensely tinged with red, blue, yellow or other 
tint, aDd when these forms occur in sufficient numbers, 
they produce gelatinous accumulations of characteristic 
color, or impart their color to the fluids in which they 
abound. The appearance of growths of the red Bacillus 
prodigiosus upon substances containing starch has given 
rise to the legends of showers of blood, while the cause 
of the development of a blue color in milk is to be 
sought for in Bacillus cyanogenus. Certain species ex¬ 
hibit within the cell distinct little granules (micro¬ 
tomato) the nature of which is not well understood, 
while species of the genus Beggiatoa, found in sulphur 
springs, contain highly refringent granules of sulphur, 
arising from the decomposition of the sulphates by the ( 
plants. Other species found in water, or on fish or) 
other aquatic animals, exhibit a striking luminosity i 
or phosphorescence, which in the case of the Bacillus 
phosphorescence indicus was sufficiently intense to enable 
the discoverer, Fischer, to make photographs not only of 
the growth itself, but of a watch-dial placed between two 
cultures.—Bacteria seem to be omnipresent; they have 
been found in the ice of Norwegian glaciers and the 
waters of hot springs, in the highest strata of the 
atmosphere reached by aeronauts, and in the water and 
mud of the most profound depths of the oceanic abyss. 
The bacteria of fluids are found under the microscope 


in many instances to possess the power of independent 
motion, which in some cases is accomplished by means 
of locomotor organs or flagella (the bacillus of typhoid 
fever). In other cases the motion is a gliding one 
analogous to that of diatoms; in others it is the twist¬ 
ing of the cork-screw like cell, or the undulating of a 
slender filament. When cultivated in previously steril¬ 
ized media—bouillon, potato, nutrient gelatin or other 
suitable material—pure cultures may be obtained by 
repeated dilutions brought about by the transfer of 
minute portions of successive cultures, each time to 
fresh uncontaminated media. Having thus isolated a 
given form, its life history and peculiarities may be 
studied. Such studies go to show that any classification 



Fig. 2693. 

A.— Diplococcus, spheroidal bacteria in pairs. B.—Bacillus 
diphtherioe, the bacterium of diphtheria. 


based upon morphological characters alone is mislead¬ 
ing, inasmuch as we frequently find pleioniorphism or 
valuations in shape among individuals of the same 
species, or in the same individual at different stages 
of growth, or under varying conditions; while species 
of similar form and size may vary greatly in physiolo¬ 
gical characters. The identification ot species is there¬ 
fore based largely upon biological characters, such as 
peculiarities of behavior in given culture media, the 
production or absence of color, ability to develop when 
deprived of free oxygen, or dependence upon the pres¬ 
ence of that gas in a free state. The power of giving 
rise to the phenomena of fermentation and putrefac¬ 
tion when added to organic matter, or of producing 
given pathological symptoms when introduced into 
healthy organisms, furnishes additional and conclnsive 
evidence of the nature of the forms under considera¬ 
tion. As the result of metabolism in bacteria, we may 
have foul smelling gases given off by the cultures, or, 
as in the case of the bacillus of Asiatic cholera, the 
exhalation may have an agreeable aromatic odor. 
Certain bacteria have the power of peptonizing the 
albuminoid substances in which they are growing, 
gelatin cultures being liquefied by many forms. When 
introduced into the healthy organism, certain bacteria 
give rise to products which act as violent poisons, and 
the morbid processes which invariably follow inocu¬ 
lation with a given species determine its pathogenic 



A B 



C D 


Fig. 2694. 

A .—Bacilli with cilia. B. — Diplococci, surrounded by cap¬ 
sules. C .—Spheroidal bacteria grouped iu cuboidal 
form. D.—Bacilli tetanei (with spores), 
the bacterium of tetanus. 

nature. These poisons, or toxins, as they are termed, 
may be procured by the culture of bacteria in artificial 
media, and it is found in certain cases that when they 
are injected in small quantities into animals, these 
acquire a certain degree of immunity from infection 
by the corresponding bacterium.—In organic matters, 
changes are brought about by the metabolism of bac¬ 
teria which are in certain cases desirable. Thus Hansen 
and Conn have isolated forms which, used for “ripening” 
cream, insure in the butter made from it a pleasant nutty 
flavor; on the other hand highly poisonous alkaloids, 
termed ptomains, may arise from bacterial contamina¬ 
tion of milk or meat, resulting in the not infrequent 
cases of milk or sausage poisoning. Recent investiga¬ 
tion goes to show that the power of many plants to fix 
the nitrogen of the air depends upon the presence in 
the soil or in their roots of nitrifying bacteria. The 
















490 


BAIL 


[SECTION II.] 


BALL 


study of bacteria as noxious and beneficial agents prom¬ 
ises to be of untold value to man in the control of 
nature and natural resources, aud, more than any other 
department of research, promises to furnish him with 
the means of preventing and combatting disease, not 
only in man and the useful animals, but in our com¬ 
mon cultivated plants. See Toxin, Anti-toxin, Germ 
Theory of Disease, aud Nitrification. 

Badeail (bd-do'), Adam, born in New York in 1831; ap- 
tain and brevet brigadier-general U. S. army; served in 
Louisiana on the staff of Brig.-gen. Thos. W. Sherman, 
1862-63; military secretary to Gen. Grant during the 
Wilderness and Appomattox campaigns; consul-general 
at London 1870-81, and at llavana, 1882-84. Wrote 
Conspiracy: A Cuban Romance, 1885 ; Aristocracy in Eng¬ 
land, 1886; Grant in Peace, 1886. D. in 1895. 

Ba'den-Pow'ell, Sir George Smyth, born at Ox¬ 
ford, Eng., in 1847. A politician and publicist. Mem¬ 
ber of tiie Commission on British West India Colonies, 
1882, and of that on the new Malta constitution, 1887; 
visited Canada and the United States, 1886-87, to 
investigate the Fishery dispute; British Commissioner 
in the Bering Sea inquiry, 1891; British member of 
the Joint Commission in Washington, 1892. An indus¬ 
trious author and frequent contributor to the British 
press. Died Nov. 20, 1898. 

Badg' er, George Edmund, born at Newbern, N. C., in 
1795; judge of one of the Superior courts of N. C.; Sec¬ 
retary of the Navy, 1841; U. S. Senator, 1846-55; an 
able defender of the Union at the Secession Convention, 
1861. Died in 1866. 

Badg'er, Oscar C., born at Windham, Conn., in 1823. 
Midshipman, 1841; lieutenant, 1855 (commanding the 
party that destroyed Vutia, Fiji Islands); in command 
of the Anascotia of the Potomac flotilla, 1861-62; en¬ 
gaged in the siege of Yorktown, Virginia, and defences 
at Gloucester Point; lieutenant-commander, 1862; in 
command of the iron-clads Patapsco aud Montanlc, in 
Charleston harbor, 1863; acting fleet captain on the 
flagship Weehawktn, and there severely wounded. Sept., 
1863; Commander, 1866; received vote of thanks from 
the legislative assemblies of Antigua and St. Kitts for 
services rendered at the time of th 3 grant fire, 1867; 
captain, 1872; commodore, 1881; retired, 1885. 

Badinguet, alias Badot, a mason employed on the 
repairs of the Ham fortress at the time of Louis Bona¬ 
parte’s incarceration therein, 1846, and in whose dis¬ 
guise the future emperor made his escape. Hence the 
nicknames, Badinguet, la Badinque, &c., applied to the 
late Napoleon III, by his unwilling subjects. Died 
in 1883. 

Bad Bands. An extensive region in South Dakota, 
extending into Nebraska, and so called from the 
French Mauvaises Teires, given them from the diffi¬ 
culty which they presented to travelers. This region 
is composed of hills of sedimentary materials, supposed 
to have been old, silted-up lake beds, which were sub¬ 
sequently uplifted and have been cut by rains and 
streams into innumerable ravines. The worn and 
fissured hills present a remarkable appearance upon 
approach, they being often cut into forms resembling 
those of architecture, so that a distance one seems to 
gaze on the temples, fortresses and palaces of a great 
city in ruins. During the wars of the Sioux Indians 
with the U. S., the Bad Lands served them as a useful 
natural fortress. More recently they have proved ot 
great service to science, through the researches of Pro¬ 
fessors Cope, Marsh and others, who have found therein 
a great number and variety of the fossilized forms of 
animals whose remains had become buried in the sedi¬ 
ment of the old lakes. The term B. L. is applied to 
other similar formations in the arid regions of the 
West. These have arisen from the same cause and 
are often equally rich in fossils, access to which is 
greatly favored by the ravines which cut through the 
mass in every direction. 

Ba'ez, Buenaventura, a mulatto, born at Azua, Hayti, 
in 1820; worked hard for the independence of the Re¬ 
public of San Domingo; was four times elected its 
president and twice expelled from the country. It 
was with B. that President Grant negotiated for a per¬ 
petual lease of the Bay of Samana (to be used as a U. 
S. Naval Station), and subsequently for the sale of St. 
Domingo to the U. S. government, both of which schemes 
were rejected by the U. S. Senate. Died in 1884. 

Bae'yer, Adolf, born at Berlin, Germany, in 1835, son 
of Johann Jakob B. [1794-1885] the late president of 
the Geodetic Institute of Berlin. A distinguished pro¬ 
fessor of chemistry at Strasburg, 1872, and at Munich, 
1875. Discovered cerulein, cosin and indol. A frequent 
contributor to the publications of the German Chemical 
Society, and to Liebig’s Annals of Chemistry; elected 
corresponding member of the Institute of France, 1896. 

Bae'deker, Karl, a German publisher, born in 1801, 
who settled in Coblenz in 1827, and there brought out 
the Rhemfiihrer, the first of the many Reisehandbiicher 
that have, since then, made his name familiar to the 
touring world. Died in 1859. 

Bai'kie, William Balfour, born at Kirkwall, Orkney, 
in 1825, a surgeon of the British navy who ascended the 
river Niger in Africa (1854), 250 miles farther than any 
preceding explorer, and commanded another expedition 
to the same river in 1857. Wrote a Narrative of this 
last voyage. Died in 1864. 

Bai'ley, Joseph, born at Salem, 0., in 1827. Military 
engineer; in early life a farmer in Wisconsin ; received 
the thanks of Congress and the brevet rank of brigadier- 
general for conceiving, and constructing in twelve days, j 
the dam which saved Admiral Porter’s fleet in the Red 
river expedition, 1864; promoted brigadier-general of 
volunteers, November, 1864; was assassinated three 1 


years later in the discharge of his duty as Sheriff of 
Newton co., Mo. 

Bai'ley, Gamaliel, born at Mt. Holly, N. J., in 1807. 
A journalist and abolitionist. Published (1836-44) the 
Cincinnati Philanthropist, and (1847-59) the Washington 
National Era, in which Uncle Tom's Cabin first appeared. 
Died in 1859. 

Bai'Iy’s Beads, the name given to a phenomenon 
which is observed at the beginning and end of a solar 
eclipse. When the moon is passing on or ofT the disk 
of the sun the irregular, mountainous edge of the 
moon breaks up the thin ends of the crescent of the sun 
into separate spots of light, which look something like 
a row of beads. It obtained its name by being first 
observed by the astronomer Baily. The spots are 
really irregular in shape, but seem round to the eye. 

Baird, Absalom, born at Washington, Pa., in 1824. 
Graduated at West Point, 1849; brigadier-general of 
volunteers, 1862; commanded a division at Chat¬ 
tanooga aud in the Atlanta campaign; brevet major- 
general, 1865; inspector-general at various Dept, and 
Division Headquarters until his retirement in 1888. 

Bnird, Henry Martyn, born at Philadelphia, Pa., in 
1832; son of theologian Robert B. [1798-1863]; pro¬ 
fessor of Greek at Princeton College, 1859, and later in 
the University of the city of New York. Wrote 
Modern Greece, 1856; History of the Rise of the Hugue¬ 
nots of France, 1879; The Huguenots and Henry of Navai-re, 
1883; The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of 
N mtes, 1895. 

Baird, Spencer Fullerton, LL.D., a very eminent 
American scientist, born in 1823, at Reading, Penna. 
After holding the professorship of Natural Science at 
Dickinson College for some years, lie became, in 1855, 
Assistant Secretary at the Smithsonian Institute, Wash¬ 
ington. As a contributor to natural history, Dr. B.'s 
services were important and numerous. Besides pub¬ 
lishing, in conjunction with the late distinguished 
naturalist, John Cassin, a valuable work on The Bird 
of North America and The Animals of North America, he 
edited the Phonographic Encyclopedia, as well as fur¬ 
nished able reports on the natural history collections 
made by Capts. Stausbnrv and Marcy, and Lieut. Gil¬ 
lies during the U. S. and Mexico Boundary and Pacific 
Railroad surveys. He also published in various scien¬ 
tific periodicals numerous papers upon the mammals, 
birds and fishes of North America. He was elected 
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, at Washing¬ 
ton, on May 17,1878, succeeding Prof. Joseph Henry. 
As a member of the U. S. Fish Commission, his labors 
were invaluable. Died Aug. 19, 1887. 

Ba'ker, Edward D., born in England, in 1811; was U. 
S. Senator from Oregon, 1860; commanded “Baker’s 
California Regiment” at the beginning of the Civil 
War, and was killed at Ball’s Bluff, October 21, 1861. 
See Ball’s Bluff in Section I. 

Ba'ker, William Mumforp (pen-name George F. Har¬ 
rington), a Presbyterian clergyman and novelist, born 
in Washington, D. C., in 1825. While pastor in Gal¬ 
veston, 1850-65, he wrote, in secret, Inside: a Chronicle of 
Secession, and subsequently published The Neio Timothy 
(1870), His Majesty Myself (1879), Blessed Saint Certainly 
(1881), The Ten Theophanies. 1883, etc. Pastor in South 
Boston (1874-83). Died in 1883. 

Ba'kerslield, in California, a town, cap. of Kern co. 
It has a considerable general trade and is surrounded by 
a fruit growing district. Pop. 1890, 2,626. 

Ba'king' Powders, substances used for bread 
making in place of yeast, and, like the latter, giving off' 
carbon dioxide or carbonic acid gas, whose effect is to 
expand or puff up the mass of dough. B. P. are usually 
composed of tartaric acid and bicarbonate of 6 oda. By 
the action upon these of the water and the dough a 
chemical change takes place, the result being tartrate 
of soda and carbon dioxide. The tartaric acid is often 
replaced by cream of tartar, or acid potassium tartrate, 
the reaction in this case yielding carbon dioxide and 
rocbelle salts. Bicarbonate of ammonia is occasionally 
used instead of that of soda, while other substances are 
at times employed to replace the more expensive tar¬ 
taric acid. Alum is one of the most common of these, 
though much objection to its use has been made, it and 
its products being considered as possibly injurious to 
health. Most baking powders contain acid phosphate 
of calcium, which causes the formation of some com¬ 
pounds in addition to those named, though none of a 
harmful nature. Baking powders have in great measure 
replaced yeast in household bread-making, and their use 
has grown to enormous proportions. 

Ba'kou, — Continued from Sec. I. 

The growth of the Russian oil metropolis of Bakou has 
been phenomenal. Thirty years ago it was a sleepy 
town of some 1,400 inhabitants, its principal reason for 
existence.being its possession of the ancient temple of 
Zoroaster, which for many centuries had made it a 
sacred resort for pilgrimages ot the fire-worshipers of 
Asia. It is now' a flourishing city of over 100,000 
inhabitants, and is rapidly increasing. This growth 
has two causes. The first is the magnificent harbor 
which it presents on the Caspian. The second and 
principal is the fact of its being the commercial centre 
of the great petroleum industry of Southern Russia. 
The existence of naphtha deposits in this region has 
long been know n, and attempts were made to establish 
refineries here as early as 1823, but the first success was 
attained in 1859, and the first in B. was built in 1865. 
Since then the industry has had a phenomenal develop¬ 
ment and the town has prospered in accordance there¬ 
with. The great petroleum wells are about 8 miles 
northeast of B., and although there are many other 
important oil fields in Russia, B. almost monopolizes 


the industry. Formerly, it was so enveloped in dense 
clouds of black smoke that it became kuow'n as the 
“ black city.” This has been overcome by the process of 
burning the smoke and the removal of the refineries 
beyond the city limits; but the soil is so saturated with 
oil that danger of fire from gaseous emanations is con¬ 
stant, and many serious conflagrations have occurred. 
As a result, B. is not a desirable place of residence, and 
is largely given over to a commercial population. The 
crude naphtha is carried from the reservoirs at the 
wells (the largest of which can hold 600,000 poods— 
216,000 pounds) in pipes to the city, whose workshops 
and refineries extend far along the shores of the Cas¬ 
pian. The latest statement gives the annual yield of 
the wells at about 40,000,000 barrels, which is not 
greatly less than that of the American wells. The oil 
from B. is transported 400 miles by rail to Batoum, on 
the Black Sea, where is constantly a large fleet of ves¬ 
sels to convey it to its various markets. 

Bakti'nin, Mikhail, born at Torshok, Russia, in 1814; 
the reputed founder of Nihilism. Exiled to Siberia, 
1851, he escaped to Japan and thence to England, where 
he founded the Alliance of the Social Democracy, 1869, 
immediately absorbed by the International Workmen’s 
Association. Died in 1876. 

Balance Wheel. (Horol .) The wheel which controls 
the movement of a watch. Connected with it is an escape¬ 
ment aud a balance spring, whoso action is to convert 
its rotary into a vibratory motion. The balance spring 
consists of a coil of very fine steel wire, so delicate that 
4,000 of these springs weigh little more than an ounce. 
One end of this spring is attached to the B. W. near its 
axis, the other to an independent point. When an im¬ 
pulse is given the B. IF. by the escapement apparatus, 
it swings round just so far as the elastic resistance of 
the spring will permit, aud is then brought back to re¬ 
ceive another impulse. The result is a very delicate and 
exact controlling influence over the rate of movement 
of the watch. The existing danger of magnetization 
, rom electric dynamos and motors has made it necessary 
to construct the B. IF and springs of watches out of 
non-uiaguetic metal. Alloys of palladium have recently 
been used for this purpose, which it is claimed also over¬ 
comes the disturbing effects of change of temperature. 

Balcli, George B., an American naval officer, born in 
1821, whose exploits in the Mexican War and through¬ 
out the Civil War fill a brilliant page in the annals of 
our navy. A midshipman, 1837 ; lieutenant, 1850; com¬ 
mander, 1862; captain, 1866; commodore, 1872; admiral, 
1872; rear-admiral, 1878; superintendent of Naval Aca¬ 
demy, 1879-81; commanding 1’acific Station until re¬ 
tirement, 1881. 

Bal'four, Rt. Hon. Arthur J., born in 1848, a prom¬ 
inent leader of the British Conservative party, nephew 
ol the Marquis of Salisbury. Secretary (or Scotland. 
1886-87 ; Chief Secretary (or Ireland, 1887-91; First Lord 
of the Treasury, 1891-92 and 1895-1902; and succeeded 
Lord Salisbury as Prime Minister in July 1902. Wrote 
.4 Defense of Philosophic Doubt, 1S79 ; Essays and Addresses, 
1893; and The Foundations of Belief, 1S95. 

Ball, Sir Robt. Stawell, an Irish astronomer, born in 
1840, formerly Royal Astronomer of Ireland; appointed 
Lowndeau Prof, of Astronomy at Cambridge, Eng., 
1892. Wrote Slarland; The Story of the Sun; In the 
High Heavens, 1893; Great Astronomers, 1895. 

Ball, Thos., born at Charlestown, Mass., in 1819, the 
noted sculptor of the group Eniancijxition (Washington, 
D. C.), and of the statues of Webster (Central Park, N. 
Y.), Washington, Sumnei, Fonest, and almost all the 
public men of this country. 

Ball Bearing. An axle-bearing in which the shaft 
rests at its point of support, not on a cylindrical sur¬ 
face, but on a number of small halls which turn freely 



Fig. 2695.— hub with double radial and double end 
thrust ball bearing. 


as the shaft revolves, and have an important effect in 
the reduction of friction. Since the introduction of the 
bicycle this bearing has come into extended use, its 
advantage being the lessening of resistance and the 
avoidance of the employment of lubricants with their 
lack of cleanliness and collection of dust and grit. Even 
the cheapest bicycles now have these bearings. Experi¬ 
ence has shown that a properly constructed B. B. is 
practically proof against wear, and their use is now' ex¬ 
tending to wagon wheels and machinery shafts, various 
































BALL 


[SECTION II.] 


BANK 


491 


method® for their application having been devised, i 
Figure 2695 represents one of the new bearings for a 
carriage hub, which may be thus described:—A hardened 
steel sleeve is thrust upon and tightly fits the shaft. 
Over this goes a cage—shown in the figure on the left 
baud side of the axle. This cage—made of brass—con¬ 
tains the balls, the brass not touching the sleeve outside 
the cage. Resting upon the exterior surface of the 
balls is a second sleeve termed the “ facing.” The cage, 
with its»balls and facing, is fastened in the hub of the 
wheel by washers. When it is thus constructed, the I 
cage touches nothing but the balls, simply holding them 
in place, while the outer aud inner sleeves rest upon the 
outside and inside of the balls respectively. A wheel 
thus mouuted turns almost without friction aud with 
no evident wear of the balls. These have some lateral 
play in the cage, so that they cau move backward and 
forward, and thus avoid the wea> ing of grooves in the 
shaft. 

Ball No7.'itle. ( Hydraulics .) The name of a neWly- 
invented nozzle for fire hose, sprinkling hose, &c.,which 
first attracted general attention in 1895, from the re¬ 
markable physical principle it displays and from its 
useful properties. The hose ends in a cup-sliaped noz¬ 
zle, within which is placed a ball in size to nearly fill 
the cavity. This ball rests free in the cup, its only sup¬ 
port being a guard to prevent its falling out by the effect 
of gravity when not in use, but which does not touch 



Fig. 2696.— ball nozzle for fire hose. 


the ball when in action. The result, when water is 
driven through the hose, is extraordinary. Instead of 
the loose ball being driven out against the ring by the 
pressure of the water, it settles back into the cavity as 
if attracted, the effect being to break up the single 
stream of water into a circular sheet of spray, which 
spreads completely over the area described by the 
circle. The hose is thus converted into a sprinkling 
machine of very efficient action. The B. N. has been 
applied to various purposes, in which a wide distribu¬ 
tion of water is of advantage, and seems likely to prove 
of great value as applied to fire hose, for which it has 
been adopted by the fire departments of various cities. 
Its particular advantage in this direction is the broad 
apread of the sheet of water which, instead of rushing 
out in a single cylindrical mass, is made to spread over 
an area of many square feet and thus to attack a large 
space of conflagration at once. Further, the broad, 
circular sheet of water acts as a screen to protect the 
firemen from the heat. In addition to its utility in a 
burning building, it promises to be very useful in the 
protection of adjoining structures, since, at a proper 
distance, the whole wall of a building may be kept wet 
by a single stream of water. The principle involved in 
this discovery has excited much attention, and various 
theories have been offered in explanation. No amount 


Fig. 2697.) It is interesting also to find that by blow-] 
ing through a small tube equipped with a ball nozzle, 
the ball is retained in the cavity, although in this 
instance it is surrounded by air only. Yet it is possible 
that this stream blown from the lungs may not exert 
atmospheric pressure, and there is no known physical 
force other than the pressure of the atmosphere to 
which we cau as yet ascribe the observed effects, 
lallis'tic I’en'dilium, an instrument employed 
for the purpose of estimating the velocity of projectiles. 
As most simply constructed, a large block of wood is 
suspended as the bob of a pendulum at that poiut in the 
path of the projectile at which it is desired to measure 
its speed. The shot lodges in the wood and sets it 
swinging, and the velocity is calculated from the width 
of swing in connection with its centres of suspension 
and oscillation. In some cases the gun is made to act 
as a B. I'., it being suspended like a pendulum, and its 
degree of recoil measured. Electrical devices have now 
superseded this method of estimation, 
lal'lot Reform'. Among the various measures of 
reform of recent years, that in methods of voting has 
not been overlooked, and various changes have been 
adopted with the purpose of securing the secrecy of the 
ballot and for the prevention of fraud at the polls or in 
the count. Under the old system of voting in the U. S., 
the voter found it very difficult to keep his vote secret, 
while the opportunities for the purchase of votes, 
“stuffing the ballot box,” or depositing illegal votes, 
aud other fraudulent operations were so easy that it was 
almost impossible to ^prevent dishonesty at the polls. 
To guard against “repeating,” or voting by parties 
without legal right to the ballot cast, the system of a 
previous registration has been adopted in many States, 
no person being permitted to vote whose name does not 
appear on the registration list and who cannot prove 
his claim to the name if challenged .—Australian ballot. 
As regards secrecy at the polls, an efficient system has 
been adopted in Australia, and within recent years’ in¬ 
troduced into Great Britain and nearly all the States of 
this country, which goes far to do away with the im¬ 
perfections of the old system. By no means all of our 
States, however, have adopted the system it its original 
form, many of them making some modification in it, 
and in every such case detracting from its degree of 
security. In the original Australian system the names 
of the candidates for each office are printed in alpha¬ 
betical order on the ballot, with some mark or word to 
distinguish their party or to give some necessary infor¬ 
mation concerning them. The voter, being given a 
blank ballot, enters a screened-off booth in the voting 
room, so that he may prepare his ballot unobserved. 
He does this by making a mark beside the names of 
the persons he desires to vote for, after which he folds 
the ballot, aud, leaving the booth, places it in the hands 
of the officer whose duty it is to deposit it in the liox. 
This is the method in use in Massachusetts, and perhaps 
in a majority of the States, a small blank space being 
left opposite each name in wdiicli the voter may make 
or stamp a cross. All the names for all the offices are 
grouped together upon one large “ blanket ballot.” In 
a number of other States each party is given its separate 
column on the blanket ballot, with the party title at the 
head and the names of all the candidates of that party 
given below. For those who wish to vote the whole 
party ticket a space is reserved at the top, in which a 



Fig. 2697.— experiment with ball nozzle (under water) 


•f force applied to the ball has succeeded in driving it 
from the cavity of the nozzle, though as much as 100 
lbs. pressure to the square inch has been employed. On 
the contrary, the heavier the water pressure, the more 
firmly the ball settles back into the socket, the sheet of 
water being more forcibly ejected and more widely 
spread. It is generally held that atmospheric pressure 
on the outer surface of the ball, together with an air 
vacuum produced behind the ball by the outpouring 
stream of water, is the agent at work. Experiments 
have been made to test this theory, the ball being bored 
and a stream of air driven into the stream of water, 
the effect being simply an outgushing stream of bub¬ 
bles and the retention of the ball in its cup. (See 


single cross serves to vote for all the candidates,or they 
can be indicated separately if desired. Where there 
are many parties such a ballot often becomes of un¬ 
wieldy size. In still other States other methods are in 
use. One of the chief difficulties yet met with in this 
system of voting is in regard to the illiterate voter, or 
one who from physical disability cannot prepare his 
ballot. Provision is made that some official may accom¬ 
pany him into the booth to aid him in preparing his 
ballot, and this has been in many cases used to avoid 
the injunction to secrecy, voters falsely claiming that 
they need aid in preparing their 1 ’allots .—Ballot machines. 
As a still further assurance of security against fraud a 
number of voting machines have been invented, and i 


such machines have been adopted in some States. In 
voting with these machines the voter, alone in the 
booth, has simply to touch a knob for each candidate 
for whom he desires to vote, the particular knob con¬ 
nected with each candidate’s name being in some plain 
manner indicated. The machine is so constructed and 
arranged that it will not record two votes for any one 
candidate or votes for two candidates for the same office, 
the pressing of the knob locking those of all competing 
candidates. The voter may vote a straight or a split 
ticket as he wishes, but in no way can he duplicate his 
vote; and when he has voted for the full number of 
candidates the machine is completely locked. As be 
leaves the booth, the closing of the door unlocks the 
machine in readiness for the next voter. One special 
advantage of these machines is that they count the 
votes. When the election officials eventually unlock 
the machine they find the vote for each candidate 
recorded upon the dial opposite his name, so that within 
a few minutes after the polls close the result is known. 
As for ballot-box stuffing and false counting, these evils 
are quite done away with, the machine telling the un¬ 
questionable truth as to the vote given. Machines of 
this character have been used in New York ana 
some other stales, but have as yet not given full 
satisfaction. Other measures to prevent corruption 
or fraud in connection with elections have been 
devised, and the time seems near at hand when ballot 
reform will be a thing accomplished, and the given 
results of an election will truthfully represent the 
preferences of the voters concerned. 

Ballon, Maturin Murray, born at Boston, Mass., in 
1820; a great-grandnephew of Hosea B. A journalist, 
in turns proprietor of Ballou's Monthly , editor of the 
Boston Daily Globe and other journals. Wrote Due Best, 
Due South, The New Eldorado, and Due North : or Glimpses 
of Scandinavia and Bussia, 1887. 

Balmaee'da, Jos£ Manuel, born in 1840; a Chilean 
statesman, and President 1886-01. After instituting 
numerous reforms, he shot himself, in a fit of despera¬ 
tion over his ill-success in a war brought about between 
himself and Congress through dissensions in his own 
parly, in 1891. 

Balrnes ( bahl'mee ), Jamel Lucio, an eminent Spanish 
theologian aud publicist, b. in Catalonia, 1810. lie early 
evinced an extraordinary scholastic aptitude, aud after 
graduating at the University of Cervera, and being 
ordained as priest, entered upon professional duties at 
Cervera, and, in 1840, became known as a writer of 
mark by the publication of his Political Considerations 
on the Situation of Spain. Eight years later, he attracted 
a European fame by his masterly reply to M. Guizot, 
entitled Protestantism Compared with Catholicism in its 
Relations to European Civilization, in which he asserted 
that the chief hope and guarantee for the future of the 
world lay in the unity between Catholicity and the 
great principle of political liberty and modern civiliza¬ 
tion. His later work, Fundamental Philosophy, was trans¬ 
lated into English, and published in New York, in 1857, 
in 2 vol8. Died in 1848. 

Balu'clii, (also Beloo'chee, Bilu'chi), the language 
spoken in Baluchistan. It is a branch of the Iranian 
division of Aryan speech, and bears a close resemblance 
to modern Persian. There are two, strongly separated, 
dialects. Baluchi has very little written literature, but 
there is a ricli store of popular songs and stories, collec¬ 
tions of which have been recently made. 

Bancroft, Hubert Howe, born at Granville, 0., in 
1832. Author of a History of the Pacific States of North 
America, compiled from some 60,000 cognate works 
which he began to gather as early as 1852; this 34th 
volume appeared in 1890. 

Banjoemas ( bdn-jo-mahs’), a flourishing commercial 
town of the island of Java, cap. of a prov. of same name, 
in S. Lat. 70° 33', E. Lon. 109° 20'. It is occupied by a 
garrison, and is the residence of a Dutch governor. 

Banks, National. The National Bank system of 
the United States was largely an outgrowth of the 
Civil War, and had its origin in February, 1863, during 
the incumbency of Hon. Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of 
the Treasury under President Lincoln. The National 
Bank act, as finally perfected, was passed and became a 
law on June 3,1864, and, with various amendments and 
modifications, still remains in force. This act provided 
for the establishment in the Treasury Department of a 
separate bureau, which shall be charged with the execu¬ 
tion of all laws which may be passed by Congress respect¬ 
ing the issue and regulation of a national currency; 
the chief officer of said bureau to be denominated the 
Comptroller of the Currency, who is to act under the 
general direction of the Secretary of the Treasury, on 
whose recommendation he is to be appointed by the 
President and Senate. It further enacts that associa¬ 
tions for carrying on the business of banking may be 
formed in any part of the country, and by any number 
of persons not less than five; and that each association, 
under their hands, shall make an Organization Cer¬ 
tificate which shall specify the name assumed by the 
association, the place where the banking business is to 
be transacted, the amount of capital stock, the number 
of shares into which it is divided, the names and places 
of residence of the stockholders, and the number 
of shares held by each of them, said certificate to be 
acknowleged and transmitted to the Comptroller; that 
no association shall be organized with a less capital 
than $100,000, nor in a city w'hose population exceeds 
50,000 with a less capital than $200,000, except that 
banks with a capital of not less than $50,000 may, 
with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, b# 
organized in any place the population of which does not 
exceed 6,000; that the capital stock shall be divided 

































492 


BANK 


[SECTION II.] 


BAPT 


into shares of SI00 eacli; that the shareholders are 
held individually responsible, equally and ratably, and 
with oue another, for all contracts, debts, and engage¬ 
ments of such association to the extent of the amount 
of their stock in addition to the amount invested in 
such shares; that every association, preliminary to the 
commencement of banking business, shall deposit in 
the Treasury Department United States bonds to an 
amount not less than 830,000, and not less than one 
third of the capital stock paid in, whereupon, the 
proper examination being made into the affairs of 
the proposed institution, it shall be entitled to receive 
from the Comptroller of the Currency circulating notes 
equal in amount to 90 per cent, of the current market 
value of the bonds deposited, but not exceeding 90 per 
cent, of their par value. The act also required that the 
national banks in the city of New York should at all 
times hold a reserve fund in lawful money, for the re¬ 
demption of national bank notes of not less than 25 per 
cent, of their deposits and circulation combined. The 
banks in other cities of redemption were required to 
hold the same amount of reserve, one-half of which, 
however, they were permitted to carry in New York as 
cash deposits. The banks in other places were required 
to maiutaiu a reserve of 15 per cent., of which three- 
fifths was allowed to consist of cash deposits in, or bal¬ 
ances due Irom, approved banks in the cities of redemp¬ 
tion. The banks were required to pay a half-yearly tax 
(Jan. and July) of % of 1 per cent, on their average 
circulation during each period of six months, except 
when the amount of such circulation shall have fallen be¬ 
low 5 per cent, of their capital, or when a bank, having 
ceased to issue notes, shall have deposited in the Treasury 
an amount of lawful money equal to its notes yet out¬ 
standing. The payment on this tax on circulation, 
exempts the banks from all other taxes, on capital, &c.— 
The act of March 3,1865, placed a prohibitive tax of 10 
per cent, on all notes issued by the State banks, private 
corporations, <fcc., which had the natural effect of driving 
all such notes out of circulation.—Notes of national 
banks are not legal tender, but are receivable at par in 
all government tiansactions, except duties on imports, 
interest on the public debt, and redemption of the 
national currency. Being practically issues of the gov¬ 
ernment, they circulate quite as freely as any other form 
of paper money, without the slightest reference to the 
standing of the bank of issue.—By the original act, N. B. 
circulation to the amount of $100,000,000 was authorized, 
which figure was subsequently advanced to $154,000,000; 
and later the limit was entirely removed, subject to the 
restrictions of the statutes, with the proviso that U. S. 
legal tender notes should be retired to the amount of 80 
percent, of the new' issues until the total sum of legal 
tender notes extant should be reduced to $100,000,000. 
The privilege thus given has not been largely exercised. 
The aggregate circulation of the national banks reached 
its maximum on October 13,1882,—$163,407,474; after 
which there was a gradual diminution until it reached 
a minimum of 8167,927,574 on July 1,1891. From that 
time there w r as a gradual increase until, by the end of 
1902 the amount was nearly 8352,000,000. The accom¬ 
panying table is interesting as showing the variations 
in number, capital and surplus of National Banks f..r 
the eleven years from 1891 to 1901 inclusive, the figures 
given being those for Sept. 1 of each year as reported 
by the Comptroller of the currency : 


Date. 

No. of 
banks. 

Capital. 

Surplus. 

1891 

3,577 

$660,108,261 

$222,766,668 

1892 

3,701 

679,076,650 

237,761,865 

1893 

3,759 

684,342,024 

246,918,673 

1894 

3,755 

672,951,450 

246,001,328 

1895 

3,716 

660,287,065 

247,466,002 

1896 

3,682 

652,725,750 

248,235,323 

1897 

3,620 

638,173,895 

249,044,948 

1893 

3,581 

615,818,725 

244,281,879 

1899 

3,061 

608,674,895 

247,930.970 

1900 

3,604 

608,754,600 

251,950,843 

1901 

3,969 

635,511,286 

268,451,548 


Various reasons have been assigned for the decline in 
circulation which culminated in 1891, the most prob¬ 
able being the growing scarcity of U. S. bonds and their 
relatively high premium. It is also alleged that im¬ 
proved banking facilities, allowing a more extensive 
use of checks, reduced the demand for currency. 
Furthermore, the large increase in silver money, both 
coin and certificates, following the acts of 1878 and 1886, 
and of Treasury notes following the Sherman act of 
1890, probably had the effect of reducing the demand for 
notes of the national banks, even in the face of a 
rapidly growing commerce. It will be noted that the 
suspension of silver purchases in 1893, and the ensuing 
bond issues, were immediately followed by an increase 
in the national bank note circulation, notwithstanding 
the unprecedented business depression then prevailing. 
— Profits. It has been generally supposed that the 
national banks are able to make large profits, especially' 
on their circulation ; and this belief is still quite gen¬ 
erally held, although somew'hat laborious efforts have 
been made to prove the contrary. It has been said that 
the high market price of the bonds makes it unprofit¬ 
able to hypothecate them for bank notes at only 90 per 
cent, of their face. In this connection it should be 
remembered that the market price of U. S. bonds reflects 
their current value as estimated by intelligent investors 


who select securities with reference to the amount of 
interest returned thereon ; and an investment which is 
regarded as profitable, per se, by the ordinary investor, 
ought to be considered equally profitable to a banking 
corporation, which loses no interest by reason of having 
its bonds deposited in the Treasury. True, the banks 
pay a tax on circulation amounting to one per cent, 
per annum, which payment exempts them from other 
taxes; but it is fair to assume that their revenues from 
the same notes are not less than six per cent, per 
annum, and in many cases even more. It is also 
claimed that the 15 to 25 per cent, obligatory reserve of 
lawful money ties up too much of the bank’s funds, and 
thus reduces profits below a satisfactory figure; but no 
well-ordered bank would presume to do business on 
much less reserve, and besides, the national banks (as 
per table above) have used lawful money extensively to 
secure circulation, in lieu of bonds. In regard to the 
argument that several important national banks have 
constantly abstained from issuing notes in considerable 
amounts, thus presumptively showing that circulation 
is unprofitable, it need only ne said that this is probably 
in accordance with the true science of banking, which 
should aim to prevent a “ redundancy ” of currency, 
such as was so freely complained of during portions of 
1893-96—meaning, of course, an unprofitable accumu¬ 
lation of currency in the bank vaults, and not an 
uncomfortable plethora in the channels of trade and 
industry. Scarce money means high interest rates.— 
In indulging our customary admiration for our national 
banking system, we should clearly understand that the 
uniformity and stability of our national currency—a 
welcome change from the old State bank notes—is due 
entirely to the fact that these issues are essentially 
those of the United States Government, the banks 
being, at best, mere jobbers of our national credit so 
far as their circulating notes are concerned. 

Bank Shot, a term used in billiards to denote a shot 
in which the cue-ball strikes a cushion before hitting 
the object ball. 

Bank Swallow, n. ( Omith.) A small bird of the 
northern hemisphere ( Cotyle riparia ), which builds its 
nests in the banks along the rivers. It is frequently 
termed, locally, the “ mud swallow'.” 

Banswarra ( bdnz-wor'rah ), a state of Hindostan, in 
Kajpootana, between N. Lat. 23° 10'-23° 48', E. Lon. 
74° 2'-74° 41', bounded E by Malwa and W. by Guzerat. 
Area, 1,440 sq. m. Cap. Bansw'arra. This state, formerly 
subject to the Mahrattas, has been under British pro¬ 
tectorate since 1818. Pop. (1895) 104,000. 

Banting', William, a London (Eng.) undertaker,born 
in 1797, who, in 1864, gave publicity to an anti-fat diet 
which had been recommended to him for his own use 
by William Harvey, the designer, and which shortly 
became known under his name. B. had previously 
acquired a certain notoriety as the builder of the Duke 
of Wellington’s funeral car, in 1852. Died in 1878. 

Bantu, an African family of mankind, including the 
tribes of Zulus, Kaffirs, Bechuanas, Basutos, and 
numerous others, whose range extends, on the west 
coast, as far north as the Camaroons. They are ot dark 
skin, but not ahvays black, in many of them, as the 
Kaffirs, the Negro characteristics being so modified that 
they are often called Negroid instead of Negro. They 
are joined into one family by the similarity of their 
languages. Their words are harmonious in sound, 
each syllable beginning with a consonant and ending 
with a vowel, while there is a great capacity for in¬ 
flexion, both initial and final. In consequence, those 
languages are very euphonious and have wide capacity 
for expression. The B. races occupy most of Africa 
from 25° 8. lat. to 6° N. lat. northwards, and are broadly 
distinct from the Hottentuts of the South, the Negritos, 
or Dwarfs, of the centre, and the Soudannese of the’ 
north. They fall geographically into three divisions. 
The eastern includes the Kaffirs and Zulus, and extends 
to the Galla and Soumali county ; the central division 
includes the Bechuanas; to the western division belong 
the inhabitants of the west coast, from the Hottentot 
country to the Gulf of Guinea, the peoples of Benguela, 
Angola, Congo and Loango. The linguistic interre¬ 
lationship of the Bantu languages is as intimate as 
that of the Aryan family. It was first recognized by 
Gubelents and Pott, and afterward elaborated by Bleeli. 
It rests both on the relationship of grammatical struc¬ 
ture and the affinity of roots. Lepsius includes within 
this range all the negro languages of Central Africa. 
Bantu is a native work signifying “ people.” 

Banville, Theodore Faullain de, a French poet, 
novelist and playwright, born in 1823. Les Cariatides, 
Les Odelettes, Les Odes Punantltdesques, were the best of 
the best of his early productions; among the latest 
were Ales Souvenirs, 1882; Socrate et sa femme, 1885; a 
series of Contes, 1881-85; a series of Scenes, 1886-88. 
Died in 1891. 

Baptista, Mariano, a South American statesman, who 
was President of the Bepublic of Bolivia, 1892-96. 

Baptists, —Continued from Sec. I. 
having become Unitarian. The Scotch Baptists are often 
regarded as a separate denomination, as they have cer¬ 
tain peculiar practices—w'eekly celebration of the com¬ 
munion, the love-feasts, the kiss of charity, and abstain¬ 
ing from blood and things strangled. From the 
beginning of their history, many of the English 
Baptist churches, having been formed out of older Sep¬ 
aratist churches, practised “open” communion. During 
the present century that practice has gained ground 
rapidly, and now perhaps the majority of the churches 
are “ open.” Some even tolerate mixed membership, 
i.e., admit without baptism those sprinkled in infancy. 


The statistics of the Baptists of Great Britain, given i» 
the Baptist Handbook for 1896, are: 



Churche *. 

Member*, 


... 1,704 

216,650 

Wales and Monmouthshire. 

776 

99^627 


105 

14,907 

2,491 

Ireland. 


Channel Islands. 

4 

292 

Isle of Man. 

1 

. 

Totals. 


333,96T 


Estimates of non-reporting churches raise the number 
of churches to 2,917 and of members to 353,967.—The- 
first Baptist church in the U. S. was established in 
Providence, in 1639, when Roger Williams was bap* 
tized by Ezekiel Holliman, and then baptized Holliman 
and eleven others. Another church was established, 
soon after at Newport. These had increased to ten 
churches by 1700. Baptists were severely persecuted 
in the New England colonies during this period, except 
in Rhode Island, where they were instrumental in pro* 
curing the adoption of the principle of religious liberty,, 
whence it has spread to every State in the Union. 
Baptist churches were founded in New Jersey and near 
Philadelphia from 1688 onward, and began at once to 
hold “yearly meetings,” which in 1707 were changed 
to an Association composed of delegates from the 
churches. This is now known as the Philadelphia 
Association—the oldest body of the kind in the U. S. f 
and through all its history the most influential. Bap¬ 
tists soon spread to the other colonies, and in most of 
them were persecuted, especially in Virginia and 
Georgia, until the Revolution. They did not gain equal 
rights in New England until 1833, when Massachusetts 
adopted a constitutional amendment securing equal 
religious liberty to all her citizens. At the beginning 
of tl.e present century the most careful estimates make 
the number of Baptist churches about 1,500 and the 
membership 100,000. The period of their most rapid 
increase was the years from 1820 to 1850. They were 
foremost among the religious bodies of the U. S. in 
mission work in the newly-settled West, in many cases- 
their preachers being the first to enter a new State and 
establish a Christian church. The organization of the 
American Baptist Home Mission Society, in 1832, made 
this work systematic and insured its permanence. 
This society maintains missions in all the States and 
territories and in Mexico, who labor among seventeen 
different nationalities. In 1896 it supported, in whole 
or in part, 1,147 such workers. It assists churches in 
the West to build houses of worship; maintains schools 
among the negroes and Indians, with a total enroll¬ 
ment of 5,220 pupils; and expends about $500,000 
annually. In 1812, Adoniram Judson and his wife and 
Luther Rice, missionaries sent out to India by the Ameri- 
cau Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, be¬ 
came Baptists through study of the Scriptures on ship¬ 
board. The result w as the formation of the Baptist Gen¬ 
eral Convention in 1814, and the vigorous prosecution of 
foreign missions by American Baptists. In 1844 differ¬ 
ences on the question of slavery induced Southern 
Baptists to withdraw and organize a Southern Baptist 
Convention, which has since carried on both home and 
foreign missions in behalf of the Southern churches. 
It has missions in China, Japan, West Africa, Italy, 
Mexico, Cuba and Brazil. In its various operations it 
raises and expends about $400,000 annually. After the 
withdrawal of the Southern Baptists, the name of the 
Northern organization was changed to the American 
Baptist Missionary Union, which now maintains mis¬ 
sions in Burmah, Assam, India, Chins, Japan, Africa and 
several countries of Europe. In 1896 it reported 2,208 
missionary workers, 1,724 churches, 11,552 baptisms 
and 195,018 members. Its annual expenditure in this 
work is over $800,000. The American Baptist Publication 
Society is the third of the great organizations of the de¬ 
nomination. Established in 1824 as a tract society', it 
gradually expanded into a general publication house of 
religious literature. It has a capital of about a million 
dollars, a list of 374 books, and a large number of tracts 
ami periodicals. Its manufacturing department and 
offices are in Philadelphia, but it has branches in six 
principal cities. It maintains a missionary department 
for Sunday-schools, colporteur and chapel-car work, at 
an annual cost of over 8100,000. It is the denomina 
tioual agency for Bible printing and distribution, 
and expends annually $10,000 or more in this work. 
—The Baptist women have two auxiliary organizations! 
The Home Mission Societies (East and West) have a 
training school at Chicago and raise $100,000 annually 
for missionary work. The Foreign Mission Societies 
(East and West) raise annually $150,000, and have a 
Candidates’ Home for instruction of missionaries.—The 
Baptist Young People’s Union of America, organized in 
1891, represents the young B. of the U. S. and Canada. 
Its headquarters are in Chicago. Its work is largely 
educational.—American Baptists have been especially 
active in educational work. Their first institution 
(1794) was established through the efforts of the Phila¬ 
delphia Association, in Rhode Island, the only colony 
that would give a liberal charter to Baptists, and was 
known as Rhode Island College, until 1804, when the 
name was changed to Brown University, in honor of a 
generous benefactor,Nicholas Brown. Tn 1820 an institu- 
tion was opened at Hamilton, N. Y., lor the education 
of ministers, that has developed into Colgate Uni¬ 
versity. Columbian University, of Washington, D. C., 
was the child of the Baptist General Convention, and 






























BARI 


[SECTION II.] 


BARR 


493 


was established in 1821. The denomination has now 
1 theological seminaries, 35 institutions of collegiate 
rank, and 159 schools in all, in which nearly 5,000 men 
and women are receiving an education, with property 
and endowments aggregating not far from $40,000,000. 
Eleven distinct Baptist bodies (counting as one the 
Northern, Southern, nnd Colored organizations of 
“regular” Baptists), appear in the U. S. census, as 
appears in the table below, revised to 1897.—Only the 
following bodies demand additional description: Free¬ 
will or Free Baptists are Arminian in theology and 
“open” communion in practice. Their history dates 
from the formation of their first church in New Hamp¬ 
shire, in 1780. The Original Freewill Baptists had their 
rise about 1729, in North Carolina; their practices of 
feet washing and anointing the sick with oil are about 
all that separate them from the Freewill body. Sepa¬ 
rate Baptists originated during the great Whitefield 
revival of the last century; the “ Regular ” Baptists of 
that day objected to the “new measures” and the new 
organization was the result. Most of the Separates 
long ago united with the “ Regular ” churches. A few 
who thus united retain the name of United Baptists 
and a separate organization. They should probably be 
counted with the“ Regulars” now. The Baptist Church 
of Christ dates from 1825, in the State of Tennessee, 
where they claim to be the oldest Baptist body. Noth¬ 
ing but extreme conservatism keeps them a separate 
body. The Primitive (or Old School or Anti-Mission, 
sometimes derisively called Hard-Shell) Baptists sepa¬ 
rated from the" regular” Baptists from 1835-40because 
they opposed missionary societies, Sunday-schools and 
other modern organizations as unauthorized by the 
New Testament. They are strong in Georgia and other 
Southern States, but nearly extinct in the North. Two- 
seed-in-the-spirit Baptists hold a peculiar doctrine of pre¬ 
destination, viz.: Among the offspring of Adam and Eve 
were two classes: the seed of God and the seed of 
Satan. The former are the elect, chosen to salvation; 
the latter are predestined to the eternal kingdom of 
darkness.—Following are the latest statistics (to Jan. 1, 
19u2) as to the B. of the U. S., to which is added the 
latest available figures for other countries: 


Bodies. 

Ministers. 

Churches. 

Members. 

Six Principle •••••• 

Seventh Day. •••••• 

Freewill .. • 

Original Freewill. 

General 

United • .. . 

Baptist Church of Christ . . 
Primitive ....... 

Old Two-Seed-in-the - Spirit 
Predestinarian .... 

30,052 

8 

122 

1.436 

120 

484 

113 

25 

80 

2,130 

300 

34,299 

12 

116 

1.522 

167 

423 

103 

204 

152 

3,530 

473 

4,270 523 
828 
10,104 
86.535 
12.000 

2 4,77,'. 
6.479 
13,209 
8,254 
126,000 

12,851 

Total Baptists in the U. S. 

34,870 

51,001 

4,581,558 

Baptists in Cauada. &c. • • 

" ** South America . 

** ** Europe • . • • 

•* “ Asia . 

* ** Africa. 

** “ Australasia • . 

• • • 

829 

16 

3.855 

895 

65 

209 

85,111 
648 
445 020 
111.010 
5,611 
17.928 

Grand Totals of Baptists in the world 

56.870 

5,246,786 


— Literature: Armitage, History of the Baptists (New 
York. 1887); Vedder, Short History of the Baptists (Phila¬ 
delphia, 1891); Cathcart, Baptist Encyclopedia (Philadel¬ 
phia, 1891); Newman, History of the Baptists in the United 
Slates (Yol. II in “American Church History ” Series. 
New York, 1894); Hiscox, New Directory for Bujitist 
Churches (Philadelphia, 1894); Barrage, History of the 
Baptists of New England (Philadelphia, 1894); Goadby, 
Bye Paths in Baptist History (London, 1871) ; Hervey, 
Story of Baptist Missions (St. Louis, 1885); Adoniram 
Judson, by his son, Edward Judson (New York, 1883); 
Smith’s William Carey, (London, 1887). 

Bnreel'Iona, an Italian town in Sicily, Province of 
Messina, which, with the neighboring town of I’ozzo di 
Goto, had a population of about 15,000 in 1895. 

Bartlotix ( bar-doo'), Ag£nor, a French politician.born 
in 1829; minister under President McMahon; life sen¬ 
ator (1882); wrote Les Legistes el leur Influence sur la 

I SocietC Frangaise , 1878; Die Annees de vie Politique, 1882; 
La Bourgeoisie Fran raise, 1886; Etudes dun Autre Temps, 
1889 . 

Bargee. In addition to the definitions of this term, 
as given on page 257, there are two uses of the word 
peculiar to tl^ L T . S. It is commonly employed to des¬ 
ignate a double deck passenger or freight boat, without 
motor power, but intended to bo drawn by a tow boat. 
It is used to transport bulky produce, such as hay or 
straw, or to convey passengers for short distances in 
smooth water, on pleasure excursions. The word is also 
applied to alapstreak boat, resembling a shell, but better 
adapted to rough water, and used by racing crews when 
training. 

Bar Harbor, a noted summer resort on Mt. Desert 
Island, coast of Maine. It is situated on Frenchman’s 
Bay on the east side of the island, where the coolness 
of the summer temperature, and the combined beauties 
of sea and mountain scenery, attract large numbers of 
visitors annually. Population of the town of Mt. 
Desert, in 1890.1.355. 

Bariiur-*iotil«l, Sabine, born at Exeter,Eng.,in 1834. 
An English clergyman and author, rector of Lew- 
Trenchard, Devonshire. His earlier productions com¬ 
prise Paths of the Just, 1854 ; Iceland, its Scenes and Sagas, 


1861; Post-medieval Preachers, 18G1; Curious Myths of 
the Middle Ages, 1866; The Origin and Development of 
Religious Belief, 1869; and among his latest may be 
mentioned A Book of Fairy Tales, 1894 ; Cheap Jack Zita, 
1894; A Book of Nursery Songs and Rhymes, 1895; Curi¬ 
osities of Ohlen Times, 1895; English Minstrely, 1895; The 
Broom Squire, 1896; Dartmoor Idylls, 1896; The Golden 
Gate, 1896; The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte, 1897. 

Bark. {Med. and Com.) The officinal name given to 
the cortical layers of various plants, used chiefly for 
medicinal or tanning purposes. The name is, par ex¬ 
cellence, applied to the several varieties of Peruvian or 
Cinchona barks, the source of quinine. The following 
barks, however, are also employed officinally and eco¬ 
nomically :—B., Alcornoco or Alcornoque. The astrin¬ 
gent bark of several species of Byrsonima; or, accord¬ 
ing to some authorities, of Bowdichia virgilioides. — B., 
Angostura. The febrifugal bark of Galipea CuspaHa 
or G. officinalis. — B, Babul. The astringent bark of 
Acacia arabica.— B., Bastard Cabbage. The bark of 
Andira inenmis: same as Worm Bark. — B., Bastard 
Jesuit’s. The bark of Ivafrutescens. — IS., Bonace. 
The bark of Daphne tinifolia. — B., Canei.t.a. The 
stimulant aromatic bark of Canella alba. — B., Cari¬ 
bbean. The astringent bark of Exostemma caribseum. — 
B., Cascarilla or Sweet Wood. The aromatic bark of 
Croton Cascarilla and C. pseudochina. — B., China. The 
febrifugal bark of Buena hexandra. — B., Conessi. The 
astringent hark of Wrightia antidysruterica. — B., Cri l 
lawan. The aromatic stimulant hark of Cinnamnmum 
Culilawan. — B., Eleuthera. The aromatic bark of 
Croton Cascarilla. — B., False Angostura. The bark 
of Strychnos nux-vomica. — B., French Guiana. The fe¬ 
brifugal bark of Portlandia hexandra. — B., Jesuit’s. 
The same as Peruvian Bark. — B., Juribali. An as¬ 
tringent bark of Demerara, supposed to be the produce 
of some cedrelaceous plant. — B., Melambo. The aro¬ 
matic febrifugal bark of some species of Galipea, or one 
of its allies. — B., Mezereum. The acrid irritant bark 
of Daphne Mezereon. — B., Monesia. The hark of some 
S. American Sapotacese. — B., Muruxi. The astringent 
bark of Byrsonima spicata, used by the Brazilian tan¬ 
ners.— B., Niepa. The febrifugal bark of Samadera 
indica. — B., Panococco. The sudorific bark of Swartzia 
tomentosa. — IS. Quercitron. The yellow-dye bark of 
Quercus tinctoria .— B., Quillai. The bark of (Juillaia 
saponaria, used as a substitute for soap. — B., Stringt, 
of Tasmania. Eucalyptus robusta. — B., Sweet Wood. 
The same as Cascarilla Bark. — B., Nine. An American 
name for Spirsea opulifolia. — IS.. W hite Wood. The 
same as Canella Bark. — B., Winter’s. The tonic aro¬ 
matic bark of Drymitt Winteri. — IS., Worm. The bark 
of Andira inermis, formerly used as an anthelmintic. 

Barker, Geo. F., an American scientist, b. in Mass., 
1835. He received his early education in the public 
schools of his Dative State, and was apprenticed to & 
maker of philosophical instruments, where he remainei 
until he obtained his majority, in 1856. He then 
entered the Yale scientific school and graduated from 
there in 1858. He became connected successively with 
several colleges as lecturer and professor, and en¬ 
tered the army as asst. surg. of vols. In 1866 lie edited a 
new edition of Silliman’s Chemistry, in which the new 
nomenclature and notation first appeared in a text-book 
in this country. In 1867 lie was appointed Prof, of 
Physiological Chemistry and Toxicology in the Medical 
Institution of Yale College. In 1870 he published A 
Text-B"ok ot Elementary Chemistry. This achieved an 
immediate success. In 1873 he accepted the chair of 
Physics in the University of Pennsylvania. He left im¬ 
mediately for Europe upon his third trip, this time to 
select suitable apparatus for proper illustrations of his 
lectures. The result is that this University has a collec¬ 
tion of physical apparatus unsurpassed in this country. 
In 1876 he was elected a member of the National Acad, 
of Sciences, and in 1879 president of the American Asso. 
tor the Advancement of Science. A copious contributor 
to the American Journal of Science and Arts, the Proceed¬ 
ings of the American Philosophical Society, &c. Wrote 
Physics: an Advanced Course, 1892. 

Barley. (Agric.) See Cereals. 

Barlow, Francis Channing, born at Brooklyn, N. Y., 
in 1834. A lawyer and soldier; brigadier-general, 1862; 
major-general, 1865; distinguished himself at Fair 
Oaks, Antietam, Chancellorsville. Gettysburg, Spottsyl- 
vania Court-House, &c.; Secretary (1865) and Attorney- 
General (1872-73) of New York, &c. Died Feb.11,1896. 

Barnard, Edward Emerson, born in 1857 at Nash¬ 
ville, Tenn. An eminent astronomer, graduated from 
Vanderbilt University; made a number of discoveries, 
among others that of the fifth satellite of Jupiter 
(Sept. 9,1892). 

Barnard {bdCnurd), Frederick Augustus Porter, a 
distinguished American divine and educationalist, b. at 
Sheffield, Mass., 1809, graduated at Yale Coll, in 1828, 
and after some time passed in school tuition, became, 
in 1831, chief instructor in the New York Institution 
for the Deaf and Dumb, and author of some excellent 
text-books for the instruction of deaf-mutes. In 1838 
he was appointed Professor of Mathematics and Natural 
Philosophy in the University of Alabama, and, ten 
years later, Professor of Chemistry also. In 1854 lie be¬ 
came Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, and in 
1856, president and chancellor ot the University of the 
State of Mississippi. During the whole of this period 
his labors had been unceasingly directed towards the 
diffusion of popular education, both in its primary and 
higher departments, through the southern section of 
the Union, contributing to that end not only by oral 
instruction, but also by means of various periodicals 
placed under his editorial charge. In his Letter on Col¬ 


lege Government in particular, he produced the ablest 
treatise on higher education that had till then appeared 
iu the U. S. Iu 1861, Dr. B. repaired to New York 
City, and there was elected to the presidency of Colum¬ 
bia College. He was for some time president of the 
National Academy 'of Science, aud of the American 
Association for the Advancement of Science. Besides 
his works on educational matters, he wrote some ad¬ 
mirable essays on scientific topics. D. April ‘27,1889. 

Barnard. John Cross, born at Sheffield, Mass., in 1815. 
Military engineer and writer; served in the Mexican 
War; brevetted major, 1848, and major-general at the 
close of the Civil War; chief engineer of the Army of 
the Potomac, 1862-63; superintendent U. S. Military 
Academy, 1855-65, &c. Wrote Survey of the Isthmus of 
Tehuantepec; Dangers and Defences of New York, &c. 
Died in 1882. 

Barnburners. {Am. Polit.) A New York section 
of the Democratic party who supported Van Buren 
against Cass for President iu 1848. They opposed further 
work on the State canals, and the extension of public 
debts and corporate privileges. They received their 
name from the application to them of the story of a 
farmer, who was so annoyed by rats devouring bin grain 
that he burned his barn to get rid of them. 

Barn'by, Joseph, an English composer and organist, 
born at York, in 1838; was organist at St. Andrews, 
London, 1863-71; choirmaster at St. Ann’s, Soho, 1871; 
musical instructor in Eton College, 1875. Was k nighted 
in 1892. His compositions embrace many excellent 
and popular church services, anthems and hymn tunes, 
besides several short cantatas. Died Jan. 28, 1896. 

Barnes, James, born at Springfield, Mass., in 1809. A 
major-general of volunteers (1865); fought at Freder¬ 
icksburg, Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, at which 
latter he commanded a division. Mustered out, 1866, 
disabled by his wounds and impaired health from en¬ 
gaging in any regular business. Died in 1869. 

Barnes, Joseph K, b. at Philadelphia in 1817; Surgeon- 
general U. S. Army, 1863-82; brigadier-general, 1865 ; 
founder of the Army Medical Museum, and of the 
library of the Surgeon-general’s office. Had the painful 
boner of attending on Lincoln, Seward, and Garfield in 
the calamities which befell them respectively. Died in 
1883. 

Barnesville, in Minnesota, a city of Clay Co. Pop. in 
1897, about 1,600. 

Barnett, John, b. in 1802; was for fifty years a voice- 
trainer at Cheltenham, Eng. Composed operas ( The 
Mountain Sylph, Farinelli, &c.), and a number of song* 
and operettas. His father was a Prussian (Bernhard 
Beer), aud his mother a Hungarian. Died in 1890. 

Barnett, John Francis, an English composer, b. in 
1837, nephew of John A. Author of cantatas and ora¬ 
torios; The Ancient Mariner, Paradise and the Peri, The 
Raising of Lazarus, The Good Shepherd, The Building of 
the Ship, The Harvest Festival, and others. 

Barnuin, William H., b. at Boston Corners, N. Y., in 
1818. Member of Congress from Conn., 1867-76 ; U. S. 
Senator, 1876-79; Chairman Democratic National Com¬ 
mittee, 1880 and 1884. Died in 1889. 

Barr, Mrs. Amelia Edith, nee Huddleston, born in 
1831, at Ulverston, Lancashire, Eng. Came to the United 
States in 1S54, and after losing her husband and three 
sous from yellow fever at Galveston, removed to New 
York and began, with Romance and Reality, 1872, the 
long list of novels that have made her name familiar. 
Among the latest are Bemicia, 1895; The Flouer of Golf 
Water, 1895 ; A Knight of the Nets, 1896. 

Barrett, Lawrence, born in 1838, at Paterson, N. J. 
An American actor of Irish parentage, closely associated 
with Edwin Booth, whose life he published. His long 
career, Interrupted only by his service during the Civil 
War, extended from 1853 to the time of bis death, in 1891. 

Barrie, James M., born in 1860, at Kirriemuir, Forfar¬ 
shire, Scotland. Journalist, novelist and playwright. 
Wrote Better Dead, 1887; When a Man's Single, 1888 ; A 
Window in Thrums, 1889; My Lady Nicotine, 1890; The 
Little Minister, 1891; Sentimental Tommy, 1896. His 
Professor's Love Story was first played on the American 
stage; his Walker, London and also Jane Annie (written 
in conjunction with Conan Doyle) are among the best 
known of bis other plays. 

Barrios, Jose Maria Reina, a South American states¬ 
man, born in 1853; was elected president of Guatemala 
for six years in 1892. Assassinated Feb. 8, 1898. 

Barrios, Justo Rufino, a Guatemalan statesman, born 
in 1834. president of the Republic 1873-86; invaded 
Salvador to compel it to join a confederation of the 
Central American States, and was killed in an assault 
on Chalchuapa in 1886. 

Barron, James, born in Virginia in 1769; was com¬ 
modore U. S. N.; in command of the Chesapeake 
when she was unexpectedly attached (in time of peace 
1807) and captured by Captain Humphreys of the 
British ship Leopard. Was court-martialed, found 
guilty of negligence in preparation and suspended for 
five years. Killed, in a duel, Commodore Stephen 
Decatur, whom lie blamed for his being refused an 
active command at the expiration of his suspension. 
Died in 1851. 

Barrow, Mrs. (Francis Elizabeth Measf.), born in 
1822 at Charleston, S. C.; pen name Aunt Fanny. Wrote 
numerous juvenile books— Little Pet Books; Good Little 
Hearts; Nightcap Series; Popgun Stories; Six Written 
Books, &c 

Barrow-in-Furness, a seaport and manufacturing 
town of Lancashire, England, noted for its large iron 
and steel, jute and flax works, extensive docks and 
immense iron and ship-building yards; ten mammoth, 
ocean steamers can be laid down here at one time. The 










































494 


BASK 


[SECTION II. j 


BAT 


population has risen from 18,000 in 1871 to about I 
55,OOU in 1897. 

JRai'i'un'tlia. Jose M., a Guatemalan revolutionist,! 
killed in 1890 by the Guatemalan authorities in an 
attempt to arrest him on board an American merchant 
vessel at San Jose, Guatem. For non-interference on 
L.'s behalf, Commander Reiter, U. S. N., was censured 
by the Navy Department. 

Bar'ry. John Wolfe, born in 1836, son of Sir Chas. 
B. [1795-1860J who designed the Houses of Parlia¬ 
ment, London, Eng. A civil engineer; member of the 
Royal Commissions on Irish Public Works. 1886, and 
on Western Highlands and Islands, 1889. Wrote Bail¬ 
way Appliances; Details of Bailway Construction; Rail¬ 
ways anil Locomotives, Ac. 

Barry, William Farquhar, born in New York city in 
1818. Graduated at West Point, 1838; chief of artillery 
in the army of the Potomac, 1861-62; fought at York- 
town, Gaines’s Mill, Mechanicsville, Malvern Hill, 
Harrison’s Landing, at Atlanta, and in the northern 
Georgia, Alabama and Carolina campaigns; brevetted 
major-general, 1865; cQinmander of Fort McHenry, 
1877. Died in 1879. 

Barry, William Taylor, born at Lunenburg, Va., in 
1785. A politician and jurist. Served in the war of 
1812; U. S. Senator 1815-16; judge of the Kentucky 
Supreme Court, 1810; postmaster-general under Jack- 
son, 1829-35 (first postmaster-general to have a seat in 
the Cabinet) ; U. S. Minister Plenipotentiary to Spain 
at the time of his death in Liverpool, Eng., in 1835. 

Burtliol'tli, Fr£d£ric Auguste, a French artist, es¬ 
pecially distinguished for his colossal statues, notably, 
le Lion de Belfort, and la Liherte ecluirant le Monde — 
Liberty Enlightening the World—the latter elected in 
New York harbor, and unveiled October 28, 1886. B. 
was born 1834, at Colmar, Alsace; entered the studio of 
Ary Scheffer (q.v.). He soon abandoned the life of a 
painter for that of a sculptor. At the breaking out of 
the war with Prussia, he entered the army, and served 
upon the staff of Garibaldi in the Vosges. His busts of 
Erckmaun-Chatrian, the statue of Yauban and the group 
of la Malediction d' Alsace, are among his best produc¬ 
tions; but he has immortalized himself by the colossal 
figure of Liberty, the largest statue ever made, exceed¬ 
ing the Colossus of Rhodes (q. v.) by some 16 ft. This 
immense statue was a voluntary gift of the French 
people to this country, and was entirely the conception 
of this eminent artist. The dimensions are: statue 
proper, base to top of torch, 151 ft.; pedestal, 150 ft.; 
total height, 301 ft.; length of hand, 10 ft.; index finger, 
8 ft.; total weight, 225 tons; total cost of statue, $250,- 
O00; pedestal and erection, $350,000; total, $600,000. 
It is made of copper, moulded by blows from mallets 
upon wooden models. This lofty production is lighted 
at night by electricity, and serves the purpose of a light¬ 
house for the harbor of New York. His latest work 
commemorated the heroism of the citizens of Paris 
during its siege in 1871. Died Oct. 4, 1904. 

B irt'lett, William Francis, born in 1840 at Haver¬ 
hill, Mass. Left Harvard to enlist in the Massachusetts 
volunteers, 1861; was wounded at Yorktown, 1802, and 
suffered amputation of one of his legs. Marie colonel 
in spite of his physical disability, he went to Louisiana 
with Gen. Ranks; wounded again at Port Hudson; 
promoted brigadier-general; joined the field again as 
soon as he could sit on his horse; captured at Peters¬ 
burg, 1864; breveted major-general, 1865. tine of the 
most brilliant careers on record. Died in 1870. 

Btr'lon, Clara, born in 1830 at Oxford, Mass. A 
world-known philanthropist. Bore an important part 
in the caring for the wounded on the battlefields of the 
Civil War and on those of the Franco-German War, as 
well as in the relief of the destitute both in France and 
Germany in 1871-72. Organizer and president of the 
American Red Cross Society, 1881; represented the U. 
S. government at the Geneva Red Cross conference, 1884; 
superintended the expedition of relief to the sufferers 
from the Ohio and Mississippi disasters, 1884, to the 
scene of the South Atlantic coast cyclone of 1893, and to 
Armenia, 1895-96. 

Barton, William Paul Crillon, b. in 1786, at Phila¬ 
delphia, Pa., a nephew of the physician and ethnologist 
Benjamin Smith B. [1766-1815]. A botanist. Author 
of Flora of North America; Lectures on Materia Medica 
and Botany; Medical Botany ; Hints to Naval Officers Cruis¬ 
ing in the West Indies, Ac. Died in 1856. 

Bartow, in Florida, a town, capital of Polk Co. Pop., 
1890,1,386. 

Bartsli, Karl, a distinguished German philologist, b. 
in 1832. Professor of German and romance philology at 
Rostock, 1858, and at Heidelberg, 1871. Wrote Cliresto- 
mathie de L’aneien Francaise, A Itfranzfisische Bomanzen und 
Pastonrellen, and a number of others. Died in 1888. 

Base-Bevel. The lowest level to which a stream is 
capable of eroding the land, ttie height of its point of 
discharge preventing any deeper erosion. A region is 
said to be reduced to a base-level, or to have become a 
base-level plain, when it has been so worn down by the 
erosive power of flowing water that its slopes are very 
gentle and the erosive power upon it of rains and streams 
has practically ceased. 

Basket ball. (Games.) An indoor game, in many 
respects resembling foot ball, in which it doubtless had 
its origin. The game is played upon a circumscribed 
space on the floor of a hall or gymnasium, usually by 5 
or 7 players on each side. At either end of this playing 
space a basket is suspended at a height of about ten 
feet, corresponding to the goal in foot ball. The ball is 
round, somewhat lighter in construction than an or¬ 
dinary foot ball, and is passed from one player to another 
by throwing, or striking with the hands only: the ulti¬ 


mate object being to lodge it in the opponent’s basket, j 
w'hich action counts one point. The rules as to inter¬ 
ference, playing out of bounds, Ac., are adapted from | 
those of foot ball. This game has rapidly grown in popu¬ 
larity since 1896, especially in the East, where it is now 
extensively employed as an indoor winter amusement. 

Bas’tian, Adolph, born in 1826, at Bremen, Prussia; an 
eminent ethnologist. After extensive travels in both 
hemispheres, 1851-66, was appointed professor of Eth¬ 
nology, and administrator of the Ethnological Museum, 
at Berlin; president of the Berlin Anthropological 
Society, Ac. Wrote Der Mensch in der Geschichte, Sprach- 
vergleichende Studien, Die Culturliinder des Alten America 
zur Kentniss Hawaiis, 1883; Der FetiscB an der Kuste 
Guineas, 1885, Ac. Founded, with Hartmann, Die Zeit- 
sckrift fur Ethnologie. 

ISastiaii. Henry Charlton, born in 1837 at Truro, 
Cornwall, Eng. A biologist and neuropathologist, noted 
as a defender of the doctrine of spontaneous generation. 
Wrote Origin of Lowest Organisms, Beginnings of Life, 
Evolution and the Origin of Life, The Brain as an Organ 
of Mind. 

Bastien-L.epag’e, Jules, born in 1848 at Damvil- 
lers, Meuse, France. A noted painter; pupil of Alex¬ 
ander Cabauel. Best known works, La Premiere Com¬ 
munion, Jeanne d' Arc (now in the Metropolitan Museum 
of Art, New York City), portraits of Sarah Beruhardt, 
Andre Theuriet, Ac. Died in 1884. 

Basu'toland. (Geog.) A crown colony of Great 
Britain, N. E. of Cape Colony, aud near the E. Coast of 
South Africa. It is bounded on the N. by the Orange 
Free State aud Natal, on the E. by Kaffraria. Area, 
10,293 sq. m., its size being nearly equal to that of 
Belgium. In shape it is an irregular oval, about 100 
miles long by 100 broad. Its surface is a continuous 
rugged plateau, has admirable pasture and the best 
grain land in South Africa. The climate is considered 
delightful. The productions are wool, wheat, mealies 
and Kaffir corn, while cattle are kept in immense 
herds. B. was annexed to Cape Colony in 1868, but 
separated from it and made a crown colony in 1884. 
The population in 1891 comprised 218,324 and 578 Euro¬ 
peans. European settlement is now prohibited— Bamtos. 
The Basutos are a division of the Bantu family (q. v.), 
and closely allied to the Bechuauas. They are superior 
to the Kaffirs in industry and intelligence, but have 
less warlike energy. For many years they resisted the 
aggressions of the English and Boers, aud were not 
subdued until 1868, after 40 years of war. A rebellion 
in 1878 led to the placing them under the direct 
authority of the British crown. 

Ba t, —Continued from Sec. I. 
rigid thorax. In a few genera the thorax is almost 
entirely fixed by bony union. The thoracic vertebrae 
are apt to anchylose. The neck vertebra' and those of 
the loin, on the other hand, are mobile, and in the last 
named region enable the animal to flex this pait of the 
body. The clavicles are powerful. The enormous de¬ 
velopment of tlie front legs is offset by small hind legs; 
yet the feet, relatively to the size of the body, are large, 
and are often as long as the distance from the ankle to 
the knee. The innominate bones are, as a rule, not 
joined in the female,— Teeth. The teeth of bats are 
adapted to animal and to fruit diet. The first adaptation 
is ancestral, and is found in the great majority of the 
order. The second is confined to the genera of fox bats, 
of the tropical parts of the Old World; and tiie Steno- 
dermina of sub-tropical and tropical parts of the New 
World. The fruit-eating bats, though widely separated 
geographically and historically, often closely resemble 
one another in the details of the teeth. These, in the 
main, are negative, aud are doubtless the results of 



Fig. 2698. — head of pteropus persoxatus. 


transitions from a carnivorous to a carpophagus diet. 
The number of teeth in the bat never exceeds thirty- 
eight ( Vespertilio) or falls below twenty (Desmodns and 
Diphylla). The two genera last named do not use their 
lancet-like teetli for mastication, but for puncturing the 
skin of their victims. The blood flowing from the 
wound is probably lapped up by the tongue.— Mammse. 
Bats have two pectoral mammary glands. These are 
placed well off toward the arm pit, a position in which 
the young would receive the greatest amount of warmth 
and protection. The mammas are reduced greatly in 
size when the female is not lactating. The young are 
carried about on the front of the trunk of the mother. 
The claws are early developed, and these, together with 
the sharp, curved milk teeth, enable them to secure firm 
hold of the hairs of the breast. In the horse-shoe bats 
a pair of teat-like processes are found just above the 


pubes. They are of unknown use.— Hair. In eomtnen 
with all mammals, bats are more or less provided with 
hair. As a rule, this richly covers the body, and is 
velvety, or long aDd silky. The colors tend to 6ombre 
shades—black, brown, and grey predominating. It is 
uniform—that is to say, without intermingling witli 
coarser growths, as so often is the case iu oilier groups— 
and might be compared, iu a general way, to that of 
moles, shrews, or mice. The German name for bats— 
Fledermiiuser (flying mice)—gives a general impression 
of the appearance of the fur of the more common species. 
But many bats are quite differently colored from tlie 
above. In the African and Asian megadermids tlie long 
f41ky fur is slate-colored, indicating a distinct shade of 
blue; some vespertilionine bats in Africa are greenish. 
One of the most brilliantly liued species is tlie common 
red bat of America. Pale tints are found on tlie under 
surface of numerous species, and occasionally a form is 
found which, as in Diclidurus albus and Ectophylla alba, 
is almost entirely white. The head and neck is, as a 
rule, differently colored from tlie rest of tlie body. Tim 
is seen, on close inspection, to be evident in forms which 
at first glance appear to be unicolored. In the Old 
World fox bats, the head and neck may be huff or red 
while the body is black. Shoulder tufts of pure white 
are common; and, in South American forms, the head 
and back may be streaked with bold lines of white on a 
dark ash or chestnut-colored ground. Under the micro¬ 
scope the hair of bats is seen to possess whorl-like 
spicules at regular intervals, and many details by w liich 
the various groups can be distinguished. Abundant 
growth of hair on tlie under surface would interfere 
with locomotion when the wings are folded and the 
body prone. It is found, therefore, that the group 
Molossi —in which these traits are conspicuous—possess 
short, scant fur; and in one remarkable form ( Cheiro - 
meles) from Borneo, tlie hair is almost entirely absent. 
As in other nearly naked animals, fat is abundantly de¬ 
posited under the skin. This sustains the impression, 



Fig. 2699.— megaderma oioas. 


already received, that the use of both hair and fat is to 
retain and economize tlie animal heat .—Special Out¬ 
growths. Bats possess tactile sensibility in a lemarkable 
degree. Tlie skin elsewhere than on tlie body is pro¬ 
vided with nerves and great numbers of specially de¬ 
veloped touch-corpuscles. Not only is this the case, but 
the skin is disposed on the wings, between the legs, and 
in many other locations, to form processes, flanges, and 
membranes, which doubtless tend to increase the sur¬ 
face on which special growths of hair, already alluded to, 
can be distributed. The ears, for the same reason, are 
well developed. The tendency for skin outgrowths is 
always well marked about tlie head, and tlie nose-leaves, 
as they are called, form offshoots from tlie muzzle; 
chin plate and warts aggregate about the lower lips; 
while lappets of skin in varying degrees extend across 
the head, uniting the ears, or reach downward to those 
about the chin. The eyes are small in the forms in 
which the outgrowths are the most numerous; and it is 
probably true that they are not much needed, in the 
presence of an extensive armament designed to awaken 
consciousness by the sense of touch. On tlie contrary, 
when tlie structures named are rudimental or absent, as 
in the fox bats, tiie eyes are large and resemble those 
found in noctural animals generally.— Size. Bats are 
comparatively small animals; tlie largest (Pteropus 
edulis), a fox bat from southeastern Asia, has a body a 
foot long, a forearm eight inches long, and a wing- 
expanse of five feet. Among the smallest is an African 
hat (Vespervgo nanus ) resembling our common brown 
bat, which has a length of body of an inch, a forearm 
the same, and a wing-expanse of hut six inches.— Food. 
The majority of bats are insect feeders, though in many 
so classified the food is really mixed. In temperate 
countries it may be said that hats are insectivorous. 
The character of the insects which constitute the food 
is not known to be especially distinguishable, though 
net iropterus and dipterous varieties largely prevail. Beetle's 
and grasshoppers enter into the diet of some of the heavy, 
tree-haunting species. Many bats are fond of skimming 







BAT 


[SECTION II.] 


BAT 


495 


over the water, feeding upon the abundant insect life 
found there, and occasionally even dipping the surface 
aa swallows do. It is not surprising, therefore, to learn 
that Noctilio, a genus of tropical America, consumes 
shrimps and small fish. In the stomach of Megaderma , 
remains of frogs have been found. Some of the bats de¬ 
vour small mammals, and even others of their own kind. 
Two South American forms, Desmodus and Diphylla, 
live entirely upon blood. The damage done to herds 
and horses from these animals is so great in some por¬ 
tions of Central and South America as to interfere 
seriously with raising of stock. The fruit-eating bats 
live on palm-cabbage, figs, and, indeed, any sweet, suc¬ 
culent fruit. The species of India inflict great damage 
upon gardens, and the trees have to be protected by 
netting to save the crops. In America the fruit-eating 
bats devour a great variety of fruits.— Habits. With 
the exception of a few African species, bats fiy about in 
search of food in the twilight or early hours of the 
evening, and spend the days in retirement. As a rule 
solitary in their wanderings, they may, as in the fox 
bats, form flocks and fly in regular order to and from 



ffty. 2700.— HEA» OF CH(EURONYCTERIS MEXICAN'A, SHOWING 
FIBBILLATED TONGUE. 

their feeding grounds. Bats rest in almost any place 
which can protect them. Some varieties are particularly 
adapted to tree-life, though those whose habitat is 
natural in caves can, of course, as readily live in hollow 
trees, belfries, house attics, &c. In the tropics they 
often infest dwellings, and by the unpleasant odors 
they emit, and the scratching and squeaking they 
indulge in, become great nuisances. They are uni¬ 
formly gregarious while at rest, though it is known 
that in some species the sexes are at certain seasons 
separated. As already noted, they are specially fond of 
water-courses, and drink with eagerness, even in cap¬ 
tivity. The breeding season is early spring, when one 
to two young are brought forth. Bats hibernate in 
cold and temperate countries. The lethargy is light 
and can be disturbed by artificial warmth. Those 
living in the attics of large buildings which are heated 
in winter, are known to remain quite active, showing 
that hibernation is enforced by the reduction of tempera¬ 
ture and is not a necessity of organization. In mild 
days, in midwinter, bats have been seen flying about 
and even enteriug our houses. The horse-shoe bats, 
however, are much more sensitive to cold than would 
appear from the above statement, and do not come out 
from their haunts until spring is well advanced. Bats 
are animals of low intelligence. The common brown 
bat, however, has been tamed and been known to take 
food from the hand of its master, and even permit 
itself to be carried about in the pocket without attempt¬ 
ing to escape. Instances have been recorded to show 



that the maternal instinct is well developed; the mother 
fluttering about the cage containing the captured young, 
and attempting to get access to it. Among themselves, 
they appear to be quarrelsome. In cold retreats they 
keep close together, more for retention of heat than 
for an” purpose of support or defense. Bats have but a 
slight place in the regard of man. Africans and East 
Indians eat bats—the large fox bats being held by them 
to be excellent food. The droppings of bats in caves often 
i form large masses, known as bat guano. This substance 
is rich in nitrogenous elements, and has been used as 
a fertilizer.— Folk-lore. Associated with images of night, 

1 bats have been accepted as symbols of mystery and of 
evil. The construction of tombs in eastern countries 
I enables bats to secure easy access, and they aid the 
imagination in connecting their dusky forms with the 
• abodes of death. The spirits to whom there is no joy 
in the hope of resurrection are represented with bat- 
wings. The vampire is a mediaeval conception of a bat¬ 
like monster having human attributes. Oddly enough, 
among the zoological discoveries in the New World are 
i two bats already named which devour human blood, 
though the species called vampire by Linnanis is to be 
acquitted of living up to its name.— Distribution. Bats 
29 


are found in all countries, a few small islands excepted. 
They have been collected on the border of the Arctic 
circle, are abundant in the temperate zone, though most 
numerous both in individuals and species in the tropics. 
They are found at high altitudes as well as low. Islands 
are favorite places for them, though in some islands, as 
New Zealand and the Sandwich Islands, they are almost 
entirely absent, while they range freely over continents. 
Some of the genera are cosmopolitan, and the species 
may differ but slightly over extensive regions; others 
are strictly limited to small localities. There are forms 
peculiar to certain of the Antilles and islands in the 
South Seas, thus showing that the facilities of flight do 
not necessarily imply wide fields of distribution. Over 
four hundred species of bats are known to science. 



Fig. 2702.— head of molossus glaucinus. 


These are distributed among fifty genera.— Classification. 
The order yields seven great types arranged as follows: 

The Fox Bats ( Pteropodidte ).—They possess for the 
most part, elongated jaws, which give the group its 
common name, naked muzzles, large eyes, small ears 
without tragus, and ordinarily in addition to the claw 
on the thumb, a second on the index finger. They are 
strictly arboreal. They are fruit-eating and are pecu¬ 
liar to Africa, Southern Asia, Australia and the western 
groups of islands in the South Seas. Relatively, all the 
fox bats are of large size. 

The Horse-shoe Bats ( Bhinolophidse ).—They have 
short jaws and leaved muzzles, whose lower margins 
are rounded and give a fancied resemblance to horse¬ 
shoes. The eyes are small; the ears are without tragus. 
All the species are insectivorous and are generally dis¬ 
tributed in the eastern hemisphere. They live in the 
main in caves, cavities in trunks, &c. 

The Nycteridse .—A small group of Old World, tropical, 
insectivorous bats, which resemble the horse-shoe forms 
in the foliated muzzle, but possesses a tragus. The eyes 
are medium in size. The Nycteridse are arboreal, ana 
in some examples diurnal. 

The Vespertilionidie .—This family includes all the more 
common bats in both hemispheres. They are without 
nose-leaves, and the ears possess a well defined tragus. 
The eyes are medium in size. All the forms are insect¬ 
ivorous ; they are both arboreal and cave-dwelling. 

The Molossi .—The bats here embraced are without 
nose leaves, possess a rudimental tragus, and are best 
adapted of any of the order for terrestrial progression. 
They are closely allied to the Vespertilionidse, a fact of 
some significance, since few traces of relationship can 
be shown to exist between the other families above men¬ 
tioned. They are found in both hemispheres, though 
some members of the family are restricted. 

The EmbaUonuridse .—The bats here included are 
naked-nosed and tragus-bearing. Unlike the preced¬ 
ing, with which most writers include them, the Embal- 
lonuridse have large eyes. They are not adapted to 
terrestrial progression. Little is known of their habits. 



Fig. 2703. 

thumb of mystacina tuberculata, enlarged. 

Some are cave-dwellers; others are arboreal, and have 
short, feeble flight among shrubs and small trees. They 
are found in both hemispheres, but the several genera 
have restricted distributions. 

The Phyllostomidte .—The nose leaf with five exceptions 
(Na talus, Thyroptera, Noctilio, Chilonyeteris and Mormops) 
is present. The eyes are ordinarily large! and the ears 
possess a tragus. The group is the most plastic of any 
in the order, and remarkable contrasts are met with in 
form and function of the superficial characters. They 
are in the main carnivorous, though all the forms ex¬ 
cepting two (Desmodus and Diphylla —the true vampires) 
can partake of fruit, while a large group of the genera— 
the Slenodermina —are specially adapted for fruit diet. 

Thirty species of bats are found in the U. S., repre¬ 
senting fourteen genera and three families. The best 


known species in both East and West are the common 
brown bat, the little brown bat, and the red bat, all 
members of the Vespertilionidse. The common brown 
bat (Adelonycteris fusca) is the largest of this series. 
It is of a dark brown above and gray beneath. The 
muzzle is short, wide and naked. The tragus does not 
come to a sharp point. It has two pairs of front teeth; 
there are four teeth in the upper jaw back of the 
canine or eye tooth, and five in the lower jaw back of 
the canine or stomach tooth. This bat lives in caves, 
attics, &c., and often enters our dwellings. The little 
brown bat (Vespertilio gryphus) is smaller than the two 
preceding, and much more variable. It constitutes, in¬ 
deed, with its nine related species, one of the most diffi¬ 
cult studies in zoology. It has hair on the upper part 
of the muzzle and long bristles on the sides. The 
tragus is tapering, often markedly so. The colors are 
much the same as in A. fusca. It lives in forests and 
caves, rarely if ever entering dwellings. It has, like 
the preceding species, two pairs of front teeth, and six 
back of the canines above and below. The red bat 
(Atalapha noveboracensis) is common in country districts. 
It is of a bright red, or chocolate red, and is remarkable 
for the back surface of the interfemoral membrane 
being covered with hair. The front teeth are confined 
to a single pair, and there are five teeth back of the 
canines above and below. The red bat is arboreal, and 



Fig. 2704.— head of ntctinomus macrotis. 

is sometimes captured asleep, hanging by its legs on a 
shrub. The other bats in this country, named in the 
order of their frequency, are the following: Nyclinomm 
brasiliensis, common in Florida, Texas, southern part of 
California,and extendinginto Mexico; Antrozouspallidus, 
common in California and ranging thence into Mexico f 
Macrotus califomieus, found in California and Mexico; 
Vesperugo carolinensis, of the Atlantic slope and Missis¬ 
sippi valley; Vesperugo hesperus, found in California 
and the Colorado valley; Lasionycteris noctivagaus, or 
silvery bat, found on the Atlantic slope; Atalapha cinera, 
or hoary bat, found in the main in the eastern U. S. and 
Canada, though sparsely distributed as far west as the 
Bed River country; Alalpha teliotis, Euderma maculata, 
Nyctinomus nevadensis, Corynorhinus tovmsendi, Promops 
perolis, are all western; Dasypterus intermedins and 
Nycticejus humeralis are found in the southern belt of 
the States in the Mississippi valley and ranging thence 
through Texas to Mexico; and Artibeus perspicillatus is 
wanderer from the Antilles into Florida. 

Literature: The reader may consult, for additional 
information on the general subject, G. E. Dobson, Cata¬ 
logue of the Chiroptera, in the collection of the British 
Museum, London, 1878; and for the North America 
fauna, Harrison Allen, A Monograph of the Bats of North 
America, Bulletin No. 43, U. S. National Museum, 1893. 

Bateman, Kate Josephine, an actress,b. in Baltimore, 
1842, early exhibited dramatic ability ; at the age of nine 
made her debut in London in conjunction with her sister. 
B. appeared in 1859 in the U. S. In 1863 she revisited 
London, and in the role of “ Leah,” an impersonation 
adapted from the German play of “ Deborah,” achieved 
a striking success. « 

Baths of L,ncca ( look'kah ) The. [It. Bagni di 
Lucca.] A town and fashionable watering-place of N. 
Italy, 13 m. N. of the city of Lucca. It is a favorite spa, 
having hot springs containing sulphate of lime, sulphate 
of magnesia, muriate of magnesia, and other salts, and 
at various temperatures from 96° to 136°. Pop. in 1897 
about 10,000. 

Bathyb'ius. (Biol.) A name given by Huxley to a 
supposed form of life found at the bottom of some parts 
of the deep sea. It consisted of formless masses of 
albuminous slime, containing curious living concretions. 
Its existence is now generally doubted, some scientists 
regarding it as the protoplasmic debris of the protozoa 
which sink to the bottom as they die, and deposit this 
slimy material. 

Battaym'etcr, n. An instrument used for taking 
soundings in the deep sea; especially applied to an 
apparatus by which depth is inferred from force of 
gravity. 

Bat'tery, Galvan'io. (Phys.) Besides the batteries 
described in the body of this work (see Galvanic Bat¬ 
tery), there are many others of recent invention, among 
which the most generally adopted are perhaps the three 
forms figured in the accompanying diagrams. 1. Tho 
Sulphate of Mercury Battery, devised by M. Marie Davy. 
It is essentially a zinc-carbon element, but of smaller 
dimensions than those elements usually are. In the 
outer vessel ordinary water or brine is placed, and in 
the porous vessel sulphate of mercury. This salt is 
agitated with about three times its volume of water, 
in which it is not easily soluble, and the liquid poured 
off from the nast y mass. The carbon being placed 
irv the pa*-' * the spaces are filled with 













496 


BATT 


[SECTION II.] 


BATT 


residue and then the decanted liquid poured into it. 
Chemical action takes place only when the pile is closed, 
The zinc then decomposes the 
water, lioerating hydrogen, 
which traversing the porous 
vessel reduces the sulphate of 
mercury,forming metallic mer¬ 
cury, which collects at the bot¬ 
tom of the vessel, while the sul¬ 
phuric acid formed at the same 
time traverses the diaphragm 
to act ou the zinc and thus in¬ 
crease the action. The mercury 
which is deposited may be used 
to prepare a quantity of ■sul¬ 
phate equal to that which has 
been consumed. A small quan¬ 
tity of the solution of sulphate 
of mercury may also pass 
through the diaphragm: but 
this is rather advantageous, as ^ 
its effect is to amalgamate tho 




Fig. 2705. 


' zinc. The electro-motive force of this element is about 
a quarter greater than that of Daniell’e element, but it 
lias greater resistance; it is rapidly exhausted when con¬ 
tinuously worked, though it appears well suited for 
discontinuous work, as with the telegraph, and with 
alarums.— 2. Gravity Batteries. The use of porous vessels 
is liable to many objections, more especially in the case 
of Daniell’s battery, in which they gradually become 
encrusted with copper, which destroys them. A kind 
of battery has been devised in which the porous vessel 
is entirely dispensed with, and the separation of the 
liquids is effected by their difference of density. Such 
batteries are called gravity batteries. The form repre¬ 
sented has been devised by M. Calland of Nantes. V is 
a glass or earthenware vessel in which is a copper plate 
soldered to a wire insulated by gutta-percha. On the 
plate is a layer of crystals of sulphate of copper C; the 
whole is then filled with water, and the zinc cylinder 
Z is immersed in it. The lower part of the liquid be¬ 
comes saturated with sulphate of copper; the action 
of the battery is that of a Daniel], and the sulphate of 
zinc which gradually forms floats on the solution of 
sulphate of copper owing to its lower density. This 
battery is easily manipulated, the consumption of sul¬ 
phate of copper is economical, and when not agitated 
it works constantly for some months, provided care be 
taken to replace the water lost by evaporation. — 3. 
Menotti's Battery. This may be described as a Daniell’s 
element, in which the porous vessel is replaced by a 
layer of sawdust or of sand. At the bottom of an 
earthenware vessel is placed a layer of coarsely-pow¬ 
dered sulphate of copper a, and on this a copper plate 
provided with an insulated copper wire t. On this there 
is a layer of sand or of sawdust be, and then the whole 
is filled with water in which rests a zinc cylinder Z. 
The action is just that of a Daniel 1; the sand prevents 
the mixture of the liquids, but it also offers great re¬ 
sistance, which increases with its thickness. 

Bat'tleship, n. (Navy.) This term, in modern usage, 
refers exclusively to a war-vessel that might be properly 
designated as a floating fortress. Its place was formerly 
held by the “ line of battle” ship, a class of vessels car¬ 
rying 60 guns or more, and next above the old-style 
frigate in the matter of size and armament. The B. of 
to-day is distinguished from the cruiser (q.v.) by its 
heavier plating, its more powerful batteries, and lesser 
speed. It differs from the monitor (q.v.) in having, as 
a rule, higher speed and better sea-going qualities, and 
in carrying a larger number of guns, especially in the 
secondary battery.—The smallest of our B. is the Texas, 
which was launched on June 28, 1892, at the Norfolk 
Navy Yard. The original plans for this vessel were 
made by English designers, but these were afterward 
considerably altered. The Texas is a twin screw, steel- 
armored vessel of 6,335 tons normal displacement. 
It is driven by two sets of triple expansion engines 
capable of developing 5,800 horse-power with natural 
draught, and 8,600 horse-power with forced draught. 
The vessel is 290 feet in length, and 64 feet 1 inch wide. 
It has a mean draught of 22 feet, 6 inches, and will 
carry about 950 tons of coal. The main armament 
consists of two 12-inch breech-loading guns, each weigh¬ 
ing 46j4 tons, mounted in two turrets, one on either 
side of the forward deck. A secondary battery consists 
of four 6-pounder, and four 3-pounder rapid-firing guns, 
with four 47-mm. Hotchkiss guns. All of these are 
mounted on the gun deck, with a 1%-inch plating to 
protect them. There are besides two gatling guns, and 
two 37 mm. Hotchkiss guns mounted on the bridge. 



The military tops and the flying bridge are provided 
with similar equipments. The turrets are armored 
with 12 inches of steel, and their bases are inclosed by a 
diagonal redoubt armored with 12-inch steel plates, 
which will also serve to protect the hydraulic machinery 
used for operating the guns, and the smoke pipe cas¬ 
ings. The boilers and engines are protected by a belt of 
armor 12 inches thick, extending 2 feet above the 
designed water line, aud 4 % feet below it, having a 
length of 116 feet. There is a protective deck built of 


fire rifles in 2-inch shields. There were also eight 6- 
pounders, eight l-pounders, four gatlings, and four tor¬ 
pedo tubes. The side armor of 12-iuch steel extended 
180 feet ou the water-line. By some the Maine was con¬ 
sidered the most effective war¬ 
ship in our navy, considering 
her high speed and ready hand¬ 
ling in connection with a full 
complement of four guns of large- 
caliber.—There are three B. in 
the class next above the Texas , 
viz: the Indiana, Oregon, and 
Massachusetts. These are sister 


Fig. 2706.— section (showing armor) and deck plan, battleship of “Indiana” type. 


steel above the armor plate. The hull of the Texas is 
built on the cellular system, and is constructed through¬ 
out of steel. A double bottom extends under the en¬ 
gines, boilers, and magazines, and is divided into nu¬ 
merous water-tight compartments by longitudinal and 
transverse partitions. There are in all 129 of these 
compartments, and all are connected to steam- aud 
hand-pumps by an extensive drainage system. The 
boilers and engines are in water-tight compartments, 
and the ship is lighted throughout with electricity.— 
Next in size was the Maine, launched at Brooklyn Navy 
Yard, Nov. 18,1890, sunk in Havana Harbor on Feb. 15, 
1898 ; a twin-screw steel vessel whose dimensions were : 
length ou water line, 318 feet; breadth, 57 feet; mean 


ships, being practically identical in every essential 
detail; therefore a description of one will answerfor all. 
The completion of these magnificent warships, known 
technically as Coast-Defense IS., gave the U. S. for the first 
time in recent years an equal footing with the leading 
foreign nations in the matter of naval construction, if, 
indeed, it did not place us far in the lead. It is true 
that the ships were still small, the displacement of ihe 
Indiana being only 10,500 tons,while that of the British 
B. Boyal Sovereign, was 14,150 tons, and of tho Prince 
George, 14,900 tons; it may even be admitted that the 
records of the best English B. showed a somewhat higher 
rate of speed on trial. But any superiority that may have 
existed in this respect was fully offset by the greater 



Fig. 2707.— battleship “ Massachusetts ”—starboard quarter, showing turrets and disposition of the 

13-inch and 8-inch guns. 


draught, 2V6 feet; displacement, 6,648 tons. Her ver¬ 
tical, triple-expansion engines developed 9,293 horse¬ 
power, with a record of 17 4 knots per hour. In the 
main battery were four 10-inch rifles, two in each of the 
turrets, which were arranged diagonally amidships. 
These were plated with 8-inch steel, and revolved with¬ 
in barbettes covered with 12-inch steel armor; the 
plating extended downward to a level with the side 
armor of 12 inches, thus giving an unbroken wall of 
protection from the guns to the water-line. The turrets 
being arranged en echelon, all four of the big guns could 
be fired at once on either broadside, ahead, or astern. 
The secondary battery was made up of six 6-inch rapid- 


weight and more effective disposition of the armament of 
our vessels of the Indiana type. The dimensions of these 
warships are as follows: length, 348 feet; breadth, 69.3 
feet; mean draught, 24feet (26 feet when fully loaded). 
The accompanying illustration < Fig. 2706)shows the ar¬ 
rangement of armor. A belt of 18-inch steel protects 
their sides amidships, extending 3.6 feet above, and four 
feet below, the waterline, this belt being worked in waid 
to a point fore and aft, thug completely surrounding the 
engines, boilers, magazines, &c. A flat steel deck, 2% 
inches thick, forms the covering of this huge inverted 
box, which protects the “ vitals” of the ship. At either 
end of this armored box, and resting upon the deck n< 































































































































































































































Copyright. 1900. United States Battleship Kentucky. 

by William H. Rau 



Copyright, iHOO,- United States Battleship Kearsarge. 

by William H. Ran 


MODERN BATTLESHIPS 




























































BATT 


[SECTION II.] 


BATT 


497 


steel, rises a large round tower, or barbette, built of 
toughened steel 17 inches thick, in which revolve the 
great turrets, also made of 15-inch steel, and having an 
internal diameter of 20 'feet. Each turret contains a 
pair of 13-inch rifles, 40 feet in length, and weighing 50 
tons apiece. These mammoth instruments of war can 
throw a 1,100-pound shell with reasonable accuracy a 
distance of 12 miles, or pierce a 22-iuch steel plate at a 
range of one mile. Behind, above, and to the side of 
the main turrets are 4 6-inch steel towers protected by 
steel barbettes 8 inches in thickness, one on each quar¬ 
ter of the “armored box.” Each one contains 2 8-inch 
rifles of exceedingly high power, which throw armor¬ 
piercing shells that the best modern plate could not 
long resist at reasonably close quarters. These guns 
probably constitute the most effective part of the 
Indiana's armament, and give her great superiority over 
other B. of the first class, whose 6-inch rifles are not 
capable of piercing heavy armor even at close range. 
The eight 8-in. guns are carried some 26 feet above the 
water line, and may thus be worked with efficacy in 
any weather. Behind and adjoining each of these steel 
towers is placed, upon the steel deck, a 6-inch rifle, 
capable of doing fast and effective work. In addition 
to these heavy guns are no less than 20 6-pounder and 
6 1-pounder rapid-firing guns, and 6 torpedo tubes. 
The following table shows the enormous offensive power 
of our coast-defense vessels of the Indiana type: 


Mo . 

Guns . 

Caliber , 

Inches . 

Weight of 
shot . Pounds . 

Muzzle 

velocity . 

Feet . 

Muzzle 
energy , 
Tons . 

| Muzzle 
\ penetra - 
l tion of 
iron , 
j Inches . 

4 

13 

1,100 

2,100 

36,627 

1 34.6 

8 

8 

250 

2,150 

8,011 

21.6 

4 

6 

100 

2,150 

3,204 

| 15.6 


By reference to the deck-plan, showing the range of tne 
larger guns, (Eig. 2706), it will be seen that the 4 13- 
tnch, 4 of the 8-inch, and 2 of the 6-inch rifles may all 
be trained, as a broadside, upon a given point, the 10 
projectiles having a total weight of 5,600 pounds and 
in aggregate muzzle energy of 184,690 tons. It is not 
nt all likely that such a terrific broadside will ever be 
attempted, or that it could be delivered without great 
destruction from the recoil; but the figures give a vivid 
idea of the tremendous power of the battery.—Another 
type is the so-called Sea-Going B., of which the Iowa is 
our only example afloat up to 1897. This vessel has 
the following dimensions: length, 360 feet; breadth, 
72.2% feet; mean draught, 24 feet; displacement, 11,296 
tons; horse-power, 11,000; speed, 17 4 knots; coal capa¬ 
city, about 2,000 tons. Her main battery comprises 4 
12-inch, and 8 8-inch rifles, disposed very much as in the 
Indiana type. The secondary batter}' is made up of 6 4- 
inch rapid-fire rifles in sponsons, throwing a shell that 
w'eighs 36 pounds, and capable of being fired ten times 
a minute. Light armor protects these guns against 
machine-gun fire, and they have a very wide range. In 
the auxiliary battery there are 20 6-pounders and 9 1- 
pounders, with 6 torpedo tubes. The heavy side armor 
consists of a steel belt of 14 inches maximum thickness, 
covering 196 feet on each side and extending 4.6 feet 
above and 3 feet below the water line. This belt has a 
wood backing of 12 inches. Across the ship are 12-incli 
belts of steel, connecting the ends of the side armor, 
and the flat protective deck is 2% inches thick. Amid¬ 
ships, at either end of this armored structure, barbettes 
•re established, with 16-inch armor, inside of which are 


each furnished with its own pumping and draining 
apparatus. The Iowa has twin screws, driven by en¬ 
gines of the direct-acting, triple expansion type. The 
smoke funnels tow'er 100 feet above the grate bars, thus 
ensuing good results from the boilers under natural 
draught. Stout torpedo nettings, reaching from water¬ 
line to keel, are a defensive feature of probable value. 
The conning tower is 8 feet in diameter, with 7.4 feet 
head room, and 7%-inch steel armor. The single mast 
has 3 military tops. Differing from the Indiana and 
her sister ships, the great 12-inch guns in the forward 
main turret and the 8-inch guns in the upper turrets 


are all upon the same level, viz: 25 feet above the 
water line; while the 12-inch guns in the after main 
turret are lower—only 18 feet above the water.—A later 
type of B. is represented by the Iiearsarge and Ken¬ 
tucky, which were constructed during 1896-98, at 
Nev'port News, Va., and by the Alabama, Illinois and 
Wisconsin, for which the contracts were awarded in 
September, 1896. The general dimensions of the 
Kearsarge type are as follows: length, 368 feet; 
breadth, 72.2 feet; freeboard, (forward) 14.3 feet, (aft) 
12.3 feet; displacement, 11,500 tons; mean draught, 
23.6 feet; horse-power, (estimated) 10,000; speed, 16 
knots. These vessels are extremely formidable, offen¬ 
sively and defensively, and are remarkable for tbe 
thickness and effective distribution of armor protec¬ 
tion. The main armor belt, 4 feet below and 3.6 feet 
above the w'ater line, extends from the after barbette 
forward to the stern. Between the barbettes the max- 


distinct novelty. Each of these turrets is enclosed in 
a barbette of 15-incli steel, rising 3 feet above its base, 
3.6 feet above tbe water line. Behind this mighty bar¬ 
rier there lies the mechanism by which the ponderous 
turret is operated. Fifteen inches of Harveyized 
steel protects the guns of 13-incli calibre, while the 
upper turret, carrying the 8-iuch guns, is covered 
with 9 inches of the same tough metal. Around the 
ports from which the muzzles project there is an addi¬ 
tional thickness of 2 inches in both turrets. The upper 
turret is rigidly fixed to the one below, being there¬ 
fore incapable of independent rotary mutiou. All the 


guns in these double turrets have a sweep of 270°— 
three-quarters of the entire horizon. The special ad¬ 
vantages of this form of turret are the concentration 
of motive mechanisms and the high degree of protection 
given the ammunition hoists for the 8-inch guns. The 
secondary battery reflects the lessons of the Cliino- 
Japanese war. It consists of bioadside batteries of 
7 5-incli guns on each side, with 4 6-pounders sur¬ 
mounting each battery. All of these guns are of 
the rapid-fire pattern and capable of pouring out a per¬ 
fect hail of shells charged with high explosives. It is 
doubtful whether there is a torpedo boat afloat that 
could live to come within effective range in the face of 
such a fusillade, especially as these rapid-fire guns 
have a train of 90° and are re-enforced by a dozen 
others in various parts of the ship, the gatlings on the 
military tops of the two masts, and the five torpedo 
tubes—all the latter being above the water line. A 




Fig. 2709.—battleship “ Massachusetts ”—the bow torpedo room ; (2) a side torpedo tube. 


the main turrets, with 14-inch armor, each carrying 2 
12-inch guns. Above the heavy armor belt a secoud 
citadel is raised, having 4-inch steel walls, and extend¬ 
ing 100 feet fore and aft, its diagonal segments con¬ 
necting with the main barbettes. Each corner of this 
upper citadel presents an 8-inch steel barbette contain¬ 
ing a revolving turret covered with steel plate 5% 
inches thick. It is predicted that the 4-incli steel 
walls will cause projectiles charged with high explo¬ 
sives to be destroyed by their own impact before pene¬ 
trating to the inside. A special feature in the construc¬ 
tion is the use of belts of cellulose (q. v.) between the 
»rmor and the inside work, to prevent an inrush of 
water in case of injury. The hull is built on the cellular 
orinciple, with numerous water-tight compartments, 


imum thickness is 16% inches, tapering to 9% inches 
at the edge below the water ; from the forw ard barbette 
to the stem the belt gradually diminishes to 4 inches 
in thickness. At either end of the thickest portion 
there is placed, athwart-ships, a steel bulkhead 10 inches 
thick forward and 12 inches thick aft—this as a protec¬ 
tion against an enemy’s raking fire. A flat steel protec¬ 
tive deck, 2% inches thick, rests upon the four walls 
thus formed, completely encompassing the engines, 
boilers, and magazines. Forward and aft the main 
barbettes, the protective deck slopes to below the 
water line at the ends, backing up the ram at the bow; 
this portion increased from a thickness of 2% inches 
to from 3 to 5 inches. Upon either end of the main 
steel tortress there is placed a double-decked turret—a 


complete belt of cellulose has been worked from stem r* 
stern, and further protection is attained by the dis¬ 
position of the coal bunkers along the sides of the vessel. 
Tbe conning tower, covered with 10-inch..steel plate, 
contains a complex system of electrical bells and other 
signals, speaking-tubes, telephones, &c.,which places the 
commanding officer in instant touch with every nook 
and corner of the ship. A coal supply of 1,200 tons 
can carry the vessel 6,000 knots at a cruising speed 
of 16 knots an hour. The deck plan here given (Fig. 
2708), shows the disposition and range of the principal 
guns, the armor, smokestacks, <Ssc.—Of a still later 
model are tbe Alabama, the Illinois and the Wisconsin. In 
these the 8-inch armor-piercing guns are w anting; but, 
as an offset to this, there is a formidable battery of 























































































498 


BAYS 


[SECTION II.] 


BEDF 



14 6-inch rapid-fire guns of the highest power. This 
change was warranted by the several practical ex¬ 
periments to which the modern battleship had been 
subjected, i.e., the battles of the Valll, Manila, and 
Santiago, in which it was found that the best work was 
done by rapid-fire weapons of large calibre. In the 
newer ships there exist a combination of the heavy 
tumor of the Indiana, the high freeboard and sea- 
i Agoing qualities of the Iowa, and the powerful rapid-fire 
battery of the Kearsarge. The general dimensions of 
the ships named are as follow s: length, 368 feet; breadth 
72.2% test; freeboard, 19.7 forward and 13.6 feet aft; 
displacement, 11,325 tons; horse-power (estimated), 
10,000; mean draught, 23.6 feet, speed, 16 knots; coal 
capacity, 1,260 tons.—In addition to the ten battle¬ 
ships named, eight others, larger and more powerful 
xtnd carrying heavier batteries, were constructed in the 
few following years. In 1896 the Ohio and the Maine 
(the latter to replace the old Maine sunk in Havana 
Harbor) were put on the stocks, and in 1900 the 
Missouri. These are each of 12,500 tons displacement 
and 16,000 horse-power, with 18 knots speed, their 
main armament consisting of 4 twelve-inch and 16 six- 
inch guns, the latter of the rapid-fire type. The re- 


Fig. 2710.— BREECH OF THE 13-INCH GUNS. 

maining five include the Rhode Island, Virginia, 
Georgia, New Jersey and Nebraska, each of nearly 15, 

000 tons displacement and 19,000 liorse-power, with a 
speed of 19 knots per hour, and a main armament of 
4 twelve-inch and 8 eight-inch breech-loaders and 12 
six-inch rapid-fire guns, and a secondary armament of 
12 three-inch, 12 three pounders, and 8 one-pounder 
rapid-fire, 2 three-inch field. 2 machine, and 6 auto¬ 
matic guns. The battleship fleet has since been con¬ 
siderably augmented, twelve ships of the most modern 
types having been added. Tw'o of these, the Idaho and 
Mississippi, are of smaller size than those just named, 
being of 13,000 tons displacement and 10,000 horse¬ 
power, and carrying in their main batteries, 4 tw elve- 
inch, 8 eight-inch and 12 seven-inch breech-ioadingrifled 
guns. Kight others bear the names of Connecticut, Kan¬ 
sas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, Souht 
Carolina and Vermont. These rivalled in size the most 
powerful warships afloat at the date of their building, 
being of 16,000 tons displacement and 16,500 horse¬ 
power, with a speed of 18 knots. Their armament 
includes 4 twelve-inch, 8 eight-inch, 12 seven-inch and 
about 50 smaller guns. This powerful type of battle¬ 
ship has since been much exceeded, the British Dread¬ 
nought, of 17,900 tons, and others of over 18,000 
and 19,000 tons, having set the maritime nations 
into a new activity to rival their island neighbors. 
The answer of the United States to this challenge con¬ 
sists in two enormous ships, the Delaware and North 
Dakota, of 20,000 tons each and 25,000 horse-power 
aud with the extraordinary speed for a battle-ship of 21 
knots. Their armament includes 10 twelve-inch and 
14 five-inch breech-loading guns. Two others, the 
Florida and Utah, have been ordered, making a total of 
32 battleships in the navy of the United States. 

flau'dry, Paul Jacques Aimee, b. In 1828 at Laroche- 
sur-Yon, France. A painter of historical subjects, por¬ 
traits and decorative works, chief among them the foyer 
in the Grand Opera House at Paris. Died in 1886. 

Baiiiifgarten, Hermann, a noted German historian, 
b. in 1825. Wrote Geschichte Spaniens zur Zje.it der Franzb- 
Riiche Revolution, 1861, and its continuation up to date, 
1871; Karl V. und (tie Deutsche Reformation, 1889. 

Bavier, Simeon, born in 1828 at Chur or Loire, Switzer 
land. An engineer and statesman. Member, 1873, and 
president, 1882. of the Federal Council; Minister Pleni¬ 
potentiary of Switzerland to Italy, 1883. Wrote Die 
Strassen der Schweiz, 1879. 

Bax'ter, William Edward, a British politician, born in 
1825; author of America and the Americans, 1855; Secre¬ 
tary of the Admiralty, 1868; Secretary of the Treasury. 
1871-73. Died in 1890. 

Bay St. I.oii is. in Mississippi, a city, cap. of Hancock 

, co. It is situated on Mississippi Sound, Gulf of Mexico. 


Bay'ard, Thomas Francis, b. in 1828 at Wilmington, 
Del., son of the statesman Jas. Asheton Bayard [1799- 
1880]. Was admitted to the bar, 1851; U. S. District 
Attorney, 1852; U. S. Senator from Delaware, 1869-85; 
a member of the Electoral Commission on the Hayes- 
Tilden election, 1876-77; president pro tem. of the Sen¬ 
ate, 1881; unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic 
presidential nomination, 1880 and 1884; Secretary of 
State, 1885-89; first U. S. Ambassador to Great Britain, 
1893-1897. Died Sept. 28, 1898. 

Bay'fleld, in Wisconsin, a city and township, formerly 
cap. of Bayfield co. It lies on an arm of Lake Superior 
and has one of the best harbors on the Great Lakes; a 
summer resort. Pop. in 1890, 1,373; in 1897, abt. 2,000. 

Baynes, Thos. Spencer, born in 1823 at Wellington, 
Somersetshire, Eng. A University professor (St. An¬ 
drew’s, 1864), philosophical writer, journalist (Loudon 
Daily News), and editor of the ninth edition of the 
Encyclpstdia Britannica. Died in 1887. 

Bayr'holTer, Karl Theodor, a German publicist and 
politician, born in 1812. Originally professor of phi¬ 
losophy at Marburg (Hesse Nassau) University; then 
member and (1850) president of the landtag of Hesse. 
Removed to the U. S. and died at Jordan, Wis., in 1888. 

Beall, John Young, a Virginian 
Confederate spy in the Civil 
War, born in 1835. Was arrested 
at Suspension Bridge, N.Y., 1864; 
tried at Fort Lafayette, and de¬ 
spite a proclamation by Jeffer¬ 
son Davis, in which the Con¬ 
federate government assumed 
the responsibility of his acts, he 
was hanged (on Governor’s Is¬ 
land, N. Y.) in 1865, it having 
been proved that he had per¬ 
petrated acts of war within these 
States, wearing at the time 
on visible badge of military 
service. 

Beard, William H., born in 
1825 at Painesville, 0. An artist, 
chiefly know T n, as was his broth¬ 
er, James Henry B. [1812-1893], 
as a painter of animals. 
Beards'ley, Aubrey, an Eng¬ 
lish artist, bom in 1874; illus¬ 
trated Malory’s Morle d'Arthur ; 
produced, in 1896, a large num¬ 
ber of drawings for the Savoy 
and illustrations for The Rape 
of the Lock, Lysistrata, The Sixth 
Satire of Juvenal, and for several 
of Wagner’s operas. Noted also 
for his unique magazine covers 
and posters. D. March 16,1898. 

Beardsley, Eben Edwards, born in 1807 at Stepney, 
Conn.; a Protestant Episcopal clergyman. Wrote the 
History of the Episcopal Church in Connecticut, 1865; Life 
and Times of William Samuel Johnson, 1876; Life and 
Correspondence of Rev. Samuel Seabury, 1881, &c. Died 
in 1891. 

Beast Fable. Beast Tale. Short stories, largely 
belonging to folk-lore, in which the lower animals are 
introduced as talking and reasoning beings, sometimes 
alone, sometimes in association with men. Stories of 
this kind are very numerous and wide-spread, examples 
of them being found in all literary periods, and as the 
domestic lore of people in very varied degree of develop¬ 
ment. It seems probable that they had their origin in 
that remote period when man did not discriminate be¬ 
tween his own intellectual powers and those of the sur¬ 
rounding animals, whom he deemed capable of thought 
and invested with powers of speech. It may be that 
some of these animals had a mythological origin, while 
others are clearly totemistic, i. e., they indicate a belief 
that the tribe has descended from a certain animal. 
But as a rule they arose from the desire to tell an 
amusing story or to explain phenomena of the animal 
kingdom. Fables for amusement are very apt to become 
satirical, and of this class we possess a remarkable and 
highly interesting example in the mediaeval Reynard, 
the Fox. Tales of the explanatory class are very numer¬ 
ous, and are found among most of the uncivilized tribes, 
who have brought their imagination into play in ex¬ 
planation of phenomena which lie beyond the resources 
of their reason. Thus we are taught by a tale why the 
alligator never sleeps far from the river bank; why the 
raven is completely black, &c. In addition to the fables 
which have been handed down orally, examples have 
come to us in the earliest literatures, such as those of 
Babylonia and Egypt. Of classic collections we possess 
those of the Greek, jEsop, and the Roman of Phtedras, 
while back of these are the fables of Babrius, drawn from 
the ancient folk-lore stock, and of which those of JEsop 
are paraphrases. The Indian Fables of Bidpai is another 
famous collection, while from the literature of the past 
various other illustrative examples might be adduced. 
The modern world has only one great fabulist, the 
French La Fontaine, in whose hands the fable became 
a poem, and whose delightful art brought, finally, the 
fable into the circle of the world’s best literature. 

Beatty, John, born in 1828 at Sandusky, 0. A briga¬ 
dier-general ; commanded a brigade in the three days’ 
fight at Stone River, 1862; member of Congress from 
Ohio, 1868—73. Wrote The Citizen Soldier, or Memoirs of 
a Volunteer, 1879; The Belle o'Becket's Lane, 1882, &c. 

Bea ver. James Adams, born in 1837 at Millerstown, Pa. 
In early life, a law student; lieutenant-colonel, 1861; 
colonel, 1862; wounded at Chancellorsville, 1863; led 
hi? regiment throughout the Wilderness campaign, 


I 1884; played an important part at Spottsyiv&nia court, 
house, Cold Harbor; wounded at Petersburg, he rods 
to the battlefield of Ream’s Station in an ambulance, 
and had scarcely taken command when his right leg 
was shattered by a rifle-ball; was brevetted brigadier- 
general of volunteers, 1864; would never leave his own 
men, the 45tli Pennsylvania Volunteers, and repeatedly 
declined promotion on that account. Republican gov¬ 
ernor of Pennsylvania, 1887-91; elected a justice of 
the Superior Court of Pennsylvania, 1896. 

Be'foel. Ferdinand August, a prominent member of the 
Social-Democratic party in Germany, born in 1840; a 
member of the Reichstag almost interruptedly since it» 
creation in 1871; was sentenced to imprisonment for 
high treason against the German Empire and lese- 
majesty against the German Emperor, 1872. Wrot# 
Unsere Ziele, 1886; Christenthum and Sozialismus, 1884. 

Becca'ri, Odoardo, a distiguished Italian botanist, born 
in 1843, who made extensive explorations through 
New Guinea, the East India Islands and Abyssinia, and 
published some of his discoveries and travels in the 
Bollettino della Socield Geografica Ilaliana. He founded 
the Nuovo Giornale Botanico Ilaliano. 

Becliiiana (bct-shu-a'nd). The name of an African 
people who occupy an extensive area of South Africa, 
which includes a large part of the Kalahari desert. 
They are industrious in disposition, live in towns of 
considerable size, and are unwarlike, having proved un¬ 
able to resist the invasions of the Kaffirs, Zulus aud 
Matabele bordering them on the coast. Numbers of 
them make their way to Cape Town, where they prove 
efficient servants. The B. are well formed and of bronze 
or dark-brown hue, while they are often handsome, 
their features not being of the strongly marked African 
type. Agriculture and certain domestic arts are prac¬ 
ticed, though the rainless character of their country 
renders the soil unfruitful. They number about 200,000. 
Their language belongs to the Bantu family of speech. 

Beclinaii'aland. ( Geog .) The region in South Africa 
inhabited by the Bechuanas, bounded on the S. by Cape 
Colony, on the E. by the Transvaal Republic, on the W. 
by the S. German territory, and on the N. by German 
Territory and Matabelaland, and containing about 
170,000 sq. m. of territory. Part of this area is a British 
crown colony, which extends to the Molopo river on 
the N.; a second portion of it is a British protectorate, 
extending over the Kalahari Desert to 23° S. Lat.; and 
a third portion forms the dominions of the native 
chief, Kliama, whose interests are British. The crown 
colony, embracing about 51,000 sq. m., has a foreign 
population of over 12,000 and a native pop. of 60,000. It 
was formed in 1885. B. is an elevated region, being 
4,000 to 5,000 feet above sea-level, is largely rainless, 
but has proved adapted to cattle and maize, while the 
culture of tobacco has been introduced. The minerals 
include gold, silver, lead and iron. A railway extends 
from Capetown to Vryburg, the capital of the colony, 
passing through Kimberly. The telegraph has also 
been introduced. 

Becli, James Burnie, an American statesman ot Scotch 
birth; Congressman from Kentucky, 1866-75; member 
of the Commission on the Virginia and Maryland 
boundary, 1876; U. S. Senator, 1877-90. Born in 1812; 
died in 1890. 

Beck'er, Nickolaus, a German poet, the author of 
some 70 compositions, the chief of which is the populat 
Rheinlied, Sie sollen ihn richt haben, for wliich he received 
1,000 thalers from Frederick William IV. Died in 1845. 

Beck'er, Thomas A., born in 1832, at Pittsburg, Pa. 
A Roman Catholic bishop and writer; at one time pro¬ 
fessor at St. Mary’s College, Emmettsburg; created 
bishop of the new diocese of Wilmington, Del., 1868; 
transferred to the see of Savannah in 1886. A prolific 
contributor to the American Catholic Quarterly and other 
periodicals. 

Iieek'witli, James Carroll, born at Hannibal, Mo., 
in 1852. A painter, noted for his Falconer, sent to the 
Paris Exposition, 1878; sketched in Spain and France, 
1880-81, and produced since then Christian Martyr, Azalea, 
Vivian, &c. 

Beeq nerel', Alexandre Edmond, a French physicist, 
born in 1820, noted, like his father, Antoine Cesar B. 
[1788-1878] for his researches[in electricity, photography, 
&c. Died in 1891. 

Boil. ( Geol.) A stratum of sedimentary rock, which may 
differ considerably in thickness. If thin, and different 
from the neighboring formations, it is often called a 
seam. A bed is frequently composed of many thin 
lamina: or plates, which are due to an intermittent 
deposition of materials, as in the case of ebb and flow 
of the tide, or varying degree of turbidness of the 
water to which the deposit was due. Several beds of 
the same kind of rock, aggregated, form what is known 
as a “ formation.” 

Bedell', Gregory Thurston, born in 1817 at Hudson, 
N. Y., son of the clergyman and hymn-writer Gregory 
Townsend It. [1793-1834]. A bishop of the P. E. diocese 
of Ohio, 1873-89; previously assistant bishop, 1859-73, 
and rector of the Church of the Ascension, New York 
city, 1843-59. Wrote Canterbury Pilgrimage to the Lam¬ 
beth Conference, 1878; The Pastor, 1880; Centenary of 
the American Episcopate, 1884. Died in 1892. 

Bed, Folding, a form of bed which has come largely 
into use from its advantage in rooms where space ii 
desired during the day. The frame of the bedstead ij 
made with joints and weights which permit its folding 
when not in use, so that, with its enclosed bedding, it 
may occupy a much smaller space than when extended 
for use. Folding beds, when closed, are made to imi¬ 
tate articles of furniture, such as a desk, bookcase, &c. f 
being ornamental while their true purpose is concealed. 





















BEEC 


[SECTION II.] 


BELL 


499 


Bee Culture. The keeping of bees as a source of 
profit—a very ancient human industry—has extended 
largely of recent years, improved appliances and better 
acquaintance with the habits of the honey-bee having 
stimulated the industry. Of Apis mellifica, the species 
employed in Europe and America, the leading varieties 
are the Ligurian or Italian bee, the Caruiolau or Hun¬ 
garian bee, the Cyprian bee and the common black 
bee. Of these varieties the Italian is, as a rule, given 
the preference. Its queens are more prolific and there¬ 
fore yield larger swarms, while the bees seem to work 
harder during the honey season, going abroad earlier 
and returning later in the evening. The rearing of 
queens for exportation is largely carried on in Italy, 
Germany, Cyprus and Palestine, and the improved 
foreign stocks are being widely disseminated. When 
brought by European settlers to the U. S., many of the 
bees escaped from domestication, and made their way 
into the forests, where they hived in their natural man¬ 
ner in hollow trees, in which occasionally large stores 
of honey were accumulated. They kept like a fringe 
on the borders of the settlements, the speed of migra¬ 
tion of men and bees being much the same, and gave 
rise to a new form of hunting industry—that of bee¬ 
hunting. The bee hunter, provided with a little honey 
or dissolved sugar, would catch a bee at work on the 
wild flowers, introduce her to his cheaper source of 
sweets, and watch her course as she flew off in haste to 
the forest. At some distance to right or left he would 
catch another and go through the same process. As the 
bee always flies in a straight line home, a study of these 
converging lines of flight would show their meeting 
point. A repetition of the experiment was not usually 
necessary, the hunters gaining, in time, almost an 
instinct in locating the hives. The tree found, it was 
quickly felled, split open, and its stock ot honey, often 
the accumulation of years of bee labor, rifled.— Hives. 
A bee-hive needs to be light, for ease in moving, but at 
the same time with walls thick enough to protect the 
inmates from extreme changes of temperature, and also 
suitable to keep out rain or dampness. In Great Britain 
the straw hive has been used for ages, though now it 
has widely given way to the bar-frame hive. In Russia 
logs of wood, hollowed out in the centre, are used. In 
the U. S. only the frame hive is in use. The principle 
of the moveable-comb hive, now so common, was known 
to the ancient Greeks, but has only lately been devel¬ 
oped. The first important invention in this field was 
made by an American bee-keeper, Rev. L. L. Lang- 
stroth, in 1851. In this hive the combs are built in 
frames, hung side by side in a box. The use of this 
hive has greatly developed the business of bee-keeping. 
The old system of killing the bees to obtain the honey 
would now be considered barbarous. The frame hive is 
a simply-constructed one; its capacity may be readily 
changed to accommodate any number ot bees; the 
drone-producing powers of the hive may be regulated; 
and upon signs of anything having gone wrong in the 
hive, the bee raiser can generally detect its cause and 
apply a remedy without delay. Above the box con¬ 
taining the frames, which serves as brood-chamber and 
store-houses of the bees and is never disturbed, is 
placed a box of similar dimensions, the whole being 
covered with a sloping roof. This is intended for the 
surplus comb, and its frames, with their marketable 
product, can be removed at will .—Artificial Swarming. 
One of the difficulties with which the bee-keeper has to 
contend is the management of swarms, which some¬ 
times give him no small trouble, and occasionally com¬ 
pletely escape. To avoid this, all advanced bee-keepers 
now practice methods of artificial swarming. This is 
easily accomplished. The hive to be swarmed is moved 
aside and an empty hive put in its place. Then the 
frames of bees are lifted out one by one and examined, 

* until the queen is discovered, when the comb on which 
she is found is placed in the empty hive. One or two 
brood combs are removed with it. The old hive is now 
carried to a new situation in the garden. Nothing more 
is needed. All the bees at work in the fields, as well as 
the old bees in the swarmed hive, will make their way 
to the new hive and the old site, leaving the new brood 
of bees to occupy the old hive .—Getting the Honey. In 
old times, when the honey was wanted at the close of 
the season, the bees were all destroyed by the fumes of 
sulphur. A more humane method is now practiced. 
Above the box of frames, as has been said, a second box 
is placed, of equal dimensions, between the two being 
a sheet of “ excluder zinc,” that is, zinc with slits wide 
enough to let the workers through, but not the queen. 
Thus no brood cells are made in the upper box, only 
pure honey being stored. When this box is filled it is 
removed and an empty one put in its place. In order 
to obtain the honey, the capping of the cells is cut off 
and the bars or frame put into a machine called the 
extractor, in which the honey is thrown out by centri¬ 
fugal force, and the empty combs preserved intact to be 
again filled by the bees. The labor of making new 
comb being thus saved the insects, they confine them¬ 
selves to honey-gathering, and large stores are laid up. 
Bee-keeping is a highly important industry in the U. S., 
and California, especially Southern California, may be 
looked upon as the paradise of bee-keepers. Here the 
bees swarm in March or April, and the taking of honey 
begins about the 20th of May. Of those who confine 
themselves to this industry, some possess from 2,000 to 
3,000 hives, whose inmates fairly revel in the flowery 
wealth of that genial climate. It is said that a single 
hive has yielded as much as 700 lbs. of honey. 
Beech'er, Eunice White Bui.lard, wife of Henry 
Ward £., born at West Sutton, Mass., Aug. 26, 1812; 
educated at Hadley, Mass. Wrote From Dark to Dawning 


during her early married life, and in her later years was 
a somewhat copious contributor to household periodi¬ 
cals, one series of papers being entitled Mr. Beecher as I 
Knew Him. Died at Stamford, Conn., Mar. 8,1897, on 
the tenth anniversary of her husband’s death. 

Ileer. Adolf, an Austrian historian, born in 1831; pro¬ 
fessor of history in various colleges; author of Geschichte 
des Welthandels, I860; Die erste Teilung Polens , 1873; Die 
Orientalische Politik Ocslerreichs seit 177U, 1883; Oesterreich 
und die Deutschen Handelseinigungsbestrebungen, 1817-20. 
1887, Ac. 

Beer. (Manuf.) Tannin has been recently used'with 
much success in the preparation of £., for arresting 
fermentation and preventing change beyond a certain 
point. It is to the presence of tannin in the leaves of 
the hops that its preservative peculiarities are due; and 
the same agent is obtained in greater intensity from the 
nutt-gall, 75 grains of tannin exerting as positive an 
action upon B. as a pound of the best hops. By taking 
tannin dissolved in ten times its weight of warm water 
and adding it to the wort, a complete clarification will 
take place, and on cooling a deposit will be thrown down. 
In all cases where the peculiar aroma and bitter sub¬ 
stance of hops are not desired, but a sweet B. is to be 
produced, the hops can always be replaced completely 
and with advantage by the tannin. The use of this 
material allows the manufacture of several kinds of B. 
and obviates the necessity of using any other mode of 
clarifying. The method of preserving wine devised by 
Pasteur has been with complete success applied to the 
preservation of B., and immense quantities of malt 
liquors of various kinds, after having been subjected to 
the process, are shipped from Germany to all parts of the 
world. The bottles, after being filled and well corked, 
are kept for about half an hour in a water-bath having 
a temperature of 122° Fahr., after which the warm 
water is gradually replaced by cold, so as to prevent too 
rapid cooling. In one of the experiments instituted for 
determining the feasibility of the operation, four bottles 
of the same kind of B. were well corked, and two of 
them were submitted to the process in question, after 
which all were introduced into a heated room in the 
vicinity of a stove, and kept at a temperature of between 
70° and 80° for four weeks. At the end of this time the 
prepared B. was found to be perfectly clear and of a 
golden tint, with only a slight deposit of granular mat¬ 
ter at the bottom. The unprepared £., however, was 
found to have passed into an active state of fermenta¬ 
tion, turning completely sour, and one of the bottles 
had burst in consequence. The fermentation of malt 
in the production of B. is now known to be due to the 
action of certain forms of bacteria, and experiment has 
rendered it evident that certain variations in the quality 
of the B. produced are due to the action of the particular 
bacterium at work, the effect being occasionally widely 
different. As it is now known what species of bacteria 
yield the best results as ferments, many B. manufac¬ 
turers have taken advantage of this to improve the 
quality of their product. By culture methods the proper 
microbe is obtained and placed in the wort, while precau¬ 
tions are taken to prevent the introduction of microbes 
from the air or other sources. The effect has been found 
advantageous and the culture of bacteria for this purpose 
has become a recognized industry. The production of 
malt liquors in the U. S. is, at present, more than 33,000- 
000 barrels of 31 gallons annually. The production of 
the principal countries of Europe in 1895 was: German 
Empire, 55,243,753 hectolitres; Great Britain and Ire¬ 
land, 53,003,945; Austria-Hungary, 19,448,993; Belgium, 
9,539,581; France, 8,867,320; Russia, 4,578,260. The hec¬ 
tolitre is equal to 26 414 gallons, or about four-fifths of a 
barrel. The annual consumption of malt liquors in the 
U. S. is more than 1,000,000,000 gallons. 

Becr'bohm-Tree, Herbert, an actor; born in Lon¬ 
don, Eng., 1853. Notably successful in “ John-a-dreams,” 
1894; “Trilby,” 1895; “Henry IV.,” 1896, Ac. Has 
visited America several times, and has achieved great 
success here as a actor and a lecturer on the drama. 

Beet Sugar. The production of sugar from the beet 
is growing into so important an industry in this country, 
that some special consideration of this subject seems 
here necessary, in addition to that given under Sugar 
( q. v.). A century and a half has passed since Maggraf 
announced (in 1747) to the Berlin Academy of Science 
that he had discovered a method of producing sugar 
from the beet. Half a century afterward his pupil, 
Achard, announced improvements in this process, and 
the industry began to grow. It was considerably de¬ 
veloped during the Napoleonic wars, when Jt became 
almost impossible to import sugar from the Vrest Indies, 
but after the close of these wars it almost ceased to 
exist. Yet it was not suffered quite to die out; improved 
methods were invented, a larger yield was obtained, and 
the production in France, which was 4,380 tons in 1830, 
increased to 750,000 tons in 1890. The increase in Ger¬ 
many was still greater, advancing from 13,445 tons in 
1840 to 1,213,689 in 1890. For years B. S. has been an 
important article of export from Germany. In 1887 
there were ‘sent from that country 57,773 tons. Ten 
years later this was increased more than ten-fold, reach¬ 
ing 643,340 tons. In 1890 it was 718,985 tons. In that 
year it was much the largest article exported from Ger¬ 
many to the U. S., which paid Germany about 816,000,000 
for this article alone. During the last sixty years such 
improvements have been made in the process of manu¬ 
facture that the yield of sugar by the beet root has 
advanced from 4 or 5 per cent, to from 12 to 16 per cent., 
while the cost of production has decreased to about one- 
fourth its former amount. The total yield of B. S. in 
Europe in 1877-78 was 1,420,827 tons. In the year 
1889-90 this had increased to over 3,600,000 tons, and in 


1894-95 to 4,800,000, an increase in 7 years of about 350 
per cent. Of the European yield in 1889-90 Germany is 
credited with, in round numbers, 1,210,000; France, 
750,000; Russia, 480,000.— Culture in U. S. The experi¬ 
ments that have, from time to time, been made to pro¬ 
duce B. S. in this country are given under Sugar. It 
was not until 1890 that an earnest effort was made in 
this direction, the government taking the matter in 
hand. In the early spring of that year 5,000 packages 
of the best sugar beet seed, obtained from Europe, were 
distributed to applicants in all parts of the country, with 
the understanding that the beets raised should be sent 
for analysis to the Agricultural Department. In conse¬ 
quence beets were received from about 1,000 localities, 
the analysis of which gave highly favorable results, es¬ 
pecially in the case of those received from the northern 
and central areas, yielding in many cases 15 per cent, of 
sugar, and 20 per cent, in exceptional instances. A 
typical sugar beet should be conical in shape, smooth ex¬ 
ternally, white and solid in its interior, should weigh 
about 1 pound, and yield about 14 per cent, of sugar. 
Many of the samples received fulfilled all these require¬ 
ments, and it was demonstrated that it is possible to 
produce here sugar beets of the best type. Subsequently 
a large B. S. factory was erected at Grand Island, Neb., 
capable of working 300 tons of beets daily. Others 
were built in California, in which State the industry has 
had a phenomenal development. The result, in part, of 
this experiment has been a very rapid growth of the B. 
S. industry in the U. S. In 1892 the product was given 
as 12,004,838 lbs; in 1894, 45,191,296 lbs; in 1906, 
967,223,040 lbs, showing a remarkably rapid rate of in¬ 
crease. The principal states in which this industry 
has been established are Colorado, Michigan, California 
and Utah, the rich soils and warm, even climate of 
California and Utah, especially when aided by irriga¬ 
tion, being very favorable to a large and excellent 
yield. In 1908 Colorado produced 402,692,800 lbs; 
Michigan, 170,417,720; California, 143,017,280, the total 
yield amounting to 986,018,000 lbs. Over 400,000 acres 
were devoted to the beet culture, the yield of sugar 
averaging 2300 lbs. per acre. Thus there seems good 
reason to believe that this country will eventually 
be able to supply itself with sugar from its own 
fields. The yield of sugar beets varies from 12 to 40 
tons per acre. The best land, with good cultivation and 
a favorable season, will yield from 20 to 35 tons per acre, 
but the crop would be hardly profitable at a yield of 
less than 12 tons per acre. In California the greatest 
production from a single acre of laud was a little more 
than 40 tons of beets; but this is an unusual yield. 
The estimated cost of production per acre is about 50 
dollars. In the present condition of the methods of 
manufacture, from 8 to 12 pounds of beets are required 
in the making of 1 pound of sugar; the quantity varies 
according to the greater or lesser richness of the beets 
in sugar. The price changes with the conditions of the 
market. It rarely costs now above 5 cents a pound, and 
in 1894-5 ranged as low as 3'81 cents on the wharves at 
New York. 

Beliistun ( be-his-toon'). (Geog.) An ancient town 
of Persia, now in ruins. Near it is a striking limestone 
precipice, 1,700 feet high and nearly perpendicular. It 
is of great antiquarian interest from the cuneiform in¬ 
scription made upon it about 515 B. C. by King Darius, 
of Persia, and which, covered with a coating of silicious 
varnish, is in a remarkably perfect state of preservation. 
There are also inscriptions in the Persian, Median and 
Babylonian tongues, through the comparative study of 
which the secret of the last-named language has been 
revealed. 

Bel knap, William Worth, born at Newburg, N. Y., 
in 1829. Major-general and politican. Served in the 
volunteer army throughout the Civil War; promoted 
brigadier-general, 1864, and major-general, 1865. Col¬ 
lector of internal revenue in Iowa, 1865-69; secretary 
of war, 1869-76; resigned on being impeached for re¬ 
ceiving bribes for the appointment of post-traders. 
Died in 1890. 

Bell, Alexander Graham, an American physicist, born 
in 1847 at Edinburgh, Scot. Son of Alexander Melville 
£., in whose system for removing the impediments of 
speech he received special training at an early age; was 
appointed professor of vocal physiology in Boston Uni¬ 
versity, 1872; was first to innovate the transmission of 
sound by electricity, at Philadelphia, 1876, when he 
perfected his speaking telephone; inventor of the 
photophone, 1880; a warm friend of the deaf mutes 
and an advocate of reform in our methods of teaching 
them. 

Bell, Alexander Melville, a Scottish-American edu¬ 
cator, born in Edinburgh, Scot., in 1819. Son of Alex¬ 
ander Bell (the inventor of a method for removing im¬ 
pediments of speech). Invented the method of phonetic 
notation, known as “Visible Speech.” Wrote Visible 
Speech and Universal Alphabetic); Line Writing on the 
Basis of Visible Speech; Principles of Phonetics; World- 
English ; Speech Beading ; Articulation Teaching, Ac. 

Bell, Clark, born at Rodman, Jefferson co., N. Y. A 
lawyer; originator and president of the Medico-Legal 
Society of New York; founder of the Medico-Legal Jour¬ 
nal; a copious contributor to the daily press and the 
writer of numerous pamphlets. 

Bell Animal'eule. (Biol.) A microscopic animal 
of the order Vorticellidse, consisting of a slender stalk 
which ends in a bell-sliaped portion, usually turned up¬ 
ward. The mouth of the expanded bell is occupied by 
a broad disk, with a row of cilia encircling its margin, 
while at its edge on one side a funnel-shaped opening 
serves to admit food to the interior. The animal is 
highly contractile, the stalk closing up into a spiral and 







500 


BENJ 


[SECTION II.] 


BERI 


quickly withdrawing the head from danger. The bell 
is equally contractile, rounding up into a ball, with the 
cilia drawn inside. Ordinarily the cilia are in constant 
and rapid motion, causing currents in the water which 
draw food particles towards the funnel, through which 
they enter the interior. The B. A. consists of a single 
cell, with a nucleus, a contractile vacuole, and the 
power of reproducing itself by division. It is one of 
the most highly differentiated of the unicellular ani¬ 
mals, and is usually found in water in which decaying 
organic substance offers it food materials. 

Bel'lamy, Edward. An American journalist and 
economist, b. in 1850. Wrote Looking Backward, 1890; 
Miss Ludington's Sister ; Six to One , etc. Died 1898. 
Bel'laniy, Emily Whitfield, b. in 1839, at Quincy, 
Gadsden co., Fla.; pen-name Kampa Thorpe. Wrote 
Four Oaks, Little Joanna, etc. 

Bell'ite (Phys.). One of the numerous new explosives 
produced by modern chemists. B., discovered by Mr. 
Lamm, of Stockholm, is composed of about 4 parts of 
nitrate of ammonium and one part of a mixture of 
binitro- and trinitro-benzine with saltpeter. It resembles 
■ulphur in appearance, and has a pitch-like odor. It is 
made up in capsules which look like thick wax candles 
and are covered with glazed paper. 

Beloit College, an institution of learning, situated 
at Beloit, Wis., where it was founded in 1846, by the 
Congregationalists and Presbyterians of the then Terri- 
; tory of Wisconsin and of Northern Illinois. A building 
was erected and college exercises were begun in 1847. 
Bev. Aaron L. Chapin was elected president in 1849, and 
was succeeded in 1886 by Rev. Edward D. Eaton. The 
institution has always maintained a high staudard of 
scholarship, and has given education to about 3,500 stu¬ 
dents. There are at present about 400 students and a 
faculty of 20 professors. There are 10 buildings, one 
being a library with 18,000 volumes, and a second 
known as Pearson’s Hall, erected in 1892, contains well- 
equipped laboratories of physical science. 

Ben, Oil of. A fixed oil existing in the fruits of cer¬ 
tain species of Moringa, a genus of leguminous trees 
growing in the Levant and the East and West Indies. M. 
aptera is its usual source. It is extracted by pressure 
and is a colorless (or slightly yellow) and odorless oil, 
which is used to extract the odoriferous principles of 
fragrant plants. 

Benavente (ben-ah-vdn’ta), a manufacturing town of 
Spain, prov. Zamora, at the confluence of the Esla and 
Cea, 34 m N. of Zamora. Pop. 4,518. 

Bench Show. An exhibition of dogs of improved 
breeds. Bench shows are now of annual occurrence, 
and are having good results in developing and preserv¬ 
ing the typical characters of the various strains. 
Ben'dix, John E., born in 1818. In early life, a New 
York machinist; organized the 9th regiment of N. Y. 
volunteer infantry, 1861; fought at Antietam, Freder¬ 
icksburg, the Wilderness; brigadier-general, 1865. Died 
in 1877. 

Benedet'ti, Count Vincent, a French diplomatist of 
Corsican extraction, born In 1817. Appointed Ambassa¬ 
dor at Berlin, 1864. His now historical interviews with 
King William I. of Prussia, at Ems, in July, 1870, pre¬ 
cipitated the Franco-German war, and he was said to 
have written the draft of a secret treaty between Prussia 
and France in accordance with which the latter would 
•upport the former in her projects of aggrandisement, in 
return for the annexation of Luxemburg and Belgium 
to French territory. This document, published in the 
• London Times at the very beginning of the war, spread 
consternation throughout Europe. In October, 1871, 
Count B. published a pamphlet in which he threw upon 
Bismarck the whole responsibility of the draft treaty. 
Benefit of Clergy. (Eng. Crim. Law.) The exemp¬ 
tion of the clergy from secular jurisdiction was one of 
the privileges claimed by the Roman Catholic Church. 

, During the Middle Ages, it acted to remove all clergy¬ 
men from the jurisdiction of a secular judge in criminal 
cases. See Milman’s remarks, Lat. Christ., Vol. III., b. 
viii., c. 8. The system, gradually introduced in England 
after the Norman conquest, gave rise to many abuses. 
Not only the clergy, but clerks and all members of the 
laity who could read, in cases in which capital punish¬ 
ment was awarded, were at length entitled to claim 
benefit of clergy, so that when the penalty of death was 
to be rigidly enforced, the statute expressly intimated 
that it was without benefit of clergy. As none but 
those in the service of the church were supposed to be 
able to read, this degree of learning acted to exempt 
’ all those possessed of it. But when learning became 
more general, laymen who could read were permitted 
J only once to claim benefit of clergy, and then (unless 
| they were peers or peeresses) were branded on the left 
thumb. Benefit of clergy was abolished in England by 
7 and 8 Geo. IV., c. 27, s. - 6 (June 21,1827), and 4 Viet., 
c. 22 (June 21, 1841) removed all doubts as to the 
liability of peers to punishment for felony. It was 
abolished in Ireland by 9 Geo. IV., c. 54, s. 12 (July 
15,1828). 

penevente, a Beaport town of Brazil, prov. Espiritu 
Santo, at the mouth of Beuevente river, 47 m. S. of 
Victoria. Pop. 4,000. 

Benjamin, Judah Philip, b. at St. Croix, West Indies, 
in 1811, of English-Hebrew descent. Admitted to the 
Louisiana bar, 1832; U. S. Commisioner on the Spanish 
Land Titles in California; Whig U. S. Senator from 
Louisiana, 1853-1861; Confederate Attorney-General, 
1861; Secretary of War, 1861-62; Secretary of State, 
1862-65. Escaped to England, 1865; called to the Eng¬ 
lish bar, 1867, at the age of 56. Wrote A Treatise on 
the Law of Sale of Personal Property, considered an au¬ 
thority in England. Died in Paris, France, May 8,1884. 


Ben'son, Arthur White, Archbishop of Canterbury 
and primate of all England, born near Birmingham, 
in 1829. Educated at King Edward’s School, Birming¬ 
ham, and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in 
1852 with high honors. Was a master at Rugby, and 
head master at Wellington, 1858-72; subsequently 
chaplain, chancellor and canon at Lincoln Cathedral; 
consecrated Bishop of Truro, on recommendation of 
Lord Beaconsfield, Sn, April 25,1877 ; appointed Arch¬ 
bishop of Canterbury in 1882, upon recommendation 
of Mr. Gladstone. He was author of several religious 
works. Died October 11, 1896. 

Ben'son, Eugene, b. 1837, at Hyde Park, N. Y. A 
genre and figure painter, whose numerous productions 
breathe the influence of the Venetian masters he has 
taken for guides, and represent scenes of his oriental 
travels and long sojourn in the South of Europe. 

Ben'ue (Mother of Waters). (Geog.) A large and im¬ 
portant river of Central Africa, which forms the prin¬ 
cipal tributary of the Niger. Rising in the mountains 
of Adamawa, and flowing nearly westward, it forms 
the southern boundary of the kingdom of Sokoto. It 
enters the Niger at Lokoya, about 230 miles from its 
mouth. It was crossed by Dr. Barth in 1851, near long. 
12° 30' E., and found there to be 200 yards wide It was 
ascended by Dr. Baikie in 1850, his voyage extending to 
Dulti, or Dolti, about 400 miles up the stream. He 
made a second ascent in 1862. In 1879-83 it was thor¬ 
oughly explored by Mr. Flegel, who traced it to its 
sources in the Adamawa country, in 7° 30' N. lat., and 
13° E. long. Navigable for 700 miles, and flowing 
through wide tracts of fertile country, it forms a natural 
highway into the heart of the Soudan. 

Ben'zidine, a base made by heating nitrobenzine 
with caustic soda and zinc dust. This yields hydrozo- 
benzine, which, when treated with strong hydrochloric 
acid, is converted into benzidine. Benzidine is closely 
related to aniline, and like it is a source of valuable 
dyes. 

Ben'zidine Byes. These dyes are prepared by con¬ 
verting benzidine into a diazo-compound, and exposing 
this to the action of various phenols and amido-com- 
pounds. Of the dyes thus produced, the first of im¬ 
portance was Congo-red. Various others are known, 
which have the useful property of dyeing cotton with¬ 
out the aid of a mordant. B. dyes are also produced in 
the same manner from tolidine ( q. v.), of which benzo- 
purpurm, formed by the action of naphthionic acid on 
diazotized tolindiue, is one of the most widely used of 
dyes. 

Ber'esford, Lord Chas. William de la Poer, born in 
1846 at Philiptown, Dublin co., Ireland; a distinguished 
officer of the British navy; naval aide-de-camp to the 
Prince of Wales during his trip to India, 1875-76; in 
command of the Condor at the bombardment of Alex¬ 
andria, 1882, and promoted captain for services rendered 
on that occasion; chiefly noted during his late parlia¬ 
mentary career as the advocate of wholesale reform in 
in the British navy. 

Bergeilorf (bdr'ja-ddrf), a thriving town of N. Ger¬ 
many, 10 m. S.S.E. of Hamburg. It is the cap. of a 
small territory under the joint government of the cities 
of Hamburg and Liibeck, known as the Vierliinder 
(Four Lands), from its being divided into separate com¬ 
munities, each distinguished from the other by pecu¬ 
liarities of popular costume and manners. Pop. of 
territory estimated in 1896 at 12,000. 

Ber'gen, in New Jersey, a N. E. co., bordering on New 
York, bounded E. by Hudson river, aucf washed by 
Hackensack and Saddle rivers. The surface, generally 
uneven, is mountainous in the W. part. The soil is 
particularly fertile along the valleys of the streams. 
The famous palisades of the Hudson are situated in the 
E. part of this county. Cap. Hackensack. Pop. (1898) 
67,960. 

Bergeraf, Auguste Emile, born at Paris, France, in 
1845; son-in-law of Theophile Gautier (q. v.). A French 
journalist, playwright and novelist. Author of Vne 
Amie; PereetMari; Ange Bosari; Separes de Corps; a 
collection of patriotic verses, Pocmes de la Guerre; a 
biography of Theophile Gautier, and a large number of 
feuilletons, chroniques, Ac .; pen-name, Caliban. 

Berg'll, Henry, born in New York City, of German 
ancestry; acting vice consul at St. Petersburg, 1862. 
His symathies for dumb animals were first aroused by 
the cruelties he saw practised towards them in Europe, 
and on his return to this country he devoted his life to 
their interests. Founder (1866) and president of the 
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Ani¬ 
mals; author of several plays, Love's Alternative, Ac.; a 
volume of sketches, The Streets of New York; a poem, 
Married Off, and others. Died in 1888. 

Burg'll sms, Heinrich, born at Cleves, Prussia, May 3, 
1797; died at Stettin, Feb. 17,1884. A German geogra¬ 
pher and historical inquirer. Of his numerous works, 
Deutschland seit 100 Yahren, Sprachschatz der Sassen, IFbr- 
terbuch der Phittdeutchshen Spraehe , and BHegwechsel mit 
Alexander von Humboldt were the latest. 

Berg'mann, Carl, born in Ebersbach, Germany, in 
1821; came to New York in 1848. A musical composer 
and distinguished player of the piano and violoncello. 
Introduced German opera in this country (Niblo’s Gar¬ 
den, N. Y. City) 1856; conducted German and Italian 
operas and the concerts of the Philharmonic Society in 
New York City. Died in 1876. 

Bering or Behring Sea (bay’ring). (Geog.) The 
most northerly part of the Pacific Ocean, extending 
between the peninsulas of Alaska and Kamtchatka, I 
and connected by Bering Strait with the Arctic Ocean. 
Along its southern boundary extend the Aleutian Is-1 
lands, while farther north lie the Pribylof Islands (St. | 


Paul and St. George), which possess a special interest M 
the breeding grounds of the fur seals of North America, 
B. S. is also called the Sea of Kamtchatka. 

Bering Sea tfcuestion. A controversy (finally set¬ 
tled by arbitration) between Great Britain and the 
United States, in regard to certain rights and claims 
connected with seal fishing in Bering Sea. The Priby¬ 
lof Islands, to which the valuable fur seals have long 
resorted for breeding purposes, were transferred by 
Russia to the U. S. as part of the Alaska purchase of 1867. 
These seals have proved a source of considerable revenue 
to the U. S., the right to use the Pribylof Islands as seal¬ 
fishing grounds being rented out to the Alaska Com¬ 
mercial Company, whose privilege of killing seals was 
restricted to 100,000 annually. This number was more 
than restored by the annual births, and the islands would 
have continued a fixed source of profit but for the action 
of Canadian fishermen, who have attacked the seals in 
the open sea (pelagic fishing) and committed such havoc 
among them as to approach the point of extermination. 
The seals make the Alaskan coast waters their feeding 
grounds. But when crossing the open sea between the 
mainland and the islands they are exposed to raids from 
irresponsible fishermen, and these have been carried on 
so indiscriminately that females with young have been 
lavishly slaughtered and thousands killed that were lost 
in the waters. Hon. James G. Blaine, Secretary of State, 
stated in 1890: “ From 1870 to 1885 the seal-fisheries, 
carefully guarded and preserved, yielded 100,000 skins a 
year. The Canadian intrusions began in 1886, and so 
great has been the damage resulting from the destruc¬ 
tion of seal life in the open sea surrounding the Pribylof 
Islands, that in 1890 the U. S. limited the Alaska Com¬ 
pany to 60,000 skins, but the company was able to se¬ 
cure only 21,000 skins.” By this time a hot contro¬ 
versy had arisen, the question beiug whether the U. S. 
had a right to protect its acknowledged property in 
what might fairly be regarded as part of the open sea, 
and therefore free by international law for every nation 
or people to hunt and fish in. The U. S. in 1887 asserted 
this right. Steps were also taken to put it into effect, 
by sending out armed vessels to seize the poaching 
craft and confiscate their plunder. It was proposed to 
Great Britain that a convention should be entered into, 
in which Russia should be asked to join, limiting the 
time of the year in which seal-fishing should be per¬ 
mitted, the close time to be made to cover the breading 
period. This suggestion was accepted by both Great 
Britain and Russia, and all seemed favorable for a speedy 
settlement of the difficulty, when an unexpected obstacle 
arose through the action of Canada, which refused to be 
governed by the restrictions proposed. As a result, the 
convention proposition had to be abandoned. The ques¬ 
tion now became one of international law, the U. S. as¬ 
serting its right to control the fisheries in Bering Sea on 
the ground of certain claims made by Russia in the 
early part of the century and to some extent admitted 
by other nations. These rights or claims were conceded 
to have passed to the U. S. as a part of the purchase. 
Again, it was held, admitting the right to fish in the 
open sea, that this did not cover the case in question, 
the seal being in no sense a fish, but a land animal, it 
using the sea simply as a feeding ground. Thus it be¬ 
came the property of the owner of the ground on which 
it lived, and when at sea was entitled to the same pro¬ 
tection as any other property. It was urged also that 
the sea has never been considered free ground for any 
practices that are injurious to the rights, the property, 
or the honor of a nation that is able to defend itself. 
These and other arguments were adduced on the part of 
the U. S. government, and were variously answered by 
the other party to the dispute; but in 1891, Great Britain 
consented to submit several of the points at issue to in¬ 
ternational arbitration. Meanwhile, during the period 
of diplomatic discussion of the terms of arbitration, 
Great Britain agreed to a modus vivendi for one year, in 
order to prevent depredations upon the seals. At the 
end of the year she declined to renew the modus vivendi, 
but finally consented to do so in a modified form after 
the U. S. Senate should have ratified the treaty provid¬ 
ing for arbitration. This was done in the spring 
of 1892, the treaty providing for a submission of 
the questions in dispute to a commission of seven 
persons, two appointed by the President, two by the 
Queen of England, and one each by the King of Sweden, 
the President of France and the King of Italy. The 
tribunal, thus chosen, met in Paris, March 23,1893. Its 
decision was made public on the 13th of August, of the 
same year. In this decision the right claimed by the 
U. S. to protect the seals anywhere, as a ranchman may 
protect his wandering cattle, was denied. The arbitra¬ 
tors preferred to consider the seals, when beyond the 
three-mile limit around the island, as wild animals, and 
fair prey for anybody. But, on the other hand, they 
established a “protected zone” of 60 miles around the 
Pribylof Islands, within which anyone was forbidden, at 
any time, to “ kill, capture, or pursue” the seals. They 
also fixed a close season extending from May 1 to July 
31, during which all seal hunting in the Bering Sea, or 
the parts of the North Pacific frequented by the seals, 
was forbidden. Only sailing vessels were permitted to 
engage in the seal hunt, and each of these was required 
to take out a government license and make a detailed 
report of its operations. “ The use of nets, fire-arms, or 
explosives, is forbidden in fur-sealing,” the only weapon 
permitted being the harpoon, which must be wielded by 
men skillful in its use. The U. S. was required to pay 
damages arising from searches and seizures of sealing 
craft by its naval vessels, and in August, 1894, a com¬ 
promise sum of $425,000 was offered and accepted as a 
suitable amount, but Congress fefused to make the neo 









BERT 


[SECTION II.] 


BIEL 


501 


«*sary appropriation on the plea that this amount was ! 
excessive. It was thereupon decided in 1896 to settle ' 
this question by a commission jointly appointed by the 
countries, the President of the Swiss Republic to appoint 
an umpire if no decision could be reached by the com¬ 
mission. Unfortunately, the decision of the arbitration 
tribunal, from which valuable results were expected, 
seems to have failed in its purpose of protecting the 
eeals. The largest number known to have beeu killed 
in the open sea was in 1894, when 95,04s were reported. 
In 1895, with a larger fleet and improved weapons, the 
catch was 73,614 skins, a falling off of 21,434. How 
many were actually slaughtered to yield this number of j 
ekins it is impossible to estimate, but the extermination j 
of the herd seems bo near at hand that it has been j 
gravely suggested by members of Congress to kill the | 
remainder of the herd at once, on their island haunt.! 
and thus at one blow put an end to the reckless slaugh¬ 
ter of the fur seal and the troubles that have arisen from 
our efforts to protect them. 

Bermn’dez, Remijio Morales. A Peruvian soldier 
and statesman, b. in 1836: first noted during the Chilian 
war, 1879-81; vice-president of Peru, 1886: president, 
1890. Died in 1894. 

Bernard', Claude. b. at St. Julien, France, 1813; died 
at Paris, Feb. 10, 1878. A noted French physiologist; 
the author of many publications on the subjects of his 
researches. 

Bernard', William Boyle, b. at Boston, Mass.,in 1807,' 
son of the Anglo-American John B. An English dram¬ 
atist ; author*of over 100 plays, chief among which are 
Rip Fan Winkle; The Nervous Mon and the Man of 
Nerve; Dumb Belle; The Boarding-School; and (his last j 
The Doge of Venice. Died 1875. 

Bem'taardt, Rosine, called Sarah, a French actress, 
b. of Jewish parents in Paris, 1844. She entered the 
Paris Conservatoire at fourteen, and made her debut in 
Racine's Iphigenie , in 1862, but attracted so little notice 
that she retired, for a time, from the stage. In 1S67 she 
made a striking success as the Queen in Hugo’s play of 
Buy Bias, and began a most brilliant career, in which 
ehe soon gained the highest place among French 
tragediennes. Recalled to the Theatre Franjaise, in 
which her first appearance had been made, her renown 
grew steadily, and in 1879 she visited London as a 
member of a company from the Fran 9 aise, and played 
with the highest success. Subsequently withdrawing 
from the Franfaise, for which she was heavily fined in 
the courts, she made tours to Italy, Russia and America, 
playing in the U. S. in 1880,1887, and 1891. She was mar¬ 
ried in 1882 to M. Damala, a Greek actor, but was soon 
divorced. Her principal characters have been the title 
roles of Racine’s great plays, some of the Shakpearean 
heroines, and others in plays written expressly for her. 
She has herself written a play, L'Aven, produced in 
1888, and has exhibited pictures and statues by her own 
hand. 

Berrien, John Macpherson, b. in N. J., Aug., 1781 ; a 
son of Major John B., of the Revolution. Admitted to 
the bar of Ga., 1809; district judge, 1810-21; U. S. Sen¬ 
ator, 1825-29, and 1840-52; U. S. Attorney-General, 
1829-31; one of the regents of the Smithsonian Insti¬ 
tution. His lucid oratory won him the title of “ Ameri¬ 
can Cicero.” Died at Savannah, Ga., Jan. 1, 1856. 

Berro, Bernard Predencio, Uruguayan politician, b. 
1800; president of the Senate at various times (1852-58); 
president of Uruguay, 1860-64; deposed by the Colo- 
rados under Flores, and shot through the window of 
his prison cell during the disorders of the revolution 
in 1888. 

Berry, Hiram George, b. at Rockland (then Thomas- 
ton), Me., Aug. 27, 1824; Major-General of Volunteers, 
1862; fought at Bull Run, Yorlctown, Williamsburg, 
Fair Oaks, Chantilly, etc. Was shot dead at Chaneel- 
lorsville while heading a bayonet charge, in several of 
which he had been remarkably successful, on May 2, 
1863. 

Berry, Nathaniel Springer, born at Bath, Me., Sept. 
1, 1796; grandson of Captain Joun L, of the Revolu¬ 
tionary Army; Governor of Massachusetts, 1861-03; 
more than 16,000 men were enlisted, equipped, and for¬ 
warded to the seat of war in defence of the Union, 
under his direction. Died 1894. 

fiert helot. Pierre Eug£ne Marcelin, born at Paris, 
France, Oct. 25,1827. A noted French chemist and edu¬ 
cationalist. Author of La Synthese Chimique ; Sur la Force 
rles Matiires Explosives d'apres la Thermochimie; Les 
Origines de VAlchimie; Scieiuze et Philosophie, &c. 

Bertillon System. A method for the identifica¬ 
tion of criminals, invented in 1879 by Dr. Alphonse 
Bertillon, of Paris, France. This system consists in 
exact measurements of certain dimensions of the 
human body and its members. These include height, 
standing and sitting, reach of extended arms, length 
and width of head and of right ear, length of left foot, 
forearm, middle and little fingers To these are added 
such personal features as color of eyes, deformities or 
irregularities of body, scars, moles, Ac., with photo¬ 
graphs and other descriptive items. These are classified 
under a system that enables the desired card to be 
readily found, and as no two persons agree iu all 
these particulars, the identity of any one who has pre¬ 
viously been measured can easily be determined. 

Berlin, (bar-tahn') Louis Francois, an eminent 
French journalist, born in Paris, in 1766. In 1800 he 
founded tiie Journal des Debate, a conservative political 
organ and one of the most prominent papers of the 
Napoleonic period. For some remarks that displeased 
the dictator B. was imprisoned and exiled to Elba. 
The iaq>er was afterwards published as Journal de t* 


Empire and had among its correspondents, Chateau¬ 
briand and Madame de Stkel. Died in 1841. 

Besaul', Mrs. Annie, nee Wood, born at London, Eng., I 
of Irish parentage, Oct 1, 1847. An English theoso-! 
phist; joined the National Secular Society', 1874; an¬ 
nounced her adhesion to Socialism, 1883; and, after j 
laboring and speaking on the Freethought platform, | 
joined the Theosophical Society, 1889, and visited Amer-j 
ica, Australia, India and New Zealand on its behalf;! 
took a prominent part in forcing an investigation into | 
the charges made against the head of the American 
branch of the society in 1895; wrote her autobiography, j 
Through Storm to Peace, 1893, and a large number of 
books and pamphlets on theosophical subjects. 

Besant, Sir Walter, born at Portsmouth, Eng., 1838. 
A prolific English novelist, in early life senior professor 
in the Royal College of Mauritius; knighted in 1895. 
B. was early interested in social reform, aud his plan 
for a People’s Palace, as outlined his All Sorts and Condi- 
tions of Men , has been practically realized in the East 
End of London. A few of his best known novels are: All 
in a Garden Fair, Herr Paulus, To Call Her Mine; and 
among his later, The Rebel Queen, 1893; Beyond the 
Dreams of Avarice, 1894; The Master-Craftsman, and The 
City of Refuge, 1896. First chairman of the executive 
committee of the “ Incorporated Society of Authors ” : 
editor of the morthly paper, The Author. D. June9.1901- 

Besclierplla, Louis Nicolas, born at Paris, France, 
June 10,1802. A French grammarian, lexicographer and 
librarian, whose grammar and dictionary were for a 
long time the recognized authorities on the French 
language. Died February 4, 1883. 

Bessels, Emil, born at Heidelberg, Germany, 1847. A 
German scientist and Arctic explorer; accompanied 
Peterman in his expedition, 1869; joined the American 
Polaris expedition under Charles Francis Hall, 1871; 
contributed to the U. S. Geological and Geographical 
Survey ; edited the first volumes of the Scientific Remits 
of the V. S. Arctic Expedition; wrote Die Amerikanische 
Nordpolexpedition, Ac. 

Bes'semer, Sir Henry, a distinguished English in¬ 
ventor, born at Charlton, in Hertfordshire, January 13, 
1813, his father being Anthony Bessemer, a French 
refugee. His remarkable inventive powers early de¬ 
veloped, his first commercial success being a method for 
the manufacture of bronze powder. This is still em¬ 
ployed by his successors. Other inventions followed, 
and in 1854 he first began to experiment on steel manu¬ 
facture, the result being the strikingly valuable pneu¬ 
matic process which bears his name. It was first 
announced in August 11, 1856, at a meeting of the 
British Association, but was received by most iron 
makers with disbelief and ridicule. There were some 
successes, but serious failures, and costly experiments 
became necessary, by which at length the kind of ore 
and the other conditions requisite to success were dis¬ 
covered. This was announced in 1859, and in the suc¬ 
ceeding ten years the method made such progress in 
the world of manufacture that B.’s income from it was 
$500,000 a year. In 1869-74 he made efforts to check 
the rolling motion of vessels and thus prevent sea¬ 
sickness, but without success. Later he devoted him¬ 
self to the improvement of telescopes. His valuable 
services to mechanics brought him, in 1879, the honor 
of knighthood. Died March 14,1898. 

Bessemer Steel . Steel made in the method invented 
by Sir Henry Bessemer (q. v.) The idea involved in 
the original conception was to blow air through the 
molten cast-iron until all the carbon was oxidized, in 
case malleable iron w as desired, while to produce steel, 
the blowing was to cease when the necessary percentage 
of the carbon had been removed. The method has 
never succeeded in producing serviceable malleable 
iron, nor at first could good steel be produced except 
from the best charcoal iron, like that of Sweden. With 
English ores, it became necessary to oxidize all the 
carbon and silicon, and then restore the necessary quan¬ 
tity of carbon by the addition of a small quantity of a 
kind of cast iron known as Spiegeleisen. Iu the Besse¬ 
mer process, as at present conducted, the following are 
the principal stages: Melted pig-iron is run into a con¬ 
verting vessel, or “ kettle,” made of wrought iron, lined 
either with fire-brick or with a silicious material called 
“ganister,” aud suspended on trunnions, so that it 
may be turned at will from an upright to a horizontal 
position. The charge of a converter may vary from 3 
to 10 tons. In the bottom there are 7 tuyeres, each with 
7 holes of %-inch diameter. Through these a blowing- 
engine forces air at a pressure of 15 to 20 lbs. to the 
square inch. During this stage of the operation the 
effect is exceedingly striking. The roar of the blast is 
accompanied by a volcano-like shower of sparks from 
the converter, while the flame produced is of dazzling 
splendor; 15 or 20 minutes suffice to dissipate the whole 
of the carbon. This first blow over, the converter is 
lowered to a horizontal position, and a quantity of 
molten spiegeleisen (from 5 to 10 per cent, of the whole 
charge in quantity) is run into its mouth. The blast 
is then turned on again for a few minutes to secure a 
thorough mixture and the diffusion of the carbon of 
the spiegeleisen throughout the mass. The steel is next 
molded into ingots, which are condensed under heavy 
steel hammers, B. S. lacking density. B. S. will not 
serve for cutlery, springs, or similar purposes, but the 
cheapness of the process renders it invaluable for the 
production of steel rails, while it is equally suitable for j 
ties, boiler- and armor-plates, and other heavy products. 
Active as is its production in England, and other coun¬ 
tries of Europe, it is still more extensively produced in 
the United Stales The highest annual yield of Ameri¬ 
can converters was in 1906, 12,275,830 tons. 


Betancourt. Salvador Cisneros. President of the 
Cuban revolutionary government, 1895 ; formerly Mar* 
quisof Santa Lucia, a title which he formally renounced 
on joining the revolutionary movement in 1868. 

Bethlen (bat'len), or Betlllen-Gabor,. Gabriel, a 
Magyar hero, b. in Transylvania, 1580, became in 1613, 
through the aid of the Sultan, sovereign prince of that 
country. In 1G19, he proclaimed himself the cham¬ 
pion of the Protestant cause iu Hungary, and marched 
against Vienna at the head of an army of 100,000 men, 
compelling the imperial forces to retire before him. 
Though unable, through want of supplies, to besiege 
the Austrian capital, B. maintained the supremacy he 
had acquired iu Hungary, of which country he was 
crowned king at I’resburg in 1620. Resuming the 
offensive, so as to aid his allies, the German Protes¬ 
tants, B. carried terror and devastation to the very 
gates of Vienna. The emperor thereupon entered into 
a treaty of peace with him, granting him important 
concessions, besides the dignity of prince of the German 
empire. Later, B. once more engaged in war on behalf 
of the Protestant cause in Germany, and died in 1629, 
leaving behind him the reputation of having been one 
of the ablest generals and administrators of iiis time, 
besides an eminent patron of science aud letters. 

Beutlien (boo'then), or Bn ton, amanufacturingfown 
of Prussia, 50 m. S. E. of Oppeln. Pop. in 1895,36,905. 

Bewick, Thomas, a noted English wood engraver and 
reviver of the art in England, born near Newcastle-on- 
Tyne, Aug. 12, 1753. The modern school of wood¬ 
engraving arose with him, and he was surpassed by 
none of his many pupils. The works illustrated by 
him include Gay's Fables, JEsop's Fables, History of 
British Quadrupeds, History of British Birds, Ac. Also, 
with his brother John, he produced designs for Gold¬ 
smith’s Traveller aud Deserted Village. Died at Gates¬ 
head, Nov. 8,1828. 

Beypore, a port of India, 6 m. S. of Calicut, and con¬ 
necting by railroad with the city of Madras. 

Bezi<|ue (bi-zeeP). [Fr. bizique .] (Games) A game 
at cards; usually played by two persons with a double 
pack, which contains only the aces, tens, kings, queens, 
knaves, nines, eights, and sevens, the cards ranking in 
the order named. 8 cards are dealt each players and, 
after each trick, each draws one from the top of the 
pack, the winner of the trick having the first draw. 
The top card of the stcck is turned up as trump, and 
then placed face upward under the stack, as its last 
card. The non-dealer has the first lead ; afterward the 
winner of the trick leads, the trick being won by a 
higher card of the suit lead, or a trump. There is no 
necessity to follow suit until after the stack cards are 
ill drawn; then the second player must follow suit if 
possible, and take the trick if possible. 1,000 points 
constitute the game. If made while the opponent has 
scored less than 500, the game counts double. The 
points scored are the following: the winner of the last 
trick scores 10; each brisque (ace or ten) which is 
taken in a trick counts 10. If the seven is turned up 
as trump it scores 10. The seven of trump in the hand 
counts 10, and the holder of a seven is privileged to ex¬ 
change it for the turned up trump. Various combine 
tions of cards count as follows when declared : marriage 
king and queen of the same suit) 20; royal marriage 
same for the trump suit) 40; any 4 aces 100; 4 kings 
80; 4 queens 60; 4 knaves 40; B. (queen of spades and 
of diamonds) 40; double B. (both queens of spades and 
knaves of diamonds) 500; sequence of the five highest 
trumps (ace, ten, king, queen, and knave) 250. A declara¬ 
tion, or exchange of the seven of trumps, can be made 
only after a trick has been won, and before drawing, 
and only one can be made at a time. None can be made 
after the stock is all drawn. In making,a declaration 
the cards which constitute it must be placed face upward 
on the table, and remain there until played or until the 
stack is exhausted. A card which nas scored in one 
combination may form part of others of a higher grade. 
Three or four [layers occasionally play B., and there is 
a game called Rubicon B., in which four [jacks are used 
instead of two, while the method of counting somewhat 
differs. 

Bhilsa (beel’sah), a town of India, on the Betwa, 32 m. 
N. E. of Bhopaul. 

Bhowan (bo-haim’), or Bbonannee, a town of 

British India, N. W. Provinces, 55 m. \V. of Delhi. 

Bhutan (boo-tahn’), or Bhotan. (Geog.) An Indian 
state, situated in the Eastern Himalayas. It is bounded 
by the Himalayas (which separate it from Thibet) on 
the N., Thibet on the E., and Bengal on the \V.*and S. 
On the northern border rises the peak of Shumalari to 
a height of some 27,000 feet. B. has an area of about 
16,800 sq. miles, and about 200,0O0 population, the people 
being Buddhists in belief. They practice polygamy and 
polyandry. The principal agricultural products are 
wheat, barley, rice, and maize. 

Bible Revision. Since 1011, when the King James, 
or authorized version of the Bible appeared, this version, 
though scholars from time to time pointed out errors or 
inaccuracies in it, has been in steady use by English- 
speaking peoples, nor does it seem likely to be quickly 
set aside by the newly-revised version. Since 1611 there 
have been great advances in biblical scholarship, greater 
skill and knowledge having been attained iu textual 
criticism, Greek and Hebrew philology, biblical geogra¬ 
phy and archaeology. As a result, a pressure arose to 
adapt the King James version to the existing state of 
critical knowledge, and a new revision of the Bible was 
inaugurated on May 6,1870, in the appointment by the 
Convocation of Canterbury of a committee of eminent 
biblical scholars and dignitaries of the Church of Eng* 
laud for this purpose, they being directed to associate 














502 


BICY 


[SECTION II.] 


JBICY 


with them representative scholars of other denomina 
tious. The committee divided itself into two sections— 
one for the Old and one for the New Testament, At its 
invitation a similar committee of scholars and divines 
was organized in the U. S. and began work in October, 
1872. This was likewise selected from the different de¬ 
nominations and divided into Old and New Testament 
sections. Its meetings were held in the Bible House in 
New York. The British and American committees were 
virtually one body, being in constant correspondence 
with eacii other. They had in all 79 members, 52 in 
London and 27 in New York. The first result of their 
labors, the revised New Testament, was published in 
1881. The revised Old Testament was published in 1885. 
As a whole, the result of this deliberate and careful 
work went far to show the accuracy and discrimination 
of the 1611 revisers. Many of the verbal changes made 
scarcely modify the sense, while radical departures in 
meaning are largely wanting. In consequence of this 
lack of essential importance in most of the changes, the 
»ld version vigorously holds its own, and can only be 
slowly set aside by the new though doubtless more 
scholarly version. 

Bick'ersteth, Edward Henry, b. at London, Eng., 
Jan. 25, 1825, Bon of Edward B., the clergyman and 
author [1786-1850]. A clergyman and a poet; author of 
Yesterday, To-day, and Forever; The Two Brothers; The 
Shadow of the Bock; From Year to Year, &c. 

Biclt'inore, Albert Smith, an eminent American 
naturalist, born at St. George’s, Maine, 1839, graduated 
at Dartmouth Col'ege in 1861. Early devoting his 
attention to the .oily of natural history, he formed 
the idea of founding in the city of New York a museum 
on an extensive scale to be appropriated to that depart¬ 
ment of science. In 1865 he visited China, Japan, and 
the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, returning home 
by way of Siberia and Europe. Of this scientific tour 
he published the results in a work entitled Travels in the 
East Indian Archipelago (Lond. and N. Y., 1869.) In 
1870 he was appointed Prof, of Natural History in 
Madison (now Colgate) University, Hamilton, N. Y., 
and has since been actively engaged in carrying out his 
original idea of the institution of the museum before 
spoken of. This institution, the Museum of Natural 
History, adjoining Central Park, New York, is under 
the superinteudency of its founder, Prof. Bickmore,and 
is growing rapidly in scope and value of contents. 

Bi'cyele, «. [Lat. pref. bi-, two, and Gr. knklot, a 
circle.] Literally, any two-wheeled contrivance. Spe¬ 
cifically, a modern vehicle consisting essentially of two 
wheels arranged in tandem fashion, a frame bearing a 
■addle or saddles for the rider or riders, a steering 



handle-bar, and a device of cranks or levers for its 
propulsion by foot power.— Description. A description of 
the minor parts of the B. would transgress the scope of 
the present article, while the more important will be 
treated under their respective headings; therefore, the 



following additional items will here suffice. The shape 
of the handle-bar varies from a short, straight line to a 
tortuous imitation of the ram’s horn; it is usually 
placed in front of the rider but may be seen behind, ex¬ 
ceptionally, as in the case of the “upright bicycle” 
(Fig. 2728) -, steel or wood (the latter claiming to be 
free from the vibration of the other) are used in its 
composition. The saddle exhibits a greater variety of 
thapes and material than any other bicycle sundry; it 


may be attached either to the frame or to a movable 
post permitting of its being raised or lowered to suit 
the convenience of individual riders; in the “bicycle 
built for two ” or for more, the saddles are arranged in 
tandem fashion, although in the Companion bicycle 
(Fig. 2712) they are placed side by side.—The quasi- 
triangular frame for gentlemen (Fig. 2713) and the 



drop-frame for ladies (Fig. 2714) are practically the only 
two in present use among us; tubular steel is the 
favorite material for its construction, hickory wood, 
bamboo and aluminum pushing forth their claims also 
on public patronage. In the manufacturing of the rim, 
steel has been discarded in this country in favor of 
wood and also of paper and rubber. The chain, as a 
rule, works in almost parallel lines; yet it has been 



Fig. 2714. 

tried on practically triangular plans (Fig. 2715) with 
the intention of enlarging the driving sprocket and in¬ 
creasing the number of teeth thereon without at the 
same time increasing, in the same ratio, the friction 
upon the chain. The feet, and in special cases the 
hands, constitute the motive power of the present bicycle, 
but ether, petroleum, explosive gunpowder and elec¬ 



tricity have been or are being actively experimented 
with in this connection. No greater adjunct to the 
footpower in the propulsion of the B. has been found 
than the scientific application of the principles of 
gearing (q.v.). The following table shows at a glance 
the number of feet covered per revolution, and the 
number of revolutions made per mile, by a 28-inch 
wheel geared at from 66 to 100 inches: 


Gear 

in 

Inches . 

Feet per 
Revo ¬ 
lution . 

Revo ¬ 
lutions per 
Mile . 


Gear 

in 

Inches . 

Feet per 
Revo ¬ 
lution . 

Revo ¬ 
lutions per 
Mile . 

56 

14-66 

360T6 


65 

1701 

310-40 

67 

14-92 

353-83 


66 

17-28 

305-73 

68 

15-18 

347-73 


67 

17-54 

30108 

69 

15-44 

341-83 


68 

17-80 

296-63 

60 

15-70 

336-30 


69 

18-06 

292-35 

61 

15-97 

330-62 


70 

18-32 

288-04 

62 

16-23 

325-32 


75 

18-63 

26900 

63 

16-49 

320T9 


80 

20-94 

252-14 

64 

16-75 

315-22 


100 

2618 

201-68 


And the next will enable even a casual observer to 
compute the gearing of said wheel according to the 
number of teeth in the sprockets: 


Teeth in 


Teeth in 


Front 

Back 


Front 

Back 


Sprocket . 

Sprocket . 

Gear . 

Sprocket . 

Sprocket . 

Gear . 

16 

6 

74 

20 

6 

93 

16 

7 

64 

20 

7 

80 

16 

8 

56 

20 

8 

70 

16 

9 

50 

20 

9 

62 

17 

6 

79 

20 

10 

56 

17 

7 

68 

22 

6 

102 

17 

8 

59 

22 

7 

88 

17 

9 

53 

22 

8 

77 

18 

6 

84 

22 

9 

68 

18 

7 

72 

22 

10 

62 

18 

8 

63 

24 

7 

96 

18 

9 

56 

24 

8 

84 

18 

10 

60 





History. Antiquarians of the future will doubtlesa 
make every effort to elucidate the connection of 
the modern B. with the “something not unlike a 
velocipede” depicted in 1642 on a stained window in 
the Church of Stoke I’oges, Buckinghamshire, Eng. 
(Fig. 2711)', and also with the more remote allusions to 
wheels in the vision of the prophet Ezekiel; both of 
these have been gravely mentioned at various times in 



Fig. 2716. 


discussions concerning this subject. The student of 
historical facts, on the other hand, may rest contented 
with the absolute certainty that at the close of the> 
eighteenth century, and in the early years of the present, 
so-called “ hobby horses ” or “ dandy horses ” were 
great lavorites in London, Eng., not only among the 



“dandies” or “dudes” of the period, but with such 
busy men as Fox, Sheridan, Pitt and others, who might 
be seen daily taking their much-needed “constitu* 
tional ” on these contrivances along the avenues of St 
James’ Park. Of the crudeness of the dandy horse—a 
rigid, wood-framed, non-steering, two-wheeled device 



Fig. 2718. 


propelled by means of strides along the ground—an 
idea may be obtained from the Draisieime (Fig. 2716), 
the first velocipede ever made with a steerable front 
wheel. It was first invented in 1816 by a German, 
Baron Drais von Sauerbronn; and as he first exhibited 
it at the Jardin de Tivoli in Paris, it became known 



Fig. 2719. 


under the ‘various French designations vetiriflr 
(“swift-bearer”), Celeripede (“swift-foot”) and Droit 
ienne .—Nor was the hobby-horse mania slow in reach 
ing this country; for as early as 1818 a patent on i 
velocipede (the first of its kind on record) was grantei 
to a certain W. Clarkson, Jr. The model unfortunate! 
is no longer in existence, having been destroyed at th 
burning of the patent office in 1836.—The pedestrian' 
curricle (Fig. 2717) constructed in 1818 by a Londoi 






































































BICY 


[SECTION II.] 


BICY 


503 


•oachman, Dennis Johnson, was less clumsy than the 
.Uraisienne; inventive minds were evidently at work to 
■tipply fuel to the “ rage ” as it was styled even then; 
and sure enough, letters written from Hammersmith, 
London in the winter of 1818 and the summer of 1819 
by Claude Niepce to liis brother, show that at that 
period the future inventor of photography on glass was 
conducting experiments for the improvement of the 
velocipede. Even then, too, the inexpensiveness of the 
wooden horse was scoring in its favor, if we are to 
credit n certain cartoon published in an English comic 
paper of April 8, 1S19. It represented the then Duke 
oi xork (who held the dual position of Commander* 


being given by the arms. This was distributed among 
postmen in rural districts for use in fine weather; win¬ 
ter came, the new machine was laid aside and nothing 
more was heard of it. Meanwhile complaints grew loud 
and frequent against the numerous accidents caused to 
riders by the spriugless nature of the saddle and the 
frame, and the furore abated somewhat; still the silent 
steed, kept on recruiting its patrons through the most 
eminent ranks ot European society, and the world- 
famed Michael Faraday was reckoned, at this time, 
among its devotees. It was not till 1840 that a first real 
advance was made in the construction of the machine. 
Kirkpatrick McMillan, of Courthill, Dumfrieshire, Scot- 


for whose benefit it was primarily intended, for the 
patent was never utilized.—Ten years now elapsed, when 
a Parisian smith, named Micliaux, had his attention 
attracted by the efforts of his young son to mount a 
broken tricycle that he had laid aside in his backyard 
until he should have time to repair it. One of the 
wheels had been removed, and the youngster’s success 
in riding this two-wheeled tricycle may be said to mark 
the dawn of the 19th century “ordinary,” as we now 
designate it. Michaux’s elucubratious were, as usual, 
immediately seized and improved upon by another: a 
countryman of his, Pierre Lallement, brought out the 
new bicircle, velocipede, or (for shortness) veloce, with 



in-chief and Prince-Bishop of Osnaburg) riding to 
Windsor Castle on his hobby-horse, “for economy 
sake,” although his yearly income exceeded $50,000.— 
The Draisienne was next improved in 1821 by Lewis 
Gompertz, of Surrey, Eng., so as to bring the rider’s 
arms into action “in assistance to his legs.” (Fig. 
2718). Then we hear incidentally that, in 1823, Silas 
Davis “of the S. W. corner of Liberty and First Streets, 
Troy, N. Y,” constructed and successfully mounted the 
first velocipede in that city. Again we are told that in 
1830, a Mr. Dreuze, a public postal functionary in France, 
brought out a two-wheeled machine propelled by direct 
action on the a«ies of the wheels, stability and direction 


land, planned and constructed a rear-driving vehicle with 
downward pedal-action, the cranks and the rear-hub 
being connected with a driving rod (Fig. 2719). Five 
or six years later, another Scotchman, Gavin Dalzell, of 
Lesmahagow in Lanarkshire, brought out a slight im¬ 
provement upon McMillan’s machine—the driver wheel 
was 40 inches, the steerer 30 inches, both of them iron 
shod—and for half a century he was erroneously consid¬ 
ered the original inventor. Strange as it may appear, 
an inflated tire for wagon use, invented at this date and 
duly described in the English patent records of 1845, 
was apparently unnoticed by velocipede improvers; 
indeed it does not seem to have impressed even those 


cranks and pedals on the front wheel, said front wheel 
slightly larger than the rear (Fig. 2720), and a patent on 
it was secured in this country, Nov. 20, 1866. It was in 
1867 that England manufactured her first new veloci¬ 
pede, or “boneshaker,” as it soon was irreverently 
called; and in the following year, the vehicle made its 
first invasion of this country. In August, 1868, the 
Hanlon brothers of New York city, patented, as improve¬ 
ments on it, “adjustable cranks to suit the driver’s 
peculiarities, an extensible seat and its adaptation to the 
use of ladies by making it similar to a side saddle.” 
They were quickly followed by T. R. Pickering, also of 
New York city, who designed a machine (Fig. 2727) 






























































































504 


BICY 


[SECTION II.] 


BIME 


“ more simple and durable, lighter, stronger and cheap¬ 
er ” than the French. By Dec. 23, the Scientific American 
announced the opening on Broadway, N. Y., of “ a rid¬ 
ing school for giving instruction in the art of riding or 
driving the two-wheeled velocipede.” Harper's Weekly 
had described the Parisian “ veloce ” on its first landing 
at Castle Gardens as being “ like Paris, fast; and, un¬ 
like the generality of French contrivances, likely to be 
useful; ” its cartoon for Jan. 9, 1869, represented the 
New Year as riding in on a velocipede; and it was not 
long before it informed its readers that “ the Rev. Henry 
Ward Beecher has secured two of the American ma¬ 
chines, and other gentlemen well-known in the literary 
and artistic world are possessed of their magic circles.” 
The new vehicle had undoubtedly made an impression. 
It was to be the lot ol another clergyman to inaugurate 
rubber tires. Rev. Arthur Edwards, assistant editor of. 
the Northwestern Christian Advocate, hit upon the idea of 
l having tires of that description fixed on his Picker¬ 
ing, and his assertion that he could ride over ice and 
snow without slipping gained him at once numerous 
imitators; while, to further ease the jolts, Buell intro¬ 
duced elliptical springs on the front and the rear forks of 
his mount (Fig 2721). Once started, innovations kept 
apace. In February of this same year, 1869, the first 
number of The Velocipedisl, a monthly, was issued in 
New York city. Then, a tandem, the first on record, 
was designed and built by H. T. Butler, of Cambridge, 
Mass., the lady sitting behind on a side saddle and 
working, therefore, with one foot only, while the gen¬ 
tleman occupied the front seat. The month of April, 
1869, brought forth a “beautiful little ladies’ veloci¬ 



pede” called the Peerless and mounted on low treadle 
wheels “so that a special dress was not required by the 
fair rider;” and in its issue of May 29, the Scientific 
American felt justified in making the statement that the 
velocipede had now “ ceased to be a novelty upon our 
-streets and public parks.” In 1869, too, the first veloci¬ 
pede entirely of iron and steel was manufactured by 
Magee of Paris. And now the utilitarian element ot 
the popular machine began to assert itself. In 1870, 
Italy headed all other nations in adopting it for mili¬ 
tary purposes. In 1872, brigades de vilocipvdistes, the 
forerunners of our own present messengers awheel, were 
■organized in Paris to carry dispatches from the Bourse 
to the central telegraph office which was then some 
three miles distant. Two years later, while Bazaine’s 
trial for high treason was going on in Versailles, 13 miles 
away from the capital, velocipedists were employed by 
Parisian newspapers to obtain the earliest news of the 
proceedings. In 1874, with the object of reducing the 
weight, a Mr. Merchegay advocated the plan of making 
the front wheel very large and the rear proportionately 
email, and of placing the rider as nearly as possible 
over the axle of the main wheel. The “bicycle” was 
now evolved; its former designations speedily disap¬ 
peared ; and for ten years its essential make-up remained 
practically unchanged. Experiments were tried in re- 



Fig. 2732. 


gard both to the respective location of the wheels, and to 
the application of the motive power, as in the Lawson 
Safety of 1876 (Fig. 2724), the Facile of 1878, and the 
Xtraordinary of the same date (Fig. 2729), not forget¬ 
ting the Otto, with its two large piarallel wheels from 
the axles of which hung the rider's seat (Fig. 2725), 
the Bicyclette of 1880, the American Star of 1881 (Fig, 
2722.1, the Merlin of 1882, the Kangaroo of 1883 (Fig. 
2723.), and several others; but the combination of high | 
and low wheels continued to perplex reformers, and to 
•estrange timorous would-be riders. It was during this j 
heyday period of the high wheel that the first Ameri-| 
can bicycle was manufactured by Colonel Albert A. | 


Pope, in 1878 ; its weight was 113 lbs., and its cost 8337. 
Eventually, however, in the early eighties, a chain- 
geared, low-wheeled bicycle (Fig. 2726) was presented 
to the public, the advent of which proved the death- 
knell of the high machine. In vain did the historic 
bicycle tournament held at Leipzig in 1884 dazzle Eu¬ 
rope with a display of'all its resources; in vain were 
highly improved models, like that of 1886 (Fig. 2731) 
placed on the market; the “safety” of the newcomer over¬ 
came the unfavorable impression that its lack of grace¬ 
fulness had at first created, and slowly, surely, it rose to 
the high-water mark at which it now stands in public 
estimation, and ultimately drove its gaunt predecessor 
entirely out of the field. It was but a short step from 
the model of Fig. 2726 to that of Fig. 2732, brought out 



Fig. 2733.— army bicycle of 1897, carrying small 

MACHINE GUN. 



in 1887, and from the latter to the most up-to-date gen¬ 
tlemen’s wheel of the present day (Fig. 2713), the 
chief feature in the transition being the invention of 
the pneumatic tire (q.v.) in 1889. In the same way the 
first drop-frame ladies’ wheel, patented in this country 
in 1887 also, easily led the way to the slightly different 
forms at present in vogue (Fig. 2714).— Chainless Bi¬ 
cycles. For many years there has been a ceaseless effort 
to supplant the chain aud sprocket by some other de¬ 
vice for transmitting power from pedal to driving- 
wheel. This result has been successfully accomplished 
by the use of bevel gears attached to the pedals and 
connected by a shaft to the rear wheels. In 1894 a 
bicycle called the “ League Chainless ” was manufac¬ 
tured in Hartford, Conn., and met with some favor, 
though wide in tread and more weighty than the chain 
wheels ot that year. It was also imperfect, structurally, 
and soon disappeared from the market. Since that 
time various makers of Europe and America have pro¬ 
duced bevel gear bicycles of improved forms. The 
“AcattSne,” made in France, has proved successful; and 
in 1898 the Pope Manu¬ 
facturing Co. put on 
the American market 
the “ Columbia Chain- 
less,” in which the 
structural difficulties 
w r ere apparently over¬ 
come. The accompany¬ 
ing illustration shows 
the method of apply¬ 
ing the bevel gear and 


BICYCLE BEVEL GEARS. 


shaft system, in which absolute accuracy of action and 
perfect rigidity of frame are positive requirements. 
Another form of chainless bicycle has a cogwheel of 
several inches diameter on the pedal shaft in place of 
the customary sprocket, the teeth of which engage a 
similar wheel situated between this wheel and a cog¬ 
wheel on the axle, the latter, in turn, being engaged 
by the teeth of the intermediate wheel. Direct cog 
motion is thus produced, but the method has not 
proved very satisfactory and this form of the bicycle 
has not become popular.—Regarding the adaptabilily 
of the bicycle to the uses of warfare, Major-General 
Nelson A. Miles is authority for the statement that 
there are at present in the United States Army some 
five thousand officers and soldiers who use the cycle 
either in service or for recreation, and that “in a coun¬ 
try like ours in its present condition, and on an occa¬ 
sion of great emergency, it would be practicable to 
equip one hundred thousand men w ith this means of 
transportation, which would render them one of the 
most efficient armies ever organized.” 

Bieda's Comet, f Astron.) A comet of short period 
(6?4 years) first seen in 1826 by Baron von Biela, an 
Austrian officer, and wdiose unusual and instructive 
history has made it of high interest and value to science. 
It was observed in two returns with no appearance of 
change, but on its third return, in 1845-46, astronomers 
saw with surprise that it had separated into two parts, 
which were about 157,000 miles apart. In 1852 these 
two parts were again visible, but had now separated to 
a distance of 1,250,000 miles. That was the last that 
has been seen of it. But, significantly, when the earth 
crossed its path in November, 1872, a shower of meteors 
was observed, w'hicli are now r supposed to have been 
fragments of the lost comet. Biela’s, therefore, appears 
to have yielded direct evidence in favor of the meteoric 


theory of comets, and of the mode of origin of meteorit 
rings. See Comet. 

Big'elotv, John C., born at Malden, N. Y., Nov. 25,1817. 
Author, journalist and diplomatist. Admitted to the 
New York bar, 1839; editor of The Plebeian and The 
Democratic Review; joint owner of N. Y. Evening Post 
with William Cullen Bryant, 1849-61; U. S. Consul at 
Paris, France, 1861-65; U. S. Minister to France, 1865-67. 
Among his later writings are a monogram on Molinos 
the Quietist; a life of W.C. Bryant; The Complete Works 
of Benjamin Franklin ; The Life of Samuel J. Tilden, 1895. 

Bijapore ( bejah-poor '), a town of Hindostan, in the 
Guico war’s Dominions, 60 m. S. E. of Deesa. Pop. 11,824. 

Bijnour (bejmoor’), a city of British India, N. W. 
Provinces, cap. of a dist. of same name, 34 in. E. of 
Mozuffurnuggur, in N. Lat. 29° 22', E. Lon. 78° 11'. 
Area of dist., 1,904 sq. m. Soil fertile, producing cotton, 
sugar-cane, and wheat. Pop. of town 15,147. 

Bikaneer ( bek-ah-neer / ), a town of British India, cap. 
of a Rajpoot state of same name, in N. Lat. 28°, E. Loin 
73° 22'. Pop. 56,260. The state has an area of 22,340 
sq. m. and a population of 215,371. 

Billing'S, Josh. See Shaw, Henry Wheeler. 

Bimetal'lie, a. Of or pertaining to bimetallism; as, 
the bimetallic theory.—Consisting of two metals; as, a 
bimetallic currency.—Based, on terms of exact equality, 
upon two metals; as, a bimetallic monetary standard. 

Bimet'allism, n. (Fin. and Polit. Econ.) A system 
of coinage and currency in accordance with which two 
metals (specifically gold and silver) are admitted to un¬ 
limited coinage, the coins being made full legal tender 
at a fixed relation in monetary value proportionate to 
their weight aud fineness, respectively. “Unlimited” 
coinage does not necessarily involve “ free ” coinage, in 
the sense of its being gratuitous ; but, if there be a charge 
for minting, it must be adjusted so as to not discriminate 
against either metal, for the essential principles of B. 
require absolute equality of the metals before the law, 
not only as to their monetary power, but as to their 
coinage. True B. must be carefully differentiated from 
the mere concurrent coinage and circulation of full legal 
tender gold and silver, as in the U. S., France and Ger¬ 
many at the present day. This latter system does not 
constitute B., because silver is not thereby made a 
“standard” nor given full equality with gold in the 
matter of coinage, and without such equality the most 
important objects of B. must be completely defeated. 

The purposes of B. are, first, to promote invariability 
of the monetary unit, and thereby attain steadiness or 
regularity of general values; second, to provide a larger 
volume of actual money, and so avoid an unnecessary 
use of so-called “ token.” “ credit,” or “ representative ” 
money—bank notes and the like—i. e., currency that 
calls for redemption in some other form of currency, 
upon which promise of redemption its integrity is based. 
In support of the first claim, it is urged that two metals, 
collectively, will not, and cannot, be subject to fluctua¬ 
tions in exchange value so great as those to which either 
one, singly, might be subjected ; hence, a double (more 
properly an alternative) standard of value gives greater 
promise of a stable monetary unit than the system of 
monometallism can possibly provide. The history of 
B. in France (1803-1873), and in the U. S. (1792-1873) 
is cited to prove this contention, it being shown that 
during that time a parity of the metals was very 
closely maintained between the ratios 15%: 1 and 16:1; 
aud this notwithstanding the fact that the world’s pro¬ 
duction of silver was largely in excess of these ratios 
during the first half of the period named, while that 
of gold was equally excessive during the second half. 
As we shall see, these claims are substantially correct; 
and, inasmuch as true B. was practically abolished in 
1871-73, no later actual tests of the system are on record 
aud available for the purposes of argument. As to the 
second claim, it must be freely conceded that the placing 
of silver upon an exact equality with gold would at 
once double the quantity of the world’s so-called 
“primary” money, if at a ratio of 15%: 1 or 16: 1. 
Whether the effect of such action would be beneficial, 
or otherwise, is another question. 

Bimetallism is entirely feasible, as a principle; that is 
to say, a double standard is quite possible as a legal 
enactment, though probably impracticable as a physical 
fact. Both gold and silver are commodities, and will 
forever obey the natural law of commodity, the action 
of which law, however, is certain to be greatly influ¬ 
enced by statutes governing coinage. It is by reason of 
this natural law of supply and demand thatB., in actual 
practice, is likely to resolve itself into monometallism of 
an alternative character. That is to say, if there shall be 
established a “double standard,” i.e.j a system under 
which either of two metals is legally recognized as a 
monetary standard, it is inevitable that the one which 
is actually a fraction the cheaper of the two (at the fixed 
ratio) will be the one which constitutes the actual 
standard, and will so continue until parity shall be again 
reached through the operation of natural laws. That 
there may be two separate, differing standards for the 
same thing, at the same time, is manifestly absurd ; but 
a legalized choice between two different standards may 
exist—in fact, must exist, under B. The inexorable 
law of supply and demand renders it extremely improb¬ 
able that any two commodities will long exactly sustain 
a given value relation, and the utmost that can be ac¬ 
complished by legal enactment is to prevent a serious 
divergence from the fixed ratio. But that this may be 
done by the bimetallic system, is abundantly proved by 
the history of the French-American experiments of 1803- 
1873 and 1792-1873, during the course of which, and re¬ 
gardless of tremendous variations in the relative pro¬ 
duction of the two metals, a commercial ratio wM 































BIME 


[SECTION II.] 


BIME 


505 


eteachly maintained with very narrow fluctuations which' 
but once overstepped the -difference between the French 
ratio of 15%: 1, and the American ratio (after 1S34) of 
16:1. In this connection the following table is of ex¬ 
treme interest: 

Table showing the world’s production of silver 

AND OF GOLD, IN FINE OUNCES, FROM 1801 TO 190? 
THE AVERAGE RATIO OF SUCH PRODUCTION, AND THE 
AVERAGE COMMERCIAL RATIO (BULLION PRICE) OF THE 
TWO metals: 


Tears. 

World’s Production, in 
Fine Ounces. 

Average 
Ratio of 
Produc¬ 
tion. 

Average 

Com¬ 

mercial 

Ratio. 

Silver. 

Gold. 

1801-1810 

287,469,225 

5,715,627 

50-3 :1 

15 09:1 

1811-1820 

173,857.555 

3,G79,o68 

47-2 :1 

16-61:1 

1821-1830 

148,070,040 

4.570.444 

32-4 :1 

15-8 :1 

1831-1840 

191,758,675 

6,522,913 

29-4 :1 

15-75:1 

1841-1850 

250,903,422 

17,605.018 

14 26:1 

15-83:1 

1851-1860 

287,920,128 

64,482,933 

4-46:1 

15-29:1 

1861-1870 

392.267.776 

61,298,343 

64 :1 

15-56:1' 

1871-1880 

710.463,078 

55,670.618 

12 76:1 

16-89:1 

1881-1890 

1,004,576,877 

51.280,184 

19-59:1 

19-87:1 

1891 

137.170.919 

6.320.194 

21-7 :1 

20-92:1 

1892 

153,154,762 

7,102.180 

21-56:1 

23-72:1 

1893 

166,092.047 

7,608.787 

21-83:1 

26-49:1 

1894 

167,752,561 

8,737,788 

1919:1 

32-56:1 

1895 

169.180,249 

9.688.821 

17 46:1 

31-6 :1 

1896 

165,100,887 

9,817.991 

1681:1 

30-66:1 

1900 

172.838,870 

12.366,319 

13 98 : 1 

33-33:1 

1907 

184,948,867 

19.854.875 

9-31 :1 

32.22:1 

Total 

4,763,527,938 

352.322,603 

13-52.1 



• Estimated. 


Analysis of this table proves that neither the pro¬ 
portionate overproduction of silver during the first 48 
years (averaging about 36-6 ounces to each ounce of 
gold) nor the deluge of the yellow metal following 
1848, was able to upset the coinage ratios of France and 
the U. S., the average annual variation being, in fact, 
only four-fifths of one per cent. In the decade of 
greatest gold production (1850-60) alone did the bullion 
ratio go higher than 15%: 1 (15-29: 1), and it never fell 
below the American ratio of 16:1. From all of which 
is clearly evident that the ratio of production had no 
important effect upon the commercial ratio before de¬ 
monetization was effected; and that the divergence in 
prices since the decade of 1871-80 cannot be accounted 
for by a corresponding increase in the ratio of produc¬ 
tion. The great growth of the silver product since 
1873—and particularly since 1878—may be ascribed al¬ 
most wholly to the mistaken zeal of the so-called 
“ friends of silver,” who foolishly insisted upon its large 
! purchase for conversion into money that was dishon¬ 
ored in advance. This course, which stimulated the 
production and reduced the price of silver one-half in 
spite of government purchases, has supplied the advo¬ 
cates of gold monometallism with their most effective 
argument, and one that is superficially unanswerable— 
i.e., that bimetallism, as proposed in the campaign of 
1896, would provide a “50-cent dollar,” and conse¬ 
quently, a dishonest currency'. 

At thebegiuningof the nineteenth century, the world’s 
stock of silver and. gold was estimated to be in the pro¬ 
portion of 15 or 15% ounces of silver to one of gold, 
which closely accorded with the ratio adopted by the U. 
S. in 1792. Our change of ratio, in 1834, had the per¬ 
fectly natural effect of driving our silver out of circula¬ 
tion, the French ratio of 15% to 1 being more favorable 
even after paying the cost of transportation. We had 
thenceforth (gold) monometallism in fact, although our 
system nevertheless remained bimetallic; for B., as 
we have already observed, might he more properly 
termed alternative monometallism. The gold discoveries 
in California and Australia (1847-1851) emphasized the 
undervaluation of silver at our mints, but did not 
materially change the commercial ratio of the two metals 
in the world’s markets, although within the twelve 
years from 1848 to 1860, the stock of gold in the hands 
of civilization was literally' doubled. As gold depre¬ 
ciated, so did silver: the two metals were held together 
by a bond that could not be broken by the vicissitudes! 
of mining enterprise. Such, indeed, is the purpose and: 
natural effect of bimetallism ; but, while the figures we j 
have just examined seem to show beyond doubt the power 
of this system to preserve an approximate parity in the 
face of the widest variations in production, this does not 
at all prove that a monetary unit thus sustained will be 
invariable or even nearly so. The truth is that under 
the bimetallic system the two metals are certain to ap¬ 
preciate or depreciate approximately in unison, remain¬ 
ing constantly in close touch with each other. The 
extent of such appreciation or depreciation will depend, 
at least to a degree, upon the combined production of 
the two metals. It is claimed, and not unreasonably, 
that under the bimetallic system fluctuations will lie 
less frequent, and that, consequently, a more stable 
monetary unit will be maintained; but no well-informed 
disputant, whether of the bimetallic or the monometallic 1 
school, now asserts that complete stability is attainable 1 
bv either method. On the contrary, it may he con¬ 
fidently stated that no monetary system employing a 
marketable commodity (or commodities) as a so-called 
“standard of value," can possibly provide an absolutely 
changeless monetary unit. The question, then, as be¬ 
tween the two metallic schools, is: By which is the 
greater degree of stability to be attained? 

Spurious' B. is a term that has been somewhat appro¬ 
priately applied to the present monetary system of the 


IT. S. The presence in our currency of large quantities' 
of full legal tender silver dollars (and of paper certifi¬ 
cates of deposit representing the same) has doubtless 
given rise to the erroneous belief, so widely entertained, 
that ours is a bimetallic system. Many are unable to 
distinguish between thecurreucy—the monetary tokens 
—and the monetary unit, or so-called standard of value. 
Prior to 1873, silver had full equality with gold at our 
mints; but, owing to the more favorable French ratio, | 
practically no silver was coined, after 1834, except 
fractional pieces of light weight. The metal constituted 
no part of our currency except in the form ot small 
coins. At the time of demonetization, 1873, silver was 
still undervalued, the dollar being worth about $1.03 in 
gold, this premium of 3 per cent, representing almost 
exactly the difference between the French ratio and 
our own (15% : 16:: 1.00 :1.032+ ). Nothing further is 
required to explain the fact that our mints coined-prac¬ 
tically no full-weight silver alter 1834. Our bimetallic 
system was resolved into actual (gold) monometallism 
by the difference in ratio just noted; but, notwithstand¬ 
ing this, the influence of B. was as potent is our com¬ 
mercial and financial operations as though equal 
quantities of the metals had been in circulation here, 
and so continued until 1873, although our currency was 
virtually devoid of both metals after 1861. Shortly after 
1873 began the fall in the price of silver as expressed in 
terms of gold (which was thereafter the sole, not the 
alternative, standard), although the production of silver 
did not greatly increase for several years, and did not 
reach a product ratio of 15% : 1 until 1881. In 1894 the 
world’s output of silver was only 19T9 ounces to each 
ounce of gold; yet the commercial ratio had fallen to 
32-56:1. Compare this with the decade of 1861-70, 
with a product ratio of 6 40:1 and a commercial ratio oi 
15 56:1, and even with the decade of demonetization 
(1871-1880), when the product ratio was only 12-76:1 
with a commercial ratio of 16’89:1, and it may be easily 
seen that statutes—coinage laws—may very greatly affect 
values, though perhaps they may not “ create” them. 

The efforts of our government to maintain a parity be¬ 
tween our gold and silver coins have had the very natural 
effect of depressing the (gold) price of silver. One of 
the ludicrous features of contemporary financial dis¬ 
cussion is the persistency with which it is urged that 
“even the enormous treasury purchases of silver have 
failed to keep up its price;” this being put forth as con¬ 
clusive proof that overproauction of that metal, and not 
its demonetization, is responsible for its decline. While 
it is true that an enlarged demand for any commodity 
generally causes an advance in its price, supply remain¬ 
ing the same, it by no means follows that this rule should 
hold good in the case of silver. There are two principal 
reasons why we should expect an exception: 

1. Because all coinage values are, in a wide sense, 
artificial, as was that of silver prior to 1873 and as is 
that of gold to-day. The legislative prop having 
been removed from silver in 1873, a fall in its price 
was inevitable. Further, the legal support that was 
then withdrawn from silver was transferred to gold, 
thus intensifying their divergence in purchasing power. 

2. Every dollar of silver coined since 1873 (or issued 
by proxy in the form of a silver certificate), has added 
one dollar to our “ token ” money redeemable in gold 
—not redeemable by an actual promise, but by virtue 
of the avowed purpose of the government to maintain 
all forms of its money at a parity with gold, in accord¬ 
ance with which plan all government obligations have 
been held to be payable in gold upon demand of the 
creditor. It is probably true that the parity of gold 
and silver dollars could not have been maintained by 
any other means, the bimetallic system hiving beeu 
abandoned; but the purchase of large quantities of silver 
from which to create additional obligations virtually 
redeemable in gold, could have had no other ulti¬ 
mate effect than to reduce the gold price of the 
white metal, and with it the prices of nearly all other 
commodities. And that is precisely what took place. 

What would have been the relations of gold and silver 
now, had the demonetizations of 1871-73 not occurred, 
must always remain a matter for conjecture. It is safe 
to assume, however, that very little silver w’ould have 
been offered at our mints so long as 15%: 1 continued 
to be the French ratio, with ours at 16 :1. We may also 
assume that the production of silver would never have 
attained such large proportions but for the artificial 
stimulus supplied by the purchases by the U. S. govern¬ 
ment—a fatal blunder on the part of the silver party. 
Equally probable it is that, in the absence of demon¬ 
etization, the commercial ratio would have continued 
betw een 15%: 1 and 16:1, regardless of production, and 
that the range of general prices throughout the world 
would have been governed, as before, by the purchasing 
power of the metals jointly, instead of by that of gold 
alone; which assumption warrants the conclusion that 
the general fall in prices, which has undeniably occurred, 
would have been largely prevented. This view is sus¬ 
tained by the immense combined total of production of 
the two money metals. Such fall having taken place, 
however, and contracts and obligations having been 
entered into and remaining in force on a basis of gold 
alone, it is hard to avoid the conclusion that a sudden 
return to the full bimetallic system would reduce the 
value of certain kinds of property, specifically money 
itself and securities payable or redeemable in money. 
That such losses would reach or even approximate the 
the figures put forth by the opponents of bimetallism, I 
is unlikely to the point of absurdity.—Equally ridicu¬ 
lous is the assertion that the remonetization of silver 
would result in doubling the prices of all commodities 
except labor (which is virtually a commodity). Tbej 


arguments put forth in support of this notion are en¬ 
tirely based upon alleged experience; they lose all their 
force when we remember that no parallel condition is 
presented in the history of all the world.—That the 
resumption of bimetallism, under present conditions, 
would result in reducing the purchasing power of the 
dollar, must be admitted by all honest bimetallists; the 
alternative being to admit that prevailing low prices 
are not the effect of gold monometallism. Such re¬ 
duction, how’ever, would not necessarily be to the 
level of the present value of silver; hence, the “50- 
cent dollar” may lie summarily dismissed as a cam¬ 
paign scarecrow. In the restoration of the parity 
which it is assumed would follow a return to bimetal¬ 
lism, it is fair to suppose that silver would advance, 
about as rapidly as gold would recede, toward the point 
of convergence; and this view is maintained by the rela¬ 
tive production of the metals at the present time, and 
future production, so far as it can be forecast.—That the 
concurrent adoption of bimetallism by a sufficient body 
of commercial peoples at approximately the same ratio 
would restore and maintain a practical parity between 
the two metals, admits of no doubt; but the "ability of 
this or any other one or more nations to accomplish 
this result, without the concurrence of the others, is 
purely a matter of speculation. It is certain, however, 
that if half the world should establish a ratio of 15%: 1 
and the other half a ratio of 16:1, the former would 
mint most of the silver, the latter most of the gold; 
while a uniform legal coinage ratio throughout the 
world would positively guarantee the constancy of an 
identical commercial ratio, so long as the combined 
product of the metals should not exceed the amount re¬ 
quired for monetary uses—that is, so long as the coin¬ 
age demand should remain the chief demand.—One 
of the important effects which bimetallism seeks to pro¬ 
duce is the reduction of uncovered paper currency. In 
order that a metallic currency may be sound, in the best 
sense, the metal itself should circulate; or, if this be in¬ 
convenient (as it is in the case of silver especially), then 
the metal represented by paper tokens should actually 
remain on deposit as security for redemption. Inflation 
of the currency, by issuing paper money in excess of 
the metal deposited, is always an element of danger and 
a positive menace in times of depression or panic. The 
world’s inadequate supply of gold coin compels the use of 
credit currency—uncovered treasury paper, bank notes, 
and the like—and also the excessive use of general 
commercial credits. The rehabilitation of silver, if safely 
accomplished, would certainly permit the disuse of in¬ 
flated paper currency to the extent that the metal might 
be coined (»r issued iu the form of paper certificates) to 
take its place; and the amount of gold and its paper 
representatives that might circulate side by side with 
silver would depend upon how closely our coinage ratio 
should coincide with the ratios of other nations and 
with the world’s estimate of bullion values. 

In this connection, it is proper to direct attention to 
the prevailing form of argument against the principle 
of B., in order to show the general misapprehension 
that exists as to the true character, aim. and effect of 
that system when properly appllea. The Bankers' 
Magazine for March, 1897, finds the origin of the 
current monetary troubles of the U. S. in the demand 
that the value ratio of silver to gold shall l e determined 
by the government, and asserts that such an effort is 
not a proper governmental function. We quote: 

Being commodities as well as money, and being commodities 
before and after they are money, and being money simply and 
only because they are commodities, and being commodities be 
cause they have recognized and intrinsic value independent of 
any action of government, and even in the absence of government, 
and being, therefore, severally subject to all the laws of commodi¬ 
ties, the law of variable supply and demand and value among 
others, and these variations not being uniform for both metals, it 
is impossible that government can ever “ fix" the ratio of theii 
values. If, however, it should be insisted that it is the function 
and duty of government to (try to) “ fix" tne ratio of their 
values, it would seem to follow as a logical consequence that, 
since their relative value depends absolutely on the relative supply 
of the two metals, it is the primary and plain duty of the govern¬ 
ment to “fix’* (regulate) their supply by controlling and oper* 
aling the gold and silver mines, the sources of their production. 
It should do both things, or neither, and it is preferable that it 
should do neither. It is folly to expect to do the former without 
doing the latter. 

This statement has been pronounced by a highly in¬ 
fluential daily contemporary to be “the truth of the 
matter in a nutshell.” But such truths as are contained 
in the above quotation are not traversed by the prin¬ 
ciples of B., which do not maintain that the government 
can arbitrarily fix the value of anything, nor the ratio 
of value between an} - two things. Nevertheless, the 
government has the undoubted power to open its mints 
to the unlimited coinage, on equal terms, of two metals 
at a certain ratio; the natural law of commodity will do 
the rest. But without B. (which includes unlimited 
coinage of both metals) even government control of all 
the mines—a truly childish proposition—would not avail, 
nor can any statute force a parity in the absence of true 
B. — i. e.. without unlimited coinage of both. These as¬ 
sertions are proved by history, including our own bitter 
experience, and cannot be controverted. If it be true 
that “ their relative value depends absolutely on the rela¬ 
tive supply of the two metals.” what becomes of the 
unassailable facts shown by the world’s experience 
from 1803 to 1873? We have already seen that a rela¬ 
tive production of silver and gold varying, during that 
period, from 50'3:1 to 4 46 :1 had practically no effect on 
the relative bullion value of the metals. Without going 
further into details, it must be clearly 6een that the 
statement just quoted, in common with very much of 
current monetary comment, is based upon a faulty co» 
























506 


BIOL 


[SECTION II.] 


BLAC 


ception of the questions at issue and made without due 
regard to tne actualities of recorded experience. 

Advocates of B. should not be dismayed by formidable 
statements showing an immense government loss 
through the purchase of silver bullion, now worth mil- j 
lions less than it cost. The figures cannot be disputed, ] 
but the fact remains that these transactions could never 
have occurred but for the abolition of true B. Our na¬ 
tional loss, as superficially shown by these estimates, 
has been caused, not by the practice of B.. but by its 
abandonment. Again, as every business man knows, 
the bulk of our currency, as handled dn every-day 
trade, has been for years composed most largely of sil- 

1 ver or silver certificates and Treasury notes of 1890. 
The use of these forms of currency in the channels of 
trade and industry unquestionably contributed in a large 
degree to our national prosperity duriug the period 
prior to the crash of 189:5, adding to our wealth a sum 
infinitely greater than the total cost of all the silver 

i in the Treasury; and nothing is more certain than that, 
without such addition to our freely-circulating currency, 
an era of tumbling values and disaster would have over¬ 
taken us long before. This much, at least, should be 
said in extenuation of the bungling policy which, under 
pretence of promoting the cause of B., has brought that 
system into undeserved disrepute. For the future it 
may be hoped that there will be no attempt to sustain 
this spurious system; and, if we are to carry out the 
principle that “all our silver and paper currency must 
be mairnained at a parity with gold ” ( vide the Repub¬ 
lican platform of 189G)—which parity, in the absence of 
true B., can be maintained only by making those forms 
of money virtually redeemable in gold—a due sense of 
economy should lead us to print such tokens on paper 
instead of upon so expensive a substance as silver. 
See Banks, National ; Money; Monometallism. 

Binary System. A system of two stars which re¬ 
volve around acommon centre of gravity. It is probable 
that all double stars, that is, stars which are actually, 
as well as apparently, very near each other, form binary 
systems, but this can be known to be the case only 
when their motion has been observed. The period ot 
revolution is usually one of centuries, and frequently 
thousands of years, so that only long-continued observa¬ 
tion can detect their relative motion; but, as research 
in this direction continues, new cases of binary systems 
must be added to those now known. Sir William 
Herschel was the first to make exact estimates of the 
relative positions of such objects. He was followed by 
Struve, and others have since paid attention to this sub¬ 
ject, with the result of adding to the list of double 
stars. The most remarkable instances are those dis¬ 
covered by the spectroscope, where the motion is too 
small to be discovered by any other means. Highly 
interesting examples are those in which a light-giving 
star is associated with a dark companion, known only 
by its influence in its associate. ThuR the star Algol 
has an invisible companion, which partly eclipses it at 
every revolution. A few triple and quadruple systems 
have also been discovered. See Star. 

Binondo (be-non'do). (Geog.) A town of the Philip¬ 
pine island of Luzon, and seat of govt, of the prov. of 
Toudo, opposite Manila, with which city it connects by 
a superb stone bridge over the Pasig, 411 feet in length. 
Pop. (1895) about 30,000. 

Biocliem'ic, a. Of, belonging to, or pertainingto bio¬ 
chemistry ; as, the biochemic school of medicine. 

Biocheni'istry, ». [From Gr. bios, life; Eng. chem¬ 
istry.) (Biol) That branch of science which treats of 
the chemical composition of animal and vegetable tis¬ 
sues.—A school of medicine based upon this science was 
founded about 1873 by Dr. Scliussler, of Oldenburg, Ger¬ 
many, which has gained some recognition both here 
and abroad. Schussler’s theory assumes that all diseases 
are caused by an absence or deficiency of certain cell- 
salts which are necessary to the maintenance of organic 
life; and its aim is to determine the character of these 
lost or missing constituents, and to supply them directly 
by alimentation. It is asserted by followers of this 
school that all the beneficial effects following the admin¬ 
istration of medicines in the usual way are really due 
to the fact that the ordinary practitioner accidentally— 
or, rather, ignorantly and without specific intent—ad¬ 
ministers the cell-salt that is actually required; which 
the Schussler school proposes to do deliberately and as a 
result of scientific chemical determination. In other 
words, the biochemic school regards organic life as a 
mere chemical combination, which, by analogy, should 
be susceptible of indefinite prolongation, the nature of 
the combination being established and an adequate sup¬ 
ply of its elements being at hand. No such wide claim, 
however, is found in the literature of the school. 

Biogen'esis. [From Gr. bios, life, and genesis, birth.] 
(Biol.) The doctrine of the origin of living organisms 
from preceding ones, by means of either sexual or 
asexual reproduction. It is opposed to abiogenesis, or 
origination of living from non-living matter. B. is also 
applied to the recent doctrine of reproduction and 
development which holds that “ ontogeny ” or the his¬ 
tory of the development of the individual, is a short 
recapitulation of “philogeny,” or the history of the 
race. In other words, it is maintained that the indi¬ 
vidual, in developing from the ovum to the adult stage, 
passes through a series of forms which belonged to 
adult animals along its line of descent, these being 
more or less concealed in the rapidity of growth. 

Blog-rapti. See Kinetograph. 

Bioldgy. n. [From Gr. bios, life, and logon, discourse.] 
In its most general sense, the science which compre¬ 
hends everything relating to the phenomena of life, 
Whether animal or vegetable. In a more restricted 


application, the term is synonymous with that of Gen¬ 
eral Physiology and is therefore confined to the study of 
the acts manifested by living organized beings. The 
latter definition, liowpver, has not appeared logical to 
the best of our modeirpscientists, who have seen in the 
introduction of this word a happy idea, the application 
of which unites under one and the same head all that 
relates to the study and science of life. 

Bi'plane, n. An aeroplane or flying machine, com¬ 
posed of two planes, or gliding boards, firmly connected 
by bracing rods, the lower plane carrying the operator 
and motor apparatus. This is the type of the very 
successful Wright brothers’ machine. See Aeroplane. 

Bi oplasm, n. [Gr. bis and plasma, “a thing formed 
of life.”] This term was proposed by Dr. L. S. Beale to 
indicate the living or self-propagating matter of organic 
beings. In his view, a white blood-corpuscle, or an epi¬ 
thelial cell, is a mass of B., or a bioplast, around which 
gathers wdiat was once bioplastic matter, but is now 
non-living, or “ formed ” matter. The term has come 
into but little use in science. 

Bipinua'ria, n. (Zoiil.) The name of a star-fish larva. 
This larva differs so remarkably from the mature star¬ 
fish that it was once thought to be a distinct animal, 
the transformation being one of the strangest in nature. 
It is a free-swimming form, of aereous shape, having 
two ciliated bands and a tendency to develop long, stilt¬ 
like arms or processes. In the subsequent change into 
a star-fish the transformation is strangely indirect. The 
B. does not turn into the adult, but acts as its “ nurse.” 
The adult is formed within the B., taking in its vital 
organs, but making no use of the remainder, which is 
rejected and still manifests the actions of life. 

Bis'marck, a city, capital of North Dakota, on the 
N. Pacific R. R., and on the Missouri river, over which 
is a handsome iron and steel bridge of four spans, each 
of 400 ft. Pop. 1890, 2,186; 1897, about 3,750. 

Bis'marck Arellipel'ajjo. (Geog.) The name 
given to New Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover and 
several small islands in the S. Pacific off the coast of 
New Guinea, since 1884 a German dependency. Area, 
18,150 sq. m. Pop. 188,000. 

Bis imith (Metal.) Unlike most other metals, B. is 
found chiefly in the metallic state and disseminated, in 
veins, through gneiss and clay-slate. The chief supply 
is derived from the mines of Schneeberg, in Saxony, 
where it is associated with the ores of cobalt. The 



metallurgical treatment of the native B. is very simple. 
The ore is broken into small pieces, and introduced 
into iron cylinders which are fixed in an inclined 
position over a furnace (Fig. 2734). The upper opening 
of the cylinders, through which the ore is introduced, 
is provided with an iron door, and the lower opening 
is closed with a plate of fire-brick perforated for the 
escape of the metal, which flows out, when the cylin¬ 
ders are heated, into iron) receiving-pots which are kept 
hot by a charcoal fire. 

Bissell, Wilson S., born in New York in 1847. A law¬ 
yer and politician. Joined the law firm of Bass, Cleve¬ 
land & Bissell in Buffalo, 1873; Postmaster-General 
under President Cleveland, 1893-95. 

Bizet, Alexandre CIssar Leopold, known as Georges, 
born at Paris, France, Oct. 25,1838. Musical composer; 
admitted to the Paris Conservatoire at the age of nine. 
Wrote the operas Djamilet, L'Arlcsienne, Carmen, not to 
speak of Roma, Palrie, Chants du Rhin, Feuilles d' Album, 
&c. Died at Bougival, June 3,1875. 

lijorneliorg (be-orn'burg), a seaport of European 
Russia, in the government of Finland, at the mouth of 
the Kumo, in the Gulf of Bothnia, 70 m. N. N. W. of 
Abo. Ship-building is extensively engaged in. Pop. 
8 , 000 . 

Bjorn son (be-i/ni'-son), Bjornstjerne, a Norwegian 
writer and poet, born 1832. At an early age he de¬ 
veloped great love for his native folk-lore. His first 
work was a drama, De Nygifte (The Newly Married 
Couple), followed by Mellem Slagene (Between the 
Battles). His Synnbve Solbakken was a great success; 
besides many other successful stories of peasant life, as 
Barfiissele (Little Barefoot), Fa glad Gut (A happy 
Boy). After some years of unproductiveness, he issued 
En Fallit (The Bankrupt), which was very popular. 
He is also a strong popular orator, always on the side 
of the people. He visited the U. S. in 1880. Others of 
his works are En Hanske (A Gauntlet), Ober Eme (Be¬ 
yond his Power), and Geografi og Kjeerlighed (Geography 
and Love), all dramas; and a novel. Flags in City and 
Harbor. B. is the foremost Norwegian advocate of re¬ 
publicanism in politics and free thought in religion. 
His activity as editor and political leader has been very 


! important. The independence of Norway has bee® 
earnestly advocated by him, and his influence over hi* 
countrymen is very great. 

IS lack i Chauncey Forward, a lawyer and politician, 
son of Jeremiah S. B., was born in Penna., in 1841; was 
elected Lieut.-governor of that State in 1882, and in 

1884 w'as the defeated candidate for Governor on the 
Democratic ticket. 

Black, James, born at Lewisburg, Pa., Sept. 23,1823. 
Admitted to the bar, 1846; devoted his talents to the 
organizing of the temperance movement; was the au' 
thor of the 1864 “ cider tract ”; was one of the leading 
organizers of the Good Templars, and the first to propose 
the formation of a distinct temperance party; was can¬ 
didate for U S. Presidency, 1872. Wrote a number of 
pamphlets on prohibition. Died in 1893. 

Black, Jeremiah Sullivan, an eminent jurist of 
Pennsylvania, born 1810; judge of the Supreme Court 
of Penna., 1851; U. S. Attorney-general, under Buchanan, 
1857; Secretary of State, 1S60. A man of great force 
and determination of character, a commanding figure 
in the politics of his day. Died 1883. 

Black, William, b. in Glasgow, Scotland, 1841. Aban¬ 
doned journalism for fiction in 1867, when he published 
Love or Marriage, soon followed by A Daughter of Heth, 
A Princess of Thule, Ac. His most recent novels are 
Highland Cousins, 1894, and Brineis, 1896. Died 1898. 

Black Band. (Min.) A clay ironstone, or compact 
carbonate of iron, in which there is from 25 to 30 per 
cent, of carbonaceous matter. It is found in abundance 
in the coal-fields of Scotland, and is used almost exclu¬ 
sively in that country for the production of certain 
grades of iron. While not very rich in iron, it is easily 
reduced. The coal-measures of Ohio also contain black- 
band iron ore, and it is here used to a small extent in 
iron production. 

Black Flag's. The name given to certain surviving 
bauds of the Taiping rebellion in China, who, after the 
overthrow of the rebel army, took refuge in Tonquin, 
where in 1868 they held the valley of the Red River as 
far as Hanoi. Soon after they were forced back to the 
upper part of the valley. In 1873 the Black Flags were 
called upon by the Tomiuinese to aid in expelling the 
French from Hanoi, and in the struggle that followed 
they defeated a French sortie and killed its commander. 
Gamier. In 1882 the French commander, Riviere met 
with a like fate at their hands in the same locality. In 

1885 China had become engaged in the war for the ex¬ 
pulsion of the French, and the Black Flags, with troops 
from China, held the passes above Tuyen-Kivan for 
nearly a month against repeated assaults from the 
French, and were still in possession when the war was 
ended by negotiations. The year before the B. F. had 
become notorious for their massacre of the native Chris¬ 
tians at the French mission stations, nearly 10,000 fall¬ 
ing victims to their murderous fury. The B. F. at 
present number about 5,000, many of them desperadoes 
in character and given to pillage. The Yellow Flag*, 
a considerably more numerous band, are peacefully 
disposed. 

Black Fungi. (Bot.) An order (Pyrenomycetese), of 
fungous plants of the class Ascomycetes, degraded in 
character, usually hard in texture and often of a black 
color. They are essentially parasitic in habit, although 
in many cases saprophytic, and in all number about 
7,000 species, divided among a number of families. 
Among those best known and most troublesome to 
agriculturists are Claviceps purpurea, the ergot of rye, 
and Plmcrightia morbosa, the black-knot of the plum tree. 
Some of them, microscopic in size and greatly degraded 
in function, are parasitic on insects. 

Black Hills, in South Dakota, so called from the In¬ 
dian name, Pah-Sappa (black-hill). Surface mountain¬ 
ous; Harney’s Peak, the second highest, is 7,440 ft. ab. 
tidewater. The timber is chiefly pine. Soil usually 
rich, black loam, well adapted for agricultural and graz¬ 
ing. Climate excellent, neither hot nor too cold ; thun¬ 
der-storms prevail. Animals: bear, deer, wolves, foxes, 
and beavers. Birds are not numerous, and fish but few. 
In the granitic area of the E. section of the B. H., con¬ 
taining abt. 700 sq. m., indications ot gold abound; in 
the valleys of the streams gold is generally found, but 
not in sufficient quantity to pay the ordinary pan miner. 
The approach to the B. H. is through long stretches of 
inhospitable, treeless plains, with water too alkaline for 
use ; but when you reach the B. H. yon enter a country 
of beautiful scenery, excellent soil, fine climate, abun¬ 
dant timber, and building stone. As a grazing country 
it has no superior. This region was ceded to the U. S. 
by the Dikota Indians in 1875, and was rapidly occu¬ 
pied by miners, an important industry in gold mining 
soon springing up. Since that time the district ha* 
produced gold to the value of over $50,000,000, with 
about $1,000,000 in silver. Deposits of tin have also 
been found, but in a form not easily reducible. 

Black Walnut. Juglans nigra, one of the most 
valuable timber trees of the U. S. It is found through¬ 
out the eastern half of the country, though at present 
rare in New England. The B. W. is a handsome tree 
and produces a nut which, though edible, is less so than 
that of the European walnut. Its special value lies in 
its solid, dark-red timber, which has no superior as a 
cabinet wood, and is employed largely for furniture and 
a great variety of other purposes. 

Blackie. John Stuart, born at Glasgow', Scotland, 
July, 1809. A philologist, poet and lecturer; professor 
of Greek at Edinburgh, 1852-82. Wrote Four Phases 
of Morals; Lays of the Highlands; Horse Hellenics’.; The 
Language and Literature of the Scottish Highlands; The 
TFise Men of Greece; Altarona, Messis Vile ; What Dote 
History Teach, Ac. Died March 2,1895. 








































































































































































BLAS 


[SECTION II.] 


BLON 


509 


Black'more, Richard Doddridge, born at Long- 
worth, Berkshire, Eng., in 1825. English novelist, 
originally a lawyer. Author of Clara Vaughan; Crad¬ 
dock Noicell; Lonia Doone; and, among others, Perlycross, 
1894; a volume of verse, 1895; and Tales f rom the Telling 
Home, 1896. Died Jan. 21, 1900. 

Black'pool. (Geog.) A handsomely-built town and 
fashionable seaside resort of England, Lancaster co., on 
the Irish Sea, 18 m. S. W. of Preston. Pop. 23,840. 

Blaine, James Gillespie, born at W. Brownsville, 
Pa., Jan. 31,1830; a brilliant statesman, able and versa¬ 
tile debater and an aggressive Republican leader. A 
school teacher, 1847; editor of Kennebec Journal, Augusta, 
Me., 1854; elected to State Legislature, 1858, and to 
Congress, 1863; Speaker of the House for three terms, 
1869-75; U. S. Senator, 1876-81; Secretary of State under 
Garfield, 1881; unsuccessful candidate for U. S. Presi¬ 
dency, 1884; Secretary of State under Harrison, 1889 
(resigned 1892). Died at Washington, D.C., Jan. 27,1893. 

Blair, Francis Preston, born at Abingdon, Va., April 
12,1791. A journalist and politician; edited the TFasft- 
ington Globe as a Jacksonian Democrat, 1830-45; was 
brought by the slavery question to be one of the 
founders of the Republican party ; and was a Democrat 
again in his later years. Died at Silver Spring, Md., 
Oct. 18,1876. 

Biair, Francis Preston, Jr., born at Lexington, Ky., 
Feb. 20,1821, son of the preceding. Congressman from 
Missouri, 1857-59 and 1861-63; a distinguished com¬ 
mander (major-general) in the Vicksburg campaign and 
Sherman’s march; unsuccessful Democratic candidate 
for Vice-Presidency, 1868; U. S. Senator, 1870-73. Died 
at St. Louis. July 5,1875. 

Blair, Henry William, born in Campton, N. H., Dec. 
6,1834. Admitted to the bar, 1859; lieutenant-colonel 
of volunteers during the Civil War; twice wounded at 
Port Hudson; elected to N. H. House of Representa¬ 
tives, 1866, and to the Senate, 1867 and 1868; Congress¬ 
man, 1875-79; U. S. Senator, 1879-91. Author of the 
“ Blair Common School Bill ” for the distribution of 
Federal money for educational purposes among States 
in proportion to the number of their illiterates. 

Blake, Hon. E., born of Irish parents in Middlesex co., 
Canada, in 1833. Late Premier of the Legislature of 
Ontario and subsequently Minister of Justice, Attorney- 
General and leader of the opposition. Disagreeing 
with the policy of commercial union with the U. S., he 
resigned his offices and moved to England in 1892, en¬ 
tering Parliament the same year as member for Long¬ 
ford, Ireland. 

Blake, Lillie Devereux, born at Raleigh, N. C., Aug. 
12, 1835. An ardent advocate ot woman’s rights, a good 
speaker, and a copious writer. Author of Southwnld; 
Rockford, or Sunshine and Storm; Fettered for Life; 
Woman’s Place To-day; A Daring Experience and other 
stories, 1892. 

Blanch'ard, Thomas, born at Sutton, Mass., June 24, 
1788. The inventor or improver of some of the most 
remarkable mechanical devices brought out in this 
century, among others a machine for turning and fin- 
fshing gun-barrels by one operation; another for cutting, 
pointing, and heading tacks by a single operation; a 
third for cutting and folding envelopes; a steamboat so 
Constructed as to bo able to ascend rapids, &e. Died at 
Boston, April 16, 1864. 

JEHand, Richard Parks, born at Hartford, Ky., Aug. 19, 
1835; a Missouri lawyer and politician. In Congress 
since 1873; a noted advocate of the free and unlimited 
coinage of silver. Author of the “ Bland Act” of 1878, 
compelling the Secretary of the Treasury to purchase, 
monthly, enough bullion to coin not less than two 
million nor more than four million silver dollars of 
412 x /> grains troy, each. 

Blasfi'field, Edwin Howland, b. at New York, Dec. 
15,1848 ; a subject painter. Author of A Poet; Toreador ; 
The Augur; Emperor Commodus Leaving the Amphi¬ 
theatre at the Head of the Gladiators; The Fencing Lesson; 
The Besieged; a number of decorative panels; a portrait 
of H. McK. Twombley, &c. 

Blast ing. ( Mining and Quarrying.) The compounds 
of nitro-glycerine, so strongly objected to for some years, 
have now come to the front as the safest as well as the 
most powerful of explosives. Nitro-glycerine or nitrate 
of glycerine, was discovered in 1847 by the Italian 
chemist, Sombrero. It is a pale-yellow, oily fluid, of 16 
sp. gr., which commences to stiffen and solidify when 
the temperature falls below 8° C., or 47° F. It is in¬ 
soluble in water, but can be mixed with methylated 
spirit, benzole, nitro-benzole, or a mixture of alcohol 
and ether. Against the use of pure nitro-glycerine a 
strong prejudice still exists in consequence partly of 
the poisonous nature of the substance, but mainly on 
account of its violent and sensitive nature, and the 
many accidents which happened in its earlier applica¬ 
tions. Nobel, the Swedish chemist, was the first to tame 
its violence, and to put it under complete control, so far 
as safety was concerned, by mixing it with the fine in¬ 
fusorial earth so well known to microscopists, and 
thus forming a simple mechanically plastic substance, 
handler as well as safer for use for mining and quarry¬ 
ing purposes. This substance, consisting of 75 per cent, 
of nitro-glycerine and 25 per cent of silicious meal, 
was proved, both as to safety' and power, by numerous 
most important and convincing experiments, and has 
reached an enormous sale for blasting operations under 
the name of dynamite. Thus compounded the plastic 
mass is of a tawny reddish hue, of a consistency ap¬ 
proaching that of putty. Set on fire in the open air, dy¬ 
namite merely deflagrates; it will simply burn when en¬ 
closed in ordinary boxes, producing only slightly 
noxious gases and very little or no smoke. It explode# 


only in completely closed spaces, and with difficulty by 
means of sparks. It may be, when thus confined, ex¬ 
ploded by glowing hot metals, by bullets fired into it, 
and otherwise by deliberate artificial ignition. The dis¬ 
advantage urged against it in its practical application is, 
that when the temperature falls below 6° C., it hardens, 
and that then, particularly when loose cartridges or a 
series of cartridges are employed, the whole of the 
charge is not exploded, but a portion remains alto¬ 
gether undamaged, or is blown out unexploded. The 
cause of this stiffening is of course due to the natural 
crystallization of the nitro-glycerine. Lithofracteur, 
the invention of Prof. Engels, is an improvement upon 
dynamite, and derives its advantages from the diminu¬ 
tion of the proportion of silicious meal as well as of 
the nitro-glycerine, the balance being made good by 
other ingredients of an explosive nature. It also is 
produced in a plastic state, being black in color and 
doughy in consistency. When lit by a match or a cigar, 
like dynamite, it merely burns; but it is almost in¬ 
sensible to blows or pressure, and can only be exploded 
by a strong priming cap or detonator composed of the 
strongest fulminate. Attempts to explode it by charges 
of gunpowder have failed. How little sensitive it is to 
violent shocks has been shown by throwing it over cliffs 
of 150 ft. or 200 ft. in height; as also by firing shells 
fitted with it from cannon, which exploded only when 
they reached some hard object of stone or iron. Neither 
in combustion nor explosion does it generate smoke like 
gunpowder; but the gases formed are transparent, and 
only detectable by the smell. Other forms of dynamite 
are largely in use, known by the various titles of Atlas, 
Dualine, Forcite, Tonite, Rendrock, Hercules, Racka- 
rock, and Vulcanite. For mining purposes the great 
desideratum is the quantity and nature of the work 
done by the explosive, for the main expense in such 
work is the cost of boring holes for the charges. If, 
then, these can be diminished in number as well as in 
dimensions by the greater power of the blasting ma¬ 
terial, the saving in the quarrying or mining operation 
becomes far more important than the difference in cost 
between the cheaper and less effective blasting-powder 
and the nitro-glycerine compounds, although that dif¬ 
ference in price may be considerable, pound for pound. 
The difference in the price of the powder is also more 
than equalled in the saving of human labor in drilling 
the holes; and it is generally assumed that this gain 
alone deducts a third from the expense which the 
manual labor required for blasting-powder entails. The 
method now generally employed in blasting operations 
is to use the cartridge, from which projects the copper 
“ priming needle.” A very soft clay material called 
tamping is used to fill the hole above the powder and 
around the needle, it being rammed gas-tight by a 
copper-tipped “tamping bar.” After the needle has been 
withdrawn a fuse is inserted, which, when ignited, fires 
down into the powder. Dynamite is charged in car¬ 
tridges with a safety fuse, or electric wire and cap, 
slightly tamped. All high explosives are now fired by 
the aid of.strong detonators,several charges being gen¬ 
erally prepared and fired simultaneously. This can 
be properly done only by electricity. The different 
holes are connected in series by a conducting wire, 
through which a current of electricity is sent from a 
small hand-power dynamo, or a frictional machine. 
Steam drilling has now, in a considerable measure, re¬ 
placed the slow and expensive hand-drilling process, 
and great improvements have been made in the work¬ 
ing power of drills, so that the cost of drilling opera¬ 
tions has been greatly reduced, and the rapidity as 
largely increased. The diamond drill has been em¬ 
ployed to a considerable extent in prospecting, though 
it has not come into use in mining and tunneling for 
the drilling of blasting holes. As an example of the 
pending power of the new explosives, we may quote the 
following experiments: Apiece of cast-metal 9 ft. long, 
6 ft. wide, and 17 in. thick, was broken into three large, 
and many small pieces, and a second, 12,000 lbs. in 
weight, was shattered into four pieces. Over each block 
fifteen rails were laid, in order to protect the neighbor¬ 
ing houses. “ These rails were hurled about 300 feet up 
into the air, in many little pieces, affording a diverting 
spectacle.” The charge is not recorded, but at an 
Essen experiment a block of cast-iron, 53 in. long, 29 in. 
broad, and 18 in. thick, was split through at a single 
discharge by about 6 lbs. of lithofracteur, simply laid 
on the smooth surface and tamped with a few handfuls 
of loam. 

Blavat'sky, Helena Petrovna Hahn-Hahn, born at 
Yekateriiioslaff, Russia, 1831; a naturalized American 
citizen. One of the chief founder of the Theosophical 
Society, and till her death the editor of The Theosophist. 
Author of Isis Unveiled; The Secret Doctrine; Key to 
Theosophy ; From the Caves and Jungles of Uindostan, &c. 
Died i„ London, Eng., May 8,1891. 

lilin<l. Karl, born at Mannheim, Germany, Sept. 4, 
1826. A Germau political agitator and writer; a resi¬ 
dent of Great Britain. He was long the cooperator of 
Mazzini, Garibaldi, Ledru-Rollin, Louis Blanc, and 
other European popular leaders, and warmly advocated 
the cause of Hungary, Poland, and the American Union, 
receiving, for his support of the latter, the public 
thanks of President Lincoln. 

Blind Pool. (Finance.) A contribution in money or its 
equivalent to a general fund for the purchase or sale of 
any article. This fund is given to one of the members 
of the combination or pool, who uses his own discretion 
in transacting the business agreed upon. 

Bliss, Cornelius N., born in Fall River, Mass., Jan. 28, 
1833. Educated in New Orleans; engaged in dry goods 
commission business in Boston, and later (1881), in New 


York City; chairman of New York State Republican 
Committee in 1887 and 1888 ; appointed Secretary of the 
Interior by President McKinley in March, 1897. 

Bliss, Daniel, born in Georgia, Vt., Aug. 17, 1823. A 
congregational clergyman and missionary; president 
of the Protestant college at Beyrout, Syria, 1864. Wrote, 
among other things, a Mental Philosophy and a Natural 
Philosophy in Arabic. 

Bliss, Porter Cornelius, born in Erie co., N. Y., Dec. 
28, 1838. A journalist and litterateur; in early life, 
private secretary to U. S. minister to Brazil, and subse¬ 
quently to U. S. minister to Paraguay; explored Gran 
Chaco for the Argentine government, and wrote for the 
government of Paraguay a history of that country, 
during the compilation of which he was suspected of 
being a Brazilian spy and imprisoned. It required the 
presence of an American squadron to obtain his release. 
Secretary of legation to Mexico, 1870-74; editor of 
The Library Table; president of the Philological Society 
for two years; author of a history of the Russo-Turkish 
war of 1877, &c. Died in New York City, Feb. 2,1885. 

Bliz' zard. ». ( Meterol.) A storm practically confined 
to the Western states, which is characterized by a fierce 
and bitterly cold wind, and fine blinding snow, causing 
annually the death of men and animals in exposed situ¬ 
ations. The blizzard generally follows an unusually 
low barometer, or winter storm area, when the pres¬ 
sure begins a rapid rise. Its place of first appear¬ 
ance is over the plains of Canada, E. of the Rocky 
Mountains, whence it passes into the northern range of 
American states and extends over a wide area. Bliz¬ 
zards rarely reach the eastern section of the country, 
though they are not unknown there. There is nothing 
more appalling than the coming of one of these dread¬ 
ful storms. In one that came in January, 1888, and 
extended from Dakota to Texas, the thermometer iell in 
some places from 74° above to 28° below zero, and in 
Dakota to 40° below. In this instance a spell of fine 
clear weather was suddenly followed by a darkening of 
the sky, while the air was filled with snow as fine as 
powder and driven by a roaring blast that drowned the 
voices of men only six feet distant. Objects a few yards 
off became invisible. Children died on their way home 
from school, farmers in the fields before they could 
reach their houses, some of them not frozen, but suffo¬ 
cated from the impossibility of breathing the blizzard 
air. In all about 235 perished. The most notable bliz¬ 
zard known in the East was that which began March 
11,1888, and raged until the 14th, its centre being about 
the cities of New York and Philadelphia. The wind on 
the 12th blew at the rate of 46 miles an hour, with fre¬ 
quent terrific squalls, while the snow, which fell steadily, 
was blown into enormous drifts. Streets and roads 
became impassable, railroad travel was prevented, and 
trains snowed up in cuts; telegraphic communication 
was cut off and many lives were lost. The train which 
left New York on Monday at 6 A. M., reached Philadel¬ 
phia on Thursday at 5 P. M., and the first train from 
Philadelphia for Pittsburgh got through on the 15th. 
Fortunately storms of this terrible character are of in¬ 
frequent occurrence, and seldom continue for more than 
a day or two, though no winter passes without their 
occasioning some loss of life in the West. 

Block System. (Railways.) A system for the control 
of railroad trains which are moving in the same direc¬ 
tion on the same track, so as to avoid collisions. The 
block stations are usually from 3 to 5 miles apart, being 
connected with each other by telegraph and provided 
with signal boards or lights for the stopping or block¬ 
ing of trains when necessary. The rule of operation is 
that no train is to be permitted to pass a block station 
while the section in advance is occupied, and till word 
comes back that this section is clear of trains. Thus no 
more than one train can be upon a single section at one 
time; and, if its operation were as perfect as its principle, 
rear-end collisions would be entirely prevented. But as 
signal men and engine drivers are not always to be 
depended on, an automatic block system has been de¬ 
vised by which it is hoped to overcome the imperfection 
to which the human senses are liable. In this system 
the signals are controlled by electrical apparatus and 
worked automatically, and are so connected and inter¬ 
locked that it is impossible for the danger to be changed 
for the safety signal until the section in advance is clear. 
Also, by passing the electric current through the rails, 
a danger signal can be made to show if a rail be broken 
or a switch open in the succeeding section. The B. S. 
was first suggested by W. F. Cooke, in 1842, and its first 
practical application was made in 1851, on the South¬ 
eastern Railway of England. It is now extensively 
used on European railways, but has not been widely in¬ 
troduced in the U. S. The “ permissive block system,” 
in which a train is permitted to enter an occupied 
section, but with warning to move cautiously, is often 
used under the pressure of heavy traffic, but is evidently 
much less secure than that absolute block system. 

Blotl'get, Lorin, b. at Jamestown, N. Y., May 25,1823; 
a physicist and statistician. Connected at first with the 
Smithsonian Institution, then with the corps of en¬ 
gineers on the Pacific railroad surveys, and subsequently 
entrusted with responsible posts in various govern¬ 
ment departments. Author of The Climatology of the 
United States; Commercial and Financial Resources of the 
United States , and some 500 other books and pamphlets. 
Editor of the North American (Philadelphia), 1859-64. 

Blond'an. Charles Emile, nicknamed Gravelet, v . sd 
St. Omer, France, Feb. 28,1824. A tight-rope walker, 
noted chiefly for his crossing the Niagara river at a 
height of 150 feet above the w'ater on a rope 1,300 feet 
long and 3% inches in diameter in 1855. and on other 
subsequent occasions. Died in London, March, 1897. 







610 


BLOW 


[SECTION II.] 


BOLO 


Blood Poisoning;, n. (Path.) A condition arising 
from the absorption into the circulatory system of poi¬ 
sonous substances which have entered a wound or arisen 
from some local disease. In every wound or disease 
substances of a more or less injurious character are 
likely to appear, and these, when sufficiently virulent, 
manifest their presence in the blood by fever and other 
constitutional disturbances. These oilending substances 
may be living bacteria, capable of multiplying in the 
blood, or toxic chemical agents produced by the bacteria 
or some degenerative product of the local disturbance. 
Ordinarily, however, the term is confined to results 
arising from the absorption of injurious substances 
from wounds. B. P. takes two forms, known as sep¬ 
ticaemia and pysemia. Septicaemia is marked by fever 
and constitutional derangement of more or less sever¬ 
ity, while in pyaemia abscesses are produced in distant 
localities of the body. Blood clots which contain bac¬ 
teria are supposed to enter the circulation and lodge in 
the capillaries of some distaut part, where they cause 
suppuration. Marked constitutional disturbances follow 
and the onset is attended by severe rigors. 

Blood Stains, detection of. (Medical Jurispru¬ 
dence.) On criminal trials the guilt of prisoners has 
frequently been established by the discovery of stains 
found on their clothing, and proved by certain physical 

; and chemical tests to be blood. To do this it is essential 
to discover the peculiar corpuscles of the blood, often a 
matter of great difficulty. The material needs to be 
dissolved in some liquid of the same density as the 
liquor sanguinis, a solution of glycerin in water being 
usually employed. When this is applied to a blood 
stain, or particles of the coagulated material are dropped 
into it, the corpuscles separate and may be discerned by 
a high-power miscroscope. But it is not possible to 
clearly distinguish human blood corpuscles from those 
of the higher mammalia. Secondly, as all stains due 
to blood are soluble, this renders it easy to distinguish 
them from insoluble stains, as made by paint, iron mould, 
Ac. In cases where articles of clothing have been washed 
to obliterate blood stains, the presence of blood has been 
determined by its reaction with the resin of guaiacum. 
According to Mr. H. C. Sorby, there is no better way 
of determining the existence of blood, under any 
given circumstance, than its examination by means of 
the spectroscope. The absorption bauds are perfectly 
distinct and well defined, and, indeed, so marked that a 
stain containing less than one-hundredth of a grain can 
be recognized even after the lapse of 50 years. Mr. 
Sorby, however, does not state that human blood can 
be thus definitely distinguished from that of other 
animals, but simply blood as compared with other 
animal and vegetable coloring substances. 

Blootl'-rain. (Bot.) Many of the tales of the descent 
of showers of blood from the clouds, which are so com¬ 
mon in old chrouicles, depend upon the multitudinous 
production of infusorial insects or some of the lower 
Algse. To this category belongs the phenomenon.known 
under the name of Bed Snow. One peculiar form, 
which is apparently virulent only in very hot seasons, 
is caused by the rapid production of little blood-red 
spots on cooked vegetables or decaying fungi, so that 
provisions which were dressed only the previous day 
are covered with a bright scarlet coat, whish sometimes 
penetrates deeply into their substance. This depends 
upon the growth of a little plant which has been re¬ 
ferred to the Algse, under the name of Palmella prodi- 
giosa, but which seems rather to be one of those con¬ 
ditions of moulds which under various colors are so 
common on paste and other culinary articles, to which 
they seem to bear the same relation as yeast globules 
do to Penicillium and other Fungi. The spots consist 
of myriads of extremely minute granules, and though 
they are propagated with great ease, at present no one 
has been able to follow up their evolution. In damp 
weather fresh meat is covered with little colorless gelati¬ 
nous or creamy spots, which are clearly of the same 
nature. One curious point about the fungous B-R. is, 
that when cultivated on rice paste, little spots spring 
up on the surface of the paste, apart from the main 
patch, which look just like blood spurted from an artery, 
and therefore increase the illusion. The color of the 
B-R. is so beautiful that attempts have been made to 
use it as a dye, and with some success; and could the 
plant be reproduced with any consistency, there seems 
to be little doubt that the color would stand. See 
Bacteriology. 

Blou'et, Paul (pseudonym Max O’Kell), b. in Brit- 

■■ tany, France, March 2, 1848. A French newspaper 
correspondent in London, Eng., 1873: subsequently a 
teacher, lecturer, and author. Wrote John Bull and His 

. Island; John Bull's Daughters; Friend McDonald; Jonathan 

1 1 and His Continent; A Frenchman in America; John Bidl 
& Co., 1894, Ac. 

Blowing' Machines. Means for producing a blast 
of air have been, in some torm or other, among the 
earliest of human implements. The mouth, as the first 
blowing machine, was followed by a bag of skin, and 
this by the common bellows, which has been of essential 
aid to the smith trom time immemorial. Modern de¬ 
mands, however, require far more powerful air blasts 
than those needed in the past, and various machine 
blowers have been invented, based on different princi¬ 
ples, and some of them highly efficient in service. Of 
these the piston blowing engine is essentially a pump 
in construction, with inlet and outlet valves, but dealing 
with air instead of water. It is used also as an air- 
compressor, where air at high pressure is needed. 
Blowing engines and compressors are practically the 
same in operation, except that the latter is provided 
with means to cool the air heated by compression. 


Formerly the cylinders of blowing engines for blast 
furnaces were made very large, while the speed was 
low; but since 1876.the direct acting vertical blowing 
engine is almost solely, - used, with much higer speeds, 
it being not uncomirfou for an engine of 4-feet stroke to 
be run at 50 double strokes per minute.— Rotary Ma¬ 
chines. In addition to these reciprocating machines 
there is a class of rotary machines, in which the appa¬ 
ratus is driven directly by a rotating shaft. These 
include three kinds, disk blowers, fans and positive 
blowers. The disk blower is used to move large quan¬ 
tities of air at the lowest pressure, as for exhausting the 
air from heated rooms or for ventilation. A 12-incli fan, 
driven at a speed of 1,000 to 2,000 revolutions per 
minute, will exhaust from 1,500 to 3,000 cubic feet of 
air per minute, while one of the largest size, of 96-inch 
diameter, revolving 200 or 300 times per minute, will 
exhaust from 60,000 to 90,000 feet of air per minute. 
In the fan blower, the wings or vanes are parallel with 
the shaft, and are enclosed in a box or case of sheet 
metal, into which the air is drawn through an opening 
at the axis, while it is driven out through another 
opening at the periphery. The positive blower consists, 
in one form, of a metal case closed at the ends, within 
which are two parallel shafts geared together at each 
end outside the case, and each carrying a so-called “ re¬ 
volver.” The revolvers draw in air at the lower side 
of the case and push it upward and outward through 
the exit opening. Fans and positive blowers alike are 
used for blowing cupolas for the melting of iron. The 
latter are capable of giving much higher pressures than 
the former.— Steam-jet blowers. A steam pipe of small 
diameter, inserted in an air pipe of considerable larger 
diameter and open at both ends, forms a simple form 
of blower, acting on the principle that a steam-jet es¬ 
caping at high pressure from a small nozzle will create 
induced currents in the surrounding air. Such an 
apparatus is sometimes used to increase the draft in 
steam boilers by blowing a forced blast under the grate 
bars. Such a steam pipe inserted in a chimney, and 
discharging vertically, constitutes the steam-jet appa¬ 
ratus used to produce a powerful draft for locomotives 
and steam fire engines. The nozzle, of course, needs 
to vary in shape and size to suit the special circum¬ 
stances of each case. A jet or falling stream of water 
exerts a similar effect in inducing an air blast, though 
it is much less powerful in its effect than a blowing 
machine driven by a water-wheel. 

Blue Laws. (Amer. Hist.) Under this title of uncer¬ 
tain origin, reference is sometimes made to the laws en¬ 
acted in the early days of New England; but it may be 
more properly confined to those which governed the 
colony of New Haven. The existence of a legal code 
bearing this name has, however, been denied by Judge 
Smith in the New York Historical Collections, in which 
he states that, upon seeking for information on this 
subject at New Haven in 1767: “ A parchment-covered 
book of demy-royal paper was handed him for the law's 
asked for, as the only volume in the office passing under 
the odd title. It contains the memorials, of the first 
establishment of the colony, w hich consisted of persons 
who had wandered beyond the limits of the old charter 
of Massachusetts Bay, and who, as yet unauthorized by 
the crown to set up any civil government in due form 
of law, resolved to conduct themselves by the Bible. As 
a necessary consequence, the judges they chose took up 
an authority which every religious man exercises over 

his own children and domestics.So far is 

the common idea of the blue laws being a collection of 
rules from being true, that they are only records of 
convictions consonant in the judgment of the magis¬ 
trates to the word of God and the dictates of reason.” 

Blue Print, n. (Phot.) A ferricyanid positive print 
from a transparent negative original.— B. P. paper. 
Paper sensitized with ferricyanid and citric acid; used 
for making blue print photographs, and for copying 
transparent drawings and giving white lines on blue 
ground. 

Blu'nienttial, Leonard, Count von, b. at Schweldt on 
the Oder, Germany, July 30, 1810; a Prussian general, 
one of the most distinguished German strategists of 
modern times. Played an important part in the 
Schleswig-Holstein campaign, in the Austrian, and the 
Franco-German wars. Made a Count in 1883; Field- 
marshal, 1888. 

Blunt, Edward March, born at Portsmouth, N. H., 
June 20, 1770. A hydrographer; the founder, 1796, of 
the American Coast Pilot, a book translated into most of 
the European languages and still in use at the present 
time. Was editor of the Newbury port Herald; pub¬ 
lished The Stranger's Guide to N. Y. City, Ac. Died Jan. 
2,1862. 

Blunt, James G., born at Hancock co., Mass., 1826. In 
early life a medical practitioner in Kansas; lieutenant- 
colonel of volunteers 1861 ; brigadier-general April 8, 
1862, and major-general Nov. 29, same year; routed the 
Confederates at Old Fort Wayne, Oct. 22,1862 ; defeated 
them at Cane Hill, Nov. 28, and again at Prairie Grove, 
Dec. 7 ; captured Fort Van Buren Dec. 28 ; defeated 
Gen. Cooper at Honey Springs, July, 1863, and effectually 
checked Price’s invasion of Missouri, at Newtonia, Oct. 
28, 1864. Died at Washington, D. C., 1881. 

Board of Trade. An association among the business 
men of a city for the purpose of promoting its com¬ 
mercial interests; also called “ chamber of commerce.” 
A National Board of Trade was organized in this coun¬ 
try in 1868, composed of delegates from the local boards, 
and devoting itself to the discussion of commercial 
questions of general interests. Boards of trade or 
chambers of commerce are also common in Europe, 
where they exert a large influence. 


Board'man, George Dana, Jr., born at Tavoy, Briti. , 
Burmah, Aug. 18, 1828; like his father (Geo. Dana 
Boardman, 1801-31), a Baptist clergyman. Held pastor¬ 
ates in Barnwell, S. C., Rochester, N. Y., and I’hiladel- 
phil, Pa. Wrote Studies in the Creative Week ; Studies in 
the Model Prayer; Epiphanies of the Risen Lord; Civil 
Government a Divine Ordinance; Coronation of Love, 1896, 
Ac. Dr. B. has received many honorary titles, and is 
recognized as one of the most profound thinkers of the 
present age. Died April 28, 1903. 

Bo'denstedt, Friedrich Martin, von, born at Peine, 
Hanover, Germany, April 22, 1815; a journalist, poet, 
and litterateur. Edited the Berlin Tiigliche Rundschau, 
1880-88; wrote Tuusend undein Tag im Orient; Shakes¬ 
peare's Zeitgenossen und Hire Werke; Vom Atlanlischen 
Zwm Stillen Ozean; Lieder des Mirza-Schajfy; Aus 
Morgenland und Abendland, and a large number of 
others. Died at Wiesbaden, April 19,1892. 

Bo^lun. Sir Joseph Edgar, born at Vienna, Austria, 
1834; a Hungariau-English sculptor. Author of a num¬ 
ber of busts and figures of British nobilities—Carlyle, 
Gladstone, Huxley, Buskin, Dean Stanley, Sir Francis 
Drake, Lord Northbrook, Ac. Died Dec. 12,1890. 

Bogur'tliis (bo-gdr'dus), James, an American mechani¬ 
cian, born at Catskill, N. Y., 1800. During his early 
apprenticeship to the watch-making business, he gave 
proofs of striking inventive powers in the improving of 
clocks and chronometers. In 1828 he brought out the 
“ ring-flyer,” since come into general use among cotton- 
spinners, as well as the eccentric mill and machines 
employed in engravingand bank-note transferring. In 
1832 he received the gold medal of the American Insti¬ 
tute for an improved form of gas meter. Later he 
brought out several other inventions, a dynamometer 
for machinery in motion, a pyrometer, an engraving 
machine, a dry gas meter (the first ever made), etc. 
Died 1874. 

Boggs, Charles Stuart, b. at New Brunswick, N. J., 
Jan. 28, 1811. Midshipman in 1826; lieutenant in the 
Mexican War. When in command of the gunboat 
Parana, of Farragut’s gulf squadron, he destroyed 6 
Confederate gunboats and Ihe two rams which ran his 
own boat into the river bank and disabled it. Captain, 
1862 ; commodore, 1S66; rear-admiral, 1870; retired, 
1873; died April 22, 1888. 

Bogll, Erik, b. at Copenhagen, Jan. 17,1822. A Danish 
poet, playwright, and general writer. Some of his best 
known works are Faslelavnsgildet, and other popular 
festivals; Dit og Dal; Tvaermoses Aergrelser; Ldvalgte 
Fortiillinger, Ac. 

Bohn, Henry George, born at London, Eng., Jan. 4, 
1796 (son of Henry Martin B., a bookbinder from West¬ 
phalia, who had settled in London in 1795). A book¬ 
seller and publisher, chiefly known for his “Libraries” 
(the Standard, the Scientific, the Clinical, Ac.) or set* 
standard works. Died Aug. 22,1884. 

Boiling 1 Point. This term, as ordinarily employed, 
refers to water, indicating that degree of temperature 
at which its elastic force equals the pressure of the at¬ 
mosphere. This point is at 212°F., or 100°C., at sea-level 
pressure, but decreases at greater heights from decrease 
of pressure. In addition to water every liquid has a 
boiling point of its own, some of them, such as sulphur, 
mercury, etc., at considerable height, while others, gases 
at ordinary temperature, and liquefying only under 
great pressure and reduction of temperature, have a 
very low boiling point. Of some of the latter a list may 
usefully be given. Thus, carbonic acid boils at —78.2°C.; 
nitrogen monoxide at—87.9°; ethylene at—102.5°; ni¬ 
trogen dioxide at —153.6°; methane at —164°; oxygen 
at—181.4°; carbon monoxide at—190°; and nitrogen at 
—194.4° C. The B. P. of water, as above said, varies with 
the height of the situation. At the city of Mexico, 7,471 
feet above sea-level, water boils at 198.1°F., at Quito, 
9,541 feet, at 194°F., etc. Thus, boiling water is not al¬ 
ways equally hot, and at high elevations articles of tood 
cannot be sufficiently cooked by the boiling process. 
Placed under the receiver of an air pump, and the air 
gradually exhausted, the boiling temperature of water 
rapidly lowers, and if measures to dispose of the vapor 
be taken water may be converted into ice while in a 
state of violent ebullition, through the cold produced 
by its own evaporation. This power of causing ebulli¬ 
tion at low temperatures is availed of in sugar-boiling, 
distilling vegetable oils, preparing extracts, and other 
process where high temperature would injure the sub¬ 
stances. On the other hand, water, exposed to high 
pressure, may be heated to any degree without boiling. 

Boise, James Robinson, b. at Blandford, Mass., Jan. 27, 
1815, a noted educationalist. Prof, of Greek at Brown, 
1843-50, at the University of Michigan, 1852-68, and at 
the University of Chicago, 1868. Wrote Greek Syntax 
and other text-books; Notes Critical and Explanatory on 
St. Paul's Epistles, Ac. Died Feb. 9, 1895. 

Boisgllbert, pseudonym of Ign. Donnelly (q. v.). 

linker, George H., a Philadelphia poet, playwright and 
diplomatist, born in 1823 ; was U. S. Minister to Turkey, 
1871—75, and to Russia, 1875—79. Wrote Plays and Poems ; 
Poems of the War, 1864; Our Heroic Themes, 1865; Book 
of the Dead, 1882; Kbnigsmark, 1886. His plays include 
the tragedies: Anne Boleyn; Leonor de Guzman, and 
Francesca da Rimini —the latter being very popular. 
Died in 1890. 

Bolk'hov, a town of Russia in Europe, govt, of Orel, 
about 30 m. N. of the city of Orel, on the Noogra.— Manf. 
Gloves, hats, hosiery, leather, Ac. Pop. 26,400. 

Boloill'eter. [Gr. bole, stroke, metron, measure.] ( Phys.) 
An instrument invented by Prof. S. P. Langley for the 
detection of minute changes in the amount of radiation 
received by an extremely thin strip of metal. It is one 
of the most delicate instruments used in actinometry, 






BONN 


[SECTION II.] 


BOWE 


511 


being so arranged that the least change in the electrical 
resistance of the thin strip, due to any variation in its j 
temperature, will be indicated by a sensitive galvano¬ 
meter. The strip, usually of iron or platinum, forms j 
one arm of a Wheatstone’s bridge, the balance of which 
is determined by a galvanometer of great sensitiveness. 
By means of this arrangement, which proves far more 
sensitive than any thermometer or thermopile, Prof. 
Langley has made measurements of variations of heat 
formerly considered entirely below the reach of direct 
experiment. With its aid has been determined the 
radiant efficiency of so feeble a light as the electric 
glow in vacuum tubes, while Prof. B. W. Snow has 
explored the bright line spectra in various metals and 
of the electric arc. 

Boldo (bol'dd), n. [Native name.] (Bot. and Med.) 
A small tree or shrub (Boldoa fragrans) indigenous in 
Chile. Its leaves and bark yield a good quality of 
tannin; its wood is used for making charcoal. It bears 
edible drupes, and from its leaves is made an aromatic, 
syrupy liquid, called “ boldine,” which is said to possess 
valuable tonic properties. 

JBo'ma, a thriving African town, capital of the Congo 
Free State. It is situated on the north bank of the 
Congo river, about 60 miles from its mouth, and since 
the decay of Vivi has been the point of departure for 
the Upper Congo, and a leading station of the African 
International Association. It enjoys a considerable 
trade. 

Bonan'za, n. [Spanish, fair, prosperous.] ( Mining, d-c.) 
A discovery of a rich vein, or sudden widening of a vein, 
of precious metal. The word had its origin in the 
mining districts of California and northern Mexico, 
where it was employed to designate a pocket of rich 
ore, when struck in the midst of thin veins. From its 
application in mining its use has been widened to 
signify any great success or valuable discovery. 

Bo'nait»rie. Charles Joseph, born in Baltimore, 
1851; grandson of Madame (Patterson) Bonaparte and 
Jerome Bonaparte, whose American marriage was 
annulled by his brother Napoleon I. He became active 
in political reform, and in 1905 was appointed Secretary 
of the Navy by President Roosevelt, and in Dec., 1906, 
Attorney General. It is singular, in view of his an¬ 
cestry, that he has never visited Europe. 

Bond Spring-governor. (Mach.) The invention 
of William C. Bond, the astronomer, whose purpose is 
to control the motion of a chronograph-barrel, or any 
moving train of wheels. A light revolving arm is 
slightly checked at each revolution by a stop on the rod 
of a pendulum, while the slight shock which this 
would give to the motion of the train is smoothed out 
through the arm being attached to a long spiral spring. 
The impulse given to the pendulum is sufficient to 
maintain it in a nearly constant arc of motion. 

Bon'dn, a small district of Senegal, in western Africa, 
separated from Bambuk by the river Faleme. It is 
fertile, well watered, and largely forested. Cotton, 
indigo, maize and tobacco are staple crops. Iron is 
abundant. B. is under French protection, and has a 
population estimated at 1,500,000, principally Fulahs. 

Bone Caves. ( Archsel.) Caverns or rock crevices in 
which occur the fossilized bones of animals, often in 
great numbers, and imbedded in the indurated clay, 
stalagmitic deposits, or other collections of material in 
past ages. One of the most notable of these, of recent 
discovery in this country, is the Port Kennedy bone 
cave, situated on the Schuylkill river at some distance 
above Philadelphia, where quarrying processes opened 
the way into an extraordinary deposit of bones, belong¬ 
ing to many animal species and thousands of indivi¬ 
duals, many of them now extinct. Such, for instance, 
are the bones of giant sloths, whose late existence was 
confined to South America. With extinct forms are 
mingled the remains of existing forms. This opening 
seems originally to have been a crevice in the earth, 
into which the bodies of animals may have been swept 
by diluvial catastrophies, and their bones gradually [ 
accumulated through a long series of such occurrences, 
intermingled with cementing material which has well 
preserved them. 

Bonll'la, Policarpo, a South American statesman; 
elected President of the Republic of Honduras on Feb. 


1,1895. 

Bonne'ville, Lake, an extinct lake which seems 
to have twice occupied, in pleistocine times, the now 
desert interior basin of Utah. Its shore lines form dis¬ 
tinct coutours round the slopes of the inclosing moun¬ 
tain chains, and have been frequently noticed by ex¬ 
plorers. These lines indicate its area and depth at 
different periods. When of greatest extent it is believed 
to have had an area of nearly 20,000 sq. miles, and an 
extreme depth of nearly 1,000 feet. The sediments which 

1 indicate the shore lines lie on gravels, belonging, prob¬ 
ably, to an older dry state like the present, while the 
lateral and bottom deposits are separated by gravel beds; 
Horn which it is deduced that a dry period intervened 
between two lake periods. When at its highest level in 
the second period, the water overflowed northward 
across Red Rock pass to a branch of the Shoshone river, 
and thus formed an avenue to the Pacific. This pass 
was subsequently cut down about 370 feet, causing the 
lake to assume a lower level, and to form a new series 
of shore-lines, called the Provo shore. Then, evapora¬ 
tion coming to exceed supply, the lake dwindled away, 
and finally left a dry plain. The variations in the area 
of the ancient lake indicate changes in degree of atmos¬ 
pheric moisture, which may have been connected with 
the variations of glacial climates in N. E. America. 
This history has been worked out by Gilbert, in Mono¬ 
graph 1, V. S. Geol. Survey. 




i 

1 


Booth, William (better known as General B.) ; b. at 
Nottingham, Eng., 1829; joined the Methodist New; 
Connection ministry, 1850, and resigned, 1861, for the i 
purpose of working as an evangelist among those who 
did not attend any place of worship. Out of the 
Christian Mission which he established in the East End 
of London in 1865, grew the now world-wide organiza¬ 
tion known as the Salvation Army. He returned in 
1896 from a second visit to South Africa, Australia, and 
India for the further extension of his work. 

RoraglycVride, n. ( Chem .) An antiseptic com¬ 
pound, or food preservative, which is prepared by 
dissolving 62 parts of boric acid in 92 parts of gly¬ 
cerine, by heat. It is also variously named boro- 
glycerin, glyceryl borate and glacialin. 

Bor'da, Juan Idiarta, a Uruguayan statesman; was 
elected President of that Republic in March, 1894. 

Borers, n. pi. (Entom.) Insect larvaj which eat holes 
into trees and vegetables, upon whose substance they 
feed. Their ravages are very great in many instances, 
and they belong to various insect classes. Thus the 
peach-tree borer is the larva of JF.geria exitiosa, a lepi- 
dopterous, and that of the apple tree the larva of 
Saperda biviUata, a coleopterous insect. B. are most 
easily destroyed by a wire or gouge while in their holes, 
but no very successful general plan for preventing their 
ravages has been devised. 

Borgu, a kingdom of Central Africa, lying west of the 
Niger, and now forming part of the British Niger pro¬ 
tectorate. The government is an hereditary monarchy, 
the people being a negro population, partly Fulahs, 
under a Mohammedan conquering tribe. Elephants 
are numerous in the forests. There is a thick population 
along the Niger, whose fertile hanks yield abundantly 
rice, indigo, grain, cotton, yams and other products. 
The fields of sorghum yield five hundred fold. Wild 
game is very abundant. It was at Boussa, one of the 
chief towns of B., that Mungo Park lost his life in 1805. 

Bo rie, Adolph E., born at Philadelphia, 1809. A 
wealthy East India merchant; one of the founders of 
the Union League of Philadelphia (the first established 
in the country) ; gave large sums in aid of the soldiers 
in the Civil War; Secretary of the Navy, March to 
June, 1869; accompanied Grant on a portion of his trip 
round the world, 1877-78. Died Feb. 5,1880. 

Bossut (bos'soo), Charles, a French geometrician, born 
at Tarare, 1730. He assisted D’Alembert in writing the 
mathematical articles tor the Encyclopedic, and was 
admitted to the Academy when only 30 years of age. 
In 1792 he published MCcanique en General; in 1795, a 
Cours complet de Mathemaliques; and in 1812 au Essai 
sur VHistorie des Mathematiques. Died, 1814. 

Boston, a seaport town and parish of England, in Lin¬ 
colnshire, on the river Witliam, 28 m. from Lincoln. 
This is an ancient town, and was formerly rich in 
monastic and religious institutions, though scarcely a 
vestige is now left of the six friaries and three colleges 
which it once contained. The parish church, dedicated 
to S. Botolph, is a noble Gothic structure, justly admired 
for its elegance and simplicity. It was founded in 1309. 
The neighboring sea yields great number of fish, and a 
considerable traffic is carried on in shrimps. Pop., 1895, 
14,550. 

Botan'ic Gar'den. A garden in which plants are 
grown for the purpose of study or scientific observation. 
Collections of this kind were made more than 2000 years} 
ago, poisonous plants being reared, and plants studied j 
as antidotes to poisons. Of modern B. G., the Royal j 
Gardens at Kew, near Loudon, are the most famous. 
These originated about two centuries ago on a private 
estate, but have belonged to the government since 1841. j 
In France the Jardin de Plantes, at Paris, is the most 
notable. There are in all about 125 B. G. in Europe, 
and many iu other parts of the world. A number have 
recently been established in the U. S., as at Boston, 
New York, Washington, St. Louis, and other cities, 
though these are generally too recent in date to have! 
attained much importance. 

Bot tM, John Minor, born at Dumfries, Va., Sept. 16, 
1802. Member of Congress, 1839-43, 1847-49. A strong 
Unionist during the Civil War; one of the delegates 
to the national convention of Southern Loyalists, in 
1866; signed the bail-bond of Jefferson Davis in 1867. 
Died in Culpeper co., Va., Jan. 7,1869. 

Bou'dinot, Elias, LL.D.,a famous patriot of the revo¬ 
lution, born in 1740; was a member of the Continental 
Congress; director of the Philadelphia mint; and the 
first president (1816) of the American Bible Society. 
Died in 1821. 

Bougainvillie. (Bot.), a beautiful climbing vine, 
genus of Lfyclaginacem. 

Bougainville. (Geog.) One of the Solomon Islands, 
a strait in New Hebrides and one N. of Magellan. 

Bough'ton, George IIenrt, born in Norfolk, Eng., 
1834. An Anglo-American genre and landscape painter, 
whose earl)' life was spent in Albany and New York 
city. His paintings include The Lake of the Dismal Swamp; 
The Scarlet Letter; The Iteturn of the Mayflower ; A Morn¬ 
ing in May ; The Ordeal of Purity,&c. Died Jan. 20,1905. 

Boulanger ( boo-long-zha'), George Ernest Jean 
Marie, a French general, born in 1837, educated at St. 
Cyr. He served in Algiers, and in the Franco-Italian 
war. He was at Metz under Bazaine, but escaped to 
Paris. In 1880 became Brigadier-General and Minister 
of War under de Freycinet; in 1888, for disobedience 
to orders, he was deprived of his command and retired, 
and later was elected Deputy to the National As¬ 
sembly ; subsequently, for alleged malfeasance in office 
when Secretary of War, was obliged to leave France to 
escape trial, and took refuge in London. Committed 
suicide, Sept 30, 1891. 


Boulim'ia, or Buliin'ia. n. [From Gr. bou, aug¬ 
mentative particle, and litnos, hunger.] (Path.) In¬ 
satiable hunger. It sometimes affects hysterical 
patients and pregnant women. Dyspeptics are often 
troubled with an insatiable appetite or craving. The 
remedy is dry, solid food, which compels the patient to 
masticate very slowly, as hard crackers, parched 
corn, &c. 

Bourbaki (boor-bah'ke), Charles Denis Sacter, a 
French general, of Greek extraction, born at Paris, 
1816, entered the army in 1836 as a sub-lieutenant in the 
Zouaves, was made a colonel in 1851, and General of 
Division in 1857. Dnring the Crimean war in 1855 he 
greatly distinguished himself at the battles of the Alma 
and Inkermann and in the assault on Sebastopol. Ha 
also took part in the Italian expedition of 1859. In 
May, 1S69, he was appointed to the command of the 
second camp at Chalons, and in the following July 
nominated aide-de-camp of the Emperor. Gen. B. played 
a conspicuous part in the Franco-German war. Iu 
Dec., 1870, he was appointed by the Delegate Govern¬ 
ment at Tours to the chief command of the First Army 
of the North, with Gen. Borel as his chief of staff. After 
a series of engagements with the German forces, he was 
compelled to retreat in the direction of Switzerland, and 
at the close of the month of January, 1871, he was driven 
over the Swiss frontier with the remains of his army, 
consisting of about 80,000 men, and was relieved of his 
command. He was given the command of the 14th 
army corps and the governorship of Lyons in 1873. 

Bourgeois (boorzh-icah'), Leon, a French radical 
statesman, born 1851; in early life Prefect of the 
Tarn, 1882, and of the Haute Garonne, 1885, Under¬ 
secretary of State for the Interior, 1888; Minister of 
Public Instruction, 1892, and, later, of Justice; suc¬ 
ceeded Ribot as prime minister, 1895, but fell, April, 
1896, through the refusal of the Senate to vote him the 
Madagascar credits he asked for. 

Bourget \boor-zhd'), Paul, b. at Amiens, France, Sept. 
2, 1852. A litterateur, critic and novelist- Wrote VIrre¬ 
parable ; Deuxienie Amour; Profils Perdue; Cruelle 
Enigme; Andre Cornells; Le Disciple; La Terre Promise; 
Cosmopolis (1893) ; Un Saint (1894); Outre-Mer, notes sur 
VAmeriqxie (1895); A Living Lie, 1896; A Tragic Idyl, 
1896; a number of essays and not a few poems. 

Bout'well, George S., an eminent American states¬ 
man and financier, b. at Brookline, Mass., in 1818. He 
received but a plain education, and early entered into 
business life, after a brief period passed in school-teach¬ 
ing. He was afterwards admitted a member of the bar, 
and before completing his 31st year had been seven 
times returned to the State Legislature. In 1844 he 
was an unsuccessful candidate for Congressional honors, 
and eight years later became Governor of Massachu¬ 
setts. In 1853 he took a leading part in the labors of 
the Constitutional Convention, and served as secretary 
to the Board of Education from 1855 to 1861. In 1862 
he organized the Internal Revenue Department of the 
United States, being its first commissioner. Between 
the years 1863-69 he represented his State in Congress, 
and in the last named year was appointed by President 
Grant Secretary of the Treasury; U. S. Senator, 1873-77. 
Wrote a volume of Speeches and Papers; Why 1 am a 
Republican, &c. Died Feb. 28, 1905. 

Bou'vier, Alexis, born at Paris, France, Jan. 15, 1836. 
A song waiter and author of the socialistic school. Wrote 
the popular songs La Canaille; Les Pauvres; Les Soldats 
du desespoir; Le Mariage <fun forgot; Les Drames de la 
Foret; Les Crtanciers de Vechafand; La Petite Duchesse ; 
La Petite Cayenne, 1884; was struck with paralysis, 1888. 

Bon''(litoli. Henry Pickering, born at Boston, Mass., 
April 4, 1840. A noted doctor of medicine, assistant 
professor of physiology at Harvard University, 1871, and 
full professor, 1876; wrote many papers on physiological 
subjects, and contnbuted to An American Text-Book of 
Physiology. 1896. 

Bow'ditell, Nathaniel, a distinguished American 
mathematician ; b. at Salem, Mass., 1775. After serving 
an apprenticeship to the ship-chandlery business, and 
then passing nine or ten years at sea in the merchant- 
service, during winch time he gave much of his atten¬ 
tion to a study of the classics and the exact sciences. 
B., in 1802, published The Practical Navigator, a work 
which commanded almost universal acceptance. After 
this he became president of an insurance company, and 
in 1823 took up his residence in Boston, after declining 
the professorship of mathematics at Harvard Coll., pre¬ 
ferring to remain actuary to the Massachusetts Life 
Insurance Company, a position to be held till his death 
in 1838. B. who was a F.R.S., of London, has left a rep¬ 
utation founded chiefly upon his masterly translation 
of, and commentary upon, the MCcanique Celeste of 
Laplace, the illustrious French astronomer. This work, 
published in four quarto vols., 1829-38, bears a high and 
enduring value. 

Bow'doin. James, LL.D., an American statesman, born 
in 1727. Was Governor of Mass., 1785-86, and in the 
latter year suppressed “ Shay’s Rebellion.” Died 1790 

Bow'doin, James, Jr., son of foregoing, a philanthro¬ 
pist and statesman, born in 1752. Was patron of Bow- 
doin College, and was sent to Spain by the U. S. govt, to 
arrange for the cession of Florida. Died 1811. 

Bowen. Francis, born Charlestown, Mass., Sept. 9,1811. 
Editor and proprietor of Xorth American Renew, 1843- 
54; professor of natural religion, moral philosophy and 
civil polity at Harvard, 1853. Wrote Critical Essays on 
the History and Present Condition of Speculative Philoso- 
phy; Principles of Political Economy, Applied to the Con¬ 
ditions. Resources and Institutions of the American People; 
Modern Philosophy ; Gleanings from a Literary Life. Died 
at Cambridge, Mass., Jan. 21,1890. 
















512 


BRAI 


[SECTION II.] 


BREA 


Bow'ie, James, born in Burke co., Ga., about 1790. At 
first notorious from his participation iu a melee which 
took place opposite Natchez on the Mississippi in Aug., 
1827, and in which he killed Major Norris Wright with 
a weapon nu*de from a blacksmith’s rasp (said weapon 
subsequently fashioned by a Philadelphia cutler into 
the “ Bowie knife ”). Fought in the Texan revolution; 
made colonel, 1835; joined Cols. Travis and Crockett in 
occupying Fort Adams, and was killed there, with 
them, March 6,1836. 

Bowles, Samuel, born at Springfield, Mass., Feb. 9,1826. 
Succeeded his father in the management of the Spring- 
field Republican at the age of twenty-five, and acquired a 
national reputation for it and for himself. Wrote ac¬ 
counts of bis travels through Europe aud the Pacific 
slope, Across the Continent; The Switzerland of America ; 
Our New TUesf, Ac. Died Jan. 16, 1878. 

Boy e'sen, Hjalmar Hjorth, born at Fredericlcsvarn, 
Norway, Sept. 23,1848; a novelist, poet, and litterateur; 
came to U. S., 1869; professor of German at Cornell 
University, 1874-80; at Columbia College, 1880. Wrote 
Gunnar, a Tale of Norse Life; A Norseman's Pilgrimage; 
Tales of Two Hemispheres; Goethe and Schiller ; The Story 
of Norway; Modern Vikings, Ac. Died Oct. 4, 1895. 

Boy ii'tou, Henry Van Ness, born at West Stockbridge, 
Mass., July 22, 1835; son of the late clergyman and 
author, Charles Brandon B. (1806-83). In early life a 
civil engineer; major of 35th Ohio volunteer infantry, 
July 27, 1861; lieutenant-colonel, 1863, and, later, 
brevetted brigadier for good conduct at Chickamauga 
and Missionary Ridge. More recently a prominent 
newspaper correspondent at Washington, D. C. Wrote 
Sherman's Historical Raid; The National Military Park; 
Chickamauga-Chattanooga, 1895; Has General Thomas 
slow at Nashville t 1896, &c. 

Boy'ton, Paul, born in Dublin, Ireland, June 29, 
1848. A nautical adventurer and submarine diver; 
noted for his daring feats in the life-saving service and 
his aquatic travels through this country and Europe 
with various vulcanized rubber contrivances. 

Boze'man, in Montana, a town of Gallatin co., at the 
base of the Bridge mountains, and at the head of the 
famous fertile Gallatin valley. Pop., 1896, abt. 3,400. 

Brachycepliali ( brdk'e-sefah-le ), n. pi. [From Gr. 
brachys, short, and kephale, the head.] ( Anthropology .) 
In the classification of Retzius, those nations of men 
whoso cerebral lobes do not completely cover the cere¬ 
bellum—as the Sclavonians, Finns, Persians, Turks, 
Tartars, &c. It is usually taken to designate a short 
head, in contrast to the Duliclio-cepliali, or long-headed 
races. 

Brad'don, Mary Elizabeth, b. 1837. Daughter of 
H. £., a London, Eng., solicitor, and widow of John 
Maxwell. Wrote some sixty novels. Among the first, 
Aurora Floyd, Lady Audley's Secret, Ac.; to which were 
added So>is of Fire, 1895; and London Pride, 1896. 

Brad' laugh, Charles, born at London, Eng., Sept. 26, 
1833. A noted advocate of secularism and an extreme 
radical in politics. Excluded from his seat in the British 
Parliament for 6 years (1880-86) owing to his refusal 
to take the parliamentary oath when first elected. 
Founded’the National Reformer, the prosecution of which, 
1868-69, resulted in the repeal of almost all the statutes 
which still hampered the freedom of the British press. 
Wrote numerous pamphlets including A Few Words 
About the Devil; The Land, the People and the Coming 
Struggle; Hints to Emigrants to the United States of 
America; The True Story of my Parliamentary Struggle, 
Ac. Died Jan. 30, 1891. 

Brad'ley, Joseph P., born at Berne, N. Y., March 14, 
1813. A jurist; admitted to the bar of New Jersey, 
1839; Associate Justice of U. S. Supreme Court, 1870; 
member of tbe Electoral Commission, 1877, when he is 
said to have given the casting vote which decided the 
dispute iu favor of Rutherford B. Hayes. Died, 1892. 

Bragg;, Edward Stuyvksant, born at Unadilla, N. Y., 
Feb. 20,1827. Admitted to the bar, 1848; entered U. S. 
military service as captain, May 5, 1861, and was 
mustered out as brigadier-general Oct. 8,1865; member 
of Congress in the 45th, 46th, 47th and 49th Congresses. 

Bratl'mo Ho'maj. A religious sect founded in 
India in 1830, by a reformer named Rammohun Roy, 
and which has had excellent effect in developing 
modern ideas of ethics and religion in that country. 
After 1842 it progressed rapidly under the leadership 
of Debendro Nath Tagore, who emancipated it from 
the influence of Vedantism, and in 1859 it gained a 
new impulse from the enthusiasm of Keshub Chunder 
Sen, under whom those who were willing to abolish 
the institution of caste formed themselves into an 
organization called the “ Brahmo Somaj of India.” 
The more conservative members remained in the Somaj 
or Church of Calcutta. The first building erected by 
the progressive Brahmas for public worship was opened 
at Calcutta in 1869. The sect has at present no more 
than 4,000 or 5,000 avowed members, but its influence 
has been wide-spread, and large numbers of educated 
Hindoos sympathize with the movement. The doctrines 
of the progressive branch, as enunciated by Keshub 
Chunder Sen, include a belief in the unity of God, and 
dogmas of immediate revelation, tbe necessity of a new 
birth, the immortality of the soul, and the efficacy of 
prayer. He taught that the character of Jesus Christ 
should be revered, but repudiated the doctrines of his 
divinity, mediation and atonement. The Brahmo Somaj 
is essentially a new Unitarianism, with a high standard 
of ethics, and promises to exert a vigorous influence in 
overcoming the spirit of caste and supernaturalism in 
India. 

Braille, Louis, born near Paris, France, in 1809. Being 
deprived of his sight at an early age through an acci¬ 


dent, he was admitted to the Institut des Avengles in 
Paris, where he behmne a professor in 1827, and invented 
tlie system of writing with points which bears bis name. 
Died 1852. 

Brain Research. During recent years much atten¬ 
tion has been given to the study of localization of 
functions in the brain, with important and useful re¬ 
sults. Physiologists have held that the whole of the 
cerebrum is concerned in every mental process, and 
Flourens considered that he had proved this by remov¬ 
ing parts of the hemispheres of pigeons, the mental 
functions as a whole becoming enfeebled in proportion 
to the quantity of brain matter removed, without re¬ 
gard to the part of the brain from which it was taken. 
Yet this doctrine, though long maintained, did not ex¬ 
plain all the facts. The disorder known as aphasia— 
loss of articulate speech—seemed closely associated with 
injury to a certain convolution, and other physical 
troubles seemed due to localized brain lesions. In 1870 
Fritsch and Hitzig, two German observers, found that 
by stimulating certain areas of the cerebum by galvanic 
currents, movements of the opposite side of the body 
could be produced. Others took up this fertile field of 
research, notably Ferrier, whose experiments were 
made on the brains of monkeys, dogs, and rabbits, with 
the result that movements of certain portions of the 
body proved to be undeviatingly related to stimulation 
of certain sections of the cerebum. These experiments 
have been continued with the result ot a general map¬ 
ping out of the brain into “ motor areas,” each of which 
has controlling influence over certain muscles of the 
body. These areas have been so closely subdivided that 
a center has been found in the brain of the monkey for 
such a spinal movement as the opposition of the fore¬ 
finger to the thumb. Tbe meaning and value of these 
alleged discoveries were vigorously questioned by 
opponents, but continued research has brought the con¬ 
troversy to an end, and the natural division of the 
cerebral surface into motor areas is generally admitted. 
When any of these areas are irritated, corresponding 
spasms of movement appear; when they are diseased, 
the voluntary power of malting the spinal movement is 
lost; while when tumors have been removed, whose seat 
was indicated by the motor disturbance, the normal 
power of motion has been regained. As a result of 
these researches it has been discovered that the center 
of speech is in the third frontal convolution on the left 
side of the brain, and that when the posterior end of 
this convolution is destroyed, aphasia follows. On the 
other hand, in left-handed men, this center has been 
found on the right side of the brain. Agraphia, or in¬ 
ability to write, has been similarly found associated 
with the posterior end of the second frontal convolution. 
Centers for the spinal senses have also been found. 
Light seems centered in the angular gyri of the occipital 
lobe. Destruction of one angular gyrus causes tempo¬ 
rary loss of vision in the opposite eye, while destruction 
of both caused a similar loss in both eyes. In man, 
disease of the left angular gyrus produces icord blindness, 
the patient, though seeing the characters distinctly, 
not being able to read or spell the words. Hearing 
seems to have its center in the first tempero-sphenoidal 
convolution on both sides. Partial destruction of this 
convolution on the left side causes word deafness —the 
sounds being heard, but their meaning quite lost. The 
taste center is placed by Ferrier in the uncinate gyrus 
—on the inner surface of the tempero-sphenoidal lobe. 
The centers for touch have been located in the gyrus 
fornicatus and the gyrus hippocampi. Observations on 
the frontal lobes of the brain, so well developed in man, 
have yielded no definite results. It is probable that 
those are associated with the higher mental faculties, 
and have no immediate connection with the muscular 
organism. Stimulation of the corpus striatum caused 
general contraction of the muscles on the opposite side 
of the body, as if the whole motor area were being 
stimulated at once. Lesions of the optic lobes seems to 
prevent coordination of movements, unilateral lesions 
causing in animals what are called “ forced movements,” 
that is, a tendency to run in a circle, like a horse in a 
circus, to revolve round the tip of the tail as a center, 
or to rotate around the'axis of the body. Lesions of 
the cerebellum seems to destroy the power of coordina¬ 
tion, its different parts seeming to control different sets 
of movements. The medulla oblongata is the great 
seat of the centers for the functions of organic life, as 
may be understood from the fact that all the cranial 
nerves, except the first four pairs, originate in it. 

Brain Surgery. This title refers to a special brain 
surgery which has arisen almost within the last decade, 
and has produced brilliant and important results. It is 
based on the results of brain research, and the localiza¬ 
tion of areas of special motion within the cerebrum. 
In former times, for instance, certain convulsive move¬ 
ments, or paralytic affections, had to be treated in a 
general way, since, though, it was conjectured that 
they had their origin in brain disorder, the seat of the 
disorder could not be discovered, and a surgical opera¬ 
tion for its removal was impossible. In this respect a 
great progress has been made. The researches of Fer¬ 
rier and others having led to the discovery of fixed 
brain areas for certain muscular movements, it became 
possible when these movements were disordered to 
locate the immediate seat of the trouble. If, for in¬ 
stance, unnatural movements took place in the wrist 
and hand, the seat of the trouble in the brain was at 
once indicated. And as this trouble was frequently due 
to an abscess in the brain substance, or a tumor on its 
surface, it became possible to reach the seat of the dis¬ 
order by trephining, and by removing the cause to pro¬ 
duce a cure. Within recent years very many such 


operations have been made, and with a most encouraging 
percentage of success. The system of brain research has 
been thoroughly and favorably tested by these opera¬ 
tions, in nearly every instance the removal of the bone 
displaying a tumor, or other form of disorder, at the 
point fixed upon. The use of antiseptic processes in 
these operations, the careful removal of the tumor and 
replacement of the bone, have been attended with re¬ 
markable success, and a class of diseases which were 
formerly almost beyond human reach has been brought 
well within the possibilites of surgical relief. 

Brake. See Air-Brake. 

Branch, John, born at Halifax, N. C., 1782. In early 
life a lawyer; Governor of North Carolina, 1817-20; 
U. S. Senator 1823-29; Secretary of the Navy, 1829-31; 
Governor of the territory of Florida, 1844-45. D. 1863. 

Bra'zenness, n. Shamelessness; impudence, boldness. 

Bra'zier, n, One who works in brass.—An open vessel 
for holding live coals, sometimes mounted on feet and 
variously ornamented; used for heating rooms in mild 
climates, particularly in the Orient. 

Breach of the Peace. (Law.) A violation of pub¬ 
lic order; the offence of disturbing the public peace. 
One guilty for this offence may be held to bail for his 
good behavior. An act of public indecorum is also a 
breach of the peace. The remedy for this offence is 
by indictment. 

Break-Circuit Chronometer. (Horol.) A box 
chronometer which is fitted with a device to break an 
electric circuit at every motion of the escapement 
wheel, usually every half-second. This arrangement 
is of American origin, and has been in use here for 
many years, proving highly convenient in field-astron¬ 
omy and laboratory work. Notwithstanding its useful¬ 
ness it has only very recently been adopted in other 
countries. 

Breaker, Coal. (Mining.) A contrivance at the 
mouth of coal mines, designed to break the coal into 
marketable sizes. It consists of great iron rollers which 
break the rough lumps of coal as they are dumped into 
its mouth and pass down its slope. The broken pieces, 
as they descend, fall into sieves, which separate the 
dust and assort the different sizes. From the sieves the 
coal is delivered to long, inclined chutes, down which 
it passes to the bins. Children are stationed along these 
chutes to pick from the descending coal the pieces of 
slate and other impurities which it may contain. 

Breakwater, Floating;. (Hydraul. Eng.) A ques¬ 
tion which has for a long time engaged the attention 
of those having marine engineering works in hand, is 
the depth to which the influence of the waves extends. 
Upon this depends the whole theory of floating break- 
waters. It has been asserted that at the depth of 15 
feet below the surface the influence of the waves prac¬ 
tically ceases, and that we then have what is termed 
the zero line, a place of no motion. It may be added 
that actual experiment has confirmed this hypothesis. 
There can be no doubt as to the truth of the objections 
urged against solid breakwaters. In the first place, 
there is their enormous cost; secondly, it is practically 
impossible to construct them in some localities where 
they are urgently required; and, thirdly, when they 
are built they cause the deposition of silt to such an 
extent as in many instances to render them in a few 
years completely useless. The first idea of floating 
breakwaters was probably takes from an observation 
of the effect produced upon waves by the presence of 



Fig. 2735.— floating breakwater. 


some natural obstacle in the sea, such as reeds and sea¬ 
weed. The gulf-weed is a well-known instance. It has 
been found that, although its depth does not exceed a 
couple of feet, yet, even iu strong gales, there is per¬ 
fectly calm water to leeward of it. The annexed 
illustration, which represents a form of construction 
for ocea.n shields, breakwaters, piers, harbors, gun- 
banks, lighthouses and other marine objects, was in¬ 
vented by Mr. T. Morris, architect, London. A A are 
air-tight cylinders; BB the strutting; CC the cables; 
and D D the weights at the sea-bed. From the motion¬ 
less foundation thus formed, the framing rises through 
the section of tidal and superficial action. The sloping 
screen formed by the timbers, EE and FF, present* 
meshes to the waves, by which their force is arrested 
and their effect destroyed. Opinions differ greatly as to 
the usefulness of structures of this class. So far expert- 





































East River Suspension Bridge—from the New York end. 



The Williamsburg Bridge over the East River, New York. 


TYPICAL AMERICAN SUSPENSION BRIDGES. 






























BREW 


[SECTION II.] 


BRID 


513 


•nee has not been very satisfactory, being based mainly 
on wooden towers as here pictured. Various arrange¬ 
ments in iron and steel have been patented, but not 
tried. Mr. Greenway Thomas designed floats in the 
form of a triangular prism, with concave sides of 10 
feet in width and heighth, capped by a triangular 
pyramid. These were to be anchored at three points 
and placed at intervals of 12 feet. It was expected 
that they would decompose the waves and produce 
smooth water. In other casses floating iron caisous or 
cylinders have been suggested, revolving about hori¬ 
zontal axes, and having fins or flanges to check the 
rotation. As these F. B. could be built at a cost of 
about $100,000 per mile, and rapidly erected, they have 
much to commend them if their efficiency is once 
proved. The-main objection to them is the danger 
of their breaking loose and causing great damage to 
shipping and other property. 

Breck eiiridge, John C., an American statesman 
and general, was born near Lexington, Ky., in 1821. 
After engaging in the study of law, he was returned by 
the Democratic party to Congress iu 1851 and 1853, and, 
upon the election of Mr. Buchanan to the chief magis¬ 
tracy was chosen Vice-President of the U. S. in 1856. In 
1860 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the Presi¬ 
dential chair, receiving the bulk of the Southern vote, 
and in the following year was returned by his State to 
the national Senate. In this latter position he warmly 
espoused the cause of the Southern malcontents, and in 
Sept, of the same year, supplemented his words by acts, 
in taking up arms against the Union, and receiving from 
the govt, of the Southern Confederacy the rank of major- 
general. In command of a division he bore his share in 
the battles of Stone River and Chickamauga, defeated 
Gen. Sigel near New Market, Va., in 1864, and was 
appointed Confederate Secretary of War in Jan., 1865. 
He visited Europe after the collapse of the cause he had 
embraced, and after his return to the U. S., in 1868, 
withdrew from public lite altogether. Died at Lexing¬ 
ton, Ky., 1875. 

Breeeii-Ioadiiig is the method of introducing the 
charge into a firearm at the breech instead of the muzzle. 
The breech is then closed by a block of metal held in 
place by a hinge and lever, by a bolt with a bayonet 
joint, and, in case of heavy' guns, by a screw or a wedge. 
B. L. guns are said to have been in use in England early 
in the reign of Henry VI. There are several ancient 
specimens in the Tower of London. It it is only within 
recent years that the breech-loading principle has been 
made very effective. Among the best weapons of this 
class now existing may be mentioned the Armstrong, 
Whitworth and Krupp guns, the mitrailleuse, and the 
Chassepot, Enfield, Lebel, Martini, Mauser, Sharps, 
Snider, Spencer, Krag-Jorgensen, and Remington rifles. 
The Prussian needle-gun was the first rifle of this kind 
used in European armies. In this the breech is closed 
by a bolt carrying a long needle. This is driven by the 
hammer quite through the powder and ignites it in 
front by striking a patch of fulminate placed at the base 
of the sabot which carries the bullet. The various other 
rifles named have each some special device for closing 
the breech and igniting the powder, all based on the 
same general principle. In regard to artillery, the dif¬ 
ficulty in closing the breech simply and effectually, and 
the greater cost, long stood in the way of the application 
«£ breech-loading devices. The Armstrong breech¬ 
loading system, introduced in 1859, was soon after 
abandoned, and breech-loaders were not again made in I 
England until 1880, after several other nations had J 
adopted them. They are now everywhere in use. There I 
are practically only three methods of closing the breech 
of a gun—the screw, the wedge, and the interrupted 
screw. The last of these, now employed in France and 
England, consists of a solid steel breech-block furnished 
with a screw-thread of the requisite pitch and strength, 
fitting into a similar female screw in the gun. The 
surface of the block is divided longitudinally into six or 
eight equal parts, and the screw thread planed away 
from alternate portions. In the gun the parts corre¬ 
sponding to the smooth portion are left, and those 
between them are slo;ted away. A turn of one-sixth or 
one-eighth of a circle enables the block to be drawn out, 
and a carrier, hinged to the side, swings it clear of the 
bore. Breech-loading sporting.guns are made on a dis¬ 
tinctly different principle, called the drop-down action. 
Nearly all are based on the Lafaucheux action, invented 
in 1825. This consists of a piece of steel, called the 
lump, securely fastened to the under side of the breech- 
end of the barrels, its fore end hinged by meaus of a pin 
to the corresponding part of the breech-piece. On this 
hinge the barrels are moved in opening and shutting the 
breech. The lump is usually cut into two divisions, 
which fit into slots in the breech-piece, and are locked 
there securely by ingenious arrangements. The outside 
hammer, however,is usually discarded in modern breech¬ 
loaders, the cap being exploded by a hammer working 
internally. See Cannon. 

Breit'mann, Hans, pseudonym of Charles Godfret 
LelaND ( q . v .). 

Brenta'iio, Lorenz, born at Mannheim, 1810. In 
early life a German politician ; came to the United States 
after the Baden revolution of 1848, and became editor 
of the Chicago Staats- Zeitung; U. S. consul at Dresden, 
Germany, 1872-76 ; Congressman, 1876-79. Died at 
Chicago, Ill., Sept. 18, 1891. 

Brest Litov'ski. a fortified town of Russia, in the 
Government of, and 110 miles S. of, the city of Grodno, 
on the river Bug. It contains a military school, and 
has a considerable transit trade. In 1794 Suvaroff gained 
here a victory over the Poles. Pop. 37,981. 

Brew'er, Ebenezer Cobham, born in London, Eng., 

30 


May 2,1810. A clergyman and author, chieflv noted for 
his various books of reference. Wrote a Guide to 
Science; Theology in Science ; History of France ; Dictionary 
of Phrase and Fable; History of Germany; The Header's 
Handbook; A Dictionary of Miracles,; Historic Note- 
Book; a new edition of the Dictionary of Phrase and 
Fable, with a bibliography of English literature, 1896, Ac. 

Brewer, Leigh Richmond, D. D., born at Berkshire, Vt, 
Jan. 20, 1839. An Episcopalian clergyman; ordained, 
1867; held pastorates in Carthage, N. Y., and Water- 
town, N. Y.; consecrated bishop of Montana, 1880. 

Brewer, Thomas Mayo, M.D., born in Boston, Mass., 
Nov. 21,1814. A distinguished ornithologist, in early 
life a journalist and publisher. Edited Wilson’s Birds 
of America ; wrote Oology of North America, and prepared, 
with Baird and Ridgeway, A History of North American 
Birds. Died Jan. 24,1880. 

Brew'ster, Benjamin Harris, born in Salem co., N. J., 
Oct. 13,1816. Admitted to the Philadelphia bar, 1838; 
Attorney-General for Pennsylvania, 1867-69; U. S. 
Attorney-General in Arthur’s cabinet, 1881-85, during 
which period he distinguished himself by his prosecu¬ 
tion of the Star Route trials. Died 1888. 

Bric-a-brac, n. [TV., from an older compound, brie, 
el broc, from brie, a sort of weapon which was used in 
hunting, and broc, a kitchen spit.] This word, as now 
in use, corresponds about to our “ odds and ends,” being 
applied to a collection, generally for sale, of old things, 
such as watches, china, clocks, pictures, weapons, orna¬ 
ments, furniture, statuettes, Ac. 

Bridge (brig), n. [A. S. brieg, brigge ; probably from 
behrieg, be and brsecan, or rsecan, to reach]. A structure 
;across a river, gorge, or valley, forming a roadway for 
the passageof traffic. Temporary bridges,made by join¬ 


ing several boats or rafts, are often used in military oper¬ 
ations; one constructed by Xerxes over the Hellespont, 
480 B.C., wasabout 1,200 ft. long. Stone bridges iu the 
great wall of China, where it crosses streams, were built 
about 220 B.C., and the first stone B, by the Romans 
was the Ponte Salario over the Teverone (Auio), near 
Rome, built in the 6th Century B.C. 

Small wooden bridges across brooks have been used 
from the earliest times, but the earliest one of sufficient 
magnitude to deserve the name was built over the Tiber 
at Rome, 621 B.C., this was called the Pons Sublicius, as 



to 

M 

to 



to 


•={= 

--| 

—s 


Fig. 2737*— HOWE TRUSS. 


Fig. 2738.— “pratt truss.” 

it was erected - upon piles; it is noted for the defence 
made on it by Horatius Codes against Lars Porsenna. 
Ctesar’s bridge across the Rhine, 55 B.C., was a roadway 
resting on timber trestles Trajan’s B. over the Danube, 
A.D. 105,1md20 timber arches of 115 ft. span, and was 
60ft. in width. Many stone aqueduct bridges of great 
magnitude were built by the Romans in different parts 
of Europe. With the decline of the Roman empire B. 
building was abandoned until Charlemagne instituted 
the order of Brothers of the Bridge, whose duty it was 


to assist travellers and keep bridges in repair. The first B. 
at London was built about 970, others in 1014 and 1176; 
all these were of timber. 

Stone arch bridges made their reappearance in the 
12th Century, and occupy to-day an important place iu 
bridge construction. Concrete masonry has in the last 




decade become increasingly popular for arch bridges. 
Reinforced concrete, i. e. concrete whose resistance to 
rupture is increased by steel bars or other shapes im¬ 
bedded within it, is not only often used instead of stone 
masonry but is also displacing many short-span steel 
and iron bridges. 


The first iron bridge ever built is the one over the 
Severn at Ironbridge, England, 1779—a cast iron arch 
of 10b ft. span, still iu good condition. This was followed 
by the construction of a number of cast iron arch bridges 
in England and the continent, reachiuga general maxi¬ 
mum span of 200 ft. The use of cast iron declined upon 
the general introduction of wrought iron which iu 
Europe is identified with the construction of the famous 
Britannia B., England, 1846-1850. This bridge, iu use 
to-day, is a tubular or box-like structure, with full 
plate sides, and contains spans of 460 ft. The only 
tubular B. ever built iu America, the Victoria B. at 
Montreal, was replaced by a modern steel structure 
in 1898. 

Steel began to be used for bridges about 1875. It has 



Fig. 2741.— half-section of arch truss bridge over 

THE SCHUYLKILL AT PHILADELPHIA. 

since entirely superseded Wrought iron, due to its su¬ 
perior resisting qualities. A variety of steel in which 
nickel is used as an ingredient, kuown as Nickel Steel, 
is now beginning to be used in long span bridges. 

Simple Truss Bridges. A simple bridge is one resting 
upou two supports. A truss consists of members joined 
together in such manner that the loads cause only 
stresses of tension or compression in those members, 
crosswise or flexual stresses being confined to the 
beams iu the floor (Figs. 2737-2738). The lower hori¬ 
zontal line of members, called the lower chord, is under 
tension, while the upper one is under compression, 
and the intermediate members joining these chords are 
some in tension and some in compression. A truss 
bridge generally consists of 2 such frameworks or 



Fig. 2736.— sherzer rolling lift bridge, Chicago. 




' Truss 





































































514 


BRID 


[SECTION II.] 


BRID 


trusses which together carry the bridge floor. The 
modern truss is a distinctly American development. 
The early American bridges (at the beginning of the 
[ 19th,Century) were generally framed timber structures, 
either of the arch type or a combination of arch and 
truss. Fig. 2741 shows the “Colossus” bridge built in 
1812, remarkable at that period for its unprecedented 
span of 340 ft. This bridge was destroyed by fire in 1838. 

Howe, in 1840, introduced a truss (Fig. 2737) where 
the vertical members connecting the chords were made 



\' 


ft* a 

, 

f* ■ 

A,> 

ii w • 

’ "iS 

fjlSSfik 

■\/V: *'* • /' 

(eft 

■ & K l 

,. ■. ■ ■ ■ 


Fig. 2742.— LIFT BRIDGE, SOUTH HALSTED ST., CHICAGO. 


of wrought iron; this form has been extensively built 
and is much used at the present day in localities where 
timber is cheap. In the Howe truss the wrought iron 
verticals are tension members, while the timber diag¬ 
onals are in compression. The Pratt truss (Fig. 2738) 
devised in 1844, used wrought iron for the inclined 
members connecting the chords, all other parts being 
of timber; later this was built entirely in wrought iron 
or steel, and with slight modifications in form and de¬ 
tails has been adopted to use for very long spans. 


ever, been surpassed, and the introduction of nickel 
steel promises to set a new limit. The Municipal B. at 
St. Louis, mainly of nickel steel, will have 3 simple 
spans of 668 ft. each. Other long span simple truss 
bridges are: a 586 ft. highway span over the Miami R., 
Elizabethtown, Ohio, 1904; a 550 ft. railway and high¬ 
way span over the Ohio R., Cincinnati, 1888; a 546 ft. 
railway span over the Ohio at Louisville, 1804. The 
height ot a simple truss is from % to % of its length, 
usually. 

Hate Girder Bridges. — For short spans, the general 
practice in steel B. construction is to use the rolled 
steel'T’ shaped beam up to spans of about 20 ft.; for spans 
between 20 ft. and 100 ft., there is employed the plate 
girder, which is, in effect, an “I” beam built up to re¬ 
quired size and depth by riveting to a steel plate two 
pairs of angle shapes forming respectively the top and 
bottom flanges or chords of the girder. A plate girder 
bridge generally has two such girders wdiich together 
carry the floor. While 100 ft. is the general maximum 
span for this type, a number have been built of lengths 
up to 125 ft. and greater. The depth of the plate girder 
is generally about 1-10 of the span. The bridge shown 
in Fig. 2748 contains typical plate girdeF spans. 

Draw Bridges .—A draw B. is one that can be moved, 1 
either by swinging or lifting, so as to permit vessels to : 
pass the structure. The usual type is that which swings 
on a turn-table on a central pier, the trusses of the B. 
generally being deeper over the pier than at the ends. 
The lower chords of a swing draw B. are subject to 
stresses of compression when open and to tension v hen, 
closed. The span of a swing draw B. is counted from end 
to end, as the trusses are continuous over the center per. 
The plate girder is employed for the shorter, and the, 
truss for the longer spans. By far most swing bridges 
are of spans below 400 ft.; there are, however, at present 
about 25 with spans above that figure. The 
longest of these are: a 2-track railroad draw over the 
Williamette R. at Portland, Oregon, 1907, with span ot 
621 ft.; one over the Missouri R. at East Omaha, Neb., 
1893, with span of 520 ft.; another at the same place in 
1903, with span of 519 ft. Draw bridges which are lifted 
instead of swung are of two classes; pure lift bridges 
where the entire structure is raised vertically, and ba¬ 
scule bridges (Figs. 2739 and 2740), which consist some¬ 
times of one leaf and more often of two parts, joined 
at the center of the span, each leaf being swung up in 
a vertical plane around a binge at the abutment. The 
largest pure lift B. is one built at Chicago in 1894 (Fig. 
2742), a simple truss B. of 130 feet span and 50 feet 
width, being lifted vertically a distance of 141 ft. 
Bascule draw bridges were used in ancient times for 


Wrought iron and steel have been used in many 
arch-bridges of large span, the arch being built with 
curved chords and intermediate members like a truss. 
The first steel arch was erected over the Mississippi 


(I IT 



Fig. 2745.— section of tower, Williamsburg bridge 

OVER THE EAST RIVER, COMPLETED 1903. 
river at St. Louis, in 1873; this has twm spans of 497 feet, 
and one span of 515 feet, and carries both railway and 
highway traffic. The Washington B. over the Uar- 













. In the Pratt truss the vertical members are in com¬ 
pression, and the diagonals in tension. In addition to 
the Pratt truss the types now principally employed for 
long spans are the Petit truss, w hich differs only slightly 
from the Pratt; and the Baltimore truss, which is prac¬ 
tically a Pratt truss with a polygonal top chord, the 
| truss being deepest at the center. The members of a 
truss are connected by either being riveted together or 
by pins, i. e. cylindrical steel bars, 5 ft. or more in diam¬ 
eter, passing through all the members at the joint. The 



pin-connected bridge is peculiarly American; in Europe 
it is rarely seen. The bridge shown in Fig. 2748 con¬ 
tains a typical pin-connected Pratt truss span. The 
early truss bridges were constructed by practical build¬ 
ers without any scientific knowledge of the stresses in 
the structure. The first theoretic treatment of the 
truss was published in 1847 by Squire Whipple of Utica, 
N. Y., the inventor also of the Whipple Truss, a modi¬ 
fication of the Pratt truss, which is now abandoned. 
The simple truss bridge ranges in span from 100 ft. to a 
general maximum of 550 ft. The latter figure has, how- 


Fig. 2743.— the Washington bridge over harlem river. 

the moats of castles, there being but one leaf to ele¬ 
vate, but their adaptation to large structures has been 
entirely made since 1880. 

The most famous and one of the largest of this type 
is the Tower B. in London, completed in 1894, w here 
each leaf is 100 ft. in length; this structure has also a 
fixed span connecting tne tops of the towers over the 
bascules and 100 ft above them. Bascule bridges, 
with few exceptions, have spans below 200 ft. The long¬ 
est ever built is a double track railway span of 275 ft., in 
Chicago, 1901, (Fig. 2736). Next in length is a single 
track railway span of 230 ft., in Cleveland, 1907, par¬ 
ticularly notable because it has only one leaf. 

Arch Bridges .—A simple B. exerts only vertical pres¬ 
sures upon its supports, while an arch exerts not only 
vertical, but also horizontal pressures. This horizontal 
pressure tends to push the abutments outwaid, and 
hence they must be heavier than those for simple B. 
Stone arches were first used by the Etruscans, but their 
development is due to the Romans. The spans of the 
Roman stone arches did not exceed 75 ft. 

As to modern stone arches, the Cabin John Arch, 
Washington, built in 1864, held the record for neaily 40 
years with a span of 220 ft. In 1902 this record was 
broken by the 278 ft. span of the Luxembourg Arch, 
Germany,which was followed in 1905 by the 295 tt. arch 
at Plaueu, Saxony. The present period is notable for 
the use of reinforced concrete in arch construction: 
numerous ellipse shaped arches with spans below 150 ft. 
have of late years been built of this material in this 
country and abroad. Fig. 2749 shows a typical rein¬ 
forced concrete arch bridge in Newark. N. J., with a 
span of 132 ft. The largest concrete arch completed is 
the Walnut Lane B., Philadelphia, 1898, with a span of 
233 ft. One of 280 ft. span is being constructed in Cleve¬ 
land. The plans of the Henry Hudson Memorial B. 
over the Harlem R., New York City, call for a rein¬ 
forced concrete arch with the enormous span of 703 ft. 


lent river at New York in 1889 (Fig. 2743) is for high¬ 
way traffic only, and has two spans of 510 feet each. 
The arch at Niagara Falls, completed in 1897 to replace 
the highway suspension B , has a span of 840 feet, and 
a rise of 150 feet, being the largest in thewoild. One 
over the Viaur R.. France, in 1902, has a span of 712 ft. 
and a rise of 310 ft. The second largest in the United 



Fig. 2746.— entrance to east river suspension 
BRIDGE OP 1883. 

States is the 550 ft. arch which was built in 1897-98 to re¬ 
place the railroad suspension B. one mile north of 
Niagara Falls. The proposed railroad B. over the East 
R. at Hell Gate, New York City, will contain a steel 
arch of 1000 ft. span. The arch is one of the most grace¬ 
ful forms of B. construction, and hence particularly 
adapted for use near cities. 





























































































































Cantilever Railroad Bridge across Niagara River, crossing the gorge below the Falls 
with one span of 470 feet, 239 feet above the water. 



Queensboro Bridge across East River, New York. Total length, 3725 feet; longest span, 1182 feet. 


TYPICAL AMERICAN CANTILEVER BRIDGES. 





































, 






r 






































' 












































































































i 















BKID 


[SECTION II.] 


BKID 


515 



Fig. 2747.— cantilever bridge over the firth of forth, Scotland. 



Suspension Bridges .—A suspension B. consists prim¬ 
itively of a rope or cable stretched across a river. Such 
were frequently used in ancient times as rope ferries, a 
basket suspended from the rope being pulled across the 
river. In the eighteenth century the idea was extended 
by laying a platform on two parallel cables or chains, 
thus forming a suspended foot B. The modern sus¬ 
pension B., however, consists of a platform hung from 
parallel cables, which pass over towers, and have their 
ends secured in anchorages. The first B. on this 
plan was built near Greensburg, Pa., in 1801, hav¬ 
ing a span of 70 feet, and during the decade follow¬ 
ing at least eight others of this type were erected. 
The longest of this group is the chain bridge still in 
use over the Merrimac, Mass., built in 1810, with a 
span of 244 ft. between tower centers (Fig. 2751). 

All these had the cables made of chains or links of 
wrought iron, but in 1816 wire was first used for cables 
in a foot-5, of 408 feet span near Philadelphia, A simi¬ 
lar development occurred in other countries, and in 
1834 the great span of 870 feet was attained in the B. 
at Freiburg, in Switzerland. These structures were 
deficient, however, in rigidity, and many of them w ere 
blown down. Iu 1848, at Wheeling, W. Ya., a suspen¬ 
sion B. of 1,010 feet span was erected, in which 12 
cables were used ; this was blown down in 1854, but was 
rebuilt directly. The method then used for stiffening 
a suspension structure against the action of the wind 
was by guys extending from the tow ers to the road¬ 
way, and by other guys from the roadway to the shores. 

I Th'e problem of successfully stiffening the structure 
was not, however, solved until 1855, when the Niagara 
B. was completed. In this a truss was used to support 
the roadway, and the truss itself was suspended from 
the cables. The action of the truss was to distribute 
the load over the cable and thus prevent local dis¬ 
tortion and the accompanying stresses. The Niagara 
B. also demonstrated the practicability of the suspen¬ 
sion system for railroad traffic, owing to the influence of 
the suspended truss. The B. at Niagara was 821 feet in 
span between the towers, and had four cables, each 
10)4 inches in diameter. In 1881 the wooden trusses 
were replaced by wrought iron ones, and in 1887 the 
stone towers were likewise replaced. In 1897 the entire 
structure was removed and a steel arch erected to re¬ 
place it. One of the largest suspension B- is 
the “Brooklyn” B- over the East river at New York 
(Figs. 2744, 2746), its span between the towers being 
1,595 feet, with two side spans of 930 feet each. This 
was completed in 1883, after 13 years’ work in construc¬ 
tion, both the founding of the piers and the manufac¬ 
ture of the cables being slow and difficult. Each of the 
four cables contains 5,296 steel rvires bound together 
into a solid cylinder 16 inches in diameter. 

This bridge was designed to carry two tracks for 
cable cars, two roadways, and a footwalk; but is re¬ 
markable for the fact that it safely sustains the present 
enormous traffic between Manhattan and I»rookly n for 
which a trolley track was subsequently built on each 
of its roadways and a heavy railway train service sub¬ 
stituted for the old cable line. A second suspension 
B over the East river, fhe “Williamsburg” B- (Fig. 


2745), completed in 1903, has a span of 1600 feet which 
is the longest ever built. A third suspension B-, the 
“Manhattan” b , located between the two others, was 
completed in 1910. Its main span is 1470 feet, it has 
two suspended side spans like the “Brooklyn” B-, and 
carries a 35 foot roadway, two 12 foot footwalks, 4 
trolley tracks, and 4 railway tracks. It is a very strong 
and beautiful structure. 

Cantilever Bridges .—The idea of the cantilever system 
is an old one, and ancient bridges of short span have 
been found in Japan and Thibet, which embody it. 
A cantilever beam is a beam projecting from a wall; 
a cantilever B. has two arms which project out over 


Niagara river in 1883; the total length is 910 feet, each 
shore span is 207.5 feet, the span between the centers 
of towers, i. e. the main span is 495 ft. made up of the 
two cantilever arms with a span each of 187.5 ft. and a 
120 ft. connecting or “sr spended” span. The height of 
the roadway above the river is 245 ft. 

The Niagara cantilever B. was built in eight months, 
at a cost of 1600,000, and it demonstrated the feasibility 
and economy of the system. With this arrangement a 
load placed upon one cantilever arm has no effect upon 
the other, while the loads upon the central span are 
transferred in both directions. In building such a 
structure the shore spans are erected upon false works 


Fig. 2748.— typical 

the stream, and these are joined by a short simple B 
Each cantilever arm is secured at its shore end to an 
abutment or anchorage, and is supported by a tower, the 
space between the abutmentand the tower being cal led 
the shore span ; beyond the tower the truss projects out 
over the river. From the opposite shore a similar 
cantilever arm rests upon an abutment and projects out 
over another tower. Between the ends of the two 
cantilevers there is a space over which stretches a short 
connecting span whose ends are supported by the two 
ends of the cantilevers. 

The first structure which involved all these elements 
of the typical cantilever system was erected over the 


RAILROAD BRIDGE. 

in the usual way, and the projecting arms of the canti¬ 
levers are then built out, panel by panel, beyond the 
pier, without the necessity of supports beneath. This 
method of construction is particularly adapted to deep 
river gorges, where the erection of simple bridges or of 
arches would be very difficult and expensive. This 
plan of erection was first employed in 1875 for a B. 
of 1,125 feet in length over the Kentucky river, which, 
however, differs from the typical cantilever system de¬ 
scribed inasmuch as it consists of a main central span 
projecting at each end beyond a pier, and each of these 
projected (cantilever) arms is connected to the abut¬ 
ment by a simple span. The greatest spau of any 





Fig. 2749.— concrete-steel arch bridge, nvewark, new jersey. 












































510 


BRON 


[SECTION II.] 


BROW 




cantilever B. in the United States belongs to the 
Queensboro B. over the East river in New York City, 
with two of its piers founded on Blackwells Island, 
completed 1909. The total length of the bridge proper 
is 3725 ft.; of the longest span, 1182 ft. It differs char¬ 
acteristically from the standard type by the fact that 
the ends of the cantilever arms are connected to each 
other directly, and without the employment of the 
simple connecting span. Other American cantilever 
bridges, in order of span lengths, are: one over the 
Monongahela B. at Pittsburg, 1904, with a span of 812 
ft. (Fig. 2750) ; one over the Mississippi at Memphis, 


Bronze, n. (Metal.)' Bronzes of modern manufacture 
now form a valuable material in the useful arts, viz: 
phosphor-B., silicum-B., manganese-B., delta-metal , phoc- 
plior-copper, phosphor-manyanese-B., cobalt-B., aluminum- 
B., &c. The action of phosphorus on copper alloys 
is due chiefly to its reducing qualities, by which the 
oxygen, absorbed by the molten metal, is removed, or 
the oxides thus formed are eliminated. Silicium-B; in 
this alloy phosphorus is replaced by a silicious metal¬ 
loid. It is highly recommended for telegraph wires, 
being, it is claimed, only one-tenth the weight, of equal 
strength, and with much greater conducting power than 


50. 


CANTILEVER BRIDGE ACROSS THE MONONGAHELA RIVER, PITTSBURG, 1904. 


1892, with span of 790 ft. One of the latest is the 
Thebes B. over the Mississippi (1905), with a maxi¬ 
mum span of 071 ft. One of the older famous cantilever 
structures is the bridge over the Hudson 11. at Pough¬ 
keepsie, completed in 1889, consisting of a series of 
spans which combine the features of the Kentucky 
River B. as well as those of the typical Niagara B- Its 
longest span length is 523 feet. 

The Forth cantilever bridge in Scotland, finished in 
1890, is the greatest ever constructed, there being two 
shore arms of 685 feet each, and two cantilever spans of 
1,700 feet each ; the depth of this B- over the towers is 
330 ft., and indeed it is possible that in these great 
spans the lilnit of economy of the cantilever system is 
surpassed. 

The Quebec cantilever Bridge over the St. Lawrence 
if. with its 1,800 ft. span, was to be the largest bridge 
ever constructed. Its erection was well advanced when 
it suddenly collapsed, August, 1907, leaving only its 
piers intact. The causes of the failure, however, were 
not inherent in the cantilever type of bridge. 

Comparison. —With respect to materials of construc¬ 
tion, it is now settled that timber can only be used 
economically for bridges in the case of temporary struc¬ 
tures or in localities far removed from manufacturing 
centers. Cast iron has been entirely discarded on ac¬ 
count of its brittleness and unreliability. Wrought 
iron, though long in serviceable use, has now been 
entirely supplanted by steel, which is stronger and of 
equal or lower cost. There is a tendency for nickel 
steel to replace the ordinary carbon steel, especially in 
bridges of great span. Masonry, whether stone or con¬ 
crete, has the great advantage in durability, as com¬ 
pared with steel, and is well adapted for arch bridges of 
the shorter spans. In fact, reinforced concrete is to a 
large extent used where formerly steel bridges would 
have been built. 

With respect to the details of manufacture, the riveted 
system, where the members are joined by rivets, is 
generally used for spans less than 200 feet in length, 
while the pin system, where the posts and eye bars are 
connected by large cylindrical pins, is most economical, 
for longer spans under American methods of designs 
and erection. Plate girders are adapted only to spans 
less than 125 feet and usually to less than 100 feet. 
Simple truss bridges are employed up to 550 ft. gener¬ 
ally ; this limit, however, is being extended. For spans 
between 600 and 1,000 feet in length either the arch or 
the cantilever system is employed ; the arch requires a 
good natural foundation to resis the horizontal thrust; 
on the other baud, it presents a great esthetic advan¬ 
tage. For spans beyond 1,000 ft., the choice lies be¬ 
tween the suspension and the cantilever type. Engin¬ 
eers are not in full agreement as to the relative merits 
of the two, although it is generally conceded that for 
the longest span, sav 2,000 to 3,000 ft., the stiffened 
suspension B is most feasible. 

Brin'ton, Daniel Garrison, M.D., born at Thornbury, 
Pa., May 13,1837. Prof, of Ethnology and Archaeology 
in the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, and 
Prof, of American Archaeology and Linguistics in the 
University of Pennsylvania; was Medical Director of 
the 11th Army corps,1863-64. Wrote, among numerous 
other productions, Notes on the Floridian Peninsula; The 
Myths of the New World ; The Religious Sentiment ; Amer¬ 
ican Hero-Myths. 

Pris'tow, Benjamin Helm, born at Elkton, Ky., June 
2®, 1832. A lawyer, distinguished in the Civil War and 
subsequently in the Kentucky State Senate; Solicitor- 
General of the U. S., 1870-72; Secretary of the Treasury 
under Grant, 1873-76. Died June 23.1896. 
Brock'liaus, Friedrich Arnold, born at Dortmund, 
Germany, 1772. A German publisher (the founder of 
the Brockhaus firm of Leipzig), chiefly known for the 
Conversations Lexikon, which bears his name, not to 
mention Ebert’s Universal Bibliographical Lexicon. Erscli’s 
Manual of Germain Literature , etc. Died 1823. 

Broneh or rheea ( brong-kdr-re'ah). [From Gr. bronchos , 
the wind-pipe, and reo, I flow.] (Path.) An increased 
secretion of mucus from the air-passages, accompanied 
(or not) by inflammation. It is symptomatic of catarrh, 
indigestion, and various other maladies. 


the ordinary wire. Manganese-B. was introduced in 1876; 
it is prepared by mixing a small proportion of ferro¬ 
manganese with copper; tin and zinc are also added for 
some of the alloys, of which there are several grades. 
Delta-metal was introduced in 1883; this metal is not 
capable of welding, but can be brazed, and also, by 
stamping and punching, made into various articles 
hitherto only cast in B. or brass. Phosphor-lead-B., 
introduced in 1881, is claimed to be especially adapted 
for purposes where metal is subject to constant wear 
or friction. Silveroid and cobalt-B. are of more recent 
introduction, and are composed of an alloy of copper and 
nickel, with zinc, tin or lead. Aluminum-B. is well 
adapted for table cutlery and other table articles, in 
place of silver and silver-plated ware, for metallic fit¬ 
tings, screw propellers, &c., where a non-oxidizing, 
bright surface, with strength, is required. See Alloys. 

Brook Farm. (Sociol.) A communistic association 
formed in 1841, at West Roxbury, Mass., as an experi¬ 
ment in “ plain living and high thinking,” its member¬ 
ship including a number of the leading thinkers and 
writers of New England. At the head was George 
Ripley, previously a Unitarian clergyman of Boston, 
who, with Emerson, Alcott, Hedge, and others, had 
founded the Transcendental Club, and in 1840 had 
established, in connection with Emerson and Margaret 
Fuller, The Dial , organ of the club. Those associated 
with Ripley in the Farm included Hawthorne, Charles 
A. Dana, John S. Dwight, and other well-known men. 
About 200 acres were purchased, agriculture and several 
trades were carried on, and several pupils were received 
in the study of language, history, music, drawing, &c. 
The community v T as at first organized as a joint stock 
company, but in 1844 was reorganized as a phalanstery, 
on the Fourieristic principle. In 1845 the phalanstery 


its contributors, aside from Brook Farmers, Lowell, 
Whittier, Greeley, Higginson, Story and Curtis. 

Brooks, Phillips, D.D., b. at Boston, Dec, 13,1835. A 
brilliant pulpit orator. Grad. Harvard, 1855; ordained 
1859; held rectorships in Philadelphia, 1859-69; rector 
of Trinity Church, Boston, 1869-91, being meanwhile 
(1886) elected Assistant Bishop of Pennsylvania, an 
office which he declined; Protestant Bishop of Massa¬ 
chusetts, 1891-93. Wrote Sermons ; Lectures on Preach¬ 
ing; The Influence of Jesus; Baptism and Confirmation, 
etc. Died January 23, 1893. 

Brooks, William Keith, born at Cleveland, 0., March 
25,1848. A distinguished naturalist; associate of Johns 
Hopkins University, 1876. and director of its marine 
laboratory, 1878; professor of morphology, 1883. Wrote 
Lucifer, a Study in Morphology; Handbook of Invertebrati 
Zoology; The Law of Heredity; The Development and 
Protection of the Oyster in Maryland; Report on the 
Stomatopoda; The Oyster , &c. 

Brougll'ton, Rhoda, born at Segrwyd Hall, Denbigh¬ 
shire, Great Britain, Nov. 20, 1840. A novelist, the 
daughter of a clergyman. Wrote Cometh up as a Flower, 
Not Wisely But Too Well; Red as a Rose is She; Nancy; 
Joan; Second Thoughts; Belinda; Doctor Cupid; Alas, 
Mrs. Bligh ; A Beginner, 1894; Scylla or Charybdis, 1895 

Brown, Ford Madox, born at Calais, France, 1821 
An English painter; the author of King Lear; Chaucei 
at the Court of Edward III; The Last of England ; Work, 
Cromwell, Sardanapalus and Myrrha; Romeo and Juliet 
&c. 

Brown, Goold, born at Providence, R. I., March 7 
1791. A noted grammarian. Conducted an academj 
in New York city for over 20 years. Wrote Institutes oj 
English Grammar, 1823 ; First Lines of English Grammar 
1823 ; Grammar of English Grammars, 1850-51. 

Brown, John George, born at Durham, Eng., Nov. 11 
1831; came to United States, 1853. A figure painter 
eight of whose pictures were exhibited at the Chicagc 
Fair, 1893. A few of his more important productioni 
are: His First Cigar; Curling in Central Park; Tough 
Customers; Clear the Track ; The Dog Shots ; As Good at 
New; The Old Folks at Home; Under the Weather; A Joll% 
Lot; The Monopolist; Day Dreams; You're a Nice Pup; 
Watching Che Clouds. 

Brown llniversity. An institution of learning 
founded at Warren, R. I., in 1764, and in 1770 removed 
to Providence, its present location. It was first named 
Rhode Island College, receiving its present name ip 
1804 in honor of Nicholas Brown, one of the chief 
contributors to its endowment fund. It is at present 
under the presidency of E. Benjamin Andrews, itf 
corporation consisting of 12 fellows and 36 trustees, of 
whom a small majority are required to be Baptists. At 
the end of 1896 the rolls showed a total of 98 instructor! 
and 925 students. The library has 90,000 volumes 
Since its organization there have been 4,500 graduates 
ot whom the living alumni number 1,900. There arr 
13 university buildings, among which the observatory 
contains one of the finest telescopes in America. The 
endowments amount to about 81,300,000, with building! 
worth $500,000 more. About half the students are 
from Rhode Island, and half the remainder from the 
adjoining States. 

Browne, Charles Farrar, an American humorist 


Fig. 2751.— old chain suspension rridge across merrimac river, in mass. 


buildiug was burned down, and in 1847 the experiment 
was abandoned as a financial failure. The idyllic and 
romantic aspects of life at B. F., especially in its early 
years, has been made the basis of Hawthorne’s Blithedale 
Romance. The greatest number gathered on the farm 
at any time, including children and boarders, was about 
150. Kitchen and table were in common, little help was 
hired, philosophers, poets and novelists vied with each 
other in the work of the field, the stable and the house¬ 
hold. The farm was often visited by distinguished 
people, and the Harbinger, its weekly organ, had among 


and author, born at Waterford, Maine, 1836, after some 
years spent at the printing trade, became editorially 
connected with the journalistic profession, and in 1860 
one of the promoters of Vanity Fair, a New York comic 
weekly. Later he traveled over the U. S. as a lecturer, 
drawing large audiences and achieving proportional 
success. In 1866 he visited England, and there re¬ 
peated his lectures with profit, and became a contributor 
to Pinch. His works, brimful of a quaint and dry 
humor, are well known under the titles of Artemws 
Ward, His Book; Artemus Ward Among the Mormons, 



























































































































BUBO 


[SECTION II.] 


BUFF 


519 


Artemua Ward in London, &c. —Pen-name Artemus 
Ward. Died at Southampton, Eug, in 1867. 

Brownell', Henry Howard, born at Providence, R. I., 
Feb. 6, 1820. A Soldier poet. Died at East Hartford. 
Conn., Oct. 31,1872. 

Brush. Charles Francis, born at Euclid, 0., March 
17, 1849. A distinguished electrician ; the inventor, 
inter al., of the dynamo-electric machine and the elec¬ 
tric-arc lamp which bear his name, both of them suc¬ 
cessfully introduced in this country in 1876. Was made 
Chevalier of the French Legion of Honor, 1881. 

Bry'an. William Jennings, lawyer and statesman, 
born at Salem, Ill., 1860. Studied law at Union Law 
College, Chicago, and practised at Jacksonville, Ill., and 
Lincoln, Neb. Elected to Congress as a Free Silver man 
in 1890 and again in 1892. An impassioned speech of his 
at the Chicago Democratic Convention in 1896.obtained 
him a nomination for the Presidency, and his candidacy 
was subsequently endorsed by the People’s and National 
Silver Parties; but after a campaign of phenomenal in¬ 
dustry lie was defeated at the election, on Nov. 3, by 
Wm. McKinley (q.v.). He was again nominated for the 
Presidency in 1900 and was defeated. He ran once 
more in 1908 and was a third time defeated. 

Bryce. Rt. Hon. James, born at Belfast, Ireland, May 
10, 1838. An eminent British statesman, lawyer and 
writer. Regius Prof, of Civil Law at Oxford University, 
1870-93; at various times Under-Secretary for Foreign 
Affairs; Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and 
(until 1895) Pres, of the Board of Trade. Author of 
The Holy Roman Empire, Transcaucasia and Ararat; The 
American Commonwealth, &c. 

Bubon'ic Plague. (Path.) The popular name of 
a malignant disease which has devastated the East at 
various periods, and which 
made its latest dreaded ap¬ 
pearance in India during 
the latter part of 1896. It 
is probably better designated 
as malignant polyadenitis, 
for in numerous cases no 
real bubo appears. This dis¬ 
ease made its first appear¬ 
ance in Europe A. D. 554, 
at Constantinople, but for 
centuries before had existed, 
frequently as an epidemic, 
in Egypt and the Levant. 

The Great Plague of Loudon 
occurred in 1665, having 
been brought from Holland. 

It is estimated that some 
25,000,0(X) Europeans have 
died from this disease, while the number who have 
perished in the East is beyond conjecture. Its outset 
is characterized by great lassitude and enfeeblement of 
mind and body, shivering, headache, vertigo, high 
fever, vomiting, and great prostration, followed by 
lymphatic swellings, chiefly affecting the inguinal 
glands, though not infrequently the axillary and cervical 
glands. Again there are purple spots and mottling 
of the skin, with suppurative degeneration. In severe 
cases death generally ensues within 48 hours. If 
life be longer maintained, the prognosis is propor¬ 



Fig. 2752. 

BACILLI OF BUBONIC 
PLAGUE. 

From Cultures made iu March, 
1897. 


tionately favorable. It is now generally agreed that 
the B. P. is a germ disease, and the offending bacillus 
has been identified by Indian bacteriologists, and also 
by European and American investigators. It is easily 
demonstrable in blood drawn from the patient, and 
when cultures are made from the softened contents of 
diseased glands the bacilli may be obtained quite pure. 
The organisms are very minute, stain more distinctly at 
the ends than at the center, and tresli specimens seem 
to be enclosed in a capsule. The bacilli resemble the 
well-known bacilli of chicken pox, and grow freely upon 
glycerin, the colonies being whitish, with a blue tint in 
reflected light; they are said not to survive more than 
four days of dessication. Experiments are now being 
made with a view to preparing a curative serum whereby 
immunity from this terrible disease may be attained, 
and the results so far give much promise of ultimate 
success. It has been demonstrated that the germs 
flourish in any suitable media-—beef-tea, glycerin prepar¬ 
ations, &c.—at ordinary temperatures up to 58° C. 
(about 116° F.), but above that temperature they begin 
to show signs of uneasiness, and at 60° C. (about 120° 
F.) they perish, and, of course, become innocuous. 
American investigators, moreover, are inclined to think 
that sunlight and dryness cannot be relied upon to 
destroy the bacilli, but have shown that an exposure to 
a 1 per cent, solution of carbolic acid for two hours is 
sufficient to kill them. Rags, general merchandise, and 
almost any kind of ballast will serve as a medium of 
transportation from one country to another, and the 
necessity for establishing a rigid quarantine, with dis¬ 
infecting ovens, is thus indicated. 

Buek'laml. Cyrus, a notable American inventor, 
born at Manchester, Conn., 1779, became master-ma¬ 
chinist to the U. S. armory at Springfield, Mass., and 
originated various contrivances for working gun-stocks, 
besides an effective method of rifling musket-barrels, 
which has become very generally adopted. 

Blick'ner, Simon Bolivar, an American politician and 
Confederate general, born in Kentucky in 1824. After 
graduating at West Point iu 1844, became commanding 
officer of the guard of his native State, and embraced 
the Southern cause at the first outbreak of the war. 
He succeeded Gen. Floyd in the command of the garri¬ 
son of Fort Donelson, w T hicli place surrendered to 
Gen. Grant on Feb. 16,1862. In the following year he 
commanded a corps at the battle of Chickamauga; 
elected Governor of Kentucky in 1887; was defeated 
candidate for Vice President of U. S. on National Demo¬ 
cratic “ hard money ” ticket in 1896. 

Buck'wheat. (Agric.) See Cereals. 

Bndaon (boo-da'un), a town of British India, N. W. 
Provinces, cap. of a dist. of the same name, in N. Lat. 
2S° 2', E. Lon. 79° 11'. Pop. 35,372. The district, a 
fertile tract bordering on the delta of the Ganges, con¬ 


tains an area of 2,005 sq. m., and possesses a population 
of 1,019,161. 

Budapest, or Hungarian .Hillenial. Ex¬ 
position. A grand display of the resources of Hun¬ 
gary, made in 1896, iu honor of the establishment of 
that kingdom 1,000 years ago, or in 896 A. D. It was 
deemed a fitting opportunity to make a millenial exhi¬ 
bition significant of the growth of that country in 
civilization and material resources since its settlement 
by the half-savage Huns of ten centuries ago. B., the 
handsome double city which constitutes the capital of 
the kingdom, was selected a3 the place of the display, 
which occupied the most beautiful park in that city, a 
space of 129 acres being devoted to the 169 buildings 
which were erected for the purpose at a cost of about 
£4,tO0,000. The exposition was formally opened on 
May 2, by the Emperor Francis Joseph, as King of 
Hungary, and continued open until Oct. 31, during 
which period it was largely visited by Hungarians and 
foreigners. The grounds were made handsome by the 
aid of natural and artificial lakes and streams, crossed 
by ornamental bridges, while the 1,000 years of Hun¬ 
garian national life was divided into 8 epochs, to each 
of w hich was assigned a building of appropriate archi¬ 
tecture, while its contents illustrated the arts, industries 
and history of the period in question. The section 
illustrating modern Hungary showed clearly the great 
advance made by that country. In addition each of the 
19 nationalities w hich make up the composite popula¬ 
tion of Hungary had a village showing its customs and 
daily home life. Throughout the exposition there was 
an elaborate series of fetes, festivals and historical 
pageants, and the people of the country seemed to have 
given themselves up to a period of unchecked enjoy¬ 
ment. Not the least of the revelations to strangers was 
the city itself. Buda, on the right, and Pest, on the 
left bank of the Danube, w 7 ere separate cities until 1873, 
since which they have formed a single municipality, 
with a population in 1890 of 506,061. Several hand¬ 
some bridges connect the double city, which is now one 
of the handsomest and cleanest capitals in Europe, 
while its progressive spirit is manifest in the fact that 
it was the first of cities to introduce the underground 
trolley system of street car propulsion. A leading event 
of the exposition was the opening of the new Parlia¬ 
ment House, which had cost $6,400,000. Still more im¬ 
portant was the completion of the new water-way 
through the celebrated Iron Gates of the Danube, the 
opening of which to international navigation was made 
the occasion for a most impressive series of ceremonies. 

Buffalo, —Continued from Section I. 

The story of the virtual extinction of the American 
Bison, familiarly known as the B., is one of such interest 
as to call for some special mention. In 1870 the w estern 
plains of the U. S.were roamed over by millions of £., 
which even then were being exterminated at the rate 
of half a million a year. The paltry sum of 81.00 for 
each robe was sufficient inducement for the slaughter 
of thousands of the animals, whose carcasses were left 
to bleach on the plains; Up to this time the wild 
animals were killed by the old Indian method of “ run¬ 
ning,” a method which had in it sufficient 6pice of 
danger to make it sportsmanlike. The B. horses were 
trained to run alongside of a big bull, and the killing 



Would Bldo., 
294 ft. 


IB ACT SOCIETY, 

290 tt. 


St. PAul Bldo., 
507 ft. 


Fig. 2753. —comparative 


Surety Bldo., Trihity Church, Pare Row, 

312 ft. 288 ft. 586 ft. 

HEIGHT OF PROMINENT BUILDINGS IN NEW YORK CITY AND THE NATIONAL CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON (SEE BUILDING). 


Capitol, 287^ ft. 

Sum, 70 ft. 




































































520 


BUFF 


[SECTION II.] 


BUIL 


of the animal was often attended with exciting and 
dangerous incidents. The method that succeeded was 
simply massacre. The completion of the Union and 
Southern Pacific and other roads across the plains gave 
rise to a great demand for buffalo robes, and a small 
army of “pot-hunters.” set themselves to supply the 
demand. Armed with a long range repeating rifle, one 
of this slaughtering band would conceal himself at a 
point several hundred yards distant from a herd, and 
deliberately shoot down the leader. Instead of flying 
the frightened animals would gather around their fallen 
chief, and die in succession before the rapid discharges 
of the deadly rifle. If a second bull showed signs of 
leadership he became the next target for the hunter’s 
rifle. Scores of animals would be killed before the 
remainder of the herd would 
take to flight. One hunter 
stated that he had killed 63 
animals in less than an hour, 
and Col. Dodge once counted 
113 dead buffaloes, all slain 
by one man in forty-five 
minutes. The Union Pacific 
Kailroad cut the great herd 
in the plains into two, the 
southern herd numbering, 
in 1871, over 4,000,000 ani¬ 
mals, and the northern herd, 
smaller in size and more re¬ 
stricted in territory. With 
the completion of the Atchi- 
bou, Topeka and Santa Fe 
Kailroad there was a wild 
rush of buffalo hunters to 
the plains, thousands of east¬ 
ern sportsmen joining the 
throng, and the slaughter of 
the southern herd went on 
at an unprecedented rate. 

In 1873 one railroad carried 
from theplains250,000 robes. 

Two years later the south¬ 
ern herd had almost ceased 
to exist,there being left only 
a few thousands of the re¬ 
cent millions. The northern 
herd survived longer, be- 
*ause not so easily reached, 
it being too expensive to get 
the robes to market. But in 

1882, after the completion 
of the Northern Pacific Rail¬ 
road, a rush to this region 
began. Kobes had advanced 
in price to 83.00, and the 
chance of making money 
seemed good. It was not 
long before the B. grounds 
weresurrounded byacordon 
of hunter’s camps, through 
which it was impossible for 
the animals to escape. Un¬ 
der those circumstances the 
herd disappeared during the 
year 1883, with theexception 
of some 5,000 that succeeded 
in crossinginto British terri¬ 
tory. A small section the 
herd, about 10,000 in num¬ 
ber, located between the 
Black Hills and Bismarok, 
had been reduced to 1,200 in 

1883. In that month Sitting 
Bull’s Indians arrived at 
Standing Kock agency, and 
made a rush for this small 
remnant of the herd. In 
two days not an animal of 
them remained alive. That 
ended the slaughter; there 
were no more to kill. Hun¬ 
ters passed into Canada, ex¬ 
pecting to find great num¬ 
bers there, but scarcely any 
were to be found. Within 
the brief period of twelve 
years reckless and irrespon¬ 
sible hunters had slaught¬ 
ered many millions of the 
largest and most valuable 
of North American animals. 

—Domestic herds. Fortun¬ 
ately for science the exterm¬ 
ination has not been quite 
complete. Several small 
groups exist in zoological 
gardens and elsewhere in the States. A small herd 
of 20 buffaloes is owned by the Island Improvement 
Company, and kept on Antelope Island, in Great Salt 
Lake. This island is 30 miles long and 6 wide, is cov¬ 
ered with rich grasses, and seems au ideal home for the 
3. The largest herd in existence is that in Yellowstone 
Park, which numbers perhaps 400, and by careful pro¬ 
tection may considerably increase. A number of these 
have been recently transferred to the National Zoologi¬ 
cal Garden at Washington. Of domesticated buffaloes, 
there is a herd of nearly 75 kept in the Texas Pan 
Handle, while at Kavalli, Montana, is one numbering 
200, owned by Mr. Charles Allard. Mr. Allard is not 
alone engaged in raising the animals for sale to mu- 
eenms and other stock-farms, but has carried on exten¬ 


sive experiments in crossing them with the polled Angus 
stock of cattle. The cross breeds are magnificent 
animals with closer and finer fur than that of the B., 
and with very palatable meat. And they have the 
advantage of retaining the instincts of their wild pro¬ 
genitors, which have taught them how to face the 
fearful storms of the West, so destructive to ordinary 
cattle. These include the instinct to bunch together 
in a wedge and face the wind and snow, and after the 
storm to paw through the snow and uncover their 
favorite grass beneath. 

Buffalo Moth, n. ( Entomol.) An insect ( Anthrenus 
scroplndarix) , which has become a pest to carpets, furs, 
Ac. The larva is a thick, hairy creature, with convex 


back, bearing some suggestive resemblance to a very 
minute buffalo. The imago is a small brown insect, 
about one-eiglith of an inch long, and mottled with 
gray, red and black. It is the larva which causes the 
damage, and when once established in a house is very 
difficult to eradicate. The carpets need to be taken up, 
sprayed with benzine, and thoroughly aired, and all the 
cracks in the floor to be similarly sprayed. In re-laying 
the carpets, strips of tarred paper should be laid around 
the borders of the room. 

Building'. The subject of B. has two aspects, the arch¬ 
itectural and the constructive, the first devoted to the 
general effect of an edifice a- a work of art, the second 
to the details of its construction. The first of these has 
been considered under Architecture (q. v.) The sec¬ 


ond now demands attention. As regards the materials 
of edifices, they have varied greatly in different times 
and localities—wood, stone, brick, iron, mud, and even 
snow being used. In the Arctic regions a house built 
of slabs of frozen snow is a comfortable residence, while 
in the tropics posts covered with palm leaves suffice 
the purposes of an abode. In most localities wood, or 
tree products in some form, for ages served the needs 
of the builder, and, therefore, few examples of the 
domestic residence of the past survive. In localities 
devoid of wood, but possessed of clay, brick took the 
place of timber, as on the Babylonian plains and in the 
adobe-using regions of Mexico; while the Pueblo In¬ 
dians built their edifices of thin slabs of stone, prepared 
for them by nature. The stone construction of the past 
was largely confined to great 
edifices, to temples and to 
palaces, tombs and pyramids, 
which it was hoped massive¬ 
ness of material and solidity 
of construction would render 
indefinitely permanent. At 
present, in civilized countries, 
it is common to use brick and 
stone in the walls of dwelling 
houses as well as of more pre¬ 
tentious edifices, though wood 
is still frequently used in many 
countries, particularly in rural 
districts. Another kind of 
wall, which has come largely 
into use in Europe and to 
some extent in America, is 
made of a concrete, or artificial 
stone (called biton in France), 
which is formed of sand, peb¬ 
bles, broken stone, and lime 
mixed with water. Floorings 
and partitions are usually of 
wood, while for roofing a con¬ 
siderable variety of materials 
is used, including thatch, 
shingles, slate, tin, iron, felt, 
asphalt and other substances. 
The internal surface of walls 
is covered with plaster, while 
in modern houses the work 
of the painter and paper- 
hanger comes almost univers¬ 
ally into play to give a final 
finish to the work.— Fire-proof 
construction. The huge ware¬ 
houses and office buildings 
which modern mercantile life 
demands, and the vast apart¬ 
ment houses and hotels now 
constructed, have rendered the 
construction of fire-proofbuild- 
ings an almost absolute neces¬ 
sity, and the former very 
abundant use of wood in build¬ 
ings is being to a large extent 
replaced by iron, terra-cotta, 
cement and brick, the result 
being a great increase in the 
safety of structures, though 
such a thing as a really fire¬ 
proof B. seems still wanting. 
This lack of safety is in great 
measure due to the collecting 
of combustible furniture and 
other materials in rooms, and 
the opening of great chimney¬ 
like flues in stairways and ele¬ 
vator shafts which greatly aid 
the spread of flames. The 
advent of the elevator has 
made a radical change in 
modern methods of building, 
edifices of many stories in 
height being now constructed, 
in which the useof theelevator 
renders the fifteenth or 
twentieth story almost as ac¬ 
cessible as the first.— Skeleton 
Buildings. With this change 
in ease of ascent has come 
ki a new type often spoken 
of as “ skeleton buildings,” 
from their mode of construc¬ 
tion. The use of iron in archi¬ 
tecture began in the erection 
of store fronts of this material, 
cast into ornamental shapes 
and imitating stone-work in 
general effect. In the re¬ 
cent method referred to the B. throughout is a struc¬ 
ture of iron, while the walls serve but as a wind-break 
and add little to the strength of the edifice. These great 
edifices begin in the laying of a substantial foundation, 
upon which is erected a series of strong iron columns, 
well bolted down and thoroughly braced together at the 
top of each story by cross beams of iron or steel, the whole | 

making a compact and unyielding mass. The skeleton 
frame-work of the B. is thus erected, story by story, 
until a great height in the air is attained, the whole 
forming a strong and self-sustaining mass. The floors 
are made of terra-cotta self-bracing blocks, filling the 
interspaces between the cross-beams, while the final 
process in the construction of the B. is often the ereo- 
tion of the walls, which slowly close in the iron fram# 



Fig. 2754. —modern skeleton building under construction. 








































































































































BULG 


[SECTION II.] 


BURI 


521 


work. Blocks of artificial stone are coining largely 
Into use for this purpose. As a striking example of the 
most recent type of this class of construction, attention 
may be called to the building constructed in 1897 by 
the Girard Trust, at Twelfth and Girard streets, Phila¬ 
delphia, of which we give an illustration in its uncom¬ 
pleted state, showing the peculiar method employed in 
its erection. In this edifice, after the partial" completion 
of the frame-work, the building of the exterior walls 
began at the fifth story above ground, leaving the space 
below open and unfinished. This was afterwards com¬ 
pleted in marble and other ornamental stone, which 
could be done deliberately after the remainder of the 
work was finished; but it is a most remarkable spectacle 
to see the walls of a building begin at a height of some 
sixty feet in the air and climb upward without regard 
to the ordinary laws of gravity.—It may be said in con¬ 
clusion that no small apprehension is felt by many as to 
the future fate of these great buildings. Their strength 
depends solely on that of their iron frames; and iron is 
treacherous as a B. material. Though the skeleton is 
well painted and closed in at all points from the air, 
there is no absolute assurance that water may not 
eventually make its way into the iron and a process of 
rusting be set up that will prove in the end fatal to the 
stability of the B. Another objection to such lofty 
edifices is their tendency to turn streets into dark, 
canal-like openings, and a movement looking to a re¬ 
striction of the height of such edifices is now well under 
way. In Chicago it is proposed to limit the height of 
such edifices to 90 feet, and to permit no B. to be erected 
whose height is more than three times its least width. 
Similar regulations are proposed in other cities, and all 
the points of detail in the construction of such edifices 
are likely in the near future to be controlled by 
restrictive laws. 

At present, however, no important restrictive legisla¬ 
tion in this direction has been consummated and tho 
tendency towards the construction of steel-framed 
structures of enormous height shows no abatement. 
The most remarkable achievements in this direction 
may be seen in the tower-like Singer and Metropolitan 
buildings in New York, which rise in the air to a height 
far beyond that of any solid structure erected by man, 
being surpassed in elevation only by the open-work 
Eiffel Tower at Paris. That of the Singer Manufac¬ 
turing Company rises to a height of 612 feet and 
contains 41 stories. This is considerably surpassed by 
that of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 
which reaches the great height of 657 feet, 5 inches and 
contains 48 stories. The higher stories, however, rise 
like a tower from the front of a large lower building, 
and present the appearance of a campanile of extra¬ 
ordinary height and pure white color, adding a pic- 
ti resque and beautiful feature to the Bky line of New 
York. A notable edifice for other reasons is that known 
as the Flatiron, at 23d and Broadway, so called from its 
remarkable shape. It rises in a huge triangle, 286 feet 
into the air, one of its angles being very acute, so that 
it presents the aspect of two nearly parallel walls, 
joining in a narrow line. It has the disagreeable 
effect of producing whirling currents of air in the 
street below, which on a windy day render walking 
there a difficult and very unpleasant task. 

A new building material has of late years come 
largely into use and promises to take its place in the 
future a,, one of the safest and cheapest substances 
employed. This is what is known as reinforced con¬ 
crete, the reinforcement being accomplished by twisted 
or corrugated iron rods, around which the concrete is 
poured in a liquid state, quickly hardening into a solid 
and substantial material. Strengthened in this manner 
by iron rods, concrete becomes very durable and its use 
is a distinct step forward in the problem of producing 
fire-proof buildings. The ease with which it can be 
used is such that Edison proposes to build very cheap 
concrete houses by pouring liquid concrete into moulds 
representing complete houses, and using the same 
moulds for a series of houses. Concrete has also been 
used as the material of a great arched bridge at Phila¬ 
delphia, in the lining of sewers and subways, and for 
various similar purposes. 

Building Associations, or Societies, are for 

the purpose of raising, by the subscriptions of the mem¬ 
bers, a fund for making advances to them upon mortgage 
security; or, a more popular definition may be, an asso¬ 
ciation by means of which every member may become 
his own landlord. The first mention of societies of this 
kind was in 1795, in Birmingham, England, where it 
was called a Building Club; while differing from, it 
still greatly resembled, the more modern association in 
its aim. In 1836 B. A. were, by special act of Parliament, 
exempted from the usury laws. Under the “permanent” 
system, adopted in England in 1846, whereby members 
could enter at any time without back payment, these 
societies largely increased. The first American society 
seems to have been organized in Frankford, Philadel¬ 
phia, in 1831, and in that city they have attained their 
greatest development. Income is derived from monthly 
payments, interest and premiums on loans, and they 
have aided largely in building up a landlord class 
among the operatives in Philadelphia. They are com¬ 
mon now in many of the States, but the system has 
flourished most in Pennsylvania, in which in the year 
1890 there were about 1,200 societies, while in all the 
U. S. the societies numbered 5,290. Probably these soci¬ 
eties have a membership of over 1,000,000, and assets 
amounting to some $400,000,000. England, in 1887, had 
2,318 societies, with about $250,000,000 assets. Similar 
associations have developed in the British colonies and 
in Germany.—In the ordinary method, the capital of a 


B. A. is provided by the issue of shares valued at $200 
each, which are paid for in instalments at the rate of 
$1 per month. The money thus paid in is loaned out, 
principal and interest being repaid in instalments. The 
money borrowed is usually invested in homes for the 
members, and each member so borrowing is obliged to 
pay $2.00 a month on each share representing the loan, 
instead of $1.00, as when no loan is secured. It takes 
perhaps from 10J4 to 12 y 2 years for each share to reach 
its full value of $200, whereupon the association ends; 
those members who have not borrowed receive the par 
value of their shares—$200 each; and the obligations 
of borrowing members are cancelled. As, however, it 
was found difficult to loan money when the association ap¬ 
proached its end, while it cost too much for new members 
to enter when it was some years old, a new system has 
been adopted in which successive series of shares are 
issued, each beginning and maturing one year after the 
preceding. Societies in various other places have been 
organized, some of them probably dangerous in their 
working, the old system being undoubtedly the safest. 
Bull. {Stock Exchange.) One who asks his broker to 
purchase stocks with the expectation of a rise, and to 
whom he does not pay the whole par value of them but 
only a margin of say five or ten per cent. So long as the 
price does not fall, or if it rises, the stocks are worth 
as much as the broker paid, and the original deposit or 
“ margin ” is sufficient until there comes the order to 
sell. But if the buyer mistakes the course of the mar¬ 
ket, and stocks fall below the price paid by his broker, 
the latter loses by the difference between the present 
and the previous price estimated on the par value, unless 
the deposited margin is sufficient to cover the amount. 
If it is not, then the broker calls for greater deposits of 
money. Consequently, in a falling market there is a 
greatly increased demand on the banks for loans with 
which to maintain a hold on their stocks. But, on the 
other hand, it is the interest of “ bears” who operate to 
depress the market, to force sales of stocks, lessen the 
amount of loanable funds, and raise the rate of discount. 
An “ easy money market,” therefore, is as unfavorable 
for “ bears ” as it is desirable for “ bulls.” The “ street ” 
name for a broker opposing the bull element is “ bear.” 
Hence the expression, “bulls and bears” in stock¬ 
brokers’ parlance. 

Bull, Ole Bornemann, a famous violinist, born in Nor¬ 
way, 1810, visited the U. S., and in 1852 made an attempt 
to found a Norwegian colony in Penna., which was un¬ 
successful. His memoir, by his wife, appeared in 1883. 
Died 1883. 

Bu'low, Hans Guido von, born at Dresden, Jan. 8, 1830. 
The foremost pianist of the Chopin-Liszt school, who 
played with boundless success in every European capital. 
He was said to be absolute master of the piano-forte. 
Died at Cairo, Egypt, Feb. 12,1894. 

Bunsen (boon'sen), Robert Wilhelm Eberhard, a 
German chemist, born at Gottingen, 1811. In 1838 he 
was appointed assistant professor in the University of 
Marburg, became titular professor in 1841, then director 
of the Chemical Institute. In 1851 he passed to the 
University of Breslau, and in 1852 to that of Heidel¬ 
berg. Discovered the metals caesium and rubidium; 
invented the “ Bunsen burner,” the “ Bunsen pump,” 
the “ Bunsen battery,” and made well-known researches 
in spectrum analysis. Died Aug. 16, 1899. 

Bunsen Burner. A gas burner invented by Robert 
W. E. Bunsen, its purpose being to secure complete 
combustion. Air is caused to mix with the gas before 
ignition, a smokeless, sootless flame, of little light but 
great heating power, being produced. This appliance, 
which has been greatly improved, is of much importance 
in the laboratory. 

Buoys, Bell and 'Whistling;. These are buoys for 
the warning of marines, whose names indicate their 
character. In the bell buoy the tossing of the waters 
keeps a bell in constant operation; while in the whist¬ 
ling buoy there is a whistle connected with a hollow 
tube long enough to reach the still water below; as the 
buoy rises and falls the changing level of the water in 
the tube drives out or sucks in the air, causing the 
whistle to sound. 

Bnrcta'ard, Samuel Dickinson, born at Steuben, N. Y., 
Sept. 6,1812. A Presbyterian clergyman in New York 
City; the author of the historic phrase “ Rum, Romanism, 
and Rebellion,” which damaged the Republican pros¬ 
pects throughout New York State at the election of 
1884. Died at Saratoga, Sept. 25,1891. 

Bureau of American Bepublics. An official 
bureau established at Washington, as an outcome of 
the Pan-American Congress of 1890, w r hose purpose it is 
to keep the Republics of America well informed regard¬ 
ing commercial and other movements in each, and thus 
seek to promote the interests and fraternity of the 
western continent. 

Bureng' ( boo-rdng ), a valley of Cashmere, through 
w T hich flows a river of same name, bet. N. Lat. 33° 20'- 
33° 30', E. Lon. 75° 10'-75° 26'. It is situated at the 
base of the Snowy Panjal range of mts., and presents a 
remarkable appearance from its being honeycombed by 
caves and subterranean water-channels. 

Burial Customs. In disposing of the bodies of the 
dead various customs have been in vogue at different 
times and among different peoples, most of which may 
be brought within three clssses: (1) The closing up of 
the body in earth or stone, (2) the burning of the 
body and entombing of the ashes; (3) the embalming 
of the body. The first of these is the earliest of which 
we have any knowledge, bodies being covered with 
earth, often heaped into mounds, buried in stone cysts, 
or chambers, or disposed of in natural grottos or 
crevices. This method of burial has continued down to 


the present time, and remains the one most generally 
in use. The practice of cremation is also prehistoric, 
and was widely employed in ancient times. It was 
abolished in Christian Europe, and the former custom 
of burying weapons and household utensils, or orna¬ 
ments, with the dead was brought to an end, except in 
the case of kings and priests, who were buried in their 
royal or sacerdotal robes, and with their insignia of 
office. Cremation, after being long discontinued, is 
again coming somewhat into use in Christian lands, 
mainly for sanitary reasons. For centuries the Chris¬ 
tians at Rome buried their dead in the catacombs, an 
intricate series of subterranean excavations, within 
which the corpses were placed in long series of niches 
in the walls. The practice of embalming was specially 
employed in ancient Egypt, in which laud it continued 
the custom for thousands of years, the embalmed bodies 
being usually laid away in rock-hewn tombs, of which 
those intended for royal persons were extensive and 
elaborate, and richly adorned with mural paintings and 
bas-reliefs. This custom was in part adopted by Chris¬ 
tians, and there are frequent allusions to it in the 
Scriptures. A somewhat similar custom was practiced 
in some parts of America, as in ancient Peru, where the 
bodies of the dead were preserved by dessication in the 
dry air of that region. A similar practice is still kept 
up in Mexico, where dessicated bodies are placed in the 
long vaulted corridors of religious institutions. Var¬ 
ious other burial customs have been practiced by certain 
peoples, such as the placing of corpses in trees by some 
American Indian tribes, and the exposure of the dead 
on the open tops of towers to the assaults of carniv¬ 
orous birds by the fire-worshippers of Persia and India. 
The early Norseman occasionally placed the dead 
viking in his ship and sent him “ flaming out to sea,” 
though it was more usual to bury him, with his 
belongings, in his ship, beneath a mound of earth. 
The custom of solemnizing the burial of the monarchs 
and great chiefs of nations and tribes with human sac¬ 
rifices existed of old in many parts of the earth. It was 
kept up by the tribes along the Volga until the 10th 
century, and Charlemagne prohibited it among the con¬ 
quered Saxons on pain of death. In India, where cre¬ 
mation is still commonly practiced, it was long tho 
custom for the widow to burn herself with the corpse of 
her husband. This horrible practice has been brought 
to an end by British authority. It is interesting to find 
that some of the grandest buildings known were erected 
as tombs. Such seems to have been the purpose of the 
pyramids of Egypt In Rome the castle of St. Angelo 
and the tomb of Caecilia Metella are striking examples. 
In eastern countries many handsome mausoleums were 
erected; and the most beautiful of all buildings, the 
exquisite Taj Mahal of India, was built as the tomb of 
a Mogul empress. Among the ancient Greeks and 
Romans the rite of burial was held as of the highest 
necessity, an unburned or unburied body being held as 
disgraced, its spirit being forced to wander on the outer 
borders of the lower world. Unhappy roamed the spirit 
until the body was buried or interred, or at least a few 
handfuls of earth were thrown on the corpse by a kindly 
stranger, so as to give some semblance of the rite of 
burial. In Christian countries the denial of burial in 
consecrated ground was held to affect the future fate of 
the deceased. As late as 1823 the barbarous custom of 
burying suicides at cross roads, with a stake driven 
through the body, persisted in England. It was then 
enacted that their burial should take place privately, 
between nine and twelve at night, in the parish church¬ 
yard, and without any marks of ignominy.—Much 
feeling has been aroused at times by the dread of being 
buried alive, or in a state of suspended animation. 
Many stories of this kind have been told, though few 
of them have been authenticated, and in all probability 
cases of premature burial have been of very rare occur¬ 
rence. There are localities where the dead are kept for 
a time in buildings specially fitted up for the purpose of 
detecting signs of life, being so arranged that a bell will 
ring on the least motion of the body. In no such 
instance has a supposed corpse shown signs of life. Is 
truth, a competent medical man is very unlikely to be 
mistaken in regard to the signs of death, and dread of be¬ 
ing buried alive is almost or quite unwarranted.— Ceme¬ 
teries. In recent times, in large cities, large and handsome 
cemeteries, or burial grounds, exist outside the limits 
of the built-up sections, replacing the old-time grave¬ 
yard, which was often encircled with dwellings. This 
is partly done on sanitary grounds, to prevent the 
drinking water used by the inhabitants from being 
affected by organic poisons arising from the decompos¬ 
ing bodies of the dead. Many such cemeteries, as Mount 
Auburn in Boston, Greenwood in Brooklyn, Laurel Hill 
in Philadelphia, and others in this country, with simi¬ 
lar instances in the cities of Europe, are picturesquely 
situated and adorned with all the art of the landscape 
gardener, while magnificent monuments in carved and 
polished stone add to their attractiveness and make the 
cities of the dead favorite places of resort, instead of 
places to arouse unpleasant feelings and superstitious 
dread, as of old. Yet, the feeling continues that, how¬ 
ever carefully conducted, the earth burial of the dead is 
unsanitary and likely to affect injuriously the health of 
the living. This dread, together with a growing dis¬ 
taste to the thought of the decomposition of the body, 
with its unpleasant associations, has roused a sentiment 
in favor of cremation, and many instances of disposal 
of the dead by burning have occurred within recent 
years. Crematories for this purpose, provided with the 
best modern methods for a rapid, complete and economi¬ 
cal consumption of the body, have been built in the 
vicinity of several of our large cities, and the practice 








522 


BURN 


[SECTION II.] 


BYBL 


of cremation is slowly growing, though not at a rate 
that promises any rapid replacement of the usual method 
of burial.— Funeral ceremonies. In the earlier days of 
, this country, when relaxation from hard physical labor 
was unusual, the occasion of a funeral came to be looked 
upon almost as a holiday. People would gather for 
miles around, and a feast follow the funeral, in which 
|the most abundant provision was made to satisfy the 
appetites of the mourners. This custom continued 
until recent times in the country districts, and has 
not yet died out in settlements remote from cities. 
It is similar in character and origin to the Irish 
“wake” and to mortuary customs still prevalent in 
pther countries. The practice of long funeral pro¬ 
cessions, thus inaugurated, made its way into the cities, 
and still continues in a considerable measure, though 
'efforts have been made, on the score of economy, to 
bring to an end these useless, costly, and not always 
seemly displays. As a result of the growing feeling 
against this custom, the practice of keeping funerals 
private is gradually coming into vogue, the friends of 
the deceased being invited to attend the obsequies at 
|fhe house, while only the immediate family follow their 
ilost member to his or her final resting place. This 
custom is likely to grow, as avoiding undue ostentation 
and unnecessary expense; and this, in common with 
the growing feeling in favor of cremation, promises to 
make important changes in funeral customs, and bring 
to a final end the old method of making a funeral an 
occasion of feasting and undue display. We may speak 
in conclusion of the custom of sending floral offerings 
to the families of the deceased, for the adornment of 
the coffin and grave. This, a pretty sentiment in its 
modest origin, has grown to the dimensions of a uew 
form of ostentatious display, costly and elaborate floral 
designs being provided often in overwhelming pro¬ 
fusion, until the dead suffers almost a prelimiuary 
burial under these intended tokens of respect. This 
custom has reached the proportions of an evil, and as 
such will doubtless cure itself, the growing tendency in 
funeral ceremonies being toward an avoidance of osten¬ 
tations of any kind. 

Burial Societies. These are friendly societies, to 

' give them their English title, organized for the express 
object of providing a fund for paying the funeral ex¬ 
penses of the members upon their death. In the U. S. 
most of the beneficial orders make some provision for 
this purpose, agreeing not only to pay weekly benefits 
in case of sickness, but a fixed sum in the event of 
death. In addition, there are societies specially organ¬ 
ized for this purpose, which make no periodical assess¬ 
ments upon members, but assess a small sum on each 
(upon the death of any member, thus providing on the 
spot a sum sufficient for his burial. In the English 
B. S. children as well as adults were admitted, and 
in some instances it was proved that the children 
thus insured were killed or allowed to die of neglect. 
To avoid this danger, a law was passed that no child 
under six years of age should be thus insured. It is, 
however, claimed that frauds of this character are still 
practiced on B. S. 

Bur'in all (British), a province of British India, which 
occupies a long, narrow strip of territory on the eastern 
shore of the Bay of Bengal, bet. Lat. 22° 46' and 12° N., 
and Lon. 92° and 99° E. Area , 87,220 sq. m. It com¬ 
prises the States of Tenasserim and Arakan, which were 
annexed at the close of the first Burmese war, in 1825, 
and the State of Pegu, annexed at the close of the second 
war, in 1852. It is bounded N. by Bengal and Burmah 
proper, E. by Burmah proper and Siam, S. by the lower 
part of the Malay peninsula and the Indian Ocean, and 
W. by the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal. For 
its size it is the most thinly inhabited province in British 
India, a fact which is owing not to its sterility, but to 
the want of roads. Seat of government, Rangoon. To 
this district, now known as Lower Burmah, was added, 
in 1886, upper Burmah, as the result of a war with 
King Thebaw, who was carried captive to India. This 
added 68,922 sq. m., making the total province of B. 
156,142 sq. miles. Pop. 1891, Lower Burmah, 4,569,680; 
Upper Burmah, 2,984,730; total, 7,554,410. 

Burnett', Peter H., born in 1808. First governor of 
California. Died May 16, 1895. 

Burns, John, born at Vauxhall, London, Eng., 1858. A 
“ Labour ” member of the British Parliament, and the 


recognized head of the labor movement in official 
circles. First imbibed socialistic ideas from a French 
refugee from Paris, a “ Communard ” who was his 
fellow-workman in an engineering shop; was elected 
to Parliament from Battersea, London, in 1892 and 
again in 1895; and thrice elected member of the London 
County Council. 

Burnuggur (boor-noog'goor), a commercial town of 
India, prov. Gujerat, in the Guicowar’s Dominions, 52 
m. N. of Ahmedabad. 

Burton ( bur’lun ), Richard Francis, an eminent Eng¬ 
lish traveller and explorer, born in Norfolk, 1821. After 
serving many years in the Anglo-Indian army, during 
which he acquired both a wonderful knowledge of the 
Eastern languages and peculiar skill in the imitation of 
Oriental traits and manners, he explored Central Arabia 
in the disguise of a hadji or pilgrim, and next passed 
over into Africa, where he traversed the Somanly coun¬ 
try and other regions before untrod by Europeans, and 
in company with Capt. Speke, discovered the great lake 
of Tanganyika in 1856. In 1860 he visited Utah and 
gave the world the first reliable account of the Mormon 
capital. In the year following he proceeded on a mission 
to the king of Dahomey, and later made extensive ex¬ 
plorations in interior Brazil and in Iceland. In 1872 he 
succeeded the novelist Charles Lever as British Consul 
at Trieste. His principal works include Personal Nar¬ 
rative of a Pilgrimage to Medina and Mecca (1855); First 
Footsteps in East Africa (1856); The Lake Regions of Cen¬ 
tral Africa (1860); The City of the Saints (1861); The Nile 
Basin (1864); A Mission to Gelele, King of Dahomey, with 
Notices of the so-called Amazons (1864); Abeokuta, and the 
Oameroons Mountains (1865); and The Highlands of Brazil 
(1869). His literal translation of the Arabian Nights is 
his most important work. D. in Trieste, Oct. 20,1890. 

Busa ( bu'sah). A narcotic used by the inhabitants of 
Central Asia. It is prepared by the Kirghises by rubbing 
millet to a pulp with water, and, after diluting this with 
still more water, and occasionally with mare’s milk, the 
mixture is poured into a large stone jar, tightly corked, 
and buried in the soil. It is left for ten days and after 
being taken up the fluid is transferred to glass bottles, 
which, after being corked, are left standing a few days, 
when they are ready for sale. A large amount of car¬ 
bonic acid is formed in these bottles, which escapes 
when they are uncorked. The taste is tart and spirit¬ 
uous, and is offensive before one is accustomed to it, 
owing to the presence of fusel oils. This drink is very 
popular, but rather intoxicating, and its use has been 
forbidden by the Russian military authorities. 

Bush, George, an American biblical writer and critic, 
born at Norwich, Vermont, 1796. He graduated at 
Dartmouth College in 1818, and 1831 became professor 
of Hebrew and Oriental Literature in New York Uni¬ 
versity. In 1837 he embraced Swedenborgian doc¬ 
trines, and acted as minister in the New Jerusalem 
Church till his death. His literary works comprise a 
Life of Mahomet; a Hebrew Grammar; Illustrations of the 
Holy Scriptures; a series of Bible Commentaries, in 8 vols.; 
The Soul, an Inquiry into Scripture Psychology; Mesmer and 
Swedenborg; New Church Miscellanies; The Spiritual Diary 
of Emmanuel Swedenborg, &c. Died 1860. 

Butte City, in Montana, cap. of Silver Bow co., settled 
in 1864 as a gold placer camp. It is surrounded by rich 
gold, silver, and copper mines, and contains numerous 
mills and smelters. Pop. 1890, 10,723. 

But'terfly, n. ( Entomol .) The B. belongs to the 
order of insects known as Lepidoptera, and to the sub¬ 
division Rhopalocera (from two Greek words, meaning 
knob and horn), as they have threadlike antenna; or 
feelers with a little swelling or knob on the end. The 
body is cylindrical, head small, mouth parts developed 
for sucking, maxillae prolonged into a tongue, wings 
covered with minute scales, transformation complete; 
egg, caterpillar, chrysalis, adult or imago. The word 
B. comes from the Anglo-Saxon bnttor-fleoge, or the re¬ 
semblance of some common species ( Colias) to butter in 
color. In German they are called Schmetterlinge, from 
Schmetten, cream. Molken-dieb (the whey-thief) is 
another name. The association with milk in its three 
forms—butter, cream and whey is remarkable.—Butter¬ 
flies are found all over the world, from the frozen shores 
of the Arctic Ocean to the hot plains of Equatoria. They 
are always more abundant in the vicinity of water, and 
are always a welcome sight to the thirsty traveler. 


They have been found on mountains to a height of 
nearly 16,000 feet, and are abundant in Northern 
Greenland. These insects are usually diurnal in habit 
but some of them fly only at sunset, as in certain large 
Indian species that remain motionless in repose all day, 
but when the sun is about to set are to be seen every¬ 
where, and are sometimes mistaken for bats. Butter¬ 
flies vary greatly in size according to the different species, 
but never grow except in the larvaee or caterpillar state; 
the smallest are about a half-inch in expanse of wings, 
and the largest about ten inches. They vary greatly in 
color and markings, and the wings in shape ; some of 
the tropical species rival in splendor the mother of pearl 
or opal, and in brilliancy the electric light. The eggs 
of butterflies are very carefully laid by the female in¬ 
sect on the appropriate plant on which the young 
caterpillars are destined to feed. They are unerring 
botanists in this respect, and never make a mistake, 
although they sometimes deposit eggs on plants the 
leaves or stems of which mingle with those on which 
the larvae are to feed, and to which they soon find their 
way. The eggs of butterflies are composed externally 
of a thin pellicle, separated into the base, walls and 
micropyle (apex of the egg and place where the male 
fertilizing cells enter). White or green are the pre¬ 
vailing colors, although they may in some cases be 
yellow, pjnk, red or brown. As the young caterpillar 
develops, its color may be seen through the thin and 
delicate walls of the shell. They vary considerably in 
shape, the principal varieties being globular, hemi¬ 
spherical, cone-, or spindle-shaped. It may be stated in 
a general way that they hatch in from three to twenty 
days, according to the species. From the eggs come the 
young of the butterflies or caterpillars, larvae or worms 
as they are variously called. Butterflies grow in the 
caterpillar condition, and little butterflies never grow 
to be big ones as is popularly supposed, the size being 
determined in each species. When the young cater¬ 
pillar has matured in the egg, it eats its way through 
the shell and devours more or less of it. The Dewly- 
born caterpillars varies in size from a very minute 
object to about one-quarter inch in length, according 
to the size of the species. They are voracious, and 
grow rapidly, changing their skins, or moulting, to 
accommodate their increase in size. They are elongated, 
cylindrical, worm-like; some are naked and others are 
covered with spines or hairs. When the caterpillar 
reaches full growth it seeks a place in which to change 
into a chrysalis or pupa. The third stage of existence 
in butterflies is called the chrysalis or pupa stage. The 
term chrysalis is derived from a word meaning golden, 
because many of them are decorated with golden spots. 
Pupa comes from a word meaning boy or child, because 
a pupa was thought to resemble an Egyptian child 
swathed in bandages. In the butterflies the chrysalis 
is naked, and not covered with a cocoon, nor do the 
larvae enter the ground to undergo their transformations, 
as do the moths. These chrysalids are suspended to a 
stick or leaf by the extremity, or in addition to this, in 
some species, are fastened by a sling of silk which goes 
around the body of the chrysalis, and is fastened on 
each side of the supporting leaf or twig. In the former 
case the head hangs downward, and in the latter points 
upwards and outward at an angle. The changes that 
go on in a chrysalis are wonderful; it is apparently 
dead, shoving no signs of life, but in the inanimate 
looking object is being developed a creature that looks 
nothing like chrysalis nor its previous stage of cater¬ 
pillar. When the imago or perfect insect emerges, we 
have the gaudy and fairy-like B. There are many species 
of these insects distributed over the globe, and all are 
objects of beauty and interest. In this country (Amer¬ 
ica, north of Mexico) there are nearly seven hundred 
species. See Lepidoptera. 

Bnyiikdereli, a village of European Turkey, on the 
W. side of the Bosphorus, 9 m. N.N.E. of Constantinople. 
It is the favorite resort of foreign ministers and wealthy 
families during the summer. 

Byb'los. (Anc. Geog.) An ancient city of Phoenicia, 
famous as the birthplace of Adonis. A temple was 
erected there to him, which was the resort of many 
worshippers. It is now called Jubeil.—In Egypt, a town 
noted for its manufacture of papyrus, from the byblue 
or papyrus plant. 




CABA 


0 . 


CABL 


C The third tetter, and second consonant of the 
English and most other European alphabets. It is 
• derived from the Latin alphabet, in which it first 
appears. But even in that alphabet it originally possessed 
the power of g, as pronounced in goose. Thus the Ro¬ 
man proper names Oaius and Cneius, which retained this 
sound, are correctly represented in the Greek charac¬ 
ter by Gaios and Gneios. This medial pronunciation 
corresponds with the power of the letters which occupy 
Jhe third place in the Greek and Hebrew alphabets, 
gamma, and gimel; and the identity of the letters is 
confirmed by the similarity of the forms. —The letter c, 
in English, is pronounced like s before e and and like 
k before a, o, u, and may consequently be considered as 
superfluous in the alphabet.—As an abbreviation, c 
was used by the Latins to stand for Caius, Caesar, Con¬ 
sul, Ci vitas, &c.; and as a numeral, for 100, CC for 200, 
Ac. It was the symbol of condemnation in the Roman 
tribunals (being abbreviated for Condemno) ; and was 
consequently termed litera tristis; Cl stood for Clau¬ 
dius; C.V. for centum viri ; and C.R. for civis romanus. 

( Chem.) C is the symbol of carbon; Ca stands for 
calcium; Cd for cadmium; Ce for cerium; Cl for chlo¬ 
rine; Co for cobalt; Cr for chromium; Cs for ccesium; 
and Cu for copper. 

(Mus.) The name of one of the notes in the scale, 
corresponding to the Ul of the French, or the Do of the 
Italians. Placed after the clef, it indicates that the 
music is in common time, which is either quick or slow 
as it is joined with allegro or adagio; but if alone, it is 
usually adagio. If the C be crossed or turned, the first 
requires the air to be played quick, the last very quick. 
C Major is the first of the 12 majors in modern music: 
being the natural scale, it has no signature. C Minor 
is the tonic major of C major, and has 3 flats for its sig¬ 
nature—viz., B flat, E flat, and A flat. 

Caa'ba. Kaa'ba, n.[Ar. ka'bah, a square building.] The 
name of the great temple at Mecca, given to it from the 
black stone which was worshipped there before the time 
of Mohammed, and which is still an object of veneration 
to all Moslems. According to Arabian tradition, this 
stone was presented by the angel Gabriel to the patri¬ 
arch Abraham on the occasion of the building of the 
temple; but the nature of the C. worship proves that 
there is nothing Abrahamic in the superstition. The 
temple had become ruinous, and was rebuilt during the 
residence of the prophet at Mecca; and it is said that 
he himself guided the stone to its place in the N.E. cor¬ 
ner of the C. This great object of Islamitic pilgrimage 
appears to be a large aerolite, and the veneration for it 
arose in the original Fetish worship of stones. 
Caa'ing--vrhale, n. ( Zool .) See Delphinid,e. 

Cab, ( kab .) n. [Heb. Ch. kab, a hollow vessel, from kabab, 
to hollow out.] A Hebrew dry measure containing the 
6th part of a seah, and the 18t h part of an ephah: about 
three English pints. 

Cab. [Abbreviated from cabriolet.} A term now exclu¬ 
sively given to a description of English carriage, two¬ 
wheeled, drawn by one horse, employed for public hire, 
and popularly termed a Hansom, from the name of the 



Fig. 459. — cab. 

and the driver is perched on an elevated seat behind the 
body of the vehicle, whence he directs the movements of 
the horse, thus obviating the nuisance of sitting in front 
of the passenger, and obstructing his view. These vehicles 
are remarkable for their convenience and adaptability to 
rapid locomotion; in 1883, they were introduced in 
Philadelphia—The term also applies to a similar vehi¬ 
cle, used as a private equipage. 

“ A cab came clattering a?.''—Thackeray. 

Cnbttuaii. a town in the N. of the island of Luzon; 
pop. about 12.000. 

Cabal, n. [Fr. cabale.) A term often applied to aset of 
persons too insignificant in point of number to form a 
party, who endeavor to effect their purposes by under¬ 
hand means. The ministers of Charles II., viz., Clifford, 
Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale, the ini¬ 
tials of whose names happen to form the word cabal, were 
appropriately called the Cabal Ministry ; but the word 
cabal appears to come from the French cabale, a term 
employed to express a number of persons acting in con¬ 
cert: and it is generally understood in a bad sense. I\ e 
are not aware that it was used in our language before 
the time of Dryden. 

• 4 When each by curs’d cabals of women strove, 

To draw th’ indulgent king to partial love. ” — Dryden. 

523 


•— v. i. To form a secret plot or design: to plot, intrigue, 
or conspire; to engage in secret artifices; as, to cabal 
against a government. 

Cabala, Cabal, n. (Script.) A Hebrew word signifying 
the body of generally received tradition by which the 
Rabbis interpreted the canonical Scriptures. Accord¬ 
ing to their belief, the unwritten tradition, or Masora, 
had been handed down in regular succession from Moses, 
who received it on Mount Sinai. To this tradition fre¬ 
quent reference is made in the teaching of Christ, as in 
the Sermon on the Mount, Ac.; and on it the Pharisees 
rested their claim to authority as interpreters of Scrip¬ 
ture. As the Masora gives the literal explanation of the 
language of Scripture, so the Cabala reveals the hidden 
truths of which it is the symbol. Every sentence, word, 
and letter of the inspired volume contains, according to 
these interpreters, a figurative as well as a direct sense. 
The former is not uncommonly manifold; and a word may 
be interpreted according to the arithmetical power of 
the letters which compose it, which species of C. is 
called gematria; or according to the meaning of each 
individual letter, the entire word thus constituting a 
sentence, which is called notaricon; or, finally, accord¬ 
ing to certain transpositions of the letters, which is de¬ 
noted by the term themurah. The system seems to have 
been an invention of the philosophizing Jews of the 
latter centuries preceding our era, with the view of ac¬ 
commodating the speculations of the Gnostics to the 
religion of the Old Testament. 

Cab'alism, «. The secret science of the cabalists. 

Cab'alist, n. One who is skilled in the cabala, or mys¬ 
teries of Hebrew tradition. 

Cabalis'tic, a. Pertaining to the cabala; having an 
occult meaning. Cabalistical Art. See Paracelsus. 

Cabalis'tically, adv. The method of the cabalists. 

Cab'alize, v. i. To employ the language of the cabalists. 

Cabal'ler. n. One who cabals; an intriguer. 

Caballe'ria, n. [Sp.] ( Spanish Law.) A quantity of 
land, varying in extent in different provinces. In parts 
of the U. S. formerly belonging to Spain, it is a lot of 
100 ft. front, 200 ft. depth, and equivalent to five peonias. 

Caballero, Fernan, (ku-bal-ya-ro). The nom de plume 
of a distinguished Spanish novelist, known in Spanish 
social life as Cecilia de Baer, b. in Switzerland in 1797. 
Her father, John Nicholas Bohl de Fabre, was German 
consul at Cadiz, her mother a Spanish woman. She 
wrote of Spanish home life, especially that of Andalu¬ 
sia. Her works are La Gaviota (the Sea Gull), her best 
work. La Familia Alvareda, Una en Otra, Pobre Do¬ 
lores, Lucas Garcia, Ac. I), at Seville, Apr. 7, 1877. 

Cab'alline. a. [Lat. caballinus; Sp. cabullo, cavullo, a 
horse.] Pertaining to a horse. C. Spring. See Hippocrene. 

— n. (Farriery.) A coarse kind of aloes, used as medicine 
for a horse; — often called horse aloes. 

Cab'aret, n. [Fr.] A tavern. 

Cabar rus, or Cabar'ras, in N. C., a S.W. central 
co.; area, 350 sq. m; surface, mountainous, or hilly; soil. 
fertile; cap. Concord. 

Cabas', Caba', (ka-ba',) n. [Fr.] A lady’s reticule or 

work-basket. 

Cabas'sou, n. (Zool.) See Armadillo. 

Cabalu'an, a town of the island of Panay, one of the 
Philippines ; pop. abt. 24,000. 

Cabazera, a town of the island of Luzon, Philippines; 
pop. 16,000. 

Cab'bajge-bark-tree, n. (Sot.) See Dalbergie-e. 

Cab'basie-net, ”• A net used to boil cabbage in. 

Cab'bage-palin, Cab'bag-e-tree, n. (Sot.) See 
Areca. 

Cab'bajfe-rose, n. The Sosa centifolia, so called 
from having close petals, like a cabbage. 

Cabbagctown , in New Jersey, a village of Monmouth 
co., 12 m. E. by S. of Trenton. 

Cabbajre-wood, n. See Partridge-wood. 

Cabbage-worm. n. (Zool.) See Pontia. 

Cabe'ca, Cabesse', n. [Port.] The finest quality of 
silk obtained from the East Indies. 

Cabell, in West Virginia, a W. co., bordering on the 
Ohio river. Area, 448 sq. m. Surface, uneven. Soil, 
generally fertile in the valleys. Cap. Huntington. Pop. 
(1897) 26,500. 

Ca'bes, or Khabs, a fortified sea-port and city of N. 
Africa, reg. of Tunis, at the bottom of the gulf of the 
same name (Syrtis Minor), near the foot of Mount Han- 
cara; Lat. 35° 53' 55" N„ Lon. 10° 44' 1" E. C. is said 
to be the Epictus of Scylax, and the Tacape of other 
ancient geographers. Pop. about 20,000. 

Cabezon de la Sal, (ka'be-zone,) a town of Spain, 
prov. Valladolid, 7 m. from Valladolid city, on the 
Pisuerga. Here, in 1808, was fought one of the first 
battles of the Peninsula campaign, in which the Span¬ 
iards were signally defeated by the French. 

Ca'biai, n. (Zool.) See Htdkochcerus. 

Cab in, n. [Fr. cabane; W. cab, caban.] A small room. 
—A booth; a tent; any temporary habitation.—A hut; 
a cottage; a rude kind of dwelling; as, a mud cabin. 

(Naut.) A chamber on board a ship of greater or less 
size, separated by light panelling from the rest of the 
deck. It serves as the apartment of an officer or a pas¬ 
senger ; or it may be a saloon for the use of many. In 
vessels of war, the partitions are readily removed when 
it is necessary to clear the decks for action. 

—r. i. To dwell in a cabin; to lodge. 

_t!. a. To confine in a cabin. 


Cabin HIIIfT. in Georgia, a village of Camden oo., 11 

m. N. by W.of St. Mary’s. 

Cab'in-boy, n. A boy whose duty it is to wait on the 
officers, and passengers, of a ship. 

Cab'in Creek, in Kentucky, a post-office of Lewie 
co. 

Cabin'da, a sea-port of IV. Africa, in Lower Guinea, 
cap. of En-Goyo, on the Atlantic Ocean; Lat. 5° 53' S., 
Lon. 15° 40' E. It is healthy, and from the beauty of 
the surrounding country is.esteemed the “paradise” of 
the coast. Harbor safe and commodious. As defined in 
1886, a small Portuguese ter. bounded E. and S. by the 
Congo State, the «ap. C. was formerly a noted slave- 
port. Pop. 8,000. 

[Cab'inet, n. [Fr., from cabane, a cottage or cabin.] A 
private room in which consultations are held.—A closet; 
a small room; a private apartment.— A set of drawers 
to hold curiosities; any place where things of value are 
kept; as, a buhl cabinet. 

(Polit.) In the residence of a monarch the C. was an 
apartment where he transacted the business of the State, 
advised with his privy councillors, and issued his decrees. 
Hence the name came to be applied to the counsellors 
chosen by monarchs toconfer with, and advise him, on the 
course of public affairs, and to direct the higher branches 
of the administration. The C. of the President of the 
U. States is composed of the Secretary of State, the 
Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of the Interior, 
the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, the 
Secretary of Agriculture, the Attorney-General, and the 
Postmaster-General, each of whom receives a salary of 
$8,000 annually; to these it has been proposed (1897) to 
add a ninth, to be termed Secretary of Commerce. These 
officers are the advisers of the President. They are also 
the heads of their respective departments; and by the 
Constitution (Art. 2, Sec. 2), the President may require 
the opinion in writing of these officers upon any subject 
relating to the duties of their respective departments. 
The C. meets frequently at the Executive Mansion, by 
direction of the President, who presides over its delib¬ 
erations, and directs its proceedings. No record of its 
doings is kept; and it has, as a body, no legal authority. 
Its action is advisory merely; and the President and 
heads of departments, in the exercise of their respective 
duties, are entitled to disregard the advice of the C. and 
take the responsibility of independent action. — In Eng¬ 
land, a few of the ministers only are, by official usage, 
members of the cabinet. These are styled Cabinet 
Ministers, and are more immediately responsible for the 
acts of the sovereign, as well as for public measures; but 
notwithstanding the high importance of their position, 
they have no recognized legal character. 

Cabinet Picture. (Paint.) A small, valuable painting, 
by one of the old masters, painted on copper, panel, or 
canvas. The term is equally applied to modern sub. 
jects, if painted small in size.— Cabinet Photograph. A 
photograph mounted on a card about 4 by 6 inches in 
size. The term refers simply to the dimensions of the 
picture. 

— v. a. To enclose, (r.) 

Cab'irset-couiicil. n. A council of state, or of cal> 
inet ministers, held with privacy, to deliberate on pub¬ 
lic affairs. 

“ The doctrine of Italy, and practice of France, in some kings* 
times, bath introduced cabinet-councils."—Bacon, 

—A select number of privy or confidential counsellors. 

11 From the cabinet-council to the nursery.”—Gay. 

Cab'inet-maker, n. A man who makes cabinets and 
articles of flue wooden furniture. 

Cab'in Hill, in New York, a post-village of Delaware 
co., 76 m. W.S.W. of Albany. 

Cab'in Point, in Virginia, a small post-village of Sur¬ 
rey co. 

Cabirean, n. One of the Cabiri, q. v. 

Cabi'ri, n.pi. [Gr. Kabeiroi.] (Myth.) Certain mystic 
deities worshipped in Greece. Egypt, Ac., and especially 
in Lemnos, Samothrace, and Imbros. The vague and 
contradictory accounts given of them by various writers 
render it impossible to arrive at any certain conclusions 
as to their real character, and the nature of their wor¬ 
ship, which was made a matter of the greatest mystery. 
By some they have been regarded as exclusively Pelas- 
gic divinities: by others they have been identified with 
the Roman Penates and the Dioscuri. To account for 
their name they were said to be children of Hephaestus 
(or Vulcan) and Cabeira the daughter of Proteus. They 
are mentioned by Herodotus (ii. 51, iii. 37); but his 
statements are not more definite than those of later 
writers. The subject is examined at length in Lobeck’s 
Aglaophamus. 

Cabir'ian, Cablr'ic,Cabirit'ic, a. [Fr .cabirique.] 
Relating, or belonging, to the Cabiri, or to their form 
of worship. 

Cable, Cable-ear. Ae. See Section II. 

Ca ble, or Ca'bletown, in Ohio, a village of Cham¬ 
paign co., 38 m. W.N.W. of Columbus. 

Ca'ble Island, in Ireland, an island of Cork co., 5 m. 
S.S.W. of Youglial. 

Ca'ble-laid, a. Twisted in the form of a cable; as, 

cable-laid rope. 

Ca'ble-inouldlnar, n. (Arch.) A round moulding, 
frequently used in the flutes of columns, pilasters, Ac. 
(Sometimes called cabling.) 









524 


CABR 


CACH 


CACK 


CaTble-tier, n. (Naut .) That compartment of a ship 
in which the cables are stowed. — The coils of a cable. 

Ca'bling", n. Same as cable-moulding. — See Cable- 
moulding. 

Cab'man, n. The driver of a cab. (Vulgarly, cabby.) 

Ca'bob, (sometimes written Kabob,) n. [Pers. cobbob, 
roasted meat, j A term used in Oriental countries, as Tur¬ 
key, Persia, Egypt, 4c., to denote a slice of meat roasted 
on a skewer. 


(Cookery.) A leg of mutton roasted, stuffed with fresh 
herrings, and seasoned with herbs. 

— v. a. To roast after the manner of a cabob. 



torus. They are aquatic plants with floating peltate 
leaves; sepals and petals 3 or 4, alternating with each 
other; stamens definite or numerous; thalamus flat¬ 
tened, small; carpels 2 or more, distinct; fruit indehis- 
cent; seeds few; embryo minute, enclosed in a vitellus, 
and outside of abundant fleshy albumen. There are 
only two genera belonging to the order; namely, Ca- 
bomba and Hydropeltis. The species occur in America, 
Australia, and India; they have no important prop¬ 
erties. 

Cabool'. See Cabul. 

Caboose, (ha-bos',) n. [Ger. habuse; Fr. cambuse.] 
(Naut.) A little room or hut; specifically, the cook-room 
or kitchen on board a ship. (Often called the galley.) — 
A case or covering to the funnel in a ship. 

t'a'bos, n. (Zool.) A species of eel-pout, abt. 2 feet long. 

Cab'ot, George, an American statesman, b. at Salem, 
Massachusetts, 1751, and educated at Harvard College. 
In 1791 he became U. S. senator for Massachusetts, a post 
which he held for five years — a steadfast friend 
throughout of the Washington administration. He 
yielded essential aid to Hamilton in perfecting his finan¬ 
cial system. In 1814 he was chosen a delegate to the 
memorable Hartford convention, and was elected presi¬ 
dent of that assembly. D. 1823. A high authority states 
that long before the great work of Say on political 
economy appeared, its leading principles were familiar 
to C. See Life and Letters of C., by H. C. Lodge (1877). 

Cab'ot, Sebastian, a celebrated navigator, b. at Bristol. 
1477, son of a Venetian, Giovanni Cabot, who was like¬ 
wise a navigator, and also a mathematician, with whom, 
before he was 20, he made several voyages. In one of 
their voyages, seeking a N.W. passage, they fell in with 
Newfoundland, the coasts of which Sebastian afterwards 
explored, when we hear little moreof him for the next 20 
years. In the early part of the reign of Henry VIII. he 
sailed again, with a design - of proceeding to the East 
Indies; but owing to some disappointment, he went no 
farther than the Brazils, whence he shaped his course 
for Hispaniola and Porto Rico, and returned. In 1524 
he entered the Spanish service, but after one voyage to 
America, he returned to England, and settled in his 
native city. Edward VI., to whom he was introduced 
by the Duke of Somerset, the Lord Protector, delighted 
in his conversation, and allowed him a pension as grand 
pilot of England. A new. company, called Merchant 
Adventurers, had been formed, and Sebastian was placed 
at the head of it. By his means a voyage was made to 
the North in 1552, and a trade commenced with Russia, 
which gave rise to the “ Russian Company.” D. 1557. 

Cab'ot, in Vermont, a post-township of Washington co., 
21 m. N.E. of Montpelier. 

Cab otage, n. [Fr. from caboter, to sail along a coast.] 
(Naut.) Coasting; coast-voyaging; coast-navigation; 
cruising in sight of the coast. 

Cabotviile, in Massachusetts. See Chicopee. 

Ca'bra, a town of Spain, prov. Cordova, 30 m. S.E. of 
the city of Cordova; pop. 12,183. 

Cabral', (or Cabrera,) Pedro Alvarez, a distinguished 
Portuguese navigator. He was a contemporary of Vasco 
de Gama, and while undertaking an expedition to Cali¬ 
cut, took possession of Brazil for the Portuguese, ignor¬ 
ing the prior claims of the Spaniards, 1500. He estab¬ 
lished a commercial treaty between his country and 
India, and d. 1526. 

Cabre'ra, Don Ramon, Count de Morella, and Duke de 
la Victoria, a celebrated Carlist general, b. in Catalonia, 
Spain, in 1810. He early distinguished himself in the 
civil war between the Carlists and Christinos, 1835-8, 
and became notorious for the bloody vengeance he 
wreaked upon all the Christinos who fell into his hands, 
in retaliation for the execution of his mother by Gen. 
Mina. In 1838, he was created Count de Morelia by Don 
Carlos, in commemoration of his capture of that fortress, 
and of his distinguished services to the cause generally. 
Compelled, in 1840, to take refuge in France, he was ar¬ 
rested and imprisoned at Ham, but regaining his liberty, 
he strongly opposed the abandonment by Don Carlos of 
his claims in favor of his son, the Count de Montemolin. 
In 1846 he repaired to London, in the hope of doing 
something for the Carlist cause. He next attempted to 
effect arising in the N.E. provinces of Spain, but without 
success. After the French revolution of 1848, he again 
landed in Spain, raised the Carlist standard, and, with 
but few followers, fought the battle of Pasteral, June 


27, 1849, when, having been badly wounded, he was 
again obliged to take refuge in France. After living 
some years in retirement, C. joined the Carlist move¬ 
ment in Spain, 1873-75, and in March of the last-named 
year gave in his adhesion to the new king, Alphonso 
XII. D. 1877. 

Cabriole, n. [Fr.] See Capriole. 

(Equitation.) A curvet; a prance; a capriole; — 
spoken of a horse, goat, &c. 

Cabriolet, < hab'ri-o-ld,) n. [Fr., from cabriole, a goat- 
leap, from Lat. capra, a she-goat.] A chaise or cab, 
drawn by one horse, and with a calash cover, and an 
apron, or covering, in front. (Generally called a cab in 
England.) See Cab. 

Cabul, Caubul, Cabool, or Kabool, (ha-bool',) a province 
of Afghanistan, situate between Lat. 33° and 35° N.; 
area, 10,000 sq. m.; prin. towns, Cabul, Jellalabad,Ghuz- 
nee, and Istalif. Its chief river is the Cabul, which is a 
tributary of the Indus, and which, after a course of 320 
m., it joins nearly opposite Attock.— C. was once the 
name of a powerful kingdom, which reached almost from 
the shores of the Caspian Sea to the vicinity of Delhi, 
and from the Oxus to the Persian Gulf. 

Cabul, a fortified and ancient city in the above province, 
cap. of Afghanistan; Lat. 34° 30' N., Lon. 69° 6' E. It 
stands on the Cabul River, which is here crossed by three 
bridges. The houses are built of rough stones and clay, 
and have but a mean appearance. There are, however, 
four good bazaars or markets. The citadel, called Bala- 
Hissar, or the “Palace of Kings,” contains the palace 
and other public buildings, the royal gardens, an inner 
fort, and a town of 5,000 inhabitants. It is a place of 
great traffic, and persons of every country of the East 
are here to be met with. The outer town has a circum¬ 
ference of three miles, and is subdivided into districts, 
with narrow intricate streets lined with high houses, 
built of wood and sun-dried bricks. To those of the 
more opulent classes are attached extensive courts and 
gardens. Pop. 60,000. 

Cab'urn, n. (Naut.) A small lashing, or piece of cord¬ 
age, used on board a ship as a seizing-tackle, &c. 

Cacie'mia, n. [Gr. haho, bad, defective, aima, blood. 

( Med.) A bad or diseased condition of the blood. 

Caca'lia, n. (Bot.) A genus of plants, order Asteracece, 
distinguished by having perfect flowers; involucre cylin- 
dric, oblong, often calyculate, with small scales at the 
base; receptacle notshafty; pappus capillary, scabrous. 
They are mostly perennial plants, with alternate leaves, 
and heads of flowers corymbed, mostly cyanic. The C. 
suaveulens, Wild Caraway, is found in our middle States. 
The C. coccinea, Scarlet Cacalia, native of the E. Indies, 
is a pretty garden plant, having a stem abt. 1 foot high, 
and bright scarlet flowers from June to Sept. A bed or 
patch sown thickly makes a fine appearance. 

Caca'mio, a town of Italy, in Sicily, prov. Palermo, 24 
m. S.E. of the latter city; pop. 7,968. 

Ca'cao, or Co coa, n. (Bot.) See Theobroma. 

Cacapon, (ha'pon,) or Great CACAP0N,in W. Virginia, a 
river rising in the Alleghany Mountains, in Hardy co., 
and falling into the Potomac about 4 m. W. of Bath 
Springs; length, 140 m. Iron and stone-coal are found 
in its basin. 

Caccia, Gcglielmo, (hatch’e-a,) an Italian painter, b. at 
Moutabone, 1568. He was one of the best fresco-painters 
of his century. D. 1625. 

Caceres, (ha-thai'rais,) a town of Spain, cap. of a prov. 
formed of part of Estremadura, 41 m. N. of Merida, on 
a mountain ridge, 25 m. W. of Truxillo. It was formerly 
united to Portugal. Pop. 10,000. 

Cace'res, (Nueva,) a town of the island of Luzon, in 
the Philippines, on the Naga, 175 m. S.E. of Manila, be¬ 
tween the Bay of San Miguel and the Gulf of Rogay; 
pop. about 12,000. 

Cach'alot, Sperm Whale, or Spermaceti Whale, n. 
(Zool.) A species of whale (Physeter macrocephalus) found 
chiefly in the South Seas. In length it comes next to 
the Balama Physalis , but generally exceeds it in bulk. 
Its head nearly equals the rest of the body in length, 
and surpasses it in bulk. In commercial value it is 
nearly equal to the Balama Mysticetus ; for, although it 



Fig. 462.— cachalot, or sperm whale. 


does not possess the valuable whalebone of that animal, 
it furnishes us with the substance called spermaceti, and 
is rich in abundance with the finest oil. The sperm 
whale is also the source of the perfume termed amber¬ 
gris. Its usual length is about eighty feet, and its cir¬ 
cumference between thirty and thirty-five feet; although 
some have been caught exceeding even these dimensions. 


Ca'chao, or Ke-cho, (often called by the natives 
Bak-thiom,) the largest city of the Annamese empire, 
cap. of the prov. of Tonquin, on the right bank of the 
Tonquin River, 80 m. W. of the Gulf of Tonquin, and 
325 m. N.N.W. of Hue; Lat. 21° N., Lon. 105° 34'E. 
The city is of great extent, but defended only by a bam¬ 
boo stockade. Chief streets wide, and mostly paved; 
houses chiefly of mud and timber, and the public edi¬ 
fices spacious. It has a considerable trade, and had for¬ 
merly English and Dutch factories. Being built gener¬ 
ally of inflammable materials, it is frequently subject 
to fires, to prevent which great precautions are taken. 
Imp. Cloths, chintzes, arms. Exp. Gold, silks, and the 
best lacquered wares in the East. Pop. Estimated at 
90,000. 

Cacli'ar, or Har'rumbo, a territory of Hindostan, be* 
yond the Ganges, and formerly governed by its own ra¬ 
jah, but since 1832 a British prov., subordinate to the 
Bengal presidency. It lies between Lat. 24° and 27° N., 
and Lon. 92° and 94° E.; having N. Assam; E. Cassay; 
S. Tipperah; and W. Sylhet and Jynteah; length N. to 
S., about 140 m. Area, 6,500 sq. m. This country is sur¬ 
rounded on three sides by mountain chains, and ia 
watered by the rivers Barak, Kapilee, and Dhunsuree. 
Its soil is highly fertile, producing rice and other grain, 
sugar-cane, and cotton; the latter of which giwvs lux¬ 
uriantly. Timber is very abundant, but a large portion 
of the territory is occupied by dense jungle, affording 
cover for vast numbers of wild deer, buffaloes, and ele¬ 
phants. The inhabitants are mostly Cacharees, Benga¬ 
lese, and Cassayers, though other races are also found. 
Exp. Cotton, ivory, wax, iron ore, bamboo, salt, coarse 
silk, and limestone. Cap. Silchar. Pop. abt. 70,000. 

Cache, (hash,) n. [Fr. cache, a hiding-place.] A hole 
made in the ground for abiding-place; a place of conceal¬ 
ment for surplus provisions, 4c.; as, a hunter’s cache. 

Cache, (hash,) in Arkansas, a township of Monroe 
county. 

Cache, in Utah, a northern co., drained by Bear River; 
area, 2,000 sq. m. Wheat is the staple production. Cap, 
Logan. 

Cache Creek, in California, a river of Yolo co., flow¬ 
ing E. till it loses itself in the extensive tules (marshes 
overgrown with bulrush), lying between Sacramento 
River and the Plains. 

—A post-town of Yolo co., about 38 m. W.N.W. of Sacra¬ 
mento. 

Cachec'tic, Cachec'tical, a. Having, or belonging 

to, a state of cachexia, or ill-habit of body; as, a cachec¬ 
tic remedy. 

Cache'mire, n. [Fr.] See Cashmere. 

Cache River, in Arkansas, rising in the N.E. extrem¬ 
ity of the State, and flowing S. enters White River. 

Cachet, (Retire de,) (lei'trdd cash'd,) n. [Fr. See 
Cache.] (Hist.) In France, under the old regime, a let¬ 
ter signed with the private seal (cachet) of the king was 
so called. As a warrant for the detention of private 
citizens, they appear to have been rarely employed 
before the 17th century. In the reign of Louis XIV., 
their use became fearfully common. But in other re¬ 
spects they had been not unfrequently made use of, 
even in earlier times, to interfere with the course of 
justice; as by way of injunction to a party not to exer¬ 
cise certain authority, or pursue certain legal steps, 4c. 
L. de C. were never so multiplied as under the adminis¬ 
tration of Cardinal Fleury; not less than 80,000 are said 
to have been issued, without any legal judgment, in the 
proceedings against the Jansenists. They were abolished 
Jan. 15, 1790. 

Caclie'ville, in California, a village of Yolo co. 

Cachexia, Cachexy, (hdh-ex’e-a,)n. [Gr. halos, bad, 
and hexis, habit.] (Med.) A bad condition or habit of 
body, arising from .whatever cause, in which the func¬ 
tions are imperfectly performed, and the complexion is 
unhealthy. 

Cachinnation, (hatch-in-na'shun,) n. [Lat. cachin- 
natio.] (Med.) Loud or hysterical laughter ; sometimes 
the result of disease, ana sometimes proceeding from 
some vegetable poison. 

Cach'olong", n. (Min.) A milk-white variety of opal, 
allied to Hydrophane. It is found in Ireland, in the 
trap-rocks of Iceland, in Greenland, and in the Faroe Is¬ 
lands. It was originally discovered on the banks of the 
river Cach, in Bokhara, hence the origin of the name; 
the word cholong in the Calmuck language signifying 
a stone. 

Cachu'ca, n. [Sp.] A Spanish dance, performed to a 
lively air. 

Cachun'cle, n. [Sp.] An aromatic trochu, much used 
in China and the East, as a stomachic stimulant. 

Cacique, Cazique, (ha-zeeh',) n. [Sp., of Haytien de- 
rivation.] A chief or king among some South-American 
Indian tribes; — more particularly those of the Carib 
race. 

Cack, v. i. [Dan. hahhe.’] To go to stool; to perform a 
necessary bodily function. 

Cackle, (hah'l,) v. i. [Du. hahelen; formed from the 
sound.] To make the noise of a goose or hen.—To laugh 
in a broken and ridiculous manner, like the cackling of 
a goose; to giggle. 

“ Nick grinned, cackled, and laughed, till he was like to kill 
himself."— Arbuthnot. 

—To chatter; to prattle; to prate; to talk in a silly 
manner. 

— n. The broken noise made by a goose or hen. 

“ The silver goose before the shining gate 
There flew, and by her cackle sav'd the state.”— Dryden. 

—Idle, senseless talk; as, the querulous cackle of an old 
woman. 

Cack'ler, n. A cackling fowl. — One who chatters, or 
talks sillily. 














CACU 


CADE 


CADI 


525 


Cackling,!!. The broken noise of a goose or hen. 

Cacochym'ic, Cacoehym'ical, a. Having the 

blood, or other fluids of the body, in a vitiated state. 

Cacoehymy, ( kak'o-kim-e ,) n. [Or. kakos, bad, and 
chymos, juice.] (Med.) Depravation of the humors. 

Cacoda > 'mon, n. An evil spirit supposed by our super¬ 
stitious ancestors to preside over the destinies of men, 
and to afflict the human body with sickness and disor¬ 
ders of a dangerous character. The nightmare was oc¬ 
casionally attributed to the influence of this malign spirit. 

Cao'odoxy, n. [Gr. kakodoxia.] Heresy ; secession or 
deviation from a fixed religious belief, (r.) 

Cac'odyle, Kalt'odyle, n. (Chem .) See Kakodyl. 

Cacoe'thes, n. [Lat., from Gr. kakos, bad; ethos, dis¬ 
position.] A bad custom, habit, or disposition; as, the 
cacoethes scrihendi, passion for scribbling. 

(Med.) An incurable cancer. 

Cacograph'ic, a. Relating to, or characterized by, 
bad writing or spelling. 

Cacog'rapliy, n. [Gr. kakos, bad, and grapho, writing.] 
Bad or imperfect writing or spelling. 

Cacol'ogy, n. [Fr. cacologie, fromGr. kakos, and logos, 
speech.] The practice of bad speaking, or incorrect 
choice of words. 

Cacophon'ic, Cacophon'ical, Cacopho'ni- 
ous, Cacophonous, a. Harsh-sounding. 

Caeoplkony, (ka-kof'd-ni,) n. [Gr. kakos, bad, and 
pho-ne, sound.] A harsh, bad, or unpleasant sound or 
voice. 

(Rhet.) A harsh or disagreeable sound produced by 
the meeting of two or more letters or syllables, or by 
the too frequent repetition of the same letters or sylla¬ 
bles ; e. g., 

“And oft the ear the open vowels tire. - ' — Pope. 
Mus.) A harsh dissonance of sound. 

Med.) A bad, or discordant, condition of the voice. 

Cacotechny, ( kd-ko-tek'ni,) n. [Gr. kakos, and techne, 
art.] A bad or corrupt state of art. 

Cacot'ropliy, n. [Gr. kakos, and trophe, food.] (Med.) 
Bad diet; bad alimentary substance. 

Cacox'enite, n. (Min.) See Kakoxenite. 

Cacta'ceee, n. pi. (Bot.) The Cactus or Indian Fig 
family, an order of plants, alliance Cactales. — Diag. Se¬ 
pals and petals numerous and undistinguishable; scat¬ 
tered stamens, confluent styles, horizontal ovules, and 
seeds without albumen. — They are succulent shrubs, 
very variable in form. Most of the species are leafless, 
having tufts of hair or spines instead of leaves. The 
flowers are sessile, some¬ 
times very showy; sta¬ 
mens originate in the 
orifice of the tube form¬ 
ed by the combination 
of the petals and sepals, 
are very numerous, and 
consist of delicate thread- 
like filaments termi¬ 
nated by small roundish 
anthers. The ovary, 
which, in consequence 
of its adhesion to the 
sepals, seems to occupy 
the place of the flower- 
stalk, consists of a single 
cell lined with parietal 
placentas, covered over 
with minute ovules; its 
style is slender, with stig¬ 
mas equal in number to 
the placentas. The fruit is succulent, and contains a 
great number of seeds, which are without albumen. 
These plants are natives of the tropical regions of 
America. Many species yield edible fruit, useful in 
febrile complaints. Cattle feed on the succulent stems 
of some species during the dry season in certain dis¬ 
tricts of South America. One plant belonging to the 
order is largely cultivated in Mexico for the nourish¬ 
ment of the cochineal insect; and numerous species 
are grown in our conservatories on account of their 
splendid flowers, or their singular forms. There are 16 
genera and about 800 species, the most interesting being 
described under the names of the genera to which they 
belong, namely: Cereus, Echinocactus, Melocactus, 
Opuntla, Pereskia. 

Cactaceous, (kak-ta'shus,) a. Pertaining to, or resem¬ 
bling, the cactus. 

Cac'tales, n. pi. (Bot.) The Cactal alliance of plants. 
Diag. Epigynous exogens, with dichlamydeous poly- 
petalous flowers, parietal placentas, and an embryo with 
little or no albumen. — Their parietal placentation sepa¬ 
rates cactals from all epigynous orders except the Gros- 
sal, and the latter is known by the minute embryo and 
copious firm albumen. This alliance includes the three 
orders Homaliacece, Loasaceee, and Cactacece. 

Cac tus, «.; pi. Cac'ti or Cac'tuses. [Gr kaktos, aspring 
plant.] (Bot.) The name under which Linnaeus included 
the Cactacece, believing that they formed a single genus. 
The name still continues in popular use, being applied 
to any plant in the order. 

Cacu'iniuate, v. a. [Lat. cacuminare.] To sharpen, or 
give a point or apex to; to make pyramidal. 

Ca'cns, n. (Myth.) The son of Vulcan, a robber of Italy, 
whose dwelling was in the Aventine Wood. His exploits 
form the subject of an episode in the 8th book of the 
Iliad. He was represented as a frightful monster of 
enormous strength, who, after a long life of crime, was 
at length slain by Hercules, from whom he had stolen 
some oxen. To express his gratitude for his victory, 
Hercules erected the Ara Maxima ; and Evander, with 
his infant colony of Arcadians, paid divine honors to 
Hercules as their benefactor. 


Cad, n. [An abbreviation of cadet, q. t\] A person fill¬ 
ing the same office in an omnibus, or street-car, in Eng¬ 
land, that the conductor does in the U. States. 

—A call-boy, or chance messenger; a hanger-on; a loafer. 

Cadaret'ta, in Mississippi, a post-office of Webster 
county. 

Cadas'tral, a. [Fr. cadastre, from cadre, to square 
with.] Relating, or pertaining, to landed or real estate. 

Cadastral Survey, n. [See Cadastral.] (Trigon.) 
A trigonometrical term of late years adopted in Eng¬ 
land, and on the continent of Europe, to denote a survey 
on a large scale. A cadastral, as opposed to a topograph¬ 
ical, map may be defined to be one on which the subjects 
represented agree, as to their relative positions and di¬ 
mensions, with the objects on the face of the country; 
while a topographical map, usually drawn on a small 
scale, exaggerates the dimensions of houses, and the 
breadth of roads and streams, for the sake of distinct¬ 
ness, and is, owing to the smaller size, necessarily less 
correct than a cadastral plan. The scale which has been 
generally adopted in Europe, is '0004 or 1-2500 of the 
linear measure of the ground. This scale corresponds so 
nearly to 25 inches to 1 mile, that it is usually spoken 
of as the 25-inch scale. 

Cadastre, (kad-as'tur,) n. [Fr.] The official statement 
of the quantity and value of real property in any dis¬ 
trict, made for the purpose of justly apportioning the 
taxes payable on such property. 

Cada'ver, n. [Lat ] A dead body; a corpse. 

Cadav'eric, a. Pertaining to a corpse; as, cadaveric 
rigidity. 

Cadav'erous, a. [Lat. cadaverosus, from cadaver, a 
dead body, a corpse, from cado, to fall or sink down, 
to die.] Resembling a dead, human body; pale; wan; 
ghastly; as, a cadaverous face. 

—Having the quality of, or pertaining to, a corpse. 

Cadav'erously, adv. In a cadaverous form. 

Cadav'erousness, n. State or quality of being ca¬ 
daverous. 

Cad'-bait, Cad'dice-fly, Case'-worm, n. (Zool.) 

See PhRYGANIDjE. 

Cad'dati, the surname of Abdallah, who, with his 
father Maimun-Caddah, was a zealous propagator of the 
Ismailic sect among the Mohammedans in the 3d century 
from the Hegira. He founded numerous secret societies 
in Syria, Persia, and N. Africa. The object of. the sect, 
and all its confederations, was the establishment in the 
caliphate of one of the race of Ismail. While this was 
the political object of the Ismaili, they had also a set of 
hidden doctrines preserved by them in a work called 
Meizan, or the “ Balance,” in which indifference to all 
rules of morality, and disbelief in all the tenets of re¬ 
ligion, were inculcated. These doctrines bore ample fruit 
when the principles of the sect were openly avowed and 
practised by the Carmathians, the Ismaili caliphs of 
Egypt, and the Assassins of Persia. 

Caddice-FIy, n. (Zool.) See Phryganide. 

Cad'd is, n. A kind of worsted tape or ribbon. 

Cad'do, in Arkansas, a twp. of Clarke co. 

Cad'do, in Louisiana, a N.W. parish bordering on 
Texas and Arkansas; area, 1,200 sq. m. Surface. Un¬ 
dulating, and partly occupied by Soda and Caddo lakes, 
the former being 18 m. long and 5 wide. These lakes, 
which communicate with Red River, are navigable 
for steamboats. Cap. Shreveport. 

Caddo Bayou, in Texas, rising in Henderson co., and 
flowing S.E. into Neches River. 

Caddo Creek, in Arkansas, rises near the S. border of 
Montgomery co., and flows into Washita River. 

Caddo Creek, in Texas, an affluent of Brazos River. 

—Another, of Tarrant co., flows into the W. fork of Trinity 
River. 

Caddo Grove, in Arkansas, a township of Hot Spring 
county. 

Caddo Bake, in Texas and Louisiana, a, lake, or rather 
a bay of Lake Soda, extending from the mouth of Cypress 
Bayou in Texas, into Caddo parish in Louisiana; is navi¬ 
gable for steamboats from Red River for half of the year. 

Cad'dow, n. A chough ; a daw. 

Cad'dy, n. (dimin. of cade, a barrel.) A small box for 
keeping tea. 

Cade, v. a. [W. cadw, to keep, to look after.] To make 
much of; to bring up or nourish by hand, or with ten¬ 
derness ; to tame. 

— n. [Lat. cadus .] A barrel, or cask; as, a cade of her¬ 
rings. — Shaks. 

Cade, John, the leader of a popular insurrection in the 
reign of Henry VI. of England. He was a native of 
Ireland, but, claiming kindred with the royal house of 
York, and assuming the name of John Mortimer, he 
collected 20,000 followers, chiefly Kentish men, who in 
June, 1450, flocked to his standard, that they might 
claim redress for the grievances so widely felt. C. de¬ 
feated a detachment of the royal forces at Seven Oaks, 
and obtained possession of London, the king having re¬ 
tired to Kenilworth; but having put Lord Say cruelly 
to death, and laid aside the appearance of moderation 
which he had at first assumed, the citizens rose, gave 
his followers battle, dispersed them, and put C. to death, 
1450. 

Cade-lamb, n. A pet lamb, or one weaned and 
brought up in the house. 

Cadence, (kd'dens,) n. [Fr. cadence; It. cadenza-, L. Lat. 
cadentia, from cado, to fall.] A fall of the voice at the 
end of a sentence. 

“ O let them fall I 

Their cadence is rhetorical.” — Orashaw. 

—Modulation of sound or voice. 

“ And all the other elegancies of sound, as cadences." — Dryden. 

(Her.) The marks by which the shields of the younger 


members of families are distinguished from those of the 
elder, and from each 
other. The ordinary 
marks of cadence, or ca¬ 
dency, will be fully un¬ 
derstood from the ac¬ 
companying figure, the 
explanation of which is 
as follows: In the First 
House, the first, second, 

&c., sons are denoted 
by 1, the label; 2, the 
crescent; 3, the mullet; 

4, the martlet; 5, the 
annulet; 6, the fleur- 
de-lis;?, the rose (not 
figured in the cut); 8, 
thecross-moline; 9, the 
double quatrefoil. In 
the Second House, or 
family of the second 
son, the first son is de¬ 
noted by (1) the cres¬ 
cent, with the label up¬ 
on it; the second, by (2) 
the crescent, with the 
crescent upon it; and 
so on. In the Third 
House, or family of the 
third son, the first son 
is denoted by the mul¬ 
let, with the label upon 
it; the second, by the 
mullet, with the cres¬ 
cent upon it; and so on. 

(Manege.) An equal 
proportion of motion; 

— spoken of a horse. 

(Mil.) Uniform time and pace kept in marching. 

(Music.) A term denoting the conclusion of a song, or 
of some parts thereof, in certain places of the piece, di¬ 
viding it as it were into so many numbers or periods. 
The C. takes place when the parts fall or terminate on a 
note or chord naturally expected by the ear, just as a 
period closes the sense in the paragraph of a dis¬ 
course. A cadence is either perfect or imperfect. The 
former when it consists of two notes sung after each 
other, or by degrees conjoined in each of the two parts, 
the harmony of the fifth preceding that of the key-note; 
and it is called perfect, because it satisfies the ear more 
than the latter. The latter imperfect; that is, when the 
key-note with its harmony precedes that of the fifth 
without its added seventh. A cadence is said to be bro¬ 
ken, or interrupted, when the bass raises a major or minor 
second, instead of falling a fifth. 

—v. a. To regulate by musical measure. 

Cadency, n. Same as Cadence. 

Cadene', n. [Fr. cadent. ] A kind of inferior Turkey 
carpet. 

Ca'dent, a. Falling, (r.) 

Caden za, n. [It.] (Mus.) This term, although ety¬ 
mologically the same as cadence , is used to denote a pas¬ 
sage in a concerto, introduced at the pleasure of a player, 
to exhibit his skill of performance or composition, im¬ 
mediately before the end of a movement. 

Cad'er Id'ris. [W., “Chair of Idris,” a reputed giant.] 
A mountain of England, in Merionethshire, 5 m. from 
Dolgelly, consisting of an immense ridge of broken pre¬ 
cipices, 10 m. long, and 1 to 3 m. broad, the highest 
peaks reaching 2,914 feet above the sea. The view frort 
the summit is very picturesque. 

Cade’s Cove, in Tennessee, a post-office of Blount co. 

Cadet (ka-det’,) n. [Fr. cadet, anciently written capde( 
from L. Lat. capiletum, a little chief; It. cadetto.] Th* 
younger of two brothers; the youngest son. 

“ David the eleventh son, and the cadet of Jesse.’ — Browne. 

—In England, Germany, and formerly in France, a gentle¬ 
man who carries arms in a regiment as a private, in or¬ 
der to obtain a commission. 

—A young man who studies in a military school; as, a 
cadet at West Point. 

Cadet', in Missouri, a post-village of Washington co., 57 
m. S.S.W. of St. Louis. 

Cadet'ship, ?t. Rank of a cadet; commission given 
to a cadet. * 

Cadet’s Fuming’ Iiiqnor, n. See Kakodyl. 

Cadew', Cade'-worm, n. See Phryganide. 

Cadge, (kdj,) v. a. [Scot, caich, to toss.] To carry a 
load. (Used in some parts of England.) 

—To sponge; to live meanly upon the bounty of another. 

Cadger, (kafer,) n. In England, a huckster; one who 
brings dairy produce and poultry to market; an itin¬ 
erant vender. 

Cadg'y, a. Pleasant; merry. 

Ca'di, n. [Ar., learned in the law.] Among the Mo¬ 
hammedan nations, the title of an inferior judge. Cadi 
Lesker signifies a judge of a high order. As all law is 
founded on the Koran, the Cadi of a village, as the Molr 
lah, or superior judge, must be chosen from the higher 
ranks of the priesthood. 

Cadil'lac, n. [From Cadillac, a town of France.] A 
description of pear. 

Ca'dis, n. [Fr.] A kind of coarse serge. 

Cadiz, (kai'diz,) a province of Spain, in Andalusia, 
bounded N. by theprovs. pf Seville and Huelva, S. and 
W. by the Straits of Gibraltar and the Atlantic, and K 
by Malaga. This prov. belonged to the ancient king¬ 
dom of Seville. It is traversed by the Round Mountains, 
but is, nevertheless, very fertile. Its principal rivers 
are the Guadiaro and Guadalete. Cap. Cadiz. Fop. 
401,700. 



Fig. 463. — MELOCACTUS. 


First House. 

12 3 



4 5® 



Second House. 


12 3 



4 5 6 



Fig. 464. 

DISTINCTION OF HOUSES. 










526 


CADO 


OECU 


CAER 


Cadiz, a fine city and sea-port of Spain, cap. of the above 
province, on the Atlantic, 63 m. S. of Seville, and 60 
N.W. of Gibraltar. It occupies the rocky and elevated 
extremity of a long, narrow spit of land, projecting 
about 5 ru. N.N.W. from the Isle of Leon, and enclosing 
between it and the mainland a spacious bay, which has 
everywhere good anchorage. The port is formed by a 
mole projecting from the city into the bay; but it is 
accessible only to small vessels, ships of large burden 
anchoring nearly a mile off shore. G., with its bay and 
fortifications, is probably unmatched as a naval depot. 
The city is finely built, with straight, though narrow 
streets,'and lofty stone houses; and the ramparts afford 
a magnificent promenade and sea-view. It possesses no 
public buildings worthy of particular notice—the most 
conspicuous being the light-house of San Sebastian, on 
the bastion of that name, the lantern of which is at an 
elevation of 172 feet above sea-level. The city labors 
under a chronic scarcity of water, but it is generally 
healthy, and being so environed by the sea, the summer 
heats are less violent than in the interior. G. bears an 
unfavorable name for its public morals, but for the 
beauty of its women it is celebrated. This place pos¬ 
sessed formerly a monopoly of the commerce between 
Spain and America; this has, however, long been abro¬ 
gated, and its trade has dwindled, but it still carries 
on extensive commercial relations with the Spanish colo¬ 
nies, and many of the European countries. The staple 
export is wine, of which the quantity shipped in 1864 
reached an estimated value of $6,633,620. It connects by 
steam-lines with the principal sea-ports of Europe.— G. 
was founded by the Phoenicians. In 1596, it was taken 
and sacked by "the English. In 1809 it became the asylum 
of the Cortes, and was blockaded by the French till 1812; 
and in 1823, it surrendered to the French under the Due 
d’Angouleme. Pop. 61,750. 

Cadiz, in Indiana, a post-village in Henry co., abt. 40m. 
E.N.E. of Indianapolis. 

Cadiz, in Kentucky, a township and village of Trigg co., 
230 m. W.S.W. of Frankford. and 9 m. from Cumberland 
Itiver, on Little River. 

Cadiz, in New York, a post-office of Cattaraugus ee. 

Cadiz, in Ohio, capital of Harrison county, a flourish-1 
ing town in Cadiz township, is 117 miles E. by N. 
of the city of Columbus, and 23 miles from the Ohio 
river at Wheeling. It is the principal market of the 
county. 

Cadiz, in Wisconsin, a post-village and township of 
Greene co. 

Cad'mea. (Anc. Geog.) See Thebes. 

Cad'mia, n. (Min.) A term applied to the crust formed 
in zinc furnaces, and which contains from 10 to 20 per 
cent, of cadmium. The name is also given to sulphide 
of cadmium.—See Cadmium. 

Cad'miuin, n. (Ghern .) A metal found in small quan¬ 
tities in the ores of zinc, its presence being indicated, 
during the extraction of this metal, by the appearance 
of a brown flame (brown blaze) at the commencement 
of the distillation, before the characteristic zinc flame 
blue blaze) is seen at the orifice of the iron tube. C. is 
more easily vaporized than zinc (boiling at 158°), so that 
the bulk of it is found in the first portions of the dis¬ 
tilled metal. If the mixture of O. and zinc be dissolved 
in diluted sulphuric acid, and the solution treated with 
hydrosulphuric acid gas, a bright yellow precipitate of 
sulphide of O. (CdS) is obtained, which is employed in 
painting, under the name oicadmia. By dissolving this in 
strong hydrochloric acid and adding carbonate of am¬ 
monia, the carbonate of C. (Cd0,C0 2 ) is precipitated, 
from which metallic G. may be extracted by distillation 
with charcoal. Although resembling zinc in its vola¬ 
tility and its chemical relations, in appearance it is 
much more similar to tin, and emits a crackling sound 
like that metal when bent. Like tin, also, it is malle¬ 
able and ductile at the ordinary temperature, and be¬ 
comes brittle at about 180°. It is even more fusible 
than tin, becoming liquid at 242°, so that it is useful for 
making fusible alloys. In its behavior with acids and 
alkalies, G. is similar to zinc, but the metal is easily dis¬ 
tinguished from all others by its yielding a characteristic 
chestnut-brown oxide when heated in air. This oxide 
(CdO) is the only oxide of G. The iodide of C. (Cdl), ob¬ 
tained by the action of iodine upon the metal in the 
presence of water, is employed in photography. Being 
a very stable salt, it is not decomposed when added to 
collodion. For this reason, collodion iodized with it 
preserves its sensitiveness undiminished during many 
months. For photographic purposes it should be pur¬ 
chased at a respectable chemist’s, as it is a salt that is 
very difficult to prepare for one’s self.—The equivalent 
of G. is 112 ; sp. gr., 8'6; symbol, Cd. 

Cad mus. According to ancient Greek tradition, C. 
w r as the leader of a colony of Phoenicians, who settled 
at a very early date in Boeotia, and founded the city 
of Thebes, "B. c. about 1450. The Greeks attributed 
to him the introduction into their country of the sixteen 
simple alphabetical characters; and the close anal 
in form between the Greek and Phoenician alphabets 
renders this account extremely probable. His personal 
history is almost entirely fabulous. 

Cado sia Valley, in New York, a post-office of Dela- 
i ware co. 

C'adotl's, or (adolle Pass, in Montana, a pass 
through the Rocky Mountains, about 47° N. Lat., and 
112° 10' W. Lon. 

Cacloudal, Georges, ( ka-doo'dal ,) a celebrated Chouan 
chief, B. 1769, was the son of a miller in Morbihan, 
France. In the protracted and sanguiuary contests be¬ 
tween the royalists and republicans during the French 
Revolution, the Chouans and Vendeans were the most 
resolute supporters of the royal cause; and the energy 


and ability of C. soon raised him to an influential posi¬ 
tion among the adherents of the house of Bourbon. By 
his exertions a thoroughly organized, and, for a time, 
successful resistance was made to the republican troops, 
in which he displayed military talent of a very high 
order. At this time attempts were made by Napoleon to 
gain over C. to the cause of the republic, and a lieuten¬ 
ant-generalship in the army was offered as the price of 
his submission; but he firmly declined all these over¬ 
tures, and continued a determined royalist during the 
whole of the war. He afterwards engaged, in concert 
with General Pichegru and others, in a conspiracy, hav¬ 
ing for its object the overthrow of the consular govern¬ 
ment, and the restoration of the monarchy; which, being 
discovered, C. was arrested, and executed ir 1804. 

Cad'ron, in Arkansas, a post-township and village of 
Conway co. 

Cadu'cean, a. Relating to Caduceus, q. v. 

Cadu'ceus, n. [Lat.] ( Antiq.) A rod of laurel or olive, 
with a representation of two snakes twisted round it. It 
was the symbol of Peace, and formed the chief badge of 
heralds, whose persons were held sacred. In Mythology, 
the C. was the symbol of Mercury, thence called Cadu- 
cifer, to whom 
it is said to 
have been pre- 
sented by 
Apollo, in re- 
t u r n for his 
invention of 
the lyre. This 
wand was able 
to put an end 
to strife the 
moment it was 
thrown be¬ 
tween the par¬ 
ties at vari¬ 
ance. Mercury 
was consider¬ 
ed to be the 
patron of Com¬ 
merce, and the 
rod of the C. 
signified Pow¬ 
er, the ser¬ 
pents Pr u- 
dence, and the 
w i n g 8 Dili¬ 
gence. It isstill Fig. 465. —MERCURY, 

used in mod¬ 
ern times as the symbol of Commerce. 

Caducibran'chiates, n. pi. [Lat. caducus, falling, 
branchiae, gills.] ( Zobl.) Those Batrachians which un¬ 
dergo a metamorphosis, and lose their branchial appa¬ 
ratus before arriving at the period of maturity, as the 
frog, toad, &c. 

Cadu city, n. [Fr. caducite, from Lat. cadere, to fall.] 
The French use this word for that portion of human life 
which is comprised generally between 70 and 80. The 
age which precedes decrepitude. It is so termed in con¬ 
sequence of the limbs not usually possessing sufficient 
strength to support the body. 

Cadu'eous, a. [Lat. caducus, from cado, to fall.] ( Bot .) 
Falling early, or soon after development, as flowers. 

Cadwal'lader, John, an American military officer dur¬ 
ing the Revolutionary war, b. in Philadelphia abt. 1743. 
He commanded a volunteer corps at the outbreak of the 
war, was afterwards appointed colonel of one of the city 
battalions, and, finally, was made brigadier-general, with 
which rank he commanded the Pennsylvania militia in 
the winter campaign of 1776-7. He was present and did 
good service in the battles of Princeton, Brandywine, 
Germantown, and Monmouth. He wounded in a duel 
General Conway, being provoked by his conduct as the 
leader of a cabal against the commander-in-chief. In 
1778, Congress appointed C. general of cavalry, but he 
declined to accept the position. D. 1786. 

Cadwal'lader, in Ohio, a post-office of Tuscarawas co. 

Ca dy, n. [Scot.] The name given, in Edinburgh, to a 
street-porter. 

Ca'dy, in Michigan, a post-office of Macomb co. 

Cady’s Falls, in Vermont, a post-office of Lamoille co. 

Cady’s Tunnel, in Virginia, a post-office of Bath co. 

Ca'dysville, in Vermont, a village of Lamoille co., Mor¬ 
ristown township, on the Lamoille River. 

Ca'dy ville. in New York, a post-village of Clinton co., 
about 6 m. W. of Plattsburg, on the Saranac River. 

Cae'cal, a. Bag-like; having but one opening, as a ca;cum. 

Cse'cias, n. A wind from the north-east. 

“Boreas and Ctecias, and Argestes loud." — Hilton. 

Cfecil a. n.; Cseeiliadse, n. pi. [Lat. emeus, blind.] 
(Zobl ) A genus and family of Batrachians, formerly 
placed among serpents on account of their form, which is 
almost cylindrical or worm-like. The species are inhab¬ 
itants of warm climates, and of marshy or moist places. 

Csecilius, Statius, a Roman poet, was highly esteemed 
by the Romans, who placed him in the first rank of 
comic poets, with Plautus and Terence. Of his works 
there remain only some fragments, and the titles of 40 
dramas. D. 168 b. c. 

Cte'cnm, n. ; pl.CxcA.. [Lat.] (Anat.) The name given 
to a small portion of the intestinal canal, from its having 
but one opening, from which circumstance it is called 
the blind gut, ccecus. The caecum is the commencement 
of the large intestines; begins at the termination of the 
ilium, and ends at the commencement of the colon.—In 
man there is but one caecum, very small, and apparently 
unimportant. In mammalia, however, it is of enormous 
size in the herbivorous species with single stomachs, 


and is found to secrete an acid fluid resembling the gas* 
trie juice. Fishes have often numerous and long caeca 
In birds they are two in number, and situated near the 
termination of the intestines. In the lower animals, 
the intestinal glands which communicate with the in¬ 
testines retain their primitive form of caeca. 

Caedmon, (kad'mon,) the first metrical author in the 
English vernacular. His composition is a kind of reli¬ 
gious hymn, celebrating the praises of the Creator, and 
is preserved in the translations of Bede by Alfred the 
Great. Besides this, there is a long Saxon poem attri¬ 
buted to him, but upon doubtful authority; it was pub¬ 
lished by the Society of Antiquaries, in 8vo., 1832, and 
consists of a paraphrase of some parts of the Scriptures. 
1). 680 A. d. 

Caen, ( kahn ,) a town of France, cap. of dep. Calvados, on 
the Orne, 30 m. S.W. of Havre. This is a well-built, 
improving town. Its streets are broad, straight, and 
clean, and its freestone houses have a good appearance. 
The Place Royale is the finest square, and among its 
principal buildings maybe noted the fine old church, the 
Abbaye aux Hommes, built by William the Conqueror, 



Fig. 466. — cathedral of caen. 


and in which he was interred; the Cathedral (fig. 466)| 
the Church of St. Pierre (possessing the finest spire io 
Normandy); the Hotel de Ville, and the Palace of Jus¬ 
tice. Libraries, museums, a royal college, and excellent 
schools are among the numerous educational institu¬ 
tions of this fine city. Manuf. Laces, hosiery, linens, 
cotton fabrics, pottery, cutlery, hats, paper, and leather. 
At high water, vessels of 150-160 tons ascend the river as 
far as the quays of the town. In consequence of its ex¬ 
cellent educational establishments, and other advan¬ 
tages, C. is a favorite resort of English families. This 
city owes its foundation to the Dukes of Normandy, by 
whom it was strongly fortified. It has undergone sev¬ 
eral sieges, and fell finally into the possession of the 
French in 1448, when it was taken from the English by 
“Dunois the brave.” Pop. 41,464. 

Caenozoic, a. See Cenozoic. 

Caer, [Celt., city,] a prefix to several places in Wales, 
and Scotland. 

Caer'leon, a town of England, co. Monmouth, on the 
Usk, 18 m. S. of Monmouth. This was the Isca Silurum. 
of the Anglo-Romans, and was then of great importance, 
being the cap. of the prov. of Britannia Secunda, (mod¬ 
ern Wales.) At a later period it was famous as a seat 
of learning, and, in the 12th cent., Giraldus Cambren- 
sis gave a lively picture of its wealth and magnificence. 
Many fine Roman remains have been, and are still, found 
here. Pop. 1,394. 

Caer'martlien, or Carmarthen, a maritime co. 

of England, in S. Wales, having S. Caermarthen Bay, 
which unites with the British Channel, E. the counties 
of Glamorgan and Brecon, N. Cardigan, and W. Pem¬ 
broke. Area, 606,331 acres. Surface, mountainous, in¬ 
terspersed with fine valleys. Soil, very productive; but 
agricultme backward. Iron ore is the principal product 
of the county. Pi-in. towns , Caermarthen, Llanelly, 
and Kidwelly. 

Caermarthen, the cap. of the above co., situate on the 
navigable river Towj t , 7 m. from its mouth, and 180 W. 
by N. of London. It has a considerable trade in ship¬ 
ping. Pop. 10,687. 

Caernarvon, or Carnarvon, a maritime co. of 
England, in N. Wales, separated from Anglesea by the 
Menai Strait, having E. part of Cardigan Bay, and the 
counties of Denbigh and Merioneth. Area, 370,273acrev. 
This is the most mountainous co. in Wales, being trav¬ 
ersed in its whole extent by the great Snowdon range. 
It has, however, in some parts, fine tracts of fertile land. 
Immense slate-quarries are worked, and lead and copper 
ores are found. Prin. towns , Bangor, Caernarvon, and 
Conway. 

Caernarvon, a sea-port town, cap. of above co., seated 
on the Menai Strait, 7 m. from the Menai Bridge, and 
205 m. N.W. of London. This is a fine and rapidly im- 








































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